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Electricity sector in Sri Lanka
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Charts showing the available grid capacity by source (left) and the annual generation by source (right).[1][2][3]
The electricity sector in Sri Lanka has a national grid which is primarily powered by hydro power and thermal heat, with sources such as photovoltaics and wind power in early stages of deployment. Although potential sites are being identified, other power sources such as geothermal, nuclear, peat, solar thermal and wave power are not used in the power generation process for the national grid.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Power generation
2.1 Hydroelectricity
2.2 Thermal power
2.3 Wind power
2.3.1 Current status
2.4 Solar power
2.5 Geothermal power
2.6 Nuclear power
3 Power transmission
3.1 Transmission network
3.2 India – Sri Lanka grid interconnection
4 Electricity use
4.1 End-user power tariffs
4.2 Net metering
4.3 Entities exempted for electricity-usage charges
5 See also
6 References and Notes
6.1 Notes
6.2 References
History[edit]
Sri Lanka's first public electricity supply was made available in Colombo in 1895 by Messrs Boustead Bros. The business was soon taken over by the United Planters Co., Who extended it and in 1899 built the Colombo electric tramways. In 1902, the Colombo Electric Tramways and Lighting Co. Ltd. was formed and provided electricity supply until 1927 when the Department of Government Electrical Undertakings (DGEU) was established to control the utility, which had by then been purchased by the Government. DGEU was succeeded in 1969 when the Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB), a statutory corporation, was established on 1 November 1969 under the Act of Parliament No.17 of 1969.
In 1913 having had his initial proposals on hydro power ignored by the Engineering Association of Ceylon, D. J. Wimalasurendra constructed the first Ceylon's small hydro power station in at Blackpool, between Nanu Oya and Nuwara Eliya, to supply electricity to the Nuwara Eliya town. In 1918, he submitted a paper to the Engineering Association of Ceylon titled "Economics of Hydro Power Utilization in Ceylon", in it he proposed the possibility of hydro power from Maskelioya and Kehelgamuoya capable of lighting 100,000 lamps (114.5 MW) and the concept of developing a national grid. It was only in 1923, that the British colonial government undertake the development of hydro power in Ceylon, the Laxapana Hydro Power Scheme, the construction of which started in 1924 was thus resumed in 1938 and done to the finish. However, it was commissioned as the first hydro power plant of Sri Lankan history in December 1950. Between 1978 - 1985 under the Master Plan of Mahaweli Development Programme added seven hydro power stations to the national grid with a total installed capacity of 810 MW this can be considered as a great leap forward for electricity generation in Sri Lanka [4]
Power generation[edit]
A panoramic view of the Victoria Dam and Reservoir, the largest hydroelectric facility in Sri Lanka.
Electricity in Sri Lanka is generated using three primary sources — thermal power (which includes energy from biomass, coal, and all other fuel-oil sources), hydro power (including small hydro), and other non-conventional renewable energy sources (solar power and wind power):
Installed generation capacity by year (in megawatts)
Source
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Hydropower
1,293 1,316 1,326 1,357 1,379 1,382 1,401 1,584 1,628 1,665
Fuel oil
1,115 1,115 1,115 1,285 1,290 1,390 1,390 1,338 1,335 1,215
Coal
0 0 0 0 0 0 300 300 300 900
Other renewables
3 3 3 3 15 45 50 90 99 152
Total capacity
2,411 2,434 2,444 2,645 2,684 2,817 3,141 3,312 3,362 3,932
Annual generation by year (in gigawatt-hours)
Source
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Hydropower
3,453 4,636 3,948 4,135 3,905 5,634 4,622 3,292 6,926 4,534
Fuel oil
5,314 4,751 5,865 5,763 5,975 4,994 5,748 6,935 3,303 4,306
Coal
0 0 0 0 0 0 1,038 1,404 1,469 3,202
Other renewables
2 2 2 3 27 86 121 171 262 315
Total generation
8,769 9,389 9,815 9,901 9,907 10,714 11,529 11,802 11,960 12,357
Hydroelectricity[edit]
Hydroelectricity is the oldest and historically the principal source of electricity generation in Sri Lanka, holding a share of 48% of the total available grid capacity in December 2013 and 58% of power generated in 2013.[5] Hydroelectric power generation has been constantly under development since the introduction of the national grid itself, but its market share is declining because suitable new sites are scarce. Currently, ten large hydroelectric power stations are in operation, with the single largest hydroelectric source being the Victoria Dam. Although a large portion of the country's hydroelectric resource are tapped, the government continues to issue small hydro development permits to the private sector, for projects up to a total installed capacity of 10 MW per project.[6]
The three hydroelectric complexes of Sri Lanka. Use the scrollbar to see the full image.
State-run hydroelectric developments are categorized into three main geographic sectors.
Laxapana Complex consists of six main dams with related power stations — Broadlands, Canyon, Castlereigh, Laxapana, Maskeliya, and Norton dams.
Mahaweli Complex consists of eight dams and related power stations: Bowatenna, Kotmale, Moragahakanda, Polgolla, Randenigala, Rantembe, Upper Kotmale, and the Victoria dams.
Samanala Complex consists of the Gal Oya, Kukule Ganga, Samanala, and Udawalawe dams.
Thermal power[edit]
900MW Lakvijaya Power Station
Thermal power stations in Sri Lanka now roughly match the installed hydroelectric generation capacity, with a share of nearly 49% of the available capacity in December 2013 and 40% of power generated in 2013.[5] Thermal power stations in Sri Lanka runs on diesel, other fuel oils, naptha or coal.[5] The Norocholai Coal Power Station, the only coal-fired power station in the country, was commissioned in late 2011, adding a further 300 megawatts of electrical capacity to the grid. It is currently planned to add an additional 600 MW of capacity to Norocholai in the next half decade. The second and final coal power station,[7] the Sampur Coal Power Station, is under consideration in Trincomalee and is expected to be in-service by the end of 2017.[8]
Wind power[edit]
Turbines of the Ambewela Aitken Spence Wind Farm, the first multi-megawatt wind farm in the Central Province.
The use of wind energy was seen in the country even before 500 BC. The ancient Sinhalese used the monsoon winds to power furnaces as early as 300 BC, making Sri Lanka one of the first countries in the world to use wind power. Evidence of this has been found in Anuradhapura and in other cities.[9]
The development of modern wind farms has been considered by local and international developers for many years. Such developments were largely hampered due to the many obstacles faced in such developments in economics and infrastructure. The first commercial grid-connected wind farm is the 3 MW Hambantota Wind Farm, northwest of Hambantota.
