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Uniformitarianism
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Hutton's Unconformity at Jedburgh.
Above: John Clerk of Eldin's 1787 illustration.
Below: 2003 photograph.
Uniformitarianism, also known as the Doctrine of Uniformity,[1] is the assumption that the same natural laws and processes that operate in the universe now have always operated in the universe in the past and apply everywhere.[2][3] It refers to invariance in the principles underpinning science, such as the constancy of causality, or causation, throughout time,[4] but it has also been used to describe invariance of physical laws through time and space.[5] Though an unprovable postulate that cannot be verified using the scientific method, uniformitarianism has been a key first principle of virtually all fields of science.[6]
In geology, uniformitarianism has included the gradualistic concept that "the present is the key to the past" (that events occur at the same rate now as they have always done); many geologists now, however, no longer hold to a strict theory of gradualism.[7] Coined by William Whewell, the word was proposed in contrast to catastrophism[8] by British naturalists in the late 18th century, starting with the work of the geologist James Hutton. Hutton's work was later refined by scientist John Playfair and popularised by geologist Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology in 1830.[9] Today, Earth's history is considered to have been a slow, gradual process, punctuated by occasional natural catastrophic events.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 18th century
1.2 19th century
1.2.1 Lyell's uniformitarianism
1.2.1.1 Methodological assumptions
1.2.1.2 Substantive hypotheses
1.2.2 Systems of inorganic earth history
1.3 20th century
2 See also
3 Notes
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
18th century[edit]
Cliff at the east of Siccar Point in Berwickshire, showing the near-horizontal red sandstone layers above vertically tilted greywacke rocks.
The earlier conceptions[which?] likely[original research?] had little influence on 18th-century European geological explanations for the formation of Earth. Abraham Gottlob Werner (1749–1817) proposed Neptunism, where strata represented deposits from shrinking seas precipitated onto primordial rocks such as granite. In 1785 James Hutton proposed an opposing, self-maintaining infinite cycle based on natural history and not on the Biblical account.[10][11]
The solid parts of the present land appear in general, to have been composed of the productions of the sea, and of other materials similar to those now found upon the shores. Hence we find reason to conclude:
1st, That the land on which we rest is not simple and original, but that it is a composition, and had been formed by the operation of second causes.
2nd, That before the present land was made, there had subsisted a world composed of sea and land, in which were tides and currents, with such operations at the bottom of the sea as now take place. And,
Lastly, That while the present land was forming at the bottom of the ocean, the former land maintained plants and animals; at least the sea was then inhabited by animals, in a similar manner as it is at present.
Hence we are led to conclude, that the greater part of our land, if not the whole had been produced by operations natural to this globe; but that in order to make this land a permanent body, resisting the operations of the waters, two things had been required;
1st, The consolidation of masses formed by collections of loose or incoherent materials;
2ndly, The elevation of those consolidated masses from the bottom of the sea, the place where they were collected, to the stations in which they now remain above the level of the ocean.[12]
Hutton then sought evidence to support his idea that there must have been repeated cycles, each involving deposition on the seabed, uplift with tilting and erosion, and then moving undersea again for further layers to be deposited. At Glen Tilt in the Cairngorm mountains he found granite penetrating metamorphic schists, in a way which indicated to him that the presumed primordial rock had been molten after the strata had formed.[13][14] He had read about angular unconformities as interpreted by Neptunists, and found an unconformity at Jedburgh where layers of greywacke in the lower layers of the cliff face have been tilted almost vertically before being eroded to form a level plane, under horizontal layers of Old Red Sandstone.[15] In the spring of 1788 he took a boat trip along the Berwickshire coast with John Playfair and the geologist Sir James Hall, and found a dramatic unconformity showing the same sequence at Siccar Point.[16] Playfair later recalled that "the mind seemed to grow giddy by looking so far into the abyss of time",[17] and Hutton concluded a 1788 paper he presented at the Royal Society of Edinburgh, later rewritten as a book, with the phrase "we find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end".[18]
Both Playfair and Hall wrote their own books on the theory, and for decades robust debate continued between Hutton's supporters and the Neptunists. Georges Cuvier's paleontological work in the 1790s, which established the reality of extinction, explained this by local catastrophes, after which other fixed species repopulated the affected areas. In Britain, geologists adapted this idea into "diluvial theory" which proposed repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment, initially identifying the most recent catastrophe as the biblical flood.[19]
19th century[edit]
From 1830 to 1833 Charles Lyell's multi-volume Principles of Geology was published. The work's subtitle was "An attempt to explain the former changes of the Earth's surface by reference to causes now in operation". He drew his explanations from field studies conducted directly before he went to work on the founding geology text,[20] and developed Hutton's idea that the earth was shaped entirely by slow-moving forces still in operation today, acting over a very long period of time. The terms uniformitarianism for this idea, and catastrophism for the opposing viewpoint, were coined by William Whewell in a review of Lyell's book. Principles of Geology was the most influential geological work in the middle of the 19th century.
Lyell's uniformitarianism[edit]
According to Reijer Hooykaas (1963), Lyell's uniformitarianism is a family of four related propositions, not a single idea:[21]
Uniformity of law – the laws of nature are constant across time and space.
Uniformity of methodology – the appropriate hypotheses for explaining the geological past are those with analogy today.
Uniformity of kind – past and present causes are all of the same kind, have the same energy, and produce the same effects.
Uniformity of degree – geological circumstances have remained the same over time.
None of these connotations requires another, and they are not all equally inferred by uniformitarians.[22]
Gould explained Lyell's propositions in Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle (1987), stating that Lyell conflated two different types of propositions: a pair of methodological assumptions with a pair of substantive hypotheses. The four together make up Lyell's uniformitarianism.[23]
Methodological assumptions[edit]
The two methodological assumptions below are accepted to be true by the majority of scientists and geologists. Gould claims that these philosophical propositions must be assumed before you can proceed as a scientist doing science. "You cannot go to a rocky outcrop and observe either the constancy of nature's laws or the working of unknown processes. It works the other way around." You first assume these propositions and "then you go to the outcrop."[24]
Uniformity of law across time and space: Natural laws are constant across space and time.[25]
The axiom of uniformity of law [3][6][25] is necessary in order for scientists to extrapolate (by inductive inference) into the unobservable past.[3][25] The constancy of natural laws must be assumed in the study of the past; else we cannot meaningfully study it.[3][6][25][26]
Uniformity of process across time and space: Natural processes are constant across time and space.
