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Railroad car
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American wooden clerestory cars on display at the Mid-Continent Railway Museum in North Freedom, Wisconsin, United States.
British Rail Mark 3 coach, an all-steel car from the 1970s
Inside a modern-day car from Finland
A railroad car or railcar (American and Canadian English),[a] railway wagon or railway carriage (UK and UIC), also called a train car or train wagon, is a vehicle used for the carrying of cargo or passengers on a rail transport system (a railroad/railway). Such cars, when coupled together and hauled by one or more locomotives, form a train. Alternatively, some passenger cars are self-propelled in which case they may be either single railcars or make up multiple units.
The term "car" is commonly used by itself in American English when a rail context is implicit. Indian English sometimes uses "bogie" in the same manner,[1] though the term has other meanings in other variants of English. In American English, "railcar" is a generic term for a railway vehicle; in other countries "railcar" refers specifically to a self-propelled, powered, railway vehicle.
Although some cars exist for the railroad's own use – for track maintenance purposes, for example – most carry a revenue-earning load of passengers or freight, and may be classified accordingly as passenger cars or coaches on the one hand or freight cars (or wagons) on the other.
Contents
[hide]
1 Passenger cars
2 Freight cars
2.1 Types of freight cars
3 Aluminium cars
4 Non-revenue cars
5 Military cars
5.1 Mobile missile systems
6 See also
7 Notes
7.1 Footnotes
7.2 Citations
7.3 Further reading
8 External links
Passenger cars[edit]
Main article: Passenger car (rail)
Passenger cars, or coaches, vary in their internal fittings:
In standard-gauge cars, seating is usually configured into ranges of between three and five seats across the width of the car, with an aisle in between (resulting in arrangements of 2+1, 2+2 or 3+2 seats) or at the side. Tables may be provided between seats facing one another. Alternatively, seats facing in the same direction may have access to a fold-down ledge on the back of the seat in front.
If the aisle is located between seats, seat rows may face the same direction, or be grouped, with twin rows facing each other.
In some vehicles intended for commuter services, seats are positioned with their backs to the side walls, either on one side or more commonly on both, facing each other across the aisle. This gives a wide accessway and allows room for standing passengers at peak times, as well as improving loading and unloading speeds.
If the aisle is at the side, the car is usually divided into small compartments. These usually contain six seats, although sometimes in second class they contain eight, and sometimes in first class they contain four.
Passenger cars can take the electricity supply for heating and lighting equipment from either of two main sources: directly from a head end power generator on the locomotive via bus cables, or by an axle-powered generator which continuously charges batteries whenever the train is in motion.
Modern cars usually have either air-conditioning or windows that can be opened (sometimes, for safety, not so far that one can hang out), or sometimes both. Various types of onboard train toilet facilities may also be provided.
Other types of passenger car exist, especially for long journeys, such as the dining car, parlor car, disco car, and in rare cases theater and movie theater car. In some cases another type of car is temporarily converted to one of these for an event.
Observation cars were built for the rear of many famous trains to allow the passengers to view the scenery. These proved popular, leading to the development of dome cars multiple units of which could be placed mid-train, and featured a glass-enclosed upper level extending above the normal roof to provide passengers with a better view.
Sleeping cars outfitted with (generally) small bedrooms allow passengers to sleep through their night-time trips, while couchette cars provide more basic sleeping accommodation. Long-distance trains often require baggage cars for the passengers' luggage. In European practice it used to be common for day coaches to be formed of compartments seating 6 or 8 passengers, with access from a side corridor. In the UK, Corridor coaches fell into disfavor in the 1960s and 1970s partially because open coaches are considered more secure by women traveling alone.
Another distinction is between single- and double deck train cars. An example of a double decker is the Amtrak superliner.
A "trainset" (or "set") is a semi-permanently arranged formation of cars, rather than one created "ad hoc" out of whatever cars are available. These are only broken up and reshuffled 'on shed' (in the maintenance depot). Trains are then built of one or more of these 'sets' coupled together as needed for the capacity of that train.
Often, but not always, passenger cars in a train are linked together with enclosed, flexible gangway connections through which passengers and crewmen can walk. Some designs incorporate semi-permanent connections between cars and may have a full-width connection, effectively making them one long, articulated 'car'. In North America, passenger cars also employ tightlock couplings to keep a train together in the event of a derailment or other accident.
Many multiple unit trains consist of cars which are semi-permanently coupled into sets: these sets may be joined together to form larger trains, but generally passengers can only move around between cars within a set. This "closed" arrangement keeps parties of travellers and their luggage together, and hence allows the separate sets to be easily split to go separate ways. Some multiple-unit trainsets are designed so that corridor connections can be easily opened between coupled sets; this generally requires driving cabs either set to the side or (as in the Dutch Koploper) above the passenger compartment. These cabs or driving trailers are also useful for quickly reversing the train.