Unlike other power sources, power developments from this source would face many challenges during its development timeline. Poor accessibility to potential sites is the first obstacle in the development of a wind farm. Most key transport routes around the country are too narrow or is constructed with tight turns to support transportation of turbines larger than 600 KW. Constructing wind farms with turbines smaller than the current commercial-scale megawatt-class turbines would prove to be uneconomical due to the high cost incurred during development.
The country is also in a long battle against its poor power grid. The grid, apart from being unstable in most provinces, is only capable of handling a small increases in load, typically limited to a few megawatts. Provinces with poor grids, such as the power grids in the Northern, North Central and North Western provinces needs complete upgrade to support further commercial-scale developments. This factor contributes to a large percentage in development costs for wind farms constructed such locations. The government policy limit of 10 MW per wind project also significantly decreases economies-of-scale, further straining such developments.
Current status[edit]
Despite the many technical obstacles, a few developments totaling 50 MW have been proposed till September 2009.[10] In October 2009, cases were filed over political interference connected with the approving of wind projects, leading to a complete halt in the wind power industry in Sri Lanka.[11] The Ministry made allegations of wrongdoing in allocating energy licences, including the structuring of the wind power tariff.[12] There were also allegations that energy licenses are being sold, similar to how car licenses have been sold.[12]
From December 2009 to March 2010, permits for another 50 MW of projects were issued by the Sri Lanka Sustainable Energy Authority, before concerns relating to the issuing of permits were raised again,[13][14] leading to another deadlock in the industry. As of June 2010, issuing of permits for the development of private wind farms were stopped.
In July 2010, engineers at the Ceylon Electricity Board raised further concerns regarding the approval of private wind projects with extra high tariffs, presumably some of the highest in the world.[15] A review of the wind power tariff was expected to be carried out on 12 September 2010,[16] after an agreed postponement.[17]
Solar power[edit]
Solar potential
Grid-connected solar power has only recently been introduced. The only operational commercial-scale solar-powered facility is the Buruthakanda Solar Park of 1.2 MW, operated by the Sri Lanka Sustainable Energy Authority (SLSEA).[18]
Geothermal power[edit]
Geothermal power is under research, although no power stations of this type are operational.[19][20][21]
Nuclear power[edit]
The CEB has included a 600MWe nuclear power plant as an option in its plans for 2031.[22]
Power transmission[edit]
Transmission network[edit]
The Sri Lankan electric transmission network consists principally of 132kV facilities, with a 220kV backbone connecting major inland hydroelectric generation to the capital region.
Sir Lanka Electric Transmission System Map
Overhead Transmission Lines
Line
No. of Ground Wires
No. of circuits
Nominal Voltage
Kolonnawa-Athurugiriya 2 2 132kV
Pannipitiya-Ratmalana 2 2 132kV
Biyagama-Pannipitiya 2 2 220kV
Biyagama-Kotmale 2 2 220kV
Kothmale-Kiribathkumbura 2 2 132kV
Kiribathkumbura-Ukuwela 2 2 132kV
Kiribathkumbura-Kurunagala 1 2 132kV
Puttalam-Madampa 1 2 132kV
Ukuwela-Bowatanna 1 1 132kV
Ukuwela-Naula 2 2 132kV
Naula-Habarana 2 2 132kV
Habarana-Old Anuradhapura 1 2 132kV
Old Anuradhapura-Puttalam 2 2 132kV
New Laxapana-Bogawanthalawa Estate 1 2 132kV
New Anuradhapura-Vavuni 1 2 132kV
Embilipitiya-Thimbolketiya 2 2 132kV
New Laxapana-Canyon PS 2 1 132kV
Old Laxapana-Polpitiya 2 2 132kV
Kotmale-Polpitiya 2 2 132kV
Nuwara Eliya-Badulla 2 2 132kV
Old Laxapana-Nuwara Eliya 2 2 132kV
Badulla-Medagama 2 1 132kV
Polpitiya-Seethawake 2 2 132kV
Seethawake-Kosgama 2 2 132kV
Athurugiriya-Thulhiriya 2 2 132kV
Embilipitiya-Hambantota 2 2 132kV
Balangoda-Samanalawewa 2 2 132kV
Balangoda-Rathnapura 2 2 132kV
Balangoda-Deniyaya 1 2 132kV
Matara-Embilipitiya 2 2 132kV
Habarana-Valachchenai 1 1 132kV
Kelanitissa-Biyagama 2 2 220kV
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
India – Sri Lanka grid interconnection[edit]
Main article: India – Sri Lanka HVDC Interconnection
The proposed connection involves the linking of the national grids of India and Sri Lanka via Rameshwaram in south India and Talaimannar in north-west Sri Lanka. The project involves the construction of a HVDC connection between Madurai in southern India and Anuradhapura in central Sri Lanka, through the Palk Strait. The link would measure approximately 285 kilometres (177 mi) in length, including 50 kilometres (31 mi) of submarine cables, and would take more than three years to construct. It would be implemented by the Power Grid Corporation of India Limited and Ceylon Electricity Board.[23]
Electricity use[edit]
End-user power tariffs[edit]
The monthly end-user electricity tariffs effective from 20 April 2013 are as follows:
Revised Electricity tariffs effective from 20 April 2013.[24]
User
Unit (kWh)/Time range
Tariff
(Rs./kWh)
Fixed Charge
(Rs./month)
Fuel Adjustment Charge
(% of Total Energy Charge)
Max. Demand Charge
(Rs./kVA)
Domestic (D-1)
(If the consumption is between 0-60 kWh per month) 000-030 3.00 30.00 25 N/A
031-060 4.70 60.00 35
Domestic (D-1)
(If the consumption is above 60 kWh per month) 000-060 10.00 N/A N/A N/A
061-090 12.00 90.00 10
091-120 26.50 315.00 40
121-180 30.50
≥181 42.00 420.00
Religious (R-1) 000-030 1.90 30.00 N/A N/A
031-090 2.80 60.00
091-120 6.75 180.00
121-180 7.50 180.00
≥181 9.40 240.00
General Purpose (GP) GP-1: ≤210 19.50 240.00 25 N/A
GP-1: ≥211 21.50
GP-2: Day (05:30-18:30) 20.50 3,000.00 1,100
GP-2: Peak (18:30-22:30) 25.00
GP-2: Off-peak (22:30-05:30) 14.50
GP-3: Day (05:30-18:30) 19.50 1,000
GP-3: Peak (18:30-22:30) 24.00
GP-3: Off-peak (22:30-05:30) 13.50
Government (GV)
[Note 1] GV-1: ∞ 14.65 600.00 0 or 25 N/A
