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Phi Beta Kappa
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The Phi Beta Kappa Society
ΦΒΚ
Founded
December 5, 1776; 241 years ago (1776-12-05)
The College of William and Mary
Type
Honor Society
Emphasis
Liberal arts and sciences
Mission statement
To celebrate and advocate excellence in the liberal arts and sciences.
Motto
Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης
Love of learning is the guide of life
Colors
Pink and Sky blue
Publication
The American Scholar
Chapters
286
Members
500,000+ collegiate
Factoid
The first collegiate Greek-letter fraternity and the oldest honor society for the liberal arts and sciences.
Headquarters
1606 New Hampshire Ave. NW
Washington, D.C.
U.S.
Website
pbk.org
The Phi Beta Kappa Society (ΦΒΚ) is the oldest honor society for the liberal arts and sciences in the United States. It is widely recognized as the most prestigious honor society in the nation.[1] Phi Beta Kappa aims to promote and advocate excellence in the liberal arts and sciences and to induct the most outstanding students of arts and sciences at American colleges and universities.[1] It was founded at The College of William and Mary on December 5, 1776 as the first collegiate Greek-letter fraternity and was among the earliest collegiate fraternal societies.[2]
Phi Beta Kappa (ΦΒΚ) stands for Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης (Philosophia Biou Kybernētēs), which means "Love of wisdom is the guide of life" or "Philosophy is the governor of one's life."
Contents
[hide]
1 Membership
2 History
3 Key
4 Activities and publications
5 Chapters
6 Notable members
7 Awards
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Membership[edit]
According to Phi Beta Kappa, they have chapters in about 10% of American higher learning institutions, and about 10% of these schools' Arts and Sciences graduates are invited to join the society.[3] Although most students are elected in their senior year, many colleges elect a very limited number of extremely select students in their junior year, generally less than 2% of the class.[4][5][6][7][8][9][10] Each chapter sets its own academic standards, but all inductees must have studied the liberal arts and sciences, demonstrated "good moral character", and, usually, earned grades placing them in the top tenth of their class.[11][12] There is a mandatory initiation fee (between US$50 and US$90, as of 2005), which is sometimes covered by the inductee's university.[12]
Membership in Phi Beta Kappa is limited to undergraduates with very high GPAs, typically at least 3.8 or 3.9 out of a 4.0 scale. The cutoff was considerably lower before 2001, especially at Ivy League institutions, which routinely inducted large portions of their classes into the fraternity. In 2001, a quorum of PBT alumni voted to raise the GPA cutoff: though all chapters set their own standards for induction, they were now instructed to be much more selective in terms of GPA. The higher cutoff was justified in reference to the historical phenomenon of grade inflation since the 1950s and 1960s.[citation needed]
History[edit]
Present day Phi Beta Kappa Memorial Hall entrance at The College of William & Mary.
The Phi Beta Kappa Society was founded on December 5, 1776 at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia by five students, with John Heath as its first President. The society established the precedent for naming American college societies after the initial letters of a secret Greek motto.[13][14]
The group consisted of students who frequented the Raleigh Tavern as a common meeting area off the college campus (a persistent story maintains that a Masonic lodge also met at this tavern, but the Freemasons actually gathered at a different building in Williamsburg;[15] ten of the original members later did become Freemasons).[16]:5 Whether the students organized to meet more freely and discuss non-academic topics, or to discuss politics in a Revolutionary society is unknown; the earliest records indicate only that the students met to debate and engage in oratory, and on topics that would have been not far removed from the curriculum.[16]:83–85[17] In the Phi Beta Kappa Initiation of 1779, the new member was informed, "here then you may for a while disengage yourself from scholastic cares and communicate without reserve whatever reflections you have made upon various objects; remembering that every thing transacted within this room is transacted sub rosa, ...here, too, you are to indulge in matters of speculation that freedom of enquiry which ever dispels the clouds of falsehood by the radiant sunshine of truth...".[16]:5
There had been an earlier fraternal society established at William & Mary, the well-known F.H.C. Society (nicknamed "the Flat Hat Club"), which was founded in 1750. The F.H.C Society is the first recorded collegiate secret Society in North America, but unlike Phi Beta Kappa, it was a Latin-letter society. Its name was taken from letters of a secret Latin motto with acronym F.H.C. William & Mary alumnus and third U.S. President Thomas Jefferson was perhaps the most famous member of the F.H.C.;[18] other notable members of the original Society included Col. James Innes, St. George Tucker, and George Wythe.[19] Jefferson noted that "When I was a student of Wm. & Mary college of this state, there existed a society called the F.H.C. society, confined to the number of six students only, of which I was a member, but it had no useful object, nor do I know whether it now exists."[16]:5
A second Latin-letter fraternity at William & Mary was the P.D.A. Society (publicly known as "Please Don't Ask").[20] John Heath, chief organizer of Phi Beta Kappa, according to tradition earlier sought but was refused admission to the P.D.A., though he may instead have disdained to join it (Heath's friend and fellow student William Short later wrote that the P.D.A. "had lost all reputation for letters, and was noted only for the dissipation & conviviality of its members"[16]:84).
The new society was intended to be "purely of domestic manufacture, without any connexion whatever with anything European, either English or German."[16]:84 The founders of Phi Beta Kappa declared that the society was formed for congeniality and to promote good fellowship, with "friendship as its basis and benevolence and literature as its pillars."[16]
Like the older, Latin-letter fraternities, the Phi Beta Kappa was a secret society. To protect its members and to instill a sense of solidarity, each had the essential attributes of most modern fraternities: an oath of secrecy, a badge (or token) and a diploma (or certificate) of membership, mottoes (in the case of the Phi Beta Kappa, in Greek rather than in Latin), a ritual of initiation, a handclasp of recognition; to these, the Phi Beta Kappa would soon add another attribute, branches or "chapters" at other colleges. The new society was given the motto, Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης or in Latin letters Philosophia Biou Kybernētēs, which means in English The Love for Knowledge be the Guide of Life. Greek was chosen, because Greek was in Roman times the language of science like Latin in medieval times.
The Phi Beta Kappa Society National Headquarters located in the historic Dupont Circle neighborhood of Washington, D.C.
One official historian of the society, William T. Hastings, and some others believe that the "S" and "P" on the badge, which stood for Societas Philosophiae, "Philosophical Society", was the original name of the Society and that "Phi Beta Kappa" came only over time to be taken as the name of the society. The heading on the original list of members states, "A List of the members, who have been initiated into the S.P. alias Phi Beta Kappa Society."[16]:5
Later, in May 1777, a new sign of recognition was devised: "a salutation of the clasp of the hands, together with an immediate stroke across the mouth with the back of the same hand, and a return with the hand used by the saluted". This new complex of gestures was created to allow the mutual recognition of members "in any foreign country or place."[16]:10
Before the British invasion of Virginia forced the temporary closure of the College of William and Mary and disbandment of the Phi Beta Kappa there early in 1781, Elisha Parmelee, an alumnus of Yale College and Harvard College, passed through Williamsburg and took charters from the Phi Beta Kappa to establish branches of the society at these schools. A second chapter was founded at Yale College in late 1780; a third, at Harvard College in 1781; and a fourth, at Dartmouth College in 1787. From these new chapters, the Phi Beta Kappa evolved from a fraternity with principally academic and some social purposes to an entirely honorary organization recognizing scholastic achievement. While the Phi Beta Kappa developed some of the characteristics which still distinguish Greek-letter fraternities, it was left to other students to fill the natural human need for fellowship with kindred students by extension of fraternity to a purely social context.