Though similar to uniformity of law, this second a priori assumption, shared by the vast majority of scientists, deals with geological causes, not physico-chemical laws.[27] The past is to be explained by processes acting currently in time and space rather than inventing extra esoteric or unknown processes without good reason,[28][29] otherwise known as parsimony or Occam's razor.
Substantive hypotheses[edit]
The substantive hypotheses were controversial and, in some cases, accepted by few.[23] These hypotheses are judged true or false on empirical grounds through scientific observation and repeated experimental data. This is in contrast with the previous two philosophical assumptions[24] that come before one can do science and so cannot be tested or falsified by science.
Uniformity of rate across time and space: Change is typically slow, steady, and gradual.[24]
Uniformity of rate (or gradualism) is what most people (including geologists) think of when they hear the word "uniformitarianism," confusing this hypothesis with the entire definition. As late as 1990, Lemon, in his textbook of stratigraphy, affirmed that "The uniformitarian view of earth history held that all geologic processes proceed continuously and at a very slow pace."[30]
Gould explained Hutton's view of uniformity of rate; mountain ranges or grand canyons are built by accumulation of nearly insensible changes added up through vast time. Some major events such as floods, earthquakes, and eruptions, do occur. But these catastrophes are strictly local. They neither occurred in the past, nor shall happen in the future, at any greater frequency or extent than they display at present. In particular, the whole earth is never convulsed at once.[31]
Uniformity of state across time and space: Change is evenly distributed throughout space and time.[32]
The uniformity of state hypothesis implies that throughout the history of our earth there is no progress in any inexorable direction. The planet has almost always looked and behaved as it does now. Change is continuous, but leads nowhere. The earth is in balance: a dynamic steady state.[32]
Systems of inorganic earth history[edit]
Geoscientists support diverse systems of Earth history, the nature of which rest on on certain mixture of views about process, control, rate, and state which are preferred. Because geologists and geomorphologists tend to adopt opposite views over process, rate and state in the inorganic world, there are eight different systems of beliefs in the development of the terrestrial sphere.[33] All geoscientists stand by the principle of uniformity of law. Most, but not all, are directed by the principle of simplicity. All make definite assertions about the quality of rate and state in the inorganic realm.[34]
Methodological
assumption concernin
kind of process
Substantive claim
concerning state
Substantive claim
Concerning rate
System of Inorganic
Earth history
Promoters[35]
Same Kind of processes
that exist today
Actualism Steady State
Non-directionalism Constant Rate
Gradualism Actualistic
Non-directional
Gradualism Most of Hutton, Playfair, Lyell
Changing Rate
Catastrophism Actualistic
Non-directional
Catastrophism Hall
Changing State
Directionalism Constant Rate
Gradualism Actualistic
Directional
Gradualism Small part of Hutton, Cotta, Darwin
Changing Rate
Catastrophism Actualistic
Directional
Catastrophism Hooke, Steno, Lehmann, Pallas,
de Saussure, Werner and geognosists,
Elis de Beaumont and followers
Different Kind of processes
than exist today
Non-Actualism Steady State
Non-directionalism Constant Rate
Gradualism Non-Actualistic
Non-directional
Gradualism Carpenter
Changing Rate
Catastrophism Non-Actualistic
Non-directional
Catastrophism Bonnet, Cuvier
Changing State
Directionalism Constant Rate
Gradualism Non-Actualistic
directional
Gradualism De Mallet, Buffon
Changing Rate
Catastrophism Actualistic
Directional
Catastrophism Restoration cosmogonists,
English diluvialists,
Scriptural geologists
20th century[edit]
Stephen Jay Gould's first scientific paper, Is uniformitarianism necessary? (1965), reduced these four assumptions to two.[36] He dismissed the first principle, which asserted spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws, as no longer an issue of debate. He rejected the third (uniformity of rate) as an unjustified limitation on scientific inquiry, as it constrains past geologic rates and conditions to those of the present. So, Lyellian uniformitarianism was unnecessary.
Uniformitarianism was proposed in contrast to catastrophism, which states that the distant past "consisted of epochs of paroxysmal and catastrophic action interposed between periods of comparative tranquility"[37] Especially in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most geologists took this interpretation to mean that catastrophic events are not important in geologic time; one example of this is the debate of the formation of the Channeled Scablands due to the catastrophic Missoula glacial outburst floods. An important result of this debate and others was the re-clarification that, while the same principles operate in geologic time, catastrophic events that are infrequent on human time-scales can have important consequences in geologic history.[38] Derek Ager has noted that "geologists do not deny uniformitarianism in its true sense, that is to say, of interpreting the past by means of the processes that are seen going on at the present day, so long as we remember that the periodic catastrophe is one of those processes. Those periodic catastrophes make more showing in the stratigraphical record than we have hitherto assumed."[39]
Even Charles Lyell thought that ordinary geological processes would cause Niagara Falls to move upstream to Lake Erie within 10,000 years, leading to catastrophic flooding of a large part of North America.
Modern geologists do not apply uniformitarianism in the same way as Lyell. They question if rates of processes were uniform through time and only those values measured during the history of geology are to be accepted.[40] The present may not be a long enough key to penetrate the deep lock of the past.[41] Geologic processes may have been active at different rates in the past that humans have not observed. "By force of popularity, uniformity of rate has persisted to our present day. For more than a century, Lyell's rhetoric conflating axiom with hypotheses has descended in unmodified form. Many geologists have been stifled by the belief that proper methodology includes an a priori commitment to gradual change, and by a preference for explaining large-scale phenomena as the concatenation of innumerable tiny changes."[42]
The current consensus is that Earth's history is a slow, gradual process punctuated by occasional natural catastrophic events that have affected Earth and its inhabitants.[43] In practice it is reduced from Lyell's conflation, or blending, to simply the two philosophical assumptions. This is also known as the principle of geological actualism, which states that all past geological action was like all present geological action. The principle of actualism is the cornerstone of paleoecology.
