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Auguste Comte
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Auguste Comte
Auguste Comte by Tony Touillon.
Born
Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte
(1798-01-19)19 January 1798
Montpellier, France
Died
5 September 1857(1857-09-05) (aged 59)
Paris, France
Nationality
French
Alma mater
University of Montpellier
École Polytechnique
Spouse(s)
Caroline Massin (m. 1825–1842)
Era
19th-century philosophy
Region
Western philosophy
Notable ideas
Sociological positivism, law of three stages, encyclopedic law, altruism
Influences[show]
Bacon, Bichat, Condorcet, Descartes, Saint-Simon,[1] Denis Diderot[2]
Influenced[show]
Émile Littré, Karl Marx, Charles Darwin, Sigmund Freud, John Stuart Mill, Friedrich Nietzsche, Herbert Spencer, Émile Durkheim, Charles Maurras,[3] Harriet Martineau, Pierre Laffitte, Eugen Dühring
Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte (pronounced [oɡyst kɔ̃t] ( listen); 19 January 1798 – 5 September 1857)[4] was a French philosopher who founded the discipline of praxeology[5] and the doctrine of positivism. He is sometimes regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.[6]
Influenced by the utopian socialist Henri Saint-Simon,[4] Comte developed the positive philosophy in an attempt to remedy the social malaise of the French Revolution, calling for a new social doctrine based on the sciences. Comte was a major influence on 19th-century thought, influencing the work of social thinkers such as Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, and George Eliot.[7] His concept of sociologie and social evolutionism set the tone for early social theorists and anthropologists such as Harriet Martineau and Herbert Spencer, evolving into modern academic sociology presented by Émile Durkheim as practical and objective social research.
Comte's social theories culminated in his "Religion of Humanity",[4] which presaged the development of non-theistic religious humanist and secular humanist organizations in the 19th century. Comte may have coined the word altruisme (altruism).[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Life
2 Thought
2.1 Comte's positivism
2.2 The religion of humanity
2.3 Law of three stages
3 Bibliography
4 Notes
5 Sources
6 Further reading
7 External links
Life[edit]
Auguste Comte was born in Montpellier,[4] Hérault on 19 January 1798. After attending the Lycée Joffre[9] and then the University of Montpellier, Comte was admitted to the École Polytechnique in Paris. The École Polytechnique was notable for its adherence to the French ideals of republicanism and progress. The École closed in 1816 for reorganization, however, and Comte continued his studies at the medical school at Montpellier. When the École Polytechnique reopened, he did not request readmission.
Following his return to Montpellier, Comte soon came to see unbridgeable differences with his Catholic and monarchist family and set off again for Paris, earning money by small jobs. In August 1817 he found an apartment at 36 rue Bonaparte in Paris' 6ème (where he lived until 1822) and later that year he became a student and secretary to Henri de Saint-Simon, who brought Comte into contact with intellectual society and greatly influenced his thought therefrom. During that time Comte published his first essays in the various publications headed by Saint-Simon, L'Industrie, Le Politique, and L'Organisateur (Charles Dunoyer and Charles Comte's Le Censeur Européen), although he would not publish under his own name until 1819's "La séparation générale entre les opinions et les désirs" ("The general separation of opinions and desires"). In 1824, Comte left Saint-Simon, again because of unbridgeable differences. Comte published a Plan de travaux scientifiques nécessaires pour réorganiser la société (1822) (Plan of scientific studies necessary for the reorganization of society). But he failed to get an academic post. His day-to-day life depended on sponsors and financial help from friends. Debates rage as to how much Comte appropriated the work of Saint-Simon.[1]
Comte married Caroline Massin in 1825. In 1826, he was taken to a mental health hospital, but left without being cured – only stabilized by French alienist Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol – so that he could work again on his plan (he would later attempt suicide in 1827 by jumping off the Pont des Arts). In the time between this and their divorce in 1842, he published the six volumes of his Cours.
Comte developed a close friendship with John Stuart Mill. From 1844, he fell deeply in love with the Catholic Clotilde de Vaux, although because she was not divorced from her first husband, their love was never consummated. After her death in 1846 this love became quasi-religious, and Comte, working closely with Mill (who was refining his own such system) developed a new "Religion of Humanity". John Kells Ingram, an adherent of Comte, visited him in Paris in 1855.
He published four volumes of Système de politique positive (1851–1854). His final work, the first volume of La Synthèse Subjective ("The Subjective Synthesis"), was published in 1856.
Comte died in Paris on 5 September 1857 from stomach cancer and was buried in the famous Père Lachaise Cemetery, surrounded by cenotaphs in memory of his mother, Rosalie Boyer, and of Clotilde de Vaux. His apartment from 1841–1857 is now conserved as the Maison d'Auguste Comte and is located at 10 rue Monsieur-le-Prince, in Paris' 6th arrondissement.
Thought[edit]
Comte's positivism[edit]
Main articles: Positivism and Law of three stages
Comte first described the epistemological perspective of positivism in The Course in Positive Philosophy, a series of texts published between 1830 and 1842. These texts were followed by the 1848 work, A General View of Positivism (published in English in 1865). The first three volumes of the Course dealt chiefly with the physical sciences already in existence (mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology), whereas the latter two emphasised the inevitable coming of social science. Observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in science, and classifying the sciences in this way, Comte may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.[10] Comte was also the first to distinguish natural philosophy from science explicitly. For him, the physical sciences had necessarily to arrive first, before humanity could adequately channel its efforts into the most challenging and complex "Queen science" of human society itself. His work View of Positivism would therefore set out to define, in more detail, the empirical goals of sociological method.[citation needed]
Comte offered an account of social evolution, proposing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to a general 'law of three stages'.
