the us government has deported people to face abuse and even death in el salvador. the us is not solely responsible—salvadoran gangs who prey on deportees and salvadoran authorities who harm deportees or who do little or nothing to protect them bear direct responsibility—but in many cases the us is putting salvadorans in harm’s way in circumstances where it knows or should know that harm is likely.  of the estimated 1.2 million salvadorans living in the united states who are not us citizens, just under one-quarter are lawful permanent residents, with the remaining three-quarters lacking papers or holding a temporary or precarious legal status. while salvadorans have asylum recognition rates as high as 75 percent in other central american nations, and 36.5 percent in mexico, the us recognized just 18.2 percent of salvadorans as qualifying for asylum from 2014 to 2018. between 2014-2018, the us and mexico have deported about 213,000 salvadorans (102,000 from mexico and 111,000 from the united states).  no government, un agency, or nongovernmental organization has systematically monitored what happens to deported persons once back in el salvador. this report begins to fill that gap. it shows that, as asylum and immigration policies tighten in the united states and dire security problems continue in el salvador, the us is repeatedly violating its obligations to protect salvadorans from return to serious risk of harm.  some deportees are killed following their return to el salvador. in researching this report, we identified or investigated 138 cases of salvadorans killed since 2013 after deportation from the us. we found these cases by combing through press accounts and court files, and by interviewing surviving family members, community members, and officials. there is no official tally, however, and our research suggests that the number of those killed is likely greater.  though much harder to identify because they are almost never reported by the press or to authorities, we also identified or investigated over 70 instances in which deportees were subjected to sexual violence, torture, and other harm, usually at the hands of gangs, or who went missing following their return.  in many of these more than 200 cases, we found a clear link between the killing or harm to the deportee upon return and the reasons they had fled el salvador in the first place. in other cases, we lacked sufficient evidence to establish such a link. even the latter cases, however, show the risks to which salvadorans can be exposed upon return and the importance of us authorities giving them a meaningful opportunity to explain why they need protection before they are deported.  the following three cases illustrate the range of harms:  in 2010, when he was 17, javier b. fled gang recruitment and his particularly violent neighborhood for the united states, where his mother, jennifer b., had already fled. javier was denied asylum and was deported in approximately march 2017, when he was 23 years old. jennifer said javier was killed four months later while living with his grandmother: “that’s actually where they [the gang, ms-13 (or mara salvatrucha-13)] killed him.… it’s terrible. they got him from the house at 11:00 a.m. they saw his tattoos. i knew they’d kill him for his tattoos. that is exactly what happened.… the problem was with [the gang] ms [-13], not with the police.” (according to human rights watch’s research, having tattoos may be a source of concern, even if the tattoo is not gang-related).  in 2013, cousins walter t. and gaspar t. also fled gang recruitment when they were 16 and 17 years old, respectively. they were denied asylum and deported by the united states to el salvador in 2019. gaspar explained that in april or may 2019 when he and walter were sleeping at their respective homes in el salvador, a police patrol arrived “and took me and walter and three others from our homes, without a warrant and without a reason. they began beating us until we arrived at the police barracks. there, they held us for three days, claiming we’d be charged with illicit association (agrupaciones ilícitas). we were beaten [repeatedly] during those three days.”  in 2014, when she was 20, angelina n. fled abuse at the hands of jaime m., the father of her 4-year-old daughter, and of mateo o., a male gang member who harassed her repeatedly. us authorities apprehended her at the border trying to enter the us and deported her that same year. once back in el salvador, she was at home in october 2014, when mateo resumed pursuing and threatening her. angelina recounted: “[he] came inside and forced me to have sex with him for the first time. he took out his gun.… i was so scared that i obeyed … when he left, i started crying. i didn’t say anything at the time or even file a complaint to the police. i thought it would be worse if i did because i thought someone from the police would likely tell [mateo].… he told me he was going to kill my father and my daughter if i reported the [original and three subsequent] rapes, because i was ‘his woman.’ [he] hit me and told me that he wanted me all to himself.”  as in these three cases, some people deported from the united states back to el salvador face the same abusers, often in the same neighborhoods, they originally fled: gang members, police officers, state security forces, and perpetrators of domestic violence. others worked in law enforcement in el salvador and now fear persecution by gangs or corrupt officials.  deportees also include former long-term us residents, who with their families are singled out as easy and lucrative targets for extortion or abuse. former long-term residents of the us who are deported may also readily run afoul of the many unspoken rules salvadorans must follow in their daily lives in order to avoid being harmed.  nearly 900,000 salvadorans living in the us without papers or only a temporary status together with the thousands leaving el salvador each month to seek safety in the us are increasingly at risk of deportation. the threat of deportation is on the rise due to various trump administration policy changes affecting us immigration enforcement inside its borders and beyond, changes that exacerbated the many hurdles that already existed for individuals seeking protection and relief from deportation.  increasingly, the united states is pursuing policies that shift responsibility for immigration enforcement to countries like mexico in an effort to avoid any obligation for the safety and well-being of migrants and protection of asylum-seekers. as ever-more restrictive asylum and immigration policies take hold in the us, this situation—for salvadorans, and for others—will only worsen. throughout, us authorities are turning a blind eye to the abuse salvadorans face upon return.  some people from el salvador living in the united states have had a temporary legal status known as “temporary protected status” or “tps,” which has allowed those present in the united states since february 2001 (around 195,000 people) to build their lives in the country with limited fear of deportation. similarly, in 2012, the obama administration provided some 26,000 salvadorans with “deferred action for childhood arrivals” or “daca” status, which afforded some who had arrived as children with a temporary legal status. the trump administration had decided to end tps in january 2020, but to comply with a court order extended work authorization to january 2021. it remains committed to ending daca.  while challenges to both policies wend their way through the courts, people live in a precarious situation in which deportation may occur as soon as those court cases are resolved (at the time of writing the daca issue was before the us supreme court; and the tps work authorization extension to january 2021 could collapse if a federal appellate court decides to reverse an injunction on the earlier attempt to terminate tps).  salvadoran asylum seekers are also increasingly at risk of deportation and return. the trump administration has pursued a series of policy initiatives aimed at making it harder for people fleeing their countries to seek asylum in the united states by separating children from their parents, limiting the number of people processed daily at official border crossings, prolonging administrative detention, imposing fees on the right to seek asylum, extending from 180 days to one year the bar on work authorization after filing an asylum claim, barring asylum for those who transited another country before entering the united states, requiring asylum seekers to await their hearings in mexico, where many face dangers, and attempting to narrow asylum.  these changes aggravated pre-existing flaws in us implementation of its protection responsibilities and came as significant numbers of people sought protection outside of el salvador. in the decade from 2009 to 2019, according to government data, mexican and united states officials made at least 732,000 migration-related apprehensions of salvadoran migrants crossing their territory (175,000 were made by mexican authorities and just over 557,000 by us authorities).  according to the united nations’ refugee agency, the number of salvadorans expressing fear of being seriously harmed if returned to el salvador has skyrocketed. between 2012 and 2017, the number of salvadoran annual asylum applicants in the us grew by nearly 1,000 percent, from about 5,600 to over 60,000. by 2018, salvadorans had the largest number (101,000) of any nationality of pending asylum applications in the united states. at the same time, approximately 129,500 more salvadorans had pending asylum applications in numerous other countries throughout the world. people are fleeing el salvador in large numbers due to the violence and serious human rights abuses they face at home, including one of the highest murder rates in the world and very high rates of sexual violence and disappearance.  despite clear prohibitions in international law on returning people to risk of persecution or torture, salvadorans often cannot avoid deportation from the us. unauthorized immigrants, those with temporary status, and asylum seekers all face long odds. they are subjected to deportation in a system that is harsh and punitive—plagued with court backlogs, lack of access to effective legal advice and assistance, prolonged and inhumane detention, and increasingly restrictive legal definitions of who merits protection. the us has enlisted mexico—which has a protection system that its own human rights commission has called “broken”—to stop asylum seekers before they reach the us and host thousands returned to wait for their us proceedings to unfold. the result is that people who need protection may be returned to el salvador and harmed, even killed.  instead of deterring and deporting people, the us should focus on receiving those who cross its border with dignity and providing them a fair chance to explain why they need protection. before deporting salvadorans living in the united states, either with tps or in some other immigration status, us authorities should take into account the extraordinary risks former long-term residents of the us may face if sent back to the country of their birth. the us should address due process failures in asylum adjudications and adopt a new legal and policy framework for protection that embraces the current global realities prompting people to flee their homes by providing “complementary protection” to anyone who faces real risk of serious harm.  as immediate and first steps, the united states government should adopt the following six recommendations to begin to address the problems identified in this report. additional medium- and long-term legal and policy recommendations appear in the final section of this report.  the trump administration should repeal the migration protection protocols (mpp); the two asylum bans; and the asylum cooperation agreements.  administration should repeal the migration protection protocols (mpp); the two asylum bans; and the asylum cooperation agreements. the attorney general of the united states should reverse his decisions that restrict gender-based, gang-related, and family-based grounds for asylum.  congress and the executive branch should ensure that us funding for mexican migration enforcement activities does not erode the right to seek and receive asylum in mexico.  