<s> [INST] <<SYS>> You are a helpful, respectful, and honest assistant. Always answer as helpfully as possible, while being safe. Your answers should not include any harmful, unethical, racist, sexist, toxic, dangerous, or illegal content. Please ensure that your responses are socially unbiased and positive in nature. If a question does not make any sense or is not factually coherent, explain why instead of answering something not correct. If you don't know the answer to a question, please don't share false information. <</SYS>> What is Sayyid and explain in detail? [/INST] Sayyid (UK: , US: ; Arabic: سيد [ˈsæjjɪd]; Persian: [sejˈjed]; meaning sir, Lord, Master; Arabic plural: سادة sādah; feminine: سيدة sayyidah; Persian: [sejˈjede]) is an honorific title denoting people accepted as descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad through his grandsons, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali,: 31  sons of Muhammads daughter Fatima and his cousin and son-in-law Ali (Ali ibn Abi Talib).: 149 While in the early islamic period the title Al-Sayyid was applied on all the members of the of banu hashim, the tribe of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. But later on the title was made specific to those of Hasani and Hussaini descent, Primarily by the Fatimid Caliphs.
Female sayyids are given the titles sayyida, syeda, alawiyah or sharifa. In some regions of the Islamic world, such as in India, the descendants of Muhammad are given the title amīr or mīr, meaning "aristocrats", "commander", or "ruler". In Shia Islam the son of a non Sayyid father and a Sayyida mother claim the title Mirza, whereas in Sunni Islam a son of a non Sayyid father and a Sayyida mother can claim the title Sayyid or Sharif fulfilling special requirements.A few Arabic language experts state that it has its roots in the word al-asad الأسد, meaning "lion", probably because of the qualities of valour and leadership.: 158 : 265  The word is derived from the verb sāda, meaning to rule. The title seyyid/sayyid (pl. sâda as in sādat Quraysh or the chiefs of Quraysh tribe) does not mean descendant of the prophet, for it existed before Islam.Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic defines seyyid as master, chief, sovereign, or lord. It also denotes someone respected and of a status. Sayyid is also a common first name. Prominent figures are: Sayed Darwish, Sayyid Qutb, Sayed Mekawy.
Although reliable statistics are unavailable, conservative estimates put the number of Sayyids in the tens of millions.In the Arab world, sayyid is the equivalent of the English word "liege lord" or "master" when referring to a descendant of Muhammad, as in Sayyid Ali Sultan. The word sidi (from the contracted form sayyidī, "my liege") is often used in Arabic.Another term with a very similar meaning is Sharīf.

History
The Sayyids are by definition a branch of Banu Hashim, which traces its lineage to Adnan, and therefore directly descends from Ishmael (Ismaeyl), and collaterally descends from his paternal half-brother Isaac (Ishaaq), the sons of Abraham (Ibrahim).
Banū Hāshim (Arabic: بنو هاشم) is the clan of Muhammad, whose great-grandfather was Hashim ibn Abd Manaf, for whom the clan is named. Members of this clan are referred to as Hashemites. Descendants of Muhammad usually carry the titles Sayyid, Syed, Hashmi, Sayed or Sharif, or the Ashraf clan (synonymous to Ahl al-Bayt). Today, two sovereign monarchs – Abdullah II of Jordan and Muhammad VI of Morocco – and the former royal family of Libya are also considered to be a part of Banu Hashim.
The Hashemites (Arabic: الهاشميون, Al-Hāshimīyūn; also House of Hashim) are the ruling royal family of Jordan. The House was also the royal family of Syria (1920), Hejaz (1916–1925) and Iraq (1921–1958). The family belongs to the Dhawu Awn, one of the branches of the Hasanid Sharifs of Mecca – also known as Hashemites – who ruled Mecca continuously from the 10th century until its conquest by the House of Saud in 1924. Their eponymous ancestor is Hashim ibn Abd Manaf, great-grandfather of Muhammad.
Traditionally, Islam has had a rich history of the veneration of relics, especially of those attributed to Muhammad. The most genuine prophetic relics are believed to be those housed in the Hirkai Serif Odasi (Chamber of the Holy Mantle) in Istanbuls Topkapı Palace.

Indication of descent
In the early period, other than general usage, the Arabs also allowed the terms Sayyid and Sharif to descendants from both Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali. However, in the modern era, the term Sharif (Sharifah for females) has been used to denote descendants from Hasan, and the term Sayyid (Sayyidah, Syeda for females) has been used to denote descendants from Husayn.Shia Sayyid scholars wear black turbans, while non-Sayyid Shia scholars wear other colors (most commonly white). Sunni Sayyids often use the last name Shah or Hashmi. The descendants of Ali and his other wives are called Alevi sayyid; they are titled Shah, Sain, Miya Fakir or Dewan. Those Sayyids who are Shia often include the following titles in their names to indicate the figure from whom they trace their descent:

Note: (For non-Arabic speakers) When transliterating Arabic words into English there are two approaches.

1. The user may transliterate the word letter for letter (e.g., "الزيدي" becomes "a-l-z-ai-d-i").
2. The user may transcribe the pronunciation of the word (e.g., "الزيدي" becomes "a-zz-ai-d-i"); in Arabic grammar, some consonants (n, r, s, sh, t and z) cancel the l (ل) from the word "the" al (ال) (see sun and moon letters). When the user sees the prefixes an, ar, as, ash, at, az, etc... this means the word is the transcription of the pronunciation.
An i, wi (Arabic), or i, vi (Persian) ending could perhaps be translated by the English suffixes -ite or -ian. The suffix transforms a personal name or place name into the name of a group of people connected by lineage or place of birth. Hence Ahmad al-Hassani could be translated as Ahmad, the descendant of Hassan, and Ahmad al-Manami as Ahmad from the city of Manama. For further explanation, see Arabic names.1Also, El-Husseini, Al-Husseini, Husseini, and Hussaini.
2Those who use the term Sayyid for all descendants of Ali ibn Abi Talib regard Allawis or Alavis as Sayyids. However, Allawis are not descendants of Muhammad, as they are descended from the children of Ali and the women he married after the death of Fatima, such as Umm ul-Banin (Fatima bint Hizam). Those who limit the term Sayyid to descendants of Muhammad through Fatima, Allawis/Alavis are the same how Sayyids.
Some Sayyids are Najeeb Al Tarfayn, meaning "Noble on both sides", which indicates that both of their parents are Sayyid.

Existence of descendants of Hasan al-Askari
The existence of any descendant of Hasan al Askari is disputed by many people. Some genealogies of Middle Eastern and Central Asian families (mostly from Persia), East Africa (mostly in Somalia and Ethiopia), Khorasan, Samarqand, and Bukhara show that Hasan al-Askari had a second son called Sayyid Ali Akbar, which indicates that al-Askari had children and substantiates the existence of Muhammad al Mahdi. Whether in fact al-Askari did have children is still disputed, perhaps because of the political conflicts between the followers of the Imamah and the leadership of the Abbasids and Ghulat Shiites who do not believe in Hasan al-Askaris Imamah. Another group of historians studying the pedigrees of some Central Asian saints shejere (genealogy trees) believe that the Twelfth Imam was not the only son of Hasan al-Askari, and that the Eleventh Imam had two sons: Sayyid Muhammad (i.e., the Shia Mahdi) and Sayyid Ali Akbar.  According to the earliest reports as from official family tree documents and records , Imam Hasan al-Askari fathered seven children and was survived by six. The names of his biological children were: Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi, Musa, Ja’far, Ibrahim, Fatima, Ayesha, and ‘Ali, sometimes referred to as Akbar, Asghar or Abdullah.Sayyid ‘Ali Akbar bin Imam Hasan al-Askari is Sultan Saadat (Sodot) who died in Termez. His burial place is located in the main mausoleum Sultan Saodat memorial complex in Termez. According to other old genealogical sources Sayyid Ali was the second son of Sayyid Imam Muhammad al Askari who is considered the elder brother of imam Hasan al-AskariThese Central Asian notable sayyid families have historical genealogical manuscripts that are confirmed with seals by many Naqibs, Muftis, Imams, Kadi Kuzzats, A’lams, Khans, and Emirs of those times. One descendant of Sayyid Ali Akbar was Saint Ishan (Eshon) Imlo of Bukhara. Ishan Imlo is called "saint of the last time" in Bukhara, as it is believed that after him there were no more saints – Asian Muslims generally revere him as the last of the saints. According to the source, Ishan Imlo died in 1162 AH (1748–1749); his mausoleum (mazar) is in a cemetery in Bukhara. Notable descendants of Sayyid Ali Akbar are Sufi saints like Bahauddin Naqshband, descendant after eleven generations; Khwaja Khawand Mahmud known as Hazrat Ishaan, descendant after eighteen generations; the two brothers Sayyid ul Sadaat Sayyid Mir Jan and Sayyid ul Sadaat Mir Sayyid Mahmud Agha, maternal descendants of Hasan al Askari; qadi Qozi Sayyid Bahodirxon; and Sufi saints Tajuddin Muhammad Badruddin and Pir Baba.
In her book Pain and Grace: A Study of Two Mystical Writers of Eighteenth-Century Muslim India, Dr. Annemarie Schimmel writes:

