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Music history of the United States during the colonial era
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United States music history
History of the United States[show]
Military
Postal
Diplomatic
Expansionist
Religious
Industrial
Feminist
Music
Music of the United States[show]
Colonial era
to the Civil War
During the Civil War
Late 19th century
1900–40
1950s
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
Ethnic music[show]
Native American:
Arapaho music
Blackfoot music
Inuit music
Iroquois music
Kiowa music
Navajo music
Pueblo music
Seminole music
Sioux music
Yuman music
English:
Old-time music
Western music
Latin:
Tejano
Puerto Rican
African American
Irish and Scottish
Cajun and Creole
Hawaii
Other immigrants
v
t
e
Contents
[hide]
1 Indigenous music
2 Appalachian folk music
2.1 Fiddling
2.2 Lined-out hymnody
3 New England colonial music
3.1 New England choral traditions
3.1.1 The organ and the birth of the church band
3.2 Secular folk music
3.3 John Wesley's legacy and the spread south
3.3.1 Great Awakening
3.3.2 First New England School
3.4 Shakers
4 European professionals
5 Gentleman amateur composers
5.1 Lowell Mason
6 Rural Pennsylvanian music
6.1 Mennonites
6.2 Ephrata Cloister
6.3 Moravian Church
6.4 Pietists
6.5 Harmony Society
7 African Americans
7.1 Drums
7.2 Banjo
8 Further reading
9 Notes
9.1 Additional sources
Indigenous music[edit]
Main article: Indigenous music of North America
Native Americans in the United States had no indigenous traditions of classical music, nor a secular song tradition. Their music is spiritual in nature, performed usually in groups in a ritual setting important to Native American religion.
It was not until the 1890s that Native American music began to enter the American establishment. At the time, the first pan-tribal cultural elements, such as powwows, were being established, and composers like Edward MacDowell and Henry Franklin Belknap Gilbert used Native themes in their compositions. It was not until the much later work of Arthur Farwell, however, that an informed representation of Native music was brought into the American classical scene, part of the Indianist movement.
Appalachian folk music[edit]
Main article: Appalachian folk music
The Appalachian Mountains have long been a center for cultural innovation, in spite of only sparse settlement by Native Americans and Europeans alike. Due to complex geologic reasons, the mountains and subranges were difficult to cross and included ridges of uninhabitable quartz mixed with valleys of soil unsuitable for agriculture. As a result, immigration of Europeans and their African slaves tended to be southern in direction, along the Piedmont area, and the Appalachian region was populated by poor Europeans. These Europeans were of English, Scots-Irish, German, and Huguenot origin. This settlement occurred primarily from 1775 to 1850.
English, Anglo-Irish, and Border Scottish tunes and ballads continued evolving from their distant roots along the Appalachians, eventually forming the major basis for jug bands, country blues, hillbilly music and a mix of other genres which eventually became country music. These folk tunes adopted characteristics from multiple sources, including British broadside ballads (which switched their themes from love to a distinctly American preoccupation with masculine work like mining or sensationalistic disasters and murder), African folk tunes (and their lyrical focus on semi-historical events) and minstrel shows and music halls. Popular ballads included "Barbara Allen" and "Matty Groves". The banjo was also introduced, having gone through numerous geographic movements since its invention by the Arabians and subsequent travel across Africa, the Atlantic and throughout the Americas.
Barbara Allen
A Florida State Prison recording of this song.
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Fiddling[edit]
Main article: Fiddle
Appalachian fiddle styles are mostly derived from those brought to the colonies by English settlers. It is often claimed that the "Scotch snap" popularized by Neil Gow influenced Appalachian fiddling; however, according to historian Michael Newton, this is not true. Newton has claimed that English, Scottish, Irish, and American fiddle styles developed around the same time and are more like "cultural cousins" of one another. Appalachian technique was altered during the next century, with European waltzes and polkas being most influential. Square dances, based on the cotillion, and cakewalks, an African American imitation of white dances and the Virginia Reel arose during the 19th century.
Lined-out hymnody[edit]
Main article: Lined-out hymnody
Lined-out hymnody, a religious music style perpetuated by the Old Regular Baptists, Primitive Baptists, et al., is often studied and classified as folk music. See Old Regular Baptist, Lined-Out Hymnody.
New England colonial music[edit]
The religious singing traditions of New England played an important role in the early evolution of American music. Beginning with the Pilgrim colonists, who brought the Ainsworth Psalter with them to the New World, church hymns were popular across the region. Common New Englanders soon developed their own traditions, which were viewed by some as degenerate and wanton.
New England choral traditions[edit]
The original Puritan immigrants to New England sang a number of spiritual psalms, but generally disliked secular music, or at least those varieties which they viewed as encouraging immorality and disorder. They also objected to the use of musical instruments in churches and a complex vocal liturgy, both being associated with Roman Catholicism. The well-known minister Cotton Mather wrote, in Directions for a Candidate of the Ministry, on the subject:
For MUSIC, I know not what well to day.--Do as you please. If you Fancy it, I don't Forbid it. Only do not for the sake of it, Alienate your Time too much, from those that are more Important Matters. It may be so, that you may serve your GOD the better, for the Refreshment of One that can play well on an Instrument. However, to accomplish yourself at Regular Singing, is a thing that will be of Daily Use to you. For I would not have a Day pass without Singing, but so at the same to make a Melody in your Heart unto the Lord;...[1]
The Ainsworth Psalter provided most of the tunes in use in New England church music until the late 17th century, when congregations abandoned the Psalter, claiming the tunes were too complex and difficult to sing.
The Bay Psalme Book (The Whole Booke of Psalmes Faithfully Translated into English Metre) was published in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1640; it was the first book of any kind printed in the English colonies of North America. It became the standard used by New England churches for many years, though it contained no music itself, merely providing psalms and pointing readers to other prominent publications. The Bay Psalm Book was faithful to its source, but did not produce beautiful singing. In 1651, then, a third edition was created, and became known as the New England Psalm Book; this became the standard for many years. In 1898, the ninth edition was printed and it was the first time that printed notation was used. By this point, the evolution from the Ainsworth Psalter to the New England Psalm Book had steadily dwindled the number of tunes in use.
The practice of lining out was often common, though its presence and utility depended on the degree of illiteracy found in congregation—generally, illiteracy was common, as was lining out. This was the process of a leader presenting one line of a song, then maintaining the first note for the congregation to match as they responded with the same line. This technique was also common in churches of Appalachia, such as the Regular Baptists of Kentucky.
The organ and the birth of the church band[edit]
