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Fly Me to the Moon
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For other uses, see Fly Me to the Moon (disambiguation).
"In Other Words"
First recording titled "In Other Words"
Song by Kaye Ballard
Released
April 1954
Recorded
1954
Genre
Jazz
Length
2:14
Label
Decca
Songwriter(s)
Bart Howard
"Fly Me to the Moon", originally titled "In Other Words", is a song written in 1954 by Bart Howard. Kaye Ballard made the first recording of the song in 1954. Since then it has become a frequently recorded jazz standard often featured in popular culture; Frank Sinatra's 1964 version was closely associated with the Apollo missions to the Moon, and the Japanese animated series Neon Genesis Evangelion played the song (as covered by various artists) at the end of every episode.
In 1999, the US-based Songwriters Hall of Fame recognized the importance of "Fly Me to the Moon" by inducting it as a "Towering Song"[1] which is an award "...presented each year to the creators of an individual song that has influenced our culture in a unique way over many years.”[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background and composition
2 Early recordings
3 "Fly Me to the Moon"
3.1 Other releases
4 In popular culture
4.1 NASA association
5 References
6 External links
Background and composition[edit]
In 1954, when writing the song which would become "Fly Me to the Moon", Bart Howard had been pursuing a career in music for more than 20 years.[3] He played piano to accompany cabaret singers but also wrote songs with Cole Porter, his idol, in mind.[4] In response to a publisher's request for a simpler song,[5] Bart Howard wrote a cabaret ballad in waltz time[6] which he titled "In Other Words". A publisher tried to make him change some lyrics from "fly me to the moon" to "take me to the moon" but Howard refused to do this.[7] Many years later Howard commented that "... it took me 20 years to find out how to write a song in 20 minutes".[7]
He used his position as a piano accompanist and presenter at the Blue Angel cabaret venue to promote the song,[5] and it was soon introduced in cabaret performances by Felicia Sanders.[4]
Early recordings[edit]
Kaye Ballard circa late 1950s
Kaye Ballard made the first commercial recording of "In Other Words".[citation needed] It was released by Decca in April 1954.[8] A brief review published on 8 May 1954 in Billboard said that "In Other Words" was "A love song sung with feeling by Miss Ballard."[9] This recording was released as the flipside of "Lazy Afternoon" which Kaye Ballard was currently performing as star of the stage show The Golden Apple.[10]
Over the next few years, jazz and cabaret singers released cover versions of "In Other Words" on EP or LP record albums, including Chris Connor, Johnny Mathis, Portia Nelson and Nancy Wilson.[citation needed] Eydie Gormé featured the song on her 1958 album Eydie In Love,[11] which reached #20 in the Cashbox Album Charts[12] and was nominated for a Grammy Award.
"Fly Me to the Moon"[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In 1960, Peggy Lee recorded the song,[citation needed] then made it more popular when she performed it in front of a large television audience on The Ed Sullivan Show.[4] As the song's popularity increased, it became better known as "Fly Me to the Moon",[13] and in 1963 Peggy Lee convinced Bart Howard to make the name change official.[7] In the early 1960s, versions of the song were released under its new name by many well-known singers, including Nat King Cole, Sarah Vaughan and Brenda Lee.[citation needed] Connie Francis released two non-English versions of the song in 1963: in Italian as "Portami Con Te"[14] and in Spanish as "Llévame a la Luna".[15]
Fly Me to the Moon Bossa Nova 1963 album by Joe Harnell
In 1962, Joe Harnell arranged and recorded an instrumental version in a bossa nova style. It was released as a single in late 1962,[citation needed] reached #14 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in early 1963[16] and won Harnell a Grammy award.[17] Harnell's version was included on his album Fly Me to the Moon and the Bossa Nova Pops[citation needed] released in early 1963 which reached #3 stereo album on the Billboard 200 chart.[18] Versions of the song were released by many other 1960s instrumental artists, including Roy Haynes, Al Hirt and Oscar Peterson.[citation needed]
Frank Sinatra included the song on his 1964 album It Might as Well Be Swing, accompanied by Count Basie.[citation needed] The music for this album was arranged by Quincy Jones, who had worked with Count Basie a year earlier on the album This Time by Basie, which also included a version of "Fly Me to the Moon".[citation needed] Will Friedwald commented that "Jones boosted the tempo and put it into an even four/four" for Basie's version, but "when Sinatra decided to address it with the Basie/Jones combination they recharged it into a straight swinger... [which]...all but explodes with energy".[6]
