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Great Victoria Desert
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Great Victoria
Desert
The IBRA regions, with Great Victoria Desert in red
Country
Australia
States
Western Australia, South Australia
Width
700 km (435 mi), E/W
Area
348,750 km2 (134,653 sq mi)
Biome
Desert
The Great Victoria Desert, an interim Australian bioregion, is a sparsely populated desert area in Western Australia and South Australia.
Contents
[hide]
1 Location and description
2 Habitation
3 History
4 Environment
4.1 Flora
4.2 Fauna
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Location and description[edit]
NASA - Visible Earth, the Great Victoria Desert is in the center of the image, north of the Nullarbor Plain.
The Great Victoria is the largest desert in Australia[1] and consists of many small sandhills, grassland plains, areas with a closely packed surface of pebbles (called desert pavement or gibber plains) and salt lakes. It is over 700 kilometres (430 mi) wide (from west to east) and covers an area of 348,750 square kilometres (134,650 sq mi) from the Eastern Goldfields region of Western Australia to the Gawler Ranges in South Australia. The Western Australia Mallee shrub ecoregion lies to the west, the Little Sandy Desert to the northwest, the Gibson Desert and the Central Ranges xeric shrublands to the north, the Tirari and Sturt Stony deserts to the east, while the Nullarbor Plain to the south separates it from the Southern Ocean. Average annual rainfall is low and irregular, ranging from 200 to 250 mm (7.9 to 9.8 in) per year. Thunderstorms are relatively common in the Great Victoria Desert, with an average of 15–20 thunderstorms per annum. Summer daytime temperatures range from 32 to 40 °C (90 to 104 °F) while in winter, this falls to 18 to 23 °C (64 to 73 °F).
Habitation[edit]
The majority of people living in the region are Indigenous Australians from different groups including the Kogara, the Mirning and the Pitjantjatjara. It is the part of Australia with the most populous and most healthy indigenous population.[citation needed] Aboriginal populations have been increasing in this region. Young Indigenous adults from the Great Victoria Desert region work in the Wilurarra Creative programs to maintain and develop their culture.[2]
Despite its isolated location the Great Victoria is bisected by very rough tracks including the Connie Sue Highway and the Anne Beadell Highway.
Human activity has included some mining and nuclear weapons testing.[3]
History[edit]
In 1875, British explorer Ernest Giles became the first European to cross the desert. He named the desert after the then-reigning British monarch, Queen Victoria. In 1891, David Lindsey's expedition traveled across this area from north to south. Frank Hann was looking for gold in this area between 1903 and 1908. Len Beadell explored the area in the 1960s.
Environment[edit]
Serpentine Lakes, South Australia, 2011
The Great Victoria desert is a World Wildlife Fund ecoregion [4] and an Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA) region of the same name.[5]
As this area has had very limited use for agriculture, habitats remain largely undisturbed while parts of the desert are protected areas including Mamungari Conservation Park (formerly known as Unnamed Conservation Park) in South Australia, a large area of pristine arid zone wilderness which possesses cultural significance and is one of the fourteen World Biosphere Reserves[6] in Australia. Habitat is also preserved in the large Aboriginal local government area of Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara in South Australia and in the Great Victoria Desert Nature Reserve of Western Australia.
The nuclear weapons trials carried out by the United Kingdom at Maralinga and Emu Field in the 1950s and early 1960s have left areas contaminated with plutonium-239 and other radioactive material.
Flora[edit]
Only the hardiest of plants can survive in much of this environment. Between the sand ridges there are areas of wooded steppe consisting of Eucalyptus gongylocarpa, Eucalyptus youngiana and mulga (Acacia aneura) shrubs scattered over areas of resilient spinifex grasses particularly Triodia basedowii.
Fauna[edit]
Wildlife adapted to these harsh conditions includes few large birds or mammals. However, the desert does sustain many types of lizard including the vulnerable great desert skink (Egernia kintorei) and a number of small marsupials including the endangered sandhill dunnart (Sminthopsis psammophila) and the crest-tailed mulgara (Dasycercus cristicauda). One way to survive here is to burrow into the sands, as a number of the desert's animals, including the southern marsupial mole (Notoryctes typhlops), and the water-holding frog do. Birds include the chestnut-breasted whiteface (Aphelocephala pectoralis) found on the eastern edge of the desert and the malleefowl of Mamungari Conservation Park. Predators of the desert include the dingo (as the desert is north of the Dingo Fence) and two large monitor lizards, the perentie (Varanus giganteus) and the sand goanna (Varanus gouldii).
See also[edit]
Australia portal
Geography portal
Deserts of Australia
List of deserts by area
Nullarbor Plain
Tallaringa Conservation Park
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Great Victoria Desert – The Largest Desert in Australia. Birgit Bradtke. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Wilurarra Creative 2011;
Jump up ^ "Southern Australia". World Wildlife Fund. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Great Victoria desert". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.
