text:
Pelton wheel
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Old Pelton wheel from Walchensee Hydroelectric Power Station, Germany.
Assembly of a Pelton wheel at Walchensee Hydroelectric Power Station, Germany.
Figure from Pelton's original patent (October 1880).
Sectional view of a Pelton turbine installation.
Bucket detail on a small turbine.
The Pelton wheel is an impulse-type water turbine. It was invented by Lester Allan Pelton in the 1870s.[1][2] The Pelton wheel extracts energy from the impulse of moving water, as opposed to water's dead weight like the traditional overshot water wheel. Many variations of impulse turbines existed prior to Pelton's design, but they were less efficient than Pelton's design. Water leaving those wheels typically still had high speed, carrying away much of the dynamic energy brought to the wheels. Pelton's paddle geometry was designed so that when the rim ran at half the speed of the water jet, the water left the wheel with very little speed; thus his design extracted almost all of the water's impulse energy—which allowed for a very efficient turbine.
Contents
[hide]
1 Function
2 Applications
3 Design rules
4 Turbine physics and derivation
4.1 Energy and initial jet velocity
4.2 Final jet velocity
4.3 Optimal wheel speed
4.4 Torque
4.5 Power
4.6 Efficiency
5 System components
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Function[edit]
Nozzles direct forceful, high-speed streams of water against a series of spoon-shaped buckets, also known as impulse blades, which are mounted around the outer rim of a drive wheel—also called a runner (see photo, 'Old Pelton wheel..'). As the water jet hits the blades, the direction of water velocity is changed to follow the contours of the blades. The impulse energy of the water jet exerts torque on the bucket-and-wheel system, spinning the wheel; the water jet does a "u-turn" and exits at the outer sides of the bucket, decelerated to a low velocity. In the process, the water jet's momentum is transferred to the wheel and hence to a turbine. Thus, "impulse" energy does work on the turbine. Maximum power and efficiency are achieved when the velocity of the water jet is twice the velocity of the rotating buckets. A very small percentage of the water jet's original kinetic energy will remain in the water, which causes the bucket to be emptied at the same rate it is filled, (see conservation of mass) and thereby allows the high-pressure input flow to continue uninterrupted and without waste of energy. Typically two buckets are mounted side-by-side on the wheel, with the water jet split into two equal streams; this balances the side-load forces on the wheel and helps to ensure smooth, efficient transfer of momentum from the water jet to the turbine wheel.
Because water is nearly incompressible, almost all of the available energy is extracted in the first stage of the hydraulic turbine. Therefore, Pelton wheels have only one turbine stage, unlike gas turbines that operate with compressible fluid.[citation needed]
Applications[edit]
Pelton wheels are the preferred turbine for hydro-power where the available water source has relatively high hydraulic head at low flow rates. Pelton wheels are made in all sizes. There exist multi-ton Pelton wheels mounted on vertical oil pad bearings in hydroelectric plants. The largest units - the Bieudron Hydroelectric Power Station at the Grande Dixence Dam complex in Switzerland - are over 400 megawatts [1]. The smallest Pelton wheels are only a few inches across, and can be used to tap power from mountain streams having flows of a few gallons per minute. Some of these systems use household plumbing fixtures for water delivery. These small units are recommended for use with 30 metres (100 ft) or more of head, in order to generate significant power levels. Depending on water flow and design, Pelton wheels operate best with heads from 15–1,800 metres (50–5,910 ft), although there is no theoretical limit.
Design rules[edit]
The specific speed η s {\displaystyle \eta _{s}} parameter is independent of a particular turbine's size.
Compared to other turbine designs, the relatively low specific speed of the Pelton wheel, implies that the geometry is inherently a "low gear" design. Thus it is most suitable to being fed by a hydro source with a low ratio of flow to pressure, (meaning relatively low flow and/or relatively high pressure).
The specific speed is the main criterion for matching a specific hydro-electric site with the optimal turbine type. It also allows a new turbine design to be scaled from an existing design of known performance.
η s = n P / ρ ( g H ) 5 / 4 {\displaystyle \eta _{s}=n{\sqrt {P}}/{\sqrt {\rho }}(gH)^{5/4}} (dimensioned parameter), [3]
where:
n {\displaystyle n} = Frequency of rotation (rpm)
P {\displaystyle P} = Power (W)
H {\displaystyle H} = Water head (m)
ρ {\displaystyle \rho } = Density (kg/m3)
The formula implies that the Pelton turbine is geared most suitably for applications with relatively high hydraulic head H, due to the 5/4 exponent being greater than unity, and given the characteristically low specific speed of the Pelton.[4]
Turbine physics and derivation[edit]
Energy and initial jet velocity[edit]
In the ideal (frictionless) case, all of the hydraulic potential energy (Ep = mgh) is converted into kinetic energy (Ek = mv2/2) (see Bernoulli's principle). Equating these two equations and solving for the initial jet velocity (Vi) indicates that the theoretical (maximum) jet velocity is Vi = √2gh. For simplicity, assume that all of the velocity vectors are parallel to each other. Defining the velocity of the wheel runner as: (u), then as the jet approaches the runner, the initial jet velocity relative to the runner is: (Vi − u).[4] The initial velocity of jet is Vi
Final jet velocity[edit]
Assuming that the jet velocity is higher than the runner velocity, if the water is not to become backed-up in runner, then due to conservation of mass, the mass entering the runner must equal the mass leaving the runner. The fluid is assumed to be incompressible (an accurate assumption for most liquids). Also it is assumed that the cross-sectional area of the jet is constant. The jet speed remains constant relative to the runner. So as the jet recedes from the runner, the jet velocity relative to the runner is: −(Vi − u) = −Vi + u. In the standard reference frame (relative to the earth), the final velocity is then: Vf = (−Vi + u) + u = −Vi + 2u.
Optimal wheel speed[edit]
We know that the ideal runner speed will cause all of the kinetic energy in the jet to be transferred to the wheel. In this case the final jet velocity must be zero. If we let −Vi + 2u = 0, then the optimal runner speed will be u = Vi /2, or half the initial jet velocity.
Torque[edit]
By Newton's second and third laws, the force F imposed by the jet on the runner is equal but opposite to the rate of momentum change of the fluid, so
F = −m(Vf − Vi)/t = −ρQ[(−Vi + 2u) − Vi] = −ρQ(−2Vi + 2u) = 2ρQ(Vi − u),
where ρ is the density, and Q is the volume rate of flow of fluid. If D is the wheel diameter, the torque on the runner is
T = F(D/2) = ρQD(Vi − u).