Organs were the only instrument in use in church music during this era, and even this was not without controversy. During the colonial era, in churches in the Calvinist tradition - including in most Puritan meetinghouses - only unaccompanied singing was permitted during worship. Indeed, after the death of Thomas Brattle, treasurer of Harvard College in 1713, he bequeathed his organ to the Brattle Square Church in Boston, but the church (which he had founded) did not think it proper, and gave it to the King's Chapel, which was the Anglican. Still, the organ was used in other New England churches. The first organ said to be designed for church use was installed in Newport, Rhode Island in 1733. Organs, however, were expensive and difficult to play. Only the largest churches could afford an organ and organist, and so many used more portable instruments, such as the bass fiddle, which was appellated "God's fiddle" to distinguish it from the much-maligned "Devil's fiddle" (violin). Later, other instruments like the ophicleide, trombone, cornet, German flute, bassoon, violin and clarinet were added, thus birthing the church band.
Secular folk music[edit]
Though it had long been supposed that the religious aversion to secular music inhibited instrumental folk music in New England, recent research by Barbara Lambert, focused on the Boston area, shows otherwise. Personally owned instruments recorded included the cittern, virginals, soprano clarinet, bassoon, trumpet, fife, flute, viol and violin and fiddle and the Mrs. Healy pipe.
Despite some hostility on the part of ministers like Increase Mather, dance music was popular in the New England colonial era, especially by the early 18th century, as the local population boomed with an influx of more settlers.
Broadside ballads were also known. As in British music, these were printed songs performed to a well-known tune, and included border ballads like The Ballad of Chevy Chase.
Though there is much in primary sources referring to folk music of the time, it is virtually all written by those who condemned the songs as uncouth. As such, little is objectively known. There was a distinction between the "Regular Singing" style of zealous reformers, mostly clergymen educated at Harvard, and the "Common Way" of the folk. Reformers included prominent clergymen like Thomas Walter and Nathaniel Chauncey, many of whom regarded their style of "regular" singing as more sophisticated as well as more devout. The evidence, however, indicates that the common people's music was more complex, using techniques like ornamentation.
The formation of schools and societies promoting regular singing helped to spread the practice, and instruction books were published.
John Wesley's legacy and the spread south[edit]
In the 18th century, Americans composed a number of their own hymns, often based on the Old Testament; the English nonconformist Isaac Watts, especially his Hymns and Spiritual Songs, was also very popular. John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist Church, played a major role in revivalist hymnody after a trip to Georgia in 1735 at the invitation of James Oglethorpe. Wesley and his brother, Charles Wesley, went with Oglethorpe and twenty-six Moravian missionaries. The Moravian singing inspired John Wesley to study their music. He published a collection of translations of German hymns in 1737, A Collection of Psalms and Hymns, then returned to England in 1738, attending meetings of the Moravian Brethren in London. There, during a reading of Luther's preface to the Epistle to the Romans, Wesley had a spiritual experience and found his faith in Christ rejuvenated.
Great Awakening[edit]
Main article: Great Awakening
After returning to America, Wesley became an important preacher in a rise of fervent Christianity called the Great Awakening, along with George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards, among others. Wesley and his brother began writing a number of hymns, at first just words, and then with music beginning with a collection usually called the Foundery Collection.
Wesley and some other preachers fought against the embellishment of his hymns. In 1761, Wesley's collection Select Hymns, with Tunes Annext: Designed Chiefly for Use of the People Called Methodists directed singers to follow the tunes "exactly as printed" and to "sing in tune"; both directions were impractical, since most of the worshippers likely couldn't read music or carry a tune.
Nevertheless, the Great Awakening (and other hymnal styles from New England) spread south and changed from Wesley's strict formulas. John Cennick (known for widespread hymns like "Jesus My All to Heaven Is Gone") and John Newton are likely the two most important individuals in the creation of Great Awakening-era hymns, which were sung at camp meetings. These hymns, sung at large gatherings, especially in the south, provided a basis for gospel and blues in the late 19th and early 20th century. Some of the common features included Cennick's innovation of hymns sung as a dialogue, as well as Newton, a former slave trader who converted after reading The Imitation of Christ by Thomas à Kempis, who wrote more than two hundred hymns that drew on his own experiences wrestling with sin, and proved extremely popular.
First New England School[edit]
Compared with the older songs, Wesley and other new composers wrote with a simple structure. Rural farmers and workers expanded on these structures, creating complex songs which some musical conservatives railed against to no avail. It was in this context that a wave of itinerant singing masters, including William Billings, arose, creating hymns that remain standard across the country. This field was called the First New England School. Following Billings' pioneering footsteps were Supply Belcher, Andrew Law, Daniel Read, Jacob Kimball, Jeremiah Ingalls, John Wyeth, James Lyon, Oliver Holden, Justin Morgan and Timothy Swan.
The First New England School is usually considered the first uniquely American invention in music. The most characteristic feature was that the voices, male and female respectively, doubled their parts in any octave in order to fill out the harmony; this generated a texture of close-position chords that was unknown in European traditions.
William Billings was of special importance and popularity. A native of Boston, Billings was a tanner by trade, and was mainly self-taught in music. He did not always follow the standard rules of composition in his works, and has thus been called the "first American composer to emphasize strongly a creative independence and to flaunt his personal idiosyncrasies in both his music and (especially) his published writings". He taught a famous singing school in Stoughton, Massachusetts in 1774. A few of the singers later formed the Stoughton Musical Society, a choral organization consisting of 25 men.
Supply Belcher, born in Stoughton, Massachusetts, though later based out of Farmington, Maine, is also especially well known. His only published tunebook was 1794's The Harmony of Maine, which included anthems, fuging pieces, psalms and hymns, a number of which were secular. His songs were distinctively folky and down-to-earth. His contemporary Daniel Read, a Massachusetts-born musician who later moved to New Haven, Connecticut, was a popular musician who supported himself almost entirely off the sale of tunebooks. His first publication was entitled The American Singing Book; or, a New and Easy Guide to the Art of Psalmody Devised for the Use of Singing Schools in America. The title's use of psalmody is here referring to singing societies which were spreading across the country, and is used without religious connotations.
Billings, Belcher and Read were the beginning of a chain of tunebook compilers that grew increasingly secular, as the art of psalmody lost its religious importance. Other Massachusetts-born compilers followed in their footsteps, beginning with Jeremiah Ingalls of Newbury, Vermont. Their songs were generally fugues, and were disapproved of by religious authorities. Andrew Law was an important compiler as well; he felt that American music should be more like European, and is best known for organizing singing schools and tunebooks. In addition, he composed several songs of note, and invented a kind of musical notation called shape note.
