countries, physical social andeconomic infrastructure waspoor,manufacturing activities werelargely absent,littleurbanization hadtakenplace, andthe development ofanindigenous middleclasswasweak.Bolivia, Z~nbia andZimbabwe werebetteroffbecause theyhadreceived muchcapital investme~t duringthe colonial period, butthiswasdesigned tosupport miningactivities and,in,the caseofZimbabwe, European settlement. Inspiteoftheirrelative wealth, eachof thesethreeeconomies wascharacterized bysharpdualism. 44.Land-locked developing countries thusbeganplanning thedevelopment oftheir economies ataninitial disadvantage, butavailable evidence suggests thattoday mostofthemremainpoor.InAsiaandsub-Saharan Africa(withtheexception of southern Africa) thedevelopment gapbetween land-locked States andneighbouri~g coastal Statesiswidening (seeappendix table9).Exports percapitaaregrowing moreslowlyintheland-locked Statesthaninthecoastal States, theproportion of thelabourforceengaged innon-agricultural activities isrisingmoreslowly, or intheAfrican case,actually falling, andthegapininfantmortality ratesis widening. InLatinAmerica, differentials ingrossdomestic product percapita between l~nd-locked States andneighbouring coastal Statesarenarrowing. Interms ofinfantmortality, however, secondary schoolenrolment, thedevelopment of non-agricultural employment opportunities andexports percapita, theland-locked Statesstilllegbehind. Itisonlyinsouthern Africathatthereissome inversion ofthispattern, buthereeconomic growth anddevelopment isbeing stifled bytheinstabilities thathavealready beenindicated. Today, 15outof the21land-locked countries inLatinAmerica, AsiaandAfricaareclassified as leastdeveloped countries. OnlyBolivia, Mongolia, Paraguay, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe arenotBmvngtheeconomically weakest ofthedeveloping countries. 45.Furthermore, therecentemergence ofregional manufacturing exporters represents amajorchangeintheinternational circumstances oftheland-locked developing countries. Thegeographical situation ofland-lock~d developing countries isbecoming oneinwhichtheyarenotonlyremote fromtherichest and mostindustrialized countries intheworld,theyarealsoclosetoneighbouring developing countries thatarebigger andrelatively richerandmoreindustrialized thanthemselves. Withtheadditional costsandrisksoftransit-transport the land-locked countries arefurther placedatacompetitive disadvantage viS-A-vis otherdeveloping countries intheirattempts toexpand anddiversify primary commodity exports. Infuture, thisdisadvantage willremainaslongasland-locked developing countries relyonoverseas markets. Inaddition, however, the land-locked countries willfindthatproduction forthedomestic market, I •••A/••/588 Bnglllh Page21 particularly inmanufacturing, mUltcomp.t. withr.gional luppli.r. whoartabl., b.cause ofthegr.at.r population andgreat.r incomeoftheirdom.stic mark.ts and theirh.adstartin.xporting, toachi.v••conomi.s ofseal.. Ther.isadang.r, therefore, thatinfutureitwillnotonlybedifficult forproducers in land-locked countri.s tocompete in.xportmark.ts,itwillalsobedifficult for th.mtocomp.t. withinth.irownmark.ts. V.SPBCIFIC ACTION BYTHEINTBRNATIONAL COMMUNITY INFAVOUR OFLAND-LOCKBD DEVELOPING COUNTRIBS A.Summariea ofrtpli.sr.c.iv.d fromindiyidual countries Australia .6.WhileAustralia doe&notprovidesp.cial assistance forland-locked developing countries, veryfewofwhichareintheAsia-Pacific regionwheretheAustralian aidprogramme ilconcentrated, Australia doelrecogniae theparticular probl.ma of thelecountries andprovides someappropriate asaistance. InAsia,Australia is currently fundingbilateral programm'l inBhutan, theLaoPeople's Democratic Republic andNepal. InAfrica, sixofthenineben.ficiaries ofthe,A100million Special Programme toAfricaoverthreeyearsareland-locked countries. The countries conc.rn.d areBotawana, Lelotho, Malawi, Swaailand, ZambiaandZimbabwe. A.sistance tothe.'countri.s i.provid.d intheformoftraining aid,Itaffing assistance, co-financing withthedevelopment banks,andinstitutional an(tr8qional support. Forthep.riod 1988-1989 official development assistanc••armarked for
**Analysis**
The text discusses the challenges faced by land-locked developing countries in terms of their economic development, infrastructure, and trade. It highlights the difficulties they face in competing with coastal countries and the need for special assistance to overcome these challenges. The text also mentions specific actions taken by individual countries, such as Australia, to provide assistance to land-locked developing countries.

**Category**
Economic development, International trade, Industry