The torque is maximal when the runner is stopped (i.e. when u = 0, T = ρQDVi). When the speed of the runner is equal to the initial jet velocity, the torque is zero (i.e. when u = Vi, then T = 0). On a plot of torque versus runner speed, the torque curve is straight between these two points: (0, pQDVi) and (Vi, 0).[4] Nozzle efficiency is the ratio of the jet power to the water power at the base of nozzle
Power[edit]
The power P = Fu = Tω, where ω is the angular velocity of the wheel. Substituting for F, we have P = 2ρQ(Vi − u)u. To find the runner speed at maximum power, take the derivative of P with respect to u and set it equal to zero, [dP/du = 2ρQ(Vi − 2u)]. Maximum power occurs when u = Vi /2. Pmax = ρQVi2/2. Substituting the initial jet power Vi = √2gh, this simplifies to Pmax = ρghQ. This quantity exactly equals the kinetic power of the jet, so in this ideal case, the efficiency is 100%, since all the energy in the jet is converted to shaft output.[4]
Efficiency[edit]
A wheel power divided by the initial jet power, is the turbine efficiency, η = 4u(Vi − u)/Vi2. It is zero for u = 0 and for u = Vi. As the equations indicate, when a real Pelton wheel is working close to maximum efficiency, the fluid flows off the wheel with very little residual velocity.[4] In theory, the energy efficiency varies only with the efficiency of the nozzle and wheel, and does not vary with hydraulic head.[5] The term "efficiency" can refer to: Hydraulic, Mechanical, Volumetric, Wheel, or overall efficiency.
System components[edit]
The conduit bringing high-pressure water to the impulse wheel is called the penstock. Originally the penstock was the name of the valve, but the term has been extended to include all of the fluid supply hydraulics. Penstock is now used as a general term for a water passage and control that is under pressure, whether it supplies an impulse turbine or not.[4]
See also[edit]
Peltric set
Centrifugal pump
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "COW THAT ASSISTED SCIENCE". The South Eastern Times. , (1661). South Australia. 24 November 1922. p. 6. Retrieved 10 March 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
Jump up ^ "MINING INTELLIGENCE". Launceston Examiner. XLV, (210). Tasmania, Australia. 22 August 1885. p. 3. Retrieved 10 March 2017 – via National Library of Australia.
Jump up ^ Sayers, A. T. (1990). Hydraulic and Compressible Flow Turbomachines. Mcgraw Hill Book Co Ltd. ISBN 978-0-07-707219-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Technical derivation of basic impulse turbine physics, by J.Calvert
Jump up ^ Pelton Wheel Water Turbine, Ron Amberger's Pages
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pelton wheel.
Example Hydro at Dorado Vista ranch
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text:
The Gruffalo
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Gruffalo
The first edition
Author
Julia Donaldson
Illustrator
Axel Scheffler
Country
United Kingdom
Language
English
Genre
Children's fantasy
Publisher
Macmillan
Publication date
23 March 1999
Pages
32
ISBN
0-333-71093-2
OCLC
59379845
Followed by
The Gruffalo's Child
The Gruffalo is a children's book by writer and playwright Julia Donaldson, illustrated by Axel Scheffler, that tells the story of a mouse, the protagonist of the book, taking a walk in a European forest. The book has sold over 13 million copies,[1] has won several prizes for children's literature, and has been developed into plays on both the West End and Broadway.
The Gruffalo was initially published in 1999 in the United Kingdom by Macmillan Children's Books (ISBN 0-333-71093-2) as a 32-page hardback edition, was followed six months later by a paperback edition, and subsequently by a small-format board book edition. It was penned for readers aged three to seven, and is about 700 words long. It is written in rhyming couplets, featuring repetitive verse with minor variance.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Recognition
2.1 Culture
3 Translations
4 Versions and products
5 Adaptations
5.1 Film
5.2 Theatre
5.3 Ride
6 Media appearances
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Plot[edit]
The story of a mouse's walk through the woods unfolds in two phases; in both, the mouse uses clever tricks to evade danger. On his way the mouse encounters several dangerous animals (a fox, an owl, and a snake). Each of these animals, clearly intending to eat the mouse, invites him back to their home for a meal. The cunning mouse declines each offer. To dissuade further advances, he tells each animal that he has plans to dine with his friend, a gruffalo, a monster-like hybrid that is half grizzly bear and half buffalo, whose favourite food happens to be the relevant animal, and describes the features of the gruffalo's monstrous anatomy. Frightened that the gruffalo might eat it, each animal flees. Knowing the gruffalo to be fictional, the mouse gloats thus:
Silly old fox/owl/snake, doesn't he know?
there's no such thing as a gruffalo!
After getting rid of the last animal, the mouse is shocked to encounter a real gruffalo – with all the frightening features the mouse thought that he was inventing. The gruffalo threatens to eat the mouse, but again the mouse is cunning: he tells the gruffalo that he, the mouse, is the scariest animal in the forest. Laughing, the gruffalo agrees to follow the mouse as he demonstrates how feared he is. The two walk through the forest, encountering in turn the animals that had earlier menaced the mouse. Each is terrified by the sight of the pair and runs off – and each time the gruffalo becomes more impressed with the mouse's apparent toughness. Exploiting this, the mouse threatens to eat the gruffalo, which flees.
The story is based on a Chinese folk tale of a fox that borrows the terror of a tiger. Donaldson was unable to think of rhymes for "tiger" so instead she invented a word that rhymes with "know".[2][3]
Recognition[edit]
One of the scenes on the Gruffalo Trail
The Gruffalo won the gold award (in the 0–5 years category) of the 1999 Nestlé Smarties Book Prize. It was the UK's best-selling picture book of 2000, won the 2000 Nottingham/Experian Children's Book award, and the Blue Peter Best Book To Read Aloud award. The audio version won the Best Children's Audio award in the Spoken Book Awards.[4] In November 2009 the book was voted "best bedtime story" by listeners of BBC Radio 2.[5] In a 2010 survey by UK charity Booktime, the book came first in a list of children's favourite books.[6]
Culture[edit]
The Dean Heritage Centre in the Forest of Dean, England was given permission by author Julia Donaldson, illustrator Axel Scheffler and the publisher's Macmillan Children's Books, London, UK, to create the Gruffalo trail within the national park.[7]
Translations[edit]
The Gruffalo has sold over 13 million copies in 59 editions worldwide.[1] Translations include
Afrikaans (Die Goorgomgaai)
Breton (Ar Groufalo)
Bulgarian (Gruzulak)
Catalan (El Grúfal)
Croatian (Grubzon)
Doric Scots (The Doric Gruffalo)
Dutch (De Gruffalo)
Estonian (Grühvel)
Finnish (Mörkyli)
French (Gruffalo)
German (Der Grüffelo)
Greek (Το Γκρούφαλο)
Hebrew (Trofoti)
Hungarian (A graffaló)
Icelandic (Greppikló)
Irish (An Garbhán)
Italian (Il Gruffalò)
Latin (Gruffalo)
Latvian (Bubulis)
Lithuanian (Grufas)
Low German (De Grüffelo)
Manx (Yn Gruffalo)
Maori (Te Tanguruhau)
Norwegian (Gruffaloen)
Orcadian Scots (The Orkney Gruffalo)
Polish (Gruffalo)
Portuguese (O Grufalão)
Romanian (Gruffalo)
Russian (Груффало)
Serbian (Грозон)
Slovene (Zverjasec)
Scots (The Gruffalo)
Scottish Gaelic (An Gruffalo)
Shetland Scots (The Shetland Gruffalo)
Spanish (El Grúfalo)
Swedish (Gruffalon)
Turkish (Tostoraman)
Welsh (Y Gryffalo)
Versions and products[edit]
The book was initially sold as an A4 paperback book in 1999, and later as a smaller A5 board book version in 2002. An audiobook version, narrated by Imelda Staunton, was released in 2002, and a jigsaw book version (ISBN 1-4050-3496-3) was published in 2004. The book is also sold packaged with a gruffalo soft toy. At some point in the print run of the hardcover paper page book, the dialogue was subtly changed. There are two different ISBN numbers for the book. However, the older ISBN number that relates to the original text is no longer available.[citation needed]
The "Gruffalo song" was released with the audiobook, as a standalone CD single, and on a musical CD with other songs from Donaldson's books.[citation needed]
Donaldson and Scheffler's sequel, 2004's The Gruffalo's Child (which tells the story of the gruffalo's daughter, warned by her father of the terrifying mouse) won the "Best Children's Book" award in the 2005 British Book Awards.