Jump up ^ IBRA Version 7 data
Jump up ^ Australia's Biosphere Reserves. Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Populations and Communities. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
Shephard, Mark (1995), The Great Victoria Desert : north of the Nullarbor, south of the centre, Reed Books, ISBN 978-0-7301-0485-8
Joseph, Leo; Greenslade, Penelope; Barley, R. H. (Rachel); Nature Conservation Society of South Australia; Barley, Rachel (1986), The Great Victoria Desert, Nature Conservation Society of South Australia Inc, ISBN 978-0-949751-08-9
Peppas, Lynn (2013), The Great Victoria Desert, St. Catharines, Ontario Crabtree Publishing Company, ISBN 978-1-4271-9100-7
Friebe, Marlene; Matheson, W. E; South Australia. Department for Environment and Heritage; Friends of the Great Victoria Desert Parks (2006), Shrubs and trees of the Great Victoria Desert, Friends of the Great Victoria Desert Parks with the assistance of the Dept. for Environment and Heritage, ISBN 978-0-646-45948-6
Friends of the Great Victoria Desert Parks (S.A.) (2007), Friends of the Great Victoria Desert, The Friends of the Great Victoria Desert Parks, retrieved 25 June 2017
External links[edit]
Online natural history of Great Victoria Desert
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Coordinates: 29°09′08″S 129°15′35″E / 29.1521612833°S 129.259643555°E / -29.1521612833; 129.259643555
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Victoria_Desert&oldid=806809590"
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text:
Oath of Allegiance (United States)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Oath of allegiance.
U.S. military personnel state the Oath of Allegiance aboard the USS Midway museum in November 2010.
15 people from ten countries take the United States Oath of Allegiance on World Refugee Day in Boise, Idaho in June 2015.
U.S. military personnel take the oath of allegiance at Baghdad's al-Faw Palace in April 2008.
The United States Oath of Allegiance, officially referred to as the "Oath of Allegiance," 8 C.F.R. Part 337 (2008), is an allegiance oath that must be taken by all immigrants who wish to become United States citizens.
The Oath of Allegiance may be administered by USCIS officials; by immigration judges; and by eligible courts.[1][a]
Contents
[hide]
1 Text
1.1 Exemptions
2 History
3 Changing the oath
4 Incidents and controversies
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
Text[edit]
The current oath is as follows:
I hereby declare, on oath, that I absolutely and entirely renounce and abjure all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty of whom or which I have heretofore been a subject or citizen; that I will support and defend the Constitution and laws of the United States of America against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the Armed Forces of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform work of national importance under civilian direction when required by the law; and that I take this obligation freely without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; so help me God.[2]
Exemptions[edit]
8 C.F.R. 337.1 provides that the phrase "so help me God" is optional and that the words ‘on oath’ can be substituted with ‘and solemnly affirm’.
8 U.S.C. § 1448 provides that if the prospective citizen is unable or unwilling to promise to bear arms or perform noncombatant military service because of "religious training and belief", they may request to leave out those clauses. The law specifies:
The term “religious training and belief” as used in this section shall mean an individual’s belief in a relation to a Supreme Being involving duties superior to those arising from any human relation, but does not include essentially political, sociological, or philosophical views or a merely personal moral code.[3]
Qualifying for this exemption may require supporting documentation from the applicant's religious organization.[4] The applicant is not required to belong to a specific religious group, but must have "a sincere and meaningful belief that has a place in the applicant’s life that is equivalent to that of a religious belief".[5]
History[edit]
During the Revolutionary War, oaths of allegiance were administered to officers of the Continental Army, pursuant to a Congressional resolution of February 3, 1778.[6] An example appears below.
I James Glentworth, Lieut, of 6th Pennya. Reg. do acknowledge
the UNITED STATES of AMERICA to be Free, Independent and Sovereign States, and declare that the people thereof owe no allegiance or obedience to George the Third, King of Great Britain; and I renounce, refuse and abjure any allegiance or obedience to him ; and I do Swear that I will, to the utmost of my power, support, maintain and defend the said United States against the said King George the Third, his heirs and successors, and his or their abettors, assistants and adherents, and will serve the said United States in the office of Lieutenant which I now hold, with fidelity, according to the best of my skill and understanding.
JAMES GLENTWORTH.
Sworn at the Valley Forge Camp this 11th day of May, 1778, before me
STIRLING, M. G.[7]
The Oath of Allegiance for prospective citizens originated with the Naturalization Act of 1790, which required applicants to take an oath or affirmation "to support the constitution of the United States", but did not provide a text. The Naturalization Act of 1795 added renunciation of the new citizen's former sovereign to the oath. The Naturalization Act of 1906 added the section of the oath requiring new citizens to defend the Constitution and laws of the United States of America against all enemies, foreign and domestic; and bear true faith and allegiance to the same.
The Oath acquired a standard text in 1929.[2] Prior to then, spoken oaths were adapted from naturalization law, and each court could develop its own procedures for administering the oath.
The Internal Security Act of 1950 added the text about bearing arms and performing noncombatant service in the armed forces of the United States. The section about performing work of national importance under civilian direction was added by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952.