Comte's stages were (1) the theological stage, (2) the metaphysical stage, and (3) the positive stage.[11] (1) The Theological stage was seen from the perspective of 19th century France as preceding the Age of Enlightenment, in which man's place in society and society's restrictions upon man were referenced to God. Man blindly believed in whatever he was taught by his ancestors. He believed in a supernatural power. Fetishism played a significant role during this time. (2) By the "Metaphysical" stage, Comte referred not to the Metaphysics of Aristotle or other ancient Greek philosophers. Rather, the idea was rooted in the problems of French society subsequent to the French Revolution of 1789. This Metaphysical stage involved the justification of universal rights as being on a vauntedly higher plane than the authority of any human ruler to countermand, although said rights were not referenced to the sacred beyond mere metaphor. This stage is known as the stage of investigation, because people started reasoning and questioning, although no solid evidence was laid. The stage of investigation was the beginning of a world that questioned authority and religion. (3) In the Scientific stage, which came into being after the failure of the revolution and of Napoleon, people could find solutions to social problems and bring them into force despite the proclamations of human rights or prophecy of the will of God. Science started to answer questions in full stretch. In this regard he was similar to Karl Marx and Jeremy Bentham. For its time, this idea of a Scientific stage was considered up-to-date, although from a later standpoint, it is too derivative of classical physics and academic history. Comte's law of three stages was one of the first theories of social evolutionism.
Comte's Theory of Science – According to Comte, the whole of the sciences consists of theoretical and applied knowledge. Theoretical knowledge can generally be divided into physics and biology, which are the object of his research and can be further partitioned into subfields such as botany, zoology or mineralogy. Comte's ranking of scientific fields - in order, mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and sociology - symbolizes a decreasing range of research and complexity of theoretical tools, but a growing complexity of the phenomena under investigation. Each field in this ranking depends upon those that came before it; for instance, our understanding of chemistry depends upon our understanding of physics, as all chemical phenomena are more complicated than the physics that underlie them, and although the laws of chemistry are affected by the laws of physics, the converse is not true. Similarly, sciences that appear earlier in Comte's hierarchy are considered to be older and more advanced than those which come later.
The other universal law he called the "encyclopedic law". By combining these laws, Comte developed a systematic and hierarchical classification of all sciences, including inorganic physics (astronomy, earth science and chemistry) and organic physics (biology and, for the first time, physique sociale, later renamed sociologie). Independently from Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès's introduction of the term in 1780, Comte re-invented "sociologie", and introduced the term as a neologism, in 1838. Comte had earlier used the term "social physics", but that term had been appropriated by others, notably by Adolphe Quetelet.
"The most important thing to determine was the natural order in which the sciences stand — not how they can be made to stand, but how they must stand, irrespective of the wishes of any one....This Comte accomplished by taking as the criterion of the position of each the degree of what he called "positivity", which is simply the degree to which the phenomena can be exactly determined. This, as may be readily seen, is also a measure of their relative complexity, since the exactness of a science is in inverse proportion to its complexity. The degree of exactness or positivity is, moreover, that to which it can be subjected to mathematical demonstration, and therefore mathematics, which is not itself a concrete science, is the general gauge by which the position of every science is to be determined. Generalizing thus, Comte found that there were five great groups of phenomena of equal classificatory value but of successively decreasing positivity. To these he gave the names: astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology."
—  Lester F. Ward, The Outlines of Sociology (1898)
This idea of a special science (not the humanities, not metaphysics) for the social was prominent in the 19th century and not unique to Comte. It has recently been discovered that the term "sociology" (as a term considered coined by Comte) had already been introduced in 1780, albeit with a different meaning, by the French essayist Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès (1748–1836).[12] The ambitious (or many would say 'grandiose') way that Comte conceived of this special science of the social, however, was unique. Comte saw this new science, sociology, as the last and greatest of all sciences, one which would include all other sciences and integrate and relate their findings into a cohesive whole. It has to be pointed out, however, that he noted a seventh science, one even greater than sociology. Namely, Comte considered "Anthropology, or true science of Man [to be] the last gradation in the Grand Hierarchy of Abstract Science."[13]
The motto Ordem e Progresso ("Order and Progress") in the flag of Brazil is inspired by Auguste Comte's motto of positivism: L'amour pour principe et l'ordre pour base; le progrès pour but ("Love as a principle and order as the basis; Progress as the goal"). Several of those involved in the military coup d'état that deposed the Empire of Brazil and proclaimed Brazil to be a republic were followers of the ideas of Comte.[14]
Comte's explanation of the Positive philosophy introduced the important relationship between theory, practice and human understanding of the world. On page 27 of the 1855 printing of Harriet Martineau's translation of The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte, we see his observation that, "If it is true that every theory must be based upon observed facts, it is equally true that facts can not be observed without the guidance of some theories. Without such guidance, our facts would be desultory and fruitless; we could not retain them: for the most part we could not even perceive them."[15]
Comte's emphasis on the interconnectedness of social elements was a forerunner of modern functionalism. Nevertheless, as with many others of Comte's time, certain elements of his work are now viewed as eccentric and unscientific, and his grand vision of sociology as the centerpiece of all the sciences has not come to fruition.
His emphasis on a quantitative, mathematical basis for decision-making remains with us today. It is a foundation of the modern notion of Positivism, modern quantitative statistical analysis, and business decision-making. His description of the continuing cyclical relationship between theory and practice is seen in modern business systems of Total Quality Management (TQM) and Continuous Quality Improvement where advocates describe a continuous cycle of theory and practice through the four-part cycle of Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA, the Shewhart cycle). Despite his advocacy of quantitative analysis, Comte saw a limit in its ability to help explain social phenomena.
The early sociology of Herbert Spencer came about broadly as a reaction to Comte; writing after various developments in evolutionary biology, Spencer attempted to reformulate the discipline in what we might now describe as socially Darwinistic terms.
Comte's fame today owes in part to Émile Littré, who founded The Positivist Review in 1867. Debates continue to rage, however, as to how much Comte appropriated from the work of his mentor, Henri de Saint-Simon.
