security. ThiSaspectraisesvarious political perceptions whicharediscussed in moredetailinchapter VI. EaOperations inseaareascovered byice 147.Between thelandmassesofNorthAmerica andtheSoviet Unionliesthe ice-covered Arctic Ocean(seeannexIll,map3).Although exceedingly hostile as anenvironment fornormalactivities, theiceotfersexcellent coverforoperations bynuclear sUhmarines. withtheadventofnuclear propulsion andimprovements in navigation systems, theUnitedStates Navywasabletomakethefirstextensive I ...A/40/535 English Page46 submarine exploration undertheice-cap in1958.~thuspioneering nuclear submarine operations intheArctic. 148.Thepermanent polarice-cap consists ofnumerous iceblocks. someover300m deepandseveral kilometres across, andpolaricefloes(sheets offloating ice), beneath whichthewaters maybe5kmdeepandtheice10or15mthick. Instead oficebergs. huge"keels" oficeextendasdeepas300m•Despite thesedifficult geographical conditions, advanced andpowerful SSBNscanoperate inthisregion. surfacing through patches ofcomparatively thiniceorinwhatareknownas "po1ynya" -spacesoftemporarily openwaterinthemidstofice-tolaunchtheir missiles. 149.ASWoperations arefacedwithmajorproblems inice.Sonartransmissions bounceoffthejaggedunder-ice ceiling incomplicated andconfusing patterns, and theconstant movement andgrinding oftheiceblocks makepassive detection ofa hovering SSBNverydifficult. Oncedetected. thetargetremainsdifficult to attack, protected asitisbytheicearoundit. 150.Thenatural characteristics oftheArctic, thedevelopment ofadvanced navigation systems, deeperdivingcapabilities, longer-range· missiles. the accumulation ofoceanographical knowledge andthegeographical situation ofthe Sovietunionhavecombined toprovide astrongincentive totheSOViet Navytomake moreuseoftheArcticforSSBNmissions. SUchusealsocorresponds withthe "bastion" concept bywhichtheArctic becomes adefended seaareaadjacent tothe northern coastline oftheSoviet Unionandthuspartofthein-depth territorial defence aroundthehomeland, inwhichSovietnavalforcesgivehighpriority to defending SSBNforcesagainst attack. 151.Inturn,however, thisisnowleading togreater efforts bytheUnitedStates todevelop improved methods ofdetecting, tracking andattacking SSBNsoperating in thenorthern seasandundertheArcticice.Ithasbeenreported1lIthatthe UnitedStates Navyisadapting existing submarines forunder-ice operations. modifying anexisting torpedo anddeveloping anewsonarsystem. Inaddition, a mu1ti-bi11ion-do11ar programme fortheconstruction ofanewclassofnuclear attack submarine iscurrently inthedesignstage. 152.Fromthisbriefdescription itcanbeseenthateventheArctic Oceanandits approaches havebeenbrought intothearenaoffiercerivalry between theSoviet UnionandtheUnitedStates. F.Affirmation ofsovereignty, navalpresence andsurveillance 153.Inpeacetime, navalpresence andsurveillance areveryimportant missions. A navyisanattribute andsymbolofsovereignty andmanycoastal Statestend therefore tohavenaviesl thisislikelytoincrease withtheadded responsibilities oftheexclusive economic zone.Otherspecific factors alsoplay arole:reaction tothenavalacquisitions ofaneighbour andperhaps adesireto beable,usingaState·s ownforces, toprevent aninfluxofsubversive elements arriving bysea,ashashappened inanumberofAfrican andAsiancountries. These I...A/40/535 English Page47 factors varyinimportance butalltendtoleadtothestrengthening ofthemeans ofsurveillance. 154.Toassistinthistaskofsurveillance. manyGovernments haveestablished separate CoastGuardforces. ACoastGuardisoftenresponsible forcivilian maritime affairs inthecoastal area,whereas anavygenerally dealswithpurely military missions atsea.OftentheCoastGuardisnotpartoftheministry or department ofdefence butisassigned toacivilian ministry (transport, fisheries orinterior). Atthesametime,mostCoastGuards haveamilitary structure and returntothecontrol ofthenavyintheeventofarmedconflict. Thisarrangement iswidelypractised. particularly inLatinAmerica, butitcanleadtoduplication offunctions withthenavyandthis.inturn.canresultinconflicts of responsibilities. 155.Besides thetaskofsurveillance incoastal areasthereisalsothatof presence onthehighseas.Tosomeextentthisinvolves whatisnowsometimes referred toaspUblicservice. whichisdescribed laterinthischapter. Thereis also,however. thepurelypolitical aspectorwhatisoftencallednaval
**Analysis**
The text appears to be discussing the strategic and political significance of the Arctic Ocean and its role in naval operations, surveillance, and sovereignty. It highlights the challenges and opportunities presented by the harsh Arctic environment and the increasing importance of the region in the context of the Cold War. The text also touches on the development of new technologies and military capabilities to operate in the Arctic.

**Category**
Transport and communication, Science and technology