GV-2: ∞ 14.55 3,000.00 1,100
GV-3: ∞ 14.35 1,000
Hotel (H) H-1: ∞ 22.00 600.00 15 N/A
H-2: Day (05:30-18:30) 14.65 3,000.00 1,100
H-2: Peak (18:30-22:30) 23.50
H-2: Off-peak (22:30-05:30) 09.80
H-3: Day (05:30-18:30) 12.60 1,000
H-3: Peak (18:30-22:30) 16.40
H-3: Off-peak (22:30-05:30) 8.85
Industry (I) I-1: ∞ 12.50 600.00 15 N/A
I-2: Day (05:30-18:30) 11.30 3,000.00 1,100
I-2: Peak (18:30-22:30) 21.00
I-2: Off-peak (22:30-05:30) 7.00
I-3: Day (05:30-18:30) 10.50 1,000
I-3: Peak (18:30-22:30) 24.00
I-3: Off-peak (22:30-05:30) 6.00
Street Lighting ∞ 17.00 N/A
Net metering[edit]
In July 2010, the Ministry of Power and Energy, with the Lanka Electricity Company and the Ceylon Electricity Board introduced net metering, where consumers could generate their own power from renewable sources and credit excess production back to the power utility.[25] While the power utility will not pay back in monetary values irrespective of how much credit a household generates, it allows the transferring of this credit between households.[26] The first solar power facility intended for net metering was commissioned in July 2010.[27]
Entities exempted for electricity-usage charges[edit]
Per Section 21-2 of the Sri Lanka Electricity Act No. 20 of 2009,[28] the Public Utilities Commission of Sri Lanka has granted the following entities exemptions in electricity usage:
Entities exempted for electricity-usage charges as of 20 June 2012.[29]
Exemption No.
Person/Entity
Premises
Gazette No. & Date
EL/EX-D/11/001 MAS Fabric Park (Private) Limited MAS Fabric Park, Kurunegala Road, Thulhiriya Extraordinary Gazette – No. 1725/14 28 September 2011
EL/EX-D/11/002 Overseas Realty (Ceylon) PLC World Trade Centre, Echelon Square, Colombo 1
EL/EX-D/11/003 Mireka Capital Land (Private) Limited 324, Havelock Road, Colombo 6
EL/EX-D/12/001 Asian Hotels and Properties PLC No. 89, Galle Road, Colombo 3 General Gazette – No. 1744, 3 February 2012
EL/EX-D/12/002 BOC Property Development & Management (Private) Limited BOC Merchant Tower, 28, St. Michael’s Road, Colombo 3
EL/EX-D/12/003 Millenium Development (Private) Limited Excel World Entertainment Park, 338, T B Jayah Mawatha, Colombo – 10
EL/EX-D/12/004 Property Finance and Investments Kandy (Private) Limited Kandy City Centre, 05, Dalada Vidiya, Kandy
EL/EX-D/12/005 Whittall Boustead (Private) Limited 148, Vauxhall Street, Colombo 2
EL/EX-D/12/006 Ceylon Carriers (Private) Limited 104, Nawala Road, Narahenpita, Colombo 5 Extraordinary Gazette – No. 1749/8, 12 March 2012
EL/EX-D/12/007 JayKay Marketing Services (Private) Limited K-Zone Shopping Mall, 340, Galle Road, Moratuwa Extraordinary Gazette – No. 1757/19, 11 May 2012
EL/EX-D/12/008 Platinum Realty Investments (Private) Limited 01, Bagatale Road, Colombo 3
EL/EX-D/12/009 Union Residencies (Private) Limited No. 200, Union Place, Colombo 2
EL/EX-D/12/010 Pelwatte Sugar Industries PLC Pelwatte Sugar Industries Buttala
EL/EX-G/12/001 Tokyo Cement Power (Lanka) Limited 10 MW Biomass Power Plant, Cod Bay, China Bay, Trincomalee Extraordinary Gazette – No. 1759/31, 23 May 2012
See also[edit]
List of power stations in Sri Lanka
Renewable energy by country
References and Notes[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Schools, hospitals, vocational training institutions and universities included, which are fully owned by the government, funded through the national budget, and providing services free-of-charge to the general public. Hospitals and schools are exempted from the Fuel Adjustment Charge (FAC).
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b CEB Statistics, archived from the original on 2012-09-04, retrieved 2012-10-07
Jump up ^ Economic and Social Statistics of Sri Lanka 2011 pg. 58
Jump up ^ Economic and Social Statistics of Sri Lanka 2012 pg. 58
Jump up ^ Basnayaka, Chathuranga. "Ceylon Electricity Board" (PDF). University of Ruhuna. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ceylon Electricity Board Statistical Digest 2013
Jump up ^ Energy permits for small hydro projects, retrieved 2012-10-07
Jump up ^ No more coal plants, retrieved 2010-08-08 [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Ministry: Current energy projects (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-07-11, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ G. Juleff, "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka", Nature 379(3), 60–63 (January, 1996)
Jump up ^ Energy permits for wind projects (PDF), retrieved 2010-10-22 [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Sri Lanka wind power probe to finish soon, archived from the original on 2010-01-03, retrieved 2010-08-07
^ Jump up to: a b Wind powered electricity generation projects halted, retrieved 2010-09-12
Jump up ^ Uproar over wind power scheme, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ SLSEA rejects CEB engineers’ concerns, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ CEB to purchase wind power at world’s highest price, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ Revision of Non-Conventional Renewable Energy Based Electricity Purchase Tariffs, retrieved 2010-09-12 [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Extension of Period allowed for representations on proposed Non-Conventional Renewable Energy Based Electricity Purchase Tariffs, retrieved 2010-09-12 [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Energy permits for solar projects (PDF), retrieved 2010-10-22 [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Sri Lanka is to develop geothermal power, archived from the original on 2011-07-22, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ Geothermal energy in Sri Lanka, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ Geothermal energy for growing power demand, archived from the original on 2009-11-19, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ "Sri Lanka eyes nuclear power plant after 2030". Lanka Business Online. 4 Jun 2014. Archived from the original on 12 January 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "India-Sri Lanka 285-Km Power Transmission Link By 2013". RTT News. Global Energy Network Institute. 2009-12-29. Retrieved 2010-03-08.
