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Actor
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"Actress" redirects here. For other uses, see Actor (disambiguation) and Actress (disambiguation).
Actors from the Comédie-Française c. 1720.
An actor (often actress for females; see terminology) is a person who portrays a character in a performance. The actor performs "in the flesh" in the traditional medium of the theatre or in modern mediums such as film, radio, and television. The analogous Greek term is ὑποκριτής (hupokritḗs), literally "one who answers".[1] The actor's interpretation of their role pertains to the role played, whether based on a real person or fictional character. Interpretation occurs even when the actor is "playing themselves", as in some forms of experimental performance art or, more commonly; to act, is to create, a character in performance.[2]
Formerly, in some societies, only men could become actors, and women's roles were generally played by men or boys.[3][when?] When used for the stage, women occasionally played the roles of prepubescent boys.[4][when?]
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology
2 History
2.1 19th century
2.2 20th century
3 Techniques
4 As opposite sex
5 Types
5.1 In theatre
5.2 In film
5.2.1 Silent films
5.2.2 Advent of sound in film
5.2.3 Role of women
5.3 In television
5.4 In radio
6 Actor game
7 See also
8 References
8.1 Sources
9 Further reading
10 External links
Terminology[edit]
After 1660 in England, when women first started to appear on stage, the terms actor or actress were initially used interchangeably for female performers, but later, influenced by the French actrice, actress became the commonly used term for women in theater and film. The etymology is a simple derivation from actor with ess added.[5] However, when referring to groups of performers of both sexes, actors is preferred.[6] Actor is also used before the full name of a performer as a gender-specific term. Within the profession, the re-adoption of the neutral term dates to the 1950–1960s, the post-war period when the contributions of women to cultural life in general were being reviewed.[7] "When The Observer and The Guardian published their new joint style guide in 2010, it stated "Use ["actor"] for both male and female actors; do not use actress except when in name of award, e.g. Oscar for best actress." [6] The authors of the style guide stated that "actress comes into the same category as authoress, comedienne, manageress, 'lady doctor', 'male nurse' and similar obsolete terms that date from a time when professions were largely the preserve of one sex (usually men, see male as norm). As Whoopi Goldberg put it in an interview with the paper: 'An actress can only play a woman. I'm an actor – I can play anything.'"[6] The UK performers' union Equity has no policy on the use of "actor" or "actress". An Equity spokesperson said that the union does not believe that there is a consensus on the matter and stated that the "...subject divides the profession." [6] In 2009, the Los Angeles Times stated that "Actress" remains the common term used in major acting awards given to female recipients[8] (e.g., Academy Award for Best Actress).
With regard to the cinema of the United States, the gender-neutral term "player" was common in film in the silent film era and the early days of the Motion Picture Production Code, but in the 2000s in a film context, it is generally deemed archaic. However, "player" remains in use in the theatre, often incorporated into the name of a theatre group or company, such as the American Players, the East West Players, etc. Also, actors in improvisational theatre may be referred to as "players".[9]
History[edit]
The first recorded case of a performing actor occurred in 534 BC (though the changes in calendar over the years make it hard to determine exactly) when the Greek performer Thespis stepped onto the stage at the Theatre Dionysus to become the first known person to speak words as a character in a play or story. Prior to Thespis' act, Grecian stories were only expressed in song, dance, and in third person narrative. In honor of Thespis, actors are commonly called Thespians. The exclusively male actors in the theatre of ancient Greece performed in three types of drama: tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play.[10] Western theatre developed and expanded considerably under the Romans. The theatre of ancient Rome was a thriving and diverse art form, ranging from festival performances of street theatre, nude dancing, and acrobatics, to the staging of situation comedies, to high-style, verbally elaborate tragedies.
As the Western Roman Empire fell into decay through the 4th and 5th centuries, the seat of Roman power shifted to Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire. Records show that mime, pantomime, scenes or recitations from tragedies and comedies, dances, and other entertainments were very popular. From the 5th century, Western Europe was plunged into a period of general disorder. Small nomadic bands of actors traveled around Europe throughout the period, performing wherever they could find an audience; there is no evidence that they produced anything but crude scenes.[11] Traditionally, actors were not of high status; therefore, in the Early Middle Ages, traveling acting troupes were often viewed with distrust. Early Middle Ages actors were denounced by the Church during the Dark Ages, as they were viewed as dangerous, immoral, and pagan. In many parts of Europe, traditional beliefs of the region and time period meant actors could not receive a Christian burial.
In the Early Middle Ages, churches in Europe began staging dramatized versions of biblical events. By the middle of the 11th century, liturgical drama had spread from Russia to Scandinavia to Italy. The Feast of Fools encouraged the development of comedy. In the Late Middle Ages, plays were produced in 127 towns. These vernacular Mystery plays often contained comedy, with actors playing devils, villains, and clowns.[12] The majority of actors in these plays were drawn from the local population. Amateur performers in England were exclusively male, but other countries had female performers.
There were a number of secular plays staged in the Middle Ages, the earliest of which is The Play of the Greenwood by Adam de la Halle in 1276. It contains satirical scenes and folk material such as faeries and other supernatural occurrences. Farces also rose dramatically in popularity after the 13th century. At the end of the Late Middle Ages, professional actors began to appear in England and Europe. Richard III and Henry VII both maintained small companies of professional actors. Beginning in the mid-16th century, Commedia dell'arte troupes performed lively improvisational playlets across Europe for centuries. Commedia dell'arte was an actor-centred theatre, requiring little scenery and very few props. Plays were loose frameworks that provided situations, complications, and outcome of the action, around which the actors improvised. The plays utilised stock characters. A troupe typically consisted of 13 to 14 members. Most actors were paid a share of the play's profits roughly equivalent to the sizes of their roles.
A 1596 sketch of a performance in progress on the thrust stage of The Swan, a typical Elizabethan open-roof playhouse.
Renaissance theatre derived from several medieval theatre traditions, such as the mystery plays, "morality plays", and the "university drama" that attempted to recreate Athenian tragedy. The Italian tradition of Commedia dell'arte, as well as the elaborate masques frequently presented at court, also contributed to the shaping of public theatre. Since before the reign of Elizabeth I, companies of players were attached to households of leading aristocrats and performed seasonally in various locations. These became the foundation for the professional players that performed on the Elizabethan stage.
The development of the theatre and opportunities for acting ceased when Puritan opposition to the stage banned the performance of all plays within London. Puritans viewed the theatre as immoral. The re-opening of the theatres in 1660 signaled a renaissance of English drama. English comedies written and performed in the Restoration period from 1660 to 1710 are collectively called "Restoration comedy". Restoration comedy is notorious for its sexual explicitness. At this point, women were allowed for the first time to appear on the English stage, exclusively in female roles. This period saw the introduction of the first professional actresses and the rise of the first celebrity actors.