Further chapters appeared at Union College in 1817, Bowdoin College in 1825, and Brown University in 1830. The original chapter at William & Mary was re-established. In 1831, the Harvard chapter publicly disclosed the fraternity's secrets during a period of strong anti-Masonic sentiment. The first chapter established after the Phi Beta Kappa became an "open" society was that at Trinity College (Connecticut), in 1845.
In the pre-Civil War period Society chapters frequently sponsored addresses by distinguished speakers. Ralph Waldo Emerson's 1837 address at Harvard, "The American Scholar" is the best-known of those addresses, but there were dozens of others at schools such as Bowdoin, Brown, Harvard, Union, and Yale.[21]
As the first collegiate organization of its type to adopt a Greek-letter name, the Phi Beta Kappa is generally considered a forerunner of modern college fraternities as well as the model for later collegiate honorary societies. Ironically, it was partly the rise of true "social" fraternities modelled after Phi Beta Kappa later in the nineteenth century which obviated the social aspects of membership in the organization, transforming it into the honorary society it is today.
By 1883, when the United Chapters of Phi Beta Kappa was established, there were 25 chapters. The first women were elected to the society at the University of Vermont in 1875, and the first African-American member was elected at the same institution two years later. In 1885, however, Phi Beta Kappa eliminated those majoring in engineering from eligibility. This practice continues today.
Each chapter is designated by its state and a Greek letter indicating its position in the order in which that state's chapters were founded. For example, Alpha of Pennsylvania refers to the chapter at Dickinson College, founded in 1887; Beta of Pennsylvania, the chapter at Lehigh University (founded later that same year); Gamma of Pennsylvania, the chapter at Lafayette College (1890); and Delta of Pennsylvania, the chapter at the University of Pennsylvania (1892).
By 1920, a total of 89 chapters existed at a variety of schools. New chapters are continually added; as of 2007 there were 276.[22] In 1988, the United Chapters of Phi Beta Kappa officially changed its name to The Phi Beta Kappa Society, recalling the name under which the organization had been established in 1776.[citation needed]
Key[edit]
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The symbol of the Phi Beta Kappa Society is a golden key engraved on the obverse with the image of a pointing finger, three stars, and the Greek letters from which the society takes its name. The stars are said today to show the ambition of young pupils and the three distinguishing principles of the Society: friendship, morality, and learning. On the reverse are found the initials "SP" in script, which stand for the Latin words Societas Philosophiae, or "Philosophical Society".
The "key" of Phi Beta Kappa did not begin as a copy of a watchkey. The first insignia was in fact a larger, cut-and-engraved silver medallion, essentially a square of metal with a loop cut integrally with the body of the square from the same sheet of silver, in order to allow for suspension from one or two ribbons worn around the member's neck in the manner in which the older fraternities (and the Freemasonic bodies on which the collegiate societies were in part patterned) wore their own insignia.[20] Later, the size of the medallion was reduced and men took to wearing the insignia on their watch chains as fobs. The post or stem, designed for the winding of pocket-watches, did not appear on fobs until the beginning of the 19th century. The fobs were not even gold at first; the earliest extant 18th-century models were made of silver or pewter, and again it was not until the first quarter of the 19th century that gold largely supplanted the use of silver or pewter. Some notable exceptions did occur, as at Harvard, which until the first decade of the twentieth century continued the use of silver or pewter for some of its keys.
Though several stylistic details have survived since the earliest days—the use of the stars, pointing hand, and Greek letters on the obverse, for example—notable differences exist between older keys and current examples. The name of the recipient was not engraved on the earliest fobs or keys, and was not until the first decade of the nineteenth century. The name of the school from which the fob or key came was also not routinely included on the earliest models, and sometimes the only way to trace a key to a particular school's chapter is by researching the name of the recipient against surviving class records. The number of stars on the obverse has also changed over the years, with never fewer than three, but on some known examples with as many as a dozen (the explanation as to the meaning of the stars in these early cases varies from chapter to chapter). Also, the date of the awarding of the honor is only seen on keys from the second quarter of the nineteenth century onward (some people mistake the date that appears on the fob or key—December 5, 1776—as the date that a particular fob or key was awarded, when in fact it is merely the date of the founding of the society). Only in 1912 was the key made to a uniform standard of size, golden appearance (some are plated), and engraving with the school's name, recipient's name, and date of the award.
Activities and publications[edit]
The Phi Beta Kappa Society publishes The Key Reporter,[23] a newsletter distributed quarterly to all contributing members and biannually to all other members, and The American Scholar, a quarterly subscription-based journal that accepts essays on literature, history, science, public affairs, and culture.[24]
Phi Beta Kappa also funds a number of awards, fellowships, and programs.
The Phi Beta Kappa Book Awards are the Ralph Waldo Emerson Award, the Christian Gauss Award, and the Phi Beta Kappa Award in Science.[25] The Book Awards are given annually to outstanding scholarly books published in the United States. Winning works, which are drawn from the fields of the humanities, the social sciences, the natural sciences and mathematics, must be of broad interest and accessible to the general reader. Each award carries a $10,000 prize. The winners were selected from five short listed titles in each category.[26]
The Mary Isabel Sibley Fellowship is awarded annually, alternating in the fields of Greek and French. The award may be used for the study of Greek language, literature, history, or archaeology, or the study of French language or literature. Established in 1934 by Isabelle Stone (ΦΒΚ, Wellesley College) in honor of her mother, Mary Isabel Sibley, the fellowship was designed to reward the women in these two fields of study with the experience of studying and living abroad, which Miss Stone did in Greece during her studies. The fellowship carries a stipend of $20,000.[27]
The Walter J. Jensen Fellowship for French Language, Literature, and Culture aims to help educators and researchers improve education in standard French language, literature and culture and in the study of standard French in the United States. Established in 2001 by Professor Walter J. Jensen (ΦΒΚ, UCLA), the fellowship is awarded for at least six continuous months of study in France and carries a stipend originally set in 1995 at $10,000, to be adjusted for inflation. The stipend for 2016 was $15,500.[28]
The Dr. Martin R. Lebowitz and Eve Lewellis Lebowitz Prize for Philosophical Achievement and Contribution is awarded by the Phi Beta Kappa Society in conjunction with the American Philosophical Association. The associated Lebowitz Symposium is presented annually at a divisional meeting of the American Philosophical Association. The prize was established in 2013 by Eve Lewellis Lebowitz in honor of her late husband, Martin R. Lebowitz, to provide a significant, tangible recognition for excellence in philosophical thought. The Symposium program consists of a pair of lectures to be delivered at an annual APA division meeting and a Phi Beta Kappa event. The topic of the lectures should be an important philosophical issue of current interest, and the lectures should offer contrasting (not necessarily opposing) views on that topic. Honoraria for the symposiasts are funded at an adjusted rate based on the current size of the endowment. Previous winners have won as much as $25,000 each.[29]
The Romanell-Phi Beta Kappa Professorship is awarded annually to scholars in the field of philosophy, without restriction to any one school of philosophical thought. The professorship recognizes not only distinguished achievement but also the recipient’s contribution or potential contribution to public understanding of philosophy.[30]
Since 1956, the Phi Beta Kappa Visiting Scholar Program has offered undergraduates the opportunity to spend time with some of America's most distinguished scholars. The purpose of the program is to contribute to the intellectual life of the campus by making possible an exchange of ideas between the Visiting Scholars and the resident faculty and students.[31]
Phi Beta Kappa also sponsors a National Arts & Sciences Initiative, which taps into its cross-country network of members, chapters, and associations to connect with leaders, shares the value of the arts and sciences through all of life, and advocates for policies that strengthen an arts and sciences education.[32]
Chapters[edit]
Phi Beta Kappa has 284 chapters. Chapters are approved at the Triennial Conventions.