Shakers[edit]
The Shakers, or United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing, were a religion founded near Manchester, England in the mid-1700s, and rose to prominence under the leadership of Ann Lee (Mother Ann). Lee had been born poor, and worked as a child in a cotton factory before her parents married her to a blacksmith. After giving birth to four children, all of whom died in infancy, Mother Ann came to view sexual intercourse as evil. Celibacy became an integral part of her religion. She was jailed for disturbing the Sabbath in 1772.[citation needed] Two years later, Shakers started moving to North America, settling in New England and as far south as New York. The rituals that Mother Ann designed, which she claimed to have seen in visions, included passionate dances that represented part of a battle between the holy Shakers and the devil and the flesh.[citation needed] Though their strange customs and British mannerisms drew some hostility from the colonists, as the American Revolutionary War was brewing, the Shakers grew in number and eventually spread as far south as Kentucky. Though Mother Ann died in 1784, the Shaker traditions lived on. Their best known dance song is Simple Gifts, used by Aaron Copland in his ballet score Appalachian Spring.
European professionals[edit]
In 1766, Charlestown, South Carolina became the home of the St. Cecilia Society, the first musical society in North America. At the time, Charleston was a cultural center, attracting a number of musicians from Europe. In the decades after the Revolution, more northern cities like Philadelphia, New York and Boston largely took Charleston's place. Philadelphia, home of the esteemed Alexander Reinagle, John Christopher Moller, Rayner Taylor and Susannah Haswell Rowson, was especially renowned for musical development. Reinagle became the most influential figure in Philadelphia's musical life, organizing a number of concerts, organizations and musical events.
The English singer Benjamin Carr was especially notable. He arrived in New York in 1793, along with his brother and father. They soon became prominent music publishers and vendors, owning stores in New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore. Carr himself was a composer, organist, pianist and a publisher and editor. They published, in Philadelphia, "The President's March" in 1793; written by Philip Phile, "The President's March" is one of the most enduring of American patriotic songs. The march was soon politicized, adopted by the Federalists as a rallying song.
The British James Hewitt was one of the most distinguished musicians of early American history. He was already renowned in London before moving across the Atlantic, accompanied by Belgian composer and violinist Jean Gehot. Hewitt became established in New York, organizing concerts and other musical events. His opera Tammany; or, The Indian Chief became controversial after its first performance. It was the first American opera to deal with Native Americans, and was sponsored by the New York Tammany Society, an anti-Federalist organization. Hewitt was the target of much invective from Federalists as a result.
The English organist, choirmaster and composer William Selby was a major figure in Boston's musical life, along with the Dutch organist, violinist and composer Peter Albrecht van Hagen and German oboist Johann Christian Gottlieb Graupner.
Gentleman amateur composers[edit]
The great urban centers of the mid-Atlantic included cities like Philadelphia and Baltimore, and it was there that European classical traditions were best represented. Philip Phile, Johann Friedrich Peter and Alexander Reinagle were prominent composers of the era, though Francis Hopkinson, a signer of the Declaration of Independence from Philadelphia, remains the best-known. One of his compositions, "My Days Have Been So Wondrous Free", is well-remembered as the first art song from the United States (though this is disputed); it is, however, lacking in originality and innovation to set it apart from European compositions.
At the time, professional musicians were looked-down upon and considered coarse. Gentlemen performers played often, mostly for other aristocratic audiences, and without pay. As the United States developed, the south became the land of deep socioeconomic divisions. Land ownership and the possession of chattel slavery became an integral component of a gentleman's livelihood, while in the north, the idea of a landed aristocracy never carried as much weight.
Lowell Mason[edit]
Main article: Lowell Mason
Perhaps the most influential early composer was Lowell Mason. A native of Boston, Mason campaigned against the use of shape-note notation, and for the education in standard notation. He worked with local institutions to release collections of hymns and maintain his stature. Opposed to the shape-note tradition, Mason pushed American music towards a European model.
Rural Pennsylvanian music[edit]
Main article: Music of Pennsylvania
Rural Pennsylvania in the colonial era was home to religious minorities like the Quakers, as well as important Moravian and Lutheran communities. While the Quakers had few musical traditions, Protestant churches frequently made extensive use of music in worship J. F. Peter emerged from the Moravian tradition, while Conrad Beissel (founder of the Ephrata Cloister) innovated his own system of harmonic theory. The Lutheran traditions of Johann Sebastian Bach, Buxtehude, Johann Pachelbel and Walther were propagated in Pennsylvania, and the city of Bethlehem remains a center of Lutheran musical traditions today.
Mennonites[edit]
Main article: Mennonite
The Mennonites, followers of Menno Simons, settled in Germantown after emigrating from the German Palatinate and Switzerland between 1683 and 1748. They were led by Willem Rittinghuysen (grandfather of astronomer and mathematician David Rittenhouse). The Mennonites used a hymnbook from Schaffhausen, reprinted in Germantown in 1742 as Der Ausbund Das ist etliche schöne christliche Lieder.
Ephrata Cloister[edit]
Main article: Ephrata Cloister
The Ephrata Cloister (Community of the Solitary) was founded in what is now Lancaster County on the Cocalico River in 1720. This was a group of Seventh Day Baptists led by Peter Miller and Conrad Beissel, who believed in using music as an integral part of worship. Beissel codified the Ephrata Cloister's unique tradition in his Beissel's Dissertation on Harmony; here, he divided notes into two types. These were masters, or notes belonging to the common chord, and servants, or all other notes. Accented syllables in Beissel's works always fell on master notes, leaving servant notes for unaccented syllables. The Ephrata Cloister's hymnbook was large, consisting of more than 1,000 hymns, many of which were accompanied by instruments including the violin. Many of these hymns were published in the 1740s and 50s.
Moravian Church[edit]
Main article: Moravian Church
Founded in 1457, the Moravian Church originally spread across Moravia, Poland and Bohemia before persecution forced the remaining faithful to Saxony, where they lived under the protection of Count Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf. Zinzendorf wrote hymns, and led the Moravians to America, where they began missionary work in Georgia but with little success. They moved on to Pennsylvania, and founded the town of Bethlehem on the banks of the Lehigh River. A group then left for Salem, North Carolina (now a part of Winston-Salem).
Both in Salem and Bethlehem, Moravians continued to use music in their ceremonies. Instruments included organs and trombones, and voices were usually in choirs. Players generally played on rooftops for most any occasion, ensuring that they could be heard for great distances. A legend has arisen claiming that a group of Native American warriors approachied a Moravian settlement during the French and Indian War, but left after hearing a trombone choir because they believed it to be the voice of their Great Spirit. Moravians were devoted to missionary work, especially among African slaves and Native Americans; in 1763, they published a collection of hymns in the Delaware language.