19th century[edit]
Henry Irving in The Bells, 1874.
In the 19th century, the negative reputation of actors was largely reversed, and acting became an honored, popular profession and art.[13] The rise of the actor as celebrity provided the transition, as audiences flocked to their favorite "stars." A new role emerged for the actor-managers, who formed their own companies and controlled the actors, the productions, and the financing.[14] When successful, they built up a permanent clientele that flocked to their productions. They could enlarge their audience by going on tour across the country, performing a repertoire of well-known plays, such as those by Shakespeare. The newspapers, private clubs, pubs, and coffee shops rang with lively debates evaluating the relative merits of the stars and the productions. Henry Irving (1838-1905) was the most successful of the British actor-managers.[15] Irving was renowned for his Shakespearean roles, and for such innovations as turning out the house lights so that attention could focus more on the stage and less on the audience. His company toured across Britain, as well as Europe and the United States, demonstrating the power of star actors and celebrated roles to attract enthusiastic audiences. His knighthood in 1895 indicated full acceptance into the higher circles of British society.[16]
20th century[edit]
By the early 20th century, the economics of large-scale productions displaced the actor-manager model. It was too hard to find people who combined a genius at acting as well as management, so specialization divided the roles as stage managers and later theatre directors emerged. Financially, much larger capital was required to operate out of a major city. The solution was corporate ownership of chains of theatres, such as by the Theatrical Syndicate, Edward Laurillard, and especially The Shubert Organization. By catering to tourists, theaters in large cities increasingly favored long runs of highly popular plays, especially musicals. Big name stars became even more essential.[17]
Techniques[edit]
Main article: List of acting techniques
Classical acting is an umbrella term for a philosophy of acting that integrates the expression of the body, voice, imagination, personalizing, improvisation, external stimuli, and script analysis. It is based on the theories and systems of select classical actors and directors including Konstantin Stanislavski and Michel Saint-Denis.
In Stanislavski's system, also known as Stanislavski's method, actors draw upon their own feelings and experiences to convey the "truth" of the character they portray. Actors puts themselves in the mindset of the character, finding things in common to give a more genuine portrayal of the character.
Method acting is a range of techniques based on for training actors to achieve better characterizations of the characters they play, as formulated by Lee Strasberg. Strasberg's method is based upon the idea that to develop an emotional and cognitive understanding of their roles, actors should use their own experiences to identify personally with their characters. It is based on aspects of Stanislavski's system. Other acting techniques are also based on Stanislavski's ideas, such as those of Stella Adler and Sanford Meisner, but these are not considered "method acting".[18]
Meisner technique requires the actor to focus totally on the other actor as though he or she is real and they only exist in that moment. This is a method that makes the actors in the scene seem more authentic to the audience. It is based on the principle that acting finds its expression in people's response to other people and circumstances. Is it based on Stanislavski's system.
As opposite sex[edit]
Actress Margaret Hughes c. 1670
Formerly, in some societies, only men could become actors. In ancient Greece and ancient Rome[19] and the medieval world, it was considered disgraceful for a woman to go on stage; this belief persisted until the 17th century in Venice. In the time of William Shakespeare, women's roles were generally played by men or boys.[3]
When an eighteen-year Puritan prohibition of drama was lifted after the English Restoration of 1660, women began to appear on stage in England. Margaret Hughes is oft credited as the first professional actress on the English stage.[20] This prohibition ended during the reign of Charles II in part because he enjoyed watching actresses on stage.[21] The first occurrence of the term actress was in 1608 according to the OED and is ascribed to Middleton. In the 19th century many viewed women in acting negatively, as actresses were often courtesans and associated with promiscuity. Despite these prejudices, the 19th century also saw the first female acting "stars", most notably Sarah Bernhardt.[22]
In Japan, onnagata, men taking on female roles, were used in kabuki theatre when women were banned from performing on stage during the Edo period. This convention continues. By contrast, some forms of Chinese drama involve women playing all roles.
In modern times, women occasionally played the roles of prepubescent boys. For example, the stage role of Peter Pan is traditionally played by a woman, as are most principal boys in British pantomime. Opera has several "breeches roles" traditionally sung by women, usually mezzo-sopranos. Examples are Hansel in Hänsel und Gretel, Cherubino in The Marriage of Figaro and Octavian in Der Rosenkavalier.
Women playing male roles are uncommon in film, with notable exceptions. In 1982, Stina Ekblad played the mysterious Ismael Retzinsky in Fanny and Alexander, and Linda Hunt received the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for playing Billy Kwan in The Year of Living Dangerously. In 2007, Cate Blanchett was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for playing Jude Quinn, a fictionalized representation of Bob Dylan in the 1960s, in I'm Not There.
In the 2000s, women playing men in live theatre is particularly common in presentations of older plays, such as Shakespearean works with large numbers of male characters in roles where gender is inconsequential.[4]
Having an actor dress as the opposite sex for comic effect is also a long-standing tradition in comic theatre and film. Most of Shakespeare's comedies include instances of overt cross-dressing, such as Francis Flute in A Midsummer Night's Dream. The movie A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum stars Jack Gilford dressing as a young bride. Tony Curtis and Jack Lemmon famously posed as women to escape gangsters in the Billy Wilder film Some Like It Hot. Cross-dressing for comic effect was a frequently used device in most of the Carry On films. Dustin Hoffman and Robin Williams have each appeared in a hit comedy film (Tootsie and Mrs. Doubtfire, respectively) in which they played most scenes dressed as a woman.
Occasionally, the issue is further complicated, for example, by a woman playing a woman acting as a man—who then pretends to be a woman, such as Julie Andrews in Victor/Victoria, or Gwyneth Paltrow in Shakespeare in Love. In It's Pat: The Movie, filmwatchers never learn the gender of the androgynous main characters Pat and Chris (played by Julia Sweeney and Dave Foley). Similarly, in the aforementioned example of The Marriage of Figaro, there is a scene in which Cherubino (a male character portrayed by a woman) dresses up and acts as a woman; the other characters in the scene are aware of a single level of gender role obfuscation, while the audience is aware of two levels.
A few modern roles are played by a member of the opposite sex in order to emphasize the gender fluidity of the role. Edna Turnblad in Hairspray was played by Divine in the 1988 original film, Harvey Fierstein in the Broadway musical, and John Travolta in the 2007 movie musical. Felicity Huffman was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress for playing Bree Osbourne (a male-to-female transsexual) in 2005's Transamerica.
