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The Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci)
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This article is about the Leonardo da Vinci painting. For other uses, see The Last Supper (disambiguation).
The Last Supper
Il Cenacolo or L'Ultima Cena
Artist
Leonardo da Vinci
Year
1490s (Julian)
Medium
fresco-secco
Dimensions
460 cm (180 in) × 880 cm (350 in)
Location
Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan
Coordinates
45°28′00″N 9°10′15″E / 45.466666666667°N 9.1708333333333°E / 45.466666666667; 9.1708333333333Coordinates: 45°28′00″N 9°10′15″E / 45.466666666667°N 9.1708333333333°E / 45.466666666667; 9.1708333333333
Website
legraziemilano.it/il-cenacolo/
[edit on Wikidata]
The Last Supper (Italian: Il Cenacolo [il tʃeˈnaːkolo] or L'Ultima Cena [ˈlultima ˈtʃeːna]) is a late 15th-century mural painting by Leonardo da Vinci housed by the refectory of the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan. It is one of the world's most recognizable paintings.[1]
The work is presumed to have been started around 1495–96 and was commissioned as part of a plan of renovations to the church and its convent buildings by Leonardo's patron Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. The painting represents the scene of the Last Supper of Jesus with his apostles, as it is told in the Gospel of John, 13:21.[2] Leonardo has depicted the consternation that occurred among the Twelve Disciples when Jesus announced that one of them would betray him.
Due to the methods used, a variety of environmental factors, and intentional damage, very little of the original painting remains today despite numerous restoration attempts, the last being completed in 1999.
Contents
[hide]
1 Painting
1.1 Important copies
2 Medium
3 Damage and restorations
3.1 Major restoration
4 The Last Supper in culture
4.1 Painting, mosaic, and photography
4.2 Modern art
4.3 Literature
4.4 Film and television
5 Other speculation
6 Notes
7 Further reading
8 External links
Painting[edit]
Crucifixion, opposite Leonardo's Last Supper
The Last Supper, ca. 1520, by Giovanni Pietro Rizzoli, called Giampietrino (active 1508–1549), after Leonardo da Vinci, oil on canvas, in the collection of The Royal Academy of Arts, London; full-scale copy that was the main source for the twenty-year restoration of the original (1978-1998). It includes several lost details such as Christ's feet and the salt cellar spilled by Judas. Giampietrino is thought to have worked closely with Leonardo when he was in Milan. The painting hung in the chapel of Magdalen College, Oxford from 1992.[3]
The Last Supper, ca. 1520, Andrea Solari, after Leonardo da Vinci, oil on canvas, in the Leonardo da Vinci Museum, Tongerlo Abbey.
The Last Supper measures 460 cm × 880 cm (180 in × 350 in) and covers an end wall of the dining hall at the monastery of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. The theme was a traditional one for refectories, although the room was not a refectory at the time that Leonardo painted it. The main church building had only recently been completed (in 1498), but was remodeled by Bramante, hired by Ludovico Sforza to build a Sforza family mausoleum.[4]
The painting was commissioned by Sforza to be the centerpiece of the mausoleum.[5] The lunettes above the main painting, formed by the triple arched ceiling of the refectory, are painted with Sforza coats-of-arms.
The opposite wall of the refectory is covered by the Crucifixion fresco by Giovanni Donato da Montorfano, to which Leonardo added figures of the Sforza family in tempera. (These figures have deteriorated in much the same way as has The Last Supper.)
Leonardo began work on The Last Supper in 1495 and completed it in 1498—he did not work on the painting continuously. The beginning date is not certain, as the archives of the convent for the period have been destroyed, and a document dated 1497 indicates that the painting was nearly completed at that date.[6]
One story goes that a prior from the monastery complained to Leonardo about the delay, enraging him. He wrote to the head of the monastery, explaining he had been struggling to find the perfect villainous face for Judas, and that if he could not find a face corresponding with what he had in mind, he would use the features of the prior who complained.[7][8]
A study for The Last Supper from Leonardo's notebooks showing nine apostles identified by names written above their heads

The Last Supper specifically portrays the reaction given by each apostle when Jesus said one of them would betray him. All twelve apostles have different reactions to the news, with various degrees of anger and shock. The apostles are identified from a manuscript[9] (The Notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci p. 232) with their names found in the 19th century. (Before this, only Judas, Peter, John and Jesus were positively identified.) From left to right, according to the apostles' heads:
Bartholomew, James, son of Alphaeus, and Andrew form a group of three; all are surprised.
Judas Iscariot, Peter, and John form another group of three.