Other releases[edit]
Bart Howard estimated that by the time Frank Sinatra covered the song in 1964, more than 100 other versions had been recorded.[6] By 1995, it had been recorded more than 300 times.[10] A search of the website Second Hand Songs lists more than 150 versions of the song in chronological order.[19]
Other releases include those by:
Harry James on his 1981 album For Listening And Dancing (Reader's Digest RD4A 213)
Anita O'Day on her 2013 album The Complete Anita O'Day Verve Clef Sessions
In popular culture[edit]
Quincy Jones presents platinum copies of Frank Sinatra's album to Senator John Glenn and Apollo 11 Commander Neil Armstrong
"Fly Me to the Moon" has often been used or referenced in popular culture including television shows, films and video games. In 1967 an episode of I Dream of Jeannie was titled "Fly Me to the Moon".[20] In the 1978-82 series WKRP in Cincinnati, character Jennifer Marlowe's doorbell plays the song.[21] In 1998 Sesame Street featured Tony Bennett performing a parody of the song for an action sequence in which the show's character Slimey the Worm took a trip to the moon.[22] The song has been featured in film soundtracks, including the 1987 film Wall Street[23] and the 2001 films Space Cowboys and Bridget Jones's Diary.[24] Multiple modern recordings of "Fly Me to the Moon" were individually used as the end of each episode for the closing credits of the anime series Neon Genesis Evangelion, as well as the basis for several background non-vocal themes used in the TV show. The song was also used extensively in the 2009 video game Bayonetta.[25] In 2014, the song was played in the scene of the movie RoboCop where the main protagonist was waking up after being made into a cyborg. English singer Stephanie Tarling's rendition of the song was featured in Microsoft's Surface Book 2 promotion video in 2017.[26]
NASA association[edit]
Frank Sinatra's 1964 recording of "Fly Me to the Moon" became closely associated with NASA's Apollo space program. A copy of the song was played on the Apollo 10 mission which orbited the Moon.[27] It became the first music heard on the Moon when played on a portable cassette player by Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin after he stepped onto the Moon.[28] The song’s association with Apollo 11 was reprised many years later when Diana Krall sang it at the mission's 40th anniversary commemoration ceremony.[29] She also sang a “slow and solemn version” in 2012 at the national memorial service for Apollo 11 mission commander Neil Armstrong.[30]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "1999 Award and Induction Ceremony". Songwriters Hall of Fame. 1999-06-09. Archived from the original on 2013-12-07. Retrieved 2013-12-07.
Jump up ^ "Towering Song". Songwriters Hall of Fame. Retrieved 2013-12-07.
Jump up ^ "Famous Iowans - Bart Howard | The Des Moines Register | DesMoinesRegister.com". Data.desmoinesregister.com. Retrieved 2013-12-07.
^ Jump up to: a b c STEPHEN HOLDEN (2004-02-23). "Bart Howard, 88, Songwriter Known for 'Fly Me to the Moon' - New York Times". Nytimes.com. Retrieved 2013-12-07.
^ Jump up to: a b ""Fly Me to the Moon": Song History, Commentary, Discography, Performances on Video". Greatamericansongbook.net. 2004-02-23. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
^ Jump up to: a b c Will Friedwald, "Sinatra! The Song Is You: A Singer's Art", Scribner, New York, 1995, page 411
^ Jump up to: a b c Stephen Holden (December 19, 1988). "Product of 20 Minutes: A Million Dollar Song". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "Kaye Ballard - In Other Words / Lazy Afternoon - Decca - USA - 9-29114". 45cat.com. 2012-11-25. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ Billboard. Books.google.com. 1954-05-08. p. 24. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Liz Smith, Liner Notes for the CD Portia Nelson, "Let Me Love You: Portia Nelson Sings the Songs of Bart Howard", DRG 91442, 1995
Jump up ^ "ABC-Paramount Album Discography, Part 2". Bsnpubs.com. 2005-09-01. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ Carolyn Hope (2007-09-11). "Barry's Hits of All Decades Pop rock n roll Music Chart Hits". Hitsofalldecades.com. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Bart Howard: 1915-2004". Jazzhouse.org. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Connie Francis - Mala Femmena / Portami Con Te (Fly Me To The Moon) - MGM - Italy - K 2078". 45cat.com. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Connie Francis - Connie Francis Canta En Español - MGM - Spain". 45cat.com. 2015-02-15. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ Billboard. Books.google.com. 1963-02-23. p. 14. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Joe Harnell, 80; Pianist, Conductor, Composer, Arranger - Los Angeles Times". Articles.latimes.com. 1994-09-29. Retrieved 2013-12-07.
