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Printing press
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This article is about the historical device created by Johannes Gutenberg. For the modern technology of printing, see printing.
Recreated Gutenberg press at the International Printing Museum, Carson, California
Part of a series on the
History of printing
Woodblock printing
200
Movable type
1040
Printing press
c. 1440
Etching
c. 1515
Mezzotint
1642
Aquatint
1772
Lithography
1796
Chromolithography
1837
Rotary press
1843
Hectograph
1869
Offset printing
1875
Hot metal typesetting
1884
Mimeograph
1886
Photostat and rectigraph
1907
Screen printing
1911
Spirit duplicator
1923
Dot matrix printing
1925
Xerography
1938
Phototypesetting
1949
Inkjet printing
1951
Dye-sublimation
1957
Laser printing
1969
Thermal printing
c. 1972
3D printing
1981
Solid Ink printing
1986
Digital printing
1991
v
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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring the ink. It marked a dramatic improvement on earlier printing methods in which the cloth, paper or other medium was brushed or rubbed repeatedly to achieve the transfer of ink, and accelerated the process. Typically used for texts, the invention and global spread of the printing press was one of the most influential events in the second millennium.[1][2]
Johannes Gutenberg, a goldsmith by profession, developed, circa 1439, a printing system by adapting existing technologies to printing purposes, as well as making inventions of his own. Printing in East Asia had been prevalent since the Tang dynasty,[3][4] and in Europe, woodblock printing based on existing screw presses was common by the 14th century. Gutenberg's most important innovation was the development of hand-molded metal printing matrices, thus producing a movable type based printing press system. His newly devised hand mould made possible the precise and rapid creation of metal movable type in large quantities. Movable type had been hitherto unknown in Europe. In Europe, the two inventions, the hand mould and the printing press, together drastically reduced the cost of printing books and other documents, particularly in short print runs.
The printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries.[5] By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes.[5] In the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies.[5] The operation of a press became synonymous with the enterprise of printing, and lent its name to a new branch of media, "the press".[6]
In Renaissance Europe, the arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the era of mass communication, which permanently altered the structure of society. The relatively unrestricted circulation of information and (revolutionary) ideas transcended borders, captured the masses in the Reformation and threatened the power of political and religious authorities. The sharp increase in literacy broke the monopoly of the literate elite on education and learning and bolstered the emerging middle class. Across Europe, the increasing cultural self-awareness of its peoples led to the rise of proto-nationalism, and accelerated by the development of European vernacular languages, to the detriment of Latin's status as lingua franca.[7] In the 19th century, the replacement of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press by steam-powered rotary presses allowed printing on an industrial scale.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Economic conditions and intellectual climate
1.2 Technological factors
2 Function and approach
3 Gutenberg's press
4 The Printing Revolution
4.1 Mass production and spread of printed books
4.2 Circulation of information and ideas
5 Industrial printing presses
5.1 Rotary press
6 Gallery
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
History
Main article: History of printing
Economic conditions and intellectual climate
See also: History of capitalism and Medieval university
Medieval university class (1350s)
The rapid economic and socio-cultural development of late medieval society in Europe created favorable intellectual and technological conditions for Gutenberg's improved version of the printing press: the entrepreneurial spirit of emerging capitalism increasingly made its impact on medieval modes of production, fostering economic thinking and improving the efficiency of traditional work-processes. The sharp rise of medieval learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating.[9]
Technological factors
See also: History of Western typography and Medieval technology
Technologies preceding the press that led to the press's invention included: manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing, and distribution of eyeglasses.[10] At the same time, a number of medieval products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. Gutenberg took up these far-flung strands, combined them into one complete and functioning system, and perfected the printing process through all its stages by adding a number of inventions and innovations of his own:
Early modern wine press. Such screw presses were applied in Europe to a wide range of uses and provided Gutenberg with the model for his printing press.
The screw press which allowed direct pressure to be applied on flat-plane was already of great antiquity in Gutenberg's time and was used for a wide range of tasks.[11] Introduced in the 1st century AD by the Romans, it was commonly employed in agricultural production for pressing wine grapes and (olive) oil fruit, both of which formed an integral part of the mediterranean and medieval diet.[12] The device was also used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns.[13] Gutenberg may have also been inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century and which worked on the same mechanical principles.[14]
Gutenberg adopted the basic design, thereby mechanizing the printing process.[15] Printing, however, put a demand on the machine quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the pressing power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the printing process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed.[16]
Movable type sorted in a letter case and loaded in a composing stick on top
The concept of movable type was not new in the 15th century; movable type printing had been invented in China during the Song dynasty, and was later used in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty, where metal movable-type printing technology was developed in 1234.[3][4] In Europe, sporadic evidence that the typographical principle, the idea of creating a text by reusing individual characters, was well understood and employed in pre-Gutenberg Europe had been cropping up since the 12th century and possibly before. The known examples range from Germany (Prüfening inscription) to England (letter tiles) to Italy.[17] However, the various techniques employed (imprinting, punching and assembling individual letters) did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted.
Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps. A goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today.[18] The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a special hand mould, the matrix.[19] The Latin alphabet proved to be an enormous advantage in the process because, in contrast to logographic writing systems, it allowed the type-setter to represent any text with a theoretical minimum of only around two dozen different letters.[20]
Another factor conducive to printing arose from the book existing in the format of the codex, which had originated in the Roman period.[21] Considered the most important advance in the history of the book prior to printing itself, the codex had completely replaced the ancient scroll at the onset of the Middle Ages (500 AD).[22] The codex holds considerable practical advantages over the scroll format; it is more convenient to read (by turning pages), is more compact, less costly, and, in particular, unlike the scroll, both recto and verso could be used for writing − and printing.[23]
A paper codex of the acclaimed 42-line Bible, Gutenberg's major work
A fourth development was the early success of medieval papermakers at mechanizing paper manufacture. The introduction of water-powered paper mills, the first certain evidence of which dates to 1282,[24] allowed for a massive expansion of production and replaced the laborious handcraft characteristic of both Chinese[25] and Muslim papermaking.[26] Papermaking centres began to multiply in the late 13th century in Italy, reducing the price of paper to one sixth of parchment and then falling further; papermaking centers reached Germany a century later.[27]
Despite this it appears that the final breakthrough of paper depended just as much on the rapid spread of movable-type printing.[28] It is notable that codices of parchment, which in terms of quality is superior to any other writing material,[29] still had a substantial share in Gutenberg's edition of the 42-line Bible.[30] After much experimentation, Gutenberg managed to overcome the difficulties which traditional water-based inks caused by soaking the paper, and found the formula for an oil-based ink suitable for high-quality printing with metal type.[31]
Function and approach
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This woodcut from 1568 shows the left printer removing a page from the press while the one at right inks the text-blocks. Such a duo could reach 14,000 hand movements per working day, printing around 3,600 pages in the process.[32]
A printing press, in its classical form, is a standing mechanism, ranging from 5 to 7 feet (1.5 to 2.1 m) long, 3 feet (0.91 m) wide, and 7 feet (2.1 m) tall. Type, small metal letters that have a raised letter on one end, is arranged into pages and placed in a frame to make a forme, which itself is placed onto a flat stone, 'bed,' or 'coffin.' The text is inked using two balls, pads mounted on handles. The balls were made of dog skin leather, because it has no pores,[33] and stuffed with sheep's wool and were inked. This ink was then applied to the text evenly. One damp piece of paper was then taken from a heap of paper and placed on the tympan. The paper was damp as this lets the type 'bite' into the paper better. Small pins hold the paper in place. The paper is now held between a frisket and tympan (two frames covered with paper or parchment).