Judas is wearing green and blue and is in shadow, looking rather withdrawn and taken aback by the sudden revelation of his plan. He is clutching a small bag, perhaps signifying the silver given to him as payment to betray Jesus, or perhaps a reference to his role within the 12 disciples as treasurer.[10] He is also tipping over the salt cellar. This may be related to the near-Eastern expression to "betray the salt" meaning to betray one's Master. He is the only person to have his elbow on the table and his head is also horizontally the lowest of anyone in the painting.
Peter looks angry and is holding a knife pointed away from Christ, perhaps foreshadowing his violent reaction in Gethsemane during Jesus' arrest.
The youngest apostle, John, appears to swoon.
Jesus
Apostle Thomas, James the Greater, and Philip are the next group of three.
Thomas is clearly upset; the raised index finger foreshadows his incredulity of the Resurrection.
James the Greater looks stunned, with his arms in the air. Meanwhile, Philip appears to be requesting some explanation.
Matthew, Jude Thaddeus, and Simon the Zealot are the final group of three.
Both Jude Thaddeus and Matthew are turned toward Simon, perhaps to find out if he has any answer to their initial questions.
In common with other depictions of the Last Supper from this period, Leonardo seats the diners on one side of the table, so that none of them has his back to the viewer. Most previous depictions excluded Judas by placing him alone on the opposite side of the table from the other eleven disciples and Jesus, or placing halos around all the disciples except Judas.
Leonardo instead has Judas lean back into shadow. Jesus is predicting that his betrayer will take the bread at the same time he does to Saints Thomas and James to his left, who react in horror as Jesus points with his left hand to a piece of bread before them. Distracted by the conversation between John and Peter, Judas reaches for a different piece of bread not noticing Jesus too stretching out with his right hand towards it (Matthew 26: 23). The angles and lighting draw attention to Jesus, whose turned right cheek is located at the vanishing point for all perspective lines; his hands are located at the golden ratio of half the height of the composition.[11]
The painting contains several references to the number 3, which represents the Christian belief in the Holy Trinity. The Apostles are seated in groupings of three; there are three windows behind Jesus; and the shape of Jesus' figure resembles a triangle. The painting can also be interpreted using the Fibonacci series: 1 table, 1 central figure, 2 side walls, 3 windows and figures grouped in threes, 5 groups of figures, 8 panels on the walls and 8 table legs, and 13 individual figures.[11] There may have been other references that have since been lost as the painting deteriorated.
Important copies[edit]
Two early copies of The Last Supper are known to exist, presumed to be work by Leonardo's assistants. The copies are almost the size of the original, and have survived with a wealth of original detail still intact.[12] One copy, by Giampietrino, is in the collection of the Royal Academy of Arts, London, and the other, by Cesare da Sesto, is installed at the Church of St. Ambrogio in Ponte Capriasca, Switzerland. A third copy (oil on canvas) is painted by Andrea Solari (ca. 1520) and is on display in the Leonardo da Vinci Museum of the Tongerlo Abbey, Belgium.
Medium[edit]
For this work, Leonardo sought a greater detail and luminosity than could be achieved with traditional fresco.[13] He painted The Last Supper on a dry wall rather than on wet plaster, so it is not a true fresco. Because a fresco cannot be modified as the artist works, Leonardo instead chose to seal the stone wall with a double layer of dried plaster.[13] Then, borrowing from panel painting, he added an undercoat of white lead to enhance the brightness of the oil and tempera that was applied on top. This was a method that had been described previously, by Cennino Cennini in the 14th century. However, Cennini had recommended the use of secco for the final touches alone.[14] These techniques were important for Leonardo's desire to work slowly on the painting, giving him sufficient time to develop the gradual shading or chiaroscuro that was essential in his style.
Damage and restorations[edit]
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A protective structure was built in front of the da Vinci wall fresco. This photo shows the bombing damage in 1943, suggesting the magnitude of the greater damage that was averted.
Because the painting was on a thin exterior wall, the effects of humidity were felt more keenly, and the paint failed to properly adhere to the wall. Because of the method used, soon after the painting was completed on February 9, 1498 it began to deteriorate.[13] As early as 1517, the painting was starting to flake, and in 1532 Gerolamo Cardano described it as "blurred and colorless compared with what I remember of it when I saw it as a boy".[15] By 1556—fewer than sixty years after it was finished—Leonardo's biographer Giorgio Vasari described the painting as already "ruined" and so deteriorated that the figures were unrecognizable. By the second half of the sixteenth century Gian Paolo Lomazzo stated that "the painting is all ruined".[13] In 1652, a doorway was cut through the (then unrecognisable) painting, and later bricked up; this can still be seen as the irregular arch shaped structure near the center base of the painting. It is believed, through early copies, that Jesus' feet were in a position symbolizing the forthcoming crucifixion. In 1768, a curtain was hung over the painting for the purpose of protection; it instead trapped moisture on the surface, and whenever the curtain was pulled back, it scratched the flaking paint.