Main article: List of Phi Beta Kappa chapters
Notable members[edit]
Since inception, 17 U.S. Presidents, 40 U.S. Supreme Court Justices,[33] and 136 Nobel Laureates have been inducted members.[34]
Main article: List of Phi Beta Kappa members by year of admission
Awards[edit]
In 2008, the Phi Beta Kappa Society was awarded the Arts and Sciences Advocacy Award from the Council of Colleges of Arts and Sciences (CCAS). CCAS bestows this award upon an individual or organization demonstrating exemplary advocacy for the arts and sciences, flowing from a deep commitment to the intrinsic worth of liberal arts education.[35]
See also[edit]
Phi Beta Kappa Award in Science
Phi Kappa Phi
Phi Theta Kappa
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-11-06. Retrieved 2015-03-17. Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "collegeapps.about.com" defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
Jump up ^ Warren, John (2000). "Historical Information". Association of College Honor Societies. Retrieved 2009-03-10.
Jump up ^ "About Us". Phi Beta Kappa. Retrieved 22 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "Columbia University".
Jump up ^ "Wellesley".
Jump up ^ "Stanford".
Jump up ^ "University of Pennsylvania".
Jump up ^ "Harvard". Archived from the original on 2012-03-17.
Jump up ^ "Santa Clara".
Jump up ^ "U.C. Riverside".
Jump up ^ "Stipulations Concerning Eligibility for Membership in Course". Phi Beta Kappa Society. Archived from the original on 2015-01-29.
^ Jump up to: a b Nancy Keates (4 Nov 2005). "Phi Beta What?". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 7 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Bernstein, Emily M. (1996-05-26). "Phi Beta Kappa Key Being Turned Down By Many Honorees". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-06-22.
Jump up ^ Society, Phi Beta Kappa. "PBK_History". www.pbk.org. Retrieved 2017-06-22.
Jump up ^ Brinkley, M. Kent Brinkley (March 1, 1999). "Freemasonry in Williamsburge: An Overview History of Williamsburg Lodge #6, A.F.& A.M. of Virginia". Williamsburg, Virginia: Acacia Lodge No. 16 A.F.&A.M. Archived from the original on July 23, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Hastings, William T. (1965). Phi Beta Kappa as a Secret Society with its Relations to Freemasonry and Antimasonry Some Supplementary Documents. Richmond, Virginia: United Chapters of Phi Beta Kappa.
Jump up ^ Fleming, Bill (May 6, 1996). "Phi Beta Kappa". Brief History of Fraternities. Sam Houston State University. Retrieved October 26, 2015.
Jump up ^ Millfield, Becca (November 2, 2004). "Shhh! The Secret Side to the College's Lesser Known Societies". The DoG Street Journal. The College of William & Mary's daily online. Archived from the original on September 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ "F.H.C. Society," University Archives Subject File Collection Archived January 15, 2009, at the Wayback Machine., Special Collections Research Center, Earl Gregg Swem Library, College of William and Mary.
^ Jump up to: a b Robert W. Storm, "In Token of Friendship: Early Fraternity Medals at the College of William and Mary"; 1973; typescript in university archives, Earl Gregg Swem Library, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia.
Jump up ^ Alfred L. Brophy, The Rule of Law in College Literary Addresses: The Case of William Greene, Cumberland Law Review Archived March 29, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. (2001) 32: 231–85.
Jump up ^ "About Chapters". The Phi Beta Kappa Society. Archived from the original on 2007-08-08. Retrieved 2013-11-26.
Jump up ^ "The Key Reporter - Welcome!". www.keyreporter.org.
Jump up ^ "Phi Beta Kappa". Stanford University. Stanford. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Book Awards". The Phi Beta Kappa Society. The PBK Society. Retrieved 15 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Society, Phi Beta Kappa. "Book Awards 2016 Winners". www.pbk.org.
Jump up ^ Society, Phi Beta Kappa. "Sibley Fellowship". www.pbk.org.
Jump up ^ Society, Phi Beta Kappa. "Jensen Fellowship". www.pbk.org.
Jump up ^ Society, Phi Beta Kappa. "The Lebowitz Prizes". www.pbk.org.
Jump up ^ Society, Phi Beta Kappa. "Romanell Professorship". www.pbk.org.
Jump up ^ Society, Phi Beta Kappa. "Visiting Scholars". www.pbk.org.
Jump up ^ Society, Phi Beta Kappa. "National Arts and Sciences Initiative". www.pbk.org.
Jump up ^ Society, Phi Beta Kappa. "About ΦΒΚ". www.pbk.org.
Jump up ^ Phi Beta Kappa Society :: Phi Beta Kappa Society Archived January 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.. Pbk.org (2012-10-05). Retrieved on 2013-08-27.
Jump up ^ "Arts & Sciences Advocacy Award – Council of Colleges of Arts and Sciences". www.ccas.net. Retrieved 2016-05-02.
External links[edit]
Official website
Phi Beta Kappa on Facebook
Phi Beta Kappa on Twitter
Texts on Wikisource:
Ralph Waldo Emerson, The American Scholar, Phi Beta Kappa oration, delivered 1837
William Raimond Baird, “Phi Beta Kappa,” Baird's Manual of American College Fraternities, 1879
Carl Schurz, Phi Beta Kappa Oration at Harvard, 1882
"Phi Beta Kappa". The New Student's Reference Work. 1914.
Coordinates: 38°54′41″N 77°02′31″W / 38.911454°N 77.042083°W / 38.911454; -77.042083
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Colonies in antiquity
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The Mediterranean in ca. the 6th century BC-Phoenician cities are labelled in yellow, Greek cities in red, and other cities in grey.
Colonies in antiquity were city-states founded from a mother-city (its "metropolis"),[1] not from a territory-at-large. Bonds between a colony and its metropolis remained often close, and took specific forms.[2] However, unlike in the period of European colonialism during the early and late modern era, ancient colonies were usually sovereign and self-governing from their inception.
Contents
[hide]
1 Egyptian colony
2 Phoenician colonies
3 Greek colonies
3.1 Relations of colony and metropolis
4 Roman colonies
5 See also
6 Notes
7 Further reading
8 External links
Egyptian colony[edit]
An Egyptian colony that was stationed in southern Canaan dates to slightly before the First Dynasty.[3] Narmer had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt,[4] from regions such as Arad, En Besor, Rafiah, and Tel ʿErani.[4] Shipbuilding was known to the ancient Egyptians as early as 3000 BC, and perhaps earlier. The Archaeological Institute of America reports[5] that the earliest dated ship — dating to 3000 BC[6] – may have possibly belonged to Pharaoh Aha.[6]
Egypt at its height controlled Crete across the Mediterranean Sea.