These are folded down, so that the paper lies on the surface of the inked type. The bed is rolled under the platen, using a windlass mechanism. A small rotating handle is used called the 'rounce' to do this, and the impression is made with a screw that transmits pressure through the platen. To turn the screw the long handle attached to it is turned. This is known as the bar or 'Devil's Tail.' In a well-set-up press, the springiness of the paper, frisket, and tympan caused the bar to spring back and raise the platen, the windlass turned again to move the bed back to its original position, the tympan and frisket raised and opened, and the printed sheet removed. Such presses were always worked by hand. After around 1800, iron presses were developed, some of which could be operated by steam power.
Gutenberg's press
See also: Letterpress printing
Johannes Gutenberg's work on the printing press began in approximately 1436 when he partnered with Andreas Dritzehn—a man who had previously instructed in gem-cutting—and Andreas Heilmann, owner of a paper mill.[34] However, it was not until a 1439 lawsuit against Gutenberg that an official record existed; witnesses' testimony discussed Gutenberg's types, an inventory of metals (including lead), and his type molds.[34]
Having previously worked as a professional goldsmith, Gutenberg made skillful use of the knowledge of metals he had learned as a craftsman. He was the first to make type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, which was critical for producing durable type that produced high-quality printed books and proved to be much better suited for printing than all other known materials. To create these lead types, Gutenberg used what is considered one of his most ingenious inventions,[34] a special matrix enabling the quick and precise molding of new type blocks from a uniform template. His type case is estimated to have contained around 290 separate letter boxes, most of which were required for special characters, ligatures, punctuation marks, and so forth.[35]
Gutenberg is also credited with the introduction of an oil-based ink which was more durable than the previously used water-based inks. As printing material he used both paper and vellum (high-quality parchment). In the Gutenberg Bible, Gutenberg made a trial of coloured printing for a few of the page headings, present only in some copies.[36] A later work, the Mainz Psalter of 1453, presumably designed by Gutenberg but published under the imprint of his successors Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer, had elaborate red and blue printed initials.[37]
The Printing Revolution
The Printing Revolution occurred when the spread of the printing press facilitated the wide circulation of information and ideas, acting as an "agent of change" through the societies that it reached. (Eisenstein (1980))
Mass production and spread of printed books
See also: Global spread of the printing press and List of early modern newspapers
Spread of printing in the 15th century from Mainz, Germany
The European book output rose from a few million to around one billion copies within a span of less than four centuries.[38]
The invention of mechanical movable type printing led to a huge increase of printing activities across Europe within only a few decades. From a single print shop in Mainz, Germany, printing had spread to no less than around 270 cities in Central, Western and Eastern Europe by the end of the 15th century.[39] As early as 1480, there were printers active in 110 different places in Germany, Italy, France, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, England, Bohemia and Poland.[5] From that time on, it is assumed that "the printed book was in universal use in Europe".[5]
In Italy, a center of early printing, print shops had been established in 77 cities and towns by 1500. At the end of the following century, 151 locations in Italy had seen at one time printing activities, with a total of nearly three thousand printers known to be active. Despite this proliferation, printing centres soon emerged; thus, one third of the Italian printers published in Venice.[40]
By 1500, the printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million copies.[5] In the following century, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies.[5]
European printing presses of around 1600 were capable of producing about 1,500 impressions per workday.[41] By comparison, book printing in East Asia, did not use presses and was solely done by block printing.[42]
Of Erasmus's work, at least 750,000 copies were sold during his lifetime alone (1469–1536).[43] In the early days of the Reformation, the revolutionary potential of bulk printing took princes and papacy alike by surprise. In the period from 1518 to 1524, the publication of books in Germany alone skyrocketed sevenfold; between 1518 and 1520, Luther's tracts were distributed in 300,000 printed copies.[44]
The rapidity of typographical text production, as well as the sharp fall in unit costs, led to the issuing of the first newspapers (see Relation) which opened up an entirely new field for conveying up-to-date information to the public.[45]
Incunable are surviving pre-16th century print works which are collected by many of the libraries in Europe and North America.[46]
Circulation of information and ideas
See also: The Gutenberg Galaxy
"Modern Book Printing" sculpture, commemorating Gutenberg's invention on the occasion of the 2006 World Cup in Germany
The printing press was also a factor in the establishment of a community of scientists who could easily communicate their discoveries through the establishment of widely disseminated scholarly journals, helping to bring on the scientific revolution.[citation needed] Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful and profitable. It was suddenly important who had said or written what, and what the precise formulation and time of composition was. This allowed the exact citing of references, producing the rule, "One Author, one work (title), one piece of information" (Giesecke, 1989; 325). Before, the author was less important, since a copy of Aristotle made in Paris would not be exactly identical to one made in Bologna. For many works prior to the printing press, the name of the author has been entirely lost.[citation needed]
Because the printing process ensured that the same information fell on the same pages, page numbering, tables of contents, and indices became common, though they previously had not been unknown.[citation needed] The process of reading also changed, gradually moving over several centuries from oral readings to silent, private reading.[citation needed] Over the next 200 years, the wider availability of printed materials led to a dramatic rise in the adult literacy rate throughout Europe.[47]
The printing press was an important step towards the democratization of knowledge.[48][49] Within 50 or 60 years of the invention of the printing press, the entire classical canon had been reprinted and widely promulgated throughout Europe (Eisenstein, 1969; 52). More people had access to knowledge both new and old, more people could discuss these works. Book production became more commercialised, and the first copyright laws were passed.[50] On the other hand, the printing press was criticized for allowing the dissemination of information which may have been incorrect.[51][52]
A second outgrowth of this popularization of knowledge was the decline of Latin as the language of most published works, to be replaced by the vernacular language of each area, increasing the variety of published works. The printed word also helped to unify and standardize the spelling and syntax of these vernaculars, in effect 'decreasing' their variability. This rise in importance of national languages as opposed to pan-European Latin is cited[who?] as one of the causes of the rise of nationalism in Europe.