A first restoration was attempted in 1726 by Michelangelo Bellotti, who filled in missing sections with oil paint then varnished the whole mural. This repair did not last well and another restoration was attempted in 1770 by an otherwise unknown artist named Giuseppe Mazza. Mazza stripped off Bellotti's work then largely repainted the painting; he had redone all but three faces when he was halted due to public outrage. In 1796, French revolutionary anti-clerical troops used the refectory as an armory; they threw stones at the painting and climbed ladders to scratch out the Apostles' eyes. The refectory was then later used as a prison; it is not known if any of the prisoners may have damaged the painting. In 1821, Stefano Barezzi, an expert in removing whole frescoes from their walls intact, was called in to remove the painting to a safer location; he badly damaged the center section before realizing that Leonardo's work was not a fresco. Barezzi then attempted to reattach damaged sections with glue. From 1901 to 1908, Luigi Cavenaghi first completed a careful study of the structure of the painting, then began cleaning it. In 1924, Oreste Silvestri did further cleaning, and stabilised some parts with stucco.
During World War II, on August 15, 1943, the refectory was struck by Allied bombing; protective sandbagging prevented the painting from being struck by bomb splinters, but it may have been damaged further by the vibration. From 1951 to 1954, another clean-and-stabilise restoration was undertaken by Mauro Pelliccioli.
Major restoration[edit]
The painting as it looked in the 1970s
The painting's appearance by the late 1970s had become badly deteriorated. From 1978 to 1999, Pinin Brambilla Barcilon guided a major restoration project which undertook to stabilize the painting, and reverse the damage caused by dirt and pollution. The 18th- and 19th-century restoration attempts were also reverted. Since it had proved impractical to move the painting to a more controlled environment, the refectory was instead converted to a sealed, climate-controlled environment, which meant bricking up the windows. Then, detailed study was undertaken to determine the painting's original form, using scientific tests (especially infrared reflectoscopy and microscopic core-samples), and original cartoons preserved in the Royal Library at Windsor Castle. Some areas were deemed unrestorable. These were re-painted using watercolor in subdued colors intended to indicate they were not original work, while not being too distracting.
This restoration took 21 years and, on 28 May 1999, the painting was returned to display. Intending visitors were required to book ahead and could only stay for 15 minutes. When it was unveiled, considerable controversy was aroused by the dramatic changes in colors, tones, and even some facial shapes. James Beck, professor of art history at Columbia University and founder of ArtWatch International, had been a particularly strong critic.[16] Michael Daley, director of ArtWatch UK, has also complained about the restored version of the painting. He has been critical of Christ's right arm in the image which has been altered from a draped sleeve to what Daley calls "muff-like drapery".[17]
The Last Supper in culture[edit]
The Last Supper made in salt in Wieliczka Salt Mine (Poland)
The Last Supper has frequently been referenced, reproduced, or parodied in Western culture. Some of the more notable examples are:
Painting, mosaic, and photography[edit]
A 16th-century oil on canvas copy is conserved in the abbey of Tongerlo, Antwerp, Belgium. It reveals many details that are no longer visible on the original.[citation needed] The Roman mosaic artist Giacomo Raffaelli made another life-sized copy (1809–1814) in the Viennese Minoritenkirche.[citation needed]
Modern art[edit]
In 1955, Salvador Dalí painted The Sacrament of the Last Supper, with Jesus portrayed as blond and clean shaven, pointing upward to a spectral torso while the apostles are gathered around the table heads bowed so that none may be identified. It is reputed to be one of the most popular paintings in the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.