Changing the oath[edit]
The current exact text of the Oath of Citizenship is established only in the form of an administrative regulation promulgated by the executive branch. Under the Administrative Procedure Act, CIS could theoretically change the text of the oath at any time, so long as the new text reasonably meets the "five principles" mandated by the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1953. These principles are:
allegiance to the United States Constitution,
renunciation of allegiance to any foreign country to which the immigrant has had previous allegiances
defense of the Constitution against enemies "foreign and domestic"
promise to serve in the United States Armed Forces when required by law (either combat or non-combat)
promise to perform civilian duties of "national importance" when required by law
There has been some controversy about the wording of the oath, parts of which are based on the British Oath of Supremacy[citation needed] which was written in the 16th Century. As a result, some[who?] have suggested much of the language is antiquated and confusing. In the fall of 2003, CIS planned to change the oath of citizenship in time for Citizenship Day (September 17).[8] The proposed oath was as follows:
Solemnly, freely, and without mental reservation, I hereby renounce under oath all allegiance to any foreign state. My fidelity and allegiance from this day forward is to the United States of America. I pledge to support, honor, and be loyal to the United States, its Constitution, and its laws. Where and if lawfully required, I further commit myself to defend the Constitution and laws of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic, either by military, noncombatant, or civilian service. This I do solemnly swear, so help me God.[9]
The introduction of the new oath was scrapped by the U.S. House of Representatives Judiciary Subcommittee on Immigration, Border Security, and Claims on April 1, 2004.[10]
Incidents and controversies[edit]
In United States v. Schwimmer (1929), the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the denial of citizenship to an applicant who declared not to be willing to "take up arms personally" in defense of the United States. The applicant, Hungarian-born female suffragist Rosika Schwimmer, had written that she was an "uncompromising pacifist" with "no sense of nationalism, only a cosmic consciousness of belonging to the human family". The Court found that persons holding such views were "liable to be incapable of the attachment for and devotion to the principles of our Constitution" that are required for naturalization.[11]
English writer Aldous Huxley, author of Brave New World, applied for U.S. citizenship in 1953 after having lived in the United States for fourteen years. When asked if he would bear arms and perform noncombatant military service as required by the Oath, Huxley answered in the negative and was summoned before a judge. Huxley explained that his objection was based on philosophical convictions about the evil of war rather than religious beliefs. The judge adjourned proceedings and postponed a decision on Huxley's application in order to report to Washington. Huxley never received U.S. citizenship.[12]
In the 1968 case In re Weitzman, a U.S. district court considered the naturalization petition of Brenda Weitzman, a 25-year-old mother of two children from South Africa and religious non-believer who had refused to take the part of the Oath requiring her to serve in the Armed Forces. She expressed a total "objection to warfare and the bearing of arms" (conscientious objectorship), being "repulsed by no particular war, but by all killing." The court, finding that her stance was "based on a personal moral code and not on religious training and belief" and that she did not recognize anything "tantamount to a God or a Supreme Being", denied her petition.[13]
The precedent relied upon was United States v. Seeger. However the Supreme Court, in their 1970 ruling on Welsh v. United States,[14] having noted the case factually similar and controlled by United States v. Seeger, determined in respect to the provision in the Universal Military Training and Service Act that exempts from military service persons who by reason of "religious training and belief" are conscientiously opposed to war, that the Act:
contravenes the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment by exempting those whose conscientious objection claims are founded on a theistic belief, while not exempting those whose claims are based on a secular belief. To comport with that clause, an exemption must be "neutral" and include those whose belief emanates from a purely moral, ethical, or philosophical source.
—  MR. JUSTICE HARLAN
This judgement was used in 2013 to reverse a denial of citizenship to Margaret Doughty, a 65 year old British atheist who had lived in the US for 30 years, unless she could show proof of membership in a church with pacifist beliefs to support her claim that she was a conscientious objector entitled to omit the Oath's clause about bearing arms.[15] The USCIS retracted their demand after receiving a letter from an atheist group that objected based on Welsh vs. United States.[16][14]
See also[edit]
Ideological restrictions on naturalization in U.S. law
Oath of office (United States)
Pledge of Allegiance
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Section 310(b)(1)(A) of the Immigration and Naturalization Act provides that "an eligible court ... shall have authority to administer such oath of allegiance to persons residing within the jurisdiction of the court." Section 310(b)(5) defines "eligible court" for this purposes as "a district court of the United States in any State" or "any court of record in any State having a seal, a clerk, and jurisdiction in actions in law or equity, or law and equity, in which the amount in controversy is unlimited."
References[edit]
Jump up ^ USCIS Policy Manual, Vol. 12 (Citizenship & Naturalization), Part J (Oath of Allegiance), Chapter 2 (The Oath of Allegiance).
^ Jump up to: a b Oath of Allegiance for Naturalized Citizens, Citizenship and Immigration Services, U.S. Department of Homeland Security, retrieved 2010-06-30
Jump up ^ 8 U.S.C. § 1448
Jump up ^ Chapter 5, A Guide to Naturalization.
Jump up ^ USCIS Policy Manual, 12 USCIS-PM J.3
Jump up ^ Waldenmaier, Nellie (1944). Some of the Earliest Oaths of Allegiance to the United States of America. Lancaster Press.