A third consequence of popularization of printing was on the economy. The printing press was associated with higher levels of city growth.[53] The publication of trade related manuals and books teaching techniques like double-entry bookkeeping increased the reliability of trade and led to the decline of merchant guilds and the rise of individual traders.[54]
Industrial printing presses
See also: History of printing
At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, the mechanics of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press were still essentially unchanged, although new materials in its construction, amongst other innovations, had gradually improved its printing efficiency. By 1800, Lord Stanhope had built a press completely from cast iron which reduced the force required by 90%, while doubling the size of the printed area.[55] With a capacity of 480 pages per hour, the Stanhope press doubled the output of the old style press.[56] Nonetheless, the limitations inherent to the traditional method of printing became obvious.
Koenig's 1814 steam-powered printing press
Two ideas altered the design of the printing press radically: First, the use of steam power for running the machinery, and second the replacement of the printing flatbed with the rotary motion of cylinders. Both elements were for the first time successfully implemented by the German printer Friedrich Koenig in a series of press designs devised between 1802 and 1818.[57] Having moved to London in 1804, Koenig soon met Thomas Bensley and secured financial support for his project in 1807.[55] Patented in 1810, Koenig had designed a steam press "much like a hand press connected to a steam engine."[55] The first production trial of this model occurred in April 1811. He produced his machine with assistance from German engineer Andreas Friedrich Bauer.
Koenig and Bauer sold two of their first models to The Times in London in 1814, capable of 1,100 impressions per hour. The first edition so printed was on 28 November 1814. They went on to perfect the early model so that it could print on both sides of a sheet at once. This began the long process of making newspapers available to a mass audience (which in turn helped spread literacy), and from the 1820s changed the nature of book production, forcing a greater standardization in titles and other metadata. Their company Koenig & Bauer AG is still one of the world's largest manufacturers of printing presses today.
Rotary press
The steam powered rotary printing press, invented in 1843 in the United States by Richard M. Hoe,[58] allowed millions of copies of a page in a single day. Mass production of printed works flourished after the transition to rolled paper, as continuous feed allowed the presses to run at a much faster pace.
By the late 1930s or early 1940s, rotary presses had increased substantially in efficiency: a model by Platen Printing Press was capable of performing 2,500 to 3,000 impressions per hour.[citation needed]
Also, in the middle of the 19th century, there was a separate development of jobbing presses, small presses capable of printing small-format pieces such as billheads, letterheads, business cards, and envelopes. Jobbing presses were capable of quick set-up (average setup time for a small job was under 15 minutes) and quick production (even on treadle-powered jobbing presses it was considered normal to get 1,000 impressions per hour [iph] with one pressman, with speeds of 1,500 iph often attained on simple envelope work).[citation needed] Job printing emerged as a reasonably cost-effective duplicating solution for commerce at this time.
Gallery
Model of the Common Press, used from 1650 to 1850
Printing press from 1811
Stanhope press from 1842
Imprenta Press V John Sherwin from 1860
See also
General
Imprimatur
Printing
Typography
Printing presses
Adana Printing Presses
Albion press
Columbian Printing Press
Flexography
Vertical print press
Other inventions
Color printing
Lithography
Offset printing
Desktop publishing
Electronic publishing
Computer printer
Composing stick
Notes
Jump up ^ For example, in 1999, the A&E Network ranked Gutenberg no. 1 on their "People of the Millennium" countdown. In 1997, Time–Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium Archived 10 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine.; the same did four prominent US journalists in their 1998 resume 1,000 Years, 1,000 People: Ranking The Men and Women Who Shaped The Millennium. The Johann Gutenberg entry of the Catholic Encyclopedia describes his invention as having made a practically unparalleled cultural impact in the Christian era.
Jump up ^ McLuhan 1962; Eisenstein 1980; Febvre & Martin 1997; Man 2002
^ Jump up to: a b Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin; Joseph Needham (1985). Paper and Printing. Science and Civilisation in China. 5 part 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 158,201.
^ Jump up to: a b Briggs, Asa and Burke, Peter (2002) A Social History of the Media: from Gutenberg to the Internet, Polity, Cambridge, pp.15–23, 61–73.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1976): "The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800", London: New Left Books, quoted in: Anderson, Benedict: "Comunidades Imaginadas. Reflexiones sobre el origen y la difusión del nacionalismo", Fondo de cultura económica, Mexico 1993, ISBN 978-968-16-3867-2, pp. 58f.
Jump up ^ Weber 2006, p. 387:
At the same time, then, as the printing press in the physical, technological sense was invented, 'the press' in the extended sense of the word also entered the historical stage. The phenomenon of publishing was born.
Jump up ^ Anderson, Benedict: "Comunidades Imaginadas. Reflexiones sobre el origen y la difusión del nacionalismo", Fondo de cultura económica, Mexico 1993, ISBN 978-968-16-3867-2, pp.63–76
Jump up ^ Gerhardt 1978, p. 217
Jump up ^ Eisenstein 1980; Febvre & Martin 1997; Man 2002
Jump up ^ Jones, Colin. The Cambridge Illustrated History of France (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 133. ISBN 0-521-43294-4.
Jump up ^ Wolf 1974, pp. 21–35
Jump up ^ Onken 2009; White 1984, pp. 31f.; Schneider 2007, pp. 156–159
Jump up ^ Schneider 2007, p. 158
Jump up ^ Schulte 1939, p. 56
Jump up ^ Wolf 1974, pp. 39f.
