text:
Billiard ball
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Cue ball" redirects here. For the video game, see Jimmy White's 2: Cueball. For things called "Q-ball", see Q-ball (disambiguation).
Cue balls from (left to right):
Russian pool and kaisa—68 mm (2 11⁄16 in)
Carom—61.5 mm (2 7⁄16 in)
American-style pool—57.15 mm (2 1⁄4 in)
British-style pool (largish) —56 mm (2 3⁄16 in)
Snooker—52.5 mm (2 1⁄15 in)
Scaled-down pool—51 mm (2 in) for portable miniature tables
Not shown: half-scale's miniature pool—approximately 28.5 mm (1 1⁄8 in).
A billiard ball is a small, hard ball used in cue sports, such as carom billiards, pool, and snooker. The number, type, diameter, color, and pattern of the balls differ depending upon the specific game being played. Various particular ball properties such as hardness, friction coefficient and resilience are important to accuracy.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Types
2.1 Carom billiards
2.2 International pool
2.3 British-style pool (blackball)
2.4 Snooker
2.5 Other games
2.6 Training balls
2.7 Novelty balls
3 In popular culture
4 References
4.1 Patents
History[edit]
Early balls were made of various materials, including wood and clay (the latter remaining in use well into the 20th century). Although affordable ox-bone balls were in common use in Europe,[1] elephant ivory was favored since at least 1627 until the early 20th century;[2]:17 the earliest known written reference to ivory billiard balls is in the 1588 inventory of the Duke of Norfolk.[3] By the mid-19th century, elephants were being slaughtered for their ivory at an alarming rate, just to keep up with the demand for high-end billiard balls – no more than eight balls could be made from a single elephant's tusks.[citation needed] The billiard industry realized that the supply of elephants (their primary source of ivory) was endangered,[citation needed] as well as dangerous to obtain (the latter an issue of notable public concern at the turn of the 19th century).[2]:17 Inventors were challenged to come up with an alternative material that could be manufactured, with a US$10,000 prize being offered by a New York supplier,[2]:17 Phelan and Collender.[citation needed] (This would be worth approximately $183,850.0 in 2018[4].)
Although not the first artificial substance to be used for the balls (e.g. Sorel cement, invented in 1867, was marketed as an artificial ivory), John Wesley Hyatt invented a composition material in 1869 called nitrocellulose for billiard balls (US patent 50359, the first American patent for billiard balls). It is unclear if the cash prize was ever awarded, and there is no evidence suggesting he did in fact win it.[2]:17[5] By 1870 it was commercially branded Celluloid, the first industrial plastic. Unfortunately, the nature of celluloid made it volatile in production, occasionally exploding, which ultimately made this early plastic impractical.[2]:17 Urban legend has it that celluloid billiard balls themselves would occasionally explode during rough play, but no reliable sources have been found that can substantiate this.
Subsequently, to avoid the problem of celluloid instability, the industry experimented with various other synthetic materials for billiard balls such as Bakelite, Crystallite and other plastic compounds.
The exacting requirements of the billiard ball are met today with balls cast from plastic materials that are strongly resistant to cracking and chipping. Currently Saluc, under the brand names Aramith[6] and Brunswick Centennial,[7] manufactures phenolic resin balls. Other plastics and resins such as polyester (under various trade names) and clear acrylic are also used, by competing companies such as Elephant Balls Ltd.[8] and Frenzy Sports.[9]
Ivory balls remained in use in artistic billiards competition until the late 20th century.[2]:17
(See also Cue sports, "History" for more-general information on billiards history.)
Types[edit]
Carom billiards[edit]
A standard set of carom billiards balls (61.5 mm [2 7⁄16 in] diameter), including a red object ball, a plain white cue ball, and a dotted cue ball for the opponent. Some games use an additional object ball.
In the realm of carom (or carambole) games, billiard balls are the three (sometimes four) balls used to play straight-rail, three-cushion, balkline, and related games on pocketless billiards tables, as well as English billiards which is played on a table with pockets. The predominantly Asian game four-ball uses four balls (the name literally means "four-balls"). Carom balls are not numbered, and at 61–61.5 mm (between approximately 2 3⁄8 and 2 7⁄16 in) in diameter[10] are larger than pool balls. The 61.5 mm size are more common. They are typically colored as follows:
Red object ball (or, uncommonly, blue; two object balls are used in some games)
White cue ball for player 1
White with a spot (or sometimes yellow) cue ball for player 2
International pool[edit]
Old-style pool balls racked for a game of ten-ball, just before the break shot.
Modern-style pool balls
Pool balls are used to play various pool (pocket billiards or pool billiards) games, such as eight-ball, nine-ball and one-pocket. In North America, they are sometimes referred to simply as "billiard balls" (except among carom players). These balls, used the most widely throughout the world, are considerably smaller than carom billiards balls, slightly larger than British-style pool balls and substantially larger than those for snooker. According to WPA/BCA equipment specifications, the weight may be from 5.5 to 6.0 oz (160–170 g) with a diameter of 2.250 in (57.2 mm), plus or minus 0.005 in (0.127 mm).[11][12] These are often referred to as 2 1⁄4-inch (57 mm) balls. The balls are numbered and colored as follows:
1 yellow
2 blue
3 red
4 purple (pink in TV ball sets, see below for the reason)
5 orange
6 green
7 brown or maroon (tan in TV ball sets)
8 black
9 yellow and white
10 blue and white
11 red and white
12 purple and white (pink and white in TV ball sets)
13 orange and white
14 green and white
15 brown, or maroon, and white (tan and white in TV ball sets)
• cue ball, white (sometimes with one or more spots)
Extended set for baseball pocket billiards.
In baseball pocket billiards, the ball set is extended to 21 balls, in which the 16 ball is black and white, while balls 17 through 21 have no special design, but look exactly like balls 9 through 13, respectively, except for their numbers.
Balls 1 through 7 are often referred to as solids and 9 through 15 as stripes though there are many other colloquial terms for each suit of balls (highs and lows, etc.). Though it looks similar to the solids, the 8 ball is not considered a solid because it is the only ball that is black. Some games such as nine-ball do not distinguish between stripes and solids, but rather use the numbering on the balls to determine which object ball must be pocketed. In other games such as three-ball and straight pool neither type of marking is of any consequence. In eight-ball, straight pool, and related games, all sixteen balls are employed. In the games of seven-ball, nine-ball, ten-ball and related, only object balls 1 through 7, 9 and 10, respectively (plus the cue ball) are used.
Some balls used in televised pool games are colored differently in order to make them distinguishable on television monitors. Specifically, the 4 ball is colored pink instead of dark purple, and the 12 is white with a pink stripe, to make it easier to distinguish their color from the black 8 ball, and similarly the 7 and 15 balls use a light tan color instead of a deep brown. Television was also the genesis of the "measle" cue ball with numerous spots on its surface so that spin placed on it is evident to viewers.
Coin-operated pool tables such as those found at bars historically have often used either a larger ("grapefruit") or denser ("rock", typically ceramic) cue ball, such that its extra weight makes it easy for the cue ball return mechanism to separate it from object balls (which are captured until the game ends and the table is paid again for another game) so that the cue ball can be returned for further play, should it be accidentally potted. Rarely in the US, some pool tables use a smaller cue ball instead. Modern tables usually employ a magnetic ball of regulation or near-regulation size and weight, since players have complained for many decades that the heavy and often oversized cue balls do not "play" correctly.
A set of billard balls
British-style pool (blackball)[edit]
Playing blackball, with its distinctive red and yellow groups.
In WPA blackball and its predecessor WEPF or English eight-ball pool (not to be confused with the games of eight-ball or English billiards), fifteen object balls again are used, but fall into two unnumbered groups, the reds (or less commonly blues) and yellows, with a white cue ball, and black 8 ball. Aside from the 8, shots are not called since there is no reliable way to identify particular balls to be pocketed. Because they are unnumbered they are wholly unsuited to certain pool games, such as nine-ball, in which ball order is important. They are noticeably smaller than the American-style balls, and with a cue ball that is slightly smaller than the object balls, while the table's pockets are tighter to compensate. Neither the WPA nor the WEPF (publicly) define ball or even table dimensions, though presumably[citation needed] league and tournament organizers are given some guidelines in this regard. Most manufacturers that supply this market provide sets that range from 2 inches (51 mm) up to 2 3⁄16 inches (56 mm), often with a slightly smaller cue ball, e.g. 1 7⁄8 in (48 mm) for a 2-inch set. The most common object ball diameters are 2 in (51 mm) and 2 1⁄8 in (54 mm). The yellow-and-red sets are sometimes commercially referred to as "casino sets" (they were formerly used for televised eight-ball championships,[2]:45 most often held in casinos). The use of such sets, however, predates television, as they were used for B.B.C. Co. Pool, the forerunner of modern eight-ball, at least as early as 1908.[2]:24
Snooker[edit]
Complete set of snooker balls.
Colour
Value
Red 1 point
Yellow 2 points
Green 3 points
Brown 4 points
Blue 5 points
Pink 6 points
Black 7 points
Ball sets for the sport of snooker look at first glance like a mixture of American- and British-style pool balls. There are twenty-two balls in total, arranged as a rack of 15 unmarked reds, six colour balls placed at various predetermined spots on the table, and a white cue ball. (See snooker for more information on ball setup.)
The colour balls are sometimes numbered American-style, with their point values, for the amateur/home market, as follows in the adjacent table.
Snooker balls are technically standardized at 52.5 mm (2.07 in) in diameter within a tolerance of plus or minus 0.05 mm (0.002 in). No standard weight is defined, but all balls in the set must be the same weight within a tolerance of 3 g (0.11 oz).[13] However, many sets are actually 2 1⁄16 in (52.4 mm), even from major manufacturers. Snooker sets are also available with considerably smaller-than-regulation balls (and even with ten instead of fifteen reds) for play on smaller tables (down to half-size), and are sanctioned for use in some amateur leagues. Sets for American snooker are typically 2 1⁄8 in (54.0 mm), with numbered colour balls.