Jump up ^ "Billboard". Books.google.com. 1963-03-16. p. 78. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Cover versions of In Other Words written by Bart Howard". SecondHandSongs. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ ""I Dream of Jeannie" Series 3, Episode 1". IMDB.com. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Michael B. Kassel (1993-06-15). America's Favorite Radio Station: WKRP in Cincinnati. Books.google.com. p. 49. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ "`Sesame Street' Jumps The Gun On Its 30th-but So What? - Page 2 - tribunedigital-chicagotribune". Articles.chicagotribune.com. 1998-02-20. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Wall Street (1987), Soundtrack". IMBd.com. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "Bridget Jones's Diary (2001) Soundtracks". IMDb.com. Retrieved 4 December 2013.
Jump up ^ "SEGA Tunes: Bayonetta's Fly Me to the Moon". SEGAbits.com. 2012-03-27. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HCYCvREMcCM
Jump up ^ "Lunar Collections: April 2006". Apollotribute2.blogspot.com.au. 2006-04-13. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ Diane K. Shah (November 18, 1990). ""On Q"". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 December 2013.
Jump up ^ "NASA - NASA TV's This Week @NASA, July 24". Nasa.gov. 2009-07-24. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
Jump up ^ "Neil Armstrong remembered at public memorial". BBC News. Retrieved 2016-09-26.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
ASCAP Foundation: Bart Howard Provides A Musical Gift
"Fly Me to the Moon (In Other Words)" at MusicBrainz (information and list of recordings)
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Taxonomy (biology)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Taxonomy (disambiguation).
This article is about the field of biology. For the practice of stuffing and mounting animals, see Taxidermy.
"Scientific classification" redirects here. For other uses, see Scientific classification (disambiguation).
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Evolutionary biology
Diagrammatic representation of the divergence of modern taxonomic groups from their common ancestor
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Introduction to evolution
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Taxonomy (from Ancient Greek τάξις (taxis), meaning 'arrangement', and -νομία (-nomia), meaning 'method') is the science of defining and naming groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped together into taxa (singular: taxon) and these groups are given a taxonomic rank; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a super-group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain, kingdom, phylum (division is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum), class, order, family, genus and species. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the father of taxonomy, as he developed a system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorization of organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms.
With the advent of such fields of study as phylogenetics, cladistics, and systematics, the Linnaean system has progressed to a system of modern biological classification based on the evolutionary relationships between organisms, both living and extinct.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
1.1 Alpha and beta taxonomy
1.2 Microtaxonomy and macrotaxonomy
2 History
2.1 Pre-Linnaean
2.1.1 Early taxonomists
2.1.2 Bhagavata Purana
2.1.3 Ancient times
2.1.4 Medieval
2.1.5 Renaissance and Early Modern
2.2 The Linnaean era
3 Modern system of classification
3.1 Kingdoms and domains
3.2 Recent comprehensive classifications
4 Application
4.1 Classifying organisms
4.2 Taxonomic descriptions
4.3 Author citation
5 Phenetics
6 Databases
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Definition[edit]
The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the discipline remains: the conception, naming, and classification of groups of organisms.[1] As points of reference, recent definitions of taxonomy are presented below:
Theory and practice of grouping individuals into species, arranging species into larger groups, and giving those groups names, thus producing a classification[2]
A field of science (and major component of systematics) that encompasses description, identification, nomenclature, and classification[3]
The science of classification, in biology the arrangement of organisms into a classification[4]
"The science of classification as applied to living organisms, including study of means of formation of species, etc."[5]
"The analysis of an organism's characteristics for the purpose of classification"[6]
"Systematics studies phylogeny to provide a pattern that can be translated into the classification and names of the more inclusive field of taxonomy" (listed as a desirable but unusual definition)[7]
The varied definitions either place taxonomy as a sub-area of systematics (definition 2), invert that relationship (definition 6), or appear to consider the two terms synonymous. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy (definitions 1 and 2), or a part of systematics outside taxonomy.[8] For example, definition 6 is paired with the following definition of systematics that places nomenclature outside taxonomy:[6]
Systematics: "The study of the identification, taxonomy, and nomenclature of organisms, including the classification of living things with regard to their natural relationships and the study of variation and the evolution of taxa".