Jump up ^ Wolf 1974, pp. 39–46
Jump up ^ Germany: Brekle 1995, pp. 23–26; Brekle 1997, p. 62; Brekle 2005, p. 25; England: Lehmann-Haupt 1940, pp. 93–97; Brekle 1997, p. 62; Italy: Lipinsky 1986, pp. 75–80; Koch 1994, p. 213. Lipinsky surmises that this typographical technique was known in Constantinople from the 10th to 12th century and that the Venetians received it from there (p. 78).
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica 2006: "Printing", retrieved 27 November 2006
Jump up ^ Childress 2008, pp. 51–55
Jump up ^ Childress 2008, pp. 51–55; Hellinga 2007, p. 208:
Gutenberg's invention took full advantage of the degree of abstraction in representing language forms that was offered by the alphabet and by the Western forms of script that were current in the fifteenth century.
Jump up ^ Roberts & Skeat 1983, pp. 24–30
Jump up ^ Roberts & Skeat 1983, pp. 1, 38–67, 75:
The most momentous development in the history of the book until the invention of printing was the replacement of the roll by the codex; this we may define as a collection of sheets of any material, folded double and fastened together at the back or spine, and usually protected by covers. (p. 1)
Jump up ^ Roberts & Skeat 1983, pp. 45–53. Technically speaking, a scroll could be written on its back side, too, but the very few ancient specimen found indicate that this was never considered a viable option. (p. 46)
Jump up ^ Burns 1996, p. 418
Jump up ^ Thompson 1978, p. 169; Tsien 1985, p. 68−73; Lucas 2005, p. 28, fn. 70
Jump up ^ Thompson 1978, p. 169; Burns 1996, pp. 414–417
Jump up ^ Burns 1996, p. 417
Jump up ^ Febvre & Martin 1997, pp. 41–44; Burns 1996, p. 419:
In the West, the only inhibiting expense in the production of writings for an increasingly literate market was the manual labor of the scribe himself. With his mechanization by movable-type printing in the 1440s, the manufacture of paper, until then relatively confined, began to spread very widely. The Paper Revolution of the thirteenth century thus entered a new era.
Jump up ^ Roberts & Skeat 1983, pp. 7f.:
Despite all that has been said above, even the strongest supporters of papyrus would not deny that parchment of good quality is the finest writing material ever devised by man. It is immensely strong, remains flexible indefinitely under normal conditions, does not deteriorate with age, and possesses a smooth, even surface which is both pleasant to the eye and provides unlimited scope for the finest writing and illumination.
Jump up ^ The ratio between paper and parchment copies is estimated at around 150 to 30 (Hanebutt-Benz 2000, pp. 158–189).
Jump up ^ Childress 2008, p. 60
Jump up ^ Wolf 1974, pp. 67f.:
From old price tables it can be deduced that the capacity of a printing press around 1600, assuming a fifteen-hour workday, was between 3,200 and 3,600 impressions per day.
Jump up ^ [1] RIND Survey (The Press Institute of India- Research Institute for Newspaper Development) June 2015, p14
^ Jump up to: a b c Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 58–69) ISBN 0-471-29198-6
Jump up ^ Mahnke 2009, p. 290
Jump up ^ Kapr 1996, p. 172
Jump up ^ Kapr 1996, p. 203
Jump up ^ Buringh & van Zanden 2009, p. 417, table 2
Jump up ^ "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Borsa 1976, p. 314; Borsa 1977, p. 166−169
Jump up ^ Pollak, Michael (1972). "The performance of the wooden printing press". The library quarterly. 42 (2): 218–264. Retrieved 10 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Needham 1965, p. 211:
The outstanding difference between the two ends of the Old World was the absence of screw-presses from China, but this is only another manifestation of the fact that this basic mechanism was foreign to that culture.
Widmann 1974, p. 34, fn. 14:
In East Asia, both woodblock and movable type printing were manual reproduction techniques, that is hand printing.
Duchesne 2006, p. 83; Man 2002, pp. 112–115:
Chinese paper was suitable only for calligraphy or block-printing; there were no screw-based presses in the east, because they were not wine-drinkers, didn’t have olives, and used other means to dry their paper.
Jump up ^ Issawi 1980, pp. 492
Jump up ^ Duchesne 2006, p. 83
Jump up ^ Weber 2006, pp. 387f.
Jump up ^ The British Library Incunabula Short Title Catalogue gives 29,777 separate editions (not copies) as of 8 January 2008, which however includes some print items from the 16th century (retrieved 11 March 2010). According to Bettina Wagner: "Das Second-Life der Wiegendrucke. Die Inkunabelsammlung der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek", in: Griebel, Rolf; Ceynowa, Klaus (eds.): "Information, Innovation, Inspiration. 450 Jahre Bayerische Staatsbibliothek", K G Saur, München 2008, ISBN 978-3-598-11772-5, pp. 207–224 (207f.), the Incunabula Short Title Catalogue lists 28,107 editions published before 1501.
Jump up ^ Peck, Josh. “The State of Publishing: Literacy Rates.” McSweeney’s Internet Tendency. McSweeney, 5 July 2011. Web. 28 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Malte Herwig, "Google's Total Library", Spiegel Online International, Mar. 28, 2007.
Jump up ^ Howard Rheingold, "Moblogs Seen as a Crystal Ball for a New Era in Online Journalism", Online Journalism Review, Jul. 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ Eshgh, Amy. "Copyright Timeline: A History of Copyright in the United States | Association of Research Libraries® | ARL®". www.arl.org. Retrieved 2018-01-16.
Jump up ^ Julia C. Crick; Alexandra Walsham (2004). The uses of script and print, 1300–1700. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-521-81063-0. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Nick Bilton (14 September 2010). I Live in the Future & Here's How It Works: Why Your World, Work, and Brain Are Being Creatively Disrupted. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-307-59111-1. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Jeremiah Dittmar. "Information technology and economic change: The impact of the printing press". VoxEU. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Prateek Raj. "How the Postal System and the Printing Press Transformed European Markets". Evonomics. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Meggs, Philip B. A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1998. (pp 130–133) ISBN 0-471-29198-6
Jump up ^ Bolza 1967, p. 80
Jump up ^ Bolza 1967, p. 88
Jump up ^ Meggs, Philip B. (1998). A History of Graphic Design (Third ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-471-29198-5.