Jump up ^ "Electricity Tariffs for 2013" (PDF). Public Utilities Commission of Sri Lanka. May 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Sri Lanka power utility to start net metering, archived from the original on 2011-07-13, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ Net metering of electricity, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ Sri Lanka gets first ever net metered solar photovoltaic plant, retrieved 2010-08-07
Jump up ^ "Sri Lanka Electricity Act No. 20 of 2009" (PDF). Parliament of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. 8 April 2009. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Electricity Exemptions Granted to Persons as per the Section 21 (2) of the Sri Lanka Electricity Act No. 20 of 2009" (PDF). Public Utilities Commission of Sri Lanka. 1 April 2000. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
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Organizations
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At sign
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"@" and ":@" redirect here. For the emoticon, see List of emoticons. For the letter A within a circle, see Enclosed A. For the album by John Zorn and Thurston Moore, see "@" (album).
For technical reasons, "@#!*" redirects here. For the album, see @ !*.
@
At sign
Punctuation
apostrophe ’ '
brackets [ ] ( ) { } ⟨ ⟩
colon :
comma , ، 、
dash ‒ – — ―
ellipsis … ... ⋯ ᠁ ฯ
exclamation mark !
full stop, period .
guillemets ‹ › « »
hyphen ‐
hyphen-minus -
question mark ?
quotation marks ‘ ’ “ ” ' ' " "
semicolon ;
slash, stroke, solidus / ⁄
Word dividers
interpunct ·
space
General typography
ampersand &
asterisk *
at sign @
backslash \
bullet •
caret ^
dagger † ‡
degree °
ditto mark ”
inverted exclamation mark ¡
inverted question mark ¿
komejirushi, kome, reference mark ※
number sign, pound, hash, octothorpe #
numero sign №
obelus ÷
multiplication sign ×
ordinal indicator º ª
percent, per mil % ‰
plus and minus + −
equals sign =
basis point ‱
pilcrow ¶
prime ′ ″ ‴
section sign §
tilde ~
underscore, understrike _
vertical bar, pipe, broken bar | ‖ ¦
Intellectual property
copyright ©
sound-recording copyright ℗
registered trademark ®
service mark ℠
trademark ™
Currency
currency sign ¤
currency symbols

؋ ₳  ฿ ₿  ₵ ¢ ₡ ₢  $ ₫ ₯ ֏  ₠ €  ƒ ₣  ₲  ₴  ₭  ₺ ₾  ₼ ℳ ₥  ₦  ₧ ₱ ₰ £  元 圆 圓 ﷼ ៛ ₽ ₹ ₨  ₪  ৳ ₸ ₮  ₩  ¥ 円
Uncommon typography
asterism ⁂
hedera ❧
index, fist ☞
interrobang ‽
irony punctuation ⸮
lozenge ◊
tie ⁀
Related
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The at sign, @, normally read aloud as "at", also commonly called the at symbol or commercial at. In contemporary use, it is most commonly used in email addresses and social media platform "handles".
Originally it was an accounting and commercial invoice abbreviation meaning "at a rate of" (e.g. 7 widgets @ £2 = £14).[1] Although not included on the keyboard of the earliest commercially successful typewriters, it was on at least one 1889 model[2] and the very successful Underwood models from the "Underwood No. 5" in 1900 onward; and is now universally included on computer keyboards.
The fact that there is no single word in English for the symbol has prompted some writers to use the French arobase[3] or Spanish and Portuguese arroba, or to coin new words such as asperand,[4] ampersat[5] and strudel,[6] but none of these has achieved wide usage.
The mark is encoded as U+0040 @ Commercial AT (HTML @), or @ in HTML5.
Contents
[hide]
1 Theories of origin
2 History
3 Modern use
3.1 Commercial usage
3.2 Contemporary usage
3.3 Programming
3.4 Gender-neutrality in Spanish and Portuguese
3.5 Other uses and meanings
4 Names in other languages
5 Unicode variants
6 In culture
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Theories of origin[edit]
@ symbol used as the initial "a" for the "amin" (amen) formula in the Bulgarian of the Manasses Chronicle (c. 1345).
The Aragonese @ symbol used in the 1448 "taula de Ariza" registry to denote a wheat shipment from Castile to the Kingdom of Aragon.[7]
@ used to signify French "à" ("at") from a 1674 protocol from a Swedish court (Arboga rådhusrätt och magistrat)
The earliest yet discovered reference to the @ symbol is a religious one; it features in a Bulgarian translation of a Greek chronicle written by Constantinos Manasses in 1345 (See Figure left). Held today in the Vatican Apostolic Library,[8] it features the @ symbol in place of the capital letter alpha 'A' in the word Amen. Why it was used in this context is still a mystery.
In terms of the commercial character of the at sign, there are several theories pending verification.
One theory is that the symbol developed as a mercantile shorthand symbol of "each at," the symbol resembling a small "a" inside a small "e," to distinguish it from the different "at" (symbolized by the mere letter "a") or "per." For example, the cost of "12 apples @ $1" would be $12, whereas the cost of "12 apples at $1" would be $1, a crucial and necessary distinction.[citation needed]
Another theory is that medieval monks abbreviated the Latin word ad (at, toward, by, about) next to a numeral. One reason for the abbreviation saving space and ink. Since thousands of pages of biblical manuscripts were copied onto expensive papyrus or hides, and the words at, toward, by and about repeated millions of times throughout the pages, a considerable amount of resources could be spared this way. A theory concerning this graphic puts forward the idea that the form derives from the Latin word ad,[clarification needed], using the older form of lower case d : ∂, which persists as the partial derivative symbol.[citation needed]
It has been theorized that it was originally an abbreviation of the Greek preposition ανά (transliterated ana), meaning at the rate of or per.[citation needed]
Another theory is that it derives from the Norman French "à" meaning "at" in the "each" sense, i.e. "2 widgets à £5.50 = £11.00", comes the accountancy shorthand notation in English commercial vouchers and ledgers to the 1990s, when the email usage overtook the accountancy usage. It is also used like this in Modern French, Swedish or Czech; in this view, the at-symbol is a stylised form of à, which avoids raising the writing hand from the page in drawing the symbol. The compromise between @ and à in French handwriting is found in street market signs.[citation needed]
History[edit]
Whatever the origin of the @ symbol, the history of its usage is more well-known: it has long been used in Spanish and Portuguese as an abbreviation of arroba, a unit of weight equivalent to 25 pounds, and derived from the Arabic expression of "a quarter" (الربع pronounced ar-rubʿ).[9] An Italian academic claims to have traced the @ symbol to the 16th century, in a mercantile document sent by Florentine Francesco Lapi from Seville to Rome on May 4, 1536.[10] The document is about commerce with Pizarro, in particular the price of an @ of wine in Peru. In Italian, the symbol was interpreted to mean amphora (anfora). Currently, the word arroba means both the at-symbol and a unit of weight. In Italian, the symbol represents one amphora, a unit of weight and volume based upon the capacity of the standard amphora jar.