A whole set of terms including taxonomy, systematic biology, systematics, biosystematics, scientific classification, biological classification, and phylogenetics have at times had overlapping meanings – sometimes the same, sometimes slightly different, but always related and intersecting.[1][9] The broadest meaning of "taxonomy" is used here. The term itself was introduced in 1813 by de Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique.[10]
Alpha and beta taxonomy[edit]
Not to be confused with Alpha diversity.
The term "alpha taxonomy" is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species.[11] In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, and the products of research through the end of the 19th century.[12]
William Bertram Turrill introduced the term "alpha taxonomy" in a series of papers published in 1935 and 1937 in which he discussed the philosophy and possible future directions of the discipline of taxonomy.[13]
… there is an increasing desire amongst taxonomists to consider their problems from wider viewpoints, to investigate the possibilities of closer co-operation with their cytological, ecological and genetical colleagues and to acknowledge that some revision or expansion, perhaps of a drastic nature, of their aims and methods, may be desirable … Turrill (1935) has suggested that while accepting the older invaluable taxonomy, based on structure, and conveniently designated "alpha", it is possible to glimpse a far-distant taxonomy built upon as wide a basis of morphological and physiological facts as possible, and one in which "place is found for all observational and experimental data relating, even if indirectly, to the constitution, subdivision, origin, and behaviour of species and other taxonomic groups". Ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a great value of acting as permanent stimulants, and if we have some, even vague, ideal of an "omega" taxonomy we may progress a little way down the Greek alphabet. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a "beta" taxonomy.[13]
Turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy (pp. 365–366).
Later authors have used the term in a different sense, to mean the delimitation of species (not subspecies or taxa of other ranks), using whatever investigative techniques are available, and including sophisticated computational or laboratory techniques.[14][11] Thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species.[15]
An understanding of the biological meaning of variation and of the evolutionary origin of groups of related species is even more important for the second stage of taxonomic activity, the sorting of species into groups of relatives ("taxa") and their arrangement in a hierarchy of higher categories. This activity is what the term classification denotes; it is also referred to as beta taxonomy.
Microtaxonomy and macrotaxonomy[edit]
Main article: Species problem
How species should be defined in a particular group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy.[16][17][11] By extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species.[11]
History[edit]
While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, a truly scientific attempt to classify organisms did not occur until the 18th century. Earlier works were primarily descriptive and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in this scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on arbitrary criteria, the so-called "artificial systems", including Linnaeus's system of sexual classification. Later came systems based on a more complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as "natural systems", such as those of de Jussieu (1789), de Candolle (1813) and Bentham and Hooker (1862–1863). These were pre-evolutionary in thinking. The publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species (1859) led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships. This was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler (1883) and Engler (1886–1892). The advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of "phylogenetic systems" based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone.[18][19][20]
Pre-Linnaean[edit]
Early taxonomists[edit]
Naming and classifying our surroundings has probably been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate. It would always have been important to know the names of poisonous and edible plants and animals in order to communicate this information to other members of the family or group. Medicinal plant illustrations show up in Egyptian wall paintings from c. 1500 BC, indicating that the uses of different species were understood and that a basic taxonomy was in place.[21]
Bhagavata Purana[edit]
In Canto 3, chapter 10 of Bhagavata Purana 6 types of trees are recognised, by name:[22]