Khwaja Mir Dards family, like many nobles, from Bukhara; led their pedigree back to Bahauddin Naqshband, after whom the Naqshbandi order is named, and who was a descendant, in the 11th generation of the 11th Shia imam al-Hasan al-Askari.
Although Shiite historians generally reject the claim that Hasan al-Askari fathered children other than Muhammad al-Mahdi, Bab Mawlid Abi Muhammad al-Hasan writes, in the Shiite hadith book Usul al-Kafi:

When the caliph got news of Hasan Askaris illness, he instructed his agents to keep a constant watch over the house of the Imam...he sent some of these midwives to examine the slave girls of the Imam to determine if they were pregnant. If a woman was found pregnant she was detained and imprisoned....

Africa
Most of the Muslim historians claimed that three of the descendants of Ali ibn Abu Talib migrated into Somalia and Ethiopia. The two Ashrafs migrated to Ethiopia and the remaining sayyid settled in Somalia.

Ethiopia
Most of the Muslim historians and geologists claimed that one of the Ashrafs called Hajji Ali migrated into southern part of Ethiopia. After he migrated there, he got a baby and named him Gen-Silte. His children then called by their fathers name "Silte". according to the Silte tribesmen, the father of Hajji Aliyye(Hajji Ali) was Hajji Omar bin Osman, who was an Arab. He used to live in Hijaz, now part of Saudi Arabia. He migrated to Harar first, then settled in the southern part of Omnan which is now a part of Silte.

Middle East
Men belonging to the Sayyid families or tribes in the Arab world used to wear white or ivory coloured daggers like jambiyas, khanjars or shibriyas to demarcate their nobility amongst other Arab men, although this custom has been restricted due to the local laws of the variously divided Arab countries.

Iraq
The Sayyid families in Iraq are so numerous that there are books written especially to list the families and connect their trees. Some of these families are: the Alyassiri, Al Aqeeqi, Al-Nasrullah, Al-Wahab, Al-Hashimi,Al-Barznji, Al-Quraishi, Al-Marashi, Al-Witry, Al-Obaidi, Al-Samarai, Al-Zaidi, Al-Aaraji, Al-Baka, Al-Hasani, Al-Hussaini, Al-Shahristani, Al-Qazwini Al-Qadri, Tabatabaei, Al- Alawi, Al-Ghawalib (Al-Ghalibi), Al-Musawi, Al-Awadi (not to be confused with the Al-Awadhi Huwala family), Al-Gharawi, Al-Sabzewari, Al-Shubber, Al-Hayali, Al-Kamaludeen and many others.

Iran
Sayyids (in Persian: سید Seyyed) are found in vast numbers in Iran. The Chief of "National Organization for Civil Registration" of Iran declared that more than 6 million of Iranians are Sayyid. The majority of Sayyids migrated to Iran from Arab lands predominantly in the 15th to 17th centuries during the Safavid era. The Safavids transformed the religious landscape of Iran by imposing Twelver Shiism on the populace. Since most of the population embraced Sunni Islam, and an educated version of Shiism was scarce in Iran at the time, Ismail imported a new group of Shia Ulama who predominantly were Sayyids from traditional Shiite centers of the Arabic-speaking lands, such as Jabal Amel (of southern Lebanon), Syria, Bahrain, and southern Iraq in order to create a state clergy. The Safavids offered them land and money in return for loyalty. These scholars taught Twelver Shiism, made it accessible to the population, and energetically encouraged conversion to Shiism.During the reign of Shah Abbas the Great, the Safavids also imported to Iran more Arab Shias, predominantly Sayyids, built religious institutions for them, including many Madrasas (religious schools), and successfully persuaded them to participate in the government, which they had shunned in the past (following the Hidden imam doctrine).Common Sayyid family surnames in Iran are Husseini, Mousavi, Kazemi, Razavi, Eshtehardian, Tabatabaei, Hashemi, Hassani, Jafari, Emami, Ahmadi, Zaidi, Imamzadeh, Sherazi, Kermani (kirmani), Shahidi, and Mahdavi.

Bahrain
In Bahrain Sayyids are used to refer to great grand childrens of the Prophet Muhammed.Sayyids are funded every where and in vast populations although number are contradicted.Sayyids started living in Bahrain since the beging of the 8th century.The Bahrainis spurted, Imam Ali in his wars in the Camel, Siffin and Nahrawan, and several Bahraini men emerged from the leaders of the Commander of the Faithful including the companion Zayd ibn Suhan al-Abdi who was killed in the Battle of the Camel when he was fighting alongside the Commander of Imam Ali. And the companion Sasaa bin SohanAl Abdi who was the ambassador of the Commander of the Faithful to Mu`awiyah, and he and Mu`awiyah have many stories that historians have transmitted to us. Historians have called them this title because they agreed on a Thursday that they would die for the sake of the Commander of the Faithful. The tomb of Zayd ibn Suhan is still visited in Bahrain and is called by Bahrainis as Prince Zaid, as well as the tomb of the great companion Sasaa bin Sohan Al Abdi who is buried in Bahrain.

Oman
In Oman, Sayyid is used by members of the Al Said ruling royal family. The absolute ruler of the country retains the title Sultan with members of the royal family eligible for succession to the throne given the title Sheikh, these may also use the title Sayyid should they wish to, although as Sheikh supersedes this, it is not a widely used practice. Members of the extended family or members by marriage carry the title Sayyid or Sayyida for a female. Such titles in Oman are hereditary through paternal lineage or in some exceptional circumstances, such as an honorary title given by royal decree. Members of the Al Said family use the term Sayyid solely as a title and not as a means of indicating descent, as the Al Said royal family does not descend from Banu Hashim or from Imam Ali and instead descends from the Qahtanite Zahran tribe.

Yemen
In Yemen the Sayyids are more generally known as sadah; they are also referred to as Hashemites. In terms of religious practice they are Shia, Sunni, and Sufi. Sayyid families in Yemen include the Rassids, the Qasimids, the Mutawakkilites, the Hamideddins, some Al-Zaidi of Marib, Sanaa, and Sadah, the Ba Alawi sada families in Hadhramaut, Mufadhal of Sanaa, Al-Shammam of Sadah, the Sufyan of Juban, and the Al-Jaylani of Juban.

Libya
The Sayyids in Libya are Sunni, including the former royal family, which is originally Zaidi-Moroccan (also known as the Senussi family). The El-Barassa Family are Ashraf as claimed by the sons of Abdulsalam ben Meshish, a descendant of Hassan bin Ali bin Abi Talib.

South Asia
Although people in South Asia claim Hashemite descent, genealogy family trees are studied to authenticate claims. In 1901 the total number of Sayyids in British India was counted as 1,339,734.

History of South Asian Sayyids
Sayyids migrated many centuries ago from different parts of the Middle East and Central Asia (Turkestan) during the invasion of the Mongols, Ghaznavid dynasty, Delhi Sultanate, and Mughal Empire, encompassing a timespan of roughly until the late 19th century. Sayyids migrated to Sindh, Uch, Bihar Sharif, Sheikhpura ,  and Attock Khurd (Punjab) and settled there very early. Other early migrant Sayyids moved deep into the south to the Deccan sultanates located in the Deccan Plateau region in the time of the Bahmani Sultanate, and later Golkonda, Nizam Shahi of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Bidar, and Berar. Several visited India as merchants or escaped from the Abbasid, Umayyad and Safavid. Their names appear in Indian history at the dissolution of the Mughal Empire, when the Sayyid brothers created and dethroned emperors at their will (1714–1720). The first Muslims appointed to the Council of India and the first appointed to the privy council were both Sayyids.