Jump up ^ Glentworth, James (1877). "The Oath Taken by the Officers at Valley Forge". The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. The Historical Society of Pennsylvania. 1 (2): 174. Retrieved 3 May 2016.
Jump up ^ US Citizenship and Immigration Services Fact Sheet
Jump up ^ John J. Miller (September 15, 2003), Oath on Ice, National Review Online, retrieved 2008-11-07
Jump up ^ Preserve Oath of Citizenship, the American Legion, April 1, 2004
Jump up ^ United States v. Schwimmer, 279 U.S. 644 (1929).
Jump up ^ Bedford, Sybille (2002). Aldous Huxley: A Biography. Ivan R Dee. ISBN 978-1-56663-454-0. , p. 531-535, 545-546.
Jump up ^ In re Weitzman
^ Jump up to: a b "Welsh v. United States". law.cornell.edu. Cornell University Law School. June 15, 1970. Retrieved September 1, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Atheist seeking US citizenship told to join church or be denied".
Jump up ^ "Margaret Doughty Approved For Citizenship As USCIS Backs Down In Flap Over Atheist Opposition To War".
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Walking Tall (2004 film)
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This article consists almost entirely of a plot summary. It should be expanded to provide more balanced coverage that includes real-world context. Please edit the article to focus on discussing the work rather than merely reiterating the plot. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Walking Tall
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Kevin Bray
Produced by
Ashok Amritraj
Jim Burke
Paul Schiff
Lucas Foster
Written by
David Klass
Channing Gibson
David Levien
Brian Koppelman
Mort Briskin (1973 screenplay)
Starring
The Rock
Johnny Knoxville
Neal McDonough
Kristen Wilson
Kevin Durand
Ashley Scott
Michael Bowen
Mike Dopud
Music by
Graeme Revell
Cinematography
Glen MacPherson
Edited by
George Bowers
Production
company
Hyde Park Entertainment
Mandeville Films
Burke/Samples/Foster Productions
WWE Films
Distributed by
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
Release date
April 2, 2004 (2004-04-02)
(United States)
Running time
86 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$46,000,000
Box office
$57,223,890
Walking Tall is a 2004 American action film. A remake of the 1973 film of the same name, it stars The Rock and Johnny Knoxville. It can be said to be loosely based on the real-life story of Sheriff Buford Pusser and utilized many elements from his life. A number of aspects were changed, including the main character's name (to "Chris Vaughn"), the character returning to his hometown as a war veteran, and the setting was moved from McNairy County, Tennessee to Kitsap County, Washington, United States.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Reception
5 Sequel
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Plot
Former U.S. Army Special Forces sergeant Chris Vaughn (The Rock) returns to his small home town in Kitsap County, Washington. Looking for work, he finds the local cedar mill was closed down three years prior by its heir, Jay Hamilton (Neal McDonough), who opened a new casino that now accounts for the majority of revenue for the local area. Hamilton, who was also Vaughn's school friend, invites him to a night of fun at the casino. While checking out the VIP lounge, Vaughn stumbles upon his childhood friend Deni (Ashley Scott), who is now working as a stripper. Later, he notices the craps dealer using loaded dice and demonstrates this to the patrons by placing a bet and calling out the roll before throwing the dice. When the floorman declares no payout, Vaughn instigates a fight. Although he beats down most of the security guards, he is subsequently subdued with a cattle prod and knocked unconscious. The security staff take Vaughn into the basement and Hamilton's right-hand man and head of security Booth (Kevin Durand) tortures him by cutting his torso with a utility knife before dumping him on a roadside. He is found by a trucker and hospitalized, but recovers quickly.
Vaughn goes to the sheriff, Stan Watkins (Michael Bowen), to press charges against the guards, but Sheriff Watkins refuses to allow him to do so because the casino is viewed as too important to the town's economy, stating that because of its position, the casino is considered a "no fly zone". After this, Vaughn also learns that his nephew, Pete (Khleo Thomas), experimented with crystal meth, which was sold to his friends by the casino security guards. Infuriated, Vaughn goes to the casino, and using a piece of lumber as a club, begins destroying casino property, and brutally beats the security guards when they attempt to stop him. Vaughn is apprehended by Sheriff Watkins and his deputies as he is driving away from the scene.
In the ensuing trial, all of Hamilton's security and staff testify against Vaughn. When the judge allows Vaughn to present his defense, he fires his appointed attorney, who is implicitly under Hamilton's employ. After making a civic speech about the town's great former self, Vaughn tells the jury and the rest of the town that if he's cleared of the charges, he will run for sheriff and clean up the town. To further emphasize his plea, Vaughn reveals the grotesque scars on his torso from his being tortured by the casino staff. He is then acquitted and wins the election for sheriff. Upon taking office, he summarily dismisses the entire police force and deputizes his friend, Ray Templeton (Johnny Knoxville), whom Vaughn feels he can trust, as well as help Vaughn learn about narcotics (Templeton revealed earlier that he served time in prison after becoming a drug addict).