References
On the effects of the printing press
Boruchoff, David A. (2012), "The Three Greatest Inventions of Modern Times: An Idea and Its Public", in Klaus Hock; Gesa Mackenthun, Entangled Knowledge: Scientific Discourses and Cultural Difference, Münster: Waxmann, pp. 133–163, ISBN 978-3-8309-2729-7
Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten (2009), "Charting the "Rise of the West": Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", The Journal of Economic History, 69 (2): 409–445, doi:10.1017/s0022050709000837
Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. (1980), The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-29955-1
Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. (2005), The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe (2nd, rev. ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-60774-4 [More recent, abridged version]
Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1997), The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800, London: Verso, ISBN 1-85984-108-2
Man, John (2002), The Gutenberg Revolution: The Story of a Genius and an Invention that Changed the World, London: Headline Review, ISBN 978-0-7472-4504-9
McLuhan, Marshall (1962), The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1st ed.), University of Toronto Press, ISBN 978-0-8020-6041-9
Technology of printing
Bechtel, G. (1992), Gutenberg et l'invention de l'imprimerie, Paris: Fayard, ISBN 2-213-02865-6
Bolza, Hans (1967), "Friedrich Koenig und die Erfindung der Druckmaschine", Technikgeschichte, 34 (1): 79–89
Borsa, Gedeon (1976), "Druckorte in Italien vor 1601", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 311–314
Borsa, Gedeon (1977), "Drucker in Italien vor 1601", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 166–169
Brekle, Herbert E. (1995), "Eine weitere Spur einer typographischen Werkstatt beim Kloster Prüfening im 12. Jahrhundert", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch, 70: 23–26
Brekle, Herbert E. (1997), "Das typographische Prinzip. Versuch einer Begriffsklärung", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch, 72: 58–63
Brekle, Herbert E. (2005), Die Prüfeninger Weihinschrift von 1119. Eine paläographisch-typographische Untersuchung (brief summary), Regensburg: Scriptorium Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft, ISBN 3-937527-06-0
Burns, Robert I. (1996), "Paper comes to the West, 800–1400", in Lindgren, Uta, Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation (4th ed.), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, pp. 413–422, ISBN 3-7861-1748-9
Childress, Diana (2008), Johannes Gutenberg and the Printing Press, Minneapolis: Twenty-First Century Books, ISBN 978-0-7613-4024-9
Ch'on Hye-bong: "Typography in Korea", Koreana, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1993), pp. 10–19
Stearns, Peter N (ed.). Encyclopedia of World History (6 ed.). The Houghton Mifflin Company/ Bartleby.com. Citation
Crompton, Samuel Willard (2004), The Printing Press. Transforming Power of Technology, Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, ISBN 0-7910-7451-X
Duchesne, Ricardo (2006), "Asia First?", The Journal of the Historical Society, 6 (1): 69–91, doi:10.1111/j.1540-5923.2006.00168.x
Fontaine, Jean-Paul (1999), L'aventure du livre: Du manuscrit medieval a nos jours, Paris: Bibliothèque de l'image
Gerhardt, Claus W. (1971), "Warum wurde die Gutenberg-Presse erst nach über 350 Jahren durch ein besseres System abgelöst?", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 43–57
Gerhardt, Claus W. (1978), "Besitzt Gutenbergs Erfindung heute noch einen Wert?", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 212–217
Hanebutt-Benz, Eva-Maria (2000), "Gutenbergs Erfindungen", Gutenberg. Aventur und Kunst: Vom Geheimunternehmen zur ersten Medienrevolution, Mainz: Stadt Mainz, pp. 158–189
Hellinga, Lotte (2007), "The Gutenberg Revolutions", in Eliot, Simon; Rose, Jonathan, A Companion to the History of the Book, Blackwell Publishing, pp. 207–220, ISBN 978-1-4051-2765-3
Hind, Arthur M., An Introduction to a History of Woodcut, Houghton Mifflin Co. 1935 (in USA), reprinted Dover Publications, 1963 ISBN 0-486-20952-0
Issawi, Charles (1980), "Europe, the Middle East and the Shift in Power: Reflections on a Theme by Marshall Hodgson", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 22 (4): 487–504, doi:10.1017/s001041750000949x
Kapr, Albert (1996), Johannes Gutenberg. The Man and his Invention, Aldershot: Scolar, ISBN 1-85928-114-1
Koch, Walter (1994), Literaturbericht zur mittelalterlichen und neuzeitlichen Epigraphik (1985–1991), Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Hilfsmittel, 14, München, p. 213, ISBN 978-3-88612-114-4
Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut (1940), "Englische Holzstempelalphabete des XIII. Jahrhunderts", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 93–97
Lipinsky, Angelo (1986), "La pala argentea del Patriarca Pellegrino nella Collegiata di Cividale e le sue iscrizioni con caratteri mobili", Ateneo Veneto, 24: 75–80
Lucas, Adam Robert (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture, 46 (1): 1–30, doi:10.1353/tech.2005.0026
Mahnke, Helmut (2009), Der kunstreiche Johannes Gutenberg und die Frühzeit der Druckkunst, Norderstedt: Books on Demand, ISBN 978-3-8370-5041-7
Needham, Joseph: "Science and Civilisation in China", Physics and Physical Technology (Vol. 4), Mechanical Engineering (Part 2), Cambridge University Press, 1965
Onken, Björn (2009), "Presses", in Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth, Brill's New Pauly
Encyclopædia Britannica 2006: "Printing". Retrieved 27 November 2006
Roberts, Colin H.; Skeat, T. C. (1983), The Birth of the Codex, London: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-726024-1
Schneider, Helmuth (2007), "Technology", in Scheidel, Walter; Morris, Ian; Saller, Richard, The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World, Cambridge University Press, pp. 144–171, ISBN 978-0-521-78053-7
Schulte, Alfred (1939), "Papierpresse, Druckerpresse und Kelter", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 52–56
Thompson, Susan (1978), "Paper Manufacturing and Early Books", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 314: 167–176, doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1978.tb47791.x
Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985), Paper and Printing, Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology (Vol. 5, Part 1), Cambridge University Press
Weber, Johannes (2006), "Strassburg, 1605: The Origins of the Newspaper in Europe", German History, 24 (3): 387–412, doi:10.1191/0266355406gh380oa
White, K. D. (1984), Greek and Roman Technology, London: Thames and Hudson
Widmann, Hans (1974), "Der koreanische Buchdruck und Gutenbergs Erfindung", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 32–34
Wolf, Hans-Jürgen (1974), Geschichte der Druckpressen (1st ed.), Frankfurt/Main: Interprint
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Printing press.