See also[edit]
Astronomical spectroscopy
Catastrophism
Gradualism
History of geology
History of paleontology
Paradigm shift
Perfect Cosmological Principle
Physical constant
Physical Cosmology
Scientific consensus
Time-variation of fundamental constants
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ William Thompson, Lord Kelvin, "The 'Doctrine of Uniformity' in Geology Briefly Refuted," Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1865, 5:512-13
Jump up ^ Gordon, 2013: 79
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gould 1965, pp. 223–228, "The assumption of spatial and temporal invariance of natural laws is by no means unique to geology since it amounts to a warrant for inductive inference which, as Bacon showed nearly four hundred years ago, is the basic mode of reasoning in empirical science. Without assuming this spatial and temporal invariance, we have no basis for extrapolating from the known to the unknown and, therefore, no way of reaching general conclusions from a finite number of observations."
Jump up ^ Gordon, 2013: 82; "The uniformitarian principle assumes that the behavior of nature is regular and indicative of an objective causal structure in which presently operative causes may be projected into the past to explain the historical development of the physical world and projected into the future for the purposes of prediction and control. In short, it involves the process of inferring past causes from presently observable effects under the assumption that the fundamental causal regularities of the world have not changed over time."
Jump up ^ Strahler, A.N. 1987. Science and Earth History- The Evolution/Creation Controversy, Prometheus Books, Amherst, New York, USA. p. 194: “Under the updated statement of a useful principle of uniformitarianism it boils down essentially to affirmation of the validity of universal scientific laws through time and space, coupled with a rejection of supernatural causes.” p. 62: “In cosmology, the study of the structure and evolution of the universe, it is assumed that the laws of physics are similar throughout the entire universe.”
^ Jump up to: a b c Simpson 1963, pp. 24–48, "Uniformity is an unprovable postulate justified, or indeed required, on two grounds. First, nothing in our incomplete but extensive knowledge of history disagrees with it. Second, only with this postulate is a rational interpretation of history possible, and we are justified in seeking—as scientists we must seek—such a rational interpretation."
Jump up ^ FARIA, Felipe. Actualismo,Catastrofismo y Uniformitarismo. In: Pérez, María Luisa Bacarlett & Caponi, Gustavo. Pensar la vida: Filosofía, naturaleza y evolución. Toluca: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, p. 55-80, 2015.[1]
Jump up ^ "Concept of Uniformitarianism". the idea that Earth was shaped by a series of sudden, short-lived, violent events.
Jump up ^ "Uniformitarianism: World of Earth Science".
Jump up ^ Bowler 2003, pp. 57–62
Jump up ^ Hutton, J. (1785). "Abstract, The System of the Earth, Its Duration and Stability". Archived from the original on 2008-09-07. As it is not in human record, but in natural history, that we are to look for the means of ascertaining what has already been, it is here proposed to examine the appearances of the earth, in order to be informed of operations which have been transacted in time past. It is thus that, from principles of natural philosophy, we may arrive at some knowledge of order and system in the economy of this globe, and may form a rational opinion with regard to the course of nature, or to events which are in time to happen.
Jump up ^ Concerning the System of the Earth Archived 2008-09-07 at the Wayback Machine. abstract, as read by James Hutton at a meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh on 4 July 1785, printed and circulated privately.
Jump up ^ Robert Macfarlane (13 September 2003). "Glimpses into the abyss of time". The Spectator. Review of Repcheck's The Man Who Found Time. Archived from the original on 1 November 2007. Hutton possessed an instinctive ability to reverse physical processes – to read landscapes backwards, as it were. Fingering the white quartz which seamed the grey granite boulders in a Scottish glen, for instance, he understood the confrontation that had once occurred between the two types of rock, and he perceived how, under fantastic pressure, the molten quartz had forced its way into the weaknesses in the mother granite.
Jump up ^ "Scottish Geology – Glen Tilt". [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Jedburgh: Hutton's Unconformity". Jedburgh online. Archived from the original on 2009-07-29. Whilst visiting Allar's Mill on the Jed Water, Hutton was delighted to see horizontal bands of red sandstone lying 'unconformably' on top of near vertical and folded bands of rock.
Jump up ^ "Hutton's Unconformity"
Jump up ^ John Playfair (1999). "Hutton's Unconformity". Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. V, pt. III, 1805, quoted in Natural History, June 1999. Archived from the original on 2005-01-07.
Jump up ^ Keith Stewart Thomson (May–June 2001). "Vestiges of James Hutton". American Scientist online. p. 212. doi:10.1511/2001.3.212. Archived from the original on 2011-06-11. It is ironic that Hutton, the man whose prose style is usually dismissed as unreadable, should have coined one of the most memorable, and indeed lyrical, sentences in all science: "(in geology) we find no vestige of a beginning,—no prospect of an end". In those simple words, Hutton framed a concept that no one had previously contemplated, that the rocks making up the earth today have not, after all, been here since Creation.
Jump up ^ Bowler 2003, pp. 111–117
Jump up ^ Wilson, Leonard G. "Charles Lyell" Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie. Vol. VIII. Pennsylvania, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973
Jump up ^ Reijer Hooykaas, Natural Law and Divine Miracle: The Principle of Uniformity in Geology, Biology, and Theology, Leiden: EJ Brill, 1963.
Jump up ^ David Cahan, 2003, From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences, p 95 ISBN 978-0-226-08928-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Gould, Stephen J (1987). Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 118.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gould, Stephen J (1987). Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 120. ISBN 0674891996.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gould 1987, p. 119, "Making inferences about the past is wrapped up in the difference between studying the observable and the unobservable. In the observable, erroneous beliefs can be proven wrong and be inductively corrected by other observations. This is Popper's principle of falsifiability. However, past processes are not observable by their very nature. Therefore, 'the invariance of nature's laws must be assumed to come to conclusions about the past."