Vaughn and Templeton find drugs on Booth and they take him into custody. In an attempt to make him reveal information on the town drug operation, they hold him captive in a garage and proceed to strip his truck into pieces in front of him, but he does not talk. Vaughn assigns Templeton to stand watch over his house, as he knows Hamilton will likely target his family. Vaughn himself remains at the sheriff's office to supervise Booth. He is visited by Deni, stopping by under the pretense of bringing him food and reveals that she quit her job as the casino stripper. The two end up spending the night together in the office. The next morning, Watkins and his deputies arrive at the Sheriff's office where they blow up Vaughn's truck and fire upon the building with machine guns. Recognizing his dangerous predicament, Booth pleads for Vaughn to let him out of his cell, prompting Vaughn to use Booth's perilous situation as leverage for information. Booth reveals that the old mill is where the drugs are being produced, but is immediately killed by the indiscriminate fire of the attackers. Vaughn manages to kill all of the attackers with Deni's help.
Vaughn's parents' house is attacked, but Templeton and Vaughn's father are able to dispatch the gunmen. After ensuring their safety, Vaughn heads for the mill where he discovers a meth lab as well as Hamilton, calmly waiting in a control room. Hamilton attempts to kill Vaughn with the mill equipment by dropping him through a trap door, but Vaughn drags Hamilton down with him and the two fall through a chute. Vaughn, whose leg is injured, manages to tend to his injury in a nearby forest before Hamilton attacks him with an axe. The two fight for their lives, with Vaughn ultimately coming out on top by beating Hamilton with a nearby uprooted tree, breaking his leg. Vaughn repeats what Hamilton said to him earlier "You're right, Jay. This does change our relationship. This is my town. You're under arrest." And Hamilton is arrested and taken into custody, with Templeton's assistance, Vaughn shuts down the casino. In the closing scene it is revealed that the local mill is back in use.
Cast
Dwayne Johnson as Christopher "Chris" Vaughn, Jr.
Johnny Knoxville as Ray Templeton
Neal McDonough as Jay Hamilton
Michael Bowen as Sheriff Stan Watkins
Kevin Durand as Booth
Kristen Wilson as Michelle Vaughn
Ashley Scott as Deni
Khleo Thomas as Pete Vaughn
John Beasley as Christopher Vaughn Sr.
Cobie Smulders as Beautiful Eye Candy in car
Production
In the original film, Pusser uses a wooden club to beat the criminals. Director Kevin Bray wanted to update it by making it a baseball bat. There were objections, so the compromise was just to add a handle. Although it was filmed in Squamish, British Columbia, Canada, the setting of this 2004 film is in semi-rural Kitsap County, Washington, and not in the McNairy County, Tennessee, where Buford Pusser originally served as a sheriff.
Reception
The film received mostly negative reviews from critics. Based on 133 reviews collected by the film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 25% of critics gave Walking Tall a positive review, with an average rating of 4.4/10, with the critics consensus: "The Rock makes a competent hero, but the movie is content to let a 2×4 do all the talking."[1]
The film grossed $57 million (worldwide total), with a budget of $46 million.[2]
Sequel
Walking Tall: The Payback and Walking Tall: Lone Justice are two direct-to-video sequels that have been released starring Kevin Sorbo.
See also
Vigilante film
References
Jump up ^ "Walking Tall (2004)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved November 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Walking Tall (2004)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved December 18, 2009.
External links
Official website
Walking Tall on IMDb
Walking Tall at the TCM Movie Database
Walking Tall at AllMovie
Walking Tall at Metacritic
[show]
v
t
e
Walking Tall
Originals
Walking Tall (1973)
Walking Tall Part 2 (1975)
Walking Tall: Final Chapter (1977)
Remakes
Walking Tall (2004)
Walking Tall: The Payback (2007)
Walking Tall: Lone Justice (2007)
Television productions
A Real American Hero (1978)
Walking Tall (1981)
Related topics
Buford Pusser
[show]
v
t
e
Films directed by Kevin Bray
All About the Benjamins (2002)
Walking Tall (2004)
Linewatch (2008)
[show]
v
t
e
Films by WWE Studios
Co-produced
The Scorpion King
The Rundown
Walking Tall
Behind Enemy Lines: Colombia
Christmas Bounty
Scooby-Doo! WrestleMania Mystery
The Flintstones & WWE: Stone Age SmackDown!
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Incarnate
Scooby-Doo! and WWE: Curse of the Speed Demon
Surf's Up 2: WaveMania
The Resurrection of Gavin Stone
The Jetsons & WWE: Robo-WrestleMania!
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The Day
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Les reines du ring
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Inside Out
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text:
Absorption of water
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The roots fix the plant in the soil giving it support but the most important and life supporting function of the roots is to absorb
(A) water and (B) mineral nutrients from the soil, and conduct them into the stem for supply to the leaves, flowers, fruits, etc...
A. NEED OF WATER
Besides being a constituent of Protoplasm , water is needed inside the plant body for 4 purposes: Photosynthesis , Transpiration , Transportation, Mechanical stiffness.
1. photosynthesis:water is used up in the Green Leaves as a raw material in the synthesis of glucose .
2.Transpiration: a large quantity of water is passed out as water vapour during transpiration, for cooling in hot weather, for producing a suction force , etc
3 transportation : transportation of substances in water solution from the root upwards into the shoot( mineral salts) or from leaves to other parts (sugar etc).