A Gruffalo Woodland Trail has been created at the Dean Heritage Centre, Soudley in the Forest of Dean, UK. The trail depicts the scenes from the book and has been carved by local chainsaw artists out of local redwood. The trail runs daily throughout 2012.
A ridable wheeled Gruffalo children's suitcase is manufactured for Trunki; the case had been featured as a pitch idea on the entrepreneur game show Dragons' Den and[citation needed] rejected by the show's judges.
Donaldson and Scheffler have collaborated on many other titles; some feature cameos from the Gruffalo in other guises,[8] including as Christmas tree decoration in Stick Man, a drawing by a child in The Snail and the Whale and a fish in Tiddler.
Adaptations[edit]
Film[edit]
Main article: The Gruffalo (film)
The book has been adapted into a 27-minute animated film,[9] which was broadcast on BBC One in the UK on 25 December 2009.[10] This version features Robbie Coltrane in the title role, James Corden as the mouse, Helena Bonham Carter as the mother squirrel narrator, and Rob Brydon as the Snake.[11] The production was animated at Studio Soi[12] in Germany and produced through Magic Light Pictures.[13] The film also has the voices of John Hurt as the Owl and Tom Wilkinson as the Fox. It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Short Film (Animated) on 25 January 2011. The film was also nominated for a BAFTA in 2010.[14]
Theatre[edit]
The Gruffalo has been adapted for the stage by Meneer Monster. The production has toured around The Netherlands and Belgium in 2014, and will continue in 2015. The Meneer Monster production performed around 250 times. In June 2014 Meneer Monster made a South African version of the Gruffalo with twenty Market Theatre Laboratory students in Johannesburg.
The Gruffalo has been adapted for the stage by Tall Stories theatre company. The production has visited the West End for the last five years, including a staging at the Lyric Theatre, London during Christmas, most recently 2014. The Tall Stories production has also toured the UK and internationally, including performances at Sydney Opera House in September 2011 and in the UK most years. It returned to the Lyric Theatre, London in Summer 2015.
Ride[edit]
Chessington World of Adventures opened a ride called 'The Gruffalo River Ride Adventure', using the original water transit system used on The Bubbleworks Ride.
Media appearances[edit]
The book appears in the Doctor Who series 5 episode "The Hungry Earth": Mo reads it to his son, then later by himself before the "strange event" happens.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Marshall, Konrad (27 February 2015). "The Gruffalo author Julia Donaldson reveals where ideas bubble up from". The Canberra Times. Fairfax Media Ltd. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
Jump up ^ McCrum, Robert (29 August 2004). "Interview: Julia Donaldson". The Guardian. London.
Jump up ^ Information on Julia Donaldson, children's author and creator of The Gruffalo
Jump up ^ h2g2 - 'The Gruffalo' and 'The Gruffalo's Child' - Children's Stories
Jump up ^ BBC - Radio 2 - Jeremy Vine - Jeremy Vine's Bedtime Stories
Jump up ^ "Gruffalo tops list of children's favorite books". BBC News. 18 October 2010. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
Jump up ^ "Dean Heritage Centre". Dean Heritage Centre. Retrieved 5 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "Julia Donaldson & Axel Scheffler Character Cameos".
Jump up ^ "Gruffalo to menace Christmas TV". BBC. 22 June 2009. Retrieved 27 December 2009.
Jump up ^ "The Gruffalo, Christmas Day, BBC1, 5.30 pm". Daily Mirror. UK. 24 December 2009. Retrieved 27 December 2009.
Jump up ^ "The Gruffalo BBC One Christmas special". BBC. 22 June 2009. Retrieved 27 December 2009.
Jump up ^ Studio Soi
Jump up ^ Magic Light Pictures – The Gruffalo
Jump up ^ "The Gruffalo Oscar nomination". Licensing Today Worldwide. 28 January 2011. Retrieved 20 February 2011.
Further reading[edit]
Julia Donaldson video podcast, the author discusses The Gruffalo on scottishbooktrust.com
news story about the Tall Stories production at Sydney Opera House
The Gruffalo creator Julia Donaldson reveals the story behind Britain's best-loved bedtime story By JENNY JOHNSTON, Daily Mail, 1 January 2010
External links[edit]
Children's literature portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gruffalo.
Listen to this article (info/dl)

This audio file was created from a revision of the article "The Gruffalo" dated 2005-07-22, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)
More spoken articles
gruffalo.com, the book's website
the author's website
thegruffalolive.com, the website for the stage adaptation
meneermonster.com, The website of the Dutch theatre company who have adapted the book for theatre
Tall Stories, the website of the theatre company who have adapted the book for the stage
ESL resources for primary school teachers
Who would love a Gruffalo?, Giles Wilson, BBC News Magazine, 22 October 2010
deanheritagecentre.com - gruffalotrail The Gruffalo trail at the Dean Heritage Centre for 2012
[hide]
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The Gruffalo
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Books
The Gruffalo
The Gruffalo's Child
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The Gruffalo
The Gruffalo's Child
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Gruffalo&oldid=815827728"
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Behaviorism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Behavioralism.
"Behavior analysis" redirects here. For other uses, see Behavior analysis (disambiguation).