Freight cars[edit]
Main article: Goods wagon
Further information: Rail freight transport
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2017)
Types of freight cars[edit]
Freight cars (US), goods wagons (UIC), or trucks (UK) exist in a wide variety of types, adapted to carry a host of goods. Originally there were very few types of cars; the flat car or wagon, and the boxcar (US/Canada), covered wagon (UIC) or van (UK), were among the first. Freight cars or goods wagons are generally categorized as follows:
Boxcar (US and Canada), covered wagon (UIC) or van (UIC): fully enclosed car with side or end doors. Standard boxcars have about 3.5 times the capacity of a standard Semi-trailer.[2]
Covered wagon (UIC), van (UIC) or boxcar (US/Canada): fully enclosed wagon for moisture-susceptible goods.
Hicube boxcars: high-capacity high-clearance boxcar
Refrigerator car or reefer (US/Canada): refrigerated boxcar for fruits and vegetables.
CargoBeamer
Coil car: specialized flat or gondola for heavy sheet metal rolls
Combine car: combined passenger car and boxcar in one wagon
Flatcar (or flat): for larger bulky loads. Specialized flat cars include:
Aircraft Parts Car: with fixtures for large aircraft parts.
Autorack (also called auto carriers): multi-level flat for automobiles.
Centerbeam cars (US): specialized flat for building materials.
Conflat (UK): specialized flat for containers.
CargoSprinter: self-propelled container flat.
Container flatcar
Depressed-center flatcar or Wellcar or Lowmac (UK): for high-clearance loads (e.g. transformers and boilers)
Semi-trailer flatcar
Rolling highway: a train designed to carry trucks and/or semi-trailers
Single container car; Spine car, a center sill and side sill only car with lateral arms to support intermodal containers. See also Well car.
Double container car; Well car or double-stack car. Cars for transporting Intermodal containers with a low deck to allow double stacking, commonly used in articulated form. See also Spine car
Schnabel car: for unusually large and heavy industrial equipment (transformers, boilers, reactors, distillation columns,...)
Gondola (US): car with open top, enclosed sides and ends for bulk goods.
Covered hopper: specialized hopper car with a cover for weather sensitive loads (grain, pellets,...)
Open wagon (UIC): railway wagon with an open top but enclosed sides and ends, for bulk commodities and other goods that might slide off.
Hoppers: similar to gondolas but with bottom dump doors for easy unloading of things like coal, ore, grain, cement, ballast and the like. Short hoppers for carrying iron ore are called ore jennys in the US.
Lorry (US/Canada): An open wagon (UIC) or gondola (US/Canada) with a tipping trough, often found in mines. See also Tippler.
Mine car
Mine cart.
Side dump cars: used to transport roadbed materials such as, ballast, riprap, and large stone, and are able to unload anywhere along the track.
Tippler (UK): An open wagon with no doors or roof which are unloaded by being inverted on a Wagon Tippler (UK) or Rotary car dumper (US/Canada). They are, used for minerals, such as coal, limestone and iron ore as well as other bulk cargo. See also Lorry.
Quarry tub: a type of small railway or tramway wagon used in quarries for the transport minerals, such as coal, limestone and iron ore.
Modalohr Road Trailer Carriers.
Presflo and Prestwin (UK), bulk cement wagons
Roll-block: a train designed to carry another railway train
Slate wagon: specialized freight cars used to transport slate
Stock Car: ventilated box car for livestock
Tank car (US/Canada), tank wagon (UIC) or tanker: for liquid or gas.
British Milk Tank
Milk car: specialized tank car for milk
Tank cars for bulk loading
"Whale Belly" car: high capacity tank car with a "belly".
Transporter wagon: a wagon designed to carry other railway equipment.
American style Hopper Car
Tank Car
U.S. type Boxcar
Articulated Well Cars with containers
A Spine car with a 20 ft tanktainer and an open-top 20 ft container with canvas cover
A DR rail maintenance vehicle converted from a former freight van
Presflo bulk cement wagon (UK)
Aluminium cars[edit]
The first two main-line all aluminum passenger cars were exhibited at the 1933-35 Chicago World's Fair by Pullman Company.[3] Aluminum freighcars have a higher net-to-tare ratio of 4.9 than traditional steel based wagons, which have 3.65.[4]
Non-revenue cars[edit]
Typical American extended vision caboose.