congress should immediately exercise its appropriation power by: 1) refraining from providing additional funding to the department of homeland security (dhs) for immigration and customs enforcement (ice) and us customs and border protection (cbp) unless and until abusive policies and practices that separate families, employ unnecessary detention, violate due process rights, and violate the right to seek asylum are stopped; 2) prohibiting the use of funds to implement the migrant protection protocols, the “asylum bans,” or the asylum cooperation agreements, or any subsequent revisions to those protocols and agreements that block access to the right to seek asylum in the united states.  congress should exercise its oversight authority by requiring the government accountability office and the office of inspector general to produce reports on the united states’ fulfilment of its asylum and protection responsibilities, including by collecting and releasing accurate data on the procedural experiences of asylum seekers (access to counsel, wait times, staff capacity to assess claims, humanitarian and protection resources available) and on harms experienced by people deported from the united states to their countries of origin.  congress should enact, and the president should sign, legislation that would broadly protect individuals with temporary protected status (including salvadorans) and daca recipients, such as the dream and promise act of 2019, but without the overly broad restrictions based on juvenile conduct or information from flawed gang databases.  glossary  the national civilian police (policía nacional civil, pnc)  the pnc is the only governmental agency with offices in all 262 municipalities of el salvador. it receives crime reports, but by law must refer them to the district attorney’s office (fiscalía general de la república, fgr), which officially classifies crimes. the pnc is the first to arrive at homicide scenes. at the center to which deportees arrive (the migrant return center), the pnc conducts one of two interviews deported adults must complete before being released.  the salvadoran attorney general’s office (fiscalía general de la república, fgr)  the salvadoran attorney general’s office (fgr) has at least one district attorney’s office per department. this agency is responsible for bringing criminal charges and conducting criminal investigations. at homicide scenes, the fgr often enters with the police and always directs the investigation. given the high incidence of crime in el salvador, prosecutors and investigators have very large caseloads.  the salvadoran institute of legal medicine (instituto de medicina legal, iml)  the salvadoran institute of legal medicine (iml) is the national forensic body tasked with conducting anthropological, biological, chemical, forensic, and pathological exams and autopsies at crime scenes and for criminal investigations. every department has at least one iml office, and seven departments have a regional clinic, totaling 17 iml installations countrywide. of the three governmental agencies that attend homicide scenes and crime victims, iml has the smallest staff and budget, despite some of the highest levels of education and training.  local office for attention to victims (oficina local de atención a víctimas, olav)  during the sánchez cerén administration, plan el salvador seguro (adopted by the salvadoran government to try to improve security conditions in the country) created 20 local offices for attention to victims (olav) in 10 departments to provide legal, psychological, and social attention to victims of crime, including those displaced by violence. one olav is located at the migrant return center. there, migration authorities are expected to screen returned migrants for protection needs in their intake interviews. any adult who presents a protection need should then be referred to the olav.  salvadoran institute for the holistic development of children and adolescents (instituto salvadoreño para el desarrollo integral de la niñez y la adolescencia, isna)  isna is the salvadoran governmental institution that develops and executes programming for children and adolescents. their programming includes childcare and foster care, physical and psychological health and wellbeing services, job and vocational training, and education.  the center for attention to children, adolescents and family niñez, adolescencia y familia, canaf)(centro de atención a la  created in response to increased attention to child migration in el salvador, the center for attention to children, adolescents and family (canaf) is a program overseen by isna primarily providing health and social services to returned child and youth migrants and their families. according to the salvadoran newspaper la prensa gráfica, between january to july 2019, 4,150 children were returned to el salvador from guatemala, mexico, and the united states, and canaf had contact with at least 2,000 of these children through its staff at the migrant return center and four offices in san vicente, usulután, san miguel and santa ana departments. staff at departmental offices reported caseloads no greater than 300 since opening their doors, in part because so many children migrated again.  el salvador’s general directorate for migration and foreigners (dirección general de migración y extranjería, dgme)  the general directorate for migration and foreigners (dgme) is the salvadoran government agency responsible for overseeing migration matters. this includes services ranging from the issuance of passports and visas to immigration enforcement.  directorate for attention to the migrant (dirección de atención al migrante, dami)  also called the “center for holistic attention to the migrant (caim),” “migrant return center,” and “return center,” the directorate for attention to the migrant (dami) is the dgme-run center in the quiñonez neighborhood (also called “la chacra”) of san salvador where people deported from us federal immigration detention are processed back into el salvador. as of 2018, up to three flights from the us arrive to el salvador’s international airport each week, with as many as 135 people on each flight who are taken by bus to dami for two interviews. in the first interview, dgme officials ask deportees basic questions about their destination, family, and plans. at the second, pnc agents ask about where the person plans to live, run the deported person’s name in the salvadoran criminal database, and photograph tattoos and scars. agents conduct additional questions based upon information received in advance about certain people marked as gang members by us law enforcement agencies or with criminal records in the us. the responses are stored in salvadoran police databases and shared the same day with local pnc’s where deportees say they will reside.  yo cambio (“i change”)  officially, yo cambio is a government-sponsored program and prison management model administered by el salvador’s general directorate of prison centers (dirección general de centros penales) that works with former gang members and incarcerated persons on their rehabilitation and reintegration into society. according to el salvador’s government, yo cambio began in 2011 as a treatment project in a sector of the apanteos prison in santa ana department. in 2014, yo cambio was launched from a program to a prison management model used across el salvador, but as of 2016, it had hardly any budget. as of february 2018, yo cambio has been replicated in 14 prisons. demand is high, but lack of budget continues to be an issue. two deportees interviewed for this report who had never been charged with a crime in el salvador carried with them a yo cambio certificate to verify for police who harassed them that they had no criminal record.  particularly / chronically violent neighborhood  human rights watch will call “particularly” or “chronically” violent those neighborhoods that are typically densely populated and low-resourced and which consistently (year-in and year-out) register higher numbers of homicide, sexual crime, and other crime than nearly all others in a municipality. gang presence is strong in these neighborhoods. as a result, authorities and society view them and their residents as particularly dangerous, creating stigma impossible to escape, even if a resident from one of these neighborhoods moves to a new neighborhood. state actors, so-called death squads or extermination groups and private actors have also committed abuses in these neighborhoods.  methodology  this report is based on research conducted by human rights watch in el salvador, mexico, and the united states between november 2018 and december 2019. human rights watch conducted multiple-session interviews with more than 50 directly impacted individuals, including 11 female and 22 male deportees; the surviving relatives or friends of two women (one who was transgender) and 16 men killed after their deportations; and the surviving relatives of two women killed following their husbands’ return to el salvador after long-term residence in the us. in a few cases, our researchers had previously spoken with the same interviewees in 2014.  in el salvador, we interviewed 41 officials in nine departments at local district attorney’s offices (fgr), forensic units (iml), and police agencies (pnc) who work at homicide scenes and participate in both crime investigations and hearings, and 31 additional authorities at the migration agency (dgme), local child migrant protection offices (canaf), the armed forces of el salvador, criminal sentencing courts, and victim’s assistance offices (olav) in all 14 departments, as well as researchers, journalists, and non-profit service providers. in the united states, we interviewed approximately 30 immigration attorneys, three defense attorneys, and several social workers, trauma-informed healthcare workers, and researchers in nine states and the district of columbia. these interviewees identified deportees who suffered harm. they also discussed other cases known to them, professionally or personally, of individuals and families harmed following deportation.  in the united states, we went to the individuals and families those in el salvador and the us referred to us, visiting the three most common counties of residence of salvadorans in the us and others in nine states and the district of columbia. we also contacted reporters, immigration attorneys, social service providers, and organizers and asked them to further reach out to their colleagues and networks about persons who had either been recently deported or harmed after deportation.  included in this report are cases of people who experienced post-deportation harm between 2013 and 2019. in the majority of these cases, the harm occurred within a year of deportation, often in the same month of deportation. in order to assess harms that escalate over time or which for other reasons do not occur immediately (for instance, because a deportee successfully hides from potential abusers for a period), our analysis also includes cases in which the post-deportation harm started within five years of deportation. for deportees killed, we have detailed the time elapsed between deportations and deaths in section ii. likewise, we focused this report on harms suffered after deportation from the us, as opposed to mexico or other countries.  we spoke with fewer women than men who had been deported, primarily because they constitute a smaller proportion of deportees. according to statistics obtained through a public information request with el salvador’s general directorate for migration and foreigners (dgme), women constituted between 7.7 and 17.1 percent of all individuals deported from the united states annually from 2012 to 2017. we chose to conduct our interviews with children with their parents present and therefore could have missed important components of their experiences related to their parents or household, such as domestic violence or neglect.  human rights watch carried out interviews in spanish or in english, without interpreters, depending on the preference of the interviewee(s). we conducted a handful of interviews in the us and two interviews in el salvador by voice or video call. we conducted all other interviews in person. human rights watch informed all interviewees of the purpose of the interview, its voluntary nature, and the ways in which the information would be collected and used. interviewers assured participants that they could end the interview at any time or decline to answer any questions, without negative consequences. all interviewees provided verbal informed consent to participate. when appropriate, human rights watch provided contact information for organizations offering counseling, health, legal, or other social services.  