In 1986, Andy Warhol was commissioned to produce a series of paintings based on The Last Supper that were exhibited initially in Milan. This was his last series of paintings before his death.[18]
Sculptor Marisol Escobar rendered The Last Supper as a life-sized, three-dimensional, sculptural assemblage using painted and drawn wood, plywood, brownstone, plaster, and aluminum. This work, Self-Portrait Looking at The Last Supper, (1982–84) is in New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art.[19]
In 1988, Susan Dorothea White painted The First Supper showing 13 women from all regions of the world, with the woman in the position of Leonardo's Christ figure being an Australian aboriginal.[20][21]
In 2001, Chinese artist Zeng Fanzhi painted Last Supper, showing 13 mask-wearing people seated at a table strewn with watermelon fragments. The oil painting was sold for $23.3 million at Sotheby's auction on October 7, 2013, setting a new record for contemporary Asian artwork.[22]
In 1998, modern artist Vik Muniz displayed a recreation of The Last Supper, made entirely out of Bosco Chocolate Syrup.[23]
Literature[edit]
Author Mary Shelley describes her impression of the painting in her travel narrative, Rambles in Germany and Italy published in 1844:
First we visited the fading inimitable fresco of Leonardo da Vinci. How vain are copies! not in one, nor in any print, did i ever see the slightest approach to the expression in our Savior's face, such as it is in the original. Majesty and love—these are the words that would describe it—joined to an absence of all guile that expresses the divine nature more visibly than I ever saw it in any other picture.[24]
—  Mary Shelley, Travel Writing (1996), Pages 131–132
Film and television[edit]
In Luis Buñuel's Spanish film Viridiana, a tableau vivant of Leonardo's painting is staged with beggars. Another beggar 'photographs' the scene by flashing them. This scene contributed to its refusal by the Vatican who called it "blasphemous."
In Norman Jewison's 1973 film version of "Jesus Christ Superstar", in the Last Supper sequence, Jesus and the 12 apostles briefly mimic the posture of each character in Da Vinci's painting
The painting is parodied in Mel Brooks's movie History of the World, Part I, making Leonardo a contemporary of Jesus. It is also parodied in the original movie MASH, in the scene where Hawkeye Pierce stages a "last supper" for Walt (Painless) Waldowski before his planned suicide. The various doctors, all in surgical scrubs, pose in imitation of the painting.
Many parodies of the painting appear on the small screen, including The Simpsons' Season 16 episode "Thank God, It's Doomsday," with Homer as Jesus and Moe and his other patrons as the disciples; That '70s Show's first-season episode "Streaking," with Eric flanked by his friends (and Jackie wondering why everyone is sitting on the same side of the table); and South Park's Season 13 episode "Margaritaville," with Kyle and his friends eating at a pizza parlor. In one episode of the CBC drama Murdoch Mysteries called Barenaked Ladies, the suspects recreate the poses of Peter, Judas and Thomas in their victims.
Other speculation[edit]
The Last Supper has been the target of much speculation by writers and historical revisionists alike, usually centered on purported hidden messages or hints found within the painting, especially since the publication of the novel The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown in 2003.
Dan Brown proposed that the person to Jesus' right (left of Jesus from the viewer's perspective), was not John the Apostle, but Mary Magdalene. This speculation originated in earlier books The Templar Revelation (1997) by Lynn Picknett and The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail by Michael Baigent, Henry Lincoln and Richard Leigh (1982). These claims have been contested by other writers, such as Carl E. Olsen and Sandra Miesel in The Da Vinci Hoax, as well as by art historians. Christopher Hodapp and Alice Von Kannon commented "If he [John] looks effeminate and needs a haircut, so does James, the second figure on the left, the one with the sort of Bette Midler look about him".[25]
Giovanni Maria Pala, an Italian musician, has indicated that the positions of hands and loaves of bread can be interpreted as notes on a musical staff and, if read from right to left, as was characteristic of Leonardo's writing, form a musical composition.[26][27][28]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Leonardo Da Vinci's 'The Last Supper' reveals more secrets". sciencedaily.com. Retrieved March 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci –. "Santa Maria delle Grazie – Milan". Inexhibit. Retrieved 10 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Chapel with return Renaissance painrefting". Oxford Times. 14 September 2017. p. 19.
Jump up ^ "Santa Maria delle Grazie & The Last Supper". Timeout.com. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ "Leonardo's Itinerary: Early maturity in Milan (1482-1499)". Museo Galileo. 5 March 2008. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Kenneth Clark.Leonardo da Vinci, Penguin Books 1939, 1993, p144.
Jump up ^ "The Last Supper". lairweb.org.nz. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ "DaVinci". The Mark Steel Lectures. Series 2. Episode 2. The Open University. 7 October 2003. BBC. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ "The Notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci—Complete by Leonardo da Vinci". Gutenberg.org. 1 January 2004. Retrieved 2012-02-14.
Jump up ^ Cfr. Matthew 26:15; John 12:6 and 13:29.
^ Jump up to: a b White, Susan D. (2006). Draw Like Da Vinci. London: Cassell Illustrated, p.132. ISBN 9781844034444.
Jump up ^ "Last Supper (copy after Leonardo)". University of the Arts, London. Retrieved 2008-08-11.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Leonardo's Last Supper". Smart history presented by the Khan Academy. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Last Supper". The Last Supper. Retrieved 25 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Wykes, Alan (1969). Doctor Cardano, physician extraordinary. p. 26.