Ballast regulator
Ballast tamper
Barrier vehicle, A different coupler at each end.
Caboose (US) or Brake van (UIC) attach to rear to watch freight trains, assist in reverse moves, and provide rear braking. Replaced by End-Of-Train devices.
Clearance car, special car to check for obstructions.
Crew car aka Outfit Car or a Camp Car,[5] a bunk, kitchen, or tool car for railroad employees.
Handcars, early MOW car powered by passengers with a handcrank.
Maintenance of way (MOW) cars for maintaining track and equipment.
Office car which contains a mobile office for a train company.
Rail ambulance
Rail car mover similar to HiRail trucks.
Railroad cranes
Railway post office
Road-rail vehicle
Scale test car
Tower cars used to maintain overhead lines
Track tamper
Track tester
Military cars[edit]
Armored train Hurban located in Zvolen, Slovakia
Military armoured trains use several types of specialized cars:
Anti-air: equipped with anti-air guns
Anti-tank: equipped with anti-tank guns, usually in a tank gun turret
Artillery: fielding mixture of guns and machine guns
Command: similar to infantry wagons, but designed to be a train command center
DODX is the reporting mark for the United States Department of Defense Military Traffic Management Command.[6]
Infantry: fielding machine guns, designed to carry infantry units
Machine gun: dedicated to machine guns
Platform: unarmoured, with purposes ranging from transport of ammunition or vehicles, through track repair or derailing protection of railroad ploughs for railroad destruction.
Troop sleepers
Mobile missile systems[edit]
Soviet RT-23 Molodets ICBM launch train, in the St Petersburg museum
During the Cold War, the Soviet Union fielded a number of trains that served as mobile missile silos. These trains carried the missile and everything necessary to launch, and were kept moving around the railway network to make them difficult to find and destroy in a first-strike attack. A similar rail-borne system was proposed in the United States of America for the LGM-30 Minuteman in the 1960s, and the Peacekeeper Rail Garrison in the 1980s, but neither were deployed.[7] The Strategic Air Command's 1st Combat Evaluation RBS "Express" did deploy from Barksdale Air Force Base with radar bomb scoring units mounted on military railroad cars with supporting equipment, to score simulated thermonuclear bombing of cities in the continental United States.[8]
Train-based ICBMs do offer some advantages over missiles in fixed silos, namely that the enemy can never be sure where they are—or, more accurately, where all of them are at any given moment. But as a 2014 RAND study[9] pointed out, rail and truck launchers have their drawbacks. Maintaining a missile on a train is more difficult than in a silo, while rail lines and roads can be blocked by snow, which tends to restrict railroad ICBMs to warmer climates. In addition, because there are only a limited number of rail lines and highways in an area, enemy surveillance can focus on a few areas. And, once located, mobile missiles are more vulnerable than ICBMs in hardened silos.[10]
See also[edit]
Air brake
Great Western Railway wagons
List of railway vehicles
List of rolling stock manufacturers
Rail car tracking device
Railway brakes
Rolling stock
Tender
Tram
Types of goods wagon
UIC classification of goods wagons
Vacuum brake
Notes[edit]
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ In the US, a "railroad car" is often referred to more simply as a "rail car" or "railcar", but this should not be confused with the self-propelled railcar.
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary: bogie
Jump up ^ Usatch, Brad (November 23, 2016). "Railroading sees a bit of rebirth". The Chronicle. Barton, Vermont. pp. 1A. Retrieved December 1, 2016.
Jump up ^ John H. White, Jr. (1985). The American Railroad Passenger Car. JHU Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-0-8018-2743-3.
Jump up ^ ECONOMICS OF HEAVY AXLE LOADS
Jump up ^ "General Code of Operating Rules: Section 5.12: Protection of Occupied Outfit Cars". Retrieved 2008-06-19.
Jump up ^ Index of DODX
Jump up ^ Gen. Thomas S. Power, USAF (September 1960). "Strategic Air Command" (PDF). Air Force Magazine. Retrieved 30 Aug 2010. A special SAC task force was established at Hill AFB, Utah, to conduct a series of deployments with a Minuteman Mobility Test Train. The first deployment ended June 27 after seven days of random travel over existing civilian rail facilities in the Ogden area. The test series will continue through the fall of 1960 with other rail movements in the Far West and Midwest....