4 Mechanical stiffness : water provides turgidity ( fully distended condition) which is necessary for the stiffness of plant tissues.
B. NEED OF MINERAL NUTRIENTS
mineral nutrients required by the plant are absorbed from the soil by the roots only. some of these nutrients are observed as salts( nitrates, phosphates, sulphates, etc...) and some are simply as ions( potassium , calcium , magnesium , chlorine , etc...).These elements are required as constituents of cell and cell organelles as well as in the synthesis of a variety of compounds or enzymes within the cell.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ROOTS FOR ABSORBING WATER**
The ability of the roots to draw water from the soil is dependent on three characteristics:
(i) a huge surface area provided by the rootlets and root hairs ,
(ii)root hairs containing the solution (cell Sap) at a concentration higher than that of surrounding soil water and
(iii) Root hairs have thin walls

1.SURFACE AREA OF ROOTS IS ENORMOUS. it is a common experience that even a small Garden plants such as balsam when generally uprooted from the soil shows a thick bunch of rootlets(branch roots).
when carefully examined, each rootlets would show hundred of root hairs.If all root hairs of this plant where to be laid end to end, they would cover a length of many kilometres.

A botanist H.J.Dittmer(1937) worked out that a 4 month-old rye plant had an aggregate root length of about 600 km. The number of root hairs in it exceeded 14 billions and their estimated total length would have even exceed 10,000 km. Thus, alltogether, the root of any plant provides a huge surface area to facilitate the absorption of water.

2.ROOT-HAIRS CONTAIN CELL SAP, OF A HIGHER CONCENTRATION THAN THAT OF THE SURROUNDING WATER. Root hairs are the extensions of the outer( epidermal cells) of the roots. They also contain large vacuoles filled with a sort of solution called cell Sap. Some salts are dissolved in it and the cell sap, therefore, usually have a concentration higher than that of the surrounding water. This characteristics is an important requirement to draw in the outside water,i.e. for the occurrence of osmosis.
3.ROOT HAIR HAVE THIN WALLS. Like all plant cells, root-hairs also have two Outer layer- a cell wall and a cell membrane.
The cell wall is thin and permeable. It allows the movement of water molecules and dissolved substances freely in and out of the cell.
The cell membrane is very thin and semi- permeable which means that it allows water molecules to pass through, but not the larger molecules of the dissolved salts. The secret of the absorption of water from the soil by roots lies mainly in this characteristics.
Contents
[hide]
1 Active absorption
1.1 Active osmotic water absorption
1.2 Active non-osmotic water absorption
2 Passive absorption
3 See also
4 References
Active absorption[edit]
Active absorption refers to the absorption of water by roots with the help of ATP, generated by the root respiration: as the root cells actively take part in the process, it is called active absorption. According to Renner, active absorption takes place in low transpiring and well-watered plants, and 4% of total water absorption is carried out in this process. The active absorption is carried out by two theories; active osmotic water absorption and Active non-osmotic water absorption. In this process energy is required.
Active osmotic water absorption[edit]
This theory was given by Pari (1910) and Priestley (1921). According to this theory, the root cells behave as an ideal osmotic pressure system through which water moves up from the soil solution to the root xylem along an increasing gradient of D.P.D. (suction pressure, which is the real force for water absorption). If solute concentration is high and water potential is low in the root cells, water can enter from soil to root cells through endosmosis. Mineral nutrients are absorbed actively by the root cells due to utilisation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). As a result, the concentration of ions (osmotica) in the xylem vessels is more in comparison to the soil water. A concentration gradient is established between the root and the soil water. Hence, the solute potential of xylem water is more in comparison to that of soil and correspondingly water potential is low than the soil water.If stated, water potential is comparatively positive in the soil water. This gradient of water potential causes endosmosis. The endosmosis of water continues till the water potential both in the root and soil becomes equal. It is the absorption of minerals that utilise metabolic energy, but not water absorption. Hence, absorption of water is indirectly an active process in a plant's life.Active transport is in an opposite direction to that of diffusion.[1]
Active non-osmotic water absorption[edit]
This theory was given by Thimann (1951) and Kramer (1959). According to the theory, sometimes water is absorbed against a concentration gradient. This requires expenditure of metabolic energy released from respiration of root cells. There is no direct evidence, but some scientists suggest involvement of energy from respiration. In conclusion, it is said that, the evidences supporting active absorption of water are themselves poor.[2]
Passive absorption[edit]
This mechanism is carried out without utilisation of metabolic energy. Here, only the roots act as an organ of absorption or passage. Hence, sometimes it is called water absorption 'through roots', rather 'by' roots. It occurs in rapidly transpiring plants during the daytime, because of the opening of stomata and the atmospheric conditions. The force for absorption of water is created at the leaf end i.e. the transpiration pull. The main cause behind this transpiration pull, water is lifted up in the plant axis like a bucket of water is lifted by a person from a well. Transpiration pull is responsible for dragging water at the leaf end, the pull or force is transmitted down to the root through column of water in the xylem elements. The continuity of the water column remains intact due to the cohesion between the molecules and it act as a rope. Roots simply act as a passive organ of absorption. As transpiration proceeds, water absorption occurs simultaneously to compensate the water loss from the leaf end. Most volume of water entering plants is by means of passive absorption. Passive transport is no different from diffusion, it requires no input of energy: there is free movement of molecules from their higher concentration to their lower concentration. The water will enter the plant via the root cells that can be found in the roots where mainly passive absorption occurs. Also, with the absorption of water, minerals and nutrients are also absorbed.