Jump up ^ Phillip William (24 May 1999). "The Last Supper or a dog's dinner?". The Guardian. guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Dayla Alberge (14 March 2012). "Have art restorers ruined Leonardo's masterpiece?". The Independent. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Haden-Guest, Anthony (3 August 1999). "Warhol's Last Supper". Artnet. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
Jump up ^ "Self-Portrait Looking at The Last Supper". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Susan White - veelzijdig werk, Kunstbeeld (Amsterdam) Oct. 1990, vol. 14 (10) p.62 (translation)
Jump up ^ Allen, Christopher. 'Ludicrous Leonardo', The Sydney Morning Herald, 23 December 1988, p.10
Jump up ^ "Zeng's 'Last Supper' Sells for Record $23.3 Million at Sotheby's Auction". WSJ.com. October 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ Goldberg, Vicki (25 September 1998). "ART REVIEW; It's a Leonardo? It's a Corot? Well, No, It's Chocolate Syrup". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ Shelley, Mary (1996). Travel Writing. London: Pickering. pp. 131–132. ISBN 1-85196-084-8.
Jump up ^ Christopher Hodapp, Alice Von Kannon, The Templar Code For Dummies, page 257 (Wiley Publishing, Inc., 2007. ISBN 978-0-470-12765-0).
Jump up ^ Rossella Lorenzi (9 November 2007). "Leonardo's 'Last Supper' Hides True Da Vinci Code". Discovery News. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
Jump up ^ "Da Vinci's "Last Supper" has hidden music (includes link to recording)". Extra.beloblog.com. Retrieved 2009-02-08.
Jump up ^ mp3 file of the composition, hosted.ap.org
Further reading[edit]
Steinberg, Leo. Leonardo's Incessant 'Last Supper'". New York: Zone Books, 2001.
Detailed review of Steinberg's 'Incessant Last Supper' at 3 Pipe Problem
Bertelli, Carlo (November 1983). "Restoration Reveals The Last Supper". National Geographic. Vol. 164 no. 5. pp. 664–684. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci.
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Leonardo's Last Supper and the three layers
John the Apostle in Art
Leonardo da Vinci: anatomical drawings from the Royal Library, Windsor Castle, exhibition catalog fully online as PDF from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on The Last Supper (see index)
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Jump up ^ "Leonardo's Last Supper". Smarthistory at Khan Academy. Retrieved February 11, 2013.
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DEFCON
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Defcon (disambiguation).
The DEFense readiness CONdition (DEFCON) is an alert state used by the United States Armed Forces.[1]
The DEFCON system was developed by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and unified and specified combatant commands.[2] It prescribes five graduated levels of readiness (or states of alert) for the U.S. military. It increases in severity from DEFCON 5 (least severe) to DEFCON 1 (most severe) to match varying military situations.[1]
DEFCONs are a subsystem of a series of Alert Conditions, or LERTCONs, which also include Emergency Conditions (EMERGCONs).[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Operations
2 Levels
3 History
3.1 DEFCON 2
3.1.1 Cuban Missile Crisis
3.1.2 The Gulf War
3.2 DEFCON 3
3.2.1 Yom Kippur War
3.2.2 Operation Paul Bunyan
3.2.3 September 11 attacks
4 In other media
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Operations[edit]
The DEFCON level is controlled primarily by the U.S. president and the U.S. Secretary of Defense through the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Combatant Commanders; each DEFCON level defines specific security, activation and response scenarios for the personnel in question.
Different branches of the U.S. Armed Forces (i.e. U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, U.S. Air Force, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Coast Guard) and different bases or command groups can be activated at different defense conditions. In general, there is no single DEFCON status for the world or country and it may be set to only include specific geographical areas. According to Air & Space/Smithsonian, as of 2014, the worldwide DEFCON level has never been more severe than DEFCON 3. The DEFCON 2 levels in the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis and 1991 Gulf War were not worldwide.[4]
DEFCONs should not be confused with similar systems used by the U.S. military, such as Force Protection Conditions (FPCONS), Readiness Conditions (REDCONS), Information Operations Condition (INFOCON) and its future replacement Cyber Operations Condition (CYBERCON),[5] and Watch Conditions (WATCHCONS), or the former Homeland Security Advisory System used by the United States Department of Homeland Security.