Comte influenced the Young Turks political movement.[16]
The religion of humanity[edit]
Positivist temple in Porto Alegre
In later years, Comte developed the 'religion of humanity' for positivist societies in order to fulfil the cohesive function once held by traditional worship. In 1849, he proposed a calendar reform called the 'positivist calendar'. For close associate John Stuart Mill, it was possible to distinguish between a "good Comte" (the author of the Course in Positive Philosophy) and a "bad Comte" (the author of the secular-religious system).[10] The system was unsuccessful but met with the publication of Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) to influence the proliferation of various Secular Humanist organizations in the 19th century, especially through the work of secularists such as George Holyoake and Richard Congreve. Although Comte's English followers, including George Eliot and Harriet Martineau, for the most part rejected the full gloomy panoply of his system, they liked the idea of a religion of humanity and his injunction to "vivre pour autrui" ("live for others"), from which comes the word "altruism".[17]
Law of three stages[edit]
Main article: Law of three stages
Comte was agitated by the fact that no one had synthesized physics, chemistry, and biology into a coherent system of ideas, so he began an attempt to reasonably deduce facts about the social world from the use of the sciences. Through his studies, he concluded that the growth of the human mind progresses in stages, and so must societies. He claimed the history of society could be divided into three different stages: theological, metaphysical, and positive. The Law of three Stages, an evolutionary theory, describes how history of societies is split into three sections due to new thoughts on philosophy. Comte believed that evolution was the growth of the human mind, splitting into stages and evolving through these stages. Comte concluded that society acts similarly to the mind.[18]
"The law is this: that each of our leading conceptions – each branch of our knowledge – passes successively through three different theoretical conditions: the Theological, or fictitious; the Metaphysical, or abstract; and the Scientific, or positive." — A. Comte[19]
The Law of Three Stages is the evolution of society in which the stages have already occurred or are currently developing. The reason why there are newly developed stages after a certain time period is that the system “has lost its power” and is preventing the progression of civilization, causing complicated situations in society. 10.[20] The only way to escape the situation is for people within the civilized nations to turn towards an “organic” new social system. Comte refers to kings to show the complications of re-establishment on society. Kings feel the need to reorganize their kingdom, but many fail to succeed because they do not consider that the progress of civilization needs reform, not perceiving that there is nothing more perfect than inserting a new, more harmonious system. Kings fail to see the effectiveness of abandoning old systems because they do not understand the nature of the present crisis. But in order to progress, there needs to be the necessary consequences that come with it, which is caused by a “series of modifications, independent of the human will, to which all classes of society contributed, and of which kings themselves have often been the first agents and most eager promoters”.[20] The people themselves have the ability to produce a new system. This pattern is shown through the theological stage, metaphysical stage, and positive stage.
Theological Stage
The first stage, the theological stage, relies on supernatural or religious explanations of the phenomena of human behavior because “the human mind, in its search for the primary and final causes of phenomena, explains the apparent anomalies in the universe as interventions of supernatural agents”.[21] The Theological Stage is the “necessary starting point of human intelligence”, when humans turn to supernatural agents as the cause of all phenomena.[22] In this stage, humans focus on discovering absolute knowledge. Comte disapproved this stage because it turned to simple explanation humans created in their minds that all phenomena was caused by supernatural agents, rather than human reason and experience. Comte refers to Bacon’s philosophy that “there can be no real knowledge except that which rests upon observed facts”, but he observes that the primitive mind could not have thought that way because it would have only created a vicious circle between observations and theories.[22] “For if, on the one hand, every positive theory must necessarily be founded upon observations, it is, on the other hand, no less true that, in order to observe, our mind has need of some theory or other".[22] Because the human mind could not have thought in that way in the origin of human knowledge, Comte claims that humans would have been “incapable of remembering facts”, and would not have escaped the circle if it were not for theological conceptions, which were less complicated explanations to human life.[22] Although Comte disliked this stage, he explains that theology was necessary in the beginning of the developing primitive mind.
Fetishism
Polytheism
Monotheism
Metaphysical or Abstract Stage
The second stage, the metaphysical stage, is merely a modification of the first because a supernatural cause is replaced by an “abstract entity”;[21] it is meant to be a transitional stage, where there is the belief that abstract forces control the behavior of human beings. Because it is a transitional stage between the theological stage and the positive stage, Comte deemed it the least important of the three stages and was only necessary because the human mind cannot make the jump from the theological to the positive stage on its own.
The metaphysical stage is the transitional stage. Because “Theology and physics are so profoundly incompatible”, and their “conceptions are so radically opposed in character”, human intelligence must have a gradual transition.[22] Other than this, Comte says that there is no other use for this stage. Although it is the least important stage, it is necessary because humans could not handle the significant change in thought from theological to positivity.[18] The metaphysical stage is just a slight modification of the previous stage, when people believed in the abstract forces rather than the supernatural. The mind begins to notice the facts themselves, caused by the emptiness of the metaphysical agents through “over subtle qualification that all right-minded persons considered them to be only the abstract names of the phenomena in question”.[20] The mind becomes familiar with concepts, wanting to seek more, and therefore is prepared to move into the positive stage. 3. Positive stage
The last stage – the positive stage – is when the mind stops searching for the cause of phenomena and realizes that laws exist to govern human behavior, and that this stage can be explained rationally with the use of reason and observation, both of which are used to study the social world.[23] This stage relies on science, rational thought, and empirical laws. Comte believed that this study of sociology he created was “the science that [came] after all the others; and as the final science, it must assume the task of coordinating the development of the whole of knowledge”[21] because it organized all of human behavior.
The final, most evolved stage is the positivist stage, the stage when humans give up on discovering absolute truth, and turn towards discovering, through reasoning and observation, actual laws of phenomena.[20] Humans realize that laws exist, and that the world can be rationally explained through science, rational thought, laws, and observation. Comte was a positivist, believing in the natural rather than the supernatural, and so he claimed that his time period, the 1800s, was in the positivist stage.[23] He believed that within this stage, there is a hierarchy of sciences: mathematics, astronomy, terrestrial physics, chemistry, and physiology. Mathematics, the “science that relates to the measurement of magnitudes”, is the most perfect science of all, and is applied to the most important laws of the universe.[20] Astronomy is the most simple science, and is the first “to be subjected to positive theories".[22] Physics is less satisfactory than astronomy, because it is more complex, having less pure and systemized theories. Physics, as well as chemistry, are the “general laws of the inorganic world”, and are harder to distinguish.[20] Physiology completes the system of natural sciences, and is the most important of all sciences because it is the “only solid basis of the social reorganization that must terminate the crisis in which the most civilized nations have found themselves”.[22] This stage will fix the problems in current nations, allowing progression and peace.