Jump up ^ "In regards to the SAC radar bomb scoring squadron mounted on railroad cars" (PDF). Mobile Military Radar web site. 22 Feb 2007. pp. 12K. Retrieved 30 Aug 2010. The trains were 21 cars long, 17 support and 4 radar cars. The radar cars were basically flat cars with the radar vans and equipment mounted on them. The other 17 consisted of a generator car, two box cars (one for radar equipment maintenance, and one for support maintenance). A dining car, two day-room cars, supply cars, admin car, and 4 Pullman sleepers.... The Commander had the very last room on the tail of the train.... The trains would go to some area in the U.S. which was selected for that period by a regular contracted locomotive which then just parked us there and left, usually pulled onto a siding.
Jump up ^ http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG1210.html
Jump up ^ http://nationalinterest.org/blog/russias-nuclear-missile-death-train-arriving-2019-19581
Further reading[edit]
Matthias N. Forney (1974) [1879]. The Railroad Car Builder's Dictionary. Dover Publications, Inc.
White, John H. (1978). The American Railroad Passenger Car. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801819652. OCLC 2798188.
White, John H. Jr. (1993). The American Railroad Freight Car: From the Wood-Car Era to the Coming of Steel. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-4404-5. OCLC 26130632.
External links[edit]
List of railroad car manufacturers by country (in French)
History of the Ralston Steel Car Company, Columbus, Ohio
Paquette Railway Solutions, dealing with rolling stock and power
US Air Force Guard Car G-50 Strategic Air Command guard car, rebuilt from Army 1943 troop kitchen car #8750. Photographed in Portola, California at the Western Pacific Railroad Museum.
Peacekeeper Rail Garrison Car.
Guide to Railcars[dead link]
Rail car manufacturing
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Come to Me (Goo Goo Dolls song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Come to Me"
Single by Goo Goo Dolls
from the album Magnetic
Released
July 23, 2013 (2013-07-23)
Format
Digital download
Recorded
2012
Length
3:45
Label
Warner Bros.
Songwriter(s)
John Rzeznik, Gregg Wattenberg
Producer(s)
Gregg Wattenberg
Goo Goo Dolls singles chronology
"Rebel Beat"
(2013) "Come to Me"
(2013) "Caught in the Storm"
(2014)
"Rebel Beat"
(2013) "Come to Me"
(2013) "Caught in the Storm"
(2014)
"Come to Me" is a song recorded by American alternative rock band the Goo Goo Dolls from their tenth studio album Magnetic. "Come to Me" premiered on US radio stations starting July 23, 2013 and was officially released the same day.
Contents
[hide]
1 Track listing
2 Chart performance
2.1 Charts
2.2 Year-end charts
3 References
Track listing[edit]
Digital download
"Come to Me" – 3:45
Chart performance[edit]
Charts[edit]
Chart (2013–14)
Peak
position
Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles 15
Billboard Rock Songs 17
Billboard Rock Digital Songs 20
Billboard Adult Contemporary 24
Billboard Adult Pop Songs 16
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (2014)
Position
US Hot Rock Songs (Billboard)[1]
45
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Hot Rock Songs: Year End 2014". Billboard. Retrieved December 21, 2014.
[hide]
v
t
e
Goo Goo Dolls
John Rzeznik
Robby Takac
George Tutuska
Mike Malinin
Studio albums
Goo Goo Dolls
Jed
Hold Me Up
Superstar Car Wash
A Boy Named Goo
Dizzy Up the Girl
Gutterflower
Let Love In
Something for the Rest of Us
Magnetic
Boxes
Extended plays
Just the Way You Are EP
Bang!
Dizzy EP
Platinum Play EP
Rolling Stone Original
Waiting for the Rest of It
Live albums
Live in Buffalo: July 4th, 2004
Compilations
What I Learned About Ego, Opinion, Art & Commerce
iTunes Originals
Greatest Hits Volume One: The Singles
Vol.2
Videography
Music in High Places: Live in Alaska
Live in Buffalo: July 4th, 2004
Live and Intimate
Singles
"There You Are"
"I'm Awake Now"
"We Are the Normal"
"Only One"
"Flat Top"
"Name"
"Naked"
"Long Way Down"
"Lazy Eye"
"Iris"
"Slide"
"Dizzy"
"Black Balloon"
"Broadway"
"Here Is Gone"
"Big Machine"
"Sympathy"
"Give a Little Bit"
"Better Days"
"Let Love In"
"Stay with You"
"Before It's Too Late (Sam and Mikaela's Theme)"
"Real"
"Home"
"Notbroken"
"All That You Are"
"Rebel Beat"
"Come to Me"
"Caught in the Storm"
"So Alive"
"Over and Over"
Other songs
"Laughing"
"So Far Away"
Tours
Something for the Rest of Us Tour
2013 Summer Tour
Canada 2014
The Otis Midnight Sessions
2014 Summer Tour
Boxes Tour
Related material
Discography
Lance Diamond
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Come_to_Me_(Goo_Goo_Dolls_song)&oldid=775257792"
Categories:
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Spider web
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Spider's Web" redirects here. For other uses, see Spider's Web (disambiguation).