Behaviorism (or behaviourism) is a systematic approach to understanding the behavior of humans and other animals. It assumes that all behaviors are either reflexes produced by a response to certain stimuli in the environment, or a consequence of that individual's history, including especially reinforcement and punishment, together with the individual's current motivational state and controlling stimuli. Although behaviorists generally accept the important role of inheritance in determining behavior, they focus primarily on environmental factors.
Behaviorism combines elements of philosophy, methodology, and psychological theory. It emerged in the late nineteenth century as a reaction to depth psychology and other traditional forms of psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested experimentally. The earliest derivatives of Behaviorism can be traced back to the late 19th century where Edward Thorndike pioneered the law of effect, a process that involved strengthening behavior through the use of reinforcement.
During the first half of the twentieth century, John B. Watson devised methodological behaviorism, which rejected introspective methods and sought to understand behavior by only measuring observable behaviors and events. It was not until the 1930s that B. F. Skinner suggested that private events—including thoughts and feelings—should be subjected to the same controlling variables as observable behavior, which became the basis for his philosophy called radical behaviorism.[1][2] While Watson and Ivan Pavlov investigated the stimulus-response procedures of classical conditioning, Skinner assessed the controlling nature of consequences and also its' potential effect on the antecedents (or discriminative stimuli) that strengthens behavior; the technique became known as operant conditioning.
Skinner’s radical behaviorism has been highly successful experimentally, revealing new phenomena with new methods. But Skinner’s dismissal of theory limited its development. Theoretical behaviorism[3] recognized that a historical system, an organism, has a state as well as sensitivity to stimuli and the ability to emit responses. Indeed, Skinner himself acknowledged the possibility of what he called “latent” responses in humans, even though he neglected to extend this idea to rats and pigeons[4]. Latent responses constitute a repertoire, from which operant reinforcement can select.
Skinner's research was with animals. He studied principles of behavior with animals. His principles were relevant to animal behavior as well as human behavior. He called his methodology the experimental analysis of behavior. He did not develop principles of human learning. Skinner analyzed theoretically various types of human behavior using his principles of behavior. Those treatments have had great impact and are very important in the development of behaviorism. As will be indicated below, psychological behaviorism in contrast drew from the animal based behaviorism, but introduced the study of human learning and the development of the principles of human learning.
The field of applied behavior analysis is considered by many to have derived from radical behaviorism. Actually the field derives from both radical behaviorism and the human based psychological behaviorism. Applied behavior analysis has been used in various settings including the treatment of disorders such as autism and substance abuse, as well as child raising, personality development, and abnormal behavior generally [5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. In addition, psychological behaviorism has indicated how cognitive schools of psychological thought, while not behavioral, can be joined with a human oriented behaviorism [12]. The field of cognitive behavior therapy, which has widely demonstrated utility in treating certain pathologies including simple phobias, PTSD, and mood disorders, has shown the productivity of that combination.

Contents
[hide]
1 Versions
1.1 Radical behaviorism
2 Experimental and conceptual innovations
3 Relation to language
4 Education
5 Operant conditioning
6 Classical conditioning
7 In philosophy
7.1 Molecular versus molar behaviorism
7.2 Psychological Behaviorism
7.3 21st-century behavior analysis
8 Behavior analysis and culture
9 Behavior informatics and behavior computing
10 Criticisms and limitations of behaviorism
11 List of notable behaviorists
12 See also
12.1 Related therapies
13 References
14 Further reading
15 External links
Versions[edit]
There is no universally agreed-upon classification, but some titles given to the various branches of behaviorism include:
Methodological behaviorism: Watson's behaviorism states that only public events (behaviors of an individual) can be objectively observed, and that therefore private events (thoughts and feelings) should be ignored.[1][13] It also became the basis for the early approach behavior modification in the 1970s and early 1980s.
Radical behaviorism: Skinner's behaviorism theorizes that processes within the organism should be acknowledged, particularly the presence of private events (such as thoughts and feelings), and suggests that environmental variables also control these internal events just as they control observable behaviors. Radical behaviorism forms the core philosophy behind behavior analysis. Willard Van Orman Quine used many of radical behaviorism's ideas in his study of knowledge and language.[13]
Teleological behaviorism: Post-Skinnerian, purposive, close to microeconomics. Focuses on objective observation as opposed to cognitive processes.
Theoretical behaviorism: Post-Skinnerian, accepts observable internal states ("within the skin" once meant "unobservable", but with modern technology we are not so constrained); dynamic, but eclectic in choice of theoretical structures, emphasizes parsimony.
Biological behaviorism: Post-Skinnerian, centered on perceptual and motor modules of behavior, theory of behavior systems.
Psychological behaviorism: As proposed by Arthur W. Staats, unlike the previous behaviorisms of Skinner, Hull, and Tolman, was based upon a program of human research involving various types of human behavior. Psychological behaviorism introduces new principles of human learning. Humans learn not only by the animal learning principles but also by special human learning principles. Those principles involve human's uniquely huge learning ability. Humans learn repertoires that enable them to learn other things. Human learning is thus cumulative. No other animal demonstrates that ability, making the human species unique. To understand the nature of radical behaviorism and psychological behaviorism, go to the wikipedia section on Psychological Behaviorism.
Two subtypes are:
Hullian and post-Hullian: theoretical, group data, not dynamic, physiological
Purposive: Tolman's behavioristic anticipation of cognitive psychology
Radical behaviorism[edit]
Main article: Radical behaviorism
B. F. Skinner proposed radical behaviorism as the conceptual underpinning of the experimental analysis of behavior. This view differs from other approaches to behavioral research in various ways but, most notably here, it contrasts with methodological behaviorism in accepting feelings, states of mind and introspection as behaviors subject to scientific investigation. Like methodological behaviorism it rejects the reflex as a model of all behavior, and it defends the science of behavior as complementary to but independent of physiology. Radical behaviorism overlaps considerably with other western philosophical positions such as American pragmatism.[14]
Experimental and conceptual innovations[edit]
This essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Behavior of Organisms[15] and Schedules of Reinforcement.[16] Of particular importance was his concept of the operant response, of which the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but functionally equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a common consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of responses, where the individuals differ but the class coheres in its function-shared consequences with operants and reproductive success with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory and S–R theory.
Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on trial-and-error learning by researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations—Thorndike's notion of a stimulus–response "association" or "connection" was abandoned; and methodological ones—the use of the "free operant", so called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than his peers', a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal work Are Theories of Learning Necessary? in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is the Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior.[17][18]
Relation to language[edit]
As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with his 1957 book Verbal Behavior[19] and other language-related publications;[20] Verbal Behavior laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional analysis of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review by Noam Chomsky.[21][22]
Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his ideas,[23] and the disagreements between the two and the theories involved have been further discussed.[24][25] Innateness theory is opposed to behaviorist theory which claims that language is a set of habits that can be acquired by means of conditioning.[26][27] According to some, the behaviorist account is a process which would be too slow to explain a phenomenon as complicated as language learning. What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of human behavior was not language acquisition so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an essay republished in his 1969 book Contingencies of Reinforcement,[28] Skinner took the view that humans could construct linguistic stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in the same way that external stimuli could. The possibility of such "instructional control" over behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not always produce the same effects on human behavior as they reliably do in other animals. The focus of a radical behaviorist analysis of human behavior therefore shifted to an attempt to understand the interaction between instructional control and contingency control, and also to understand the behavioral processes that determine what instructions are constructed and what control they acquire over behavior. Recently, a new line of behavioral research on language was started under the name of relational frame theory.
Education[edit]
Behaviourism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external behaviour achieved through using reinforcement and repetition (Rote learning) to shape behavior of learners. Skinner found that behaviors could be shaped when the use of reinforcement was implemented. Desired behavior is rewarded, while the undesired behavior is punished.[29] Incorporating behaviorism into the classroom allowed educators to assist their students in excelling both academically and personally. In the field of language learning, this type of teaching was called the audio-lingual method, characterised by the whole class using choral chanting of key phrases, dialogues and immediate correction.
Within the behaviourist view of learning, the "teacher" is the dominant person in the classroom and takes complete control, evaluation of learning comes from the teacher who decides what is right or wrong. The learner does not have any opportunity for evaluation or reflection within the learning process, they are simply told what is right or wrong. The conceptualization of learning using this approach could be considered "superficial" as the focus is on external changes in behaviour i.e. not interested in the internal processes of learning leading to behaviour change and has no place for the emotions involved the process.
Operant conditioning[edit]
Main article: Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner in 1937 and deals with the modification of "voluntary behaviour" or operant behaviour. Operant behavior operates on the environment and is maintained by its consequences. Reinforcement and punishment, the core tools of operant conditioning, are either positive (delivered following a response), or negative (withdrawn following a response).[30] Skinner created the Skinner Box or operant conditioning chamber to test the effects of operant conditioning principles on rats. From this study, he discovered that the rats learned very effectively if they were rewarded frequently. Skinner also found that he could shape the rats' behavior through the use of rewards, which could, in turn, be applied to human learning as well.
Classical conditioning[edit]
Main article: Classical conditioning
Although operant conditioning plays the largest role in discussions of behavioral mechanisms, classical conditioning (or Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning) is also an important behavior-analytic process that need not refer to mental or other internal processes. Pavlov's experiments with dogs provide the most familiar example of the classical conditioning procedure. In simple conditioning, the dog was presented with a stimulus such as a light or a sound, and then food was placed in the dog's mouth. After a few repetitions of this sequence, the light or sound by itself caused the dog to salivate.[31] Although Pavlov proposed some tentative physiological processes that might be involved in classical conditioning, these have not been confirmed.[citation needed] The idea of classical conditioning helped behaviorist John Watson discover the key mechanism behind how humans acquire the behaviors that they do, which was to find a natural reflex that produces the response being considered.
Watson's "Behaviourist Manifesto" has three aspects that deserve special recognition: one is that psychology should be purely objective, with any interpretation of conscious experience being removed, thus leading to psychology as the "science of behaviour"; the second one is that the goals of psychology should be to predict and control behaviour (as opposed to describe and explain conscious mental states; the third one is that there is no notable distinction between human and non-human behaviour. Following Darwin's theory of evolution, this would simply mean that human behaviour is just a more complex version in respect to behaviour displayed by other species.[32]
In philosophy[edit]
Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be contrasted with philosophy of mind. The basic premise of radical behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a natural science, such as chemistry or physics, without any reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms as causes for their behavior. Less radical varieties are unconcerned with philosophical positions on internal, mental and subjective experience. Behaviorism takes a functional view of behavior. According to Edmund Fantino and colleagues: "Behavior analysis has much to offer the study of phenomena normally dominated by cognitive and social psychologists. We hope that successful application of behavioral theory and methodology will not only shed light on central problems in judgment and choice but will also generate greater appreciation of the behavioral approach."[33]
Behaviorist sentiments are not uncommon within philosophy of language and analytic philosophy. It is sometimes argued that Ludwig Wittgenstein defended a behaviorist position (e.g., the beetle in a box argument)—but while there are important relations between his thought and behaviorism, the claim that he was a behaviorist is quite controversial. Mathematician Alan Turing is also sometimes considered a behaviorist,[citation needed] but he himself did not make this identification. In logical and empirical positivism (as held, e.g., by Rudolf Carnap and Carl Hempel), the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior. W.V. Quine made use of a type of behaviorism, influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. Gilbert Ryle defended a distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book The Concept of Mind. Ryle's central claim was that instances of dualism frequently represented "category mistakes", and hence that they were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. Daniel Dennett likewise acknowledges himself to be a type of behaviorist,[34] though he offers extensive criticism of radical behaviorism and refutes Skinner's rejection of the value of intentional idioms and the possibility of free will.[35]
This is Dennett's main point in "Skinner Skinned." Dennett argues that there is a crucial difference between explaining and explaining away… If our explanation of apparently rational behavior turns out to be extremely simple, we may want to say that the behavior was not really rational after all. But if the explanation is very complex and intricate, we may want to say not that the behavior is not rational, but that we now have a better understanding of what rationality consists in. (Compare: if we find out how a computer program solves problems in linear algebra, we don't say it's not really solving them, we just say we know how it does it. On the other hand, in cases like Weizenbaum's ELIZA program, the explanation of how the computer carries on a conversation is so simple that the right thing to say seems to be that the machine isn't really carrying on a conversation, it's just a trick.)
—  Curtis Brown, Philosophy of Mind, "Behaviorism: Skinner and Dennett"[36]
Molecular versus molar behaviorism[edit]
Skinner's view of behavior is most often characterized as a "molecular" view of behavior; that is, behavior can be decomposed into atomistic parts or molecules. This view is inconsistent with Skinner's complete description of behavior as delineated in other works, including his 1981 article "Selection by Consequences".[37] Skinner proposed that a complete account of behavior requires understanding of selection history at three levels: biology (the natural selection or phylogeny of the animal); behavior (the reinforcement history or ontogeny of the behavioral repertoire of the animal); and for some species, culture (the cultural practices of the social group to which the animal belongs). This whole organism then interacts with its environment. Molecular behaviorists use notions from melioration theory, negative power function discounting or additive versions of negative power function discounting.[38]
Molar behaviorists, such as Howard Rachlin, Richard Herrnstein, and William Baum, argue that behavior cannot be understood by focusing on events in the moment. That is, they argue that behavior is best understood as the ultimate product of an organism's history and that molecular behaviorists are committing a fallacy by inventing fictitious proximal causes for behavior. Molar behaviorists argue that standard molecular constructs, such as "associative strength", are better replaced by molar variables such as rate of reinforcement.[39] Thus, a molar behaviorist would describe "loving someone" as a pattern of loving behavior over time; there is no isolated, proximal cause of loving behavior, only a history of behaviors (of which the current behavior might be an example) that can be summarized as "love".