Jump up ^ Hutton 1795, p. 297, "If the stone, for example, which fell today, were to rise again tomorrow, there would be an end of natural philosophy [i.e., science], our principles would fail, and we would no longer investigate the rules of nature from our observations."
Jump up ^ Gould 1984, p. 11, "As such, it is another a priori methodological assumption shared by most scientists and not a statement about the empirical world."
Jump up ^ Gould 1987, p. 120,"We should try to explain the past by causes now in operation without inventing extra, fancy, or unknown causes, however plausible in logic, if available processes suffice."
Jump up ^ Hooykaas 1963, p. 38, ="Strict uniformitarianism may often be a guarantee against pseudo-scientific phantasies and loose conjectures, but it makes one easily forget that the principle of uniformity is not a law, not a rule established after comparison of facts, but a methodological principle, preceding the observation of facts . . . It is the logical principle of parsimony of causes and of economy of scientific notions. By explaining past changes by analogy with present phenomena, a limit is set to conjecture, for there is only one way in which two things are equal, but there are an infinity of ways in which they could be supposed different."
Jump up ^ Lemon, R. R. 1990. Principles of stratigraphy. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company. p. 30
Jump up ^ Gould, Stephen J (1987). Time _s Arrow, Time _s Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 120–121.
^ Jump up to: a b Gould, Stephen J (1987). Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 123.
Jump up ^ Huggett, Richard (1990). Catastophism: Systems of Earth History. London: Edward Arnold. p. 34.
Jump up ^ Huggett, Richard (1990). Catastophism: Systems of Earth History. London: Edward Arnold. p. 33.
Jump up ^ Huggett, Richard (1990). Catastophism: Systems of Earth History. London: Edward Arnold. p. 35.
Jump up ^ Gould, S. J. (1965). "Is uniformitarianism necessary?". American Journal of Science. 263: 223–228. doi:10.2475/ajs.263.3.223.
Jump up ^ William J. Whewell, Principles of Geology, Charles Leyell, vol. II, London, 1832: Quart. Rev., v. 47, p. 103-123.
Jump up ^ Allen, E. A., et al., 1986, Cataclysms on the Columbia, Timber Press, Portland, OR. ISBN 978-0-88192-067-3
"Bretz knew that the very idea of catastrophic flooding would threaten and anger the geological community. And here's why: among geologists in the 1920s, catastrophic explanations for geological events (other than volcanos or earthquakes) were considered wrong minded to the point of heresy." p. 42.
"Consider, then, what Bretz was up against. The very word 'Catastrophism' was heinous in the ears of geologists. ... It was a step backwards, a betrayal of all that geological science had fought to gain. It was heresy of the worst order." p. 44
"It was inevitable that sooner or later the geological community would rise up and attempt to defeat Bretz's 'outrageous hypothesis.'" p 49
"Nearly 50 years had passed since Bretz first proposed the idea of catastorphic flooding, and now in 1971 his arguments had become a standard of geological thinking." p. 71
Jump up ^ Ager, Derek V. (1993). The Nature of the Stratigraphical Record (3rd ed.). Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 83–84. ISBN 0-471-93808-4.
Jump up ^ Smith, Gary A; Aurora Pun (2006). How Does Earth Work: Physical geology and the Process of Science (textbook). New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall. p. 12. ISBN 0-13-034129-0.
Jump up ^ Ager, Derek V. (1993). The Nature of the Stratigraphical Record (3rd ed.). Chichester, New York, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons. p. 81. ISBN 0-471-93808-4.
Jump up ^ Gould, Stephen J (1987). Time _s Arrow, Time _s Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 174.
Jump up ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia Sixth Edition, uniformitarianism Archived 2006-06-24 at the Wayback Machine. © 2007 Columbia University Press.
References[edit]
Bowler, Peter J. (2003). Evolution: The History of an Idea (3rd ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23693-9.
Gordon, B. L. (2013). "In Defense of Uniformitarianism". Perspectives on Science & Christian Faith. 65: 79–86.
Gould, S. J. (1965). "Is uniformitarianism necessary?". American Journal of Science. 263: 223–228. doi:10.2475/ajs.263.3.223.
Gould, S. J. (1984). "Toward the vindication of punctuational change in catastrophes and earth history". In Berggren, W. A.; Van Couvering, J. A. In Catastrophes and Earth History. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 11.
Gould, Stephen J (1987). Time's Arrow, Time's Cycle: Myth and Metaphor in the Discovery of Geological Time. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 119.
Hooykaas, R. (1963). The principle of uniformity in geology, biology, and theology. London: E.J. Brill. p. 38.
Hutton, J (1795). Theory of the Earth with Proofs and Illustrations. p. 297.
Simpson, G. G. (1963). "Historical science". In Albritton, Jr., C. C. Fabric of geology. Stanford, California: Freeman, Cooper, and Company. pp. 24–48.
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Actualism
Uniformitarianism at Physical Geography
"Uniformitarianism". Physical Geography. About.
Have physical constants changed with time?
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Unfair labor practice
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
An unfair labor practice in US labor law refers to certain actions taken by employers or unions that violate the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (49 Stat. 449) 29 U.S.C. § 151–169 (also known as the NLRA and the Wagner Act after NY Senator Robert F. Wagner[1]) and other legislation. Such acts are investigated by the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB).[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition of "unfair labor practice"
2 Filing of a charge
3 Investigation and processing of the charge
4 Issuance of complaint and settlement
5 Interim injunctive relief
6 Hearing and decision
7 Review by the courts
8 Compliance
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
12 Further reading
Definition of "unfair labor practice"[edit]
The NLRB has the authority to investigate and remedy unfair labor practices, which are defined in Section 8 of the Act. In broad terms, the NLRB makes it unlawful for an employer to:
interfere with two or more employees acting in concert to protect rights provided for in the Act, whether or not a union exists
to dominate or interfere with the formation or administration of a labor organization
to discriminate against an employee from engaging in concerted or union activities or refraining from them
to discriminate against an employee for filing charges with the NLRB or taking part in any NLRB proceedings
to refuse to bargain with the union that is the lawful representative of its employees
The Act similarly bars unions from:
restraining or coercing employees in the exercise of their rights or an employer in the choice of its bargaining representative
causing an employer to discriminate against an employee
refusing to bargain with the employer of the employees it represents
engaging in certain types of secondary boycotts
requiring excessive dues
engaging in featherbedding (requiring an employer to pay for unneeded workers)
picketing for recognition for more than thirty days without petitioning for an election
entering into "hot cargo" agreements (refusing to handle goods from an anti-union employer)
striking or picketing a health care establishment without giving the required notice
Applying this general language to the real world requires, in the words of Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, "distinctions more nice than obvious". The substantive law applied by the NLRB is described elsewhere under specific headings devoted to particular topics.