initial interview sessions with deportees, their family, or friends lasted between one and four hours and were intentionally unstructured so that the interviewee could elect what they shared. subsequent sessions were shorter and more structured. in el salvador and mexico, sessions most often took place in a private part of the preferred restaurant closest to an interviewee’s home, although a few sessions took place at the person’s home, workplace, or by phone or social media (principally facebook messenger and whatsapp). in the us, interviews most often took place in the person’s home but also occurred in a detention center, at an office, and by phone.  human rights watch did not provide interviewees with compensation for participating but did in some cases provide a meal and transportation costs. interviews with other types of sources lasted between half-an-hour and two hours, with almost all occurring in work offices or over the phone, although a few with persons previously known to human rights watch took place over a meal or while in transit together.  human rights watch took extreme care to minimize the risk that recounting experiences could further traumatize those interviewed. besides letting interviewees determine the first session’s structure and building rapport over multiple sessions, we also fact-checked aspects of each individual’s account before meeting with them again.  the names of all persons interviewed, including officials, have been replaced with pseudonyms to mitigate security concerns or retaliation. in particularly sensitive cases, like those involving state perpetrators of harm or interviewees in the process of fleeing or seeking asylum, we have also deliberately withheld details about the date or location of abuses and our interviews. although we analyzed the neighborhoods in which particular deportees were harmed, deportees’ pseudonyms are intentionally disassociated from them to further ensure anonymity.  in addition to interviews, we used four techniques to identify possible cases of harm experienced by deported people, to fact-check individual accounts obtained through interviews, and to deepen our contextual knowledge of the neighborhoods and circumstances surrounding deportees’ daily lives in el salvador:  first, we compiled data from the three salvadoran agencies that maintain registries on disappearances, sexual crimes and violent deaths. through public information requests to the salvadoran attorney general’s access to public information office, we acquired municipal-level data on adult and child homicides and sexual crimes and arrests, hearings and convictions for these crimes. the supplied data was aggregated annually for the years 2013 to 2018. we also monitored the national salvadoran attorney general’s twitter page and compiled a database of public reports of child disappearances.  second, we systematically searched the salvadoran printed press (in spanish) for the neighborhood names (including various spelling variations, when necessary) where those interviewed lived or fled, yielding over 22,000 articles that formed the basis of analysis. the relevant results were skimmed, and we then read and analyzed relevant articles describing violence or other aspects of neighborhood life relevant to deportees’ (and other residents’) experiences. these data have extreme limitations. however, they did allow us to identify themes in neighborhood dynamics, including incidents of violence, stories evidencing economic hardship in these neighborhoods, crimes committed, victims, victimizers, and state actions. having these additional data facilitated chronological questioning during subsequent interview sessions.  third, we searched the words “ deportada/o ” in digitized decisions of el salvador's 24 criminal sentencing tribunals. among the 260 resulting criminal sentencing tribunal decisions, we found 18 decisions that documented harm to persons deported from the united states in eight salvadoran departments, but only seven documented harm experienced in 2013 or more recently. we obtained one more 2018 decision by requesting it from the tribunal in person.  ” in digitized decisions of el salvador's 24 criminal sentencing tribunals. among the 260 resulting criminal sentencing tribunal decisions, we found 18 decisions that documented harm to persons deported from the united states in eight salvadoran departments, but only seven documented harm experienced in 2013 or more recently. we obtained one more 2018 decision by requesting it from the tribunal in person. fourth, we searched the words “deportada/o” in 14 salvadoran news outlets (all in spanish). among the 3,767 articles that returned, we found 288 appearing in 13 salvadoran outlets and five international or us outlets reporting on abuse of deportees. among these, we identified 219 articles describing the killings of 106 persons deported from the united states. the deaths occurred between january 2013 and september 2019 in all 14 salvadoran departments.  when describing our findings from these various sources we used the term “identified” for cases found only through press searches; and the terms “investigated” or “documented” for cases we found through interviews with directly impacted individuals cross-checked with other sources such as criminal tribunal decisions, press accounts, or interviews with officials.  finally, human rights watch compiled data from el salvador’s general directorate for migration and foreigners (dgme) on deportations. through public information requests to dgme’s access to public information office, we acquired data on deportations from 2012 to 2017 for all countries, and for only mexico and the united states for 2018, according to municipality of birth and residence for children and adults. however, these data contain no information about the experiences of deportees after their return to el salvador. no governmental or nongovernmental organizations, domestic or international, monitor what happens to deported salvadorans, including their criminal victimization or other alleged harm suffered. this makes it impossible to obtain a complete or representative sample of cases of deportees harmed after return to el salvador.  i. background  human rights situation in el salvador  el salvador, with just over six million citizens, has among the world’s highest homicide rates, alongside thousands of missing-persons cases and sexual crimes since 2013, according to data from the salvadoran attorney general’s access to public information office. state authorities have historically been largely ineffective in protecting the population from this violence, which is often perpetrated by gangs.  at the same time, salvadoran security forces have themselves committed extrajudicial executions, sexual assaults, enforced disappearances, and torture. impunity is widespread. for example, investigations reached hearings in only 14 of 48 cases involving 116 extrajudicial killings committed from 2014 to 2018 that the salvadoran ombudsperson for the defense of human rights (pddh) examined. two resulted in convictions. successive salvadoran governments have deployed military units alongside police in public security operations, despite a 1992 peace accord stipulation against it. media outlets widely report that the current national police director is under investigation for threats and links to drug trafficking and extermination groups.  in 2019 alone, the central american university human rights institute received seven reports of elite salvadoran police units burning victims. for example, in march 2019, tactical operation section agents beat, strangled, blindfolded, and handcuffed a 20-year-old man in a sugarcane field in apopa municipality whom they suspected of gang membership or hiding weapons or drugs, and set fire to the field where they left him unconscious. he emerged from the fire with burns to his face and feet. victims or witnesses of eight arbitrary arrests in two incidents in 2019 and late 2018 told human rights watch of beatings at police barracks.  in august 2019, the lethal force monitor reported that salvadoran police and soldiers killed 1,626 people from 2011 through 2017, including 48 boys, four women, and 355 men in 2017. authorities recorded every year more than 92 percent of victims as gang members and nearly all incidents as “confrontations” or “shootouts.” however, also in august 2019, the pddh reported that it had examined killings of 28 boys, seven women, and 81 men and found few resulted from confrontations.  as of october 2019, the country’s jails, juvenile and youth facilities, and adult prisons held 45,439 people in custody, more than twice the official capacity, according to the online database world prison brief. the iml registered 14 homicides in police barracks and prisons in 2018. one official told human rights watch that 10 other detainees had died from extreme heat. two inmates said there was tuberculosis in salvadoran prisons. one of these same inmates along with another inmate told human rights watch that officials provided them inadequate food, hygiene products, and medicine and, in what appeared to be instances of excessive use of force, beat them and used pepper spray during prison searches.  gangs  gangs in el salvador effectively exercise territorial control over specific neighborhoods and extort residents throughout the country. they forcibly recruit children. they sexually assault people targeted on the basis of their gender and/or real or perceived sexual orientation or gender identity. gangs kill, abduct, rape, or displace those who resist. many of those who are abducted are later found dead or never heard from again. according to unverified estimates cited by the un special rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, approximately 60,000 gang members reportedly operate in some 247 out of 262 municipalities in the country. gangs enforce their territories’ borders and extort and surveil residents and those transiting, particularly around public transport, schools, and markets. allegations of security and elected officials collaborating with gangs in criminal operations have been reported by the press and all political parties have negotiated with gangs according to consistent allegations reported, but not substantiated by, the un special rapporteur.  disappearances, abductions, and missing persons  the inter-american commission on human rights (iachr) reported in december 2019 that the fgr registered 3,289 people who “disappeared” in 2018 and 3,030 in 2019. according to the iachr, victims said they are at times unable to file complaints regarding family members who have gone missing, and that they usually face delays in the investigations, including failure to respond in the critical first hours after a disappearance.  between 2010 and august 2019, the police have registered over 10,800 victims who have gone missing—more than the estimated 8,000 to 10,000 disappeared during the civil war (1979-1992), according to press accounts. because very few cases are investigated, knowledge of perpetrators is limited. these figures likely include suspected abductions by criminal gangs or state authorities and other cases in which people have gone missing in unexplained circumstances.  harassment and violence against women and lgbt individuals  a 2017 national survey found that 67 percent of women in el salvador faced violence at some point in their lives, and the rates of “feminicide,” including domestic violence killings are the highest in the region. despite some reform efforts, such as specialized women’s courts and dedicated units in the attorney general’s office, formidable obstacles remain for women seeking police protection, investigation, or justice through the courts.  lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (lgbt) people who are deported from the united states to el salvador are likely to face specific threats. human rights watch research has found that lgbt people in el salvador are often rejected by their families, meaning that many would have no family support during the process of reintegration. human rights watch repeatedly heard from lgbt salvadorans, both in el salvador and in the united states, that gangs had targeted them on the basis of their sexual orientation or gender identity, subjecting some lgbt people to sexual violence and extorting others due to their perceived vulnerability. several lgbt salvadorans also reported being beaten or sexually assaulted by the police. in january 2019, camila díaz cordova, a transgender woman deported from the united states, was beaten to death. in july, the fgr charged three police officers with her kidnapping and aggravated homicide. the case remained open at the time of writing. within the span of one month in late 2019, three transgender women and one gay man were murdered in el salvador in circumstances that led activists to suspect they were hate crimes.  us laws affecting salvadoran asylum seekers, refugees, and other migrants  salvadoran nationals who are neither citizens of the united states nor undocumented hold one of several legal statuses, none of which protects them completely from deportation. these various statuses, and the degree to which the us laws affording them comport with international human rights and refugee law are discussed in greater detail in section vi.  according to 2017 us census data analyzed by the migration policy institute, about 1.2 million non-citizens whose country of birth was el salvador live in the united states. they in turn fall in four main legal categories.  - first, about 665,000 salvadorans are living in the united states in an unauthorized legal status, meaning at any moment they could be arrested and deported from the country. during their deportation proceedings, they technically would have the ability to raise their fears of persecution or torture as a defense against removal. in reality, this is extremely difficult to do successfully.  - second, about 340,000 salvadorans live in the united states as lawful permanent residents. these people have permission to work and build their lives in the united states, but if they are convicted of any of a long list of crimes (including non-violent drug or driving offenses generally considered as misdemeanors), they are subject to deportation under procedures that severely restrict the possibility of raising their fears of persecution upon return as a defense against removal. they might be able to raise fear of torture in el salvador, but in reality, the torture standard is more difficult to meet than the “fear of persecution” standard.  - third, another 195,000 salvadorans have temporary protection against deportation as recipients of temporary protected status (tps), a program that the us congress put in place for salvadorans since two devastating earthquakes hit the country in 2001. the trump administration decided to end tps in september 2019, but a court injunction has prevented termination from going into effect. consequently, the trump administration extended work authorization associated with tps until january 2021, without extending tps beyond january 2020. if appellate courts lift the injunction, salvadorans who have been protected by tps will be subject to removal. due to lack of resources, legal advice, fear, or other reasons, some salvadorans have not re-registered their tps status, which moves them into an unauthorized status. during their deportation proceedings, former tps holders technically would have the ability to raise their fears of persecution or other types of harm as a defense to removal; but in reality, this is very challenging to do successfully.  - fourth, some 25,600 salvadorans have been living in the us with temporary permission to remain in two-year increments under the deferred action for childhood arrivals (daca) program, which began in 2012, but which the trump administration decided to end in september 2017. daca status has been maintained by temporary court rulings but the trump administration’s decision to end the program is being reviewed by the supreme court at this writing, making daca recipients legitimately fearful of deportation. due to lack of resources, legal advice, fear, or other reasons, some salvadorans have not re-registered their daca status, which moves them into an unauthorized status. during their deportation proceedings, former daca holders technically would have the ability to raise their fears of persecution or other types of harm as a defense to removal; in reality, this is difficult to do successfully.  ii. deportees killed  in researching this report, human rights watch identified or investigated 138 cases of people killed between 2013 and 2019 after being deported from the united states. el salvador’s high homicide rates (alongside many other types of harm), and the fact that these cases have been reported publicly over time, has put the united states government and its immigration officials on notice. on a daily basis, us immigration officials and judges nevertheless turn a blind eye to the reality that people deported by the united states to el salvador have lost their lives, often at the hands of their original persecutors or people they legitimately feared would harm them in the future. in several of the cases we investigated for this report, such targeting was evident.  in other cases, the us government is returning people to a country with such significant levels of violence that there is a real risk that deportees will face a serious threat to their lives or physical integrity. because current us asylum law does not provide “complementary protection” that would protect people facing such serious threats of violence, human rights watch calls on the us congress to adopt such a standard (discussed further in section vii below). even without such a standard, salvadorans subject to deportation should have a meaningful opportunity to describe the risks they would face upon return and have that information considered before they are returned to el salvador. the deaths described in this section, moreover, represent the tip of the iceberg—as detailed in subsequent sections, people deported to el salvador encounter a wide range of human rights abuses that fall short of death.  deported former or current gang members killed by gangs  according to salvadoran authorities, the deportees at the highest risk of harm are alleged former and current gang members and those with alleged links to gangs. these alleged former and current gang members are sometimes killed by their own or rival gangs (they are also killed by state actors or death squads, as discussed below). an individual deportee’s reported status as a gang member by the press, by the police, or by other observers, may or may not be true.  accounts of killings of deportees by gangs in court filings and press accounts indicate that a deportee might be killed by his own gang for not “re-activating” with the gang once in el salvador, battling for power within the gang, committing crimes like robbery, or calling attention to the gang through flamboyant behavior. gangs reportedly kill members of rival gangs, or those assumed to be members, for living in or transiting their area, including one who was evangelizing after leaving behind gang life and one who was recently deported.  deported former or current gang members killed by state actors  state actors, such as police or other law enforcement, reportedly have killed deportees alleged to be former or current gang members, according to relatives, journalists, and academics who spoke with human rights watch. through interviews with directly affected persons and witnesses, we learned of several such cases. for example:  enrico x. told human rights watch in 2019 his cousin, luis y., a former member of a gang then called b-18, tried to leave the gang by fleeing to the united states, but after he was deported from the us in either 2016 or 2017, enrico said that the police in el salvador killed luis. enrico told us:  after he was deported back to el salvador, one day he [luis] was eating breakfast and the police came to the house and shot him in the head and killed him. the police officer said: “i told you i was going to kill you eventually,” and put a gun to his head and shot him right there on the spot in front of the neighbor woman who used to cook his meals for him. some of the other neighbors also witnessed this shooting.  enrico told human rights watch that police in 2018 shot another young deportee from the united states in front of his home. “he was known to be deported from the us.” an affidavit filed by enrico in his asylum and withholding case gave further details:  i don’t know the young man’s real name, but everyone in town called him ‘roberto m.’.… i heard a shot and a noise.… i ducked down low, and i saw two police officers run towards [him], who was down on the ground in front of my property in the street. roberto had been going by on a bicycle when he was shot. the two police officers picked him up and took him away with them. i saw them take [him] into a sugar cane field. a police motorcycle drove up around the same time this was all happening. i did not see where they took [him] after they went into the field. i was very scared and i quickly went in my house and closed the door. not long after this, a police officer came and banged on my door, yelling at me to come outside. i went outside and he immediately put a gun to my head and said, ‘i know you saw.’ i recognized this officer by his face. i had seen him patrol my street many times in the past with other rural police officers.… the officer was very aggressive with me, asking me who else was home with me.… the officer told me that roberto was a b-18 gang member and that if i said anything about what i saw, the same will happen to me or worse.… every day after [that], the same rural police officers started to come to the house and bang on my door.… they would bang on my door and yell profanities at me, demanding i come out.  our research indicates that salvadoran officials often assume that individuals deported from the us are both active gang members and were convicted of violent crimes while in the us. they also may choose to target specific deportees based on information shared by the united states via interpol. three departmental police delegations told human rights watch they receive lists of deportees alleged to be gang members and share those lists throughout the department, including with neighborhood-level posts where deportees indicate they will live. one ranking police officer explained to human rights watch: “ice communicates with interpol in advance of deportation flights, and lists of persons with a capture order [an interpol red notice] or guilty of a crime are sent to us in the departmental offices, [even though] most on this list are captured in the airport.” the police then visit the locations provided. this officer said, “we think that if a person wasn’t wanted in the united states, it must be because the deported person is bad.”  police scrutiny of such individuals may be a legitimate activity in furtherance of public safety. at the same time, even if an individual is an active gang member or has served a sentence for a violent crime in the us and is suspected of further criminal activity in el salvador, unlawful use of force by law enforcement is never justified. security officials involvement in extrajudicial executions and excessive use of force is often linked to government efforts to combat gangs, as reported by the un special rapporteur on extrajudicial killings in her 2018 report on el salvador, as well as the legal force monitor and the salvadoran ombudsperson for the defense of human rights in 2019.  deportees killed without apparent gang-involvement  in some cases, the deportee victims had no apparent involvement with gangs, but nevertheless were killed in circumstances suggesting the killers were gang members. for example, several of the below cases identified through press accounts reference failure to pay extortion demands and non-gang-related tattoos as possible motives for the killings.  carlos alberto garay, 43, was killed while driving his pick-up truck in usulután. a press account reported that he was intercepted by two men, who shot him several times and then fled on foot, according to police sources. garay’s neighbors told reporters he had been deported several months earlier from the united states, and they knew he was being extorted by gangs and that his family had been threatened. the press account did not describe garay as gang-involved.  