Psychological Behaviorism[edit]
Radical Behaviorism, is essentially, an animal behaviorism. Skinner’s work was in animal research. He did not do research on humans. The responses that were studied with animals were simple immediate responses. They did not require learning. He did not study learning. He believed that the way to study human behavior was through using the methodology he developed with animals. His students who began to work with humans – very valuable research – was with simple responses, pulling a plunger, tapping a key. As valuable as it was, it did not study complex human behavior and the learning of complex human behavior. Psychological behaviorism, from its beginning, studied complex human behavior, various types of complex human behavior, in a program directed toward the study of complex human learning. Psychological behaviorism differed fundamentally from radical behaviorism in being a human behaviorism. Rather than radical behaviorism's extension of animal behavior principles to analysis of human behavior, psychological behaviorism had a program of research on various kinds of human behavior. That brought to light the importance of learning in the formation of human behavior. It revealed that humans learned according to principles in a way that no other animal species does. The human species is unique among species in a way that cannot be realized or understood in radical behaviorism.
Psychological behaviorism is based upon a more than 60 year program of studying different kinds of complex human learning. That study makes radical behaviorism and psychological behaviorism fundamentally different.
21st-century behavior analysis[edit]
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The early term behavior modification has been obsolete since the 1990s as it currently refers to the brief revival of methodological behaviorism in the 1970s and early 1980s.[40][41][42] Applied behavior analysis—the term that replaced behavior modification—has emerged into a thriving field.
The independent development of behaviour analysis outside the US also continues to develop, In terms of motivation, there remains strong interest in the variety of human motivational behaviour factors, e.g.,[43][44][45][46][47]. Some, may go as far as suggesting that the current rapid change in organisational behaviour could partly be attributed to some of these theories and the theories that are related to it.[48]
The interests among behavior analysts today are wide-ranging, as a review of the 30 Special Interest Groups (SIGs) within ABAI indicates. Such interests include everything from developmental disabilities and autism, to cultural psychology, clinical psychology, verbal behavior, Organizational Behavior Management (OBM; behavior analytic I–O psychology). OBM has developed a particularly strong following within behavior analysis, as evidenced by the formation of the OBM Network and the influential Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM; recently rated the 3rd highest impact journal in applied psychology by ISI JOBM rating).
Applications of behavioral technology, also known as applied behavior analysis or ABA, have been particularly well established in the area of developmental disabilities since the 1960s. Treatment of individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders has grown especially rapidly since the mid-1990s. This demand for services encouraged the formation of a professional credentialing program administered by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board, Inc. (BACB) and accredited by the National Commission for Certifying Agencies. As of early 2012, there are over 300 BACB approved course sequences offered by about 200 colleges and universities worldwide preparing students for this credential and approximately 11,000 BACB certificants, most working in the United States. The Association of Professional Behavior Analysts was formed in 2008 to meet the needs of these ABA professionals.
Modern behavior analysis has also witnessed a massive resurgence in research and applications related to language and cognition, with the development of relational frame theory (RFT; described as a "Post-Skinnerian account of language and cognition").[49] RFT also forms the empirical basis for the highly successful and data-driven acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). In fact, researchers and practitioners in RFT/ACT have become sufficiently prominent that they have formed their own specialized organization that is highly behaviorally oriented, known as the Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (ACBS).
Some of the current prominent behavior analytic journals include the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA), the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB) JEAB website, the Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM), Behavior and Social Issues (BSI), as well as the Psychological Record. Currently, the US has 14 ABAI accredited MA and PhD programs for comprehensive study in behavior analysis.
Behavior analysis and culture[edit]
Cultural analysis has always been at the philosophical core of radical behaviorism from the early days (as seen in Skinner's Walden Two, Science & Human Behavior, Beyond Freedom & Dignity, and About Behaviorism).
During the 1980s, behavior analysts, most notably Sigrid Glenn, had a productive interchange with cultural anthropologist Marvin Harris (the most notable proponent of "cultural materialism") regarding interdisciplinary work. Very recently, behavior analysts have produced a set of basic exploratory experiments in an effort toward this end.[50] Behaviorism is also frequently used in game development, although this application is controversial.[51]
Behavior informatics and behavior computing[edit]
With the fast growth of big behavioral data and applications, behavior analysis is ubiquitous. Understanding behavior from the informatics and computing perspective becomes increasingly critical for in-depth understanding of what, why and how behaviors are formed, interact, evolve, change and affect business and decision. Behavior informatics[52][53] and behavior computing[54][55] deeply explore behavior intelligence and behavior insights from the informatics and computing perspectives.
Criticisms and limitations of behaviorism[edit]
See also: Cognitive psychology and Cognitive neuroscience
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In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the cognitive revolution.[56][57] This shift was due to methodological behaviorism being highly criticized for not examining mental processes, and this led to the development of the cognitive therapy movement. In the mid-20th century, three main influences arose that would inspire and shape cognitive psychology as a formal school of thought:
Noam Chomsky's 1959 critique of behaviorism, and empiricism more generally, initiated what would come to be known as the "cognitive revolution".[58]
Developments in computer science would lead to parallels being drawn between human thought and the computational functionality of computers, opening entirely new areas of psychological thought. Allen Newell and Herbert Simon spent years developing the concept of artificial intelligence (AI) and later worked with cognitive psychologists regarding the implications of AI. The effective result was more of a framework conceptualization of mental functions with their counterparts in computers (memory, storage, retrieval, etc.)
Formal recognition of the field involved the establishment of research institutions such as George Mandler's Center for Human Information Processing in 1964. Mandler described the origins of cognitive psychology in a 2002 article in the Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences [59]
In the early years of cognitive psychology, behaviorist critics held that the empiricism it pursued was incompatible with the concept of internal mental states. Cognitive neuroscience, however, continues to gather evidence of direct correlations between physiological brain activity and putative mental states, endorsing the basis for cognitive psychology.