Not every unfair act amounts to an unfair labor practice; as an example, failing to pay an individual worker overtime pay for hours worked in excess of forty hours in a week might be a violation of the Fair Labor Standards Act, but it is unlikely to amount to an unfair labor practice as well. Similarly, a violation of a collective bargaining agreement, standing alone, may not constitute an unfair labor practice unless the employer has not only violated the contract but repudiated all or part of it.
Filing of a charge[edit]
While the employees of the NLRB may assist individuals in filing charges, the employees of the NLRB cannot file charges on their own. Under the Act, "any person" (except an employee of the Board) may file a charge with the NLRB.
Such charges must be filed and served within six months of the events that constitute the basis of the charge. This deadline may be extended in some cases, e.g., if the party fraudulently conceals its violations of the law. Charges may also be amended if done so within six months of the alleged violation.
Investigation and processing of the charge[edit]
The General Counsel of the NLRB is responsible for investigating unfair labor practice charges and making the decision whether to issue a complaint. This job is delegated to the Regional Director of the region of the NLRB in which the charge has been filed; the Regional Director in turn assigns it to an employee of the region. It is the responsibility of the charging party to identify the witnesses who can support its charge; should it fail to do so the Regional Director will typically dismiss the charge.
The Regional Director generally seeks to reach a decision as to whether to issue a complaint or to dismiss the charge within thirty days of the filing of the charge. The Region may also ask the charging party to amend its charge to eliminate unsupported claims in an otherwise meritorious charge or to add new claims uncovered by the Region in the course of its investigation.
A party unsatisfied with the Regional Director's decision to dismiss its charge can appeal the dismissal to the office of the General Counsel. The General Counsel's decision to dismiss a charge is not subject to further appeal and cannot be challenged in court.
If the issues raised by an unfair labor practice charge could also be resolved through the grievance and arbitration procedure of the collective bargaining agreement covering these employees, then the General Counsel may defer the case to arbitration. In those cases the General Counsel does not dismiss the charge, but holds it in abeyance while the parties to the contract arbitrate their contractual dispute.
Issuance of complaint and settlement[edit]
If the Region finds merit in the charge it will file a formal complaint setting out the violations of the law allegedly committed by the respondent. While the Act requires that the original unfair labor practice be filed within six months, there is no comparable statute of limitations for issuance of a complaint. The complaint may also be amended in some circumstances to include other alleged violations of the Act not specified in an unfair labor practice charge.
The Region will usually renew its attempts to settle the matter after it has made the decision to issue complaint but before it has actually done so. It can settle unfair labor practice charges unilaterally, i.e., without the agreement of the charging party.
The Board draws a distinction between formal and informal settlements, i.e., those that call for issuance of a formal Board order and those that do not. A party unhappy with the Regional Director's settlement of its unfair labor practice charges can appeal a formal settlement to the Board itself, which must approve any formal settlement in any case, but can only appeal an informal settlement to the General Counsel.
The Board will set aside an informal settlement agreement if the employer violates the agreement or commits other violations of the Act after the agreement. The Board can, by contrast, enforce a formal settlement like any other Board order by petitioning the Court of Appeals for an order enforcing it.
The Board will also accept non-Board settlements, in which the charging party withdraws its charge in return for promises from the other side. The Board is not, however, obliged to accept the parties' settlement agreement or to allow withdrawal of the charge.
Interim injunctive relief[edit]
If the General Counsel believes that there is cause to issue complaint, then he can seek injunctive relief from a federal district court under Section 10(j) of the Act. Injunctive relief is usually ordered when necessary to preserve the status quo pending the Board's decision on the complaint or to prevent employees from suffering irreparable harm. Any injunction lapses once the NLRB issues its decision.
The General Counsel does not have to prove that the allegations in the complaint are well-founded, but only that he has some evidence, together with an arguable legal theory, to support his claims. Even so, the General Counsel rarely uses this power to seek relief while complaints are pending, other than in secondary boycott cases, in which the Act commands the General Counsel to seek injunctive relief.
Hearing and decision[edit]
If the case is not settled following issuance of a complaint, then the case will proceed to hearing before an Administrative Law Judge of the NLRB. The Regional Director has the power to issue subpoenas for use by any party prior to the hearing; the Administrative Law Judge has that power once the hearing commences. The hearing is governed by the same rules of evidence that would apply in a federal court trial.
The General Counsel functions as the prosecutor in these proceedings. Just as only the General Counsel can decide whether to issue a complaint, the General Counsel has exclusive authority to decide what charges to pursue. Interested parties may, however, intervene in these proceedings to present evidence or offer alternative theories in support of the charges that the General Counsel has alleged and to seek additional or different remedies than those that the General Counsel has proposed.
The Administrative Law Judge issues a recommended decision, which becomes final if not appealed to the NLRB. While the Administrative Law Judge's credibility determinations are ordinarily given great weight by the Board, they are not binding on it. The Board likewise is free to substitute its own view of the law for that of the Administrative Law Judge and frequently reverses its own precedents.