Moravians also had a tradition of secular art music that included the famed composer Johann Friedrich Peter, who was a German born in the Netherlands who emigrated to Bethlehem in 1770. He brought with him copies of compositions by Joseph Haydn, Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach, Johann Stamitz and C. F. Abel. After living in Bethlehem for a time, Peter moved to Salem, where he founded the Collegium Musicum (in 1786) and collected hundreds of symphonies, anthems and oratorios. It was during this period that Peter also composed a number of well-respected instrumental pieces for twio violins, two violas and a cello; he also composed sacred anthems like "It Is a Precious Thing" and arias like "The Lord Is in His Holy Temple".
The Moravian Church continued to produce a number of renowned composers into the 19th century, including John Antes as well as Francis F. Hagen, Johann Christian Bechler, Edward W. Leinbach, Simon Peter, David Moritz Michael, Georg Gottfried Müller, Peter Wolle, Jeremiah Dencke and Johannes Herbst. Herbst was also a noted collector, whose archives, left to the Salem church after his death, were made public in 1977; these included more than 11,000 pages of content. Salem has gradually become the center for Moravian musical innovation, partially due to the presence of the Moravian Music Foundation.
Pietists[edit]
Main article: Pietism
In 1694, Johannes Kelpius brought a group of German Pietists to the banks of the Wissahickon Creek in southeastern Pennsylvania. These became known as the Hermits or Mystics of the Wissahickon; this 1871 map of Wissahickon Creek notes a Kelpius spring and Hermits Glen. Kelpius was a musician, and he and his followers brought with them instruments that became an integral part of church life. Kelpius was also a composer, and is sometimes called the first Pennsylvanian composer, based on his unproven authorship of several hymns in The Lamenting Voice of the Hidden Love. It is likely that he wrote the text, though the tunes are mostly based on German songs; the English translations in the collection are attributed to Christopher Witt, an Englishman who immigrated and joined the mystics, also building them a pipe organ, said to be the first privately owned organ in North America.
In 1703, Justus Falckner was ordained as pastor of the Gloria Dei Church; Falckner evidently believed that music was a very important element of missionary work, writing to Germany to ask for an organ, which he said would attract more Native American converts. Falckner was a Lutheran who wrote hymns such as "Rise, Ye Children of Salvation".
Harmony Society[edit]
Main article: Harmony Society
In 1803 and 1804, a group of Christian pietists led by George Rapp arrived from Württemberg, Germany, settled in Harmony, Pennsylvania, and formed the Harmony Society in 1805. The group lived communally, were pacifistic, advocated celibacy, and music was a big part of their lives. The Harmonites (or Harmonists) wrote their own music and even had an orchestra. The Society lasted until 1906, but their final settlement, Old Economy Village (now Ambridge, Pennsylvania) contains archives with sheet music that is still performed at special community events.
African Americans[edit]
Main article: African American music
Brought to the United States as early as 1619, African slaves were from a variety of tribes from West Africa, including the Ashanti, Yoruba, Bini, Congo and Dahomean tribes. They spoke hundreds of languages; some came from rival tribes, or isolated communities with little connection to anyone else until the arrival of the slave traders. Some of the larger groups had extensive contact with the Muslims of North Africa and the distant cultures of East and Southern Africa.
Slaves brought with them work songs, religious music and dance, and a wide variety of instruments, including kalimba, xylophone, flutes and rattles. Perhaps the most important characteristic, however, was the call-and-response vocal style, in which a singer and the audience trade lines back-and-forth. This practice lent itself well to the burgeoning New England hymn tradition, and the two fields began commingling early in the nation's history. Another unusual characteristic of much African music is that, rather than begin and end a tune or phrase on a pure note as in Western music, African singers would slide onto or below the note.
The most distinctive component of African music, however, is the focus on the rhythm. In this respect, African folk styles are far more complex than anything developed anywhere else in the world. African music is usually polyrhythmic, made by a wide variety of percussion instruments, both pitched and unpitched, using numerous kinds of natural materials. Polythythms were imported along with slaves to the New World, where it has found its way to genres ranging from African American gospel to pop-swing and rock and roll.
Many slaveowners encouraged their slaves to sing as they work, believing that it improved morale and made the slaves work harder. They generally required that all tunes remain cheerful and pleasant in tone to ensure that this occurred. This music, when accompanied, used only a single drum or other object used for percussion. Since they were often without instruments, clapping and foot-stomping became an integral part of slave music. The banjo and various kinds of drums were the most important instruments, but African slaves also used varieties of panpipes, notched gourds played with a scraper (similar to a güiro) and rattles. The thumb piano was also known, similar to the African mbira or sanza. In addition, blacks soon mastered European instruments like the clarinet, oboe, French horn and, most importantly, the violin. Often, prominent gentlemen had black slaves act as musicians and entertainers. Some became quite prominent, like Virginia's Sy Gilliat, who performed at state balls in Williamsburg. His assistant after the capitol moved to Richmond was known as London Brigs and was a renowned player.
Drums[edit]
Main article: Drum
African slaves in places like Haiti, Brazil and the Dominican Republic retained the use of drums, and their percussion has formed an integral part of Afro-Caribbean and Latin music. In the British North American colonies, however, drums were prohibited; colonial masters had feared drums would be used as communication between slaves, and that the drums use may aid uprisings and rebellions. Drums did, however, remain a prominent part of the music of the French colony of Louisiana.
Banjo[edit]
Main article: Banjo
The banjo was a feature of slave life in America, mentioned by Thomas Jefferson, for example, in his Notes on the State of Virginia, which refers to it as a banjar, and notes that the instrument came from Africa. Other names included bangoe, banshaw, bangelo, banza, bangil and banjer. The instrument was described in West Africa as early as 1620 by Richard Jobson, but was present for some time before.
In North America, the banjo was typically made by hollowing out a gourd or calabash and attaching a long neck. The slaves then stretched a piece of animal hide, usually raccoon, over the bowl and attached four strings. Jefferson claimed that the banjar with which he was familiar was tuned to E-A-d-g.
Further reading[edit]
Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.) (2000). Rough Guide to World Music. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Chase, Gilbert (2000). America's Music: From the Pilgrims to the Present. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-00454-X.
Crawford, Richard (2001). America's Musical Life: A History. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-04810-1.
Ferris, Jean (1993). America's Musical Landscape. Brown & Benchmark. ISBN 0-697-12516-5.
Struble, John Warthen (1995). The History of American Classical Music. Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 0-8160-2927-X.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Chase, p. 4, emphasis in original