Phoenician colonies[edit]
See also: Phoenicia § Important_cities_and_colonies
The Phoenicians were the major trading power in the Mediterranean in the early part of the first millennium BC. They had trading contacts in Egypt and Greece, and established colonies as far west as modern Spain, at Gadir (modern Cádiz).
From Gadir the Phoenicians controlled access to the Atlantic Ocean and the trade routes to Britain. The most famous and successful of Phoenician colonies was founded by settlers from Tyre in 814–813 BC and called Kart-Hadasht (Qart-ḥadašt,[7] literally "New Town",[8] known to history as Carthage. The Carthaginians later founded their own colony in the southeast of Spain, Carthago Nova, which was eventually conquered by their enemy, Rome.
According to María Eugenia Aubet, Professor of Archaeology at the Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona: "The earliest presence of Phoenician material in the West is documented within the precinct of the ancient city of Huelva, Spain... The high proportion of Phoenician pottery among the new material found in 1997 in the Plaza de las Monjas in Huelva argues in favor of a regular presence of Phoenician people from the start of the 9th century BC. The recent radiocarbon dates from the earliest levels in Carthage situate the founding of this Tyrian colony in the years 835–800 cal BC, which coincides with the dates handed down by Flavius Josephus and Timeus for the founding of the city." [9]
Greek colonies[edit]
Main articles: First Greek colonisation and Second Greek colonisation
See also: Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul, Emporion, Magna Graecia, Greeks in pre-Roman Crimea, and Pontic Greeks
Map of Phoenician (red) and Greek colonies (blue) at about 550 BC
Ruins of a peristyle home from the Greek period of Empúries, Catalonia, Spain
In Ancient Greece, colonies were sometimes founded by vanquished people, who left their homes to escape subjection at the hand of a foreign enemy; sometimes as a sequel to civil disorders, when the losers in internecine battles left to form a new city elsewhere; sometimes to get rid of surplus population, and thereby to avoid internal convulsions; and sometimes as a result of ostracism. But in most cases the motivation was to establish and facilitate relations of trade with foreign countries and further the wealth of the mother-city (in Greek metropolis). Colonies were established in Ionia and Thrace as early as the 8th century BC.[10]
More than thirty Greek city-states had multiple colonies around the Mediterranean world, with the most active being Miletus, of the Ionian League, with ninety colonies stretching throughout the Mediterranean Sea, from the shores of the Black Sea and Anatolia (modern Turkey) in the east, to the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula in the west, as well as several colonies on the Libyan coast of northern Africa,[11] from the late 9th to the 5th centuries BC.
There were two similar types of colony, one known as an ἀποικία - apoikia (pl.: ἀποικίαι, apoikiai) and the other as an ἐμπόριov - emporion (pl.: ἐμπόρια, emporia). The first type of colony was a city-state on its own; the second was a Greek trading-colony.
The Greek city-states began establishing colonies around 900[12] - 800 BC, at first at Al Mina on the coast of Syria and the Greek emporium Pithekoussai at Ischia in the Bay of Naples, both established about 800 BC by Euboeans.[13]
Ancient Greek colonies of the Black Sea, 8th-3rd century BC
Two waves of new colonists set out from Greece at the transition between the "Dark Ages" and the start of the Archaic Period, one in the early 8th century BC and a second burst of the colonizing spirit in the 6th century. Population growth and cramped spaces at home seem an insufficient explanation, while the economical and political dynamics produced by the competitive spirit between the frequently kingless, newly introduced concept of the Greek city-states, striving to expand their sphere of economical influence better fits as their true incentive. Through this Greek expansion the use of coins flourished throughout the Mediterranean Basin.
Influential Greek colonies in the western Mediterranean – many of them in today's Italy — included Cyme, Rhegium (Rhegion) by Chalcis and Zankle (c. 8th century), Syracuse by Corinth/Tenea (c. 734 BC), Naxos by Chalcis (c. 734 BC), Massalia (the later Marseille, France, c. 598 BC) and Agathe (shortly after Massalia) by Phokaia, Elea (Italy) and Emporion (nowadays Spain) by Phokaia/Massalia (c. 540 BC and early 6th century), Antipolis (nowadays France) by Achaea, Alalia (Corsica) by Phokaia/Massalia (c. 545 BC) and Cyrene (Cyrenaica, nowadays Libya) by Thera (762/61 and 632/31 BC).[14]
The Greeks also colonised modern-day Crimea on the Black Sea. Among the settlements they established there was the city of Chersonesos, at the site of modern-day Sevastopol.[15] Another area with significant Greek colonies was the coast of ancient Illyria on the Adriatic Sea (e.g. the ancient "Aspalathos", modern day Split, Croatia).
The Iberian peninsula in 300 BC. Phoenician cities in blue, Greek cities in red.
The extensive Greek colonization is remarked upon by Cicero when noting that "It were as though a Greek fringe has been woven about the shores of the barbarians."[16] Several formulae were generally adhered to on the solemn and sacred occasions when a new colony set forth. If a Greek city was sending out a colony, an oracle, especially one such as the Oracle of Delphi, was almost invariably consulted beforehand. Sometimes certain classes of citizens were called upon to take part in the enterprises; sometimes one son was chosen by lot from every house where there were several sons; and strangers expressing a desire to join were admitted. A person of distinction was selected to guide the emigrants and make the necessary arrangements. It was usual to honor these founders of colonies, after their death, as heroes. Some of the sacred fire was taken from the public hearth in the Prytaneum, from which the fire on the public hearth of the new city was kindled. And, just as each individual had his private shrines, so the new community maintained the worship of its chief domestic deities, the colony sending embassies and votive gifts to the mother-city's principal festivals for centuries afterwards.
After the conquests of the Macedonian Kingdom and Alexander the Great, a further number of Hellenistic colonies were founded also in Asia, Europe and Africa.
Relations of colony and metropolis[edit]
The relation between colony and mother-city, known literally as the metropolis, was viewed as one of mutual affection. Any differences that arose were resolved by peaceful means whenever possible, war being deemed excusable only in cases of extreme necessity. It is worth noting that the Peloponnesian War was in part a result of a dispute between Corinth and her colony of Corcyra (Corfu). The charter of foundation contained general provisions for the arrangement of the affairs of the colony, and also some special enactments. The constitution of the mother-city was usually adopted by the colony, but the new city remained politically independent. The "holy fire" of the metropolis was preserved in a special place to remind people of the common ties. If the colony sent out a fresh colony on its own account, the mother-city was generally consulted, or was at least requested to furnish a leader. Frequently the colonies declaring their commitment to the various metropolitic alliances formed in the Greek mainland and for religious reasons would pay tribute in religious centres, like Delphi, Olympia or Delos.[17]
The cleruchs (κληροῦχοι, klêrouchoi) formed a special class of Greek colonists, each being assigned an individual plot of land (κλῆρος, klêros) in the place to which they had been assigned. The trade factories set up in foreign countries, such as Egypt, were somewhat different from the ordinary colonies, the members retaining the right of domicile in their own fatherland and confining themselves to their own quarter in the foreign city.