Types[edit]
Actors working in theatre, film, television and radio have to learn specific skills. Techniques that work well in one type of acting may not work well in another type of acting.
In theatre[edit]
To act on stage, actors need to learn the stage directions that appear in the script, such as "Stage Left" and "Stage Right". These directions are based on the actor's point of view as he or she stands on the stage facing the audience. Actors also have to learn the meaning of the stage directions "Upstage" (away from the audience) and "Downstage" (towards the audience)[23] Theatre actors need to learn blocking, which is "...where and how an actor moves on the stage during a play". Most scripts specify some blocking. The Director also gives instructions on blocking, such as crossing the stage or picking up and using a prop.[23]
Some theater actors need to learn stage combat, which is simulated fighting on stage. Actors may have to simulate hand-to-hand [fighting] or sword[-fighting]. Actors are coached by fight directors, who help them learn the choreographed sequence of fight actions. [23]
In film[edit]
Silent films[edit]
From 1894 to the late 1920s, movies were silent films. Silent film actors emphasized body language and facial expression, so that the audience could better understand what an actor was feeling and portraying on screen. Much silent film acting is apt to strike modern-day audiences as simplistic or campy. The melodramatic acting style was in some cases a habit actors transferred from their former stage experience. Vaudeville theatre was an especially popular origin for many American silent film actors.[24] The pervading presence of stage actors in film was the cause of this outburst from director Marshall Neilan in 1917: "The sooner the stage people who have come into pictures get out, the better for the pictures." In other cases, directors such as John Griffith Wray required their actors to deliver larger-than-life expressions for emphasis. As early as 1914, American viewers had begun to make known their preference for greater naturalness on screen.[25]
Pioneering film directors in Europe and the United States recognized the different limitations and freedoms of the mediums of stage and screen by the early 1910s. Silent films became less vaudevillian in the mid 1910s, as the differences between stage and screen became apparent. Due to the work of directors such as D W Griffith, cinematography became less stage-like, and the then-revolutionary close up shot allowed subtle and naturalistic acting. In America, D.W. Griffith's company Biograph Studios, became known for its innovative direction and acting, conducted suit the cinema rather than the stage. Griffith realized that theatrical acting did not look good on film and required his actors and actresses to go through weeks of film acting training.[26]
Lillian Gish has been called film's "first true actress" for her work in the period, as she pioneered new film performing techniques, recognizing the crucial differences between stage and screen acting. Directors such as Albert Capellani and Maurice Tourneur began to insist on naturalism in their films. By the mid-1920s many American silent films had adopted a more naturalistic acting style, though not all actors and directors accepted naturalistic, low-key acting straight away; as late as 1927, films featuring expressionistic acting styles, such as Metropolis, were still being released. [27]
According to Anton Kaes, a silent film scholar from the University of Wisconsin, American silent cinema began to see a shift in acting techniques between 1913 and 1921, influenced by techniques found in German silent film. This is mainly attributed to the influx of emigrants from the Weimar Republic, "including film directors, producers, cameramen, lighting and stage technicians, as well as actors and actresses".[28]
Advent of sound in film[edit]
Film actors have to learn to get used to and be comfortable with a camera being in front of them.[29] Film actors need to learn to find and stay on their "mark." This is a position on the floor marked with tape. This position is where the lights and camera focus are optimized. Film actors also need to learn how to prepare well and perform well on screen tests. Screen tests are a filmed audition of part of the script.
Unlike theater actors, who develop characters for repeat performances, film actors lack continuity, forcing them to come to all scenes (sometimes shot in reverse of the order in which they ultimately appear) with a fully developed character already.[26]
"Since film captures even the smallest gesture and magnifies it..., cinema demands a less flamboyant and stylized bodily performance from the actor than does the theater." "The performance of emotion is the most difficult aspect of film acting to master: ...the film actor must rely on subtle facial ticks, quivers, and tiny lifts of the eyebrow to create a believable character."[26] Some theatre stars "...have made the theater-to-cinema transition quite successfully (Laurence Olivier, Glenn Close, and Julie Andrews, for instance), others have not..."[26]
Role of women[edit]
Anne Hathaway, a popular actress today with many lead roles in film.
In 2015, Forbes reported that "...just 21 of the 100 top-grossing films of 2014 featured a female lead or co-lead, while only 28.1% of characters in 100 top-grossing films were female...".[30] In the U.S., there is an "industry-wide [gap] in salaries of all scales. On average, white women get paid 78 cents to every dollar a white man makes, while Hispanic women earn 56 cents to a white male’s dollar, Black women 64 cents and Native American women just 59 cents to that."[30] Forbes' analysis of US acting salaries in 2013 determined that the "...men on Forbes’ list of top-paid actors for that year made 2½ times as much money as the top-paid actresses. That means that Hollywood’s best-compensated actresses made just 40 cents for every dollar that the best-compensated men made."[31][32][33]
In television[edit]
"On a television set, there are typically several cameras angled at the set. Actors who are new to on-screen acting can get confused about which camera to look into."[23] TV actors need to learn to use lav mics (Lavaliere microphones).[23] TV actors need to understand the concept of "frame". "The term frame refers to the area that the camera's lens is capturing."[23] Within the acting industry, there are four types of television roles one could land on a show. Each type varies in prominence, frequency of appearance, and pay. The first is known as a series regular—the main actors on the show as part of the permanent cast. Actors in recurring roles are under contract to appear in multiple episodes of a series. A co-star role is a small speaking role that usually only appears in one episode. A guest star is a larger role than a co-star role, and the character is often the central focus of the episode or integral to the plot.
In radio[edit]
Recording a radio play in the Netherlands (1949), Spaarnestad Photo
Radio drama is a dramatized, purely acoustic performance, broadcast on radio or published on audio media, such as tape or CD. With no visual component, radio drama depends on dialogue, music and sound effects to help the listener imagine the characters and story: "It is auditory in the physical dimension but equally powerful as a visual force in the psychological dimension."[34]
Radio drama achieved widespread popularity within a decade of its initial development in the 1920s. By the 1940s, it was a leading international popular entertainment. With the advent of television in the 1950s, however, radio drama lost some of its popularity, and in some countries has never regained large audiences. However, recordings of OTR (old-time radio) survive today in the audio archives of collectors and museums, as well as several online sites such as Internet Archive.