The set of eight colours used for snooker balls (including white) are thought to be derived from the game of croquet. Snooker was invented in 1884 by British Army officers stationed in India. Croquet reached its peak popularity at the same time, particularly amongst people in the same social context. The eight coloured balls of croquet use the same identical set of eight colours. There are many other similarities between croquet and snooker, which when taken together, suggest that the derivation of the latter owes much to the existence of the former.[14]
Other games[edit]
Russian pyramid ball at a corner pocket. The relative size of the ball and the pocket makes the game very challenging.
Various other games have their own variants of billiard balls. Russian pyramid use a set of fifteen numbered but otherwise all-white balls, and a red or yellow cue ball, that may be even larger than carom billiards balls, at 68 mm (211⁄16 in) or 72 mm (24⁄5 in). The related Finnish game kaisa has the same pocket and ball dimensions but it has only five balls: one yellow, two reds and two cue balls, one for each player.[15] Bumper pool requires four white and four red object balls, and two special balls, one red with a white spot and the other the opposite; all are usually 2 1⁄8 inch (approximately 52.5 mm) in diameter.
Training balls[edit]
The Jim Rempe Training Ball
Several brands of practice balls exist, which have systems of spots, stripes, differently colored halves and/or targeting rings.
For example, Saluc markets several practice ball systems, including the Jim Rempe Training Ball, a cue ball marked with rings and targets on the surface of the ball so that the practicing player can better judge the effects of very particular amounts of sidespin, topspin, backspin and other forms of cue ball control, and learn better control of cue stroke.[16] Various competing products, such as several other Saluc models[16] and Elephant Practice Balls,[17] use a similar aiming system. Some such sets consist of just a special cue ball and manual, while others also include an object ball marked for aiming practice.
Novelty balls[edit]
A striped "referee" 8 ball from a set of American football team logo balls.
Various novelty pocket billiards balls. Clockwise from the top: Red and white balls and markers from a proprietary game called Starball; an Elvis Presley commemorative cue ball from Graceland; a leopard-patterned 9 ball; colorful balls from a poker-themed set; regular balls and the small "jack" from a miniature bocce set used on a table instead of a lawn or court.
There is a market for specialty cue balls and even entire ball sets, featuring sports team logos, cartoon characters, animal pelt patterns, etc.
Entrepreneurial inventors also supply a variety of novelty billiard games with unique rules and balls, some with playing card markings, others with stars and stripes, and yet others in sets of more than thirty balls in several suits. Marbled-looking and glittery materials are also popular for home tables. There are even blacklight sets for playing in near-dark. There are also practical joke cue and 8 balls, with off-center weights in them that make their paths curve and wobble. Miniature sets in various sizes (typically  2⁄3 or  1⁄2 of normal size) are also commonly available, primarily intended for undersized toy tables. Even an egg-shaped ball has been patented[18] and marketed under such names as Bobble Ball and Tag Ball.
In popular culture[edit]
A Magic 8 Ball
Ballistic missile submarine USS Sam Rayburn displays a billiard motif on her missile hatches
The 8 ball is frequently used iconically in Western, especially American, culture. It can often be found as an element of T-shirt designs, album covers and names, tattoos, household goods like paperweights and cigarette lighters, belt buckles, etc. A classic toy is the Magic 8-Ball "oracle". A wrestler, a rapper, and a rock band have all independently adopted the name. The term "8 ball" is also slang both for  1⁄8 oz. of cocaine or crystal meth, and for a bottle of Olde English 800 malt liquor. It has also been used to refer to African-Americans, particularly those of darker skin tones, as in the film Full Metal Jacket. The expression "behind the eight [ball]" is used to indicate a dilemma from which it is difficult to extricate oneself. The term derives from the game kelly pool.[19][20][21][22][23]
Because the collisions between billiard balls are nearly elastic, and the balls roll on a surface that produces low rolling friction, their behavior is often used to illustrate Newton's laws of motion. Idealized, frictionless billiard balls are a staple of mathematical theorems and physics models, and figure in dynamical billiards, scattering theory, Lissajous knots, billiard ball computing and reversible cellular automata, Polchinski's paradox, contact dynamics, collision detection, the illumination problem, atomic ultracooling, quantum mirages and elsewhere in these fields.
"Billiard balls" or "pool balls" is the name given to balls used in stage magic tricks, especially the classic "multiplying billiard balls". Though obviously derived from real billiard balls, today they are usually smaller, for easier manipulation and hiding, but not so small and light that they are difficult to juggle, as the magic and juggling disciplines have often overlapped since their successful combination by pioneers like Paul Vandy.
An urban legend received cultural attention to many saying, "If the Earth were the size of a billiard ball, it would be smoother". It was used in 2008's Discover Magazine,[24] but mistook the diameter tolerance for smoothness. If the Earth were reduced to the size of a billiard ball, much of it, excluding the Himalayas and Mariana Trench, would be smoother.[25] (see also: Earth's Shape)
The phrase "as smooth as a billiard ball" is sometimes applied to describe a bald person, and the term "cue ball" is also slang for someone who sports a shaved head.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Note: Antique ox-bone balls remain a very common item on eBay.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Shamos, Mike (1999). The New Illustrated Encyclopedia of Billiards. New York: Lyons Press. ISBN 1-55821-797-5.
Jump up ^ Everton, Clive (1986). The History of Snooker and Billiards (rev. ver. of The Story of Billiards and Snooker, 1979 ed.). Haywards Heath, UK: Partridge Pr. p. 8. ISBN 1-85225-013-5. 11 balls of yvery
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Hyatt". Plastiquarian.com. London: Plastics Historical Society. 2002. Archived from the original on 21 December 2007. Retrieved 26 February 2008.
Jump up ^ Aramith
Jump up ^ "History". brunswickbilliards.com.
Jump up ^ Elephant Balls Ltd.
Jump up ^ Frenzy Sports Archived 7 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "World Rules of Carom Billiard" (PDF). UMB.org. Sint-Martens-Latem, Belgium: Union Mondiale de Billard. 1 January 1989. Chapter II ("Equipment"), Article 12 ("Balls, Chalk"), Section 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 5 March 2007. Officially but somewhat poorly translated version, from the French original.
Jump up ^ "WPA Tournament Table & Equipment Specifications". WPA-Pool.com. World Pool-Billiard Association. November 2001. Archived from the original on 2013-09-28. (PDF version Archived 28 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine.).
Jump up ^ BCA Rules Committee (2004). Billiards: The Official Rules and Records Book. Colorado Springs: Billiards Congress of America. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-878493-14-9.
Jump up ^ "Equipment" Archived 1 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine., World Snooker Association, publication date unknown (Retrieved 28 January 2007), London, UK.
Jump up ^ "An Introduction to Croquet: A Brief History". The Croquet Association (of England and Wales). Retrieved 13 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Russian Billiards". CuesUp.com. 2016. Retrieved 2016-12-28.
^ Jump up to: a b "Product Line > Training Balls". Saluc.com. Callenelle, Belgium: Saluc S.A. 2005. Retrieved 2008-02-18. [dead link]
Jump up ^ "Elephant Practice Balls". ElephantBalls.com. Columbus, Ohio: Elephant Balls, Ltd. 2007. Retrieved 2008-02-18.
Jump up ^ U.S. Patent No. 7,468,002
Jump up ^ Shamos, Michael Ian (1993). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Billiards. New York City: Lyons & Burford. pp. 85, 128 and 168. ISBN 1-55821-219-1.
Jump up ^ Jewett, Bob (February 2002). "8-Ball Rules: The many different versions of one of today's most common games". Billiards Digest Magazine: Pages 22–23.
Jump up ^ Ralph Hickok (2001). Sports History: Pocket Billiards Archived 23 February 2002 at the Library of Congress. Retrieved 22 February 2007.
Jump up ^ Billiard Congress America (1995–2005) A Brief History of the Noble Game of Billiards Archived 27 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine. by Mike Shamos. Retrieved 22 February 2007.
Jump up ^ Steve Mizerak and Michael E. Panozzo (1990). Steve Mizerak's Complete Book of Pool. Chicago, Ill: Contemporary Books. pp. 127–8. ISBN 0-8092-4255-9.
Jump up ^ "Ten things you don't know about the Earth". Bad Astronomy. 8 September 2008. Retrieved 8 September 2008.
Jump up ^ "Is a Pool Ball Smoother than the Earth?" (PDF). Billiards Digest. 1 June 2013. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
Patents[edit]
U.S. Patent 0,050,359—Billiard ball ca. 1865
U.S. Patent 0,076,765—Billiard ball ca. 1868
U.S. Patent 0,088,634—Billiard ball ca. 1869
U.S. Patent 0,114,945—Billiard ball ca. 1871
[hide]
v
t
e
Cue sports
Pool games
Nine-ball
Eight-ball
Straight pool
Ten-ball
Blackball
Artistic pool and trick shots
Bank pool
Baseball pocket billiards
Bottle pool
Bowliards
Chicago
Chinese eight-ball
Cowboy pool
Cribbage
Cutthroat
Golf
Honolulu
Kelly pool
Killer
One-pocket
Rotation
Seven-ball
Speed pool
Three-ball
Carom billiards
Three-cushion
Five-pins and goriziana
Artistic billiards
Balkline and straight rail
Cushion caroms
Four-ball
Other games
Snooker
English billiards
Russian pyramid
Kaisa
Bumper pool
Bagatelle
Bar billiards
Novuss
Carrom
Resources
Glossary
Techniques
Billiard table
Billiard ball
Billiard hall
Cue stick
Rack
Major tournaments
UMB World Three-cushion Championship
World Snooker Championship
champions
Six-red World Championship
WPA World Nine-ball Championship
champions
WPA World Ten-ball Championship
World Straight Pool Championship
WPA World Eight-ball Championship
champions
World Cup of Pool
Mosconi Cup
World Pool Masters Tournament
Cue sports at the World Games
Categories
Cue sports
Players
Organizations
Competitions
The rules of games in italics are standardized by international sanctioning bodies.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Billiard_ball&oldid=818921459"
Categories:
Cue sports equipment
Balls
Game equipment
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from October 2010
Webarchive template other archives
Use dmy dates from October 2012
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2010
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2017
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Azərbaycanca
Català
Dansk
Deutsch
Español
فارسی
Français
한국어
Bahasa Indonesia
Magyar
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Polski
Српски / srpski
Svenska
ไทย
Edit links
This page was last edited on 6 January 2018, at 11:08.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href title