Until now the first historical document containing a symbol resembling a @ as a commercial one is the Spanish "Taula de Ariza", a registry to denote a wheat shipment from Castile to Aragon in 1448. Even though the oldest fully developed modern @ sign is the one found on the above-mentioned Florentine letter.[10]
Modern use[edit]
Commercial usage[edit]
In contemporary English usage, @ is a commercial symbol, called at site or at rate meaning at and at the rate of. It has rarely been used in financial documents[clarification needed] or grocers' price tags, and is not used in standard typography.[11]
Since 23 October 2012, the At-sign is registered as a trade mark by the German Patent and Trade Mark Office—DPMA (registration number 302012038338) for @T.E.L.L. While company promoters have claimed that it may from now on be illegal for other commercial interests to use the At-sign,[citation needed] this only applies to identical or confusingly similar goods [12] and no court, German or otherwise, has yet ruled on this purported illegality. A cancellation request was filed in 2013.[13]
Contemporary usage[edit]
Further information: Mention (blogging)
A common contemporary use of @ is in email addresses (using the SMTP system), as in jdoe@example.com (the user jdoe located at site the example.com domain). BBN Technologies' Ray Tomlinson is credited with introducing this usage in 1971.[14] This idea of the symbol representing located at in the form user@host is also seen in other tools and protocols; for example, the Unix shell command ssh jdoe@example.net tries to establish an ssh connection to the computer with the hostname example.net using the username jdoe.
On web pages, organizations often obscure email addresses of their members or employees by omitting the @. This practice, known as address munging, makes the email addresses less vulnerable to spam programs that scan the internet for them.
On some online forums without threaded discussions, @ is used to denote a reply; for instance: "@Jane" to respond to a comment Jane made earlier. Similarly, in some cases, @ is used for "attention" in email messages originally sent to someone else. For example, if an email was sent from Catherine to Steve, but in the body of the email, Catherine wants to make Keirsten aware of something, Catherine will start the line "@Keirsten" to indicate to Keirsten that the following sentence concerns her. This also helps with mobile email users who cannot see bold or color in email.
In microblogging (such as Twitter and GNU social-based microblogs), @ before the user name is used to send publicly readable replies (e.g. "@otheruser: Message text here"). The blog and client software can automatically interpret these as links to the user in question. When included as part of a person's or company's contact details, an @ symbol followed by a name is normally understood to refer to a Twitter ID. A similar use of the @ symbol was also made available to Facebook users on September 15, 2009.[15] In Internet Relay Chat (IRC), it is shown before users' nicks to denote they have operator status on a channel.
In American English the @ can be used to add information about a sporting event. Where opposing sports teams have their names separated by a "v" (for versus), the away team can be written first - and the normal "v" replaced with @ to convey at which team's home field the game will be played.[16] This usage is not followed in British English, since conventionally the home team is written first.
In some communities, @ is, against current trends, appended to the end of the nick, e.g. deraadt@, to preserve its original meaning − "<nick> at (this site/community)".
Programming[edit]
@ is used in various programming languages although there is not a consistent theme to its usage. For example:
In ALGOL 68, the @ symbol is brief form of the at keyword; it is used to change the lower bound of an array. For example: arrayx[@88] now refers to an array starting at index 88.
In ActionScript, @ is used in XML parsing and traversal as a string prefix to identify attributes in contrast to child elements.
In CSS, @ is used in special statements outside of a CSS block.
In C#, it denotes "verbatim strings", where no characters are escaped and two double-quote characters represent a single double-quote.[17] As a prefix it also allows keywords to be used as identifiers,[18] a form of stropping.
In DIGITAL Command Language, the @ character was the command used to execute a command procedure. To run the command procedure VMSINSTAL.COM, one would type @VMSINSTAL at the command prompt.
In the ASP.NET MVC Razor template markup syntax, the @ character denotes the start of code statement blocks or the start of text content.[19][20]
In Forth, it is used to fetch values from the address on the top of the stack. The operator is pronounced as "fetch".
In Haskell, it is used in so-called as-patterns. This notation can be used to give aliases to patterns, making them more readable.
In Java, it has been used to denote annotations, a kind of metadata, since version 5.0.
In LiveCode, it is prefixed to a parameter to indicate that the parameter is passed by reference.
In ML, it denotes list concatenation.
In modal logic, specifically when representing possible worlds, @ is sometimes used as a logical symbol to denote the actual world (the world we are 'at').
In Objective-C, @ is prefixed to language-specific keywords such as @implementation and to form string literals.
In Pascal, @ is the "address of" operator (it tells the location at which a variable is found).
In Perl, @ prefixes variables which contain arrays @array, including array slices @array[2..5,7,9] and hash slices @hash{'foo', 'bar', 'baz'} or @hash{qw(foo bar baz)}. This use is known as a sigil.
In PHP, it is used just before an expression to make the interpreter suppress errors that would be generated from that expression.[21]
In Python 2.4 and up, it is used to decorate a function (wrap the function in another one at creation time). In Python 3.5 and up, it is also used as an overloadable matrix multiplication operator.
In Ruby, it functions as a sigil: @ prefixes instance variables, and @@ prefixes class variables.
In Scala, it is used to denote annotations (as in Java), and also to bind names to subpatterns in pattern-matching expressions.
In Swift, @ prefixes "annotations" that can be applied to classes or members. Annotations tell the compiler to apply special semantics to the declaration like keywords, without adding keywords to the language.