Afghanistan
In Afghanistan, Sayyids (Sadat) are recognized as an ethnic group.

On 13 March 2019, addressing the Sadat gathering at the presidential palace (Arg), President Ashraf Ghani said that he will issue a decree on the inclusion of Sadat ethnic group in new electronic national identity card (e-NIC).President Ashraf Ghani decreed mentioning Sadat tribe in the electronic national identity on 15 March 2019.Sayyids of the north are generally located in Balkh and Kunduz; while in the east they can be found in Nangarhar. While most are Sunni Muslims, some in the Bamiyan province are to Shia.

India
The total Sayyid population in India is 7,017,000, with the largest populations in Uttar Pradesh (1,493,000), Maharashtra (1,108,000), Karnataka (766,000), Andhra Pradesh (727,000), Rajasthan (497,000), Bihar (419,000), West Bengal (372,000), Madhya Pradesh (307,000), Gujarat (245,000), Tamil Nadu (206,000), and 25,000 in Jammu and Kashmir. Sayyids are also found in the north-eastern state of Assam, where they are locally also referred to as Dawans.In India, Sayyids of Hadramawt (who originated mainly from the Arabian Peninsula and the Persian Gulf) gained widespread fame. There is a big community of Sayyids settled in and around the Nanganallur region in Chennai that trace their ancestry directly to the Sayyids of Iraq.Traditional Sayyid families rarely marry outside their community, and emphasise marrying into Najeeb Altarfain (of Sayyid descent from both the mothers and fathers side) families. This insistence on endogamy has begun to decline among the more urbanized families, with an increase in exogamy with other groups such as the Shaikh and Mughals.Historically, the Sayyids of Uttar Pradesh were substantial landowners, often absentees, and this was especially the case with the Awadh taluqdars. In the urban townships, Sayyid families served as priests, teachers, and administrators with the British colonial authorities given the community a preference in recruitment. Though they account for less than 3% of Muslim population, they control a majority of economic resources. The community also has a very high literacy rate. The independence and partition of India in 1947 was traumatic for the community, with many families becoming divided and some moving to Pakistan. This was followed by the abolition of the zamindari system, where land was redistributed to those who till the land. Many Sayyids who remained on the land are now medium and small scale farmers, while in urban areas, there has been a shift towards modern occupations.The Sayyids of Punjab belong to the Hasani (descendants of Hasan), Husaini (descendants of Husayn), Zaidi (descendants of Zayd ibn Ali, grandson of Husayn), Rizvi, (descendants of Ali al-Ridha), and Naqvi and their sub-caste Bukhari (descendants of Ali al-Hadi).

North India
The earliest migration of Sayyids from Afghanistan to North India took place in 1032 when Gazi Saiyyed Salar Sahu (general and brother-in-law of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni) and his son Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud established their military headquarters at Satrikh (16 km (9.9 mi) from Zaidpur) in the Barabanki district of Uttar Pradesh. They are considered to be the first Muslim settlers in North India. In 1033 Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud was killed at the battle of Bahraich, the location of his mazr. Ghazi Saiyyad Salar Masud had no children. His parental uncle Syed Maroofuddin Ghazi and his family lived in Tijara until 1857 before they migrated to Bhopal. Syed Ahmed Rizvi Kashmiri and Khan Bahadur Aga Syed Hussain were both Rizvi Sayyids through Aaqa Meer Sayyid Hussain Qomi Rizvi, whose sacred shrine is in the Zainageer Village of Sopore, Kashmir. Iraqi Sayyids or Iraqi biradri in Eastern Uttar Pradesh are descendants of Sayyid Masud Al Hussaini who was the direct descendant of Muhammads grandson Hussain ibn Ali and came to India from Iraq during the reign of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1330 A.D. He settled with his seven sons and forty champions in Ghazipur (U.P.) as some of them (i.e., Syed Abu Bakr in Nonahra, Ghazipur) converted to Sunni Islam in the reign of Sultan Ibrahim Lodhi around 1517. His Shia descendants are now known as Sayyids of Ghazipur.Sayyids of Syed nagli, or Said Nagli, or the Baquari Syeds had migrated from Termez (Present day Uzbekistan) during the Sultanate era. Sikandar Lodi was the ruler of Delhi when Mir Syed Mohammad al Hussain al Hussaini al Termezi Haji al Haramain came to India and settled at Syed Nagli. He was a Baquari Syed who drew his lineage from Muhammad al Baqir.
Perhaps the most important figure in the history of the Sayyid in Uttar Pradesh was Sayyid Basrullah Shustari, who moved from Mashad in Iran in 1549 and joined the court of the Mughal Emperor Akbar. Akbar appointed Shustari as his chief justice, who used his position to strengthen the status of the various Sayyid families. They were preferred in administrative posts and formed a privileged elite. When the Mughal Empire disintegrated, the Sayyid played an important role in the turbulent politics of the time. The new British colonial authorities that replaced the Mughals after the Battle of Buxar made a pragmatic decision to work with the various Sayyid jagirdars. Several Sayyid taluqdars in Awadh were substantial landowners under the British colonial regime, and many other Sayyid contributed to state administration. After the abolition of the zamindari system, many Sayyid zamindars (e.g. that of Ghazipur) had to leave their homes.

Uttar Pradesh
The ancestor of the Bārha Sayyids, Sayyid Abul Farah Al Hussaini Al Wasti, left his original home in Wasit, Iraq, with his twelve sons at the end of the 13th century and migrated to India, where he obtained four villages in Sirhind-Fategarh. By the 16th century Abul Farahs descendants had taken over Bārha villages in Muzaffarnagar.The Sayyeds of Abdullapur Meerut are descendants of great saint Jalaluddin Surkh-Posh Bukhari. They had a large Jagirdara consisting of 52 villages.Abdullapur named after Syed Mir Abdulla Naqvi Al Bukhari, he built Kot Fort of this place in the 16th century, it was his main residence. Bukhari of Abdullapur are fractionate into Kannauji Bukhari and Jalal Bukhari. Kannaujis are descendants of Jalaludin Haider through Syed Mehboob Alam Naqvi-ul Bukhari Al-Maroof Shah Jewna or Shah Jewna son of warrior and chief advisor of Sikandar Lodi. Famous writer Syed Qudrat Naqvi Al Bukhari was born here later migrated to Pakistan after partition, his famous books are Ghalib kaun hai, Asaas-i-Urdu, Ghalib-i-sad rang, Seerat-un-Nabi, Hindi-Urdu lughat, Mutala-i-Abdul Haq, Lisani maqalaat.The Sayyids of Bilgram are Hussaini Sayyids, who first migrated from Wasit, Iraq, in the 13th century. Their ancestor, Syed Mohammad Sughra, a Zaidi Sayyid of Iraq, arrived in India during the rule of Sultan Iltutmish. In 1217–18 the family conquered and settled in Bilgram.A notable Sufi that belonged to a Sayyid family was Syed Salar Masud, from whom many of the Sayyid families of Awadh claim their lineage. Sayyids of Salon (Raebareli), Jarwal (Bahraich), Kintoor (Barabanki), and Zaidpur (Barabanki) were well-known Taluqadars (feudal lords) of Awadh province.
Sadaat also found in Kannauj trace their lineage from Husayn through Ali al-Hadi, a branch of Naqvi Bukhari. Famous Pir Syed Mehboob Alam Naqvi-ul Bukhari Al-Maroof Shah Jewna son of great warrior Syed Sadaruddin Shah Kabeer Naqvi (saint and also chief advisor) of Sikandar Lodi was also born in Kannauj and spent 66yrs of his life in kannauj later moved to Shah Jeewna. Makhdoom Jahaniya Mosque is still present in Shikana,Kannauj. Nawab Siddiq Hasan Khan was also from Kannauj, he is a Bukhari Naqvi Sayyed converted from Shia Islam to Sunni Islam in the early 1800s.