Roman colonies[edit]
Main article: Colonia (Roman)
Map showing roman colonies. Augustus' "roman coloniae" in north Africa are depicted in red.
It was an old custom in ancient Italy to send out colonies for the purpose of securing new conquests. The Romans, having no standing army, used to plant bodies of their own citizens in conquered towns as a kind of garrison. These bodies would consist partly of Roman citizens, usually to the number of three hundred; partly of members of the Latin League, in larger numbers. The third part of the conquered territory was handed over to the settlers. The coloniae civium Romanorum (colonies of Roman citizens) were specially intended to secure the two seacoasts of Italy, and were hence called coloniae maritimae. The coloniae Latinae, of which there was a far greater number, served the same purpose for the mainland.
The duty of leading the colonists and founding the settlement was entrusted to a commission usually consisting of three members. These men continued to stand in the relation of patrons (patroni) to the colony after its foundation. The colonists entered the conquered city in military array, preceded by banners, and the foundation was celebrated with special solemnities. The coloniae were free from taxes, and had their own constitution, a copy of the Roman, electing from their own body their Senate and other officers of State. To this constitution the original inhabitants had to submit. The coloniae civium Romanorum retained Roman citizenship, and were free from military service, their position as outposts being regarded as an equivalent. The members of the coloniae Latinae served among the socii, the allies, and possessed the so-called ius Latinum or Latinitas. This secured to them the right of acquiring property, the concept of commercium, and the right of settlement in Rome, and under certain conditions the power of becoming Roman citizens; though in course of time these rights underwent many limitations.
From the time of the Gracchi the colonies lost their military character. Colonization came to be regarded as a means of providing for the poorest class of the Roman Plebs. After the time of Sulla it was adopted as a way of granting land to veteran soldiers. The right of founding colonies was taken away from the people by Julius Caesar, and passed into the hands of the Roman emperors, who used it mainly in the provinces for the exclusive purpose of establishing military settlements, partly with the old idea of securing conquered territory. It was only in exceptional cases that the provincial colonies enjoyed the immunity from taxation which was granted to those in Italy.[18]
See also[edit]
Classical demography
List of cities founded by the Romans
List of ancient cities in Thrace and Dacia
List of ancient cities in Illyria
Alexandria (disambiguation)
Roman Empire
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ see metropolis for etymology
Jump up ^ Thomas R. Martin (1 August 2000). Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times. Yale University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-300-08493-1. Retrieved 24 February 2013. ...at their new location, colonists were expected to retain ties with their metropolis. A colony that sided with its metropolis's enemy in a war, for example was regarded as disloyal...
Jump up ^ Naomi Porat (1992). "An Egyptian Colony in Southern Palestine During the Late Predynastic to Early Dynastic". In Edwin C. M. van den Brink. The Nile Delta in Transition: 4th.-3rd. Millennium B.C. : Proceedings of the Seminar Held in Cairo, 21.-24. October 1990, at the Netherlands Institute of Archaeology and Arabic Studies. Van den Brink. pp. 433–440. ISBN 978-965-221-015-9. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Naomi Porat, "Local Industry of Egyptian Pottery in Southern Palestine During the Early Bronze I Period," in Bulletin of the Egyptological, Seminar 8 (1986/1987), pp. 109-129. See also University College London web post, 2000.
Jump up ^ Ward, Cheryl. "World's Oldest Planked Boats", in Archaeology (Volume 54, Number 3, May/June 2001). Archaeological Institute of America.
^ Jump up to: a b Schuster, Angela M.H. "This Old Boat", Dec. 11, 2000. Archaeological Institute of America.
Jump up ^ Martín Lillo Carpio (1992). Historia de Cartagena: De Qart-Ḥadašt a Carthago Nova / colaboradores: Martín Lillo Carpio .. Ed. Mediterráneo. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Sabatino Moscati (January 2001). The Phoenicians. I.B.Tauris. p. 48. ISBN 978-1-85043-533-4. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Maria Eugenia Aubet (2008). "Political and Economic Implications of the New Phoenician Chronologies" (PDF). Universidad Pompeu Fabra. p. 179. Retrieved 24 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony (2003). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 1515. ISBN 978-0-19-956738-6. Retrieved 24 February 2013. From the 8th century BC the coast of Thrace was colonised by Greeks.
Jump up ^ Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond (1959). A history of Greece to 322 B.C. Clarendon Press. p. 109. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Ancient Greek Colonization and Trade and their Influence on Greek Art | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Jump up ^ Robin Lane Fox (9 March 2010). Travelling Heroes: In the Epic Age of Homer. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-679-76386-4. Retrieved 24 February 2013. Robin Lane Fox examines the cultural connections made by Euboean adventurers in the 8th century
Jump up ^ A list of Greek colonies with individual articles.
Jump up ^ "About Chersonesos, Sevastopol". National Preserve of Tauric Chersonesos. Retrieved 7 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Cicero, De republica, ii, 9
Jump up ^ "Ancient Greek colonies | 5.97 | Maria Daniels". Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
Jump up ^ Most of this text is taken from Harry Thurston Peck's Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898)
Further reading[edit]
Irad, Malkin (2013). A Small Greek World: Networks in the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford University Press; Reprint edition. ISBN 978-0199315727.
Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2008). Greek Colonisation: An Account Of Greek Colonies and Other Settlements Overseas: Volume 2. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN 978-9004155763.
Tsetskhladze, Gocha (2006). Greek Colonisation: An Account Of Greek Colonies and Other Settlements Overseas: Volume 1. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN 978-9004122048.
Graham (2001). Collected Papers on Greek Colonization. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN 978-9004116344.
Boardman, John (1999). The Greeks Overseas: The Early Colonies and Trade. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0500281093.
Irad, Malkin (1987). Religion and Colonization in Ancient Greece. Brill Academic Pub. ISBN 978-9004071193.
External links[edit]
Ancient History Encyclopedia Greek Colonization
Map of Greek Colonies 9th-6th Centuries BC
The Roman Law Library by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev
Donald Kagan, Introduction to Ancient Greek History. 6. The Greek "Renaissance" - Colonization and Tyranny (Open Yale Courses)
A complete catalogue of ancient ports.
Ancient Greek Colonization and Trade and their Influence on Greek Art-The Metropolitan Museum of Art
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Related articles
Colonia (Roman)
Legacy of the Roman Empire
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Army ant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Army Ants" redirects here. For other uses, see Army Ants (disambiguation).
"Marabunta" redirects here. For other uses, see Marabunta (disambiguation).