As of 2011, radio drama has a minimal presence on terrestrial radio in the United States. Much of American radio drama is restricted to rebroadcasts or podcasts of programs from previous decades. However, other nations still have thriving traditions of radio drama. In the United Kingdom, for example, the BBC produces and broadcasts hundreds of new radio plays each year on Radio 3, Radio 4, and Radio 4 Extra. Podcasting has also offered the means of creating new radio dramas, in addition to the distribution of vintage programs.
The terms "audio drama"[35] or "audio theatre" are sometimes used synonymously with "radio drama" with one possible distinction: audio drama or audio theatre may not necessarily be intended specifically for broadcast on radio. Audio drama, whether newly produced or OTR classics, can be found on CDs, cassette tapes, podcasts, webcasts and conventional broadcast radio.
Thanks to advances in digital recording and Internet distribution, radio drama is experiencing a revival.[36]
Actor game[edit]
See also[edit]
Presentational and representational acting
Vaudeville
music hall
farce
pantomime
Kabuki
Commedia dell'arte
Droll
Bit part
Body double
Cameo appearance
Cast member
Character actor
Child actor
Dramatis personæ
Extra (acting)
GOTE
Leading actor
Lists of actors
Matinee idol
Meisner technique
Mime artist
Movie star
Pornographic film actor
Practical Aesthetics
Supporting actor
Understudy
Voice acting
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Definition of actor". Hypokrites (related to our word for hypocrite) also means, less often, "to answer" the tragic chorus. See Weimann (1978, 2); see also Csapo and Slater, who offer translations of classical source material using the term hypocrisis (acting) (1994, 257, 265–267).
Jump up ^ "The dramatic world can be extended to include the 'author', the 'audience' and even the 'theatre'; but these remain 'possible' surrogates, not the 'actual' referents as such" (Elam 1980, 110).
^ Jump up to: a b Neziroski, Lirim (2003). "narrative, lyric, drama". Theories of Media :: Keywords Glossary :: multimedia. University of Chicago. Retrieved 2009-03-14. For example, until the late 1600s, audiences were opposed to seeing women on stage, because of the belief stage performance reduced them to the status of showgirls and prostitutes. Even Shakespeare's plays were performed by boys dressed in drag.
^ Jump up to: a b JULIET DUSINBERRE. "Boys Becoming Women in Shakespeare's Plays" (PDF). S-sj.org\accessdate=22 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "actress, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (3 ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. November 2010. Although actor refers to a person who acts regardless of gender, where this term "is increasingly preferred", actress remains in general use; actor is increasingly preferred for performers of both sexes as a gender-neutral term.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Pritchard, Stephen (24 September 2011). "The readers' editor on... Actor or actress?". Theguardian.com. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Goodman, Lizbeth; Holledge, Julie (1998). The Routledge reader in gender and performance. New York: Routledge. pp. 8; 93. ISBN 0-415-16583-0.
Jump up ^ Linden, Sheri (18 January 2009). "From actor to actress and back again". Entertainment. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2009-03-14. It would be several decades before the word "actress" appeared – 1700, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, more than a century after the word "actor" was first used to denote a theatrical performer, supplanting the less professional-sounding "player."
Jump up ^ Spolin, Viola (1999). Improvisation for the Theater: A Handbook of Teaching and Directing Techniques (3rd ed.). Evanston, Ill: Northwestern Univ Press. pp. Introduction to the 3rd Edition. ISBN 0810140004.
Jump up ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 15–19).
Jump up ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 75)
Jump up ^ Brockett and Hildy (2003, 86)
Jump up ^ Wilmeth, Don B.; Bigsby, C.W.E. (1998). The Cambridge history of American theatre. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 449–450. ISBN 978-0-521-65179-0.
Jump up ^ James Eli Adams, ed., Encyclopedia of the Victorian era (2004) 1:2-3.
Jump up ^ George Rowell, Theatre in the Age of Irving (Rowman & Littlefield, 1981).
Jump up ^ Jeffrey Richards (2007). Sir Henry Irving: A Victorian Actor and His World. A&C Black. p. 109.
Jump up ^ Foster Hirsch, The Boys from Syracuse: The Shuberts' Theatrical Empire (Cooper Square Press, 2000).
Jump up ^ Guerrasio, Jason. (2014-12-19) What It Means To Be ‘Method’. Tribecafilminstitute.org. Retrieved on 2016-02-10.
Jump up ^ "BBC - Radio 4 - Woman's Hour -Women Actors in Ancient Rome". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Smallweed (23 July 2005). "Smallweed". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 22 April 2009. Retrieved 2009-03-14. "Whereas women's parts in plays have hitherto been acted by men in the habits of women ... we do permit and give leave for the time to come that all women's parts be acted by women," Charles II ordained in 1662. According to Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, the first actress to exploit this new freedom was Margaret Hughes, as Desdemona in Othello on December 8, 1660.
Jump up ^ "Women as actresses" (PDF). Notes and Queries. The New York Times. 18 October 1885. Archived from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved 2009-03-14. There seems no doubt that actresses did not perform on the stage till the Restoration, in the earliest years of which Pepys says for the first time he saw an actress upon the stage. Charles II, must have brought the usage from the Continent, where women had long been employed instead of boys or youths in the representation of female characters.
Jump up ^ ‘Studies in hysteria’: actress and courtesan, Sarah Bernhardt and Mrs Patrick Campbell
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Industry Tips". Archived from the original on March 26, 2014. Retrieved April 4, 2014.
Jump up ^ Lewis, John (2008). American Film: A History (First ed.). New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-97922-0.
Jump up ^ brownlow 1968, pp. 344-353.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Movies and Film". infoplease.com.
Jump up ^ Brownlow 1968, pp. 344–353.
Jump up ^ Kaes, Anton (1990). "Silent Cinema". Monatshefte.
Jump up ^ "Auditions for Film: Movie Acting Tips and Techniques". Ace-your-audition.com. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Jennifer Lawrence Speaks Out On Making Less Than Male Co-Stars. Forbes.com (2015-10-13). Retrieved on 2016-02-10.
Jump up ^ Woodruff, Betsy. (2015-02-23) Gender wage gap in Hollywood: It's very, very wide. Slate.com. Retrieved on 2016-02-10.
Jump up ^ "How much do Hollywood campaigns for an Oscar cost?". Stephenfollows.com. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Female Movie Stars Experience Earnings Plunge After Age 34. Variety (2014-02-07). Retrieved on 2016-02-10.
Jump up ^ Tim Crook: Radio drama. Theory and practice Archived July 1, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.. London; New York: Routledge, 1999, p. 8.
Jump up ^ Compare the entry to Hörspiel e.g. in: dict.cc – Deutsch-Englisch-Wörterbuch
Jump up ^ Newman, Barry (2010-02-25). "Return With Us to the Thrilling Days Of Yesteryear — Via the Internet". Wall Street Journal.