mario enrique sandoval gómez, around 30 years old, was shot dead in his home on june 29, 2017 by two people who convinced him to open the door by pretending they were police officers. according to press accounts, sandoval gómez was not suspected of gang affiliation and the “tattoos on his body were not related to gangs.” sandoval gómez reportedly had been deported from the united states two years prior to the incident. his wife, who was at home on the night of the murder, had applied for him to return to the us, where the couple planned to join her parents already living there.  tommy eduardo paiz, 41, who worked in a call center in el salvador, had been deported from the united states about one year prior to his death. a relative interviewed by the press said of paiz, “he came here and started working.” on august 4, 2018, he was on his way to visit his partner and 6-month-old son when his car broke down in the department of la libertad. paiz had called a family member that same day to ask that they “let her know that i'm going to get home to see my little one." paiz had several “artistic tattoos” on his body. police reports indicated he was approached by attackers, hit with a blunt object on the head and shot several times in the head and abdomen. when found, he was handcuffed. the press account did not describe paiz as gang-involved.  while press accounts did not speculate on whether the victims faced harm from their killers previously, some interviewees specified that the same gang members who targeted individuals before they fled el salvador were responsible for killing these individuals after deportation. for example, josé miguel c., told us about his nephew, joaquín, who he did not believe to be gang-involved, and who had fled gang threats to the us, but was deported in 2017 and killed by alleged gang members that same year. he said: “[joaquín] always said they [ms members] would try to kill him again. they did [kill him] on [salvadoran] father’s day…. the same members who killed him had threatened him beforehand.”  similarly, a policeman told us about nicolas p., 25, who was the victim of an attempted homicide by gang members in 2015. the same year, he migrated to the us, only to be deported in 2017. according to a police report, the policeman said, “on the day nicolas returned to el salvador, he arrived at his family home…. at 9:30 p.m., he was at home, the gang members arrived and shot him dead.”  deported former police officers killed by gangs  human rights watch interviewed two families who had multiple members working for the salvadoran military or police who were threatened, then fled to the united states hoping to seek asylum but were subsequently deported and killed.  adriana j. worked for the salvadoran police. after being threatened by gangs, she fled el salvador for the united states, but according to her cousin irene j., adriana was detained by us authorities and did not get to apply for asylum presumably because she was rejected after her credible fear interview in the expedited removal screening. irene believes that adriana was still in detention in the us in 2015 and deported that year or later to el salvador. her death certificate indicates she died in el salvador from gunshot wounds to her abdomen and skull in 2017. irene learned from her mother, who lived nearby, that when she went to the cordoned crime scene and spoke with police officers, the officers told her, “the gang members killed her. three bullets.”  according to press accounts, mauricio de jesús amaya had been a municipal police officer in el salvador for 14 years. in 2017, his sister, gloria, was shot dead as they rode together on a motorcycle in the el vado neighborhood of nueva concepción municipality of chalatenango department. mauricio believes he was the actual target. twenty days later, he and his family, including his brother, santos amaya, who also worked with the municipal police, fled el salvador and arrived in the us approximately 10 days later. santos, who had received death threats from gang members who had been deliberately targeting police in the municipality where the family lived, was deported from the us in april 2018, and was killed that same month.  jacinto k. human rights watch interviewed jacinto k. and first interviewed his then 15-year-old son, óscar k., in el salvador in april 2014. in december 2011, jacinto and his wife had been ordered removed from the united states. in order to avoid permanent bars in us law on returning to the country, they chose to depart “voluntarily.” jacinto and his wife had to borrow money to pay for the family’s plane tickets (they had three children, óscar, age 15 in 2014, and a younger daughter and us citizen son). jacinto told us that upon the family’s return to el salvador: “i thought starting a small business in [a rural area of el salvador’s central region] was our best bet for paying the loan back quickly. unfortunately, ms began charging me renta shortly after i opened it. i haven’t been able to pay down the loan, am barely supporting my family, and worry that i won’t be able to keep paying renta.” at the time of our interview jacinto discounted the power of ms in the area, telling us he felt relatively safe. however, two weeks after our interview, jacinto was shot dead in broad daylight in a public space of their town. prior to his dad’s death, when a human rights watch researcher sat down to interview óscar k. he said, “we can speak in english. i’ve missed it.” he said he wanted to return to the midwestern united states, where he lived from 2003 to 2011, to finish high school. óscar said he had just completed 9th grade in his salvadoran neighborhood public school. besides the classes not being challenging, he told us, “i do not feel safe. i only leave the house to go to and from school. still, to get there, i have to walk past the neighborhood’s mara salvatrucha gang. they shout insults at me and threaten to kill me if i do not join them.” after his father was killed, óscar separated from his mother and siblings, and they each went to a different part of the country in search of safety. according to our subsequent contacts with óscar, the gang has found them each in their new locations within the country, and at the time of writing óscar and his mother and siblings had each moved at least one other time.  data on deportees killed  for this report, we identified or investigated 138 cases of people killed after their deportations from the united states between 2013 and 2019. most of these people died between a few days and two years after their return to el salvador. of 106 cases reported in 219 articles by the salvadoran press, 81 deportees died after being in the country for one year or less, with 15 additional deportees killed after 13 months to two years in the country. fourteen deportees were killed less than a week after their return, with three dying in their first 24 hours in el salvador.  we eliminated many cases of deportees reportedly killed between 2013 and 2019 from our final count because they died more than five years after their deportations or after an unknown period from their deportations. for all deported people killed, we focused only on individuals deported from the united states. in addition, of all 138 cases included, the earliest year of deportation was 2010 (this was the year of deportation for one person killed in 2013, for one killed in 2014, and for two people killed in 2015).  in addition to the cases identified through the press, we documented five cases of deportees killed between 2013 and 2019 by reviewing court documents for salvadoran criminal sentencing tribunals. for 14 cases in the same time frame, we learned of the killing of deportees through interviews with the victim’s family members. we documented 23 cases in interviews with authorities. in all of these cases, we sought corroboration of the killing and circumstances of the individual deportee’s case with other sources. the below graphic illustrates the corroboration we were able to obtain.  among the 219 press reports on killings of 106 deportees, human rights watch found cases of six deportees killed between 2013 to 2019 that named state authorities or indicated death squads as the alleged killers. the rural police were the suspected killers in two cases in an isolated rural area where gang members or authorities had previously prevented press from entering (and where police had been documented to have committed extrajudicial killings starting in 2013). private actors were the alleged perpetrators in the overwhelming majority of the killings. only three accounts identified through our press searches–in which one to three others were killed at the same time–left open the possibility that the deported man was not the target of the lethal attack.  killing of deportees likely undercounted  homicide data are regularly reported by police authorities in el salvador. however, we believe our count of 138 persons killed after deportation from the us to el salvador between 2013-2019 represents a significant undercount for two main reasons. first, the specific victimization of deportees often goes unrecorded in forensic, media, or governmental accounts. among victims who do report, protocol does not require authorities to ask about migration status of victims.  all homicide journalists interviewed for this report said they mostly rely on police sources to determine if a victim was deported from the united states. police acknowledged to human rights watch that they do not always consult the relevant database to get a victim’s migration status. in fact, they told human rights watch that they only do so when the victim had no documents or had tattoos. reports on the killings of 53 deported men included police telling the press the victim had no identity documents or was a gang member; was linked to gangs, a thief, a drug user, or some other type of criminal (including 13 of those with tattoos).  there is no mandatory requirement that the salvadoran prosecutor’s office (fgr) collects migratory status in its investigations, including in its homicide investigations. one prosecutor explained his office’s reasoning to human rights watch: “we see crimes and do not give importance to this [migratory status]. it is not relevant.” an investigator in a different department also said migratory status was irrelevant to their office, “unless the person requests it.” salvadoran authorities told us that too much stigma exists around deportation for victims or their family members to acknowledge it on their own. for example, a police chief told human rights watch: “the deportee is stigmatized.” likewise, a forensic doctor told us that none of the persons harmed after their deportation, or their surviving loved ones in cases of disappearance or killings, initially wanted to mention the victim’s status as a deportee because, “they do not always identify themselves…. many times, i think it’s because of stigma, that they would feel pain to say it.”  in addition, human rights watch documented three cases from 2013 to 2018 that illustrate how a victim’s identity as a deportee may go unreported unless they possess a stigmatized characteristic, such as having tattoos, being a gang member, or being a male between the ages of 15 and 39. the press did not mention in any of these three cases that the victim had been deported from the united states. none of the three had tattoos, and two were middle-aged men, perhaps explaining why the police did not check on their status in relevant databases or through other means.  the second reason we believe the 138 cases of killings to be an undercount is that certain categories of homicide cases, regardless of whether the person is a deportee or not, are much more likely to be undercounted, including cases involving (1) female victims, (2) people with identity documents (because they are less likely to be identified as deportees), (3) people without tattoos, (4) people killed in areas where crimes are more likely to go unreported including particularly violent neighborhoods, isolated rural areas, and areas where gangs or authorities do not permit journalists to enter, (5) lgbt victims, and (6) people killed in the custody of salvadoran authorities.  