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Q-ball_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Q-ball (disambiguation)

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: img

attrs: href class

value: span

attrs: title style class

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Cue ball

value: dfn

values:
/wiki/Kaisa_(billiards)
mw-redirect
Kaisa (billiards)

value: sup

value: sub

values:
/wiki/Pocket_billiards
mw-redirect
Pocket billiards

values:
/wiki/Friction_coefficient
mw-redirect
Friction coefficient

values: When sourced, this should probably be added to the article on elephants. (February 2010)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: It seems just as likely that cost & human danger were the only real factors. (February 2010)

values:
/wiki/H._W._Collender
mw-redirect
H. W. Collender

values: Can't find reliable source for company name. (February 2010)

values:
/wiki/Phenolic_resin
mw-redirect
Phenolic resin

values:
/wiki/Acrylic_glass
mw-redirect
Acrylic glass

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Object ball

values:
/wiki/Billiards_table
mw-redirect
Billiards table

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Rack

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Break

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Solids

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Stripes

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Suit

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Spin

values:
/wiki/Bar_(establishment)
mw-redirect
Bar (establishment)

values: Edit section: British-style pool (blackball)

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Group

values:
/wiki/World_Eight-ball_Pool_Federation
mw-redirect
World Eight-ball Pool Federation

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Red ball

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Blue ball

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Yellow ball

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Call-shot

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Pocket

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2017)

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Green ball

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Brown ball

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Pink ball

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Black ball

values: font-size:90%;float:left; margin:1em 2em 1em 0em;