In T-SQL, @ prefixes variables and @@ prefixes niladic system functions.
In several xBase-type programming languages, like DBASE, FoxPro/Visual FoxPro and Clipper, it is used to denote position on the screen. For example: @1,1 SAY "HELLO" to show the word "HELLO" in line 1, column 1.
In FoxPro/Visual FoxPro, it is also used to indicate explicit pass by reference of variables when calling procedures or functions (but it is not an address operator).[22]
In Windows PowerShell, @ is used as array operator for array and hash table literals and for enclosing here-string literals.[23]
In the Domain Name System, @ is used to represent the $ORIGIN, typically the "root" of the domain without a prefixed sub-domain. (Ex: wikipedia.org vs. www.wikipedia.org)
Gender-neutrality in Spanish and Portuguese[edit]
Main article: Gender-neutrality in Spanish and Portuguese
In Portuguese and Spanish, where many words end in '-o' when in the masculine gender and end '-a' in the feminine, @ is sometimes used as a gender-neutral substitute for the default 'o' ending.[24] For example, the word amigos traditionally represents not only male friends, but also a mixed group, or where the genders are not known. The proponents of gender-inclusive language would replace it with amig@s in these latter two cases, and use amigos only when the group referred to is all-male - and amigas only when the group is all female. The Real Academia Española disapproves of this usage.[25]
Other uses and meanings[edit]
In (especially English) scientific and technical literature, @ is used to describe the conditions under which data are valid or a measurement has been made. E.g. the density of saltwater may read d = 1.050 g/cm3 @ 15 °C (read "at" for @), density of a gas d = 0.150 g/L @ 20 °C, 1 bar, or noise of a car 81 dB @ 80 km/h (speed).
As an abbreviation for alias in articles about missing persons, obituaries, brief reports - for instance: "John Smith @ Jean Smyth" (a possible abbreviation of aka).[citation needed] For example, a Chinese Singaporean may use two transliterations of his or her Chinese name (e.g., Mao Tse-Tung @ Mao Zedong).
In chemical formulae, @ is used to denote trapped atoms or molecules. For instance, La@C60 means lanthanum inside a fullerene cage. See article Endohedral fullerene for details.
In Malagasy, @ is an informal abbreviation for the prepositional form amin'ny.
In genetics, @ is the abbreviation for locus, as in IGL@ for immunoglobulin lambda locus.
In the Koalib language of Sudan, @ is used as a letter in Arabic loanwords. The Unicode Consortium rejected a proposal to encode it separately as a letter in Unicode, but SIL International uses Private Use Area code points U+F247 and U+F248 for lowercase and capital versions.[26]
A schwa, as the actual schwa character "ə" may be difficult to produce on many computers. It is used in this capacity in the ASCII IPA schemes SAMPA, X-SAMPA and Kirshenbaum.
In leet it may substitute for the letter "A".
It is frequently used in typing and text messaging as an abbreviation for "at".
In Portugal it may be used in typing and text messaging with the meaning "french kiss" (linguado).
In online discourse, @ is used by some anarchists as a substitute for the traditional circle-A.
Names in other languages[edit]
In many languages other than English, although most typewriters included the symbol, the use of @ was less common before email became widespread in the mid-1990s. Consequently, it is often perceived in those languages as denoting "the Internet", computerization, or modernization in general.
In Afrikaans, it is called aapstert, meaning "monkey tail", similarly to the Dutch use of the word.
In Arabic, it is آتْ (at).
In Armenian, it is շնիկ (shnik), which means "puppy".
In Azeri, it is ət (at), which means "meat".
In Basque, it is a bildua ("wrapped A").
In Belarusian, it is called сьлімак (ślimak, meaning "helix" or "snail").
In Bosnian, it is ludo a ("crazy A").
In Bulgarian, it is called кльомба (klyomba—"a badly written letter"), маймунско а (maymunsko a—"monkey A"), маймунка (maimunka—"little monkey"), or баница ("banitsa" - a pastry roll often made in a shape similar to the character)
In Catalan, it is called arrova ("a unit of measure") or ensaïmada (because of the similar shape of this food).
In Chinese:
In mainland China, it used to be called 圈A (pronounced quān A), meaning "circled A / enclosed A", or 花A (pronounced huā A), meaning "lacy A", and sometimes as 小老鼠 (pronounced xiǎo lǎoshǔ), meaning "little mouse".[27] Nowadays, for most of China's youth, it is called 艾特 (pronounced ài tè), which is the phonetic transcription from "at".
In Taiwan, it is 小老鼠 (pronounced xiǎo lǎoshǔ), meaning "little mouse".
In Hong Kong and Macau, it is at.
In Croatian, it is most often referred to by the English word "at". Informally, it is called a manki, coming from the local pronunciation of the English word "monkey". Note that the Croatian word for monkey, majmun, is not used to denote the symbol.
In Czech and Slovak, it is called zavináč, which means "rollmops".
In Danish, it is snabel-a ("elephant's trunk A"). It is not used for prices, where in Danish a alone means at (per piece).
In Dutch, it is called apenstaartje ("[little] monkey tail"). The "a" is the first character of the Dutch word "aap" which means "monkey". However, the use of the English "at" has become increasingly popular in Dutch.
In Esperanto, it is called ĉe-signo ("at" – for the email use, with an address like "zamenhof@esperanto.org" pronounced zamenhof ĉe esperanto punkto org), po-signo ("each"—refers only to the mathematical use), or heliko (meaning "snail").
In Estonian, it is called ätt, from the English word "at".
In Faroese, it is kurla, hjá ("at"), tranta, or snápil-a ("[elephant's] trunk A").
In Finnish, it was originally called taksamerkki ("fee sign") or yksikköhinnan merkki ("unit price sign"), but these names are long obsolete and now rarely understood. Nowadays, it is officially ät-merkki, according to the national standardization institute SFS; frequently also spelled "at-merkki". Other names include kissanhäntä ("cat's tail") and miukumauku ("miaow-meow").
In French, it is now officially the arobase[28][29] (also spelled arrobase or arrobe), or a commercial (though this is most commonly used in French-speaking Canada, and should normally only be used when quoting prices; it should always be called arobase or, better yet, arobas when in an email address). Its origin is the same as that of the Spanish word, which could be derived from the Arabic ar-roub. In France, it is also common (especially for younger generations) to say the English word "at" when spelling out an email address.[citation needed] In everyday Québec French, one often hears a commercial when sounding out an e-mail address, while TV and radio hosts are more likely to use arobase.