Vanaspatis – large trees that grow fruits without flowering
Drumas – large trees that bloom and give fruits
Osadhis – trees that die soon after they give fruits
Latas – creepers and tiny plants
Viruts – plants that grow as bushes
Tvaksaras – plants hollow inside with strong barks like bamboos
Ancient times[edit]
Further information: Aristotle's biology § Classification
Organisms were first classified by Aristotle (Greece, 384–322 BC) during his stay on the Island of Lesbos.[23][24][25] He classified beings by their parts, or in modern terms attributes, such as having live birth, having four legs, laying eggs, having blood, or being warm-bodied.[26] He divided all living things into two groups: plants and animals.[24] Some of his groups of animals, such as Anhaima (animals without blood, translated as invertebrates) and Enhaima (animals with blood, roughly the vertebrates), as well as groups like the sharks and cetaceans, are still commonly used today.[27] His student Theophrastus (Greece, 370–285 BC) carried on this tradition, mentioning some 500 plants and their uses in his Historia Plantarum. Again, several plant groups currently still recognized can be traced back to Theophrastus, such as Cornus, Crocus, and Narcissus.[24]
Medieval[edit]
Taxonomy in the Middle Ages was largely based on the Aristotelian system,[26] with additions concerning the philosophical and existential order of creatures. This included concepts such as the Great chain of being in the Western scholastic tradition,[26] again deriving ultimately from Aristotle. Aristotelian system did not classify plants or fungi, due to the lack of microscope at the time,[25] as his ideas were based on arranging the complete world in a single continuum, as per the scala naturae (the Natural Ladder).[24] This, as well, was taken into consideration in the Great chain of being.[24] Advances were made by scholars such as Procopius, Timotheos of Gaza, Demetrios Pepagomenos, and Thomas Aquinas. Medieval thinkers used abstract philosophical and logical categorizations more suited to abstract philosophy than to pragmatic taxonomy.[24]
Renaissance and Early Modern[edit]
During the Renaissance, the Age of Reason, and the Enlightenment, categorizing organisms became more prevalent,[24] and taxonomic works became ambitious enough to replace the ancient texts. This is sometimes credited to the development of sophisticated optical lenses, which allowed the morphology of organisms to be studied in much greater detail. One of the earliest authors to take advantage of this leap in technology was the Italian physician Andrea Cesalpino (1519–1603), who has been called "the first taxonomist".[28] His magnum opus De Plantis came out in 1583, and described more than 1500 plant species.[29][30] Two large plant families that he first recognized are still in use today: the Asteraceae and Brassicaceae.[31] Then in the 17th century John Ray (England, 1627–1705) wrote many important taxonomic works.[25] Arguably his greatest accomplishment was Methodus Plantarum Nova (1682),[32] in which he published details of over 18,000 plant species. At the time, his classifications were perhaps the most complex yet produced by any taxonomist, as he based his taxa on many combined characters. The next major taxonomic works were produced by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (France, 1656–1708).[33] His work from 1700, Institutiones Rei Herbariae, included more than 9000 species in 698 genera, which directly influenced Linnaeus, as it was the text he used as a young student.[21]
The Linnaean era[edit]
Main article: Linnaean taxonomy
Title page of Systema Naturae, Leiden, 1735
The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778)[26] ushered in a new era of taxonomy. With his major works Systema Naturae 1st Edition in 1735,[34] Species Plantarum in 1753,[35] and Systema Naturae 10th Edition,[36] he revolutionized modern taxonomy. His works implemented a standardized binomial naming system for animal and plant species,[37] which proved to be an elegant solution to a chaotic and disorganized taxonomic literature. He not only introduced the standard of class, order, genus, and species, but also made it possible to identify plants and animals from his book, by using the smaller parts of the flower.[37] Thus the Linnaean system was born, and is still used in essentially the same way today as it was in the 18th century.[37] Currently, plant and animal taxonomists regard Linnaeus' work as the "starting point" for valid names (at 1753 and 1758 respectively).[38] Names published before these dates are referred to as "pre-Linnaean", and not considered valid (with the exception of spiders published in Svenska Spindlar[39]). Even taxonomic names published by Linnaeus himself before these dates are considered pre-Linnaean.[21]