police, other salvadoran officials, and reporters have apparently also failed to determine the migration status of female homicide victims. we could not find a single press report on the killing of any cisgender (non-transgender) female deportees—even for a case of a former female police agent whom we documented through our interview with her surviving relatives, who was killed after her deportation from the united states. nevertheless, several directly impacted individuals and authorities told us about women killed after their deportations. for example, one forensic official recalled multiple females killed after their deportations, just in the one department where he works:  yes, there are women among these [who were deported and killed] …. always by the gang, for the same phenomenon they’d left fleeing. she became their subject and could not free herself. if she gets with another [man], even [one] in the [same] gang, she is killed. even if he’s in prison, both [she and he] could be killed.  iii. other harms faced by deportees  in our research for this report we heard many gut-wrenching accounts from people subjected to terrible abuse after their deportations from the united states. often, these were the same abuses from the same abusers that deportees had tried to escape by fleeing to the united states–only to be returned directly back to the violence they originally feared. the cycle of abuse and flight is chronic, and for many deportees feels inescapable. given the horrors they had endured, it was not surprising to us that these people often tried to flee again.  even more so than the numbers of killings of deportees, instances in which deportees were attacked by gangs or others, disappeared, forced into hiding, sexually assaulted, and tortured certainly exceed what we have been able to document. many non-homicide crimes are unreported and thus undocumented in el salvador. for example, one survey suggests that less than five percent of sexual crimes were reported to salvadoran authorities in 2018. crimes less serious than homicide go unreported to authorities, are infrequently investigated and prosecuted; and partly as a result of the lack of public accountability for these categories of crimes, they go unreported in the salvadoran press. as discussed in the previous section, the victimization of deportees in particular goes almost completely undocumented in the country, due in part to the lack of any requirement that law enforcement authorities obtain the migration status of victims and also because victims and their family members often fail to report the victim’s status as a deportee.  disappearances  press reporting on individual cases of disappearances in el salvador is rare. if a victim is killed, their body may never be found, and if a victim is alive, their whereabouts may not be known. when a victim’s body is found, often too much time has passed for the salvadoran press to take interest. a common security practice among salvadoran reporters is not reporting on their own neighborhoods. not surprisingly then, two journalists each told us about a case of a disappeared deportee they had not reported in 2018, one because the incident happened in his neighborhood and one because he had other incidents to report on the same day that interested his editors more.  still, we were able to identify 18 separate incidents (between 2013 and 2019, for which the disappearance happened within five years or less of the deportation) involving disappearances of deportees from the united states: at least one woman and four men, alongside 13 men who disappeared or were kidnapped before being found killed.  in a separate case, the inter-american commission on human rights (cidh) issued precautionary measures (measures the commission adopts after reviewing evidence indicating imminent risk of irreparable harm to an individual) to an 18-year-old man deported from the us in september 2017 who was taken from his home in january 2018 by “some youth [muchachos],” and has not been seen since.  we also spoke with an iml investigator who said that he knew of “people deported who did disappear,” and a second iml investigator who agreed with this statement during the same interview.  sexual crimes  the united states department of state (usdos) human rights reports on el salvador from 2013 to 2018 stated that “rape and other sexual crimes against women were widespread.” even so, news reporting on sexual crimes in el salvador is rare, and as noted above, we believe widely under-reported by victims to authorities.  we documented four cases of sexual crimes and harassment against people deported from the united states (in three of these cases we know the victimization occurred between 2013 and 2019 and was within five years or less of the deportation. for one of the cases, our source was unwilling to provide any dates for security reasons). a male deportee died after castration, according to a criminal sentencing tribunal decision. in addition, according to a local prosecutor we interviewed, a woman was subjected to sexual harassment after her deportation from the us. two additional cases include a woman deportee who told us that she was physically assaulted by a person linked to her former intimate partner, and after years of previous emotional, physical, and sexual abuse that prompted her original flight from the country; and a female deportee who said that she was raped by a gang member after deportation from the us.  angelina n. in 2014, when she was 20 years old, angelina n. fled abuse at the hands of jaime m., the father of her 4-year-old daughter, who regularly beat her. jaime falsely accused her of having an affair with mateo o., a gang member in their neighborhood who had been persistently making advances towards her. angelina fled, alone, to the united states and was apprehended at the border and detained. after a rare phone call home brought news that her 4-year-old was hospitalized in el salvador, she chose not to appeal the us government’s decision to deport her in september 2014. once back in el salvador, mateo resumed pursuing and threatening her, having his fellow gang members do so as well. she repeatedly rejected mateo’s advances, but according to a statement of facts in an immigration court ruling, “he threatened to kill angelina’s father and daughter if she did not accept to be ‘his woman.’” in october 2014, angelina’s father took her daughter to church. she told a human rights watch researcher what happened when she heard a knock at the door: i just opened the door, expecting it to be [my daughter returning home], but it was [mateo]. he forced open the door because i started trying to close it on him. [mateo] came inside and forced me to have sex with him for the first time. he took out his gun…. i was so scared that i obeyed…. when he left, i started crying. i didn’t say anything at the time, or even file a complaint to the police. i thought it would be worse if i did because i thought someone from the police would likely tell [mateo]…. i didn’t want anyone to know what was happening…. he told me he was going to kill my father and my daughter if i reported the [original and three subsequent] rapes, because i was “his woman.” [he] hit me and told me that he wanted me all to himself. one month later, mateo returned to angelina’s home. this time her daughter was at home. mateo told angelina’s daughter to stay in the living room “watching cartoons” and “not to go to the bedroom.” he then “dragged [angelina] to the bedroom, took out a gun, and told [her] to be quiet or [she] would see [her] daughter die before [her] eyes.” after he left, angelina cried but did not tell anyone. she told an immigration court “sometimes it is worse to tell the police because they do not help.” angelina was raped twice more by mateo before fleeing again—this time with her daughter—to the united states. she was ultimately granted protection from deportation in the united states under a provision known as “withholding of removal,” and her daughter was granted asylum.  torture, other ill-treatment, or excessive use of force  we investigated five separate cases of torture, other ill-treatment, or excessive use of force by police or soldiers against deportees that we know occurred between 2013 and 2019 and within five years of the person’s deportation. in interviews with deportees and their relatives or friends, we collected accounts of three male deportees from the united states who said they were beaten by police or soldiers during arrest, followed by beatings during their time in custody, which lasted between three days to over a year. one of these deportees, formerly a member of ms, told us that when police came to his home to arrest him he was unarmed and did not resist arrest. police hit and kicked him before putting him in the patrol car, and then beat him repeatedly during his detention, which lasted for over a year. he told us that during his detention, police officers kicked him repeatedly in the testicles, threatened to kill him, and “asked me about other ms members and were saying that if i name someone from ms, that is, if i turned them in, they would leave me free.”  salvadoran criminal sentencing tribunal decisions described police abuses of two additional deported men. in one case, a man deported four months earlier, who police accused of resisting arrest, was put in a patrol car and brought to a police station. throughout, the police repeatedly hit and kicked him, including kicks with their boots to his neck and abdomen. the deported man sustained injuries requiring an operation for a ruptured pancreas and spleen, month-long hospitalization, and 60 days of post-release treatment. in the second case, a deportee who police accused of extortion, evading arrest, and shooting at police; claimed he was face down on the ground but nevertheless shot at by police agents. once the agents took him into custody, the deportee claimed he was insulted, kicked in the face, and shot at again repeatedly. the deportee was taken to a hospital for his injuries and was later acquitted of all criminal charges.  armed attacks, beatings, extortion, and death threats by gangs  we documented the cases of 33 individuals who known or suspected gang members threatened with death after their deportations. presumed gang members subsequently beat three and shot and injured three others. suspected gang members likewise extorted 13 deportees (including one beaten and one shot and injured). alleged gang members subsequently killed 14 deportees (including six of those extorted). for these cases, we know the victimization was within five years or less of the deportation between 2013 and 2019.  among those killed, known or suspected gang members threatened with death surviving relatives of at least four of the deportees killed. while gang members told three to leave their homes or they would be killed within as little as 24 hours, they told one to stay with her family and keep quiet. jennifer b. explained to human rights watch: “they [the gang members] threatened my sister [with whom javier b. had wanted to live] that if she opened her mouth or left that place, they’d look for her everywhere and kill her. so, she remains there. … they’ve kept their mouths shut there.”  people forced into hiding  most human rights watch interviewees attempted to go into hiding in their own or different neighborhoods because they were afraid of gang members, police, or former intimate partners from whom they feared harm that authorities would or could not stop. us and salvadoran authorities often make unrealistic assumptions about a particular individual’s ability to remain safe, thinking a person could easily relocate. for example, when alexander n. told salvadoran migration officials he was afraid to return to the home where his sister was taken and killed, they responded: “‘why not go elsewhere?’”  safe relocation in el salvador is incredibly difficult for anyone. according to unverified estimates cited by the un special rapporteur for extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, approximately 60,000 gang members reportedly operate in 247 of the 262 municipalities in the country. state authorities have been largely ineffective at protecting the population from gang or private violence, and salvadoran security forces have themselves committed extrajudicial executions, sexual assaults, enforced disappearances, and torture throughout the country.  