combined effect of a number of factors. There is the impact of rural-urban migration which has led to changes in the rural population particularly because of the unprecedented, magnitude of the movement of youth and men to the towns where living condi­ tions are relatively less harsh than in the countryside and where there is the powerful pull of wage employment. There is the low level of agricultural techniques. In most of Africa animal power is not used in agriculture, and even manure is not a common fer­ tilizer. Agricultural implements are still limited to the hoe, and modern factors of production are progressing only slowly and are used only in a limited way mainly on large commercial farms. Agriculture has been for long, neglected by public authorities and only recently has it received special attention in develop­ ment programmes. The emphasis is still on export-oriented agriculture and large state owned farming, neglecting food production and· small producers. 10. The supply by Governments of modern factors of production to agriculture is, when it exists irregular and inadequate. The in- 150 E/ECA/CM.9/5 stitutions entrusted with the buying and distribution of produc­ tion inputs (state controlled in most African countries) are af­ fected by structural problems, and are often unable to distribute them ~t the right time, in the right place and in the required quantities. Price policy is a determining factor of agricultural production, and it must be noted that export products are generally heavily taxed and that producers obtain only a small fraction of the final price. Despite subsidies to production in­ puts, the real income of producers has fallen in many countries. For food products, official prices are generally set at a low level (because among other factors of the pressure of urban con­ sumers) and this does not stimulate farmers to produce more. 
**Analysis**
The text discusses the challenges faced by agriculture in Africa, highlighting the impact of rural-urban migration, low agricultural techniques, inadequate supply of modern factors of production, and poor pricing policies. These factors affect the rural population, agricultural production, and the livelihoods of farmers. The text does not mention international trade, industry, transport, communication, health, education, humanitarian aid, or culture. Science and technology is mentioned briefly, but only in the context of the limited use of modern agricultural techniques.

**Category**
Agriculture, forestry and fishing, Economic development