Centre for the History of the Book
Gutenberg printing − Photos of Incunabula and the Gutenberg Bible (1455)
Internet Archive: Printing (1947) − a film from the Prelinger Archives explaining the printing industry
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text:
Texas Chainsaw House
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Coordinates: 30°39′36.8″N 98°26′13.7″W / 30.660222°N 98.437139°W / 30.660222; -98.437139
The so-called Chainsaw House was moved from the La Frontera site to Kingsland in 1998 and restored for use as a restaurant as part of a hotel and railroad district.
The Texas Chainsaw House is located in Kingsland, Texas, on the grounds of The Antlers Hotel. This 1900s Victorian house was featured prominently in the 1974 film The Texas Chain Saw Massacre as the home of Leatherface and his cannibalistic family, before it was moved to this location from Williamson County in 1998.[1] The then-dilapidated farm house originally sat on Quick Hill Road during the July-August 1973 filming of the movie, then sat vacant and deteriorating. The original site is where La Frontera is now located, in Round Rock.[2]
Location of The Texas Chain Saw Massacre farmhouse at Quick Hill – 30°28′49″N 97°41′33″W / 30.480277°N 97.692522°W / 30.480277; -97.692522 (Site of 'The Texas Chain Saw Massacre' farmhouse at Quick Hill)
In 1998, the house was cut into six pieces in order to be moved, then reassembled and restored to its original condition by master carpenter Anthony Mayfield on behalf of an investor couple in Austin, Texas. The house was a "pattern book" house, ordered from a catalog and assembled on site from a package of materials brought by wagon from a local lumber company. Research indicates it was likely built between 1908 and 1910.[3]
An identical twin house was later discovered nearby and was also renovated and is now located in Georgetown, Texas
Contents
[hide]
1 Identical twins
1.1 Film sets
2 Other Homes Appearing in Texas Chainsaw films
3 See also
4 References
Identical twins[edit]
A densely overgrown identical twin of the house was later found at La Frontera as well, and it too was cut into pieces and moved, but to nearby Georgetown and restored. It is known locally as the Burkland-Frisk house as it was built by an early settler in Williamson County, Leonard Frisk, and was later owned by Tony Burkland, a relative of the Frisk family. The house originally set across the street from the Chainsaw house, on Quick Hill Road. But it was later moved to another location within La Frontera and was not originally recognized as a twin because of the dilapidated condition of the house and it being completely overgrown with plants and trees.[4] It was moved in 2006 and restored by the developers of La Frontera, Don Martin and Bill Smalling (1953–2008). It sits on San Gabriel Village Blvd prominently overlooking the South San Gabriel River [5] and is used as an office.
Film sets[edit]
Replicas of the original house were built as sets for Texas Chainsaw 3D[6] and the 2017 prequel Leatherface.[7]
Other Homes Appearing in Texas Chainsaw films[edit]
The Hewitt House is a privately owned, six bedroom working farm house. It was built in Austin, Texas in the 1850s where the University of Texas at Austin now stands. The house was then moved by train to 901 County Road 336 Granger, Texas in the 1930s,[clarification needed] and restored. This house was featured in the 2003 remake The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, as well as in the 2006 prequel to said remake, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning.[8]
See also[edit]
Antlers Hotel (Kingsland, Texas)
La Frontera (Round Rock, Texas)
Kingsland, Texas
Georgetown, Texas
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Film Locations for the Texas Chainsaw Massacre". Worldwide Guide to Film Locations. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Pack, MM (2003-10-23). "The Killing Fields: A culinary history of 'The Texas Chainsaw Massacre' farmhouse". The Austin Chronicle. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
Jump up ^ Matt Phillips. "TCM Sister House". web publication. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Jeff Dorsch (20 January 2002). "Twin to Texas Chainsaw Massacre House Moves to Georgetown". Williamson County Sun. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Matt Phillips. "TCM Sister House". web publication. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Lussier, Germaine (2012-10-17). "Leatherface 'Texas Chainsaw 3D' Set Visit: A House of Horrors Rebuilt, a Franchise Revered". Slash Film. Retrieved 2017-08-30.
Jump up ^ Sokol, Tony (2015-05-04). "Leatherface Producers Christa Campbell and Lati Grobman Interview". Den of Geek. Retrieved 2017-06-19.
Jump up ^ https://roadtrippers.com/us/granger-tx/attractions/the-hewitt-house-texas-chainsaw-massacre-location?lat=40.80972&lng=-96.67528&z=5
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Wood thrush
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Wood thrush
Song
Song
Conservation status

Near Threatened (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Turdidae
Genus: Hylocichla
Baird, 1864
Species: H. mustelina
Binomial name
Hylocichla mustelina
(Gmelin, 1789)
Synonyms
Catharus mustelinus
The wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina) is a North American passerine bird. It is closely related to other thrushes such as the American robin and is widely distributed across North America, wintering in Central America and southern Mexico. The wood thrush is the official bird of the District of Columbia.[2]
The wood thrush is a medium-sized thrush, with brown upper parts with mottled brown and white underparts. The male and female are similar in appearance. The song of the male is often cited as being the most beautiful in North America.
The wood thrush is an omnivore, and feeds preferentially on soil invertebrates and larvae, but will also eat fruits. In the summer, it feeds on insects continuously in order to meet daily metabolic needs. It is solitary, but sometimes forms mixed-species flocks. The wood thrush defends a territory that ranges in size from 800 to 28,000 m2 (960 to 33,490 sq yd). The wood thrush is monogamous, and its breeding season begins in the spring; about 50% of all mated pairs are able to raise two broods, ranging in size from two to four chicks.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Taxonomy
2 Description
2.1 Vocalizations
3 Distribution and habitat
3.1 Conservation status
3.2 Vagrancy
4 Behavior
4.1 Diet
4.2 Predation
4.3 Reproduction
5 References
6 External links
Taxonomy[edit]
The only member of the genus Hylocichla, the wood thrush was described by German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1789. The generic name is a direct translation of its common name, derived from the Greek words hyle/ύλη "woodland" and cichle/κιχλη "thrush" or "fieldfare".[4] The specific name comes from the Latin mustela "weasel".[5] It is closely related to the other typical American thrushes of the genus Catharus, and is sometimes merged into that genus.[6] It has been considered close to the long-distance migrant species of that genus, as opposed to the generally resident nightingale-thrushes, but this appears to be erroneous.[7] The wood thrush also appears to be fairly closely related to the large Turdus thrushes, such as the American robin.