Sources[edit]
Csapo, Eric, and William J. Slater. 1994. The Context of Ancient Drama. Ann Arbor: The U of Michigan P. ISBN 0-472-08275-2.
Elam, Keir. 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. ISBN 0-416-72060-9.
Weimann, Robert. 1978. Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater: Studies in the Social Dimension of Dramatic Form and Function. Ed. Robert Schwartz. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3506-2.
Further reading[edit]
An Actor's Work by Constantin Stanislavski
A Dream of Passion: The Development of the Method by Lee Strasberg (Plume Books, ISBN 0-452-26198-8, 1990)
Sanford Meisner on Acting by Sanford Meisner (Vintage, ISBN 0-394-75059-4, 1987)
Letters to a Young Actor by Robert Brustein (Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-00806-2, 2005).
The Empty Space by Peter Brook
The Technique of Acting by Stella Adler
External links[edit]
Look up actor, actress, or player in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Screen Actors Guild (SAG): a union representing U. S. film and TV actors.
Actors' Equity Association (AEA): a union representing U. S. theatre actors and stage managers.
American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA): a union representing U. S. television and radio actors and broadcasters (on-air journalists, etc.).
British Actors' Equity: a trade union representing UK artists, including actors, singers, dancers, choreographers, stage managers, theatre directors and designers, variety and circus artists, television and radio presenters, walk-on and supporting artists, stunt performers and directors and theatre fight directors.
Media Entertainment & Arts Alliance: an Australian/New Zealand trade union representing everyone in the media, entertainment, sports, and arts industries.
6 qualities you must have to be a good actor
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Above the line
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Below the line
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Best boy (electrical)
Lighting technician
Key grip
Best boy (grip)
Grip
Dolly grip
Sound
Director of audiography
Production sound mixer
Boom operator
Utility sound technician
Dialogue editor
Re-recording mixer
Foley artist
Composer
Music supervisor
Music editor
Orchestrator
Special effects
Special effects supervisor
Visual effects supervisor
Animation
Animator
Visual effects
Modeling
Rigging
Layout artist
Talent
Acting coach
Dialect coach
Movement director
Choreographer
Extra
Talent agent
Actor (voice)
Cast member
Stand-in
Acting instructor
Stunt double
Stunt performer
Post-production
Film editor
Sound editor
Colorist
Animator
Technical director
Visual effects
Visual effects editor
Compositor
Computer-generated imagery
Rendering
Portals
Access related topics
Theatre portal
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Authority control
LCCN: sh85000744
GND: 4052154-0
BNF: cb133184428 (data)
NDL: 00562827
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Actor&oldid=836109619"
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Actor (disambiguation)

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Actress (disambiguation)

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Cassette tape

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Constantin Stanislavski

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Akteur – Afrikaans
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Glumac – Bosnian
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Aktour – Breton
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Actor – Catalan
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Aktor – Cebuano
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Herec – Czech
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Actor – Welsh
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Actor – Spanish
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Aktoro – Esperanto
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Aktore – Basque
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Acteur – French
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Akteur – Western Frisian
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Aisteoir – Irish
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Actair – Scottish Gaelic
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Actor – Galician
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Attore – Italian
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Acteur – Dutch
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Aktor – Uzbek
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Aktor – Polish
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Ator – Portuguese
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Actor – Scots
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Aktori – Albanian
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Actor – Simple English
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Atoore – Somali
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Glumci – Serbo-Croatian
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Aktor – Sundanese
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Artista – Tagalog
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Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the song by Splodgenessabounds, see Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps Please.
Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps
Title card seen throughout series run
Created by
Susan Nickson
Written by
Susan Nickson (2001–09)
Daniel Peak (2003–06)
Karen Laws (2004–05)
Jon Brown (2006–09)
Tim Dawson (2008–09)
Kate Wincup (2008–09)
Directed by
Gareth Carrivick (2001–05)
Becky Martin (2006)
Nick Wood (2006–2009, 2011)
Geoff Posner (2009)
Starring
Ralf Little
Will Mellor
Natalie Casey
Sheridan Smith
Kathryn Drysdale
Luke Gell
Beverley Callard
Hayley Bishop
Lee Oakes
Freddie Hogan
Georgia Henshaw
Opening theme
"Two Pints of Lager Theme" by Christian Henson
Country of origin
United Kingdom
Original language(s)
English
No. of series
9
No. of episodes
80 (list of episodes)
Production
Location(s)
Runcorn, Cheshire
Camera setup
Multi-camera
Running time
30–45 minutes
Release
Original network
BBC Two (2001)
BBC Choice (2002)
BBC Three (2003–11)
Picture format
576i (16:9 SDTV)
Audio format
Dolby Digital 5.1
Original release
26 February 2001 – 24 May 2011
External links
Website
www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b006m8nj
Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps is a British sitcom that ran from 26 February 2001 to 24 May 2011. First broadcast on BBC Two, it starred Ralf Little, Will Mellor, Natalie Casey, Sheridan Smith, Kathryn Drysdale, and Luke Gell. Created and written by Susan Nickson, it was set in the northwest England town of Runcorn, and originally revolved around the lives of five twenty-somethings. Little departed after the sixth series finished airing, with Smith and Drysdale leaving following the airing of the eighth series. The ninth and final series had major changes with new main cast members and new writers.
The core cast was augmented by various recurring characters throughout the series, portrayed by Beverly Callard, Lee Oakes, Hayley Bishop, Alison Mac, Thomas Nelstrop, and Jonathon Dutton. The title was inspired by the 1980 hit single "Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps Please" by Splodgenessabounds.[1] On 23 July 2011, it was confirmed that the series would not be returning due to BBC Three wanting to make room for new comedies and feeling that the series had come to a natural end following the departures of most of the main cast members.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Series
3 Episodes
4 Cast
4.1 Main
4.2 Supporting
5 DVD releases
6 Filming locations
7 References
8 External links
Background[edit]
The original executive producer of the show, Geoffrey Perkins, saw writer Susan Nickson's work on Channel 4's Lloyd's Bank Film Challenge, entitled "Life's A Bitch", which starred Sean Hughes and Kathy Burke. At just 14, Nickson was asked by Perkins (who was also Head of Comedy at the time) to come and work with the BBC after a few years; consequently, Nickson created Two Pints when she was just 18.
The BBC tried to persuade the producers of the Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks to get Will Mellor and Natalie Casey to work with them when they appeared in the show. Ralf Little and Sheridan Smith were cast soon after completing work on another BBC sitcom, The Royle Family. Although initially reluctant, he agreed to audition when he realised that Two Pints would be very different from The Royle Family. Kathryn Drysdale was brought in after producers saw her perform at drama school.