Parts of this article (those related to the previous dorylomorph subfamilies (Dorylinae, Aenictinae, Aenictogitoninae, Cerapachyinae, Ecitoninae and Leptanilloidinae), all of which now are synonyms of Dorylinae) need to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (September 2014)
African Dorylus raid
The name army ant (or legionary ant or marabunta) is applied to over 200 ant species, in different lineages, due to their aggressive predatory foraging groups, known as "raids", in which huge numbers of ants forage simultaneously over a certain area.[1]
Another shared feature is that, unlike most ant species, army ants do not construct permanent nests: an army ant colony moves almost incessantly over the time it exists. All species are members of the true ant family, Formicidae, but several groups have independently evolved the same basic behavioral and ecological syndrome. This syndrome is often referred to as "legionary behavior", and may be an example of convergent evolution.[2][n 1]
Most New World army ants belong to the subfamily Ecitoninae, which contains two tribes: Cheliomyrmecini and Ecitonini. The former contains only the genus Cheliomyrmex, whereas the latter contains four genera: Neivamyrmex, Nomamyrmex, Labidus, and Eciton.[2] The largest genus is Neivamyrmex, which contains more than 120 species; the most predominant species is Eciton burchellii; its common name "army ant" is considered to be the archetype of the species. Old World army ants are divided between the Aenictini and Dorylini tribes. Aenictini contains more than 50 species of army ants in the single genus, Aenictus. However, the Dorylini contain the genus Dorylus, the most aggressive group of driver ants; 60 species are known.[citation needed]
Originally, the Old World and New World lineages of army ants were thought to have evolved independently, in an example of convergent evolution. In 2003, though, genetic analysis of various species suggests that they all evolved from a single common ancestor, which lived approximately 100 million years ago at the time of the separation of the continents of Africa and South America.[2] Army ant taxonomy remains in flux, and genetic analysis will likely continue to provide more information about the relatedness of the various taxa.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Morphology
1.1 Workers
1.2 Soldiers
1.3 Males
1.4 Queen
2 Behavior
2.1 Army ant syndrome
2.1.1 Nomadic and stationary phase
2.2 Colony fission
2.3 Queen behavior
2.3.1 Sexual selection by workers
2.4 Reproduction responsibilities and problems
3 Foraging
4 Nesting
5 Symbionts
6 Taxonomy
7 Notes
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links
Morphology[edit]
Eciton vagans workers
Workers[edit]
The workers of army ants are usually blind or can have compound eyes that are reduced to a single lens. There are species of army ants where the worker caste may show polymorphism based on physical differences and job allocations; however, there are also species that show no polymorphism at all.[3] The worker caste is usually composed of sterile female worker ants.[4]
Soldiers[edit]
The soldiers of army ants are larger than the workers, and they have much larger mandibles than the worker class of ants, with older workers possessing larger heads and stronger mandibles than the younger ones. They protect the colony, and help carry the heaviest loads of prey to the nest.
Males[edit]
Males are large in size and have a large cylindrical abdomen, highly modified mandibles and uncommon genitalia not seen in other ants.[5] They have 13 segments on their antennae, are alated (have wings) and therefore can resemble wasps.[3] Males are born as part of a sexual brood.[5] As soon as they are born, they will fly off in search of a queen to mate with. In some instances where males seek to mate with a queen from an existing colony, the receiving workers will forcibly remove the wings in order to accommodate the large males into the colony for mating.[6] Because of their size, males are sometimes called "sausage flies" or "sausage ants."[citation needed]
Queen[edit]
Colonies of real army ants always have only one queen, while some other ant species can have several queens. The queen is dichthadiigyne (a blind ant with large gaster) but may sometimes possess vestigial eyes.[3] The queens of army ants are unique in that they do not have wings, have an enlarged gaster size and an extended cylindrical abdomen.[6] They are significantly larger than worker army ants and possess 10–12 segments on their antennae.[3] Queens will mate with multiple males and because of their enlarged gaster, can produce 3 to 4 million eggs a month, resulting in synchronized brood cycles and colonies composed of millions of individuals all related to a single queen.[3][7]
Behavior[edit]
E. vagans with larvae of a raided wasp nest
Dorylus sp. in Cameroon, consuming a grasshopper
Safari ants (Dorylus sp.) on a march in Kakamega Forest, Kenya. The soldiers have created a tunnel through which the workers move, and clearly show their mandibles
Army ant syndrome[edit]
The army ant syndrome refers to behavioral and reproductive traits such as obligate collective foraging, nomadism and highly specialized queens that allow these organisms to become the most ferocious social hunters.[2]
Most ant species will send individual scouts to find food sources and later recruit others from the colony to help; however, army ants dispatch a cooperative, leaderless group of foragers to detect and overwhelm the prey at once.[2][3] Army ants do not have a permanent nest but instead form many bivouacs as they travel. The constant traveling is due to the need to hunt large amounts of prey to feed its enormous colony population.[3] Their queens are wingless and have abdomens that expand significantly during egg production.[6] This allows for the production of 3-4 million eggs every month and often results in synchronized brood cycles, thus each colony will be formed of millions of individuals that descend from a single queen. All three of these traits are found to be in all army ant species and the defining traits of army ants.[2][8]
Nomadic and stationary phase[edit]
Army ants have two phases of activity—a nomadic (wandering) phase and a stationary (statary) phase—that constantly cycle, and can be found throughout all army ants species.[6]
The nomadic phase begins around 10 days after the queen lays her eggs. This phase will last approximately 15 days to let the larvae develop. The ants move during the day, capturing insects, spiders, and small vertebrates to feed their brood. At dusk, they will form their nests or bivouac, which they change almost daily.[6] At the end of the nomadic phase, the larvae will spin pupal cases and no longer require food. The colony can then live in the same bivouac site for around 20 days, foraging only on approximately two-thirds of these days.[1][6] Among the army ants are some species that venture out only at night, but no adequate studies of their activities have been made.
The stationary phase, which lasts about two to three weeks, begins when the larvae pupate. From this point on, the prey that were previously fed to the larvae are now fed exclusively to the queen.[6] The abdomen (gaster) of the queen swells significantly, and she lays her eggs. At the end of the stationary phase, both the pupae emerge from their cocoons (eclosion) and the next generation of eggs hatch so the colony has a new group of workers and larvae. After this, the ants resume the nomadic phase.[3][6]
Behavior and organization of bivouac
Colony fission[edit]
Army ants will split into groups when the size of the colony has reached a size threshold which happens approximately every three years.[9] Wingless virgin queens will hatch among a male sexual brood that will hatch at a later date. When the colony fissions, there are two ways new queens are decided. A possible outcome is a new queen will stay at the original nest with a portion of the workers and the male brood while the old queen will leave with the other portion of workers and find a new nest. Another possibility is that the workers will reject the old queen and new queens will head the two new colonies.[1][6] The workers will affiliate with individual queens based on the pheromone cues that are unique to each queen. When new bivouacs are formed, communication between the original colony and the new bivouacs will cease to exist.[6]
Queen behavior[edit]
Being the largest ants on Earth, army ants, such as African Dorylus queens have the greatest reproductive potential among the insects, with an egg-laying capacity of several millions per month. Army ant queens never have to leave the protection of the colony, where they mate with foreign incoming males which disperse on nuptial flights. The exact mating behavior of the army ant queen is still unknown, but observations seem to imply that queens may be fertilized by multiple males.[10] Due to the queen's large reproductive potential, one colony of army ants can be related to a single queen.[7]
When the queen ant dies, there is no replacement and army ants cannot rear emergency queens. Most of the time, if the queen dies, the colony will most likely die too. Queen loss can occur due to accidents during emigrations, predator attack, old age or illness.[9] However, there are possibilities to avoid colony death. When a colony loses its queen, the worker ants will usually fuse with another colony that has a queen in a few days.[4][11] Sometimes, the workers will backtrack along the paths of prior emigrations to search for a queen that has been lost or merge with a sister colony.[11][12] By merging with a related colony, the workers would increase their overall inclusive fitness.[9] The workers that merge into a new colony may cause the colony to increase in size by 50%.