the few organizations now offering assistance to the internally displaced can together only provide services to several hundred people per year and even then, are typically delayed, and limited to helping a limited number of people and for a period of no more than three months. this leaves most of the estimated 285,000 internally displaced persons in el salvador to rely on familial networks, or more commonly, as one survey with a nationally representative sample found, flee abroad.  for example, after learning gang members planned to kill him in his rural municipality, gabriel g., a retired high-ranking officer with specialized training in the salvadoran military in his forties, told human rights watch he fled to the united states in 2018 after “the gang went to the police to tell them when, where, and how they’d kill me.” gabriel’s wife and children have received threats because of his military service as well, and two of his sons fled el salvador multiple times between 2013 and 2018 related to these threats. however, gabriel had previously been deported from the us in 2008, after he went to the us seeking refuge because former guerillas were threatening him. gabriel was detained in texas and failed his reasonable fear interview. his prior deportation barred him from asylum under us law, so he had to meet the higher standards of withholding of removal, which means that it would be “more likely than not” that he would be persecuted, rather than the lower asylum standard of a well-founded fear of persecution. alternatively, he had to show he merited protection under the convention against torture. gabriel remembered us officials asked him if he had been tortured. he told human rights watch, “i didn’t want to lie, because [what i consider torture] had not happened to me, although threats had been made, and they remained active.” since being deported in 2018, gabriel remains fearful and stays in hiding when he is not at work as a security guard, leaving his home as little as possible and refusing even to inform his wife of his weekly work schedule for fear that she might inadvertently tell others and the gang would attack him while he travels to work. he described to us how different gang members come to the gate outside his house to demand he turn over his work-issued firearm. he consistently refuses to hand over the weapon, and in response the gang members threaten to kill him.  at least 17 deported individuals whose cases we identified or investigated for this report attempted to hide from the violence or extortion they feared in the same neighborhoods they had originally fled. two who were beaten and extorted, and one who was beaten, extorted, and raped have since fled el salvador again. seven are dead. discussed more fully in section iv below, individuals also relocated from one particularly violent neighborhood to another. in another case, a male deportee fled the particularly violent neighborhood where one gang killed his father, to a neighborhood where a different gang controlled the territory. three additional male deportees attempted to go into hiding in a new location before they were killed or disappeared, according to press accounts.  alexander n. several months before our november 2018 interview with 20-year-old alexander n. and his parents, men dressed in black identifying themselves as police arrived in the night. the men wanted only to take alicia n., alexander’s teenage sister. they tied up the rest of the family and posted two men outside to make sure they did not leave. the other men took 17-year-old alicia with them. not long after, the family heard a shot, seemingly a few blocks away. once they broke free and felt sure the men outside were gone, they went toward it. they found alicia dead with one bullet to her forehead. alexander and his parents showed a human rights watch researcher the photo of her body, splayed on the dirt, hands above her head and blood coming from the gunshot wound. after the killing, the press arrived. nearly every salvadoran media outlet covered the murder, some in more than one story. some for several months. none could say definitively if the men in black were gang members of the neighborhood’s particularly strong gang clique, law enforcement, or so-called “extermination groups.” alexander and his family suspect police involvement. in recent years, the attorney general’s office investigated a group, police chiefs and businessmen among them, for forming an extermination group who killed those they believed to be gang members in alexander’s neighborhood and in surrounding municipalities. alicia’s murder was at least the seventh in four months in their community; she was the second child to be killed, and the second female. more killings, including of two females, occurred in the same neighborhood before the year ended. authorities found additional bodies in clandestine graves. a press report alleged a member of the gang had raped girls and young women in the neighborhood. within 48 hours of his sister’s death, the killers called alexander’s home and told his mother that they would come back and kill her son, alexander, for “giving the press information” on the way they had killed her daughter. she and her husband could not bear the thought of losing their son too. she told us what little they had; they gave him to flee. alexander’s father broke down when he told us he had decided, “my only child who remains can at least go.” less than a month after his sister’s murder, alexander was at the border in texas. he told human rights watch that he had told us authorities what happened to his sister and that he was afraid to return. at the seventh us immigration detention center he was held in, he got lucky: a group of volunteers worked with him and five or six other asylum seekers on how to present himself in his credible fear interview (the first stage of the us asylum process). us authorities determined alexander had demonstrated credible fear and he was transferred to another detention center to present his case before the immigration court nearest it. a fellow detainee from mexico helped him translate the proof he carried: photos, a news report, death certificate, and letters of support from his catholic church, work, school, and city hall. in our interview with him, alexander appeared humble and shy. he had recently graduated high school. in his community, eye contact and talking could get you killed, he said. according to alexander, after four hearings, at which he appeared without counsel, he was denied asylum. alexander said, “there was no one to help me. i felt so bad. there was danger of return.” about a month later, us officials cuffed him at the wrists and ankles to deport him to el salvador. alexander and his family told us that the men in black have gone to other homes since then, and they see masked police and soldiers stroll their dirt roads. alexander lives in constant fear, saying that he feels it “day and night.” his strategy: “i don’t go out. i hide.” he is not studying, working, or spending time with friends, despite his dreams to get a college degree and help his family. when asked how long this could last, alexander’s mom said she did not know. “meanwhile,” she said, “we fear.”  iv. particularly violent neighborhoods  when people are deported to el salvador, the original neighborhoods they lived in prior to their emigration may carry significant risks of disappearance, homicide, and sexual crime, such that living in safety at home is nearly impossible. these particularly violent neighborhoods (see glossary for definition) tend to have not just a concentration of organized crime but also of abusive law enforcement actors, documented cases of domestic and sexual violence, and violence perpetrated by so-called “death squads” or “extermination groups” (as discussed in section v).  specific neighborhoods, high levels of violence  according to government data, from 2013 to 2018, all of el salvador’s 262 municipalities registered at least a homicide or sexual crime. in most municipalities, however, crime tends to concentrate in a small percentage of specific neighborhoods. such neighborhoods register multiple homicides and sexual crimes each year. many have also been the sites of clandestine graves containing victims who were kidnapped, disappeared, and often tortured before they were killed. multiple actors, including gangs, authorities, those who present themselves as authorities, and private individuals are alleged to have committed these crimes. victims include girls, boys, men, and women and those known or believed to be informants or witnesses. visitors to these neighborhoods are also victims, and residents of these neighborhoods are victimized elsewhere because they are imputed to be affiliated with the gang that controls the neighborhood from which they fled.  given persistent violence in these neighborhoods, individuals growing up in them likely experience multiple traumatic events. for example, an aid director for deported persons, in summarizing the case of a mother and her daughters who fled sexual harassment, extortion, and threats (but have since been deported from the us back to el salvador), said of residents of such neighborhoods: “one [criminal] event does not tend to be it [for what drove them to flee].” the majority of directly impacted individuals we interviewed who originated from a particularly violent neighborhood recounted they or their loved ones being victims of multiple crimes before and after deportation, including witnessing or having loved ones abused, disappeared, or killed. four deportees we interviewed had to live in the same home in which a family member had been killed. they—like other residents—may show symptoms of trauma. at time of writing, such particularly violent neighborhoods in el salvador included but were not limited to:  lourdes neighborhood of colón municipality in la libertad department;  altavista neighborhood at the border of ilopango, san martín, and tonacatepeque municipalities of san salvador department, and surrounding areas like san josé flores neighborhood of tonacatepeque municipality of san salvador department;  san roque neighborhood and surrounding neighborhoods like zacamil of mejicanos municipality in san salvador department;  iberia and san jacinto neighborhoods of san salvador municipality in san salvador department;  la campanera neighborhood of soyapango municipality in san salvador department;  amapalita neighborhood of la unión municipality in la unión department;  el platanar neighborhood of moncagua municipality in san miguel department;  ciudad pacífica, milagro de la paz and san antonio silva neighborhoods of san miguel municipality in san miguel department;  tierra blanca neighborhood of jiquilisco municipality in usulután department;  chaguantique neighborhood and surrounding areas at the border of jiquilisco and puerto el triunfo municipalities in usulután department;  el ojuste and la poza neighborhoods of usulután municipality in usulután department;  el junquillo neighborhood of ahuachapán municipality in ahuachapán department; and  apaneca and surrounding neighborhoods of chalchuapa municipality of santa ana department.  no publicly available dataset demonstrates what percentage of migrants leaving el salvador come from hot spots of violence; however, among the cases of people deported from the united states who were subsequently harmed in el salvador identified or investigated for this report, many had lived in the neighborhoods listed above. for example:  from 2006 to 2019, four deportees were reported killed in lourdes neighborhood of colón municipality , as was an uncle who reportedly died defending his deported nephew in a shootout in which the nephew and one other person with them were also injured.  , as was an uncle who reportedly died defending his deported nephew in a shootout in which the nephew and one other person with them were also injured. in 2017 and 2018, a salvadoran-born individual who moved between el salvador and the united states, and two deportees—who residents told reporters were cousins—were killed in el platanar of moncagua .  . in 2014, one deportee was reported killed in tierra blanca of jiquilisco .  . two deportees were killed in the la poza neighborhood of usulután municipality in 2014 and 2018.  