See also[edit]
Atkins
Renner
Root
Thimann
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Arya, R.L., Arya, R, Arya, S., Kumar, J. (2015). Fundamentals Of Agriculture (Icar-Net, Jrf, Srf, Csir-Net, Upsc & Ifs). Scientific Publishers. p. 162. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ P. K. Gupta (2007). Genetics Classical To Modern. Rastogi Publications. p. 4019. ISBN 9788171338962.
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iv/plant-water-relations/absorption-water-by-plants.php
http://www.springerlink.com/content/qw62632354v4nm77/
https://www.jstor.org/stable/4353618
https://web.archive.org/web/20110114111737/http://www.wiziq.com/tutorial/70692-Biology-XI-11-Transport-in-plants-4-Mechanism-of-Water-Absorption
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Origin of replication
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The origin of replication (also called the replication origin) is a particular sequence in a genome at which replication is initiated.[1] This can either involve the replication of DNA in living organisms such as prokaryotes and eukaryotes, or that of DNA or RNA in viruses, such as double-stranded RNA viruses.[2]
DNA replication may proceed from this point bidirectionally or unidirectionally.[3]
The specific structure of the origin of replication varies somewhat from species to species, but all share some common characteristics such as high AT content (repeats of adenine and thymine are easier to separate because their base stacking interactions are not as strong as those of guanine and cytosine[4]). The origin of replication binds the pre-replication complex, a protein complex that recognizes, unwinds, and begins to copy DNA.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Types
2 Prokaryotic
2.1 Bacterial genome origins
2.2 Bacterial plasmid origins
3 Eukaryotic
4 Viral
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Types[edit]
The origin of replication are classified in two ways:
Narrow or broad host range
High- or low-copy number.
There are also no significant differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic origins of replication:
Most bacteria have a single circular molecule of DNA, and typically only a single origin of replication per circular chromosome.[5]
Most archaea have a single circular molecule of DNA, and several origins of replication along this circular chromosome.[6]
Eukaryotes often have multiple origins of replication on each linear chromosome that initiate at different times (replication timing), with up to 100,000 present in a single human cell.[7] Having many origins of replication helps to speed the duplication of their (usually) much larger store of genetic material. The segment of DNA that is copied starting from each unique replication origin is called a replicon.
Origins of replication are typically assigned names containing "ori".
Prokaryotic[edit]
Bacterial genome origins[edit]
The genome of E. coli consists of a single circular DNA molecule of approximately 4.6 x 106 nucleotide pairs. DNA replication typically begins at a single origin of replication. In E. coli, the origin of replication—oriC—consists of three A–T rich 13-mer repeats and four 9-mer repeats. Ten to 20 monomers of the replication initiator protein DnaA bind to the 9-mer repeats, and the DNA coils around this protein complex forming a protein core. This coiling stimulates the AT rich region in the 13-mer sequence to unwind, allowing the helicase loader DnaC to load the replicative helicase DnaB to each of the two unwound DNA strands. The helicase DnaB forms the basis of the primosome, a complex of enzymes to which DNA polymerase III is recruited before replication can occur .[8]
Bacterial plasmid origins[edit]
Many bacteria, including E. coli, contain plasmids that each contain an origin of replication. These are separate from the origins of replication that are used by the bacteria to copy their genome and often function very differently. For example, the E. coli plasmid pBR322 uses a protein called Rop/Rom to regulate the number of plasmids that are within each bacterial cell[citation needed]. The most common origin of replication that is used in plasmids for genetic engineering is called pUC. This origin is derived from pBR322 but it contains two mutations. One single point mutation in the origin itself and another that deletes the Rop/Rom gene. This removes all the regulatory constraints on the plasmids replication and the bacteria then go from producing 30–40 plasmids per cell with pBR322 up to producing over 500 with pUC. This allows genetic engineers to produce large quantities of DNA for research purposes. Other origins of replication include pSC101 (derived from Salmonella, around 5 copies per cell), 15A origin (derived from p15A, 10–20 copies per cell) and Bacterial artificial chromosomes (1 copy per cell).[9]
Eukaryotic[edit]
In eukaryotes, the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae were first identified by their ability to support the replication of mini-chromosomes or plasmids, giving rise to the name Autonomously replicating sequences or ARS elements. Each budding yeast origin consists of a short (~11 bp) essential DNA sequence (called the ARS consensus sequence or ACS) that recruits replication proteins.[citation needed]
In other eukaryotes, including humans, the base pair sequences at the replication origins vary. Despite this sequence variation, all the origins form a base for assembly of a group of proteins known collectively as the pre-replication complex (pre-RC):[citation needed]
First, the origin DNA is bound by the origin recognition complex (ORC) which, with help from two further protein factors (Cdc6 and Cdt1), load the mini chromosome maintenance (or MCM) protein complex.