Sexual selection by workers[edit]
Workers in army ant species have a unique role in selecting both the queen and the male mate.
When the queens emerge, the workers in the colony will form two 'systems' or arms in opposite directions. These queens that are hatched will move down either the arms and only two queens will succeed, one for each branch. The remaining new queens will be left in the middle and are abandoned to die. Two new bivouacs will be formed and break off into different directions. The workers will surround the two to-be queens and ensure they reach the arms and survive. These workers that surround the queens are affected by the CHC (pheromone) profile emitted from the new queen.[6]
When males hatch from their brood, they will fly off to find a mate. For males to access the queen and mate, they must run through the workers in the colony. Males that are favored are superficially similar in size and shape to the queen. The males also produce large quantities of pheromones to pacify the worker ants.[6]
Reproduction responsibilities and problems[edit]
In a colony, the queen is the primary individual responsible for reproduction in the colony. Analysis of genotypes have confirmed that workers are, on average, more closely related to the offspring of the queen than to that of other workers, and that workers rarely, if ever, reproduce.[13] Three factors have been suggested to rationalize the loss of worker reproduction in the presence of a queen. First, if the worker reproduces, it lowers the general performance of the colony because it is not working. Second, workers increase their inclusive fitness by policing other workers because they themselves are more related to the queen’s offspring than other worker’s offspring.[13] Lastly, the large male larvae become too large to be transported, forcing colonies with a sexual brood to nest for a period of 41–56 days, as compared to non-reproductive colonies that remain in the nest an average of 17 days before returning to a nomadic phase. This suggests that if workers produced male offspring, they might be hatched out of sync with the queen's sexual brood and not likely to be successfully reared to adulthood.[13]
Foraging[edit]
The whole colony of army ants can consume up to 500,000 prey animals each day, so can have a significant influence on the population, diversity, and behavior of their prey.[14] The prey selection differs with the species. Underground species prey primarily on ground-dwelling arthropods and their larvae, earthworms, and occasionally also the young of vertebrates, turtle eggs, or oily seeds. A majority of the species, the "colony robbers", specialize in the offspring of other ants and wasps. Only a few species seem to have the very broad spectrum of prey seen in the raiding species. Even these species do not eat every kind of animal. Although small vertebrates that get caught in the raid will be killed, the jaws of the American Eciton are not suited to this type of prey, in contrast to the African Dorylus. These undesired prey are simply left behind and consumed by scavengers or by the flies that accompany the ant swarm. Only a few species hunt primarily on the surface of the earth; they seek their prey mainly in leaf litter and in low vegetation. About five species hunt in higher trees, where they can attack birds and their eggs, although they focus on hunting other social insects along with their eggs and larvae. Colonies of army ants are large compared to the colonies of other Formicidae. Colonies can have over 15 million workers and can transport 3000 prey (items) per hour during the raid period.[10][15]
When army ants forage, the trails that are formed can be over 20 m wide and over 100 m long.[15] They stay on the path through the use of a concentration gradient of pheromones. The concentration of pheromone is highest in the middle of the trail, splitting the trail into two distinct regions: area with high concentration and two areas with low concentrations of pheromones. The outbound ants will occupy the outer two lanes and the returning ants will occupy the central lane.[15] The returning worker ants have also been found to emit more pheromones than those leaving the nest, causing the difference in concentration of pheromone in the trails.[16] The pheromones will allow foraging to be much more efficient by allowing the army ants to avoid their own former paths and those of their conspecifics.[14]
While foraging, army ants cause many invertebrates to flee from their hiding places under leaves of the forest floor, under tree bark, and other such locations, thereby allowing predators to catch them more easily. For example, in the tropical rainforests of Panama, swarms of army ants attract many species of birds to this feast of scrambling insects, spiders, scorpions, worms, and other animals. Some of these birds are named “antbirds” due to this tendency.[17] While focused on feeding on these invertebrates, birds at army-ant swarms typically allow very close approach by people—within 1 or 2 meters in many cases—often providing the best opportunities to see many of these species. Depending on the size of the ant swarm and the amount of prey the ants stir up, birds can number from a few to dozens of individuals. Birds that frequent army-ant swarms include the white-whiskered puffbird, rufous motmot, rufous-vented ground cuckoo, gray-necked wood rail, plain-brown woodcreeper, northern barred woodcreeper, cocoa woodcreeper, black-striped woodcreeper, fasciated antshrike, black-crowned antshrike, spotted antbird, bicolored antbird, ocellated antbird, chestnut-backed antbird, black-faced antthrush, and gray-headed tanager.[18]
Nesting[edit]
Eciton sp. forming a bridge
Army ants do not build a nest like most other ants. Instead, they build a living nest with their bodies, known as a bivouac. Bivouacs tend to be found in tree trunks or in burrows dug by the ants. The members of the bivouac hold onto each other's legs and so build a sort of ball, which may look unstructured to a layman's eyes, but is actually a well-organized structure.[19] The older female workers are located on the exterior; in the interior are the younger female workers. At the smallest disturbance, soldiers gather on the top surface of the bivouac, ready to defend the nest with powerful pincers and (in the case of the Aenictinae and Ecitoninae) stingers. The interior of the nest is filled with numerous passages and contains many chambers with food, the queen, the larvae, and the eggs.[citation needed]
Symbionts[edit]
Many species of army ant are widely considered to be keystone species, due to the large number of vertebrate and invertebrate associates that rely on army ant colonies for nutrition or protection.[20] During their hunt, many surface-raiding army ants are accompanied by various birds, such as antbirds, thrushes, ovenbirds and wrens, which devour the insects that are flushed out by the ants, a behavior known as cleptoparasitism.[21] A wide variety of arthropods including staphylinid beetles and mites also follow colonies. The Neotropical army ant Eciton burchellii has an estimated 350 to 500 animal associates, the most of any one species known to science.[22]
Taxonomy[edit]
Historically, "army ant" in the broad sense referred to various members of five different ant subfamilies. In two of these cases, the Ponerinae and Myrmicinae, only a few species and genera exhibit legionary behavior; in the other three lineages, Ecitoninae, Dorylinae, and Leptanillinae, all of the constituent species are legionary. More recently, ant classifications now recognize an additional New World subfamily, Leptanilloidinae, which also consists of obligate legionary species, so is another group now included among the army ants.[citation needed]
A 2003 study of thirty species (by Sean Brady of Cornell University) indicates that army ants of subfamilies Ecitoninae (South America), Dorylinae (Africa) and Aenictinae (Asia) together formed a monophyletic group, based on data from three molecular genes and one mitochondrial gene. Brady concluded that these two groups are, therefore, a single lineage that evolved in the mid-Cretaceous period in Gondwana,[n 2] so the two subfamilies are now generally united into a single subfamily Ecitoninae, though this is still not universally recognized.[24]
Accordingly, the army ants as presently recognized consist of these genera:
Subfamily Dorylinae ( Aenictinae, Aenictogitoninae, Cerapachyinae, Ecitoninae and Leptanilloidinae, 2014 )[25]
Aenictus
Asphinctanilloides
Cheliomyrmex
Dorylus
Eciton
Labidus
Leptanilloides
Neivamyrmex
Nomamyrmex
Subfamily Leptanillinae
Anomalomyrma
Leptanilla
Phaulomyrma
Protanilla
Yavnella
Subfamily Myrmicinae
Pheidologeton
Subfamily Ponerinae
Leptogenys (some species)
Simopelta
Subfamily Amblyoponinae
Onychomyrmex
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "There are also interesting [evolutionary] convergences within the ants. Although most ant colonies live a settled existence in a fixed nest, there seems to be a successful living to be made by wandering in enormous pillaging armies. This is called the legionary habit." (Dawkins 1986)
Jump up ^ "Because army ants are found almost everywhere, scientists postulated that they evolved many times after the break-up and dispersal of the supercontinent Gondwana just over 100 million years ago. The conventional view of the evolution of army ants needs a revision because of new data obtained by Sean Brady, a Cornell University, US, entomologist who has discovered that these ants evolved from a common ancestor."(Whitehouse 2003)[23]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Schneirla, Theodore Christian (1971). Topoff, Howard R., ed. Army Ants: A Study in Social Organization. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 978-0-7167-0933-6. OCLC 210501.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Brady, Seán G. (2003). "Evolution of the army ant syndrome: The origin and long-term evolutionary stasis of a complex of behavioral and reproductive adaptations". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (11): 6575–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.1137809100. PMC 164488  . PMID 12750466.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Gotwald, William H., Jr. "Army Ants". Social Insects. 4. pp. 157–254. in Hermann 1982
^ Jump up to: a b Bourke, Andrew F. G; Franks, Nigel R. (1995). Social Evolution in Ants. Monographs in Behavior and Ecology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-04426-2. OCLC 32087436.