Bibliography[edit]
Comte, A.; A general view of positivism [Discours sur l'Esprit positif 1844] London, 1856 Internet Archive
Comte, A.; Bridges, J.H. (tr.); A General View of Positivism; Trubner and Co., 1865 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00064-2)
Comte, A.; Congrev, R. (tr.); The Catechism of Positive Religion; Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., 1891 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00087-1)
Comte, A; Martineau, H. (tr.); The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte; 2 volumes; Chapman, 1853 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN 978-1-108-00118-2) (but note that C.U.P. say "Martineau's abridged and more easily digestible version of Comte's work was intended to be readily accessible to a wide general readership, particularly those she felt to be morally and intellectually adrift", so this is not really Comte's own writings)
Comte, A.; Jones, H.S. (ed.); Comte: Early Political Writings; Cambridge University Press, 1998; ISBN 978-0-521-46923-4
Comte, A.; System of Positive Polity; various publishers
Comte, A.; Cours de Philosophie Positive, Tome II; Bachelier, Paris, 1835, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/31882/31882-h/31882-h.htm; scans of the six volumes are at Projet Gallica
When Ernest Renan published his Essais philosophiques, he clearly stated in their preface that all of them were the result of dialogues between his friend Comte and him, with an impossibility to remember who of them said, developed or modified what.
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Pickering (2006), p. 192ff.
Jump up ^ Pickering (2009b), pp. 216 and 304.
Jump up ^ Sutton, Michael (1982). Nationalism, Positivism, and Catholicism. The Politics of Charles Maurras and French Catholics 1890–1914. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521228689. esp. Chapters 1 and 2
^ Jump up to: a b c d Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Comte, Auguste". Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 814–822.
Jump up ^ M.),, Cotterrell, Roger (Roger B. (1999). Emile Durkheim : law in a moral domain. p. 4. ISBN 0804738238. OCLC 43421884.
Jump up ^ http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comte/#Con
Jump up ^ http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture25a.html#course
Jump up ^ "altruism (n .)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 21 August 2013.
Jump up ^ "Rencontre avec Annie Petit "Auguste Comte"". Montpellier Agglomeration. 19 October 2007. Archived from the original on 15 February 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2008. Né à Montpellier, brillant élève du Lycée Joffre..." Translation: "Born in Montpellier, shining student of the Lycée Joffre...
^ Jump up to: a b "Stanford Encyclopaedia: Auguste Comte". plato.stanford.edu.
Jump up ^ Giddens, Positivism and Sociology, 1
Jump up ^ Des Manuscrits de Sieyès. 1773–1799, Volumes I and II, published by Christine Fauré, Jacques Guilhaumou, Jacques Vallier et Françoise Weil, Paris, Champion, 1999 and 2007. See also Jacques Guilhaumou, Sieyès et le non-dit de la sociologie: du mot à la chose, in Revue d'histoire des sciences humaines, Number 15, November 2006. Naissances de la science sociale.
Jump up ^ 1874 translation of System of Positive Polity, Vol. II, pages 356–347, cited in Urbanowicz, Charles F. 1992. "Four-Field Commentary". Anthropology Newsletter. Volume 33, Number 9, page 3.
Jump up ^ BRAZIL: Order and Progress, Ronald Hilton, World Association of International Studies Forum Q&A, 4/27/03
Jump up ^ Comte, A. b (1974 reprint). The positive philosophy of Auguste Comte freely translated and condensed by Harriet Martineau. New York: AMS Press. (Original work published in 1855, New York: Calvin Blanchard, p. 27.b)
Jump up ^ http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/hanioglu.html
Jump up ^ "Comte's secular religion is no vague effusion of humanistic piety, but a complete system of belief and ritual, with liturgy and sacraments, priesthood and pontiff, all organized around the public veneration of Humanity, the Nouveau Grand-Être Suprême (New Supreme Great Being), later to be supplemented in a positivist trinity by the Grand Fétish (the Earth) and the Grand Milieu (Destiny)" According to Davies (p. 28-29), Comte's austere and "slightly dispiriting" philosophy of humanity viewed as alone in an indifferent universe (which can only be explained by "positive" science) and with nowhere to turn but to each other, was even more influential in Victorian England than the theories of Charles Darwin or Karl Marx.
^ Jump up to: a b Delaney, Tim. "Auguste Comte". Council for Secular Humanism. Council for Secular Humanism, Oct.-Nov. 2003.
Jump up ^ From The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (trans. Harriet Martineau; London, 1853), Vol. I, p. 1.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Comte, Auguste, and Gertrud Lenzer. Auguste Comte and Positivism: The Essential Writings. New York: Harper & Row, 1975. Print.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bourdeau, Michel. Auguste Comte. Stanford University. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comte/ [April 28, 2016].
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Auguste Comte." Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6Th Edition (2015): 1. MAS Ultra School Edition. Web.
^ Jump up to: a b Delaney, Tim. Auguste Comte. Council for Secular Humanism, 2003.
Sources[edit]
Mary Pickering, Auguste Comte, Volume 1: An Intellectual Biography, Cambridge University Press (1993), Paperback, 2006.
Mary Pickering, Auguste Comte, Volume 2: An Intellectual Biography, Cambridge University Press, 2009a.
Mary Pickering, Auguste Comte, Volume 3: An Intellectual Biography, Cambridge University Press, 2009b.