Bihar
There are different families of syeds in Bihar who belong to direct descendent of Imam Hasan and Imam Hussain. Mostly there are Hussaini (Rizvi, Zaidi, Baqri) along with Hasani (Malik , Quadri or Geelani). Sadaat are settle in different part of bihar including shia and sunni sects. They are mostly migrated to bihar from Iraq and Iran.
Sufi Saint Sharafuddin Maneri belongs to Banu hashim family of Imam Taj Faqih Rh. In Bihar, Sayyids were landlords, judges, barristers, intellectuals, civil servant, clerics, teachers, businessmen and farmers. Sufi Saint and a worrior Malik Ibrahim Bayu who conquered Bihar during the time of tughlaq is one the most famous personality in bihar.  Bihars first prime minister Mohammad Yunus Nobel prize nominee and Padma shri winner Syed Hassan (educationist), Political Scientist  Abu Bakr Ahmad Haleem was the Pro-Vice Chancellor of Aligarh University and Karachi University , The great Abdul Bari (professor),Zaid Hamid Syed Zaid Zaman Hamid is a Pakistani far-right, Islamist political commentator and was included in 500 most influential muslims in world and Brigadier Malik Mokhtar Karim  are few names from Malik Sadaat of bihar.
Zaidi Sadaat of Bihar are the descendants of Sufi saint Syed Ahmad Jajneri and Syed Mohammed Jajneri. Syed Ahmad Jajneri migrated to India from Baghdad during the reign of Muhammad of Ghor and later migrated to Bihar. He was the direct descendant of Zayd ibn Ali who was the grandson of Husayn ibn Ali and therefore his descendants are called Husseini(Zaidi)Sadaat. His descendants are mostly settled in Bihar Sharif, Munger, Sheikhpura and Jamui region of Bihar.
Most prominent personalities of Sadaat of Bihar were from Desna, Bihar. For Example Syed Mohammed Saeed Raza, Abdul Qavi Desnavi and Sulaiman Nadvi. Desnas library, established in 1892, had thousands of old Persian and Urdu manuscripts. After the partition of India, during uncertain times of mass emigration to Pakistan, the books were donated to Khuda Bakhsh Khan Library in Patna, where a Desna section was established to house these treasures. Other famous personalities of Bihari Syed were Syed Sultan Ahmed, Syed Hasan Imam and Sir Imam Ali .

Gujarat
In Gujarat, most of the Sayyid families are descended from individuals invited by the Muslim rulers of Gujarat to serve as advisers and administrators, and were granted jagirs. During the period of Sultan Mahmud Begada (1458–1511), the sultan provided land to three Sayyid brothers and a grant to settle there after the victory of Pavagadh Fort. In 1484 the sultan conquered the fort on 21 November 1484 and transferred his capital to Champaner, which he completely rebuilt at the foothills of the Pavagadh Fort and named it Muhammadabad. During Mughal rule in Gujarat (1570–1750), the Sayyid held the majority of the civil and ecclesiastical posts. For example, the Sayyids of Thasra, Kheda district, were invited to serve as administrators and judges by the Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb, and were provided land grants to settle there. They also comprised a significant portion of the Mughal army, and many are still found in old Muslim garrison towns like Ahmedabad. Many of the early Sufi saints that came to Gujarat belonged to Sayyid families, most of which came from Central Asia, Iran, Yemen, Oman, Basra, and Bahrain.

South India
Kerala
Thangals, a social group in among the Muslims of Kerala (most whom follow the Shafii madhab), are roughly equivalent to the Sayyids. The thangal families are numerous in Kerala. Most members of the community practices endogamy and some are considered as saints. Thangal families have many gradations of status on social and economic scale. Influential of the thangals generally come from prominent business families. They usually exercise their influence through commerce and politics.

Tamil Nadu
There are a notable number of Sayyids in Tamil Nadu that mostly concentrate in the cities like Erwadi, Nagore, Madurai, and Kayalpattinam. Badusha Sulthan Syed Ibrahim Shaheed of Ervadi, a Hussaini descendant of Mohammed and a ruler of Madinah, travelled to South India in the middle of the 12th century. His descendants who live in Ervadi with the clan name Levvai are from a single forefather and are Sayyids. The heirs of Shahul Hamid Abdul Qadir badusha of Nagore who live there and are called with clan name of Sahib or Saab or Saabu are Sayyids. Kazi Syed Tajuddin the son of Mufti Jamaluddin al Maabari who founded the Kazimar Big Mosque in the 13th century the first mosque in Madurai is a Hussaini descendant of Mohammed and hence belong to Syed family. Until recently, his descendants (Syeds-Qazis-Huqdars) lived in the same Kazimar Street locality in the center of Madurai city for over seven centuries and managed the Kazimar Big Mosque constructed by their forefather. Syed Tajuddins younger son Kazi Alauddin lived in Kayalpattinam and his shrine is found there.

Genetic studies of Sayyids of the Indian sub-continent
The authors of the study, the Y chromosomes of self-identified Syeds from the Indian sub-continent are no less diverse than those non-Syeds from the same regions, suggested that Syed status, rather than being strictly patrilineal, may have been passed through other routes.The paper, "Y chromosomes of self-identified Syeds from the Indian subcontinent", by Elise M. S. Belle, Saima Shah, Tudor Parfitt, and Mark G. Thomas showed that "self-identified Syeds had no less genetic diversity than those non-Syeds from the same regions, suggesting that there is no biological basis to the belief that self-identified Syeds in this part of the world share a recent common ancestry. However, self-identified men belonging to the ‘Islamic honorific lineages’ (Syeds, Hashemites, Quraysh and Ansari) show a greater genetic affinity to Arab populations—despite the geographic distance – than do their neighbouring populations from South Asia.In Northern India, 29 per cent of the Shia Muslim belong to haplogroup J. There are 18 per cent belonging mainly to haplogroup J2 and another 11 per cent belong to haplogroup J1, which both represent Middle Eastern lineages. J1 is exclusively Near Eastern.

Southeast Asia
Most of the Alawi Sayyids who moved to Southeast Asia were descendants of Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin, especially of Ba Alawi sada, many of which were descendants of migrants from Hadhramaut. Even though they are alleged descendants of Husayn, it is uncommon for the female Sayyids to be called Sayyidah; they are more commonly called Sharifah. Most of them live in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Moro Province in Philippines, Pattani and Cambodia. Many of the royal families of this region such as the previous royal families of the Philippines (Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of Maguindanao, Confederation of Sultanates of Ranao), Singapore (Sultanate of Singapore), Malaysia (Sultanates of Johor and Perlis), Indonesia (Sultanates of Siak, Pontianak, Gowa, some Javanese Sultanates), and the existing royal family of Brunei (House of Bolkiah) are also Sayyids, especially of BaAlawi.Some common surnames of these Sayyids are al-Saqqaf, Shihab (or Shahab), al-Aidaroos, al-Habsyi (or al-Habshi), al-Kaff, al-Aththos, al-Haddad, al-Jufri (or al-Jifri), al-Muhdhar, al-Shaikh Abubakar, al-Qadri, al-Munawwar.

Genetic Y-DNA research
According to Islamic prophetic tradition, Muhammad was descended from Abraham through Ismail. Some researchers have suggested using Y chromosome genetic data from Sayyid groups and from Jewish and Samaritan sources to reconstruct genetic information about the historical Abraham.

Tesayyud
In the Ottoman Empire, tax breaks for "the People of the House" encouraged many people to buy certificates of descent or forge genealogies; the phenomenon of teseyyüd – falsely claiming noble ancestry – spread across ethnic, class, and religious boundaries. In the 17th century, an Ottoman bureaucrat estimated that there were 300,000 impostors. In 18th-century Anatolia, nearly all upper-class urban people claimed descent from Muhammad.

Prince Sayyid
Descendants of Hazrat Ishaan, who are known as Imams of Naqshbandi Sunni Islam and supreme leaders of the Naqshbandi Sufi Order are widely known to bear the title "Sardar Sayyid" or "Amir Sayyid", which means "Prince Sayyid" in English. The royal or princely attribute comes in on the occasion of their relationship to the Mughal Imperial (Amir) and Afghan Royal family (Sardar). The Imam of Naqshbandi Sunni Islam, who is known for bearing this title is customarily addressed as "His Serene Highness Prince Sayyid" Raphael Dakik, who is a member of the Afghan Royal Family and paternal and maternal descendant of Hazrat Ishaan from the family of Sayyid Mir Jan in the 12th generation.