The original cast from 2001–2006:
(back) Ralf Little (Jonny), Will Mellor (Gaz)
(front) Kathryn Drysdale (Louise), Sheridan Smith (Janet), Natalie Casey (Donna)
The show's unbroadcast pilot starred Little and Mellor, though the characters of Janet, Louise and Donna were portrayed by Clare Buckfield, Lucy Punch, and Maxine Peake. Little and Smith, and Mellor and Casey, play couples Jonny and Janet, and Gaz and Donna. Mellor and Casey had previously portrayed an onscreen couple in Hollyoaks. Smith stated how lucky she was to work with Little after starring together before, as playing such a close couple would have been awkward for both. Mellor stated in a past interview how he sees Casey as a younger sister—which makes kissing scenes a bit awkward. Smith also classes Casey as the "mummy" in the show, due to her knowledge and problem-solving skills. Typically, episodes end with a particularly dramatic scene, such as Jonny breaking the news to Janet that her parents turned down his request for her hand in marriage.
BBC Two broadcast the first series, BBC Choice screened series two but was re branded as BBC Three shortly before it screened series three, and has shown the first run of each new series ever since. BBC Two also repeated the show, though only once, previously shown every Thursday. Series four ended with Jonny being shot by armed police, and viewers were asked to vote, by text or phone, on Jonny's fate. Series five began with a funeral, which was revealed to be that of Donna's mother, Flo. Some series are accompanied by a special programme exposing errors that occurred during the filming. The show, titled Two Pints of Lager Outtakes, features interviews with cast and crew, each explaining the difficulties of getting various scenes to be performed as expected.
The outcome of the final episode of series eight was decided by the public, who in episode seven were asked to vote whether Gaz should be with Donna or Janet. Following the final episode of series 8 which was broadcast on 10 May 2009 showing the audience's views and opinions of the show and who Gaz should be with;[3] the audience chose Donna, with 76.9% of the vote. The final episode concluded with Donna at Gaz's bedside.
Although Two Pints is largely comedy, it sometimes, especially at the end of a series, becomes more dramatic and serious. Such storylines have included Janet and Jonny's split, Jonny's shooting, Gaz's coma and Janet's imminent departure as a cruise singer.
Will Mellor has described the show as being "driven by sex and alcohol" and the show is known for its adult, sometimes scatological humour, mostly involving references to sex and private bodily functions. Vulgar language is also used, except that the word 'fuck' is uttered only once during the last episode of each series.[4]
Series[edit]
The first six series with the original cast including Ralf Little ran until 2006 when Little said he would not return to the series. Will Mellor hinted at the series continuation in television interviews, one being Loose Women, and more or less confirming it on The Paul O'Grady Show, with statements such as "we'll keep on making it". Ralf Little announced during an interview for This Morning on 19 September 2007 that he would not be returning for the following series due to an overwhelming schedule, and Jonny Keogh was therefore killed off-screen in the first episode of the seventh series.
An eighth series was confirmed by Mellor in an interview in the Metro on 21 April 2008, in which he said that they would be filming the series from November 2008 to January 2009.[5] In January 2009, the BBC announced recording dates for the next series at BBC Television Centre from 1 February to 3 April. A special edition for Comic Relief was also recorded on 25 January. The eighth series began airing on 8 March 2009 starting with a Comic Relief special, which featured characters from Coming of Age and Grownups, as a curtain raiser, with subsequent episodes as normal. Natalie Casey, Kathryn Drysdale, Luke Gell, Will Mellor and Sheridan Smith all returned and the new character of Wesley was played by Thomas Nelstrop.[6]
Two special episodes of Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps were filmed in 2009.[7] The first was set a few minutes after the ending of the previous episode, its cast being limited to Janet, Wesley and Tim, and was recorded on 13 August 2009 at BBC TV Centre. It was a musical extravaganza set entirely inside the Archer and was broadcast on 15 December 2009. The second, "Sliding Gaz", was recorded on 18 August 2009 and shown on 22 December 2009.[8] The cast consists of Donna and Gaz only and shows Donna in a "sliding doors" technique, imagining Gaz being healthy and also paralysed.
In April 2010, it was revealed that the show was to return, albeit 'refreshed' by the BBC, which could mean cast changes, and the loss of the creator of the show, Susan Nickson, who is reportedly moving on to work in America.[9] Location filming for series 9 is set to begin in Runcorn on 25 January as reported in The Runcorn Weekly News.[10] To celebrate the tenth anniversary of the show the official BBC website uploaded many of the viewers' favourite clips as well as Will Mellor and Natalie Casey presenting a 5-minute video about the 10 things you didn't know about the show. A plot summary of the new 2011 Ninth Series was then revealed by the BBC.[11] Original cast members Sheridan Smith and Kathryn Drysdale announced in 2010 that they would not be returning to the show.[citation needed] They were written out of the series and their departures were mentioned in the first episode of series 9. On 23 July 2011, following a decline in ratings and feeling the series had come to a natural end following the departures of half of the main cast members the BBC decided that the show would not return for a tenth series.