Further reading[edit]
Henri Gouhier, La vie d'Auguste Comte, Gallimard, 1931 lah
Jean Delvolvé, Réflexions sur la pensée comtienne, Félix Alcan, 1932
John Stuart Mill, Auguste Comte and Positivism,[1] Trübner, 1865
Laurent Fedi, Comte, Les Belles Lettres, 2000, réédition 2005
Laurent Fedi, L'organicisme de Comte, in Auguste Comte aujourd'hui, M. Bourdeau, J.-F. Braunstein, A. Petit (dir), Kimé, 2003, pp. 111–132
Laurent Fedi, Auguste Comte, la disjonction de l'idéologie et de l'État, Cahiers philosophiques, n°94, 2003, pp. 99–110
Laurent Fedi, Le monde clos contre l'univers infini : Auguste Comte et les enjeux humains de l'astronomie, La Mazarine, n°13, juin 2000, pp. 12–15
Laurent Fedi, La contestation du miracle grec chez Auguste Comte, in L'Antiquité grecque au XIXè siècle : un exemplum contesté ?, C. Avlami (dir.), L'Harmattan, 2000, pp. 157–192
Laurent Fedi, Auguste Comte et la technique, Revue d'histoire des sciences 53/2, 1999, pp. 265–293
Henri Gouhier, La jeunesse d'Auguste Comte et la formation du positivisme, tome 1 : sous le signe de la liberté, Vrin, 1932
Henri Gouhier, La jeunesse d'Auguste Comte et la formation du positivisme, tome 2 : Saint-Simon jusqu'à la restauration, Vrin
Henri Gouhier, La jeunesse d'Auguste Comte et la formation du positivisme, tome 3 : Auguste Comte et Saint-Simon, Vrin, 1941
Henri Gouhier, Oeuvres choisies avec introduction et notes, Aubier, 1941
Georges Canguilhem, « Histoire des religions et histoire des sciences dans la théorie du fétichisme chez Auguste Comte », Études d'histoire et de philosophie des sciences, Vrin, 1968
H.S. Jones, ed., Comte: Early Political Writings, Cambridge University Press, 1998
Angèle Kremer-Marietti, Auguste Comte et la théorie sociale du positivisme, Seghers, 1972
Angèle Kremer-Marietti, Auguste Comte, la science sociale, Gallimard, 1972
Angèle Kremer-Marietti, Le projet anthropologique d'Auguste Comte, SEDES, 1980, réédition L'Harmattan, 1999
Angèle Kremer-Marietti, L'anthropologie positiviste d'Auguste Comte, Lib. Honoré Champion, 1980
Angèle Kremer-Marietti, Entre le signe et l'histoire. L'anthropologie positiviste d'Auguste Comte, Klincksieck, 1982, réédition L'Harmattan,1999
Angèle Kremer-Marietti, Le positivisme, Coll."Que sais-je?", PUF, 1982
Angèle Kremer-Marietti, Le concept de science positive. Ses tenants et ses aboutissants dans les structures anthropologiques du positivisme, Méridiens Klincksieck, 1983
Angèle Kremer-Marietti, Le positivisme d'Auguste Comte, L'Harmattan, 2006
Angèle Kremer-Marietti, Auguste Comte et la science politique, in Auguste Comte, Plan des travaux scientifiques nécessaires pour réorganiserla société, L'Harmattan, 2001
Angèle Kremer-Marietti, Auguste Comte et l'histoire générale, in Auguste Comte, Sommaire appréciation de l'ensemble du passé moderne, L'Harmattan, 2006
Angèle Kremer-Marietti, Auguste Comte et la science politique, L'Harmattan, 2007
Angèle Kremer-Marietti, Le kaléidoscope épistémologique d'Auguste Comte. Sentiments Images Signes, L'Harmattan, 2007
Realino Marra, La proprietà in Auguste Comte. Dall'ordine fisico alla circolazione morale della ricchezza, in «Sociologia del diritto», XII-2, 1985, pp. 21–53
Pierre Macherey, Comte. La philosophie et les sciences, PUF, 1989
Thomas Meaney, The Religion of Science and Its High Priest[1], The New York Review of Books, 2012
Jacques Muglioni, Auguste Comte: un philosophe pour notre temps, Kimé, Paris, 1995
Annie Petit, Le Système d'Auguste Comte. De la science à la religion par la philosophie, 2016, Vrin, Paris
Gertrud Lenzer, Auguste Comte: Essential Writings (1975), New York Harper, Paperback, 1997
Raquel Capurro, Le positivisme est un culte des morts: Auguste Comte, Epel, 1999 (traduit en français en 2001) : l'étude la plus récente sur la vie d'Auguste Comte, la vision sans complaisance d'une psychanalyste de l'école de Lacan
Auguste Comte, Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte (1855), translated by Harriet Martineau, Kessinger Publishing, Paperback, 2003; also available from the McMaster Archive for the History of Economic Thought: Volume One, Volume Two, Volume Three
Pierre Laffitte (1823–1903): Autour d'un centenaire, in Revue des Sciences et des Techniques en perspective, 2ème série, vol. 8, n°2, 2004, Brepols Publishers, 2005
Zeïneb Ben Saïd Cherni, Auguste Comte, postérité épistémologique et ralliement des nations, L'Harmattan, 2005
Wolf Lepenies, Auguste Comte: die Macht der Zeichen, Carl Hanser, Munich, 2010
Oséias Faustino Valentim, O Brasil e o Positivismo, Publit, Rio de Janeiro, 2010. ISBN 978-85-7773-331-6.
Jean-François Eugène Robinet, Notice sur l'oeuvre et sur la vie d'Auguste Comte, par le Dr Robinet, son médecin et l'un de ses treize exécuteurs testamentaires, Paris : au siège de la Société positiviste, 1891. 3e éd.
Jean-François Eugène Robinet, La philosophie positive: Auguste Comte et M. Pierre Laffitte, Paris : G. Baillière, [ca 1881].
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Works by Auguste Comte at Project Gutenberg
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Auguste Comte: Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
Review materials for studying Auguste Comte
J.H. Bridges, The Seven New Thoughts of the Positive Polity 1915
Henri Gouhier, "Final Chapter – Life in the anticipation of the Grave", from The Life of Auguste Comte (1931). On Comte's last years, practicing his own religion.
Auguste Comte quotes
Auguste Comte at Find a Grave
Positivist Church of Brazil
The Three Cs and the Notion of Progress: Copernicus, Condorcet, Comte by Caspar J M Hewett
Sociological theory basing on theory of Comte
The positive philosophy, Auguste Comte / freely translated and selected by Harriet Martineau, Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection - downloadable version. {Reprinted by} Cornell University Library Digital Collections
Some selections from first lecture of Course of Positive Philosophy
Auguste Comte – High Priest of Positivism by Caspar Hewett
Maison d'Auguste Comte
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Vascular smooth muscle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Vascular smooth muscle
Diagram showing the location of vascular smooth muscle cells.
Vascular smooth muscle cells, isolated from human aorta, growing and forming a monolayer in cell culture.
Details
Part of
smooth muscle wall of blood vessels.
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
Vascular smooth muscle refers to the particular type of smooth muscle found within, and composing the majority of the wall of blood vessels.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Nerve supply
2 Function
3 See also
4 External links
Structure[edit]
Vascular smooth muscle refers to the particular type of smooth muscle found within, and composing the majority of the wall of blood vessels.
Nerve supply[edit]
Vascular smooth muscle is innervated primarily by the sympathetic nervous system through adrenergic receptors (adrenoceptors). The three types of adrenoceptors present are: α 1 {\displaystyle \alpha _{1}} , α 2 {\displaystyle \alpha _{2}} and β 2 {\displaystyle \beta _{2}} . The main endogenous agonist of these cell receptors is norepinephrine (NE).