Modern system of classification[edit]
Main articles: Evolutionary taxonomy and Phylogenetic nomenclature
Evolution of the vertebrates at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are typical for Evolutionary taxonomy
The same relationship, expressed as a cladogram typical for cladistics
Whereas Linnaeus classified for[vague] ease of identification, the idea of the Linnaean taxonomy as translating into a sort of dendrogram of the Animal- and Plant Kingdoms was formulated toward the end of the 18th century, well before On the Origin of Species was published.[25] Among early works exploring the idea of a transmutation of species were Erasmus Darwin's 1796 Zoönomia and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's Philosophie Zoologique of 1809.[11] The idea was popularised in the Anglophone world by the speculative but widely read Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, published anonymously by Robert Chambers in 1844.[40]
With Darwin's theory, a general acceptance quickly appeared that a classification should reflect the Darwinian principle of common descent.[41] Tree of life representations became popular in scientific works, with known fossil groups incorporated. One of the first modern groups tied to fossil ancestors was birds.[42] Using the then newly discovered fossils of Archaeopteryx and Hesperornis, Thomas Henry Huxley pronounced that they had evolved from dinosaurs, a group formally named by Richard Owen in 1842.[43][44] The resulting description, that of dinosaurs "giving rise to" or being "the ancestors of" birds, is the essential hallmark of evolutionary taxonomic thinking. As more and more fossil groups were found and recognized in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, palaeontologists worked to understand the history of animals through the ages by linking together known groups.[45] With the modern evolutionary synthesis of the early 1940s, an essentially modern understanding of the evolution of the major groups was in place. As evolutionary taxonomy is based on Linnaean taxonomic ranks, the two terms are largely interchangeable in modern use.[citation needed]
The cladistic method (or cladism) has emerged since the 1960s.[41] In 1958, Julian Huxley used the term clade.[11] Later, in 1960, Cain and Harrison introduced the term cladistic.[11] The salient feature is arranging taxa in a hierarchical evolutionary tree, ignoring ranks.[41] A taxon is called monophyletic, if it includes all the descendants of an ancestral form.[46][47] Groups that have descendant groups removed from them (e.g. dinosaurs, with birds as offspring group) are termed paraphyletic,[46] while groups representing more than one branch from the tree of life are called polyphyletic.[46][47] The International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature or PhyloCode is intended to regulate the formal naming of clades.[48][49] Linnaean ranks will be optional under the PhyloCode, which is intended to coexist with the current, rank-based codes.[49]
Kingdoms and domains[edit]
The basic scheme of modern classification. Many other levels can be used; domain, the highest level within life, is both new and disputed.
Main article: Kingdom (biology)
Well before Linnaeus, plants and animals were considered separate Kingdoms.[50] Linnaeus used this as the top rank, dividing the physical world into the plant, animal and mineral kingdoms. As advances in microscopy made classification of microorganisms possible, the number of kingdoms increased, five and six-kingdom systems being the most common.
Domains are a relatively new grouping. First proposed in 1977, Carl Woese's three-domain system was not generally accepted until later.[51] One main characteristic of the three-domain method is the separation of Archaea and Bacteria, previously grouped into the single kingdom Bacteria (a kingdom also sometimes called Monera),[50] with the Eukaryota for all organisms whose cells contain a nucleus.[52] A small number of scientists include a sixth kingdom, Archaea, but do not accept the domain method.[50]
Thomas Cavalier-Smith, who has published extensively on the classification of protists, has recently proposed that the Neomura, the clade that groups together the Archaea and Eucarya, would have evolved from Bacteria, more precisely from Actinobacteria. His 2004 classification treated the archaeobacteria as part of a subkingdom of the Kingdom Bacteria, i.e. he rejected the three-domain system entirely.[53] Stefan Luketa in 2012 proposed a five "dominion" system, adding Prionobiota (acellular and without nucleic acid) and Virusobiota (acellular but with nucleic acid) to the traditional three domains.[54]
Linnaeus
1735[55]
Haeckel
1866[56]
Chatton
1925[57]
Copeland
1938[58]
Whittaker
1969[59]
Woese et al.