Once assembled, this complex of proteins indicates that the replication origin is ready for activation. Once the replication origin is activated, the cell's DNA will be replicated.
In metazoans, pre-RC formation is inhibited by the protein geminin, which binds to and inactivates Cdt1. Regulation of replication prevents the DNA from being replicated more than once each cell cycle.[citation needed]
In humans an origin of replication has been originally identified near the Lamin B2 gene on chromosome 19 and the ORC binding to it has extensively been studied.[10]
Viral[edit]
Genome of human herpesvirus-6, a member of the Herpesviridae family. The origin of replication is labeled as "OOR."
Viruses often possess a single origin of replication.
A variety of proteins have been described as being involved in viral replication. For instance, Polyoma viruses utilize host cell DNA polymerases, which attach to a viral origin of replication if the T antigen is present.
See also[edit]
OriDB the DNA Replication Origin Database
Origin of transfer
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Technical Glossary Edward K. Wagner, Martinez Hewlett, David Bloom and David Camerini Basic Virology Third Edition, Blackwell publishing, 2007 ISBN 1-4051-4715-6
Jump up ^ Hulo C, de Castro E, Masson P, Bougueleret L, Bairoch A, Xenarios I, Le Mercier P (Jan 2011). "ViralZone: a knowledge resource to understand virus diversity". Nucleic Acids Res. 39: D576–82. doi:10.1093/nar/gkq901. PMC 3013774  . PMID 20947564.
Jump up ^ Martín-Parras L, Hernández P, Martínez-Robles ML, Schvartzman JB (August 1991). "Unidirectional replication as visualized by two-dimensional agarose gel electrophoresis". Journal of Molecular Biology. 220 (4): 843–53. doi:10.1016/0022-2836(91)90357-c. PMID 1880800.
Jump up ^ http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/content/34/2/564.full
Jump up ^ Mott ML, Berger JM (May 2007). "DNA replication initiation: mechanisms and regulation in bacteria". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 5 (5): 343–54. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1640. PMID 17435790.
Jump up ^ Kelman LM, Kelman Z (September 2004). "Multiple origins of replication in archaea". Trends in Microbiology. 12 (9): 399–401. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2004.07.001. PMID 15337158.
Jump up ^ Nasheuer HP, Smith R, Bauerschmidt C, Grosse F, Weisshart K (2002). "Initiation of eukaryotic DNA replication: regulation and mechanisms". Progress in Nucleic Acid Research and Molecular Biology. 72: 41–94. doi:10.1016/S0079-6603(02)72067-9. PMID 12206458.
Jump up ^ Baker TA, Wickner SH (1992). "Genetics and enzymology of DNA replication in Escherichia coli". Annual Review of Genetics. 26: 447–77. doi:10.1146/annurev.ge.26.120192.002311. PMID 1482121.
Jump up ^ oxfordgenetics.com/origins,.
Jump up ^ Falaschi A, Giacca M. The quest for a human ori, 'Genetica',1994;94(2-3):255-66
External links[edit]
Ori-Finder, an online software for prediction of bacterial and archaeal oriCs
Replication Origin at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
[hide]
v
t
e
DNA replication (comparing Prokaryotic to Eukaryotic)
Initiation
Prokaryotic
(initiation)
Pre-replication complex
dnaC
Cdc6
Helicase
dnaA
dnaB
T7
Primase
dnaG
Eukaryotic
(preparation in
G1 phase)
Pre-replication complex
Origin recognition complex
ORC1
ORC2
ORC3
ORC4
ORC5
ORC6
Cdc6
Cdt1
Minichromosome maintenance
MCM2
MCM3
MCM4
MCM5
MCM6
MCM7
Licensing factor
Autonomously replicating sequence
Single-strand binding protein
SSBP2
SSBP3
SSBP4
RNase H
RNASEH1
RNASEH2A
Helicase: HFM1
Primase: PRIM1
PRIM2
Both
Origin of replication/Ori/Replicon
Replication fork
Lagging and leading strands
Okazaki fragments
Primer
Replication
Prokaryotic
(elongation)
DNA polymerase III holoenzyme
dnaC
dnaE
dnaH
dnaN
dnaQ
dnaT
dnaX
holA
holB
holC
holD
holE
Replisome
DNA ligase
DNA clamp
Topoisomerase
DNA gyrase
Prokaryotic DNA polymerase: DNA polymerase I
Klenow fragment
Eukaryotic
(synthesis in
S phase)
Replication factor C
RFC1
Flap endonuclease
FEN1
Topoisomerase
Replication protein A
RPA1
Eukaryotic DNA polymerase:
alpha
POLA1
POLA2
PRIM1
PRIM2
delta
POLD1
POLD2
POLD3
POLD4
epsilon
POLE
POLE2
POLE3
POLE4
DNA clamp
PCNA
Control of chromosome duplication
Both
Movement: Processivity
DNA ligase
Termination
Telomere: Telomerase
TERT
TERC
DKC1
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