The adrenergic receptors exert opposite physiologic effects in the vascular smooth muscle under activation:
α 1 {\displaystyle \alpha _{1}} receptors. Under NE binding α 1 {\displaystyle \alpha _{1}} receptors cause vasoconstriction (i.e. contraction of the vascular smooth muscle cells decreasing the diameter of the vessels). α 1 {\displaystyle \alpha _{1}} receptors are activated in response to shock or low blood pressure as a defensive reaction trying to restore the normal blood pressure. Antagonists of α 1 {\displaystyle \alpha _{1}} receptors (doxazosin, prazosin) cause vasodilation (i.e. decrease in vascular smooth muscle tone with increase of vessel diameter and decrease of the blood pressure). (See also receptor antagonist)
α 2 {\displaystyle \alpha _{2}} receptors. Agonists of α 2 {\displaystyle \alpha _{2}} receptors in the vascular smooth muscle lead to vasoconstriction. However, in clinical practice drugs applied intravenously that are agonists of α 2 {\displaystyle \alpha _{2}} receptors (clonidine) lead to powerful vasodilation, which causes a decrease in blood pressure by presynaptic activation of α 2 {\displaystyle \alpha _{2}} receptors in the sympathetic ganglia. This presynaptic effect is predominant and completely overrides the vasoconstrictive effect of the α 2 {\displaystyle \alpha _{2}} receptors in the vascular smooth muscle.[citation needed]
β 2 {\displaystyle \beta _{2}} receptors. Agonism of β 2 {\displaystyle \beta _{2}} receptors causes vasodilation and low blood pressure (i.e. the effect is opposite of the one resulting from activation of α 1 {\displaystyle \alpha _{1}} and α 2 {\displaystyle \alpha _{2}} receptors in the vascular smooth muscle cells). Usage of β 2 {\displaystyle \beta _{2}} receptor agonists as hypotensive agents is less widespread due to adverse effects such as unnecessary bronchodilation in lungs and increase in blood sugar levels.
Function[edit]
Vascular smooth muscle contracts or relaxes to change both the volume of blood vessels and the local blood pressure, a mechanism that is responsible for the redistribution of the blood within the body to areas where it is needed (i.e. areas with temporarily enhanced oxygen consumption). Thus the main function of vascular smooth muscle tone is to regulate the caliber of the blood vessels in the body. Excessive vasoconstriction leads to high blood pressure, while excessive vasodilation as in shock leads to low blood pressure.
Arteries have a great deal more smooth muscle within their walls than veins, thus their greater wall thickness. This is because they have to carry pumped blood away from the heart to all the organs and tissues that need the oxygenated blood. The endothelial lining of each is similar.
See also[edit]
Mural cell
External links[edit]
Image of smooth muscle in the arterial walls
Smooth muscle in stomach wall
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Wonder (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Wonder
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Stephen Chbosky
Produced by
David Hoberman
Todd Lieberman
Screenplay by
Jack Thorne
Steve Conrad
Stephen Chbosky
Based on
Wonder
by R.J. Palacio
Starring
Julia Roberts
Owen Wilson
Jacob Tremblay
Izabela Vidovic
Mandy Patinkin
Daveed Diggs
Music by
Marcelo Zarvos
Cinematography
Don Burgess
Edited by
Mark Livolsi
Production
company
Lionsgate[1]
Mandeville Films[1]
Participant Media[1]
Walden Media[1]
TIK Films[1]
Distributed by
Lionsgate
Release date
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17) (United States)
Running time
113 minutes[2]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$20 million[3]
Box office
$218.8 million[4]
Wonder is a 2017 American drama film directed by Stephen Chbosky and written by Jack Thorne, Steve Conrad, and Chbosky, based on the 2012 novel of the same name by R.J. Palacio. The film stars Julia Roberts, Owen Wilson, and Jacob Tremblay. The film follows a child with Treacher Collins syndrome trying to fit in. Wonder was released in the United States on November 17, 2017, by Lionsgate and has grossed over $218 million worldwide on a $20 million budget.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
2.1 Main cast members
2.2 Other cast members
3 Production
4 Music
5 Release
5.1 Box office
5.2 Critical response
5.3 Accolades
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
August "Auggie" Pullman is a fifth-grade boy living in North River Heights in upper Manhattan. He has a rare medical facial deformity, which he refers to as "mandibulofacial dysostosis." Due to numerous (27) surgeries, Auggie had been homeschooled by his mother Isabel, but as Auggie is approaching middle school age, Isabel and Nate decide to enroll him in Beecher Prep, a private school, for the start of middle school. At first, Auggie is ostracized by nearly all the student body, but he is soon befriended by a boy named Jack Will.
During Halloween, Auggie wears an old GhostFace mask and costume because his dog, Daisy, threw up on his Boba Fett costume. Unrecognized, he walks around school knowing he would not get tormented while incognito. As he walks through the door to his homeroom he overhears Jack telling Julian Albans that he was only pretending to be friends with Auggie. Feeling betrayed, Auggie wants to quit Beecher Prep and go back to homeschooling, but his older sister Olivia, nicknamed "Via," talks him out of it. Auggie later confides the incident to another friend, a girl named Summer, but swears her to secrecy. When Jack notices that Auggie has become quiet and distant he asks Summer why, but she only gives him the term "Ghost Face" as a clue; Jack is shocked when it suddenly dawns on him that it was Auggie wearing the GhostFace costume, and thus had overheard everything he said to Julian.When Julian wants Jack to switch partners to be with him in a science fair project Jack refuses. When Julian asks Jack does he want to work with that "freak," Jack angrily punches him in the face and a fight ensues between the two, which is soon broken up by Mr. Browne and Ms. Petosa. Jack is suspended for two days, and decides not to get Julian suspended to knowing it would not be fair.He later writes an apology letter to Mr. Tushman. Auggie, over winter break, requests Jack's Minecraft coordinates, which Jack sends. Jack apologizes to Auggie, and Auggie accepts.