Additional sources[edit]
American Music Preservation
PBS' page on their series American Roots Music
Friends of American roots music homepage
Library of Congress collection of brass band materials
Essential American Recordings Survey
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HTTPS
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
HTTP Secure (HTTPS) is an extension of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) for secure communication over a computer network, and is widely used on the Internet.[1][2] In HTTPS, the communication protocol is encrypted by Transport Layer Security (TLS), or formerly, its predecessor, Secure Sockets Layer (SSL). The protocol is therefore also often referred to as HTTP over TLS,[3] or HTTP over SSL.
The principal motivation for HTTPS is authentication of the accessed website and protection of the privacy and integrity of the exchanged data while in transit. It protects against man-in-the-middle attacks. The bidirectional encryption of communications between a client and server protects against eavesdropping and tampering of the communication.[4] In practice, this provides a reasonable assurance that one is communicating without interference by attackers with the website that one intended to communicate with, as opposed to an impostor.
Historically, HTTPS connections were primarily used for payment transactions on the World Wide Web, e-mail and for sensitive transactions in corporate information systems.[citation needed] Since 2018[update], HTTPS is used more often by webusers than the original non-secure HTTP, primarily to protect page authenticity on all types of websites; secure accounts; and keep user communications, identity, and web browsing private.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
1.1 Usage in websites
1.2 Browser integration
2 Security
3 Technical
3.1 Difference from HTTP
3.2 Network layers
3.3 Server setup
3.3.1 Acquiring certificates
3.3.2 Use as access control
3.3.3 In case of compromised secret (private) key
3.4 Limitations
4 History
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Overview[edit]
Further information: Transport Layer Security
URL beginning with the HTTPS scheme and the WWW domain name label
The Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) scheme HTTPS has identical usage syntax to the HTTP scheme. However, HTTPS signals the browser to use an added encryption layer of SSL/TLS to protect the traffic. SSL/TLS is especially suited for HTTP, since it can provide some protection even if only one side of the communication is authenticated. This is the case with HTTP transactions over the Internet, where typically only the server is authenticated (by the client examining the server's certificate).
HTTPS creates a secure channel over an insecure network. This ensures reasonable protection from eavesdroppers and man-in-the-middle attacks, provided that adequate cipher suites are used and that the server certificate is verified and trusted.
Because HTTPS piggybacks HTTP entirely on top of TLS, the entirety of the underlying HTTP protocol can be encrypted. This includes the request URL (which particular web page was requested), query parameters, headers, and cookies (which often contain identity information about the user). However, because host (website) addresses and port numbers are necessarily part of the underlying TCP/IP protocols, HTTPS cannot protect their disclosure. In practice this means that even on a correctly configured web server, eavesdroppers can infer the IP address and port number of the web server (sometimes even the domain name e.g. www.example.org, but not the rest of the URL) that one is communicating with, as well as the amount (data transferred) and duration (length of session) of the communication, though not the content of the communication.[4]
Web browsers know how to trust HTTPS websites based on certificate authorities that come pre-installed in their software. Certificate authorities (such as Digicert, Comodo, GoDaddy, GlobalSign and Let's Encrypt) are in this way being trusted by web browser creators to provide valid certificates. Therefore, a user should trust an HTTPS connection to a website if and only if all of the following are true:
The user trusts that the browser software correctly implements HTTPS with correctly pre-installed certificate authorities.
The user trusts the certificate authority to vouch only for legitimate websites.
The website provides a valid certificate, which means it was signed by a trusted authority.
The certificate correctly identifies the website (e.g., when the browser visits "https://example.com", the received certificate is properly for "example.com" and not some other entity).
The user trusts that the protocol's encryption layer (SSL/TLS) is sufficiently secure against eavesdroppers.
HTTPS is especially important over insecure networks (such as public Wi-Fi access points), as anyone on the same local network can packet-sniff and discover sensitive information not protected by HTTPS. Additionally, many free to use and paid WLAN networks engage in packet injection in order to serve their own ads on webpages. However, this can be exploited maliciously in many ways, such as injecting malware onto webpages and stealing users' private information.[5]
HTTPS is also very important for connections over the Tor anonymity network, as malicious Tor nodes can damage or alter the contents passing through them in an insecure fashion and inject malware into the connection. This is one reason why the Electronic Frontier Foundation and the Tor project started the development of HTTPS Everywhere,[4] which is included in the Tor Browser Bundle.[6]
As more information is revealed about global mass surveillance and criminals stealing personal information, the use of HTTPS security on all websites is becoming increasingly important regardless of the type of Internet connection being used.[7][8] While metadata about individual pages that a user visits is not sensitive, when combined, they can reveal a lot about the user and compromise the user's privacy.[9][10][11]
Deploying HTTPS also allows the use of HTTP/2 (or its predecessor, the now-deprecated protocol SPDY), that are new generations of HTTP, designed to reduce page load times, size and latency.
It is recommended to use HTTP Strict Transport Security (HSTS) with HTTPS to protect users from man-in-the-middle attacks, especially SSL stripping.[11][12]
HTTPS should not be confused with the little-used Secure HTTP (S-HTTP) specified in RFC 2660.
Usage in websites[edit]
As of April 2018[update], 33.2% of Alexa top 1,000,000 websites use HTTPS as default,[13] 57.1% of the Internet's 137,971 most popular websites have a secure implementation of HTTPS,[14] and 70% of page loads (measured by Firefox Telemetry) use HTTPS.[15]
Browser integration[edit]
Most browsers display a warning if they receive an invalid certificate. Older browsers, when connecting to a site with an invalid certificate, would present the user with a dialog box asking whether they wanted to continue. Newer browsers display a warning across the entire window. Newer browsers also prominently display the site's security information in the address bar. Extended validation certificates turn the address bar green in newer browsers. Most browsers also display a warning to the user when visiting a site that contains a mixture of encrypted and unencrypted content.
Comparison between different kinds of SSL/TLS certificates
(Using Firefox as an example)
Many web browsers, including Firefox (shown here), use the address bar to tell the user that their connection is secure, often by coloring the background.
When accessing a site only with a common certificate, the address bar of Firefox turns green. For some other browsers, a "lock" sign may appear.
Most web browsers alert the user when visiting sites that have invalid security certificates.