Review by the courts[edit]
A party that is aggrieved by a decision of the NLRB can seek review by petitioning in the Court of Appeals. The Act gives parties a good deal of latitude as to which court they want to hear their case: either the Circuit in which the hearing was held or the Circuit Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia or any Circuit in which one of the parties against whom the complaint was brought resides or does business. The NLRB, as a matter of policy, only petitions in the Circuit in which the hearing was held.
The NLRB's decisions are not self-executing: it must seek court enforcement in order to force a recalcitrant party to comply with its orders. The Court of Appeal reviews the Board's decision to determine if it is supported by substantial evidence and based on a correct view of the law.
While the courts are obligated in theory to give deference to the NLRB's interpretation of the Act, they do not always do so. The court may direct the NLRB to reconsider its decision or reverse it outright if it is convinced that the Board is in error. The court may also reverse Board actions that it considers to be an abuse of the NLRB's discretion, typically in the choice of remedies to be applied.
Any aggrieved party may also ask the Supreme Court to review a decision of the Court of Appeals. Such review by the Supreme Court is, however, discretionary and rarely granted.
Compliance[edit]
If the Court of Appeals enforces the Board's order then the case will return to the Region for it to monitor the respondent's compliance. In those cases in which the Board's order requires payment of backpay, the Region will commence compliance proceedings if it is not able to resolve all disputes over the amount of backpay. These compliance proceedings are also held before an Administrative Law Judge, based on the compliance specification filed by the Region. The same procedural rights apply in these proceedings as in the earlier proceedings on the merits of the charge.
See also[edit]
Organized labour portal
United States labor law
Boulwarism
Duty of fair representation
Surface bargaining
References[edit]
Jump up ^ See also Pub.L. 74–198, 49 Stat. 449
Jump up ^ Schlesinger Jr., Arthur M. The Age of Roosevelt: The Coming of the New Deal: 1933–1935. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1958, p. 400-406.
External links[edit]
National Labor Relations Board official website
NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD CASEHANDLING MANUAL, PART ONE, UNFAIR LABOR PRACTICE PROCEEDINGS
NLRB Casehandling Manual for Compliance Proceedings
Further reading[edit]
"How To Take A Case Before The NLRB" by the Bureau of National Affairs (Seventh Edition) ISBN 1-57018-183-7
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unfair_labor_practice&oldid=800542717"
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Arvizu
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Arvizu is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Alexander Arvizu, United States diplomat
Jorge Arvizu (1932-2014), Mexican voice actor
Manuel Arvizu (1919–2009), Mexican Bishop
Michelle Arvizu, television and film actress
Ray Arvizu (1953–2001), blues and jazz saxophonist
Reginald Arvizu (born 1969), bassist
Surname list
This page lists people with the surname Arvizu. If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name(s) to the link.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arvizu&oldid=720942201"
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I Ain't Mad at Cha
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"I Ain't Mad at Cha"
Single by 2Pac featuring Danny Boy
from the album All Eyez on Me
Released
September 15, 1996
Format
12" single, CD single
Recorded
October 1995; Can-Am Studios (Los Angeles)
Genre
Hip hop, R&B
Length
4:53
Label
Death Row, Interscope
Songwriter(s)
T. Shakur
D. Steward
D. Arnaud
E. Jordan
Producer(s)
Daz Dillinger
2Pac singles chronology
"Life Goes On"
(1996) Life Goes On1996 "I Ain't Mad at Cha"
(1996) I Ain't Mad at Cha1996 "Toss It Up"
(1996)
Music video
"I Aint Mad At Cha (Clean Version)" on YouTube
Toss It Up1996
"I Ain't Mad at Cha" is a song by rapper 2Pac released shortly after his death as the sixth single from his album All Eyez on Me. It was also his last single using the stage name 2Pac. The song features contemporary soul singer Danny Boy who provided the vocals for the song's hook. The song did well in the United Kingdom, reaching the number 13 on the UK Singles Chart and on the UK R&B Charts peaking at number 3. It was not released as a single in the United States, thus making it ineligible to chart on the Billboard singles charts (due to chart rules at the time), but reached numbers 18 and 58 in the R&B and Pop Airplay charts, respectively. It also reached number two on the New Zealand Singles Chart.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Lyrics and Message
3 Composition and recording
4 Music video
4.1 Personnel
5 Track listing
5.1 CD single
5.2 12" maxi single
5.3 Cassette single
6 Song credits
7 Charts
7.1 Weekly charts
7.2 Year-end charts
7.3 Certifications
8 In popular culture
9 References
10 External links
Background[edit]
The track was produced by Dat Nigga Daz (who now goes by Daz Dillinger) and samples the song "A Dream" by DeBarge. The song was recorded the same day 2Pac was released from prison, and was the second song he recorded when he came out ("Ambitionz Az a Ridah" being the first).[1] The single was released two days after 2Pac's death. As so, by the time this single was released, 2Pac had already finished recording his next album, The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory. It has been labeled by many one of the best songs on "All Eyez on Me"[2] and one of the greatest in 2Pac's career. The song also appeared on 2Pac's Greatest Hits album. Another song on the CD single proved to be popular among fans. "Heartz of Men" appeared on 4 of 2Pac's albums, compared to 3 for "I Ain't Mad at Cha". These include: All Eyez on Me, 2Pac Live, 2Pac's Greatest Hits, and a remixed version on Nu-Mixx Klazzics. A remix was made of Rihanna's "We Ride" to include elements of "I Ain't Mad at Cha". R&B group BLACKstreet also used the identical keyboard tune in "Don't Leave Me" off of their Another Level album. The track sampled Children of the Corn's "American Dream". On the clean version there is a new third verse that replaces the one on the album.
Lyrics and Message[edit]
The song is a reminiscence of how time has changed from when he was younger to when he became famous. He speaks of losing touch with people and how many people turned on him after his success. Yet he still maintains that he's got "nothing but love" for his old friends, with the hook repeating the line "I ain't mad at cha".
The first verse speaks about how he lost touch with his friend, who converted to Islam, and the difference in lifestyles they chose to live. The second verse speaks about 2Pac being sentenced to prison. He mentions his old girlfriend and tries to comfort his mother. In the third verse (album version), 2Pac raps about how his life has changed from being in the ghetto to being a celebrity. He talks about his connection to the hood and how his old associates think negatively of him now.