During the rest of the school year, Auggie is repeatedly bullied by Julian and his group; they leave hurtful notes on his desk and tape to his locker their class picture with Auggie photoshopped out. When Mr. Tushman later confronts Julian and his parents using all the notes and the doctored picture as evidence, Julian's mother proclaims that she had had Auggie edited out of the photo to make it look more presentable to her friends at home; she then says that the school should not be inclusive and that Auggie does not belong there. But despite her threats to pull their funding from the school, Tushman suspends Julian for two days. Julian showed remorse to Tushman for his actions to Auggie.
Meanwhile, Via signs up for Drama Club at her high school after her best friend, Miranda, ignores her; in the process, she meets Justin, a friendly boy with whom she forms a close friendship, which later develops into a romantic relationship. Later, Via is selected to be an understudy for the lead role in the school's production of Our Town, with Justin as the lead actor.
Later on, Isabel and Nate find out that Via's play is coming around, and Via never told them about it, and they get into a fight with Auggie overhearing everything. Auggie later confronts his mom and his sister, who brush it off. Auggie then accuses them of lying and storms off to his room, and then Daisy starts to whimper. Via then rushes up to Auggie's room telling him that Daisy is sick. They say goodbye to Isabel who meets Nate at the hospital. They then return that night without the dog, implying that Daisy was put to sleep.
On the night of the play, Miranda, the lead actress and Via's former best friend, pretends to fall ill. Via takes her place and gives a performance that earns her a standing ovation. After the play, everyone, including Miranda and Justin, go home to the Pullmans and eat pizza to celebrate.
During a school trip to a nature reserve, when Auggie and Jack are accosted and threatened by a group of seventh graders from another school, several of their classmates come to their defense. At the year's end during the graduation ceremony, Tushman announces that Auggie has been selected for the Henry Ward Beecher Medal for standing out; Auggie receives a standing ovation, and the movie ends with everyone applauding Auggie, and Isabel commenting on him being a wonder.
Cast[edit]
Main cast members[edit]
Julia Roberts as Isabel Pullman
Owen Wilson as Nate Pullman
Jacob Tremblay as August "Auggie" Pullman
Izabela Vidovic as Olivia "Via" Pullman
Maccie Margaret Chbosky as Young Olivia
Noah Jupe as Jack Will
Bryce Gheisar as Julian Albans
Elle McKinnon as Charlotte Cody
Millie Davis as Summer Dawson
Ty Consiglio as Amos Conti
Kyle Harrison Breitkopf as Miles Noury
James A. Hughes as Henry Joplin
Mandy Patinkin as Mr. Tushman
Daveed Diggs as Mr. Browne
Ali Liebert as Ms. Petosa
Danielle Rose Russell as Miranda Navas
Nadji Jeter as Justin
Gidget as Darth-Daisy "Daisy", Auggie and Via's dog
Other cast members[edit]
Nicole Oliver as Mrs. Will
Rachel Hayward as Mrs. Navas
Crystal Lowe as Mrs. Albans
Steve Bacic as Mr. Albans
Erika McKitrick as Ella
Lucia Thain as Savanna Wittenberg
Sasha Neuhaus as Maya Markowitz
Izzy Lieberman as Reid Kingsley
Hannah Hoberman as Rebecca
William Dickinson as Eddie
Emma Tremblay as Michelle
Lydia Jewett as Lina Annan
Armen Bagdasrov as Danny
Kaelyn Breitkopf as Angela
Victoria V. Cruz as the Science Fair judge
Benjamin Ratner as Mr. Davenport
Production[edit]
On November 27, 2012, it was announced that Lionsgate was developing the feature film adaptation of R. J. Palacio's debut novel Wonder, while in talks with John August to write the screenplay.[5] Mandeville Films' David Hoberman and Todd Lieberman would be producing the film.[5] On May 8, 2013, Jack Thorne was hired to adapt the novel, while August, who was previously reported as writer, had departed from the project.[6] In October 2014, John Krokidas was reported to be directing the film,[7] but in April 2015, Paul King was hired to take the directing duties. Steven Conrad was writing the script at that time.[8]
On April 14, 2016, Jacob Tremblay was cast in the film to play the lead role as Auggie Pullman, while Julia Roberts was in talks to play Auggie's mother.[9] On May 5, 2016, Roberts was confirmed to play the mother, with Stephen Chbosky signed on to direct the film.[10] On June 27, 2016, Owen Wilson had joined the film to play Auggie's father.[11] On July 11, 2016, newcomer Noah Jupe joined the film to play Auggie's best friend at school.[12] On July 15, 2016, Daveed Diggs was cast in the film to play Mr. Browne, an English teacher at the school.[13] On August 19, 2016, Sonia Braga joined the cast of the film, portraying the role of Roberts' character's mother.[14]
Jacob's prosthetic makeup, designed and created by Arjen Tuiten, took an hour and half to apply. It consisted of a skull cap with prosthetic ears attached, a facial prosthetic that covered Jacob's face, and a wig to tie it all together.[citation needed]
Marcelo Zarvos composed the film's score.[15]
Music[edit]
Bea Miller composed a song entitled "Brand New Eyes." It was released on August 3, 2017.
Wonder author R.J. Palacio has often credited Natalie Merchant's song “Wonder” from her 1995 album Tigerlily as the inspiration for her best-selling book and at Merchant's invitation, the song will be featured in the soundtrack.[16]
Release[edit]
Wonder was scheduled to be released in the United States on April 7, 2017 by Lionsgate.[17][18] On February 13, 2017, it was announced that the release date for Wonder had been pushed back to November 17, 2017.[19]
Box office[edit]
As of January 4, 2018[update], Wonder has grossed $126.6 million in the United States and Canada, and $92.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $218.7 million, against a production budget of $20 million.[4]
In the United States and Canada, Wonder was released alongside Justice League and The Star and was initially projected to gross around $9 million from 3,096 theaters in its opening weekend.[20] However after grossing $740,000 from Thursday night previews and receiving a large number of group ticket sales, weekend projections were upped to $15 million.[21] Weekend projections were again increased, this time to $28 million, after the film made $9.4 million on its first day. The film went on to debut to $27.1 million, finishing second at the box office behind Justice League.[22] In its second weekend the film dropped just 17.7%, grossing $22.7 million and finishing third at the box office.[23]
Critical response[edit]
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 85% based on 154 reviews and an average rating of 7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Wonder doesn't shy away from its bestselling source material's sentiment, but this well-acted and overall winsome drama earns its tugs at the heartstrings."[24] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 66 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[25] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 80 films in the history of the service to receive such a score.[22]
Some with craniofacial disorders have criticized the film for casting an able-bodied actor as Auggie and for its inspirational message.[26][27][28]
Accolades[edit]
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref.