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Colour ball

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Sidespin

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Topspin

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Backspin

values: See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § Stroke

attrs: alt src width height class data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Magic_8_Ball
mw-redirect
Magic 8 Ball

values:
/wiki/Don_and_Ron_Harris
mw-redirect
Don and Ron Harris

values:
/wiki/Eightball_%26_MJG
mw-redirect
Eightball & MJG

values:
/wiki/Crystal_methamphetamine
mw-redirect
Crystal methamphetamine

values:
/wiki/Rolling_friction
mw-redirect
Rolling friction

values:
/wiki/Lissajous_knots
mw-redirect
Lissajous knots

values:
/wiki/Billiard_ball_computing
mw-redirect
Billiard ball computing

values:
/wiki/Polchinski%27s_paradox
mw-redirect
Polchinski's paradox

values:
/wiki/Stage_magic
mw-redirect
Stage magic

values:
/wiki/Shaved_head
mw-redirect
Shaved head

values:
/wiki/Transworld_(company)
mw-redirect
Transworld (company)

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.plastiquarian.com/hyatt.htm

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.ElephantBalls.com

values:
/wiki/Billiards_Congress_of_America
mw-redirect
Billiards Congress of America

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.google.com/patents/US50359

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.google.com/patents/US76765

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.google.com/patents/US88634

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.google.com/patents/US114945

attrs: alt src width height data-file-width data-file-height

values: A cube of blue chalk with a paper wrapper on all sides but one; a rounded indentation appears at the top where a cue would be chalked

values:
navbox-image
6
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values:
/wiki/Cue_sport#List_of_cue_sports
mw-redirect
Cue sport

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:All articles with dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from October 2010

values: Category:Webarchive template other archives

values: Category:Use dmy dates from October 2012

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2010

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2017

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Billiard_ball
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: توپ بیلیارد – Persian

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cue_ball
Cue ball – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values: ビリヤードボール – Japanese

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bila
Bila – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Билијарске кугле – Serbian

values: ลูกบิลเลียด – Thai

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Billiard_ball rootpage-Billiard_ball skin-vector action-view


text:
Walter Frederick Morrison
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Walter Fredrick Morrison promoting his Pluto Platters, the forerunner of the Frisbee, in the 1950s.
Walter Frederick "Fred" Morrison (January 16, 1920 in Richfield, Utah – February 9, 2010 in Monroe, Utah)[1] was an American inventor and entrepreneur, best known as the inventor of the Frisbee.[2][3][4]
Morrison claimed that the original idea for a flying disc toy came to him in 1937, while throwing a popcorn can lid with his girlfriend, Lu, whom he later married. The popcorn can lid soon dented which led to the discovery that cake pans flew better and were more common. Morrison and Lu developed a little business selling "Flyin' Cake Pans" on the beaches of Santa Monica, California.
During World War II he learned something of aerodynamics flying his P-47 Thunderbolt in Italy. He was shot down and was a prisoner of war for 48 days.
In 1946, he sketched out a design (called the Whirlo-Way) for the world's first flying disc. In 1948 an investor, Warren Franscioni, paid for molding the design in plastic. They named it the Flyin-Saucer. After disappointing sales, Fred & Warren parted ways in early 1950. In 1954, Fred bought more of the Saucers from the original molders to sell at local fairs, but soon found he could produce his own disc more cheaply. In 1955, he and Lu designed the Pluto Platter, the archetype of all modern flying discs. On January 23, 1957, they sold the rights for the Pluto Platter to the Wham-O toy company. Initially Wham-O continued to market the toy solely as the "Pluto Platter", but by June 1957 they also began using the name Frisbee after learning that college students in the Northeast were calling the Pluto Platter by that name. Morrison also invented several other products for Wham-O, but none were as successful as the Pluto Platter.
Morrison and his wife, Lu Nay Morrison had three children. Lu died in 1987.[5]
There is a disc golf course in Holladay, Utah named in his honor.
Morrison died in his home at the age of 90 on February 9, 2010.[6]
Published works[edit]
Flat Flip Flies Straight with Phil Kennedy (Wormhole Publishers, 2006)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Arave, Lynn (10 February 2010). "Frisbee creator Fred Morrison dies". Deseret News. Retrieved 11 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Alden, Doug (2010-02-11). "Frisbee inventor dies at 90". Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-02-14. [dead link]
Jump up ^ Fox, Margalit (2010-02-13). "Fred Morrison, Creator of a Popular Flying Plate, Dies at 90". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-02-14.
Jump up ^ McLellan, Dennis (2010-02-13). "Walter Fredrick Morrison dies at 90; father of the Frisbee". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2010-02-14.
Jump up ^ "Fred Morrison". The Daily Telegraph. London. 2010-02-12. Retrieved 2010-05-27.
Jump up ^ "Frisbee inventor dies at 90 – CNN.com". CNN. 2010-02-12. Retrieved 2010-05-27.
External links[edit]
Fred Morrison – Daily Telegraph obituary
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Walter_Frederick_Morrison&oldid=833772400"
Categories:
1920 births
2010 deaths
American inventors
Flying disc
American prisoners of war
People from Sevier County, Utah
American businesspeople
Hidden categories:
All articles with dead external links
Articles with dead external links from October 2010
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Deutsch
Ελληνικά
Español
Euskara
Français
हिन्दी
Italiano
Lëtzebuergesch
Malagasy
Nederlands
Norsk
Polski
Suomi
4 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 2 April 2018, at 10:51.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: class style

value: b

values:
/wiki/P-47_Thunderbolt
mw-redirect
P-47 Thunderbolt

values:
/wiki/Washington_Post
mw-redirect
Washington Post

values:
/wiki/New_York_Times
mw-redirect
New York Times

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values: Category:People from Sevier County, Utah

values: Category:All articles with dead external links

values: Category:Articles with dead external links from October 2010

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Walter_Frederick_Morrison
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: Γουόλτερ Φρέντερικ Μόρισον – Greek

values: वॉल्टर फ्रेडरिक मॉरीसन – Hindi

values: Walter Frederick Morrison – Luxembourgish

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lb
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mg
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Walter_Frederick_Morrison rootpage-Walter_Frederick_Morrison skin-vector action-view