"Cobweb" redirects here. For other uses, see Cobweb (disambiguation).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A classic circular form spider's web
Opadometa fastigata weaving the web. See the silk coming from the spinneret glands located at the tip of the abdomen.
Spiral orb webs in Karijini, Western Australia
Garden Orbweaver with beetle prey caught in its web
A spider web, spiderweb, spider's web, or cobweb (from the archaic word coppe, meaning "spider")[1] is a device created by a spider out of proteinaceous spider silk extruded from its spinnerets, generally meant to catch its prey.
Spider webs have existed for at least 100 million years, as witnessed in a rare find of Early Cretaceous amber from Sussex, southern England.[2] Insects can get trapped in spider webs, providing nutrition to the spider; however, not all spiders build webs to catch prey, and some do not build webs at all. "Spider web" is typically used to refer to a web that is apparently still in use (i.e. clean), whereas "cobweb" refers to abandoned (i.e. dusty) webs.[3] However, "cobweb" is used to describe the tangled three-dimensional web[4] of some spiders of the Theridiidae family. While this large family is also known as the tangle-web spiders, cobweb spiders and comb-footed spiders, they actually have a huge range of web architectures.
Contents
[hide]
1 Silk production
2 Types
2.1 Orb web construction
3 Uses
3.1 Uses by humans
4 Adhesive properties
5 Communal spider webs
6 Outside influences
7 Low gravity
8 In popular culture
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Silk production[edit]
See also: Spider silk
Clearly visible spider silk production
Zygiella orb web
Infographic illustrating the process of constructing an orb web
Spider web covered in hoar frost
When spiders moved from the water to the land in the Early Devonian period, they started making silk to protect their bodies and their eggs.[3][5] Spiders gradually started using silk for hunting purposes, first as guide lines and signal lines, then as ground or bush webs, and eventually as the aerial webs that are familiar today.[6]
Spiders produce silk from their spinneret glands located at the tip of their abdomen. Each gland produces a thread for a special purpose – for example a trailed safety line, sticky silk for trapping prey or fine silk for wrapping it. Spiders use different gland types to produce different silks, and some spiders are capable of producing up to eight different silks during their lifetime.[7]
Most spiders have three pairs of spinnerets, each having its own function – there are also spiders with just one pair and others with as many as four pairs.
Webs allow a spider to catch prey without having to expend energy by running it down. Thus it is an efficient method of gathering food. However, constructing the web is in itself an energetically costly process because of the large amount of protein required, in the form of silk. In addition, after a time the silk will lose its stickiness and thus become inefficient at capturing prey. It is common for spiders to eat their own web daily to recoup some of the energy used in spinning. The silk proteins are thus recycled.
The tensile strength of spider silk is greater than the same weight of steel and has much greater elasticity. Its microstructure is under investigation for potential applications in industry, including bullet-proof vests and artificial tendons. Researchers have used genetically modified mammals to produce the proteins needed to make this material.[8][9][10]
Types[edit]
Argiope sp. sitting on web decorations at the center of the web
There are a few types of spider webs found in the wild, and many spiders are classified by the webs they weave. Different types of spider webs include:
Spiral orb webs, associated primarily with the family Araneidae, as well as Tetragnathidae and Uloboridae[11]
Tangle webs or cobwebs, associated with the family Theridiidae
Funnel webs, with associations divided into primitive and modern
Tubular webs, which run up the bases of trees or along the ground
Sheet webs
Several different types of silk may be used in web construction, including a "sticky" capture silk and "fluffy" capture silk, depending on the type of spider. Webs may be in a vertical plane (most orb webs), a horizontal plane (sheet webs), or at any angle in between. It is hypothesized that these types of aerial webs co-evolved with the evolution of winged insects. As insects are spiders' main prey, it is likely that they would impose strong selectional forces on the foraging behavior of spiders.[3][12] Most commonly found in the sheet-web spider families, some webs will have loose, irregular tangles of silk above them. These tangled obstacle courses serve to disorient and knock down flying insects, making them more vulnerable to being trapped on the web below. They may also help to protect the spider from predators such as birds and wasps.[13]
Orb web construction[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A typical orb web constructed by an Araneus (family Araneidae) spider.
Most orb weavers construct webs in a vertical plane, although there are exceptions, such as Uloborus diversus, which builds a horizontal web.[14] During the process of making an orb web, the spider will use its own body for measurements.
