Botswana andZambia, countries withrichagricultural resources, suchasParaguay, andcountries thathavefewminerals andwhoselandismainlyaridorsemi-arid, suchasLesotho. Someoftheland-locked countries, notably Chad,MaliandNiger, areverylargeinareawithalowpopulation density, whileothers, suchasBurundi and Rwand~, aresmallinareawithahighpopulation density. Despite their diversity, itispossible toidentify uniformities inthetradeandgrowthpatterns ofland-locked economies thatareintrinsically linkedtotheirgeographical situatio~. Theirlackofproprietary orsovereign accesstotheseabyeitherland orairmeansthattheirtradeisadversely affected bytransport problems, which impose astructural constraint ondevelopment possibilities. 9.The tr~nsport andfreight-rate policies withinthetransit country are formulated andadministered primarily to~~pport anoverall domestic development strategy. Thiscouldleavetheland-Iocks:l neighbour atadisadvantage, sincethe interests ofbothparties maynotnecessarily becongruent. Thetransit country may,forexample, rightfully wishtopromote theuseofparticular modesof transport inordertomeetitsownneeds,butsuchapolicy manynotbeinline withthespecific requirements ofaland-locked neighbouring country. Thereare alsooftenadministrative problenis associated withtransit through foreign countries, sincebecause ofsecurity andotherconsiderations manytransit countries haveinforcespecial customs anddocumentation procedures fortransit cargo. Hinterland regions incoastal countries mayberemote fromportsand expensiv~ toreachbutatleasttheirtransportation problems arenotcompounded by thepolitical andadministrative problems thatariseintransit passage through foreign States. Furthermore, asland-locked countries havenosovereign powerover themovement oftheirmerchandise tradethrough theirneighbouring coastal States, transit traffic maybedisrupted byevents beyondthecontrol ofland-locked States. TheGovernments ofland-locked Statescannotreducethedelays dueto capacity constraints inthecoastal States' transport system. Ont~eotherhand, coastal Statesrightfully exercise theirsovereignty toplantransport infrastructure tomeetprimarily theirownneeds.Itisrelevant tonotethatmost ofthetransit countries aredeveloping countries themselves withlimited resources tobuildupandmaintain efficient transit-transport infrastructure facilities and services. 10.Besides suchproblems related tothelackofsovereign accesstothesea, thereareotherfactors thatputtheland-locked countries atasignificant cost disadvantage. Themovement ofcargoalongthetransit corridors ofteninvolves trans-shipment en-route. Thisgivesrisetosignificant additional freight costs, additional transport timeandadditional transport risksforalloverseas trade. Thephysical remoteness ofthemajorcommercial centres ofland-locked developing countries fromthenearest oceanportsvariesconsiderably (seeappendix table1), butitisover1,000kilometres for11countries: Afghanistan, Botswana, Burundi, I •••A/44/588 English Page9 Central African Republic, Chad,Mali,Niger, Paraguay, RWdnda, Uganda andZambia. Traversing suchdistances caninvolve 40to60days'travel timeandmayadd30to 40percenttoimportcosts. ~/Transit coststhrough aforeign country mustoften bepaidinforeign exchange. 11.Although thetransit tradeandtransport problems ineachland-locked country mayvarydepending onthespecific environment prevailing inindividual countries andregions, UNCTAD workinthisareahasrevealed anvrnberofcommonsalient features, whichcharacterize thecurrent transit-transport constraints inhibiting thesmooth flowofcargoalongthemaintransit corridors: shortage ofexperienced andskilled manpower; pooranddeterio~ating physical infrastructure andequipment; poorcommunications facilities between transit andland-locked developing countries; inadequate bilateral andsUbregional agreements tofacilitate transit-transport; inadequate portfacilities; andcumbersome documentation and customs procedures. Thesebottle-necks areperennial. However, theyhavebeen
**Analysis**
The text primarily focuses on the challenges faced by land-locked countries in their trade and economic development, highlighting the impact of geographical location on their transportation and logistics. The discussion revolves around the difficulties in moving goods through transit countries, the lack of sovereign access to the sea, and the resulting costs and constraints. The text also touches on the need for better infrastructure, communication, and documentation procedures to facilitate trade.

**Category**
Transport and communication, International trade