^ Jump up to: a b Trager, James C., ed. (1988). Advances in Myrmecology. Leiden, NL: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-0-916846-38-1. OCLC 468279677.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Franks, Nigel R.; Hölldobler, Bert (1987). "Sexual competition during colony reproduction in army ants". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 30 (3): 229–43. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1987.tb00298.x.
^ Jump up to: a b Kronauer, Daniel J. C.; Schöning, Caspar; Pedersen, Jes S. S.; Boomsma, Jacobus J.; Gadau, Jurgen R. (2004). "Extreme queen-mating frequency and colony fission in African army ants". Molecular Ecology. 13 (8): 2381–8. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02262.x. PMID 15245410.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Edward. O.; Hölldobler, Bert (September 2005). "Eusociality: Origin and consequences". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (38): 13367–71. doi:10.1073/pnas.0505858102. PMC 1224642  . PMID 16157878.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kronauer, Daniel J. C. (2009). "Recent advances in army ant biology (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)". Myrmecological News. 12: 51–65.
^ Jump up to: a b Kronauer, Daniel J. C.; Johnson, Robert A.; Boomsma, Jacobus J. (2007). "The Evolution of multiple mating in army ants". Evolution. 61 (2): 413–22. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00040.x. PMID 17348950.
^ Jump up to: a b Kronauer, Daniel J. C.; Schöning, Caspar; d'Ettorre, Patricia; Boomsma, Jacobus J. (2010). "Colony fusion and worker reproduction after queen loss in army ants". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 277 (1682): 755–63. doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.1591. PMC 2842746  . PMID 19889701.
Jump up ^ Schneirla, Theodore Christian (1949). "Army-ant Life and Behavior under Dry-season Conditions. 3, The Course of Reproduction and Colony Behavior" (PDF). Bulletin of the AMNH. 94. hdl:2246/407.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kronauer, Daniel J. C.; Schöning, Caspar; Boomsma, Jacobus J. (2006). "Male parentage in army ants". Molecular Ecology. 15 (4): 1147–51. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02850.x. PMID 16599973.
^ Jump up to: a b Franks, Nigel R.; Fletcher, Charles R. (1983). "Spatial Patterns in Army Ant Foraging and Migration: Eciton burchelli on Barro Colorado Island, Panama". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 12 (4): 261–70. doi:10.1007/BF00302894.
^ Jump up to: a b c Couzin, Iain D.; Franks, Nigel R. (2003). "Self-organized lane formation and optimized traffic flow in army ants". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 270 (1511): 139–146. doi:10.1098/rspb.2002.2210. PMC 1691225  . PMID 12590751.
Jump up ^ Deneubourg, Jean-Louis; Goss, S.; Franks, Nigel R.; Pasteels, Jacques M. (1989). "The blind leading the blind: Modeling chemically mediated army ant raid patterns". Journal of Insect Behavior. 2 (5): 719–25. doi:10.1007/BF01065789.
Jump up ^ Angehr G, Dean R. 2010. The birds of Panama: a field guide. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, New Yori, USA. 456 pp.
Jump up ^ Kent Livezey, Birding Pipeline Panama, East Coast Tower, Costa del Este, Panama City, Panama 33192-4177
Jump up ^ Dawkins, Richard (1996) [1986]. "4. Making Tracks Through Animal Space". The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe Without Design. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-393-31570-7.
Jump up ^ Boswell, Graeme P.; Britton, Nicholas F.; Franks, Nigel R. (1998). "Habitat fragmentation, percolation theory and the conservation of a keystone species". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 265 (1409): 1921–25. doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0521.
Jump up ^ Wrege, Peter H.; Wikelski, M.; Mandel, J. T.; Rassweiler, T.; Couzin, I. D. (2005). "Antbirds parasitize foraging army ants". Ecology. 8 (3): 555–559. doi:10.1890/04-1133.
Jump up ^ Rettenmeyer, C. W.; Rettenmeyer, M. E.; Joseph, J.; Berghoff, S. M (2011). "The largest animal association centered on one species: the army ant Eciton burchellii and its more than 300 associates". Insectes Sociaux. 58: 281–292. doi:10.1007/s00040-010-0128-8.
Jump up ^ Whitehouse, David (2003-05-10). "Ant history revealed". Science & Environment. BBC News Online. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
Jump up ^ Engel, Michael S.; Grimaldi, David A. (2005). "Primitive new ants in Cretaceous amber from Myanmar, New Jersey, and Canada (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)" (PDF). American Museum Novitates. New York: American Museum of Natural History. 3485: 1–24. doi:10.1206/0003-0082(2005)485[0001:PNAICA]2.0.CO;2. hdl:2246/5676.
Jump up ^ Brady, Seán G; Fisher, Brian L; Schultz, Ted R; Ward, Philip S (2014). "The rise of army ants and their relatives: diversification of specialized predatory doryline ants". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 14: 2–14. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-93. PMC 4021219  . PMID 24886136.
Bibliography[edit]
Hermann, Henry R., ed. (1982). Social Insects. Volume IV. New York: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-342204-3. OCLC 37854847.
External links[edit]
A documentary by Carl Rettenmeyer of University of Connecticut: Associates of Eciton burchelli (2009)
A documentary by Carl Rettenmeyer of University of Connecticut: Astonishing Army Ants (2009)
Media related to Army ants at Wikimedia Commons
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