text:
Roman Senate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Ancient Rome
This article is part of a series on the
politics and government of
ancient Rome
Periods
Roman Kingdom
753–509 BC
Roman Republic
509–27 BC
Roman Empire
27 BC – AD 395
Western
AD 395–476
Eastern
AD 395–1453
Principate
Dominate
Timeline
Roman Constitution
Constitution of the Kingdom
Constitution of the Republic
Constitution of the Empire
Constitution of the Late Empire
Senate
Legislative assemblies
Executive magistrates
Ordinary magistrates
Consul
Praetor
Quaestor
Promagistrate
Aedile
Tribune
Censor
Governor
Extraordinary magistrates
Dictator
Magister equitum
Consular tribune
Rex
Triumviri
Decemviri
Titles and honours
Emperor
Legatus
Dux
Officium
Praefectus
Vicarius
Vigintisexviri
Lictor
Magister militum
Imperator
Princeps senatus
Pontifex maximus
Augustus
Caesar
Tetrarch
Precedent and law
Roman law
Ius
Imperium
Mos maiorum
Collegiality
Auctoritas
Roman citizenship
Cursus honorum
Senatus consultum
Senatus consultum ultimum
Assemblies
Centuriate
Curiate
Plebeian
Tribal
Other countries
Atlas
v
t
e
The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus Romanus; Italian: Senato Romano) was a political institution in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being established in the first days of the city (traditionally founded in 753 BC). It survived the overthrow of the kings in 509 BC, the fall of the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC, the division of the Roman Empire in 395 AD, the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, and the barbarian rule of Rome in the 5th, 6th, and 7th centuries.
During the days of the kingdom, it was little more than an advisory council to the king. The last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, was overthrown following a coup d'état led by Lucius Junius Brutus, who founded the Republic.
During the early Republic, the Senate was politically weak, while the executive magistrates were quite powerful. Since the transition from monarchy to constitutional rule was most likely gradual, it took several generations before the Senate was able to assert itself over the executive magistrates. By the middle Republic, the Senate had reached the apex of its republican power. The late Republic saw a decline in the Senate's power, which began following the reforms of the tribunes Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus.
After the transition of the Republic into the Principate, the Senate lost much of its political power as well as its prestige. Following the constitutional reforms of the Emperor Diocletian, the Senate became politically irrelevant, and never regained the power that it had once held. When the seat of government was transferred out of Rome, the Senate was reduced to a municipal body. This decline in status was reinforced when the emperor Constantine the Great created an additional senate in Constantinople.
After the Western Roman Empire fell in 476, the Senate in the West functioned for a time under barbarian rule before being restored after the reconquest of much of the Western Roman Empire's territories during the reign of Justinian I. The Senate in Rome ultimately disappeared at some point after AD 603 (the year in which the last known senator was mentioned), although the title "senator" was still used well into the Middle Ages as a largely meaningless honorific. However, the Eastern Senate survived in Constantinople, until the ancient institution finally vanished there c. 14th century.
Contents
[hide]
1 Senate of the Roman Kingdom
2 Senate of the Roman Republic
3 Senate of the Roman Empire
4 Post-Imperial Senate in Rome
4.1 Relationships with Constantinople
4.2 Medieval era
5 Senate of the Eastern Roman Empire
6 See also
7 Further reading
7.1 Primary sources
7.2 Secondary source material
8 References
Senate of the Roman Kingdom[edit]
Main articles: Senate of the Roman Kingdom and Constitution of the Roman Kingdom
The senate was a political institution in the ancient Roman kingdom. The word senate derives from the Latin word senex, which means "old man"; the word thus means "assembly of elders". The prehistoric Indo-Europeans who settled Italy in the centuries before the legendary founding of Rome in 753 BC[1] were structured into tribal communities,[2] and these communities often included an aristocratic board of tribal elders.[3]
The early Roman family was called a gens or "clan",[2] and each clan was an aggregation of families under a common living male patriarch, called a pater (the Latin word for "father").[4] When the early Roman gentes were aggregating to form a common community, the patres from the leading clans were selected[5] for the confederated board of elders that would become the Roman senate.[4] Over time, the patres came to recognize the need for a single leader, and so they elected a king (rex),[4] and vested in him their sovereign power.[6] When the king died, that sovereign power naturally reverted to the patres.[4]
The senate is said to have been created by Rome's first king, Romulus, initially consisting of 100 men. The descendants of those 100 men subsequently became the patrician class.[7] Rome's fifth king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, chose a further 100 senators. They were chosen from the minor leading families, and were accordingly called the patres minorum gentium.[8]
Rome's seventh and final king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, executed many of the leading men in the senate, and did not replace them, thereby diminishing their number. However, in 509 BC Rome's first consuls, Lucius Junius Brutus and Publius Valerius Publicola chose from amongst the leading equites new men for the senate, these being called conscripti, and thus increased the size of the senate to 300.[9]
The senate of the Roman kingdom held three principal responsibilities: It functioned as the ultimate repository for the executive power,[10] it served as the king's council, and it functioned as a legislative body in concert with the people of Rome.[11] During the years of the monarchy, the senate's most important function was to elect new kings. While the king was technically elected by the people, it was actually the senate who chose each new king.[10]
The period between the death of one king, and the election of a new king, was called the interregnum,[10] during which time the Interrex nominated a candidate to replace the king.[12] After the senate gave its initial approval to the nominee, he was then formally elected by the people,[13] and then received the senate's final approval.[12] At least one king, Servius Tullius, was elected by the senate alone, and not by the people.[14]
The senate's most significant task, outside regal elections, was to function as the king's council, and while the king could ignore any advice it offered, its growing prestige helped make the advice that it offered increasingly difficult to ignore. Technically, the senate could also make new laws,[citation needed] although it would be incorrect to view the senate's decrees as "legislation" in the modern sense. Only the king could decree new laws, although he often involved both the senate and the curiate assembly (the popular assembly) in the process.[11]
Senate of the Roman Republic[edit]
Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Republic and Senate of the Roman Republic
Representation of a sitting of the Roman senate: Cicero attacks Catiline, from a 19th-century fresco in Palazzo Madama, Rome, house of the Italian Senate. It is worth noting that idealistic medieval and subsequent artistic depictions of the Senate in session are almost uniformly inaccurate. Illustrations commonly show the senators arranged in a semicircle around an open space where orators were deemed to stand; in reality the structure of the existing Curia Julia building, which dates in its current form from the Emperor Diocletian, shows that the senators sat in straight and parallel lines on either side of the interior of the building. In current media depictions in film this is shown correctly in The Fall of the Roman Empire, and incorrectly in, for example, Spartacus.
The so-called "Togatus Barberini", a statue depicting a Roman senator holding the imagines (effigies) of deceased ancestors in his hands; marble, late 1st century BC; head (not belonging): mid-1st century BC.
When the Republic began, the Senate functioned as an advisory council. It consisted of 300–500 Senators, who were initially patrician and served for life. Before long, plebeians were also admitted, although they were denied the senior magistracies for a longer period.[15]
Senators were entitled to wear a toga with a broad purple stripe, maroon shoes, and an iron (later gold) ring.[15]
The Senate of the Roman Republic passed decrees called senatus consulta, which in form constituted "advice" from the senate to a magistrate. While these decrees did not hold legal force, they usually were obeyed in practice.[16]
If a senatus consultum conflicted with a law (lex) that was passed by an assembly, the law overrode the senatus consultum because the senatus consultum had its authority based in precedent and not in law. A senatus consultum, however, could serve to interpret a law.[17]
Through these decrees, the senate directed the magistrates, especially the Roman consuls (the chief magistrates) in their prosecution of military conflicts. The senate also had an enormous degree of power over the civil government in Rome. This was especially the case with regard to its management of state finances, as only it could authorize the disbursal of public funds from the treasury. As the Roman Republic grew, the senate also supervised the administration of the provinces, which were governed by former consuls and praetors, in that it decided which magistrate should govern which province.
Since the 3rd century the senate also played a pivotal role in cases of emergency. It could call for the appointment of a dictator (a right resting with each consul with or without the senate's involvement). However, after 202, the office of dictator fell out of use (and was revived only two more times) and was replaced with the senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"), a senatorial decree which authorised the consuls to employ any means necessary to solve the crisis.[18]
While senate meetings could take place either inside or outside the formal boundary of the city (the pomerium), no meeting could take place more than a mile outside it.[19] The senate operated while under various religious restrictions. For example, before any meeting could begin, a sacrifice to the gods was made, and a search for divine omens (the auspices) was taken.[20] The senate was only allowed to assemble in places dedicated to the gods.