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps episodes
Series
Episodes
Premier
Finale
1 6 26 February 2001 (2001-02-26) 2 April 2001 (2001-04-02)
2 6 15 April 2002 (2002-04-15) 2 May 2002 (2002-05-02)
3 10 23 February 2003 (2003-02-23) 27 April 2003 (2003-04-27)
4 8 15 February 2004 (2004-02-15) 4 April 2004 (2004-04-04)
5 14 2 January 2005 (2005-01-02) 4 March 2005 (2005-03-04)
6 10 26 February 2006 (2006-02-26) 30 April 2006 (2006-04-30)
7 8 13 January 2008 (13 January 2008) 9 March 2008 (2008-03-09)
8 8 15 March 2009 (15 March 2009) 10 May 2009 (10 May 2009)
9 6 26 April 2011 (26 April 2011) 24 May 2011 (24 May 2011)
Cast[edit]
Main article: List of Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps characters
Main[edit]
Actor
Character
Duration
Series
Will Mellor Gaz Wilkinson 2001–2011 1-9
Natalie Casey Donna Henshaw
Sheridan Smith Janet Keogh 2001–2009 1-8
Kathryn Drysdale Louise Brooks
Ralf Little Jonny Keogh 2001–2006 1-6
Luke Gell Tim Claypole 2008–2011 7-9
Georgia Henshaw Cassie Claypole 2011 9
Freddie Hogan Billy McCormack
Supporting[edit]
Actor
Character
Duration
Series
Beverley Callard Flo Henshaw 2001–2003 1-3
Lee Oakes Munch Wilkinson 2003–2005, 2008 3-5, 7
Hayley Bishop Kelly Crabtree 2004–2006 4-6
Thomas Nelstrop Wesley Presley 2009 8
DVD releases[edit]
Season
Date released
# of episodes
# of discs
Special features
The Complete First and Second Series 18 August 2003 12 2
The Complete Third and Fourth Series 6 September 2004 18 4 2003 Musical special
The Complete Fifth Series 5 September 2005 14 3
The Complete Series 1-4 24 October 2005 30 5
The Complete Sixth Series 4 September 2006 10 2 Behind the scenes
The Complete Series 1-6 16 October 2006 54 10
The Complete Seventh Series 21 April 2008 8 2 Behind the scenes
The Complete Eighth Series 14 September 2009 9 2 Comic Relief Special
The Complete Ninth Series 13 June 2011 6 2 2009 specials
Filming locations[edit]
Many of the places featured in Two Pints are real:
The Archer is the former Waterloo pub at 88 High Street in the Old Town area of Runcorn, near the canal, and for the series is renamed after the series' first script editor, Paul Mayhew-Archer, who was later replaced by Jon Brown. The Waterloo closed in December 2012, and has been converted into a Buddhist temple.[12] (Series 1 features a second pub called The Mayhew.) The Waterloo is only used for the exterior shots whereas the interiors are recorded in the studio at BBC Television Centre in London. 53°20′27″N 2°44′16″W / 53.34083°N 2.73784°W / 53.34083; -2.73784 (Two Pints - Archer Hotel)
The power station featured in the credits is Fiddlers Ferry Power Station in between the neighbouring towns of Widnes & Warrington
Sayer's Bakery where Janet works is also real, being located at 30 Church Street, Runcorn Old Town. 53°20′37″N 2°44′24″W / 53.34356°N 2.74005°W / 53.34356; -2.74005 (Sayer's Bakery)
Gaz's workshop (Brindley Autos) can be found on Brindley Street in the northwest of the town under one of the rail bridge's arches. 53°20′34″N 2°44′25″W / 53.34282°N 2.74018°W / 53.34282; -2.74018 (Brindley Autos)
The Castle ruins featured in the opening title sequence are those of Halton Castle, in the east of the town. 53°20′02″N 2°41′48″W / 53.33377°N 2.69673°W / 53.33377; -2.69673 (Halton Castle)
The exterior of Gaz and Donna's flat is also real and can be found opposite the indoor market near Alcock Street and the bus station in the Old Town. 53°20′31″N 2°43′56″W / 53.34199°N 2.73224°W / 53.34199; -2.73224 (Two Pints - Gaz's flat)
Janet and Jonny's house can be found at 9 Clarks Terrace, in the Weston Point area of Runcorn. 53°19′41″N 2°45′24″W / 53.32816°N 2.75663°W / 53.32816; -2.75663 (Two Pints - Janet and Jonny's house)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Mark Lewisohn. "Guide to Comedy: Two Pints Of Lager And A Packet Of Crisps". BBC. Retrieved 14 July 2007.
Jump up ^ Robertson, Colin. "Two Pints stars are told to sup up". The Sun.
Jump up ^ 7 April 2009, 16:47 BST (7 April 2009). "TV – News – 'Two Pints' audience to choose finale". Digital Spy. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Two Pints of Lager Outtakes". Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps. 2008-03-09.
Jump up ^ 21 April 2008, 10:50 BST (21 April 2008). "Television – News – Mellor confirms 'Two Pints' return". Digital Spy. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Press Office – Network TV Programme Information BBC Week 11 Sunday 15 March 2009". BBC. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived 17 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "The BBC lights up Christmas with a selection of new seasonal delights". BBC News. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "BBC set to refresh Two Pints Of Lager – News – British Comedy Guide". Comedy.co.uk. 8 April 2010. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Runcorn Weekly News – BBC Comedy to use Linnets FC
Jump up ^ British Comedy Guide. "Two Pints Of Lager And A Packet Of Crisps". British Comedy Guide.
Jump up ^ "Europe | Transformation of Runcorn pub into Buddhist temple nearly complete". Buddhistchannel.tv. 2013-03-14. Retrieved 2014-06-28.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps
Cheshire portal
Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps at BBC Online (Last Updated March 2008)
Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps at the British TV Comedy Guide
Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps at British Comedy Guide
Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps on IMDb
"Two Pints of Lager and a Packet of Crisps". BBC Programmes.
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text:
Technical communication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Technical communication is a means to convey scientific, engineering,and technique or other technical information.[1] Individuals in a variety of contexts and with varied professional credentials engage in technical communication. Some individuals are designated as technical communicators or technical writers. These individuals use a set of methods to research, document, and present technical processes or products. Technical communicators may put the information they capture into paper documents, web pages, computer-based training, digitally stored text, audio, video, and other media. The Society for Technical Communication defines the field as any form of communication that focuses on technical or specialized topics, communicates specifically by using technology or provides instructions on how to do something.[2][3] More succinctly, the Institute of Scientific and Technical Communicators defines technical communication as factual communication, usually about products and services.[4] The European Association for Technical Communication briefly defines technical communication as "the process of defining, creating and delivering information products for the safe, efficient and effective use of products (technical systems, software, services)".[5]
Whatever the definition of technical communication, the overarching goal of the practice is to create easily accessible information for a specific audience.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 As a profession
2 Content creation
2.1 Determining purpose and audience
2.2 Collecting information
2.3 Organizing and outlining information
2.4 Writing the first draft
2.5 Revising and editing
2.5.1 Adjusting and reorganizing content
2.5.2 Editing for style
2.5.3 Editing for grammar and punctuation
3 See also
4 References
As a profession[edit]
Technical communicators generally tailor information to a specific audience, which may be subject matter experts, consumers, end users, etc. Technical communicators often work collaboratively to create deliverables that include online help, user manuals, classroom training guides, computer-based training, white papers, specifications, industrial videos, reference cards, data sheets, journal articles, patents, and forms and documents.
Technical domains can be of any kind, including the soft and hard sciences, high technology including computers and software and consumer electronics. Technical communicators often work with a range of specific Subject-matter experts (SMEs) on these educational projects.
Technical communication jobs include the following:[3] API writer, e-learning author, information architect, technical content developer, technical editor, technical illustrator, technical trainer, technical translator, technical writer, usability expert, user experience designer, and user interface designer.