1990[60]
Cavalier-Smith
1998[53]
2 kingdoms 3 kingdoms 2 empires 4 kingdoms 5 kingdoms 3 domains 6 kingdoms
(not treated) Protista Prokaryota Monera Monera Bacteria Bacteria
Archaea
Eukaryota Protoctista Protista Eucarya Protozoa
Chromista
Vegetabilia Plantae Plantae Plantae Plantae
Fungi Fungi
Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia
Main article: Kingdom (biology) § Summary
Recent comprehensive classifications[edit]
Partial classifications exist for many individual groups of organisms and are revised and replaced as new information becomes available, however comprehensive treatments of most or all life are rarer; two recent examples are that of Adl et al., 2012,[61] which covers eukaryotes only with an emphasis on protists, and Ruggiero et al., 2015,[62] covering both eukaryotes and prokaryotes to the rank of Order, although both exclude fossil representatives.[62]
Application[edit]
Biological taxonomy is a sub-discipline of biology, and is generally practiced by biologists known as "taxonomists", though enthusiastic naturalists are also frequently involved in the publication of new taxa.[citation needed] Because taxonomy aims to describe and organize life, the work conducted by taxonomists is essential for the study of biodiversity and the resulting field of conservation biology.[63][64]
Classifying organisms[edit]
Main article: Taxonomic rank
Biological classification is a critical component of the taxonomic process. As a result, it informs the user as to what the relatives of the taxon are hypothesized to be. Biological classification uses taxonomic ranks, including among others (in order from most inclusive to least inclusive): Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species.[65][Note 1]
Taxonomic descriptions[edit]
See also: Species description
Type specimen for Nepenthes smilesii, a tropical pitcher plant.
The "definition" of a taxon is encapsulated by its description or its diagnosis or by both combined. There are no set rules governing the definition of taxa, but the naming and publication of new taxa is governed by sets of rules.[8] In zoology, the nomenclature for the more commonly used ranks (superfamily to subspecies), is regulated by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN Code).[66] In the fields of botany, phycology, and mycology, the naming of taxa is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN).[67]
The initial description of a taxon involves five main requirements:[68]
The taxon must be given a name based on the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet (a binomial for new species, or uninomial for other ranks).
The name must be unique (i.e. not a homonym).
The description must be based on at least one name-bearing type specimen.
It should include statements about appropriate attributes either to describe (define) the taxon or to differentiate it from other taxa (the diagnosis, ICZN Code, Article 13.1.1, ICN, Article 38). Both codes deliberately separate defining the content of a taxon (its circumscription) from defining its name.
These first four requirements must be published in a work that is obtainable in numerous identical copies, as a permanent scientific record.
However, often much more information is included, like the geographic range of the taxon, ecological notes, chemistry, behavior, etc. How researchers arrive at their taxa varies: depending on the available data, and resources, methods vary from simple quantitative or qualitative comparisons of striking features, to elaborate computer analyses of large amounts of DNA sequence data.[69]
Author citation[edit]
Main articles: Author citation (botany) and Author citation (zoology)
An "authority" may be placed after a scientific name.[70] The authority is the name of the scientist or scientists who first validly published the name.[70] For example, in 1758 Linnaeus gave the Asian elephant the scientific name Elephas maximus, so the name is sometimes written as "Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758".[71] The names of authors are frequently abbreviated: the abbreviation L., for Linnaeus, is commonly used. In botany, there is, in fact, a regulated list of standard abbreviations (see list of botanists by author abbreviation).[72] The system for assigning authorities differs slightly between botany and zoology.[8] However, it is standard that if a species' name or placement has been changed since the original description, the original authority's name is placed in parentheses.[73]
Phenetics[edit]
Main article: Phenetics
In phenetics, also known as taximetrics, or numerical taxonomy, organisms are classified based on overall similarity, regardless of their phylogeny or evolutionary relationships.[11] It results in a measure of evolutionary "distance" between taxa. Phenetic methods have become relatively rare in modern times, largely superseded by cladistic analyses, as phenetic methods do not distinguish plesiomorphic[clarification needed] from apomorphic traits.[74] However, certain phenetic methods, such as neighbor joining, have found their way into cladistics, as a reasonable approximation of phylogeny when more advanced methods (such as Bayesian inference) are too computationally expensive.[75]
Databases[edit]
Main article: Taxonomic database
Modern taxonomy uses database technologies to search and catalogue classifications and their documentation.[76] While there is no commonly used database, there are comprehensive databases such as the Catalogue of Life, which attempts to list every documented species.[77] The catalogue listed 1.64 million species for all kingdoms as of April 2016, claiming coverage of more than three quarters of the estimated species known to modern science.[78]
See also[edit]
Automated species identification
Consortium for the Barcode of Life
Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities
Genetypes
Glossary of scientific naming
Identification (biology)
Incertae sedis, or "of uncertain placement", a term used for a taxonomic group where its broader relationships are unknown or undefined
Taxonomy (general)
Type (biology)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This ranking system can be remembered by the mnemonic "Do Kings Play Chess On Fine Glass Sets?"