Many webs span gaps between objects which the spider could not cross by crawling. This is done by first producing a fine adhesive thread to drift on a faint breeze across a gap. When it sticks to a surface at the far end, the spider feels the change in the vibration. The spider reels in and tightens the first strand, then carefully walks along it and strengthens it with a second thread. This process is repeated until the thread is strong enough to support the rest of the web.
Play media
Larinioides cornutus builds its web.
After strengthening the first thread, the spider continues to make a Y-shaped netting. The first three radials of the web are now constructed. More radials are added, making sure that the distance between each radial and the next is small enough to cross. This means that the number of radials in a web directly depends on the size of the spider plus the size of the web. It is common for a web to be about 20 times the size of the spider building it.
After the radials are complete, the spider fortifies the center of the web with about five circular threads. It makes a spiral of non-sticky, widely spaced threads to enable it to move easily around its own web during construction, working from the inside outward. Then, beginning from the outside and moving inward, the spider methodically replaces this spiral with a more closely spaced one made of adhesive threads. It uses the initial radiating lines as well as the non-sticky spirals as guide lines. The spaces between each spiral and the next are directly proportional to the distance from the tip of its back legs to its spinners. This is one way the spider uses its own body as a measuring/spacing device. While the sticky spirals are formed, the non-adhesive spirals are removed as there is no need for them any more.
Australian garden orb weaver spider, after having captured prey
After the spider has completed its web, it chews off the initial three center spiral threads then sits and waits. If the web is broken without any structural damage during the construction, the spider does not make any initial attempts to rectify the problem.
The spider, after spinning its web, then waits on or near the web for a prey animal to become trapped. The spider senses the impact and struggle of a prey animal by vibrations transmitted through the web. A spider positioned in the middle of the web makes for a highly visible prey for birds and other predators, even without web decorations; many day-hunting orb-web spinners reduce this risk by hiding at the edge of the web with one foot on a signal line from the hub or by appearing to be inedible or unappetizing.
Spiders do not usually adhere to their own webs, because they are able to spin both sticky and non-sticky types of silk, and are careful to travel across only non-sticky portions of the web. However, they are not immune to their own glue. Some of the strands of the web are sticky, and others are not. For example, if a spider has chosen to wait along the outer edges of its web, it may spin a non-sticky prey or signal line to the web hub to monitor web movement. However, in the course of spinning sticky strands, spiders have to touch these sticky strands. They do this without sticking by using careful movements, dense hairs and nonstick coatings on their feet to prevent adhesion.[15]
Uses[edit]
A soldier ant finds itself entangled in the web of a garden spider.
Some species of spider do not use webs for capturing prey directly, instead pouncing from concealment (e.g. trapdoor spiders) or running them down in open chase (e.g. wolf spiders). The net-casting spider balances the two methods of running and web spinning in its feeding habits. This spider weaves a small net which it attaches to its front legs. It then lurks in wait for potential prey and, when such prey arrives, lunges forward to wrap its victim in the net, bite and paralyze it. Hence, this spider expends less energy catching prey than a primitive hunter such as the wolf spider. It also avoids the energy loss of weaving a large orb web.
Some spiders manage to use the signaling-snare technique of a web without spinning a web at all. Several types of water-dwelling spiders rest their feet on the water's surface in much the same manner as an orb-web user. When an insect falls onto the water and is ensnared by surface tension, the spider can detect the vibrations and run out to capture the prey.
Uses by humans[edit]
Cobweb paintings, which began during the 16th century in a remote valley of the Austrian Tyrolean Alps, were created on fabrics consisting of layered and wound cobwebs, stretched over cardboard to make a mat, and strengthened by brushing with milk diluted in water. A small brush was then used to apply watercolor to the cobwebs, or custom tools to create engravings. Fewer than a hundred cobweb paintings survive today, most of which are held in private collections.[16]
In traditional European medicine, cobwebs are used on wounds and cuts and seem to help healing and reduce bleeding.[17] Spider webs are rich in vitamin K, which can be effective in clotting blood. Webs were used several hundred years ago as gauze pads to stop an injured person's bleeding.[18]
Spider web strands have been used for crosshairs or reticles in telescopes.[citation needed]
Adhesive properties[edit]
The stickiness of spiders' webs is courtesy of droplets of glue suspended on the silk threads. This glue is multifunctional – that is, its behavior depends on how quickly something touching it attempts to withdraw. At high velocities, they function as an elastic solid, resembling rubber; at lower velocities, they simply act as a sticky glue. This allows them to retain a grip on attached food particles.[19] The web is also electrically conductive which causes the silk threads to spring out to trap their quarry, as flying insects tend to gain a static charge which attracts the silk.[20]
Communal spider webs[edit]
After severe, extensive flooding in Sindh, Pakistan, many trees were covered with spider webs.