In the censored version, the third verse of the song is completely replaced with new lyrics which talk about the struggles of living, a message to God, and life after death.
Composition and recording[edit]
"I Ain't Mad at Cha" was the first song to interpolate the core melody of the song "A Dream" an album track by DeBarge, written and performed by Bunny, and taken from their 1983 album In a Special Way. This makes the instrumentals very identical. This is most apparent in the piano usage which is almost identical to the original song. The main difference is "A Dream" uses a keyboard for its notes, while "I Ain't Mad at Cha" uses more of a classical piano. Daz's main job as producer of the song was changing this piano instrument, as most other aspects of the song were the same. The tempo of the original song was also sped up, which matches with 2Pac's pace of rapping. Another minor difference is the accompanying beat uses different sounds to project the same repetition (sped up as previously noted).
The day 2Pac was released from prison, he went to the studio and recorded "I Ain't Mad at Cha" and "Ambitionz Az a Ridah".[1] When 2Pac entered the studio the beat was already complete, and 2Pac wrote the lyrics and recorded the song all in a few hours. Shortly thereafter, BLACKstreet released "Don't Leave Me" to radio, which also interpolates the melody of "A Dream". According to Dave Aron, 2Pac had a lot of energy going into the studio. Kurupt was in the studio at the time of recording and said when 2Pac heard the beat he "flipped out" from excitement.[1] He wanted to finish the song quickly and was cursing at the engineers for moving too slow.[1]
Technical info[3]
MIDI format: 1
Ticks per quarter note: 384
Tempo: Andante (Quarter Note = 84)
Key: C minor/Eb Major
Time signature: 4/4
Music video[edit]
Music video screenshots
For the video the whole song was re-recorded with a live band. Featuring horns and strings Kevyn Lewis commissioned a band featuring Cornelius Mims, Warryn Campbell, Priest, Ricky Rouse, and Darryl Crooks to replay the track. The new track was recorded at Can-am Studio by Conley Abrams, it was mixed at Larrabee North by Abrams. It was shot weeks before 2Pac's death.
The music video begins with 2Pac and a friend of his (Bokeem Woodbine) leaving a hotel party at night. While waiting for someone to arrive a hooded man comes up, pulls out a handgun, and starts shooting in their direction. As 2Pac pushes them out of the way, he gets hit by at least one bullet. In the ambulance his body gives in and he passes away. Upon entering Heaven, 2Pac is told that they have been waiting for him to come for a long time, yet he still has to earn his way in. As a spirit, he then returns to Earth to watch over and guide his friend as he struggles through the next few days. While this is going on 2Pac is shown rapping to his friend, (who can't see or hear him) trying to offer guidance. Finally, the video concludes with 2Pac's friend gaining the courage to give condolences personally to 2pac's widow and daughter.
Look-alikes of many deceased entertainers are revealed to be playing the beat in the party, featuring (among others), Redd Foxx, Jimi Hendrix, Bob Marley, Nat King Cole, Miles Davis, Sachmo, Marvin Gaye, Billie Holiday, Florence Ballard, Sammy Davis Jr., and Louis Armstrong. Danny Boy is also present in Heaven as an angel.
In the censored version, the third verse of the song is completely replaced with new lyrics which talk about the struggles of living, God, and life after death. The video ends with the words "Dedicated to Mutulu Shakur and Geronimo Pratt" appearing on the screen. These individuals are 2Pac's stepfather and godfather, respectively. The music video was voted #33 on the "MTV Top 100 of 1996" ranking music videos.[4] The concept of the video (showing 2Pac's death and him being on Earth as an angel) was used as evidence by many who believed in the 7 Day Theory that Tupac is still alive. The music video is available on the edition of Tupac: Live at the House of Blues
Personnel[edit]
Filming crew[5]
First aired: September 18, 1996
Filmed: May 1996
Production company: Been There
Director(s): Tupac Shakur & Kevin Swain
Producer(s): Taj Lewis
Photography: Patrick Loungeway (cinematographer)
Additional crew
1st assistant director: Joe Oz
Track listing[edit]
CD single[edit]
DRWCD5/854 843-2
"I Ain't Mad at Cha" - Edit
"I Ain't Mad at Cha" - LP Version
"Skandalouz"
"Heartz of Men"
12" maxi single[edit]
12 DRW5/854 843-1
"I Ain't Mad at Cha" - Edit
"I Ain't Mad at Cha" - LP Version
"Skandalouz"
"Heartz of Men"
Cassette single[edit]
DRWMC5/854 842-4
"I Ain't Mad At Cha" (Edit)
"Skandalouz"
Song credits[edit]
13. I Ain't Mad At Cha (feat. Danny Boy)
Written by: T. Shakur, D. Arnaud, E. Jordan ,Danny Boy Steward
Produced by: Dat Nigga Daz
Mixed by: DJ Quik & Carlos Warlick
Engineered by: Dave Aron
Engineered by :Rick Clifford
Assistant Engineer: Alvin McGill
Remix recorded by Conley Abrams
Remix mixed by Conley Abrams
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Charts (1996-97)
Peak
position
Australia (ARIA)[6] 47
Germany (Media Control AG)[7] 26
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[8] 15
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[9] 2
Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[10] 35
UK R&B (Official Charts Company)[11] 3
UK Singles (The Official Charts Company) 13
US Billboard Hot 100 Airplay[12] 58
US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay (Billboard)[13] 18
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1997)
Position
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[14] 23
Certifications[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
New Zealand (RMNZ)[15]
Gold 5,000*
*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
In popular culture[edit]
Rich Juzwiak of Gawker in an article expressed his disappointment in a 2014 musical about Shakur's life, the article titled, "We're Kind of Mad at Cha: The 2Pac Musical Holler If Ya Hear Me".[17]
U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder referenced the song in December 2014, when protestors interrupted him while he was giving a speech in Atlanta, Georgia at Ebenezer Baptist Church. In response, Holder stated to the protestors, "I’m not mad at cha".[18]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "News Archives, HitEmUp.com - September 2004". Hitemup.com. 2007-10-13. Archived from the original on 2007-10-13. Retrieved September 27, 2006.