In Georgian, it is at, spelled ეთ–ი (კომერციული ეთ–ი).
In German, it has sometimes been referred to as Klammeraffe (meaning "spider monkey") or Affenschwanz. Klammeraffe or Affenschwanz refer to the similarity of @ to the tail of a monkey grabbing a branch. Lately, it has mostly been called at, just like in English.
In Greek, it is most often referred to as παπάκι (papaki), meaning "duckling", due to the similarity it bears with comic character designs for ducks.
In Greenlandic, and Inuit language, it is called aajusaq meaning "A-like" or "something that looks like A".
In Hebrew, it is colloquially known as שטרודל (shtrudel), due to the visual resemblance to a cross-section cut of a strudel cake. The normative term, invented by the Academy of the Hebrew Language, is כרוכית (krukhit), which is another Hebrew word for "strudel", but is rarely used.
In Hindi, it is at, from the English word.
In Hungarian, it is called kukac (a playful synonym for "worm" or "maggot").
In Icelandic, it is referred to as atmerkið ("the at sign") or hjá, which is a direct translation of the English word "at".
In Indian English, speakers often say at the rate of (with e-mail addresses quoted as "example at the rate of example.com").
In Indonesian, it is usually et. Variations exist – especially if verbal communication is very noisy – such as a bundar and a bulat (both meaning "circled A"), a keong ("snail A"), and (most rarely) a monyet ("monkey A").
In Irish, it is ag (meaning "at") or comhartha @/ag (meaning "at sign").
In Italian, it is chiocciola ("snail") or a commerciale, sometimes at (pronounced more often [ˈɛt] and rarely [ˈat]) or ad.
In Japanese, it is called attomāku (アットマーク, from the English words "at mark"). The word is wasei-eigo, a loan word from the English language. It is sometimes called Naruto, because of Naruto whirlpools or food (Narutomaki).
In Kazakh, it is officially called айқұлақ ("moon's ear"), sometimes unofficial as ит басы ("dog's head").
In Korean, it is called golbaeng-i (골뱅이, meaning "bai top shells"), a dialectal form of whelk.
In Kurdish, it is ئه ت at, from the English word.
In Kyrgyz, it is officially called маймылча ("monkey"), sometimes unofficially as собачка ("doggy"), and et.
In Latvian, it is pronounced the same as in English, but, since in Latvian [æ] is written as "e" (not "a" as in English), it is sometimes written as et.
In Lithuanian, it is et (equivalent to the English "at").
In Luxembourgish it used to be called Afeschwanz ("monkey tail"), but due to widespread use, it is now called at, as in English.
In Macedonian, it is called мајмунче (my-moon-cheh—"little monkey").
In Malay, it is called alias when it is used in names and di when it is used in email addresses. It is also commonly used to abbreviate atau which means "or" or "either".
In Morse code (not a language), it is known as a "commat", consisting of the Morse code for the "A" and "C" which run together as one character: ·--·-·. The symbol was added in 2004 for use with email addresses,[30] the only official change to Morse code since World War I.
In Nepali, the symbol is called "at the rate." Commonly, people will give their email addresses by including the phrase "at the rate."
In Norwegian, it is officially called krøllalfa ("curly alpha" or "alpha twirl"). (The alternate alfakrøll is also common, but is not its official name.) Sometimes snabel-a, the Swedish/Danish name (which means "trunk A", as in "elephant's trunk"), is used. Commonly, people will call the symbol [æt] (as in English), particularly when giving their email addresses.
In Persian, it is at, from the English word.
In Polish, it is called, both officially and commonly, małpa ("monkey"). Rarely an English word "at" is used.
In Portuguese, it is called arroba (from the Arabic arrub). The word "arroba" is also used for a weight measure in Portuguese. One arroba is equivalent to 32 old Portuguese pounds, approximately 14.7 kg, and both the weight and the symbol are called arroba. In Brazil, cattle are still priced by the arroba – now rounded to 15 kg. (This occurs because the same sign was used to represent the same measure.)
In Romanian, it is most commonly called at, but also colloquially called Coadă de maimuţă ("monkey tail") or a-rond. The latter is commonly used, and it comes from the word "round" (from its shape), but that is nothing like the mathematical symbol A-rond (rounded A). Others call it aron, or la (Romanian word for at).
@ on a DVK Soviet computer (c. 1984)
In Russian, it is most commonly собака (sobaka, meaning "dog"). The name "dog" has come from Soviet computers DVK where the symbol had a short tail and similarity to a dog.
In Serbian, it is called лудо А (ludo A—"crazy A"), мајмунче (majmunče—"little monkey"), or мајмун (majmun—"monkey").
In Slovak, it is called zavináč ("pickled fish roll", as in Czech).
In Slovenian, it is called afna ("monkey" (informally)).
In Spanish-speaking countries, it denotes a pre-metric unit of weight. While there are regional variations in Spain and Mexico, it is typically considered to represent approximately 25 pounds (11.5 kg), and both the weight and the symbol are called arroba.
In Swedish, it is called snabel-a ("elephant's trunk A") or simply at, as in the English language. Less formally it is also known as kanelbulle ("cinnamon roll") or alfakrull ("alpha curl").
In Swiss German, it is commonly called Affenschwanz ("monkey-tail"). However, the use of the English ´at´ has been coming increasingly popular in German.
In Tagalog, the word at means "and"; the symbol is thus used like an ampersand in colloquial writing such as text messages (e.g. magluto @ kumain, "cook and eat").
In Thai, it is commonly called at, as in English.
In Turkish, it is commonly called et, like in English but written in Turkish letters.
In Ukrainian, it is commonly called ет (et—"at"), other names being равлик (ravlyk—"snail"), слимачок (slymachok—"little slug"), вухо (vukho—"ear"), and песик (pesyk—"little dog").
In Urdu, it is اٹ (at).
In Uzbek, it is called kuchukcha, which loosely means "doggy"—a direct calque from Russian.
In Vietnamese, it is called a còng ("bent A") in the north and a móc ("hooked A") in the south.
In Welsh, it is sometimes known as a malwen or malwoden (both meaning "snail").