Occasionally, a group of spiders may build webs together in the same area.
Massive flooding in Pakistan during the 2010 monsoon drove spiders above the waterline, into trees. The result was trees covered with spider webs.[21]
The communal spider web at Lake Tawakoni State Park
One such web, reported in 2007 at Lake Tawakoni State Park in Texas, measured 200 yards (180 m) across. Entomologists believe it may be the result of social cobweb spiders or of spiders building webs to spread out from one another. There is no consensus on how common this occurrence is.[22]
Outside influences[edit]
Certain drugs, including caffeine, affect the way spiders build webs.
Administering certain drugs to spiders affects the structure of the webs they build. It has been proposed by some that this could be used as a method of documenting and measuring the toxicity of various substances.[23][24]
Low gravity[edit]
It has been observed that being in Earth's orbit has an effect on the structure of spider webs in space.[25]
Spider webs were spun in low earth orbit in 1973 aboard Skylab, involving two female European garden spiders (cross spiders) called Arabella and Anita, as part of an experiment on the Skylab 3 mission.[26] The aim of the experiment was to test whether the two spiders would spin webs in space, and, if so, whether these webs would be the same as those that spiders produced on Earth. The experiment was a student project of Judy Miles of Lexington, Massachusetts.[26]
After the launch on July 28, 1973, and entering Skylab, the spiders were released by astronaut Owen Garriott into a box that resembled a window frame.[26] The spiders proceeded to construct their web while a camera took photographs and examined the spiders' behavior in a zero-gravity environment. Both spiders took a long time to adapt to their weightless existence. However, after a day, Arabella spun the first web in the experimental cage, although it was initially incomplete.
The first web spun by the spider Arabella in orbit
The web was completed the following day. The crew members were prompted to expand the initial protocol. They fed and watered the spiders, giving them a house fly.[27] The first web was removed on August 13 to allow the spider to construct a second web. At first, the spider failed to construct a new web. When given more water, it built a second web. This time, it was more elaborate than the first. Both spiders died during the mission, possibly from dehydration.[26]
When scientists were given the opportunity to study the webs, they discovered that the space webs were finer than normal Earth webs, and although the patterns of the web were not totally dissimilar, variations were spotted, and there was a definite difference in the characteristics of the web. Additionally, while the webs were finer overall, the space web had variations in thickness in places: some places were slightly thinner, and others slightly thicker. This was unusual, because Earth webs have been observed to have uniform thickness.[28]
In popular culture[edit]
Spider webs play a crucial role in the children's novel Charlotte's Web. Webs are also featured in many other cultural depictions of spiders. In films, illustration, and other visual arts, spider webs may be used to readily suggest a "spooky" atmosphere, or imply neglect or the passage of time. Artificial "spider webs" are a common element of Halloween decorations. Spider webs are a common image in tattoo art, often symbolizing long periods of time spent in prison, or used simply to fill gaps between other images.[29]
Some observers believe that a small spider is depicted, perched on the shield surrounding the number "1", in the upper-right corner of the front side (obverse) of the United States one-dollar bill. This perception is enhanced by the resemblance of the background image of intertwining fine lines to a stylized spider web. However, other observers believe the figure is an owl.[30]
Artificial spider webs are used by the superhero Spider-Man as a method of quick transportation.
The notable tensile strength of spider webs is often exaggerated in science fiction, often as an plot device to justify the presence of artificially giant spiders.
See also[edit]
Filter feeder
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Compact Oxford English Dictionary: cobweb
Jump up ^ Brasier, Cotton & Yenney 2009
^ Jump up to: a b c Vollrath, F.; Selden, P. (December 2007). "The role of behavior in the evolution of spiders, silks, and webs". Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 38: 819–46. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110221.
Jump up ^ O.E.D.
Jump up ^ Kaston, B.J. (May 1964). "The evolution of spider webs". American Zoologist. 4 (2): 191–207. JSTOR 3881292. doi:10.1093/icb/4.2.191.
Jump up ^ Blackedge, T. A.; Scharff, N.; Coddington, J. A.; Szuts, T.; Wenzel, J. W.; Hayashi, C. Y.; Agnarsson, I. (2009). "Reconstructing web evolution and spider diversification in the molecular era". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 106 (13): 5229–34. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.5229B. PMC 2656561  . PMID 19289848. doi:10.1073/pnas.0901377106.
Jump up ^ Craig, C. L. (1997). "Evolution of arthropod silks". Annual Review of Entomology. 42: 231–67. PMID 15012314. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.42.1.231.