Meetings usually began at dawn, and a magistrate who wished to summon the senate had to issue a compulsory order.[21] The senate meetings were public[19] and directed by a presiding magistrate (usually a consul).[6] While in session, the senate had the power to act on its own, and even against the will of the presiding magistrate if it wished. The presiding magistrate began each meeting with a speech,[22] then referred an issue to the senators, who would discuss it in order of seniority.[19]
Senators had several other ways in which they could influence (or frustrate) a presiding magistrate. For example, every senator was permitted to speak before a vote could be held, and since all meetings had to end by nightfall,[16] a dedicated group or even a single senator could talk a proposal to death (a filibuster or diem consumere).[22] When it was time to call a vote, the presiding magistrate could bring up whatever proposals he wished, and every vote was between a proposal and its negative.[23]
With a dictator as well as a senate, the senate could veto any of the dictator's decisions. At any point before a motion passed, the proposed motion could be vetoed, usually by a tribune. If there was no veto, and the matter was of minor importance, it could be put to either a voice vote or a show of hands. If there was no veto and no obvious majority, and the matter was of a significant nature, there was usually a physical division of the house,[19] with senators voting by taking a place on either side of the chamber.
Senate membership was controlled by the censors. By the time of Gaius Marius, ownership of property worth at least one million sesterces was required for membership.[15] The ethical requirements of senators were significant. In contrast to members of the Equestrian order, senators could not engage in banking or any form of public contract. They could not own a ship that was large enough to participate in foreign commerce,[19] they could not leave Italy without permission from the senate and they were not paid a salary. Election to magisterial office resulted in automatic senate membership.[24]
Senate of the Roman Empire[edit]
Main articles: Constitution of the Roman Empire, Senate of the Roman Empire, and Constitution of the Late Roman Empire
After the fall of the Roman Republic, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the Roman senate to the Roman emperor. Though retaining its legal position as under the republic, in practice, however, the actual authority of the imperial senate was negligible, as the emperor held the true power in the state. As such, membership in the senate became sought after by individuals seeking prestige and social standing, rather than actual authority.
During the reigns of the first emperors, legislative, judicial, and electoral powers were all transferred from the Roman assemblies to the senate. However, since the emperor held control over the senate, the senate acted as a vehicle through which he exercised his autocratic powers.
The Curia Julia in the Roman Forum, the seat of the imperial Senate.
The first emperor, Augustus, reduced the size of the senate from 900 members to 600, even though there were only about 100 to 200 active senators at one time. After this point, the size of the senate was never again drastically altered. Under the empire, as was the case during the late republic, one could become a senator by being elected quaestor (a magistrate with financial duties), but only if one was of senatorial rank.[25] In addition to quaestors, elected officials holding a range of senior positions were routinely granted senatorial rank by virtue of the offices that they held.[26]
If an individual was not of senatorial rank, there were two ways for him to become a senator. Under the first method, the emperor granted that individual the authority to stand for election to the quaestorship,[25] while under the second method, the emperor appointed that individual to the senate by issuing a decree.[27] Under the empire, the power that the emperor held over the senate was absolute.[28]
The two consuls were a part of the senate, but had more power than the senators. During senate meetings, the emperor sat between the two consuls,[29] and usually acted as the presiding officer. Senators of the early empire could ask extraneous questions or request that a certain action be taken by the senate. Higher ranking senators spoke before those of lower rank, although the emperor could speak at any time.[29]
Besides the emperor, consuls and praetors could also preside over the senate. Since no senator could stand for election to a magisterial office without the emperor's approval, senators usually did not vote against bills that had been presented by the emperor. If a senator disapproved of a bill, he usually showed his disapproval by not attending the senate meeting on the day that the bill was to be voted on.[30]
While the Roman assemblies continued to meet after the founding of the empire, their powers were all transferred to the senate, and so senatorial decrees (senatus consulta) acquired the full force of law.[28] The legislative powers of the imperial senate were principally of a financial and an administrative nature, although the senate did retain a range of powers over the provinces.[28]
During the early Roman Empire, all judicial powers that had been held by the Roman assemblies were also transferred to the senate. For example, the senate now held jurisdiction over criminal trials. In these cases, a consul presided, the senators constituted the jury, and the verdict was handed down in the form of a decree (senatus consultum),[28][31] and, while a verdict could not be appealed, the emperor could pardon a convicted individual through a veto. The emperor Tiberius transferred all electoral powers from the assemblies to the senate,[31] and, while theoretically the senate elected new magistrates, the approval of the emperor was always needed before an election could be finalized.
Around 300 AD, the emperor Diocletian enacted a series of constitutional reforms. In one such reform, he asserted the right of the emperor to take power without the theoretical consent of the senate, thus depriving the senate of its status as the ultimate depository of supreme power. Diocletian's reforms also ended whatever illusion had remained that the senate had independent legislative, judicial, or electoral powers. The senate did, however, retain its legislative powers over public games in Rome, and over the senatorial order.
The senate also retained the power to try treason cases, and to elect some magistrates, but only with the permission of the emperor. In the final years of the empire, the senate would sometimes try to appoint their own emperor, such as in the case of Eugenius, who was later defeated by forces loyal to Theodosius I. The senate remained the last stronghold of the traditional Roman religion in the face of the spreading Christianity, and several times attempted to facilitate the return of the Altar of Victory (first removed by Constantius II) to the senatorial curia.
Post-Imperial Senate in Rome[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2016)
After the fall of the western Roman Empire, the senate continued to function under the barbarian chieftain Odoacer, and then under Ostrogothic rule. The authority of the senate rose considerably under barbarian leaders, who sought to protect the institution. This period was characterized by the rise of prominent Roman senatorial families, such as the Anicii, while the senate's leader, the princeps senatus, often served as the right hand of the barbarian leader. It is known that the senate successfully installed Laurentius as pope in 498, despite the fact that both King Theodoric and Emperor Anastasius supported the other candidate, Symmachus.[32]
The peaceful coexistence of senatorial and barbarian rule continued until the Ostrogothic leader Theodahad found himself at war with Emperor Justinian I and took the senators as hostages. Several senators were executed in 552 as revenge for the death of the Ostrogothic king, Totila. After Rome was recaptured by the imperial (Byzantine) army, the senate was restored, but the institution (like classical Rome itself) had been mortally weakened by the long war. Many senators had been killed and many of those who had fled to the east chose to remain there, thanks to favorable legislation passed by Emperor Justinian, who, however, abolished virtually all senatorial offices in Italy. The importance of the Roman senate thus declined rapidly.[33]
Relationships with Constantinople[edit]
In 578 and again in 580, the senate sent envoys to Constantinople. They delivered 3000 pounds (believed to be around 960 kg) of gold as a gift to the new emperor, Tiberius II Constantinus, along with a plea for help against the Lombards, who had invaded Italy ten years earlier. Pope Gregory I, in a sermon from 593, lamented the almost complete disappearance of the senatorial order and the decline of the prestigious institution.[34][35]
It is not clearly known when the Roman senate disappeared in the West, but it is known from the Gregorian register that the senate acclaimed new statues of Emperor Phocas and Empress Leontia in 603, and that was also the last time the senate was mentioned[36][37] In 630, the house of the Senate, Curia Julia, was transformed into a church by Pope Honorius I, probably with the permission of the Emperor Heraclius.[38]
Medieval era[edit]
In later medieval times, the title "senator" was still in occasional use, but it had become a meaningless adjunct title of nobility and no longer implied membership in an organized governing body.[citation needed]
In 1144, the Commune of Rome attempted to establish a government modeled on the old Roman republic in opposition to the temporal power of the higher nobles and the pope. This included setting up a senate along the lines of the ancient one. The revolutionaries divided Rome into fourteen regions, each electing four senators for a total of 56 (although one source,[which?][according to whom?] often repeated, gives a total of 50). These senators, the first real senators since the 7th century, elected as their leader Giordano Pierleoni, son of the Roman consul Pier Leoni, with the title patrician, since consul was also a deprecated noble styling.[citation needed]
This renovated form of government was constantly embattled. By the end of the 12th century, it had undergone a radical transformation, with the reduction of the number of senators to a single one - Summus Senator - being thereafter the title of the head of the civil government of Rome. In modern terms, for example, this is comparable to the reduction of a board of commissioners to a single commissioner, such as the political head of the police department of New York City. Between 1191 and 1193, this was a certain Benedetto called Carus homo or carissimo.[citation needed]
Senate of the Eastern Roman Empire[edit]
Main article: Byzantine Senate