Levels[edit]
Defense readiness conditions vary between many commands and have changed over time,[2] and the United States Department of Defense uses exercise terms when referring to the DEFCONs.[6] This is to preclude the possibility of confusing exercise commands with actual operational commands.[6] On 12 January 1966, NORAD "proposed the adoption of the readiness conditions of the JCS system", and information about the levels was declassified in 2006:[7]
Readiness condition
Exercise term
Description
Readiness
DEFCON 1 COCKED PISTOL Nuclear war is imminent Maximum readiness
DEFCON 2 FAST PACE Next step to nuclear war Armed Forces ready to deploy and engage in less than 6 hours
DEFCON 3 ROUND HOUSE Increase in force readiness above that required for normal readiness Air Force ready to mobilize in 15 minutes
DEFCON 4 DOUBLE TAKE Increased intelligence watch and strengthened security measures Above normal readiness
DEFCON 5 FADE OUT Lowest state of readiness Normal readiness
History[edit]
After NORAD was created, the command used different readiness levels (Normal, Increased, Maximum) subdivided into eight conditions, e.g., the "Maximum Readiness" level had two conditions "Air Defense Readiness" and "Air Defense Emergency".[7] In October 1959, the JCS Chairman informed NORAD "that Canada and the U.S. had signed an agreement on increasing the operational readiness of NORAD forces during periods of international tension."[7] After the agreement became effective on 2 October 1959,[7] the JCS defined a system with DEFCONs in November 1959 for the military commands.[2] The initial DEFCON system had "Alpha" and "Bravo" conditions (under DEFCON 3) and Charlie/Delta under DEFCON 4, plus an "Emergency" level higher than DEFCON 1 with two conditions: "Defense Emergency" and the highest, "Air Defense Emergency" ("Hot Box" and "Big Noise" for exercises).[7]
DEFCON 2[edit]
Cuban Missile Crisis[edit]
During the Cuban Missile Crisis on October 22, 1962, the U.S. Armed Forces (with the exception of United States Army Europe (USAREUR)) were ordered to DEFCON 3. On October 24, Strategic Air Command (SAC) was ordered to DEFCON 2, while the rest of the U.S. Armed Forces remained at DEFCON 3. SAC remained at DEFCON 2 until November 15.[8]
The Gulf War[edit]
On January 15, 1991, the Joint Chiefs of Staff declared DEFCON 2 in the opening phase of Operation Desert Storm during the Persian Gulf War.[9]
DEFCON 3[edit]
Yom Kippur War[edit]
On October 6, 1973, Egypt and Syria launched a joint attack on Israel resulting in the Yom Kippur War. The U.S. became concerned that the Soviet Union might intervene, and on October 25, U.S. forces, including Strategic Air Command, Continental Air Defense Command, European Command and the Sixth Fleet, were placed at DEFCON 3.
According to documents declassified in 2016, the move to DEFCON 3 was motivated by Central Intelligence Agency reports indicating that the Soviet Union had sent a ship to Egypt carrying nuclear weapons along with two other amphibious vessels.[10] Soviet troops never landed, though the ship supposedly transporting nuclear weapons did arrive in Egypt. Further details are unavailable and may remain classified.
Over the following days, the various forces reverted to normal status with the Sixth Fleet standing down on November 17.[11]
Operation Paul Bunyan[edit]
Following the axe murder incident at Panmunjom on August 18, 1976, readiness levels for American forces in South Korea were increased to DEFCON 3, where they remained throughout Operation Paul Bunyan.[12]
September 11 attacks[edit]
During the attacks of September 11, 2001, the U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld ordered the increased DEFCON level to 3, and also a stand-by for a possible increase to DEFCON 2.[13]
In other media[edit]
DEFCON was used significantly in the films Armageddon, WarGames, Thirteen Days, Watchmen, Independence Day, The Sum of All Fears, By Dawn's Early Light, Crimson Tide, X-Men: Days of Future Past, Beavis and Butt-Head Do America, and Canadian Bacon.
The television series Deutschland 83 depicts the events which occurred in 1983 when the level was raised to a simulated DEFCON 1 during NATO exercise Able Archer 83. In the story line, briefing papers released under the Freedom of Information Act reveal that Operation Able Archer, a major war games exercise conducted in November 1983 by the US and its NATO allies, was so realistic it made the Soviets believe that a nuclear strike on its territory was a real possibility.[14]
The 2006 real-time strategy video game DEFCON.
DEFCON is a key element in Twilight Struggle, a board game about the Cold War.
The video game "Unturned". In the game the DEFCON system appears to have been adopted worldwide; the level is raised to a DEFCON 1 after the start of a zombie infection.
Surf punk band Man or Astro-man? released an album in 2013 titled Defcon 5...4...3...2...1 featuring songs titled for every level of the DEFCON system.
British Indie band Pop Will Eat Itself (PWEI) released a song titled "Def. Con. One".
In The Santa Clause 2, starring Tim Allen, the North Pole's defense system is revealed to be based on levels of ELFCON, a reference to the United States' DEFCON.