The Electronic Frontier Foundation, opining that "In an ideal world, every web request could be defaulted to HTTPS", has provided an add-on called HTTPS Everywhere for Mozilla Firefox that enables HTTPS by default for hundreds of frequently used websites. A beta version of this plugin is also available for Google Chrome and Chromium.[16][17]
Security[edit]
Main article: Transport Layer Security § Security
The security of HTTPS is that of the underlying TLS, which typically uses long-term public and private keys to generate a short-term session key, which is then used to encrypt the data flow between client and server. X.509 certificates are used to authenticate the server (and sometimes the client as well). As a consequence, certificate authorities and public key certificates are necessary to verify the relation between the certificate and its owner, as well as to generate, sign, and administer the validity of certificates. While this can be more beneficial than verifying the identities via a web of trust, the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures drew attention to certificate authorities as a potential weak point allowing man-in-the-middle attacks.[18][19] An important property in this context is forward secrecy, which ensures that encrypted communications recorded in the past cannot be retrieved and decrypted should long-term secret keys or passwords be compromised in the future. Not all web servers provide forward secrecy.[20][needs update]
A site must be completely hosted over HTTPS, without having part of its contents loaded over HTTP—for example, having scripts loaded insecurely—or the user will be vulnerable to some attacks and surveillance. Also having only a certain page that contains sensitive information (such as a log-in page) of a website loaded over HTTPS, while having the rest of the website loaded over plain HTTP, will expose the user to attacks. On a site that has sensitive information somewhere on it, every time that site is accessed with HTTP instead of HTTPS, the user and the session will get exposed. Similarly, cookies on a site served through HTTPS have to have the secure attribute enabled.[11]
Technical[edit]
Difference from HTTP[edit]
HTTPS URLs begin with "https://" and use port 443 by default, whereas HTTP URLs begin with "http://" and use port 80 by default.
HTTP is not encrypted and is vulnerable to man-in-the-middle and eavesdropping attacks, which can let attackers gain access to website accounts and sensitive information, and modify webpages to inject malware or advertisements. HTTPS is designed to withstand such attacks and is considered secure against them (with the exception of older, deprecated versions of SSL).
Network layers[edit]
HTTP operates at the highest layer of the TCP/IP model, the Application layer; as does the TLS security protocol (operating as a lower sublayer of the same layer), which encrypts an HTTP message prior to transmission and decrypts a message upon arrival. Strictly speaking, HTTPS is not a separate protocol, but refers to use of ordinary HTTP over an encrypted SSL/TLS connection.
Everything in the HTTPS message is encrypted, including the headers, and the request/response load. With the exception of the possible CCA cryptographic attack described in the limitations section below, the attacker can only know that a connection is taking place between the two parties and their domain names and IP addresses.
Server setup[edit]
To prepare a web server to accept HTTPS connections, the administrator must create a public key certificate for the web server. This certificate must be signed by a trusted certificate authority for the web browser to accept it without warning. The authority certifies that the certificate holder is the operator of the web server that presents it. Web browsers are generally distributed with a list of signing certificates of major certificate authorities so that they can verify certificates signed by them.
Acquiring certificates[edit]
Let's Encrypt, launched in April 2016,[21] provides free and automated SSL/TLS certificates to websites.[22] According to the Electronic Frontier Foundation, "Let's Encrypt" will make switching from HTTP to HTTPS "as easy as issuing one command, or clicking one button."[23]. The majority of web hosts and cloud providers already leverage Let's Encrypt, providing free certificates to their customers.
Use as access control[edit]
The system can also be used for client authentication in order to limit access to a web server to authorized users. To do this, the site administrator typically creates a certificate for each user, a certificate that is loaded into their browser. Normally, that contains the name and e-mail address of the authorized user and is automatically checked by the server on each reconnect to verify the user's identity, potentially without even entering a password.
In case of compromised secret (private) key[edit]
An important property in this context is perfect forward secrecy (PFS). Possessing one of the long-term asymmetric secret keys used to establish an HTTPS session should not make it easier to derive the short-term session key to then decrypt the conversation, even at a later time. Diffie–Hellman key exchange (DHE) and Elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman key exchange (ECDHE) are in 2013 the only ones known to have that property. Only 30% of Firefox, Opera, and Chromium Browser sessions use it, and nearly 0% of Apple's Safari and Microsoft Internet Explorer sessions.[20] Among the larger internet providers, only Google supports PFS since 2011[update] (State of September 2013).[citation needed]
A certificate may be revoked before it expires, for example because the secrecy of the private key has been compromised. Newer versions of popular browsers such as Firefox,[24] Opera,[25] and Internet Explorer on Windows Vista[26] implement the Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP) to verify that this is not the case. The browser sends the certificate's serial number to the certificate authority or its delegate via OCSP and the authority responds, telling the browser whether the certificate is still valid.[27]
Limitations[edit]
SSL and TLS encryption can be configured in two modes: simple and mutual. In simple mode, authentication is only performed by the server. The mutual version requires the user to install a personal client certificate in the web browser for user authentication.[28] In either case, the level of protection depends on the correctness of the implementation of software and the cryptographic algorithms in use.
SSL/TLS does not prevent the indexing of the site by a web crawler, and in some cases the URI of the encrypted resource can be inferred by knowing only the intercepted request/response size.[29] This allows an attacker to have access to the plaintext (the publicly available static content), and the encrypted text (the encrypted version of the static content), permitting a cryptographic attack.
Because TLS operates at a protocol level below that of HTTP, and has no knowledge of the higher-level protocols, TLS servers can only strictly present one certificate for a particular address and port combination.[30] In the past, this meant that it was not feasible to use name-based virtual hosting with HTTPS. A solution called Server Name Indication (SNI) exists, which sends the hostname to the server before encrypting the connection, although many old browsers do not support this extension. Support for SNI is available since Firefox 2, Opera 8, Safari 2.1, Google Chrome 6, and Internet Explorer 7 on Windows Vista.[31][32][33]
From an architectural point of view:
An SSL/TLS connection is managed by the first front machine that initiates the TLS connection. If, for any reasons (routing, traffic optimization, etc.), this front machine is not the application server and it has to decipher data, solutions have to be found to propagate user authentication information or certificate to the application server, which needs to know who is going to be connected.