Description[edit]
In Central Park, New York City
The adult wood thrush is 18 to 21.5 cm (7.1 to 8.5 in) long, with a wingspan of 30 to 40 cm (12 to 16 in) and a body mass of 48 to 72 g (1.7 to 2.5 oz).[8] Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 9.6 to 11.6 cm (3.8 to 4.6 in), the bill is 1.6 to 2 cm (0.63 to 0.79 in) and the tarsus is 2.8 to 3.3 cm (1.1 to 1.3 in). It is distinctly larger than the Catharus thrushes with which the species is often sympatric but slightly smaller than the common American robin.[9] The longest known lifespan for a wood thrush in the wild is 8 years, 11 months.[10] The crown, nape, and upper back are cinnamon-brown, while the back wings, and tail are a slightly duller brown. The breast and belly are white with large dark brown spots on the breast, sides, and flanks. It has white eye rings and pink legs.[11] Other brownish thrushes have finer spotting on the breast.[12] The juvenile looks similar to adults, but has additional spots on the back, neck, and wing coverts. The male and female are similar in size and plumage.
Vocalizations[edit]
The wood thrush has been reported to have one of the most beautiful songs of North American birds.[12] American naturalist Henry David Thoreau wrote:
Whenever a man hears it he is young, and Nature is in her spring; wherever he hears it, it is a new world and a free country, and the gates of Heaven are not shut against him.
While the female is not known to sing, the male has a unique song that has three parts. The first subsong component is often inaudible unless the listener is close, and consists of two to six short, low-pitched notes such as bup, bup, bup. The middle part is a loud phrase often written ee-oh-lay, and the third part is a ventriloquial, trill-like phrase of non-harmonic pairs of notes given rapidly and simultaneously.
The male is able to sing two notes at once, which gives its song an ethereal, flute-like quality.[13] Each individual bird has its own repertoire based on combinations of variations of the three parts. Songs are often repeated in order. The bup, bup, bup phrase is also sometimes used as a call, which is louder and at a greater frequency when the bird is agitated.[3] The wood thrush also use a tut, tut to signal agitation.[10] The nocturnal flight call is an emphatic buzzing heeh.[8]
Distribution and habitat[edit]
The wood thrush's breeding range extends from Manitoba, Ontario and Nova Scotia in southern Canada to northern Florida and from the Atlantic coast to the Missouri River and the eastern Great Plains. It migrates to southern Mexico through to Panama in Central America in the winter, mostly in the lowlands along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.[12] It generally arrives on the U.S. Gulf Coast during the first week of April. Fall migration usually begins in mid-August and continues through mid-September. Migration takes place at night,[10] allowing them to find their direction from the stars and orient themselves by detecting the Earth's magnetic field.[14]
The wood thrush prefers deciduous and mixed forests for breeding. It prefers late-successional, upland mesic forests with a moderately-dense shrub layer. Robert I. Bertin (1977) found that this thrush favors areas with running water, moist ground, and high understorey cover.[10] The breeding habitat generally includes trees taller than 16 m (52 ft), a fairly open forest floor, moist soil, and leaf litter, with substrate moisture more important than either canopy cover or access to running water. The wood thrush can breed in habitat patches as small as 0.4 hectares (0.99 acres), but it runs the risk of higher predation and nest parasitism.[10] The wood thrush's breeding range has expanded northward, displacing the veery and hermit thrush in some locations. In recent times, as a result of fragmentation of forests, it has been increasingly exposed to nest parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds, as well as loss of habitat in the winter range.
Conservation status[edit]
The wood thrush has become a symbol of the decline of Neotropical songbirds of eastern North America, having declined by approximately 50% since 1966.[8] Along with many other species, this thrush faces threats both to its North American breeding grounds and Central American wintering grounds. Forest fragmentation in North American forests has resulted in both increased nest predation and increased cowbird parasitism, significantly reducing their reproductive success. A study by the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology was the first large-scale analysis that linked acid rain to this thrush's decline.[15] Continued destruction of primary forest in Central America eliminated preferred wood thrush wintering habitats, likely forcing the birds to choose secondary habitats where mortality rates are higher. In spite of this, the wood thrush is considered to be near threatened.[1]
Vagrancy[edit]
The wood thrush has been recorded twice as a vagrant in Europe, in Iceland at Kvísker in Öræfi East Skaftafellssýsla by Björnsson Hálfdán on 23 October 1967 and on Wingletang Down, St Agnes, Isles of Scilly, England on 7 October 1987.[16][17]
Behavior[edit]
The wood thrush is primarily solitary, but occasionally forms mixed-species flocks in the winter. Its breeding territory ranges from 800 to 8,000 m2 (960 to 9,570 sq yd) in size, and are used for nesting, gathering nest materials, and foraging.[10] Some wood thrushes also defend a feeding territory in the winter. Territorial interactions are usually settled without physical contact, but in high-intensity encounters or nest defense, physical interactions with the feet or bill have been observed. Defense behaviors in response to nest predators include wing flicks, tail flicks, and raising the crest, sometimes escalating to dives and strikes.[10]
This species has also been observed displaying a behavior known as "anting." Anting occurs when a bird picks up a single ant or group of ants and rubs them on its feathers. The purpose of this behavior is unknown, but it is thought that the birds may be able to acquire defensive secretions from the ants possibly used for some medicinal purposes, or that it simply supplements the birds' own preen oil.[8]
Diet[edit]
Soil invertebrates and larvae make up most of the wood thrush's omnivorous diet, but it will also eat fruits in the late summer, fall, and late winter. It occasionally feeds on arboreal insects, snails, and small salamanders. The young are fed insects and some fruit.[8] After breeding and before migration, the wood thrush will switch from insects to fruits with high lipid levels. In the summer, low fruit consumption and lipid reserves require the bird to feed on insects continuously in order to meet its metabolic needs.[10]
The wood thrush forages mainly on the forest floor, flipping leaves over with its bills to reveal insects. It can be observed hopping around in leaf litter and on semi-bare ground under the forest canopy. Fruits are swallowed whole.[10]
Predation[edit]
Eggs and chicks are vulnerable to chipmunks, raccoons, blue jays, American crows, black rat snakes, brown-headed cowbirds, common grackles, southern flying squirrels, gray squirrels, least weasels, white-footed mice, domestic cats, great horned owls, and sharp-shinned hawks. Adults are primarily taken by hawks and owls.[10]