The DEFCON system is also parodied in the 2015 animated film Inside Out, which is utilized by the emotions of Riley Andersen's father during a conflict at dinner.
See also[edit]
Doomsday Clock
National Terrorism Advisory System
HURCON – Hurricane Condition threat rating (military-developed scale)
National Command Authority
National Military Command Center
UK Threat Levels – Similar British system used for terrorism threats
COGCON – Continuity of government readiness level.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms" (PDF). 12 April 2001 (As Amended Through 19 August 2009). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 November 2009. Retrieved 1 February 2014. (DEFCON is not mentioned in the 2010 and newer document)
^ Jump up to: a b c Sagan, Scott D. (Summer 1985). "Nuclear Alerts and Crisis Management" (pdf). International Security. 9 (4): 99–139. doi:10.2307/2538543 – via Project Muse.
Jump up ^ "Emergency Action Plan (SEAP)" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers Savannah District (CESAS) Plan 500-1-12. 1 August 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-02-03.
Jump up ^ Chiles, James R. (March 2014). "Go To DEFCON 3". Air & Space/Smithsonian.
Jump up ^ Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Instruction 6510.01F
^ Jump up to: a b "Emergency Action Procedures of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Volume I - General" (PDF). US DoD FOIA Reading Room. April 24, 1981. pp. 4–7. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 13, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e NORAD/CONAD Historical Summary: July -December 1959 (PDF) (Report). Retrieved 2013-09-25.
Jump up ^ "DEFCON DEFense CONdition". fas.org.
Jump up ^ Meyers, Harold P. (1992) "Nighthawks over Iraq, a study a study of the F117-A stealth fighter in operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm." U.S. Air Force Office of History.
Jump up ^ Naftali, Tim. "CIA reveals its secret briefings to Presidents Nixon and Ford". CNN. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Goldman, Jan (16 June 2011). Words of Intelligence: An Intelligence Professional's Lexicon for Domestic and Foreign Threats. Scarecrow Press. pp. 93–. ISBN 978-0-8108-7476-3.
Jump up ^ Probst, Reed R. (16 May 1977). "Negotiating With the North Koreans: The U.S. Experience at Panmunjom" (PDF). Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania: U.S. Army War College. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 24, 2005. Retrieved 17 December 2009.
Jump up ^ "Complete 911 Timeline: Donald Rumsfeld's Actions on 9/11". www.historycommons.org. Retrieved 2016-08-02.
Jump up ^ Doward, Jamie (November 2, 2013). "How a NATO War Game Took the World to Brink of Nuclear Disaster". The Observer. London. Retrieved September 23, 2016.
External links[edit]
Media related to DEFCON at Wikimedia Commons
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DEFCON&oldid=836341892"
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text:
India–Pakistan border
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The India and Pakistan Border, known locally as the International Border (IB), is an international border running between India and Pakistan that demarcates the Indian states and the four provinces of Pakistan. The border runs from the Line of Control (LoC), which separates the Indian controlled Kashmir from Pakistan controlled Kashmir, in the north, to Wagah, which partitioned the Indian Punjab state and Punjab Province of Pakistan, in the east. The Zero Point separates the Indian states of Gujarat and Rajasthan to Sindh province of Pakistan, in the south.[1]
Drafted and created based upon the Radcliffe line in 1947, the border, which divides Pakistan and India from each other, traverses a variety of terrains ranging from major urban areas to inhospitable deserts.[2] From the Arabian sea, the naval border follows the course of Manora Island of Pakistan to the course of the Mumbai Harbour, in the South east. Since independence of India and Pakistan ( see British India ), the border has been a site of numerous conflicts and wars between each country, and is one of the most complex borders in the world.[2] The border's total length is 2,900 km (1,800 mi),[2] according to the figures given by the PBS; it is also one of the most dangerous borders in the world, based on an article written in the Foreign Policy in 2011.[3] It can be seen from space at night due to the 150,000 flood lights installed by India on about 50 thousand poles.[4][5][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Working Boundary, Line of Control, and International Boundary
2 Border crossings
3 Gallery
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Working Boundary, Line of Control, and International Boundary[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The border between the two Nations is an internationally recognised frontier from Gujarat/Sindh only with exemption to the Line of Control that is not internationally accepted. The Kashmir disputed region is divided by the 1949 UN ceasefire line, established after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, into two main parts and the de facto demarcation dividing Pakistan-administered Kashmir from Indian-administered Kashmir has been called the Line of Control since 1972.
Between Pakistan and India lies the Pakistani territories of AJK & Gilgit-Baltistan and, also the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. On the other side where the internal borders of the Pakistan's Punjab provincial border, is officially called the Working Boundary by Pakistan (which is a recent term) and international border by the Government of India.