British Academy Film Awards February 18, 2018 Best Makeup and Hair Naomi Bakstad, Robert Pandini and Arjen Tuiten Pending [29]
Casting Society of America January 18, 2018 Big Budget – Comedy Deborah Aquila, Kara Eide, Tricia Wood and Kris Woz Pending [30]
Critics' Choice Movie Awards January 11, 2018 Best Young Actor/Actress Jacob Tremblay Pending [31]
Best Adapted Screenplay Jack Thorne, Steve Conrad and Stephen Chbosky Pending
Best Hair & Makeup Wonder Pending
Heartland Film Festival December 31, 2017 Truly Moving Picture Award Stephen Chbosky Won [32]
Make-Up Artists and Hair Stylists Guild February 24, 2018 Feature Motion Picture: Best Contemporary Makeup Naomi Bakstad, Jean Black and Megan Harkness Pending [33]
Feature Motion Picture: Best Contemporary Hair Styling Robert Pandini and Alisa Macmillian Pending
Feature Motion Picture: Best Special Makeup Effects Michael Nickiforek and Arjen Tuiten Pending
Phoenix Film Critics Society December 19, 2017 Best Performance by a Youth Jacob Tremblay Nominated [34]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Film releases". Variety Insight. Retrieved June 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "WONDER". Lionsgate Press. Retrieved 2017-07-26.
Jump up ^ "Will 'Justice League' Perform Like 'Wonder Woman' or 'Suicide Squad' at the Box Office?". TheWrap. November 14, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Wonder (2017)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved January 8, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Sneider, Jeff (November 26, 2012). "Lionsgate lining up John August to adapt 'Wonder'". Variety. Retrieved June 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ Jr, Mike Fleming (May 8, 2013). "Lionsgate Taps Jack Thorne To Adapt R.J. Palacio Novel 'Wonder'". Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Ford, Rebecca; Kit, Borys (October 7, 2014). "'Kill Your Darlings' Director to Helm YA Adaptation 'Wonder' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (April 23, 2015). "'Paddington' Director Books Lionsgate's YA Adaptation 'Wonder' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Geier, Thom (April 14, 2016). "'Room' Star Jacob Tremblay in Talks for Lionsgate's 'Wonder'". TheWrap. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys; Ford, Rebecca (May 5, 2016). "Julia Roberts to Play Jacob Tremblay's Mother in 'Wonder'". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kroll, Justin (June 27, 2016). "Owen Wilson to Co-Star With Julia Roberts in 'Wonder' (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (July 11, 2016). "'Night Manager' Actor Joins Julia Roberts, Jacob Tremblay in 'Wonder' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, Ross A. (July 15, 2016). "Tony Winner Daveed Diggs Joins Lionsgate's 'Wonder' In First Post-'Hamilton' Film Role". Deadline. Retrieved July 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (August 19, 2016). "Sonia Braga Playing Julia Roberts' Mother in 'Wonder' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved November 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Marcelo Zarvos to Score Steven Chbsoky's 'Wonder'". FilmMusicReporter. January 11, 2017. Retrieved January 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Wonder the Film". Natalie Merchant. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Julia Roberts, Jacob Tremblay's Wonder gets spring 2017 release date". Entertainment Weekly. Time Inc. June 8, 2016. Retrieved August 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ "First Look! Julia Roberts and Jacob Tremblay Will Melt Your Heart in Wonder". People. August 10, 2016. Retrieved August 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Julia Roberts' Drama 'Wonder' Pushed to November". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media, LLC. February 13, 2017. Retrieved February 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ Anita Busch (November 14, 2017). "The Tale Of Two Films: Walden Media's 'The Star' & 'Wonder' Bow On Same Day".
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 17, 2017). "'Justice League' Powers To $13M Thursday Night; Beats 'Wonder Woman' – Friday AM Update". Deadline.com. Retrieved November 17, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 18, 2017). "'Justice League' Encounters Kryptonite At The B.O. With $93M+ Opening: Why The DC Movie Weakened". Deadline.com. Retrieved November 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 26, 2017). "Thanksgiving B.O. At $268M, +3% Over 2016 Spurred By 'Coco' & Holdovers". Deadline.com. Retrieved November 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Wonder (2017)". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango. Retrieved December 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Wonder reviews". Metacritic. CBS Interactive Inc. Retrieved December 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Henley, Ariel. "Hollywood's Approach to Disabled Characters Is Still a Disaster". Vice. Vice. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Steussy, Lauren. "What it's really like to have the rare disease in 'Wonder'". New York Post. New York Post. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Barack, Lauren. "Critics Question the Representation of Disability in 'Wonder'". School Library Journal. School Library Journal. Retrieved 16 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Ritman, Alex (January 8, 2018). "BAFTA Awards: 'Shape of Water,' 'Three Billboards,' 'Darkest Hour' Lead Pack of Nominations". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 8, 2018.
Jump up ^ Ford, Rebecca (January 2, 2018). "Artios Awards: Casting Society Reveals Film Nominees (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 3, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Critics' Choice Awards: 'The Shape of Water' Leads With 14 Nominations". The Hollywood Reporter. December 6, 2017. Retrieved December 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Truly Moving Picture Award". Heartland film. Archived from the original on February 10, 2017. Retrieved February 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (January 5, 2018). "Makeup Artists and Hair Stylists Guild Awards: 'Darkest Hour,' 'Wonder' Lead Feature Nominees". Deadline.com. Retrieved January 5, 2018.
Jump up ^ Amidi, Amid (December 14, 2017). "Phoenix Film Critics Society". 2017 Awards NOMINATIONS. Retrieved December 14, 2017.
External links[edit]
Wonder on IMDb
Wonder at AllMovie
Wonder at Box Office Mojo
Wonder at Metacritic
Wonder at Rotten Tomatoes
[hide]
v
t
e
Films by Stephen Chbosky
Screenplay and directed
The Four Corners of Nowhere (1995)
The Perks of Being a Wallflower (2012)
Wonder (2017)
Screenplay only
Rent (2005)
Beauty and the Beast (2017)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wonder_(film)&oldid=819516652"
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