List of notable behaviorists[edit]
Donald Baer
Albert Bandura
Dermot Barnes-Holmes
Vladimir Bekhterev
Sidney W. Bijou
Charles Ferster
Jacque Fresco
Edwin Ray Guthrie
Steven C. Hayes
Richard J. Herrnstein
Clark L. Hull
Brian Iwata
Alan E. Kazdin
Fred S. Keller
Jon Levy
Marsha M. Linehan
Ole Ivar Lovaas
Neal E. Miller
O. Hobart Mowrer
Charles E. Osgood
Ivan Pavlov
Murray Sidman
B. F. Skinner
Kenneth W. Spence
J. E. R. Staddon
Arthur W. Staats
Edward Thorndike
Edward C. Tolman
John B. Watson
Montrose Wolf
See also[edit]
Antecedent stimuli
Behavior analysis of child development
Behavioral change theories
Behavioral economics
Behavioral medicine
Behavioral neuroscience
Counterconditioning
Criminology
Dog behaviorist
Emergency psychiatry
Ethology
Functional analysis (psychology)
Habituation
List of publications in psychology § Behaviorism
The Logic of Modern Physics
Law of effect
Mentalism (psychology)
Models of abnormality § Behavioural model
Observational learning
Operationalization
Pharmacology § Behavioral pharmacology
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Token economy
Verbal Behavior
ZebraBox
Zoosemiotics
Related therapies[edit]
Acceptance and commitment therapy
Applied animal behavior
Behavioral activation
Behavior modification
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Biofeedback
Clinical behavior analysis
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Contingency management
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Exposure therapy
Functional analytic psychotherapy
Habit reversal training
Organizational behavior management
Pivotal response treatment
Positive behavior support
Rational emotive behavior therapy
Social skills training
Systematic desensitization
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Chiesa, Mecca (1994). Radical Behaviorism: The Philosophy and the Science. Authors Cooperative, Inc. pp. 1–241. ISBN 0962331147. Retrieved July 31, 2016.
Jump up ^ Dillenburger, Karola & Keenan, Mickey (2009). "None of the As in ABA stand for autism: Dispelling the myths". Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability. 34 (2): 193–195. doi:10.1080/13668250902845244. PMID 19404840. Retrieved 2014-12-24.
Jump up ^ Staddon, John (2014) The New Behaviorism (2nd edition) Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
Jump up ^ Staddon, J. Theoretical behaviorism. Philosophy and Behavior. (45) in press.
Jump up ^ Arthur W. Staats (2012). The Marvelous Learning Animal. Retrieved April 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ Arthur W. Staats (1983). Psychology’s Crisis of Disunity: Philosophy and Method for a Unified Science. Retrieved April 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ Arthur W. Staats (1971). Child Learning, Intelligence, and Personality: Principles of a Behavioral Interaction Approach. Retrieved April 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ Arthur W. Staats (1967). Learning, Language, & Cognition: Theory, Research, and Method for the Study of Human Behavior and Its Development. Retrieved April 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ Arthur W. Staats (1975). Social Behaviorism. Retrieved April 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ Arthur W. Staats (1996). Behavior and Personality: Psychological Behaviorism. Retrieved April 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ Arthur W. Staats (1963). Complex Human Behavior: A Systematic Extension of Learning Principles. Retrieved April 18, 2018.
Jump up ^ Arthur W. Staats (1972). "Language Behavior Therapy: A Derivation of Social Behaviorism". Retrieved April 18, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Skinner, BF (1976). About Behaviorism. New York: Random House, Inc. p. 18. ISBN 0-394-71618-3.
Jump up ^ Moxley, R.A. (2004). "Pragmatic selectionism: The philosophy of behavior analysis" (PDF). The Behavior Analyst Today. 5 (1): 108–25. Retrieved 2008-01-10.
Jump up ^ Skinner, B.F. (1991). The Behavior of Organisms. Copley Pub Group. p. 473. ISBN 0-87411-487-X.
Jump up ^ Cheney, Carl D.; Ferster, Charles B. (1997). Schedules of Reinforcement (B.F. Skinner Reprint Series). Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group. p. 758. ISBN 0-87411-828-X.
Jump up ^ Commons, M.L. (2001). "A short history of the Society for the Quantitative Analysis of Behavior" (PDF). Behavior Analyst Today. 2 (3): 275–9. Retrieved 2008-01-10.
Jump up ^ Thornbury, Scott (1998). "The Lexical Approach: A journey without maps". Modern English Teacher. 7 (4): 7–13.
Jump up ^ Skinner, Burrhus Frederick (1957). Verbal Behavior. Acton, Massachusetts: Copley Publishing Group. ISBN 1-58390-021-7.
Jump up ^ Skinner, B.F. (1969). "An operant analysis of problem-solving": 133–57. ; chapter in Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. Appleton-Century-Crofts. p. 283. ISBN 0-13-171728-6.
Jump up ^ Chomsky, Noam; Skinner, B.F. (1959). "A Review of B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior". Language. 35 (1): 26–58. doi:10.2307/411334. JSTOR 411334.
Jump up ^ Kennison, Shelia M. (2013). Introduction to language development. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications. ISBN 9781483315324.
Jump up ^ Skinner, B.F. (1972). "I Have Been Misunderstood". Center Magazine (March–April): 63.
Jump up ^ MacCorquodale, K. (1970). "On Chomsky's Review of Skinner's VERBAL BEHAVIOR". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 13 (1): 83–99. doi:10.1901/jeab.1970.13-83. Retrieved 2008-01-10.
Jump up ^ Stemmer, N. (1990). "Skinner's verbal behavior, Chomsky's review, and mentalism". J Exp Anal Behav. 54 (3): 307–15. doi:10.1901/jeab.1990.54-307. PMC 1323000  . PMID 2103585.
Jump up ^ Thornbury, Scott (2006). An A-Z of ELT. Oxford: Macmillan. p. 24. ISBN 1405070633.
Jump up ^ Douglas Brown, H (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (Fourth ed.). White Plains: Longman/Pearson Education. pp. 8–9. ISBN 0-13-017816-0.
Jump up ^ Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. Appleton-Century-Crofts. p. 283. ISBN 0-13-171728-6.
Jump up ^ "Behaviorism - Learning Theories". Learning Theories. 2007-01-31. Retrieved 2017-08-04.
Jump up ^ "Classical and Operant Conditioning - Behaviorist Theories". Learning Theories. 2015-06-19. Retrieved 2017-08-04.
Jump up ^ "Ivan Pavlov". Retrieved 16 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Richard Gross, Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour
Jump up ^ Fantino, E.; Stolarz-Fantino, S.; Navarro, A. (2003). "Logical fallacies: A behavioral approach to reasoning". The Behavior Analyst Today. 4. p.116 (pp.109–117). Retrieved 2008-01-10.
Jump up ^ Dennett, D.C. "The Message is: There is no Medium". Tufts University. Archived from the original on 11 January 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-10.
Jump up ^ Dennett, Daniel (1981). Brainstorms: Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology. Bradford Books. MIT Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-262-54037-7. LCCN 78013723.
Jump up ^ Brown, Curtis (2001). "Behaviorism: Skinner and Dennett". Philosophy of Mind. San Antonio, TX: Trinity University.