Jump up ^ "GM goat spins web based future". BBC News. 21 August 2000. Retrieved 2008-01-06.
Jump up ^ Becker, Nathan; Oroudjev, Emin; Mutz, Stephanie; Cleveland, Jason P.; Hansma, Paul K.; Hayashi, Cheryl Y.; Makarov, Dmitrii E.; Hansma, Helen G. (2003). "Molecular nanosprings in spider capture-silk threads". Nature Materials. 2 (4): 278–83. Bibcode:2003NatMa...2..278B. PMID 12690403. doi:10.1038/nmat858.
Jump up ^ Connor, Steve (18 January 2002). "A spider's web that could catch an F-16". The Independent. Independent News and Media Limited. Retrieved 2008-01-06.
Jump up ^ Bond, J. E.; Opell, B. D. (1998). "Testing adaptive radiation and key innovation hypotheses in spiders". Evolution. 52 (2): 403–14. doi:10.2307/2411077.
Jump up ^ Penalver, E.; Grimaldi, D. A.; Delclos, X. (2006). "Early Cretaceous spider web with its prey". Science. 312 (5781): 1761–61. PMID 16794072. doi:10.1126/science.1126628.
Jump up ^ Blackledge, T.A.; Coddington, J.A.; Gillespie, R.G. (January 2003). "Are three-dimensional spider webs defensive adaptations?". Ecology Letters. 6 (1): 13–18. doi:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2003.00384.x.
Jump up ^ "Uloborus diversus". Table Grape Spider ID. Retrieved 2017-06-10.
Jump up ^ Briceno, R.; Eberhard, W. (2012). "TSpiders avoid sticking to their webs: clever leg movements, branched drip-tip setae, and anti-adhesive surfaces". Naturwissenschaften. 99 (4): 337–41. Bibcode:2012NW.....99..337B. PMID 22382404. doi:10.1007/s00114-012-0901-9.
Jump up ^ Hock, Lauren (November 13, 2008). "Cobweb Art a Triumph of Whimsy Over Practicality". Northwestern University. Retrieved 2008-11-13.
Jump up ^ "German pharmacist used cobwebs". Channel 4. September 10, 2008. Archived from the original on June 16, 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-10.
Jump up ^ Jackson, Robert R (1974). "Effects of D-Amphetamine Sulphate and Diasepam on Thread Connection Fine Structure in a Spider's Web" (PDF). North Carolina Department of Mental Health.
Jump up ^ Sahni, Vasav; Blackledge, Todd A.; Dhinojwala, Ali (2010). "Viscoelastic solids explain spider web stickiness". Nature Communications. 1 (2): 1. Bibcode:2010NatCo...1E..19S. PMID 20975677. doi:10.1038/ncomms1019.
Jump up ^ Whipple, Tom (17 January 2014). "The shocking secret of a spider’s web". The Times: Nature. Times Newspapers Limited. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Than, Ker (31 March 2011). "Trees Cocooned in Webs After Flood". National Geographic.
Jump up ^ "Spider web engulfs Texas park trail". Associated Press. August 30, 2007. Retrieved 2007-08-30. [dead link]
Jump up ^ Noever, R.; Cronise, J.; Relwani, R.A. (1995). "Using spider-web patterns to determine toxicity". NASA Tech Briefs. 19 (4): 82.
Jump up ^ "Spiders on speed get weaving". New Scientist. 29 April 1995. Retrieved 2006-09-08.
Jump up ^ Witt, P.N.; Scarboro, M.B.; Peakall, D.B.; Gause, R. (1976). "Spider web-building in outer space: Evaluation of records from the Skylab spider experiment" (PDF). Am. J. Arachnol. 4 (2): 115–.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Burgess, Colin; Dubbs, Chris (2007). Animals in Space: From Research Rockets to the Space Shuttle. Chichester UK: Praxis. pp. 323–26. ISBN 0-387-36053-0.
Jump up ^ "Spiders in Space on Skylab 3". About.com. Retrieved 2010-08-13.
Jump up ^ http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/search/Details/Earliest-spider-web-in-space/63486.htm
Jump up ^ https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-meaning-of-a-spider-web-tattoo-on-your-elbow
Jump up ^ https://terrific-top10.com/2013/11/11/top-10-images-hidden-on-the-one-dollar-bill/
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Spider web.
Movies and animation on web building in Araneus diadematus ‒ University of Basil
Oldest known spider web A 110 million-year-old web preserved in amber
Giant Spider Webs ‒ Photos and story on BadSpiderBites.com (2007)
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