The senate continued to exist in Constantinople however, although it evolved into an institution that differed in some fundamental forms from its predecessor. Designated in Greek as synkletos, or assembly, the Senate of Constantinople was made up of all current or former holders of senior ranks and official positions, plus their descendants. At its height during the 6th and 7th centuries, the Senate represented the collective wealth and power of the Empire, on occasion nominating and dominating individual emperors.[39]
In the second half of the 10th century a new office, proëdrus (Greek: πρόεδρος), was created as head of the senate by Emperor Nicephorus Phocas. Up to the mid-11th century, only eunuchs could become proëdrus, but later this restriction was lifted and several proëdri could be appointed, of which the senior proëdrus, or protoproëdrus (Greek: πρωτοπρόεδρος), served as the head of the senate. There were two types of meetings practised: silentium, in which only magistrates currently in office participated and conventus, in which all syncletics (Greek: συγκλητικοί, senators) could participate. The Senate in Constantinople existed until at least the beginning of the 13th century, its last known act being the election of Nicolas Canabus as emperor in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade.[40]
See also[edit]
Acta Senatus
Aedile
Byzantine Senate
Centuria
Curia
comitia curiata
Gerousia
SPQR
Cursus honorum
Interrex
Master of the Horse
Pontifex Maximus
Princeps senatus
Promagistrate
Roman consul
Roman Dictator
Roman Empire
Roman Kingdom
Roman Law
Roman Republic
Roman censor
Plebeian Council
Praetor
Quaestor
Further reading[edit]
Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853.
Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891.
Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871–1888
Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886.
Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975.
The Histories by Polybius
Cambridge Ancient History, Volumes 9–13.
Richard A. Talbert, The Senate of Imperial Rome (Princeton, Princeton Univerversity Press, 1984).
A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire, (Fontana Press, 1993).
M. Crawford, The Roman Republic, (Fontana Press, 1978).
Erich S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974).
Fergus Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, (London, Duckworth, 1977, 1992).
Andrew Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999).
Hoеlkeskamp, Karl-Joachim, Senatus populusque Romanus. Die politische Kultur der Republik - Dimensionen und Deutungen (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004).
Krieckhaus, Andreas, Senatorische Familien und ihre patriae (1./2. Jahrhundert n. Chr.) (Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovac, 2006) (Studien zur Geschichtesforschung des Altertums, 14).
Werner Eck, Monument und Inschrift. Gesammelte Aufsätze zur senatorischen Repräsentation in der Kaiserzeit (Berlin/New York: W. de Gruyter, 2010).
Primary sources[edit]
Cicero's De Re Publica, Book Two
Rome at the End of the Punic Wars: An Analysis of the Roman Government; by Polybius
Livy, Ab urbe condita
Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press (ISBN 0-19-926108-3).
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes. By Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Vol. 1.
Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek. By James Hampton. Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter. Fifth Edition, Vol 2.
Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press (ISBN 0-472-08125-X).
Schnurer, Gustov (1956). Church And Culture In The Middle Ages 350–814. Kessinger Publishing (ISBN 978-1-4254-2322-3).
Secondary source material[edit]
What a Terrorist Incident in Ancient Rome Can Teach Us
Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913)
Brewer, E. Cobham; Dictionary of Phrase and Fable (1898).
McCullough, Colleen; The Grass Crown HarperCollins (1992), ISBN 0-380-71082-X
Wood, Reverend James, The Nuttall Encyclopædia (1907) - a work now in public domain.
Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23.
Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics, ISBN 0-543-92749-0.
Hooke, Nathaniel; The Roman History, from the Building of Rome to the Ruin of the Commonwealth, F. Rivington (Rome). Original in New York Public Library
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Abbott, 3
^ Jump up to: a b Abbott, 1
Jump up ^ Abbott, 12
^ Jump up to: a b c d Abbott, 6
Jump up ^ Abbott, 16
^ Jump up to: a b Byrd, 42
Jump up ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:8
Jump up ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:35
Jump up ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.1
^ Jump up to: a b c Abbott, 10
^ Jump up to: a b Abbott, 17
^ Jump up to: a b Abbott, 14
Jump up ^ Byrd, 20
Jump up ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.41
^ Jump up to: a b c McCullough, 1026
^ Jump up to: a b Byrd, 44
Jump up ^ Abbott, 233
Jump up ^ Abbott, 240
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Byrd, 34
Jump up ^ Lintott, 72
Jump up ^ Lintott, 75
^ Jump up to: a b Lintott, 78
Jump up ^ Lintott, 83
Jump up ^ Byrd, 36
^ Jump up to: a b Abbott, 381
Jump up ^ Metz, David. Daily Life of the Ancient Romans. pp. 59 & 60. ISBN 978-0-87220-957-2.
Jump up ^ Abbott, 382
^ Jump up to: a b c d Abbott, 385
^ Jump up to: a b Abbott, 383
Jump up ^ Abbott, 384
^ Jump up to: a b Abbott, 386
Jump up ^ Levillain, Philippe (2002). The Papacy: Gaius-Proxies. Psychology Press. p. 907. ISBN 978-0-415-92230-2.
Jump up ^ Schnurer, 339
Jump up ^ Bronwen Neil; Matthew J. Dal Santo (9 September 2013). A Companion to Gregory the Great. BRILL. p. 3. ISBN 978-90-04-25776-4. (translated from the original Latin) For since the Senate has failed, the people have perished, and the sufferings and groans of the few who remain are multiplied each day. Rome, now empty, is burning!
Jump up ^ Kate Cooper; Julia Hillner (13 September 2007). Religion, Dynasty, and Patronage in Early Christian Rome, 300–900. Cambridge University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-139-46838-1.
Jump up ^ Levillain, Philippe (2002). The Papacy: Gaius-Proxies. Psychology Press. p. 1047. ISBN 978-0-415-92230-2.
Jump up ^ Jeffrey Richards. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476–752, p. 246
Jump up ^ Walter Emil Kaegi (27 March 2003). Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge University Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-521-81459-1.
Jump up ^ Runciman, Steven. Byzantine Civilisation, p. 60, Meridian 1956.
Jump up ^ Phillips, Jonathan. The Fourth Crusade and the Siege of Constantinople. 2004. pp. 222–226.
[show]
v
t
e
Roman Constitution
Ancient Rome
History
Constitution
Senate
Assemblies
Curiate
Century
Tribal
Plebeian
Magistrates
Roman Kingdom
History
Constitution
Senate
Assemblies
Magistrates
Roman Republic
History
Constitution (reforms of Sulla • reforms of Caesar • reforms of Augustus)
Senate
Assemblies
Magistrates
Roman Empire
History
(post Diocletian)
Constitution
(post Diocletian)
Senate
Assemblies
Magistrates
Miscellaneous
Sulla's Constitutional Reforms
Caesar's Constitutional Reforms
Conflict of the Orders
Roman law
[show]
v
t
e
Ancient Rome topics
Outline
Timeline
Epochs
Foundation
Kingdom
overthrow
Republic
Empire
Pax Romana
Principate
Dominate
Western Empire
fall
historiography of the fall
Byzantine Empire
decline
fall
Constitution
History
Kingdom
Republic
Empire
Late Empire
Senate
Legislative assemblies
Curiate
Centuriate
Tribal
Plebeian
Executive magistrates
SPQR
Government
Curia
Forum
Cursus honorum
Collegiality
Emperor
Legatus
Dux
Officium
Prefect
Vicarius
Vigintisexviri
Lictor
Magister militum
Imperator
Princeps senatus
Pontifex Maximus
Augustus
Caesar
Tetrarch
Optimates
Populares
Province
Magistrates
Ordinary
Tribune
Quaestor
Aedile
Praetor
Consul
Censor
Promagistrate
Governor
Extraordinary
Dictator
Magister Equitum
Decemviri
Consular Tribune
Triumvir
Rex
Interrex
Law
Twelve Tables
Mos maiorum
Citizenship
Auctoritas
Imperium
Status
Litigation
Military
Borders
Establishment
Structure
Campaigns
Political control
Strategy
Engineering
Frontiers and fortifications
castra
Technology
Army
Legion
Infantry tactics
Personal equipment
Siege engines
Navy
Auxiliaries
Decorations and punishments
Hippika gymnasia
Economy
Agriculture
Deforestation
Commerce
Finance
Currency
Republican currency
Imperial currency
Technology
Abacus
Numerals
Civil engineering
Military engineering
Military technology
Aqueducts
Bridges
Circus
Concrete
Domes
Forum
Metallurgy
Roads
Sanitation
Thermae
Culture
Architecture
Art
Bathing
Calendar
Clothing
Cosmetics
Cuisine
Hairstyles
Education
Literature
Music
Mythology
Religion
Romanization
Sexuality
Theatre
Wine
Society
Patricians
Plebs
Conflict of the Orders
Secessio plebis
Equites
Gens
Tribes
Naming conventions
Demography
Women
Marriage
Adoption
Slavery
Bagaudae
Latin
History
Alphabet
Versions
Old
Classical
Vulgar
Late
Medieval
Renaissance
New
Contemporary
Ecclesiastical
Romance languages
Writers
Apuleius
Caesar
Catullus
Cicero
Ennius
Horace
Juvenal
Livy
Lucan
Lucretius
Martial
Ovid
Petronius
Phaedrus
Plautus
Pliny the Elder
Pliny the Younger
Propertius
Quintilian
Quintus Curtius Rufus
Sallust
Seneca
Statius
Suetonius
Tacitus
Terence
Tibullus
Marcus Terentius Varro
Virgil
Vitruvius
Major cities
Alexandria
Antioch
Aquileia
Berytus
Bononia
Carthage
Constantinopolis
Eboracum
Leptis Magna
Londinium
Lutetia
Mediolanum
Pompeii
Ravenna
Roma
Smyrna
Vindobona
Volubilis
Lists and other
topics
Wars and battles
Generals
Legions
Emperors
Geographers
Cities and towns
Institutions
Laws
Consuls
Tribunes
Distinguished women
Nomina
Gentes
Climate
Legacy
Fiction
Films
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_Senate&oldid=815532793"
Categories:
Government of the Kingdom of Rome
Government of the Roman Republic
Government of the Roman Empire
Roman law
Historical legislatures
Hidden categories:
Articles containing Latin-language text
Articles containing Italian-language text
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from May 2009
Articles to be expanded from October 2016
All articles to be expanded
Articles using small message boxes
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2013
All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases
Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2013
Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2015
Articles containing Greek-language text
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
Беларуская
Български
Bosanski
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Frysk
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
Hrvatski
Bahasa Indonesia
Interlingua
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Kiswahili
Latina
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Occitan
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 15 December 2017, at 12:05.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values: adr font-size:smaller