Working boundary: The line between state of Pakistan along Sialkot and Indian held Kashmir. It is called a working boundary because on one side is an internationally recognised land (Sialkot) while on the other is a disputed territory (J&K).
LOC: Line of control is the boundary between the Pakistani Azad Kashmir and Indian Jammu and Kashmir. It was demarcated after the Simla pact in 1972.
International boundary: The demarcated line between the Republic of India and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan recognised internationally. Sir Cyril Radcliffe Demarcated the land in 1947.
Border crossings[edit]
Main articles: Designated border crossings of India, Borders of India, and Transport between India and Pakistan
ICP Border crossings with designated Integrated Check Posts (ICP) with immigration and customs facilities are:
Attari at Wagah, Punjab
Munabao
Other crossings (closed)
Longewala
Gallery[edit]
Baba Chamliyal Mela" at Indo-Pak international Border, Ramgarh sector, 45 km from Jammu, where people from both the nations take part.
Evening flag lowering ceremony at the Wagah border.
Nighttime panorama of the border, stretching from the Arabian Sea to the foothills of the Himalayas
The floodlit border zone between India and Pakistan has a distinctly orange hue in this astronaut photograph.
Trucks on National Highway 1 (India), waiting to cross Wagah border.
Punjab Rangers at the Wagah border.
Women personnel of BSF taking part in the ceremonial retreat at the India-Pakistan border at Wagah, 2010.
See also[edit]
Borders of India
Radcliffe Line
Wagah border ceremony
2014–15 India–Pakistan border skirmishes
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Khan, MH (5 March 2006). "Back on track". Dawn News archives. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c PBS Release (July 26, 2005). "Border Jumpers The World's Most Complex Borders: Pakistan/India". PBS. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
Jump up ^ PHILIP WALKER (June 24, 2011). "The World's Most Dangerous Borders". The Foreign Policy. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Dailymail". Retrieved 23 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "India-Pakistan Borderlands at Night". India-Pakistan Border at Night. NASA. 23 September 2015. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Annotated image from NASA
External links[edit]
Media related to Indo-Pakistani border at Wikimedia Commons
[show]
v
t
e
India–Pakistan relations
Diplomacy
High Commission of India to Pakistan
High Commissioner of India to Pakistan
High Commission of Pakistan to India
High Commissioner of Pakistan to India
Treaties and summits
Jinnah–Mountbatten Talks (1947)
Karachi Agreement (1949)
Liaquat-Nehru Treaty (1950)
Indus Waters Treaty (1960)
Tashkent Declaration (1965)
Simla Agreement (1972)
Delhi Agreement (1974)
Islamabad Agreement (1988)
Lahore summit (1999)
Agra Summit (2001)
Events and conflicts
Partition of India
Kashmir conflict
Integration of Junagadh
1947-1948 War
Sir Creek
Operation Gibraltar
1965 War
1971 War
Bangladesh Liberation War
Pokhran–I
Kirana–I
Nuclear race
Line of Control
Maritime trespassing
Siachen conflict
Operation Brasstacks
Pokhran-II / Chagai-I / Chagai-II
Violence against Muslims in India
Persecution of Hindus in Pakistan
Human rights abuses in Jammu and Kashmir
Human rights abuses in Azad Kashmir
Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir
Balochistan conflict
Kargil conflict
Atlantique incident
Iran–Pakistan–India gas pipeline
2001 Indian Parliament attack
2001–2002 military standoff
2007 Samjhauta Express bombings
2008 Mumbai attacks
2008 military standoff
2011 border skirmishes
2013 border skirmishes
Sarabjit/Sanaullah murder incidents
2013 Pakistan Embassy attack
2014-2015 border skirmishes
2016 Kulbhushan Jadhav interception
2016–17 unrest in Jammu and Kashmir
2016 Uri attack
2016 military confrontation
Initiatives
Aman ki Asha
Hotline
Transport
Samjhauta Express
Delhi–Lahore Bus
Srinagar–Muzaffarabad Bus
Thar Express
Indo-Pak Confederation
Indo-Pak Joint Judicial Committee
Hindi in Pakistan
Sports
India–Pakistan cricket rivalry
India–Pakistan field hockey rivalry
Related templates
Foreign relations of India
Foreign relations of Pakistan
[show]
v
t
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Borders of Pakistan
Afghanistan
barrier
China
India
Iran
[show]
v
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Borders of India
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
China
Myanmar
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=India–Pakistan_border&oldid=832214428"
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India–Pakistan border
Borders of India
Borders of Pakistan
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