Maternal descendance
According to Irans religious leader and the Deobandi creed—a creed especially followed by patriarchal Pashtun tribes—the status of being a Sayyid can only be attributed through patrilineal lineage. According to Shia opinions, children of a Sayyida mother and a non-Sayyid father are referred to as Mirza. The Persian notation "Mirza", which is a derivation of the word "Mirzada" (i.e., Son of a "Mir") has various meanings: one is a Sayyid leader of a Sayyid branch or community, simultaneously being a religious Islamic scholar. Thus, a Sayyid of patrilineal lineage, being the son of a Mir, can also be called "Mirza". This example substantiates the fact that there are different opinions concerning the transmission of the title Sayyid. Another historical opinion of Ottoman Naqib al Ashrafs expresses that children of maternal prophetical descent are called Sharif.: 131 However, in 1632 when an Ottoman court challenged a man wearing a Sayyids green turban, he established that he was a Sayyid on his mothers side, which was accepted by the court.: 130 In patriarchal societies, women usually have to assimilate themselves into their husbands status. However, this does not affect female descendants of Muhammad as it is seen as a sacred blood relation. Thus, the heraldic title can be given to an individual through his or hers mothers line in accordance to Ottoman Naqib al-Ashrafs. Even the Zaynabids, the descendants of Lady Zainab, the daughter of Ali ibn Abi Talib can also be titled Sayyid or Sharif, according to the Egyptian Al-Suyuti. In Tajikistan matrilineal descendants are honoured.It is to be added that the supervision over the family of Bahauddin Naqshband and his descendants has been passed on through the maternal line. Hazrat Ishaan was a maternal descendant of Bahauddin Naqshband and his successor Sayyid Mir Jan was in turn again a descendant of Hazrat Ishaan from his mothers side.This indicates the possibility of even being a Mir or Naqib ul Ashraf from the mothers side.The requisites of it are the following:

Being able to trace his lineage back to Prophet Muhammad as ancestor
Being a Pious Muslim
Receiving the blessings of previous Naqib ul Ashraf, Mir or Sayyid ul Sadaat
Total affiliation as an Alid, meaning a son of Ali Ibn Abi Talib, hence neglecting any other affiliations
Being learned in Quran and Sunnah
Being a knowledgeable practicing Sufi
Noble and well-mannered character
For a Mir especially, being qualified as a leaderThe above remuneration is in accordance with a Hadith of Prophet Muhammad in which he declares that a hypocrite is not to be addressed as a "Sayyid". Hence it is even problematic in a judicial point of view to call a patrilineal descendant of Ali Ibn Abi Talib a Sayyid, when he does not meet the above-mentioned criteria.

See also
Family tree of Muhammad
Kohen, a similar status in Judaism
Sharīf, another term with a very similar meaning

Notes
References
Sources
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sayad" </s>


<s> [INST] <<SYS>> You are a helpful, respectful, and honest assistant. Always answer as helpfully as possible, while being safe. Your answers should not include any harmful, unethical, racist, sexist, toxic, dangerous, or illegal content. Please ensure that your responses are socially unbiased and positive in nature. If a question does not make any sense or is not factually coherent, explain why instead of answering something not correct. If you don't know the answer to a question, please don't share false information. <</SYS>> What is Amikacin and explain in detail? [/INST] Amikacin is an antibiotic medication used for a number of bacterial infections. This includes joint infections, intra-abdominal infections, meningitis, pneumonia, sepsis, and urinary tract infections. It is also used for the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. It is used by injection into a vein using an IV or into a muscle.Amikacin, like other aminoglycoside antibiotics, can cause hearing loss, balance problems, and kidney problems. Other side effects include paralysis, resulting in the inability to breathe. If used during pregnancy it may cause permanent deafness in the baby. Amikacin works by blocking the function of the bacterias 30S ribosomal subunit, making it unable to produce proteins.Amikacin was patented in 1971, and came into commercial use in 1976. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines. It is derived from kanamycin.

Medical uses
Amikacin is most often used for treating severe infections with multidrug-resistant, aerobic Gram-negative bacteria, especially Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, E. coli, Proteus, Klebsiella, and Serratia. The only Gram-positive bacteria that amikacin strongly affects are Staphylococcus and Nocardia. Amikacin can also be used to treat non-tubercular mycobacterial infections and tuberculosis (if caused by sensitive strains) when first-line drugs fail to control the infection. It is rarely used alone.It is often used in the following situations:
Bronchiectasis
Bone and joint infections
Granulocytopenia, when combined with ticarcillin, in people with cancer
Intra-abdominal infections (such as peritonitis) as an adjunct to other medicines, like clindamycin, metronidazole, piperacillin/tazobactam, or ampicillin/sulbactam
Meningitis:
for meningitis by E. coli, as an adjunct to imipenem
for meningitis caused by Pseudomonas, as an adjunct to meropenem
for meningitis caused by Acetobacter, as an adjunct to imipenem or colistin
for neonatal meningitis caused by Streptococcus agalactiae or Listeria monocytogenes, as an adjunct to ampicillin
for neonatal meningitis caused by Gram negative bacteria such as E. coli, as adjunct to a 3rd-generation cephalosporin
Mycobacterial infections, including as a second-line agent for active tuberculosis. It is also used for infections by Mycobacterium avium, M. abcessus, M. chelonae, and M. fortuitum.
Rhodococcus equi, which causes an infection resembling tuberculosis
Respiratory tract infections, including as an adjunct to beta-lactams or carbapenem for hospital-acquired pneumonia
Sepsis, including that in neonates, as an adjunct to beta-lactams or carbapenem
Skin and suture-site infections
Urinary tract infections that are caused by bacteria resistant to less toxic drugs (often by Enterobacteriaceae or P. aeruginosa)Amikacin may be combined with a beta-lactam antibiotic for empiric therapy for people with neutropenia and fever.

Available forms
Amikacin may be administered once or twice a day and is usually given by the intravenous or intramuscular route, though it can be given via nebulization. There is no oral form available, as amikacin is not absorbed orally. In people with kidney failure, dosage must be adjusted according to the creatinine clearance, usually by reducing the dosing frequency. In people with a CNS infection such as meningitis, amikacin can be given intrathecally (by direct injection into the spine) or intraventricularly (by injection into the ventricles of brain).An liposome inhalation suspension is also available and approved to treat Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) in the United States. The application for Arikayce was withdrawn in the European Union because the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) was of the opinion that the benefits of Arikayce did not outweigh its risks.

Special populations
Amikacin should be used in smaller doses in the elderly, who often have age-related decreases in kidney function, and children, whose kidneys are not fully developed yet. It is considered pregnancy category D in both the United States and Australia, meaning they have a probability of harming the fetus. Around 16% of amikacin crosses the placenta; while the half-life of amikacin in the mother is 2 hours, it is 3.7 hours in the fetus. A pregnant woman taking amikacin with another aminoglycoside has a possibility of causing congenital deafness in her child. While it is known to cross the placenta, amikacin is only partially secreted in breast milk.In general, amikacin should be avoided in infants. Infants also tend to have a larger volume of distribution due to their higher concentration of extracellular fluid, where aminoglycosides reside.The elderly tend to have amikacin stay longer in their system; while the average clearance of amikacin in a 20-year-old is 6 L/hr, it is 3 L/hr in an 80-year-old.Clearance is even higher in people with cystic fibrosis.In people with muscular disorders such as myasthenia gravis or Parkinsons disease, amikacins paralytic effect on neuromuscular junctions can worsen muscle weakness.

Adverse effects
Side-effects of amikacin are similar to those of other aminoglycosides. Kidney damage and ototoxicity (which can lead to hearing loss) are the most important effects, occurring in 1–10% of users. The nephro- and ototoxicity are thought to be due to aminoglycosides tendency to accumulate in the kidneys and inner ear.