For SSL/TLS with mutual authentication, the SSL/TLS session is managed by the first server that initiates the connection. In situations where encryption has to be propagated along chained servers, session timeOut management becomes extremely tricky to implement.
With mutual SSL/TLS, security is maximal, but on the client-side, there is no way to properly end the SSL/TLS connection and disconnect the user except by waiting for the server session to expire or closing all related client applications.
A sophisticated type of man-in-the-middle attack called SSL stripping was presented at the Blackhat Conference 2009. This type of attack defeats the security provided by HTTPS by changing the https: link into an http: link, taking advantage of the fact that few Internet users actually type "https" into their browser interface: they get to a secure site by clicking on a link, and thus are fooled into thinking that they are using HTTPS when in fact they are using HTTP. The attacker then communicates in clear with the client.[34] This prompted the development of a countermeasure in HTTP called HTTP Strict Transport Security.
HTTPS has been shown vulnerable to a range of traffic analysis attacks. Traffic analysis attacks are a type of side-channel attack that relies on variations in the timing and size of traffic in order to infer properties about the encrypted traffic itself. Traffic analysis is possible because SSL/TLS encryption changes the contents of traffic, but has minimal impact on the size and timing of traffic. In May 2010, a research paper by researchers from Microsoft Research and Indiana University discovered that detailed sensitive user data can be inferred from side channels such as packet sizes. More specifically, the researchers found that an eavesdropper can infer the illnesses/medications/surgeries of the user, his/her family income and investment secrets, despite HTTPS protection in several high-profile, top-of-the-line web applications in healthcare, taxation, investment and web search.[35] Although this work demonstrated vulnerability of HTTPS to traffic analysis, the approach presented by the authors required manual analysis and focused specifically on web applications protected by HTTPS.
The fact that most modern websites, including Google, Yahoo!, and Amazon, use HTTPS causes problems for many users trying to access public Wi-Fi hot spots, because a Wi-Fi hot spot login page fails to load if the user tries to open an HTTPS resource [36][37]. Several websites, such as nonhttps.com or nothttps.com, guarantee that they will always remain accessible by HTTP.
History[edit]
Netscape Communications created HTTPS in 1994 for its Netscape Navigator web browser.[38] Originally, HTTPS was used with the SSL protocol. As SSL evolved into Transport Layer Security (TLS), HTTPS was formally specified by RFC 2818 in May 2000.
See also[edit]
Bullrun (decryption program) – a secret anti-encryption program run by the U.S. National Security Agency
Computer security
curl-loader
Diameter protocol
HTTPsec
Moxie Marlinspike
Opportunistic encryption
Stunnel
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Secure your site with HTTPS". Google Support. Google, Inc. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "What is HTTPS?". Comodo CA Limited. Retrieved February 27, 2015. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is the secure version of HTTP [...]
Jump up ^ Network Working Group (May 2000). "HTTP Over TLS". The Internet Engineering Task Force. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "HTTPS Everywhere FAQ". Retrieved 3 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "Hotel Wifi JavaScript Injection". Retrieved 24 July 2012.
Jump up ^ The Tor Project, Inc. "Tor". torproject.org.
Jump up ^ Konigsburg, Eitan; Pant, Rajiv; Kvochko, Elena (November 13, 2014). "Embracing HTTPS". The New York Times. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Gallagher, Kevin (September 12, 2014). "Fifteen Months After the NSA Revelations, Why Aren't More News Organizations Using HTTPS?". Freedom of the Press Foundation. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "HTTPS as a ranking signal". Google Webmaster Central Blog. Google Inc. August 6, 2014. Retrieved February 27, 2015. You can make your site secure with HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) [...]
Jump up ^ Grigorik, Ilya; Far, Pierre (June 26, 2014). "Google I/O 2014 - HTTPS Everywhere". Google Developers. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "How to Deploy HTTPS Correctly". Retrieved 13 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "HTTP Strict Transport Security". Mozilla Developer Network.
Jump up ^ "HTTPS usage statistics on top websites". statoperator.com. Retrieved 2018-04-25.
Jump up ^ "Qualys SSL Labs - SSL Pulse". www.ssllabs.com. 2018-04-03. Retrieved 2018-04-25.
Jump up ^ "Let's Encrypt Stats - Let's Encrypt - Free SSL/TLS Certificates". letsencrypt.org. Retrieved 2018-04-25.
Jump up ^ Peter Eckersley: Encrypt the Web with the HTTPS Everywhere Firefox Extension EFF blog, 17 June 2010
Jump up ^ HTTPS Everywhere EFF projects
Jump up ^ Law Enforcement Appliance Subverts SSL, Wired, 2010-04-03.
Jump up ^ New Research Suggests That Governments May Fake SSL Certificates, EFF, 2010-03-24.
^ Jump up to: a b SSL: Intercepted today, decrypted tomorrow, Netcraft, 2013-06-25.
Jump up ^ Catalin Cimpanu. "Let's Encrypt Launched Today, Currently Protects 3.8 Million Domains". Softpedia News. Retrieved April 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kerner, Sean Michael (November 18, 2014). "Let's Encrypt Effort Aims to Improve Internet Security". eWeek.com. Quinstreet Enterprise. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Eckersley, Peter (November 18, 2014). "Launching in 2015: A Certificate Authority to Encrypt the Entire Web". Electronic Frontier Foundation. Retrieved February 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Mozilla Firefox Privacy Policy". Mozilla Foundation. 27 April 2009. Archived from the original on 26 May 2009. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Opera 8 launched on FTP". Softpedia. 19 April 2005. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
Jump up ^ Lawrence, Eric (31 January 2006). "HTTPS Security Improvements in Internet Explorer 7". MSDN. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
Jump up ^ Myers, M; Ankney, R; Malpani, A; Galperin, S; Adams, C (June 1999). "Online Certificate Status Protocol – OCSP". Internet Engineering Task Force. Retrieved 13 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Manage client certificates on Chrome devices – Chrome for business and education Help". support.google.com. Retrieved 2016-10-13.
Jump up ^ Pusep, Stanislaw (31 July 2008). "The Pirate Bay un-SSL". Archived from the original on 8 March 2009. Retrieved 6 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: FAQ". apache.org.
Jump up ^ Lawrence, Eric (22 October 2005). "Upcoming HTTPS Improvements in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2". Microsoft. Retrieved 12 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Server Name Indication (SNI)". inside aebrahim's head.
Jump up ^ Pierre, Julien. "Browser support for TLS server name indication" (2001-12-19). Bugzilla. Mozilla Foundation. Retrieved 2010-12-15.
Jump up ^ "sslstrip". Retrieved 2011-11-26.
Jump up ^ Shuo Chen; Rui Wang; XiaoFeng Wang; Kehuan Zhang (May 2010). "Side-Channel Leaks in Web Applications: a Reality Today, a Challenge Tomorrow" (PDF). IEEE Symposium on Security & Privacy 2010.
Jump up ^ "How to Force a Public Wi-Fi Network Login Page to Open". Retrieved 2017-12-30.
Jump up ^ "iOS: What To Do When Your Public Wi-Fi Won't Connect All the Way". Retrieved 2017-12-30.
Jump up ^ Walls, Colin (2005). Embedded software. Newnes. p. 344. ISBN 0-7506-7954-9.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to HTTPS.
RFC 2818: HTTP Over TLS
RFC 5246: The Transport Layer Security Protocol 1.2
RFC 6101: The Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) Protocol Version 3.0
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HTTPS&oldid=838252869"
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Perfect forward secrecy