Unicode variants[edit]
U+0040 @ Commercial AT (HTML @)
U+FF20 ＠ Fullwidth commercial at (HTML ＠)
U+FE6B ﹫ Small commercial at (HTML ﹫)
In culture[edit]
The Museum of Modern Art admitted the at sign to its architecture and design collection.[27]
Author Philip Pullman added the category of "things that were invented for one purpose, but are used for another" to his "Museum of Curiosity" collection with the @ as an example.[31]
John Lloyd, pledged on QI series A DVD to support widespread use of the term "Astatine" to refer to the symbol. This name was chosen as the chemical element astatine has the chemical symbol "At".[32]
American R&B singer Usher used a version of the at sign in his career, where the "a" was replaced with the vowel "u" from his name. Puerto Rican artist Miguelito also uses his version of the at sign where the "a" is replaced by the letter "m" from his name in his own line of merchandise that includes clothes, school supplies, his studio albums, etc.
A Chinese couple tried to name their son @—pronouncing it "ai ta" or "love him"—according to the Chinese State Language Commission.[33][34]
In the 1980 video game Rogue, presented in ASCII graphics, the player character is represented by the @. Many similar games, called Roguelikes, use the same presentation, and traditionally use the @ to represent the player character as well.
See also[edit]
Circle-A
Enclosed A (Ⓐ, ⓐ)
ASCII
Unicode
References[edit]
Jump up ^ See, for example, Browns Index to Photocomposition Typography (p. 37), Greenwood Publishing, 1983, ISBN 0946824002
Jump up ^ "The @-symbol, part 2 of 2", Shady Characters ⌂ The secret life of punctuation
Jump up ^ "Short Cuts", Daniel Soar, Vol. 31 No. 10 · 28 May 2009 page 18, London Review of Books
Jump up ^ "New York's Moma claims @ as a design classic", Jemima Kiss, 28 March 2010, The Observer
Jump up ^ "… Tim Gowens offered the highly logical "ampersat" …", 05 February 1996, The Independent
Jump up ^ "strudel". FOLDOC. Retrieved 2014-11-21.
Jump up ^ "La arroba no es de Sevilla (ni de Italia)". purnas.com. Jorge Romance. Retrieved 2009-06-30.
Jump up ^ "Chronicle of Constantinus Manasses". www.worldcat.org. Retrieved 2016-03-08.
Jump up ^ "arroba". Diccionario de la Real Academia Española. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Willan, Philip (2000-07-31). "Merchant@Florence Wrote It First 500 Years Ago". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2010-04-25.
Jump up ^ Bringhurst, Robert (2002). The Elements of Typographic Style (version 2.5), p.272. Vancouver: Hartley & Marks. ISBN 0-88179-133-4.
Jump up ^ Article 5 Trade Marks Directive, as interpreted in Case C-251/95 Sabel BV v Puma AG [1997] ECR I-6191
Jump up ^ same source
Jump up ^ "The First Email". Archived from the original on 2006-05-06.
Jump up ^ "Tag Friends in Your Status and Posts - Facebook Blog".
Jump up ^ For an example, see: http://www.nfl.com/schedules
Jump up ^ 2.4.4.5 String literals,
Jump up ^ "2.4.2 Identifiers".
Jump up ^ Phil Haack. "Razor syntax quick reference".
Jump up ^ ASP.NET MVC 3: Razor’s @: and <text> syntax
Jump up ^ PHP: Error Control Operators – Manual
Jump up ^ "Visual FoxPro Programming Language Online Help: SET UDFPARMS (Command), or MSDN Library 'How to: Pass Data to Parameters by Reference'.". Microsoft, Inc. Retrieved 2011-02-19.
Jump up ^ "Windows PowerShell Language Specification 3.0 (PDF)".
Jump up ^ Martell-Otero, Loida (Fall 2009). "Doctoral Studies as Llamamiento, or How We All Need to be 'Ugly Betty'". Perspectivas: 84–106.
Jump up ^ DPD 1ͺ ediciσn, 2ͺ tirada
Jump up ^ Constable, Peter, and Lorna A. Priest (October 12, 2009) SIL Corporate PUA Assignments 5.2a. SIL International. pp. 59-60. Retrieved on April 12, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Why @ Is Held in Such High Design Esteem". The New York Times, Alice Rawsthorn, March 21, 2010. 2010-03-22. Archived from the original on 24 March 2010. Retrieved 2010-04-25.
Jump up ^ "At last, France has a name for the @ sign", December 9, 2002, iol.co.za
Jump up ^ Orthographe fixée par la Commission générale de terminologie et de néologie (Journal officiel du 8 décembre 2002)
Jump up ^ "The ARRL Letter", Vol. 23, No. 18, April 30, 2004
Jump up ^ "Meeting Twelve – P-51 Mustang, Tempting Fate, Inventions Being Used for Things They Weren't Designed For". The Museum of Curiosity. Season 2. Episode 6. 8 June 2009.
Jump up ^ John Lloyd and John Mitchinson (6 November 2006). QI – The Complete First Series: "Factoids" (Audio Commentary) (DVD). BBC and 2 Entertain. OCLC 271537078. UPC 5014503232528.
Jump up ^ "English invades Chinese language", August 17, 2007", People's Daily Online
Jump up ^ "Couple try to name baby @", August 17, 2007, NZ Herald
External links[edit]
Look up commercial-at or at sign in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to At sign.
commercial-at at the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing
"The Accidental History of the @ Symbol ", Smithsonian magazine, September 2012, Retrieved June 2013.
The @-symbol, part 1, intermission, part 2, addenda, Shady Characters ⌂ The secret life of punctuation August 2011, Retrieved June 2013.
"Daniel Soar on @", London Review of Books, Vol. 31 No. 10, 28 May 2009, Retrieved June 2013.
ascii64 – the @ book – free download (creative commons) – by patrik sneyd – foreword by luigi colani) November 2006, Retrieved June 2013.
A Natural History of the @ Sign The many names of the at sign in various languages, 1997, Retrieved June 2013.
Sum: the @ Symbol, LINGUIST List 7.968 July 1996, Retrieved June 2013.
Where it's At: names for a common symbol World Wide Words August 1996, Retrieved June 2013.
UK Telegraph Article: Chinese parents choose to name their baby "@" August 2007, Retrieved June 2013.
Tom Chatfield tells the story of the @ sign on Medium
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=At_sign&oldid=807053367"
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