Jump up ^ Skinner, B.F (31 July 1981). "Selection by Consequences" (PDF). Science. 213 (4507): 501–4. Bibcode:1981Sci...213..501S. doi:10.1126/science.7244649. PMID 7244649. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2010. Retrieved 14 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Fantino, E. (2000). "Delay-reduction theory—the case for temporal context: comment on Grace and Savastano (2000)". J Exp Psychol Gen. 129 (4): 444–6. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.129.4.444. PMID 11142857.
Jump up ^ Baum, W.M. (2003). "The molar view of behavior and its usefulness in behavior analysis". Behavior Analyst Today. 4: 78–81. doi:10.1037/h0100009. Retrieved 2008-01-10.
Jump up ^ Mace, F. Charles (1994). "The significance and future of functional analysis methodologies". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 27 (2): 385–392. doi:10.1901/jaba.1994.27-385. PMC 1297814  . PMID 16795830.
Jump up ^ Pelios, L.; Morren, J.; Tesch, D.; Axelrod, S. (1999). "The impact of functional analysis methodology on treatment choice for self-injurious and aggressive behavior". Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 32 (2): 185–95. doi:10.1901/jaba.1999.32-185. PMC 1284177  . PMID 10396771.
Jump up ^ Mace, F. Charles; Critchfield, Thomas S. (May 2010). "Translational research in behavior analysis: Historic traditions and imperative for the future". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 93 (3): 293–312. doi:10.1901/jeab.2010.93-293. PMC 2861871  . PMID 21119847.
Jump up ^ Kellaway, Lucy (7 January 2015). "My team gets more excited by loo roll than business budgets: Work problems answered". London: Financial Times. p. 10. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Eyres, Harry (19 December 2009). "Peaks in a trough year: The Slow Lane". Financial Times. p. 22. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Stern, Stefan (5 August 2008). "Keep up motivation levels through long summer days". London: Financial Times. p. 12. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Skapinker, Michael (11 December 2002). "Human capitalism: Does treating workers well help business too? A PwC report provides some evidence". London: Financial Times. p. 22. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Skapinker, Michael (9 April 2013). "The 50 ideas that shaped business today". London: Financial Times. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Reinventing the deal; American capitalism" (417.8961). London: The Economist. 24 October 2015. pp. 21–24. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Hayes, S.C.; Barnes-Holmes, D. & Roche, B. (2001) Relational Frame Theory: A Post-Skinnerian account of human language and cognition. Kluwer Academic: New York.
Jump up ^ Ward, Todd A.; Eastman, Raymond; Ninness, Chris (2009). "An Experimental Analysis of Cultural Materialism: The Effects of Various Modes of Production on Resource Sharing". Behavior and Social Issues. 18: 1–23. doi:10.5210/bsi.v18i1.1950.
Jump up ^ Jon Radoff (2011). "Gamification, Behaviorism and Bullsh$!". Radoff.com.
Jump up ^ Cao, Longbing (2010). "In-depth Behavior Understanding and Use: the Behavior Informatics Approach". Information Science. 180 (17): 3067–3085. doi:10.1016/j.ins.2010.03.025.
Jump up ^ Cao, Longbing; Joachims, Thorsten; et al. (2014). "Behavior Informatics: A New Perspective". IEEE Intelligent Systems. 29 (4): 62–80. doi:10.1109/mis.2014.60.
Jump up ^ Cao, Longbing; Yu, Philip (eds) (2012). Behavior Computing: Modeling, Analysis, Mining and Decision. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4471-2969-1. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Cao, Longbing; Motoda, Hiroshi; et al. (2013). Behavior and Social Computing. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-04047-9.
Jump up ^ Friesen, N. (2005). Mind and Machine: Ethical and Epistemological Implications for Research. Thompson Rivers University, B.C., Canada.
Jump up ^ Waldrop, M.M. (2002). The Dream Machine: JCR Licklider and the revolution that made computing personal. New York: Penguin Books. (pp. 139–40).
Jump up ^ Chomsky, N (1959). "Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior". Language. 35: 26–58. doi:10.2307/411334. Chomsky N. Preface to the reprint of A Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior. In: Jakobovits L.A, Miron M.S, editors. Readings in the psychology of language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1967.
Jump up ^ Mandler, George (2002). "Origins of the cognitive (r)evolution". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 38: 339–353. doi:10.1002/jhbs.10066. PMID 12404267.
Further reading[edit]
Baum, W.M. (2005) Understanding behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution. Blackwell.
Cao, L.B. (2013) IJCAI2013 tutorial on behavior informatics and computing.
Cao, L.B. (2014) Non-IIDness Learning in Behavioral and Social Data, The Computer Journal, 57(9): 1358–1370.
Chiesa, Mecca (1994). "Radical Behaviorism: The Philosophy and the Science". Authors Cooperative, Inc.
Cooper, John O., Heron, Timothy E., & Heward, William L. (2007). "Applied Behavior Analysis: Second Edition". Pearson.
Ferster, C.B. & Skinner, B.F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Malott, Richard W. Principles of Behavior. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008. Print.
Mills, John A., Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology, Paperback Edition, New York University Press 2000.
Lattal, K.A. & Chase, P.N. (2003) "Behavior Theory and Philosophy". Plenum.
Pierce, W. David & Cheney, Carl D. (2013). "Behavior Analysis and Learning: Fifth Edition". Psychology Press.
Plotnik, Rod. (2005) Introduction to Psychology. Thomson-Wadsworth (ISBN 0-534-63407-9).
Rachlin, H. (1991) Introduction to modern behaviorism. (3rd edition.) New York: Freeman.
Skinner, B.F. Beyond Freedom & Dignity, Hackett Publishing Co, Inc 2002.
Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Skinner, B.F. (1945). "The operational analysis of psychological terms". Psychological Review. 52 (270–7): 290–4. doi:10.1037/h0062535.
Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior (ISBN 0-02-929040-6) Online version.
Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Skinner, B.F. (31 July 1981). "Selection by Consequences" (PDF). Science. 213 (4507): 501–4. Bibcode:1981Sci...213..501S. doi:10.1126/science.7244649. PMID 7244649. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2010. Retrieved 14 August 2010.
Klein, P. (2013) "Explanation of Behavioural Psychotherapy Styles". [1].
Staddon, J. (2014) The New Behaviorism, 2nd Edition. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press. pp. xi, 1–282.
Watson, J.B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158–177. (on-line).
Watson, J.B. (1919). Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist.
Watson, J.B. (1924). Behaviorism.
Zuriff, G.E. (1985). Behaviorism: A Conceptual Reconstruction, Columbia University Press.
LeClaire, J. and Rushin, J.P. (2010) Behavioral Analytics For Dummies. Wiley. (ISBN 978-0-470-58727-0).
External links[edit]
Library resources about
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Wikiquote has quotations related to: Behaviorism
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Graham, George. "Behaviorism". In Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
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