Amikacin can cause neurotoxicity if used at a higher dose or for longer than recommended. The resulting effects of neurotoxicity include vertigo, numbness, tingling of the skin (paresthesia), muscle twitching, and seizures. Its toxic effect on the 8th cranial nerve causes ototoxicity, resulting in loss of balance and, more commonly, hearing loss. Damage to the cochlea, caused by the forced apoptosis of the hair cells, leads to the loss of high-frequency hearing and happens before any clinical hearing loss can be detected. Damage to the ear vestibules, most likely by creating excessive oxidative free radicals. It does so in a time-dependent rather than dose-dependent manner, meaning that risk can be minimized by reducing the duration of use.Amikacin causes nephrotoxicity (damage to the kidneys), by acting on the proximal renal tubules. It easily ionizes to a cation and binds to the anionic sites of the epithelial cells of the proximal tubule as part of receptor-mediated pinocytosis. The concentration of amikacin in the renal cortex becomes ten times that of amikacin in the plasma; it then most likely interferes with the metabolism of phospholipids in the lysosomes, which causes lytic enzymes to leak into the cytoplasm. Nephrotoxicity results in increased serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, red blood cells, and white blood cells, as well as albuminuria (increased output of albumin in the urine), glycosuria (excretion of glucose into the urine), decreased urine specific gravity, and oliguria (decrease in overall urine output). It can also cause urinary casts to appear. The changes in renal tubular function also change the electrolyte levels and acid-base balance in the body, which can lead to hypokalemia and acidosis or alkalosis. Nephrotoxicity is more common in those with pre-existing hypokalemia, hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia, acidosis, low glomerular filtration rate, diabetes mellitus, dehydration, fever, and sepsis, as well as those taking antiprostaglandins. The toxicity usually reverts once the antibiotic course has been completed, and can be avoided altogether by less frequent dosing (such as once every 24 hours rather than once every 8 hours).Amikacin can cause neuromuscular blockade (including acute muscular paralysis) and respiratory paralysis (including apnea).Rare side effects (occurring in fewer than 1% of users) include allergic reactions, skin rash, fever, headaches, tremor, nausea and vomiting, eosinophilia, arthralgia, anemia, hypotension, and hypomagnesemia. In intravitreous injections (where amikacin is injected into the eye), macular infarction can cause permanent vision loss.The amikacin liposome inhalation suspension prescribing information includes a boxed warning regarding the increased risk of respiratory conditions including hypersensitivity pneumonitis (inflamed lungs), bronchospasm (tightening of the airway), exacerbation of underlying lung disease and hemoptysis (spitting up blood) that have led to hospitalizations in some cases. Other common side effects in patients taking amikacin liposome inhalation suspension are dysphonia (difficulty speaking), cough, ototoxicity (damaged hearing), upper airway irritation, musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, diarrhea and nausea.

Contraindications
Amikacin should be avoided in those who are sensitive to any aminoglycoside, as they are cross-allergenic (that is, an allergy to one aminoglycoside also confers hypersensitivity to other aminoglycosides). It should also be avoided in those sensitive to sulfite (seen more among people with asthma), since most amikacin usually comes with sodium metabisulfite, which can cause an allergic reaction.In general, amikacin should not be used with or just before/after another drug that can cause neurotoxicity, ototoxicity, or nephrotoxicity. Such drugs include other aminoglycosides; the antiviral acyclovir; the antifungal amphotericin B; the antibiotics bacitracin, capreomycin, colistin, polymyxin B, and vancomycin; and cisplatin, which is used in chemotherapy.Amikacin should not be used with neuromuscular blocking agents, as they can increase muscle weakness and paralysis.

Interactions
Amikacin can be inactivated by other beta-lactams, though not to the extent as other aminoglycosides, and is still often used with penicillins (a type of beta-lactam) to create an additive effect against certain bacteria, and carbapenems, which can have a synergistic against some Gram-positive bacteria. Another group of beta-lactams, the cephalosporins, can increase the nephrotoxicity of aminoglycoside as well as randomly elevating creatinine levels. The antibiotics chloramphenicol, clindamycin, and tetracycline have been known to inactivate aminoglycosides in general by pharmacological antagonism.The effect of amikacin is increased when used with drugs derived from the botulinum toxin, anesthetics, neuromuscular blocking agents, or large doses of blood that contains citrate as an anticoagulant.Potent diuretics not only cause ototoxicity themselves, but they can also increase the concentration of amikacin in the serum and tissue, making the ototoxicity even more likely. Quinidine also increases levels of amikacin in the body. The NSAID indomethacin can increase serum aminoglycoside levels in premature infants. Contrast mediums such as ioversol increases the nephrotoxicity and otoxicity caused by amikacin.Amikacin can decrease the effect certain vaccines, such as the live BCG vaccine (used for tuberculosis), the cholera vaccine, and the live typhoid vaccine by acting as a pharmacological antagonist.

Pharmacology
Mechanism of action
Amikacin irreversibly binds to 16S rRNA and the RNA-binding S12 protein of the 30S subunit of prokaryotic ribosome and inhibits protein synthesis by changing the ribosomes shape so that it cannot read the mRNA codons correctly. It also interferes with the region that interacts with the wobble base of the tRNA anticodon. It works in a concentration-dependent manner, and has better action in an alkaline environment.At normal doses, amikacin-sensitive bacteria respond within 24–48 hours.

Resistance
Amikacin evades attacks by all antibiotic-inactivating enzymes that are responsible for antibiotic resistance in bacteria, except for aminoacetyltransferase and nucleotidyltransferase. This is accomplished by the L-hydroxyaminobuteroyl amide (L-HABA) moiety attached to N-1 (compare to kanamycin, which simply has a hydrogen), which blocks the access and decreases the affinity of aminoglycoside-inactivating enzymes. Amikacin ends up with only one site where these enzymes can attack, while gentamicin and tobramycin have six.Bacteria that are resistant to streptomycin and capreomycin are still susceptible to amikacin; bacteria that are resistant to kanamycin have varying susceptibility to amikacin. Resistance to amikacin also confers resistance to kanamycin and capreomycin.Resistance to amikacin and kanamycin in Mycobacterium, the causative agent of tuberculosis, is due to a mutation in the rrs gene, which codes for the 16S rRNA. Mutations such as these reduce the binding affinity of amikacin to the bacterias ribosome. Variations of aminoglycoside acetyltransferase (AAC) and aminoglycoside adenylyltransferase (AAD) also confer resistance: resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa is caused by AAC(6)-IV, which also confers resistance to kanamycin, gentamicin, and tobramycin, and resistance in Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis is caused by AAD(4,4), which also confers resistance to kanamycin, tobramycin, and apramycin. Some strains of S. aureus can also inactivate amikacin by phosphorylating it.

Pharmacokinetics
Amikacin is not absorbed orally and thus must be administered parenterally. It reaches peak serum concentrations in 0.5–2 hours when administered intramuscularly. Less than 11% of the amikacin actually binds to plasma proteins. It is distributed into the heart, gallbladder, lungs, and bones, as well as in bile, sputum, interstitial fluid, pleural fluid, and synovial fluids. It is usually found at low concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid, except when administered intraventricularly. In infants, amikacin is normally found at 10–20% of plasma levels in the spinal fluid, but the amount reaches 50% in cases of meningitis. It does not easily cross the blood-brain barrier or enter ocular tissue.While the half-life of amikacin is normally two hours, it is 50 hours in those with end-stage renal disease.The vast majority (95%) of amikacin from an IM or IV dose is secreted unchanged via glomerular filtration and into the urine within 24 hours. Factors that cause amikacin to be excreted via urine include its relatively low molecular weight, high water solubility, and unmetabolized state.

Chemistry
Amikacin is derived from kanamycin A:

Veterinary use
While amikacin is only FDA-approved for use in dogs and for intrauterine infection in horses, it is one of the most common aminoglycosides used in veterinary medicine, and has been used in dogs, cats, guinea pigs, chinchillas, hamsters, rats, mice, prairie dogs, cattle, birds, snakes, turtles and tortoises, crocodilians, bullfrogs, and fish. It is often used for respiratory infections in snakes, bacterial shell disease in turtles, and sinusitis in macaws. It is generally contraindicated in rabbits and hares (though it has still been used) because it harms the balance of intestinal microflora.In dogs and cats, amikacin is commonly used as a topical antibiotic for ear infections and for corneal ulcers, especially those that are caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The ears are often cleaned before administering the medication, since pus and cellular debris lessen the activity of amikacin. Amikacin is administered to the eye when prepared as an ophthalmic ointment or solution, or when injected subconjunctivally. Amikacin in the eye can be accompanied by cephazolin. Despite its use there amikacin (and all aminoglycosides) are toxic to intraocular structures.In horses, amikacin is FDA-approved for uterine infections (such as endometriosis and pyometra) when caused by susceptible bacteria. It is also used in topical medication for the eyes and arthroscopic lavage; when combined with a cephalosporin, is used to treat subcutaneous infections that are caused by Staphylococcus. For infections in the limbs or joints, it is often administered with a cephalosporin via limb perfusion directly into the limb or injected into the joint. Amikacin is also injected into the joints with the anti-arthritic medication Adequan in order to prevent infection.Side effects in animals include nephrotoxicity, ototoxicity, and allergic reactions at IM injection sites. Cats tend to be more sensitive to the vestibular damage caused by ototoxicity. Less frequent side effects include neuromuscular blockade, facial edema, and peripheral neuropathy.The half-life in most animals is one to two hours.Treating overdoses of amikacin requires kidney dialysis or peritoneal dialysis, which reduce serum concentrations of amikacin, and/or penicillins, some of which can form complexes with amikacin that deactivate it.