in 2014 and 2018. in september 2017, according to press sources, in el junquillo neighborhood of ahuachapán municipality a deportee’s female partner, her mother, and her child were killed; one article reporting on this incident also reported that the deportee himself had been killed the day prior. an official in that region told human rights watch two other deportees from the united states had also been killed in el junquillo or adjacent las viñas in 2012 or 2013 and 2016. a separate official in the same region told reporters they “go [there] frequently” to investigate homicides.  a deportee’s female partner, her mother, and her child were killed; one article reporting on this incident also reported that the deportee himself had been killed the day prior. an official in that region told human rights watch two other deportees from the united states had also been killed in el junquillo or adjacent las viñas in 2012 or 2013 and 2016. a separate official in the same region told reporters they “go [there] frequently” to investigate homicides. in 2014, two deportees were reported killed near cara sucia neighborhood in san francisco menéndez municipality (where one’s brother was killed a month earlier).  society and authorities stigmatize certain neighborhoods  according to a poll by the salvadoran paper, la prensa gráfica, salvadorans fear particular neighborhoods and try to avoid them. from 2008 to 2017, la prensa gráfica three times polled a representative sample of the population in el salvador’s most populous municipalities, asking: “from what you know and have heard said, what is the most dangerous place in the municipality?” residents’ responses included altavista (and san jose de las flores next to it), san roque, iberia, la campanera, ciudad pacífica, milagro de la paz, and san francisco adjacent to apaneca of chalchuapa. these neighborhoods are often notorious beyond just residents. for example, in 2019, the salvadoran investigative press outlet, el faro, noted that altavista, la campanera, and milagro de la paz are nationally stigmatized.  for their security, multiple non-pnc governmental offices keep maps or appoint a long-serving staff member to inform others of neighborhoods where staff have been threatened or harmed in the past, and thus, they either cannot enter or only enter with a police presence. one police officer expressed concerns to human rights watch that naming such neighborhoods can negatively impact their residents and make them “even hotter.”  police statements to the press in articles reporting on crime sometimes solidified stigmatization. police would describe homicide victims in these neighborhoods as either gang members, collaborators of gang members, or those with personal relationships to gangs or gang members, even when relatives told the press their loved ones who were killed had no such links. for one youth from iberia, this stigma from authorities especially stung. he broke down in tears recalling to a reporter what a policeman told him about his neighborhood: “all of them that live in that community, they are rats.”  the stigmatization of these neighborhoods’ residents is partially due to perceived and real links between crime and poverty. the residents of these neighborhoods that human rights watch interviewed reported monthly household incomes of less than us$500, and their homes were often composed of mud- or dirt-mixture for the walls, tin metal for the roof, bars to cover windows, and dirt floors. similarly, two youth from one of the neighborhoods listed above, who fled in 2013 and were deported in 2018, made only $5 per day in the nearby fields; even in planting and harvesting season, they could not count on five days of work in a week. another family whose young daughter fled with her grandmother in 2017 and was deported in 2018 did not have a home, and they instead moved from place to place in the neighborhood, living with hosts who would let them stay for brief periods if they paid for their use of utilities only.  one salvadoran policeman said: “evidently, there are places safer than others, and it is related to wealth levels. poverty levels influence [crime]. we rarely go to residences where middle-class people live.” one criminal sentencing judge went further in his analysis of the links between poverty and crime to say that in these places, “we have to say it … the state has been absent.”  nowhere else to go  deportees often have nowhere to go in el salvador except to live with family already residing in a particularly violent neighborhood. for example, nohemy p. fled el salvador at the age of nine in 2000 because she feared gang kidnapping and rape. she had lived two-thirds of her life in the us, had daca status, and had three us-citizen children under the age of nine. however, us authorities near the texas-mexico border accused her of trafficking her own children across the border (she told us she had not crossed the border), told her “daca was over,” and detained and deported her in the fall 2018. upon arriving back in el salvador, nohemy had no choice but to live with an aunt in a violent neighborhood “because she is the only family we have here [now].” nohemy’s mother, leticia p., told human rights watch that nohemy and her two deported male cousins “almost don’t go out, because they’re afraid to do so.”  deportees are often unable to find another, safer neighborhood to live in. press accounts we identified for this report describe three male deportees’ attempts to hide in new neighborhoods before they were killed or disappeared. an fgr prosecutor told human rights watch that “depending on the deportee’s [neighborhood], we do see changing addresses as a risk [for death].”  deportees often cannot afford to relocate long distances away nor can they afford exclusive, gated residences with private security. an fgr prosecutor told human rights watch: “people with few resources [who are displaced] have nowhere to go. someone should be investigating that. sometimes, it hurts me to observe that there is nothing more we [the authorities] can do for these people.” the brother of a young man killed approximately two years after his september 2013 deportation explained why his brother did not try to live elsewhere: “we don’t have resources to go moving around in el salvador. likewise, if he’d gone to a place without the gang [in our neighborhood], they [rival gang members] would have assumed [he was aligned with the gang in our neighborhood]. you are trapped in the same system.”  individuals we interviewed for this report were repeatedly forced to move from one particularly violent neighborhood to another after being deported to el salvador from the united states. for example, the neighborhood where ransés i. grew up no longer existed when he was deported nearly 15 years later in 2015. therefore, he went to an uncle’s home in a chronically violent neighborhood. he said: “one day, i went to the store not far [from my home] with my nephew who’d lived his whole life there.… two [gang members] looked at me. then, five more came and asked who i was, from where i was.… i told them i was deported.… i was there only a month [before i moved again].  in nearly all particularly violent neighborhoods, gang members, authorities, and residents view new arrivals with suspicion. nelson e., after his most recent deportation from the us in october 2014, tried living on his own in a new neighborhood but soon had to flee that neighborhood. he told human rights watch,  when i got back [in 2014], i didn’t want to live with my mom.… i had work. but one time, people arrived to rob me. they wanted my dui [government-issued, photo identification]. they told me i couldn’t be there. they told me to remove myself from there. they said they would disappear me if i stayed … so i went back to my mom. this is the risk here. you cannot go where they do not know you.  it is likely, and especially dangerous, that a person who attempts to relocate inside el salvador will end up in a neighborhood controlled by a different gang. a pnc officer told human rights watch that among murdered deportees, including women, are those who “arrive to live in or visit a neighborhood different from the one they are from.” irene j., said of her recently deported husband:  it actually worries me more [that he’s not in our old neighborhood]. our neighborhood was ms-controlled, but where he is now is 18 [18 revolucionarios or 18 sureños]-controlled. if they realize that, they’ll take him out and kill him just for that. he is afraid of it, too, so he’s not going out at all. he can’t stay in one place. he’s having to move around.  v. state actors as perpetrators of harm  many authorities in el salvador are dedicated to protecting salvadoran citizens and ensuring justice in the country. however, authorities often face significant barriers to providing protection, especially—as discussed in the previous section—in particularly violent neighborhoods. these authorities and their families face serious threats themselves from gangs or from other authorities within their own government for the actions they may take to protect the public.  data obtained by human rights watch through a public information request submitted to el salvador’s attorney general office’s (fgr) illustrate pervasive impunity. nationwide, in 2018, authorities made arrests in approximately 22 percent of registered homicide cases. for homicides of boys, the 2018 clearance rate (meaning charges were filed) in el salvador is 13.6 percent. the clearance rate for homicides in the us (adults and children) was several times higher at 62 percent; in many european countries the rate is above 75 percent. for sexual crimes, authorities in el salvador made arrests in only 9.5 percent of registered cases in 2018. the comparable clearance rate for sexual crimes in the us was 33.4 percent in 2018. for sexual crimes against girls in el salvador, the 2018 clearance rate was 7.6 percent. low clearance rates can occur for a number of reasons, but in el salvador, the state is frequently either unable, due to limited resources, or unwilling, because of corruption, infiltration and threats, to protect its citizens.  in this report, we documented cases in which government authorities were responsible for committing grave abuses against deportees in particularly violent neighborhoods. these abuses—alongside low arrest, hearing, and conviction rates—are especially concerning, because they contribute to residents’ perception that authorities are persecutors, rather than protectors facing structural limits on their ability to successfully pursue their work.  enrico x., a resident of a particularly violent neighborhood, told human rights watch about his state of mind after police killed his cousin, a former gang member, at point blank range in public in 2016 or 2017 (after the cousin had been deported from the us in 2016 or 2017): “i became wary of the police even more after they killed my cousin in this manner…. i was afraid to report [other crimes] to them.”  el salvador’s crime and insecurity should be seen within the context of the power, control, and violence imposed by gangs, and the state’s feeble struggles to protect public safety. violence and killings occur against a backdrop of “armed confrontations,” when authorities report being called to an area or on a routine patrol, are attacked with gunfire and respond with reportedly defensive fire. in 2016, the central american institute of investigations for development and social change (incide) reported an increase of these incidents in el salvador between state actors and gangs, with 142 incidents in 2013, 256 incidents in 2014 and 676 incidents that left 359 people dead in 2015.  unable or unwilling to protect  there are many reasons why authorities are unable or unwilling to help protect salvadoran citizens who are afraid for their safety, including the fact that they themselves are monitored and threatened, authorities’ offices have also been infiltrated by gangs, they lack resources, and carry large caseloads. women victims of violence face particular obstacles in seeking protection or justice, due to the inadequacy of salvadoran laws and deeply entrenched institutional resistance to gender equality, which has led to, among other problems, insufficient funding for investigation and law enforcement focused on violence against women, and virtual impunity for the failure of governmental officials to carry out their responsibilities.  for this report, we interviewed several individuals who attempted to seek help from salvadoran
deported to danger