value: th

value: tr

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: nowrap font-weight:normal

values:
/wiki/Politics_of_ancient_Rome
mw-redirect
Politics of ancient Rome

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-2

values: -moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top:1px #aaa solid

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values:
/wiki/Latin_language
mw-redirect
Latin language

values:
/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Ostrogoths
mw-redirect
Kingdom of the Ostrogoths

values: Edit section: Senate of the Roman Kingdom

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2009)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: Senate of the Roman Republic

values:
/wiki/Italian_Senate
mw-redirect
Italian Senate

values:
/wiki/Roman_Consul
mw-redirect
Roman Consul

values:
/wiki/Roman_Dictator
mw-redirect
Roman Dictator

values:
/wiki/Equestrian_order
mw-redirect
Equestrian order

values: Edit section: Senate of the Roman Empire

values:
/wiki/Roman_Emperor
mw-redirect
Roman Emperor

values:
/wiki/Caesar_Augustus
mw-redirect
Caesar Augustus

values: Edit section: Post-Imperial Senate in Rome

values: plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content

values: Edit section: Relationships with Constantinople

values:
/wiki/Tiberius_II_Constantinus
mw-redirect
Tiberius II Constantinus

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2013)

values: The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2013)

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words
mw-redirect
Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words

values: The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (October 2015)

values: Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch

values:
noprint Inline-Template
margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: Senate of the Eastern Roman Empire

values:
/wiki/Eunuch_(court_official)
mw-redirect
Eunuch (court official)

values:
/wiki/Nicolas_Canabus
mw-redirect
Nicolas Canabus

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.bartleby.com/81/4009.html

values:
/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita_libri_(Livy)
mw-redirect
Ab urbe condita libri (Livy)

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Century_Assembly
mw-redirect
Century Assembly

values:
/wiki/Roman_Magistrates
mw-redirect
Roman Magistrates

values: History of the Constitution of the Roman Kingdom

values: Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Kingdom

values: Executive Magistrates of the Roman Kingdom

values: History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic

values: Constitutional reforms of Lucius Cornelius Sulla

values: Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic

values: Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic

values: History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire

values: History of the Constitution of the Late Roman Empire

values: Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Empire

values: Executive Magistrates of the Roman Empire

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire

values: Military establishment of the Roman Republic

values: Structural history of the Roman military

values: Roman military frontiers and fortifications

values: Technological history of the Roman military

values: Roman military decorations and punishments

values:
/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency
mw-redirect
Roman Imperial currency

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: Category:Government of the Kingdom of Rome

values: Category:Government of the Roman Republic

values: Category:Articles containing Latin-language text

values: Category:Articles containing Italian-language text

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2009

values: Category:Articles to be expanded from October 2016

values: Category:Articles using small message boxes

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2013

values: Category:All articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases

values: Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2013

values: Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from October 2015

values: Category:Articles containing Greek-language text

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Roman_Senate
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: مجلس الشيوخ الروماني – Arabic

values:
https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senat
Senat – Azerbaijani
az
az
interlanguage-link-target

values: Сенат (Старажытны Рым) – Belarusian

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senat
Senat – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Ρωμαϊκή σύγκλητος – Greek

values: سنای روم – Persian

values: 로마 원로원 – Korean

values: Հռոմեական սենատ – Armenian

values: הסנאט הרומי – Hebrew

values: რომის სენატი – Georgian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senati
Senati – Swahili
sw
sw
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senatus
Senatus – Hungarian
hu
hu
interlanguage-link-target

values: Римски сенат – Macedonian

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senat_Rom
Senat Rom – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values: Сенат (Древний Рим) – Russian

values: රෝමානු සෙනෙට් මණ්ඩලය – Sinhala

values: Римски сенат – Serbian

values: วุฒิสภาโรมัน – Thai

values: Сенат (Стародавній Рим) – Ukrainian

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Roman_Senate rootpage-Roman_Senate skin-vector action-view