Jump up ^ Huey, Steve (1996-02-13). "All Eyez on Me review". Allmusic.com. Retrieved 2012-08-07.
Jump up ^ "2Pac - I Ain't Mad At Cha' MIDI - MP3 - Karaoke - Sheet Music - Video • HamieNET.com". Hamienet.com. Retrieved September 27, 2006.
Jump up ^ "MTV Top 100 of 1996 -- Reviews #40-31". Emptyv.multimedia.cx. Retrieved September 27, 2006.
Jump up ^ "Mvdbase.com - 2 Pac - "I ain't mad at cha"". Mvdbase.com. 1996-02-13. Retrieved September 27, 2006.
Jump up ^ "Australian-charts.com – 2 Pac feat. Danny Boy – I Ain't Mad at Cha". ARIA Top 50 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Die ganze Musik im Internet: Charts, News, Neuerscheinungen, Tickets, Genres, Genresuche, Genrelexikon, Künstler-Suche, Musik-Suche, Track-Suche, Ticket-Suche". musicline.de. Retrieved 2012-02-23.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – 2 Pac feat. Danny Boy – I Ain't Mad at Cha" (in Dutch). Single Top 100.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – 2 Pac feat. Danny Boy – I Ain't Mad at Cha". Top 40 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Swedishcharts.com – 2 Pac feat. Danny Boy – I Ain't Mad at Cha". Singles Top 100.
Jump up ^ http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/r-and-b-singles-chart/19961124/114/
Jump up ^ "2Pac Album & Song Chart History ". Billboard Hot 100 Airplay. Prometheus Global Media.
Jump up ^ "2Pac Album & Song Chart History ". Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay. Prometheus Global Media.
Jump up ^ "End of Year Charts 1997". Recorded Music NZ. Retrieved December 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ THE FIELD id (chart number) MUST BE PROVIDED for NEW ZEALAND CERTIFICATION.
Jump up ^ http://nztop40.co.nz/chart/singles?chart=3767
Jump up ^ Juzwiak, Rich (June 25, 2014). "We're Kind of Mad at Cha: The 2Pac Musical Holler If Ya Hear Me". Gawker. Archived from the original on July 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Holder Spits Tupac At Protester, 'I Ain't Mad At Cha' [VIDEO]". News One. December 2, 2014.
External links[edit]
Music video at MTV.com
[hide]
v
t
e
Tupac Shakur
Studio albums
2Pacalypse Now
Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z...
Thug Life: Volume 1
Me Against the World
All Eyez on Me
The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory
Posthumous albums
R U Still Down? (Remember Me)
Still I Rise
Until the End of Time
Better Dayz
Loyal to the Game
Pac's Life
Live albums
2Pac Live
Live at the House of Blues
Compilation albums
Greatest Hits
The Rose That Grew from Concrete
The Prophet: The Best of the Works
Nu-Mixx Klazzics
Tupac: Resurrection
The Rose, Vol. 2
The Prophet Returns
Beginnings: The Lost Tapes 1988–1991
Nu-Mixx Klazzics Vol. 2
Best of 2Pac
Related albums
Nothing but Trouble (soundtrack)
Sons of the P
Juice (soundtrack)
Poetic Justice (soundtrack)
Above the Rim (soundtrack)
Gridlock'd (soundtrack)
Gang Related (soundtrack)
A 2Pac Tribute: Dare 2 Struggle
Extended plays
Makaveli & Dillinger Don't Go 2 Sleep
Singles
"Brenda's Got a Baby"
"If My Homie Calls"
"Trapped"
"Holler If Ya Hear Me"
"I Get Around"
"Keep Ya Head Up"
"Papa'z Song"
"Cradle to the Grave"
"Dear Mama"
"So Many Tears"
"Temptations"
"California Love"
"2 of Amerikaz Most Wanted"
"How Do U Want It"
"All Bout U"
"I Ain't Mad at Cha"
"Life Goes On"
"Toss It Up"
"To Live & Die in LA"
"Hail Mary"
"Wanted Dead or Alive"
"Made Niggaz"
Posthumous singles
"I Wonder If Heaven Got a Ghetto"
"Do for Love"
"Changes"
"Unconditional Love"
"Baby Don't Cry (Keep Ya Head Up II)"
"Who Do U Believe In"
"Until the End of Time"
"Letter 2 My Unborn"
"Thugz Mansion"
"Still Ballin'"
"Runnin' (Dying to Live)"
"One Day at a Time (Em's Version)"
"Thugs Get Lonely Too"
"Ghetto Gospel"
"Untouchable"
"Pac's Life"
"Playa Cardz Right"
Other songs
"I Don't Give a Fuck"
"Runnin' (From tha Police)"
"Hit 'Em Up"
"Are U Still Down"
"Panther Power"
Featured singles
"Smile"
"Playa Cardz Right"
Books
The Rose That Grew from Concrete
Stage
Holler If Ya Hear Me
Filmography
Nothing but Trouble
Juice
Poetic Justice
Above the Rim
Bullet
Gridlock'd
Gang Related
Documentaries
Biggie & Tupac
Tupac: Resurrection
Tupac: Assassination
Outlawz
Yaki Kadafi
Kastro
Napoleon
E.D.I. Mean
Hussein Fatal
Mussolini
Komani
Young Noble
Related articles
Discography
List of songs
Outlawz
Digital Underground
Afeni Shakur
Assata Shakur
Mopreme Shakur
Mutulu Shakur
East Coast-West Coast hip hop rivalry
Makaveli Branded Clothing
Niccolò Machiavelli
Orlando Anderson
Tupac Amaru Shakur Center for the Arts
Billy Garland
Kadafi
List of awards and nominations received by Tupac Shakur
Murder of Tupac Shakur
All Eyez on Me
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Categories:
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