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Uniform resource identifier

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Graphical control element

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Epiphany (GNOME)

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Mothra (web browser)

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View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

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Edit this page [ctrl-alt-e]
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values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-af
display: none;

values: بروتوكول نقل النص التشعبي الآمن – Arabic

values:
https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Azerbaijani
az
az
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values: হাইপারটেক্সট ট্রান্সফার প্রোটোকল সিকিউর – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
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values:
https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Belarusian
be
be
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values:
https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Bulgarian
bg
bg
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values: Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure – German

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values:
https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Greek
el
el
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values: Protocolo seguro de transferencia de hipertexto – Spanish

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: پروتکل امن انتقال ابرمتن – Persian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-fa badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle

values:
https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Https
Https – Faroese
fo
fo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fo
display: none;

values: HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure – French

values: Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure – Galician

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values:
https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Korean
ko
ko
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values:
https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Armenian
hy
hy
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Https
Https – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Mongolian
mn
mn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mn
display: none;

values:
https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Burmese
my
my
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values: HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure – Dutch

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Japanese
ja
ja
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure – Portuguese

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values:
https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Russian
ru
ru
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values:
https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Serbian
sr
sr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Tagalog
tl
tl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: பாதுகாப்பான மீயுரை பரிமாற்ற நெறிமுறை – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: เอชทีทีพีเอส – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values:
https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Ukrainian
uk
uk
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values:
https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS
HTTPS – Cantonese
zh-yue
zh-yue
interlanguage-link-target

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interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

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suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

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