In 2015, the European Association for Technical Communication published a competence framework for the professional field of technical communication.[7]
Content creation[edit]
Technical communication is a task performed by specialized employees or consultants. For example, a professional writer may work with a company to produce a user manual. Some companies give considerable technical communication responsibility to other technical professionals—such as programmers, engineers, and scientists. Often, a professional technical writer edits such work to bring it up to modern technical communication standards.
To begin the documentation process, technical communicators identify the audience and their information needs. The technical communicator researches and structures the content into a framework that can guide detailed development. As the body of information comes together, the technical communicator ensures that the intended audience can understand the content and retrieve the information they need. This process, known as the 'Writing Process', has been a central focus of writing theory since the 1970s, and some contemporary textbook authors apply it to technical communication. Technical communication is important to most professions, as a way to contain and organize information and maintain accuracy.
The technical writing process can be divided into six broad steps:
Determine purpose and audience
Collect information
Organize and outline information
Write the first draft
Revise and edit
Publish output
Determining purpose and audience[edit]
All technical communication serves a particular purpose—typically to communicate ideas and concepts to an audience, or instruct an audience in a particular task. Technical communication professionals use various techniques to understand the audience and, when possible, test content on the target audience. For example, if bank workers don't properly post deposits, a technical communicator would review existing instructional material (or lack thereof), interview bank workers to identify conceptual errors, interview subject matter experts to learn the correct procedures, author new material that instructs workers in the correct procedures, and test the new material on the bank workers.
Similarly, a sales manager who wonders which of two sites is better for a new store might ask a marketing professional to study the sites and write a report with recommendations. The marketing professional hands the report off to a technical communicator (in this case, a technical editor or technical writer), who edits, formats, and sometimes elaborates the document in order to make the marketing professional's expert assessment usable to the sales manager. The process is not one of knowledge transfer, but the accommodation of knowledge across fields of expertise and contexts of use. This is the basic definition of technical communication.
Audience type affects many aspects of communication, from word selection and graphics use to style and organization. Most often, to address a particular audience, a technical communicator must consider what qualities make a text useful (capable of supporting a meaningful task) and usable (capable of being used in service of that task). A non-technical audience might misunderstand or not even read a document that is heavy with jargon—while a technical audience might crave detail critical to their work. Busy audiences often don't have time to read entire documents, so content must be organized for ease of searching—for example by frequent headings, white space, and other cues that guide attention. Other requirements vary according to particular audience's needs.
Technical communication in the government is particular and detailed. Depending on the segment of government (and country), the government component must follow distinct specifications. Information changes continuously and technical communications (technical manuals, interactive electronic technical manuals, technical bulletins, etc.) must be updated.
Collecting information[edit]
Technical communicators must collect all information that each document requires. They may collect information through primary (first-hand) research—or secondary research, using information from existing work by other authors. Technical communicators must acknowledge all sources they use to produce their work. To this end, technical communicators typically distinguish quotations, paraphrases, and summaries when taking notes.
Organizing and outlining information[edit]
Before writing the initial draft, the technical communicator organizes ideas in a way that makes the document flow well. Once each idea is organized, the writer organizes the document as a whole—accomplishing this task in various ways: chronological: used for documents that involve a linear process, such as a step-by-step guide that describes how to accomplish something; parts of an object: Used for documents that describe the parts of an object, such as a graphic showing the parts of a computer (keyboard, monitor, mouse, etc.); simple to complex (or vice versa): starts with easy ideas and gradually goes into complex ideas; specific to general: starts with many ideas, then organizes the ideas into sub-categories; general to specific: starts with a few categories of ideas, then goes deeper
After organizing the whole document, the writer typically creates a final outline that shows the document structure. Outlines make the writing process easier and save the author time.
Writing the first draft[edit]
After the outline is complete, the writer begins the first draft, following the outline's structure. Setting aside blocks of an hour or more, in a place free of distractions, helps the writer maintain a flow. Most writers prefer to wait until the draft is complete before any revising so they don't break their flow. Typically, the writer should start with the easiest section, and write the summary only after the body is drafted.
The ABC (abstract, body, and conclusion) format can be used when writing a first draft of some document types. The abstract describes the subject, so that the reader knows what the document covers. The body is the majority of the document and covers topics in depth. Lastly, the conclusion section restates the document's main topics. The ABC format can also apply to individual paragraphs—beginning with a topic sentence that states the paragraph's topic, followed by the topic, and finally, a concluding sentence.
Revising and editing[edit]
Once the initial draft is laid out, editing and revising can be done to fine-tune the draft into a final copy. Four tasks transform the early draft into its final form, suggested by Pfeiffer and Boogard:[citation needed]
Adjusting and reorganizing content[edit]
In this step, the writer revises the draft to elaborate on topics that need more attention, shorten other sections—and relocate certain paragraphs, sentences, or entire topics.
Editing for style[edit]
Good style makes writing more interesting, appealing, and readable. In general, the personal writing style of the writer is not evident in technical writing. Modern technical writing style relies on attributes that contribute to clarity: headings, lists, graphics; generous white space, short sentences, present tense, simple nouns, active voice[8] (though some scientific applications still use the passive voice), second and third person as required
Technical writing as a discipline usually requires that a technical writer use a style guide. These guides may relate to a specific project, product, company, or brand. They ensure that technical writing reflects formatting, punctuation, and general stylistic standards that the audience expects. In the United States, many consider the Chicago Manual of Style the bible for general technical communication. Other style guides have their adherents, particularly for specific industries—such as the Microsoft Style Guide in some information technology settings.
Editing for grammar and punctuation[edit]
At this point, the writer performs a mechanical edit, checking the document for grammar, punctuation, common word confusions, passive voice, overly long sentences, etc.
See also[edit]
Technical definition
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Johnson-Sheehan, Richard (2005). Technical Communication Today. Longman. ISBN 0-321-11764-6.
Jump up ^ Defining Technical Communication at the STC official website. Accessed February 28, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b What is Technical Communications? TechWhirl. Accessed December 9, 2014.
Jump up ^ Thinking of a career in technical communication? at the ISTC official website. Last updated May 2012. Accessed February 28, 2013.
Jump up ^ Defining Technical Communication at the tekom Europe official website. Last updated October 2015. Accessed October 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ What is Technical Communication? at the official website of the Technical Communicators Association of New Zealand. Accessed February 28, 2013.
Jump up ^ Competence Framework for Technical Communication at the tekom Europe official website. Last updated October 2015. Accessed October 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Gary Blake and Robert W. Bly, The Elements of Technical Writing, pg. 63. New York: Macmillan Publishers, 1993. ISBN 0020130856
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