Liposome inhalation suspension
Amikacin liposome inhalation suspension was the first drug approved under the US limited population pathway for antibacterial and antifungal drugs (LPAD pathway). It also was approved under the accelerated approval pathway. The U.S </s>


<s> [INST] <<SYS>> You are a helpful, respectful, and honest assistant. Always answer as helpfully as possible, while being safe. Your answers should not include any harmful, unethical, racist, sexist, toxic, dangerous, or illegal content. Please ensure that your responses are socially unbiased and positive in nature. If a question does not make any sense or is not factually coherent, explain why instead of answering something not correct. If you don't know the answer to a question, please don't share false information. <</SYS>> What is Ondansetron and explain in detail? [/INST] Ondansetron, sold under the brand name Zofran among others, is a medication used to prevent nausea and vomiting caused by cancer chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or surgery. It is also effective for treating gastroenteritis. It can be given by mouth or by injection into a muscle or into a vein.Common side effects include diarrhea, constipation, headache, sleepiness, and itchiness. Serious side effects include QT prolongation and severe allergic reaction. It appears to be safe during pregnancy but has not been well studied in this group. It is a serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist. It does not have any effect on dopamine receptors or muscarinic receptors.Ondansetron was patented in 1984 and approved for medical use in 1990. It is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. In 2019, it was the 60th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 11 million prescriptions.

Medical uses
Although an effective antiemetic agent, the high cost of brand-name ondansetron initially limited its use to controlling postoperative nausea and vomiting and chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting.

Cancer treatment
The 5-HT3 receptor antagonists are the primary medications used to treat and prevent chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting and radiotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting.

Postoperative
A number of medications including ondansetron appear to be effective in controlling postoperative nausea and vomiting. It is more effective than metoclopramide, and less sedating than cyclizine or droperidol.

Pregnancy
Ondansetron is used off-label to treat morning sickness and hyperemesis gravidarum of pregnancy. It is typically used after other antinausea drugs have failed.There appears to be a low risk of harm to the baby with use during pregnancy, though there may be an increase in heart problems among the babies.Ondansetron is in pregnancy category B in the US. It is not known if ondansetron is excreted in breast milk.

Cyclic vomiting syndrome
Ondansetron is one of several antiemetic drugs used during the vomiting phase of cyclic vomiting syndrome.

Gastroenteritis
Trials in emergency department settings support the use of ondansetron to reduce vomiting associated with gastroenteritis and dehydration. A retrospective review found it was used commonly for this purpose, being administered in over 58% of cases. Its use reduced hospital admissions, but was also associated with higher rates of return visits to the emergency department. Furthermore, people who had initially received ondansetron were more likely to be admitted on the return visit than people who had not received the drug. However, this effect may simply be due to the agent being used more frequently in people who present with more severe illness. Its use was not found to mask serious diagnoses.

Special populations
Children
Ondansetron has rarely been studied in people under 4 years of age. As such, little data is available to guide dosage recommendations.

Elderly
It is not necessary to adjust the dosage for people under 75 years of age. The use of ondansetron has not been studied in people older than 75 years of age, and it is not known if dosage should be adjusted for this group.

Poor liver function
The maximum recommended dose for people with severe liver function impairment is 8 mg/day. In these people, ondansetron is cleared from the body at half to one-third the rate as in healthy people. The concentration of ondansetron in body tissues as opposed to plasma is also higher than in healthy people.

Adverse effects
Headache is the most common adverse effect. A review of use for post-operative nausea and vomiting found that for every 36 people treated, one would experience headache, which could be severe.Constipation, diarrhea, and dizziness are other commonly reported side effects. It is broken down by the hepatic cytochrome P450 system and it has little effect on the metabolism of other drugs broken down by this system.  Anecdotally, ototoxicity has also been reported if injected too quickly.

QT prolongation
Use of ondansetron has been associated with prolongation of the QT interval, which can lead to a potentially fatal heart rhythm known as torsades de pointes. Although this may happen in any person with any formulation, the risk is most salient with the injectable (intravenous) form of the drug and increases with dose. The risk is also higher in people taking other medicines that prolong the QT interval, as well as in people with congenital long QT syndrome, congestive heart failure, and/or bradyarrhythmias. As such, single doses of injectable ondansetron should not exceed 16 mg at one time. (Oral dosing recommendations remain intact, including the recommendation of a single 24-mg oral dose when indicated.) Electrolyte imbalances should be corrected before the use of injectable ondansetron. People are cautioned to seek immediate medical care if symptoms such as irregular heartbeat/palpitations, shortness of breath, dizziness, or fainting occur while taking ondansetron.

Overdose
No specific treatment is available for ondansetron overdose; people are managed with supportive measures. An antidote to ondansetron is not known.

Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
Ondansetron is a highly selective serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist, with low affinity for dopamine receptors. The 5-HT3 receptors are present both peripherally on vagal nerve terminals and centrally in the chemoreceptor trigger zone of the area postrema in the medulla. Serotonin is released by the enterochromaffin cells of the small intestine in response to chemotherapeutic agents and may stimulate vagal afferents (via 5-HT3 receptors) to initiate the vomiting reflex. It is thought that ondansetrons antiemetic action is mediated mostly via antagonism of vagal afferents with a minor contribution from antagonism of central receptors.

Pharmacokinetics
Ondansetron may have a degree of peripheral selectivity due to binding to P-glycoprotein and efflux out of the brain at the blood–brain barrier.

History
Ondansetron (marketed under the brand name Zofran) was developed in the mid-1980s by GlaxoSmithKline in London. It was granted US patent protection in September 1987, received a use patent June 1988, and was approved by the US FDA in January 1991. It was granted another divisional patent in November 1996. Finally, owing to GlaxoSmithKlines research on pediatric use, ondansetrons patent protection was extended until December 2006. By this final year of its patent (2006), Zofran had become the 20th highest-selling brand-name drug in the United States, with sales of US$1.3 billion in the first 9 months of 2006 (80% from the US). The first generic versions were approved by the US FDA in December 2006, with marketing approval granted to Teva Pharmaceuticals USA and SICOR Pharmaceuticals. In 2018, University of São Paulo and Biolab were granted a patent for an orodispersible form of the drug.

Society and culture
Publication bias
In 1997, ondansetron was the subject of a meta-analysis case study published in the British Medical Journal. Researchers examined 84 trials, with 11,980 people receiving ondansetron, published between 1991 and September 1996. Intravenous ondansetron 4 mg versus placebo was investigated in 16 reports and three further reports which had been duplicated a total of six times. The number needed to treat (NNT) to prevent vomiting within 24 hours was 9.5, with 95% confidence interval 6.9 to 15, in the 16 nonduplicated reports. In the three duplicated reports, the NNT was significantly lower at 3.9 (3.3 to 4.8). When all 25 reports were combined, the apparent NNT improved to 4.9 (4.4 to 5.6) </s>


<s> [INST] <<SYS>> You are a helpful, respectful, and honest assistant. Always answer as helpfully as possible, while being safe. Your answers should not include any harmful, unethical, racist, sexist, toxic, dangerous, or illegal content. Please ensure that your responses are socially unbiased and positive in nature. If a question does not make any sense or is not factually coherent, explain why instead of answering something not correct. If you don't know the answer to a question, please don't share false information. <</SYS>> What is Ethinylestradiol/levonorgestrel and explain in detail? [/INST] Ethinylestradiol/levonorgestrel (EE/LNG) is a combined birth control pill made up of ethinylestradiol, an estrogen and  levonorgestrel a progestin. It is used for birth control, symptoms of menstruation, endometriosis, and as emergency contraception </s>