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Wilkins, J. S. (5 February 2011). "What is systematics and what is taxonomy?". Retrieved 21 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Judd, W. S.; Campbell, C. S.; Kellogg, E. A.; Stevens, P. F.; Donoghue, M. J. (2007). "Taxonomy". Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach (3rd ed.). Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.
Jump up ^ Simpson, Michael G. (2010). "Chapter 1 Plant Systematics: an Overview". Plant Systematics (2nd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-374380-0.
Jump up ^ Kirk, P.M., Cannon, P.F., Minter, D.W., Stalpers, J.A. eds. (2008) "Taxonomy". In Dictionary of the Fungi, 10th edition. CABI, Netherlands.
Jump up ^ Walker, P. M. B., ed. (1988). The Wordsworth Dictionary of Science and Technology. W. R. Chambers Ltd. and Cambridge University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Lawrence, E. (2005). Henderson's Dictionary Of Biology. Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780131273849.
Jump up ^ Wheeler, Quentin D. (2004). "Taxonomic triage and the poverty of phylogeny". In H. C. J. Godfray & S. Knapp. Taxonomy for the twenty–first century. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 359. pp. 571–583. doi:10.1098/rstb.2003.1452. PMC 1693342  . PMID 15253345.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Nomenclature, Names, and Taxonomy". 2005. Archived from the original on 23 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Small, Ernest (1989). "Systematics of Biological Systematics (Or, Taxonomy of Taxonomy)". Taxon. 38 (3): 335–356. doi:10.2307/1222265. JSTOR 1222265.
Jump up ^ Singh, Gurcharan (2004). Plant systematics: An integrated approach. Science Publishers. p. 20. ISBN 1578083516 – via Google Books.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Taxonomy: Meaning, Levels, Periods and Role". Biology Discussion. 27 May 2016. [unreliable source?]
Jump up ^ Rosselló-Mora, Ramon; Amann, Rudolf (1 January 2001). "The species concept for prokaryotes". FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 25 (1): 39–67. doi:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00571.x. ISSN 1574-6976. PMID 11152940.
^ Jump up to: a b Turrill, W. B. (1938). "The Expansion Of Taxonomy With Special Reference To Spermatophyta". Biological Reviews. 13 (4): 342–373. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1938.tb00522.x.
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Jump up ^ Mayr, Ernst (9 February 1968), "The Role of Systematics in Biology: The study of all aspects of the diversity of life is one of the most important concerns in biology", Science, 159 (3815): 595–599, Bibcode:1968Sci...159..595M, doi:10.1126/science.159.3815.595, PMID 4886900
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Bibliography[edit]
Stace, Clive A. (1989) [1980]. Plant taxonomy and biosystematics (2nd. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521427852. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
Datta, Subhash Chandra (1988). Systematic Botany (4 ed.). New Delhi: New Age International. ISBN 8122400132. Retrieved 25 January 2015.
Stuessy, Tod F. (2009). Plant Taxonomy: The Systematic Evaluation of Comparative Data. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-14712-0. Retrieved 6 February 2014.
External links[edit]
Look up taxonomy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Taxonomy (biology)
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Wikisource has original works on the topic: Taxonomy
What is taxonomy? at the Natural History Museum London
Taxonomy at NCBI the National Center for Biotechnology Information
Taxonomy at UniProt the Universal Protein Resource
ITIS the Integrated Taxonomic Information System
CETaF the Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities
Wikispecies free species directory
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