Reproduction[edit]
Nesting in Pennsylvania, USA
Wood thrushes are monogamous. Breeding pairs form in mid-April to early-May, and usually last throughout the breeding season. Most thrushes find a new mate each year, and mate guarding and extra-pair copulations have not been observed in this species.[10]
Some male wood thrushes arrive at the breeding grounds several days before the earliest females while other males arrive at the same time as the females, establishing territories ranging in size from 0.08 to 0.8 hectares (one-fifth of an acre to two acres).[3] The female typically leads silent circular flights 1–1.8 m (3.3–5.9 ft) from the ground, with the male chasing. Six or more flights generally take place in succession. The pairs will perch together and feed each other in between flights.[8] The male begins to sing at dawn and dusk a few days after arriving at breeding grounds. Early in the breeding season, the male sings from high perches in the tallest trees, but as the season progresses, it sings somewhat shorter and less elaborate songs from lower perches. Each day's singing begins and is most intense just before sunrise. The male may sing throughout the day but especially at dusk. The song season is usually over by the end of July.[10]
Typically, the female chooses the nest site and builds the nest. However, there has been some indication that the male is able to influence the selection of the nest site by perching nearby and singing. Usually, though, the female chooses whether or not to accept or reject the nest site suggested by the male.[18] The nest is usually sited in a dense patch of vegetation in a tree or shrub that provides concealment and shade. It is usually made of dead grasses, stems, and leaves, and lined with mud, and placed in a fork at a horizontal branch. The nest is not reused. Usually, two broods are attempted, although three to four separate nests may be built before a pair succeeds. Two to four pale blue eggs are laid at the rate of one per day.[19] The eggs are incubated by the female only for 11 to 14 days, with the average being 13 days. Like all passerines, the chicks are altricial at hatching, mostly naked with closed eyes.[20] The female broods the chicks during the first four days after hatching. Both parents feed the nestlings and remove fecal sacs from the nest. The chicks fledge 12–15 days after hatching, but the parents continue to feed them until they become independent and leave the parents' territory at 21–31 days old.
The young wood thrush is able to begin breeding the next summer. Most females lay their first eggs in mid-May, but older females may begin laying sooner. Pairs usually attempt to rear a second brood no later than late July, with the last of the young fledging around mid-August.[10] About half of all wood thrush pairs successfully raise two broods.[3]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b BirdLife International (2012). "Hylocichla mustelina". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "50 States". Retrieved 17 June 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology. "Wood Thrush". Archived from the original on 9 June 2007. Retrieved 17 June 2007.
Jump up ^ Liddell, Henry George & Robert Scott (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged Edition). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910207-4.
Jump up ^ Simpson, D.P. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5th ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 883. ISBN 0-304-52257-0.
Jump up ^ Kevin Winker & John H. Rappole (1988). "The Relationship between Hylocichla and Catharus (Turdinae)" (PDF). The Auk. 105 (2): 392–394. doi:10.2307/4087513. JSTOR 4087513.
Jump up ^ Winker, K.; Pruett, C. L. (2006). "Seasonal Migration, Speciation, and Morphological Convergence in the Genus Catharus (Turdidae)". The Auk. 123 (4): 1052. doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2006)123[1052:SMSAMC]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR 25150219.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology All About Birds. "Wood Thrush". Retrieved 17 June 2007.
Jump up ^ Thrushes by Peter Clement. Princeton University Press (2001). ISBN 978-0691088525
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. "Wood Thrush". Retrieved 17 June 2007.
Jump up ^ Skutch, Alexander Frank (1989). A Guide to the Birds of Costa Rica. Ithaca: Comstock. ISBN 0-8014-9600-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bull J; Farrand, J Jr (1987). Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds:Eastern Region. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 666–667. ISBN 0-394-41405-5.
Jump up ^ Weidensaul, Scott (2007). Of a Feather: A Brief History of American Birding. New York: Harcourt, Inc. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-15-101247-3.
Jump up ^ Dan Lazar. "The Mysteries of Migration – Transmutation or Long-Distance Travelers?". Archived from the original on 15 March 2007. Retrieved 26 June 2007.
Jump up ^ Miyoko Chu; Stefan Hames. "Wood Thrush Declines Linked to Acid Rain". Retrieved 17 June 2007.
Jump up ^ Paul Dukes (1987). "A New British Bird – Wood Thrush on St Agnes". Twitching. 1 (10): 299–300.
Jump up ^ Paul Dukes (1995). "Wood Thrush in Scilly: new to Britain and Ireland". British Birds. 88 (3): 133–135.
Jump up ^ Hervey Brackbill. "Nesting Behavior of the Wood Thrush" (PDF). 70 (1): 70–89. Retrieved 17 May 2007.
Jump up ^ D. A. Sibley. "Wood Thrush". Retrieved 17 May 2007.
Jump up ^ Paul R. Ehrlich; David S. Dobkin & Darryl Wheye. "Precocial and Atricial". Retrieved 6 May 2007.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wood thrush.
Wikispecies has information related to Hylocichla mustelina
Description – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Species account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
"Wood thrush media". Internet Bird Collection.
"Is Acid Rain Killing Off Wood Thrushes?" – Nationalgeographic.com
Bird sounds including the wood thrush - Florida Museum of Natural History
Wood thrush photo gallery at VIREO (Drexel University)
Interactive range map of Hylocichla mustelina at IUCN Red List maps
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q599921
ADW: Hylocichla_mustelina
ARKive: hylocichla-mustelina
eBird: woothr
EoL: 1177531
Fauna Europaea: 97218
GBIF: 2490872
IBC: wood-thrush-hylocichla-mustelina
iNaturalist: 13270
ITIS: 179777
IUCN: 22708670
NCBI: 172420
WoRMS: 422627
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wood_thrush&oldid=826093294"
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Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: سمنة الغياض – Arabic

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values: Дървесен дрозд – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values: འཇོལ་མོ། – Tibetan

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-br
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cy
display: none;

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilociklo
Hilociklo – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Wood_thrush rootpage-Wood_thrush skin-vector action-view