<s> [INST] <<SYS>> You are a helpful, respectful, and honest assistant. Always answer as helpfully as possible, while being safe. Your answers should not include any harmful, unethical, racist, sexist, toxic, dangerous, or illegal content. Please ensure that your responses are socially unbiased and positive in nature. If a question does not make any sense or is not factually coherent, explain why instead of answering something not correct. If you don't know the answer to a question, please don't share false information. <</SYS>> What is Rimantadine and explain in detail? [/INST] Rimantadine (INN, sold under the trade name Flumadine) is an orally administered antiviral drug used to treat, and in rare cases prevent, influenzavirus A infection.  When taken within one to two days of developing symptoms, rimantadine can shorten the duration and moderate the severity of influenza. Rimantadine can mitigate symptoms, including fever. Both rimantadine and the similar drug amantadine are derivates of adamantane. Rimantadine is found to be more effective than amantadine because when used the patient displays fewer symptoms. Rimantadine was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1994.
Rimantadine was approved for medical use in 1993. Seasonal H3N2 and 2009 pandemic flu samples tested have shown resistance to rimantadine, and it is no longer recommended to prescribe for treatment of the flu.

Medical use
Influenza A
Rimantadine inhibits influenza activity by binding to amino acids in the M2 transmembrane channel and blocking proton transport across the M2 channel. Rimantadine is believed to inhibit influenzas viral replication, possibly by preventing the uncoating of the viruss protective shells, which are the envelope and capsid.  The M2 channel is known to be responsible for viral replication in the influenza virus. Genetic studies suggest that the virus M2 protein, an ion channel specified by virion M2 gene, plays an important role in the susceptibility of influenza A virus to inhibition by rimantadine.Rimantadine is bound inside the pore to amantadine specific amino acid binding sites with hydrogen binding and van der Waals interactions. The ammonium group (with neighboring water molecules) is positioned towards the C terminus with the amantadane group is positioned towards the N-terminus when bound inside the M2 pore.

Influenza resistance
Resistance to rimantadine can occur as a result of amino acid substitutions at certain locations in the transmembrane region of M2. This prevents binding of the antiviral to the channel.The mutation S31N binding site with rimantadine is shown in the image to the left. It shows rimantadine binding into lumenal (top) or peripheral (bottom) binding sites with influenza M2 channel Serine 31 (gold) or Asparagine 31 (blue).

Rimantadine enantiomers interactions with M2
Rimantadine, when sold as flumadine, is present as a racemic mixture; the R and S states are both present in the drug. Solid state NMR studies have shown that the R enantiomer has a stronger binding affinity to the M2 channel pore than the S-enantiomer of rimantadine. Antiviral assay and electrophysiology studies show that there is no significant difference between the R and S enantiomers in binding affinity to amino acids in the M2 channel. Since the enantiomers have similar binding affinity, they also have similar ability to block the channel pore and work as an effective antiviral.
Rimantadine enantiomers R and S are pictured interacting with the M2 pore below to the right. This image shows that there is not a significant modeled difference between the R and S enantiomers.

Parkinsons disease
Rimantadine, like its antiviral cousin amantadine, possesses some NMDA antagonistic properties and is used as an antiparkinsonic drug (i.e., in the treatment of Parkinsons disease).  However, in general, neither rimantadine nor amantadine is a preferred agent for this therapy and would be reserved for cases of the disease that are less responsive to front-line treatments.

Other
Rimantadine is shown to be effective against other RNA-containing viruses. It can treat arboviruses like Saint Louis encephalitis and Sindbis.  Other viruses that can be treated with Rimantadine include respiratory synctial and parainfluenza viruses. Rimantadine has also been shown to treat chronic hepatitis C.

Drug interactions
Taking paracetamol (acetaminophen, Tylenol) or acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) while taking rimantadine is known to reduce the bodys uptake of rimantadine by approximately 12%.
Cimetidine also affects the bodys uptake of rimantadine.
Taking anticholigenic drugs with amantadine may increase underlying seizure disorders and aggravate congestive heart failure.

Side effects
Rimantadine can produce gastrointestinal and central nervous system adverse effects.  Approximately 6% of patients (compared to 4% of patients taking a placebo) reported side-effects at a dosage of 200 mg/d. Common side effects include:

nausea
upset stomach
nervousness
tiredness
lightheadedness
trouble sleeping (insomnia)
difficulty concentrating
confusion
anxiety
Rimantadine shows fewer CNS symptoms than its sister drug Amantadine.

Synthesis
1-carboxyadamatanones are reduced with sodium borohydride to create racemic hydroxy acid </s>


<s> [INST] <<SYS>> You are a helpful, respectful, and honest assistant. Always answer as helpfully as possible, while being safe. Your answers should not include any harmful, unethical, racist, sexist, toxic, dangerous, or illegal content. Please ensure that your responses are socially unbiased and positive in nature. If a question does not make any sense or is not factually coherent, explain why instead of answering something not correct. If you don't know the answer to a question, please don't share false information. <</SYS>> What is Ramipril and explain in detail? [/INST] Ramipril, sold under the brand name Altace among others, is an ACE inhibitor type medication used to treat high blood pressure, heart failure, and diabetic kidney disease. It can also be used as a preventative medication in patients over 55 years old to reduce the risk of having a heart attack, stroke or cardiovascular death in patients shown to be at high risk, such as some diabetics and patients with vascular disease. It is a reasonable initial treatment for high blood pressure. It is taken by mouth.Common side effects include headaches, dizziness, feeling tired, and cough. Serious side effects may include liver problems, angioedema, kidney problems, and high blood potassium. Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding is not recommended. It is an ACE inhibitor and works by decreasing renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activity.Ramipril was patented in 1981 and approved for medical use in 1989. It is available as a generic medication. In 2019, it was the 178th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 3 million prescriptions.

Structure and Activity Relationship
Ramipril is a pro-drug. The molecule must be hydrolyzed by the esterase at the OCH2CH3 and form a carboxylate. This carboxylate then interacts with the positive Zn+2 to inhibit the ACE enzyme. The COOH helps orient it with the enzyme. Ramipril is similar in structure to the Trandolapril ACE Inhibitor but it has a cyclopentane instead of cyclohexane.

Medical uses
Medical uses include:

High blood pressure
Congestive heart failure
Following heart attack in people with evidence of heart failure
People over 55 years at high risk: prevention of heart attack, stroke, cardiovascular death, or need of revascularization procedures
To prevent the onset and progression of kidney damage due to diabetes with or without protein in the urine. Randomized trial evidence suggests that a maximum tolerable dose prevents cardiovascular events and death in patients with diabetic kidney disease.

Contraindications
Contraindications to its use include volume-depleted patients, a history of angioedema while on an ACE inhibitor, pregnancy and hypotension.People should not take ramipril (or any ACE inhibitors) if they have hyperkalemia. It is also recommended to avoid using salt-substitutes as this can further increase potassium levels in the blood.Ramipril can be considered safe and well-tolerated for most people with renovascular disease (narrowing of the artery to one or both kidneys) only if close blood test monitoring is available at the start of therapy. Treatment with Ramipril in some patients with significant narrowing in both kidneys can increase serum creatinine concentration (measured in the blood test), which returns to baseline upon therapy cessation.

Adverse effects
Shakiness
Dry cough
Dizziness and light-headedness due to low blood pressure
Fatigue, especially in the early stages
Mouth dryness in the early stages
Nausea
Fainting
Signs of infection (e.g., fever, chills, persistent sore throat)
Chest pain
Neutropenia (low white blood cells)
Impotence (erectile dysfunction)
HyperkalemiaSerious allergic reactions to this drug are unlikely, but immediate medical attention must be sought if they occur. Symptoms of a serious allergic reaction include, but are not limited to a rash or swelling of the face, mouth, tongue, or throat. In extreme cases, ramipril may lead to potentially fatal liver problems.

Mechanism of action
ACE inhibitors inhibit the actions of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), thereby lowering the production of angiotensin II and decreasing the breakdown of bradykinin. The decrease in angiotensin II results in relaxation of arteriole smooth muscle leading to a decrease in total peripheral resistance, reducing blood pressure as the blood is pumped through widened vessels </s>