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List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field
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The following is a list of people who are considered a "father" or "mother" (or "founding father" or "founding mother") of a scientific field. Such people are generally regarded to have made the first significant contributions to and/or delineation of that field; they may also be seen as "a" rather than "the" father or mother of the field. Debate over who merits the title can be perennial. As regards science itself, the title has been bestowed on the ancient Greek philosophers Thales[1][2] – who attempted to explain natural phenomena without recourse to mythology – and Democritus, the atomist.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Natural sciences
1.1 Biology
1.2 Chemistry
1.3 Earth sciences
1.4 Medicine and physiology
1.5 Physics and astronomy
2 Formal sciences
2.1 Mathematics
2.2 Systems theory
3 Social sciences
3.1 Economics
3.1.1 Schools of thought
3.1.2 Theories
4 Other fields
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
Natural sciences[edit]
Biology[edit]
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale
Bacteriology Robert Koch / Ferdinand Cohn[4] / Louis Pasteur First to produce precise, correct descriptions of bacteria.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[5]
Biogeography Alfred Russel Wallace "...Often described as the Father of Biogeography, Wallace shows the impact of human activity on the natural world."[6]
Biology[n 1] Aristotle [7]
Ecology Carl Linnaeus / Ernst Haeckel / Eugenius Warming[8] Linnaeus founded an early branch of ecology that he called The Economy of Nature (1772), Haeckel coined the term "ecology" (German: Oekologie, Ökologie) (1866), Warming authored the first book on plant ecology. Plantesamfund (1895).
Entomology Jan Swammerdam [9]
Johan Christian Fabricius[10] Fabricius described and published information on over 10,000 insects and refined Linnaeus's system of classification.
William Kirby [11]
Ethology Nikolaas Tinbergen
Karl von Frisch
Konrad Lorenz The modern discipline of ethology is generally considered to have begun during the 1930s with the work of Nikolaas Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, joint awardees of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.[12]
Evolution
Natural selection
Charles Darwin[13][14][15] On the Origin of Species (1859).
Genetics Gregor Mendel For his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants, which forms the basis for Mendelian inheritance.[16]
William Bateson Proponent of Mendelism.[17]
Ichthyology Peter Artedi "Far greater than either of these… was he who has been justly called the Father of Ichthyology, Petrus (Peter) Artedi (1705–35)."[18]
Lichenology Erik Acharius "Erik Acharius, the father of lichenology..."[19]
Microbiology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[20] The first to microscopically observe micro-organisms in water and the first to see bacteria.
Molecular biology Linus Pauling [21]
Molecular biophysics Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran[22] Founded the [world's first?] molecular biophysics unit (1970).
Paleontology Leonardo da Vinci
George Cuvier [23]
Parasitology Francesco Redi The founder of experimental biology and the first person to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies.[24]
Protozoology Antonie van Leeuwenhoek[5] First to produce precise, correct descriptions of protozoa.
Taxonomy Carl Linnaeus[25] Devised the system of naming living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world.
Virology Dmitry Ivanovsky
Martinus Beijerinck The first men to discover viruses (1892).
Chemistry[edit]
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale
Atomic theory (early) Democritus[26] Founder of atomism in cosmology.
Atomic theory (modern) Father Roger Boscovich[27] First coherent description of atomic theory.
John Dalton[28] First scientific description of the atom as a building block for more complex structures.
Chemical thermodynamics (modern) Gilbert Lewis / Willard Gibbs / Merle Randall / Edward Guggenheim[29] Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances (1923) and Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs (1933), which made a major contribution to the use of thermodynamics in chemistry.
Chemistry (early) Jabir ("Geber") ibn Hayyan (died 815)[30][31][32][33] Introduced the experimental method to Islamic alchemy.
Chemistry (modern) Antoine Lavoisier[34] Elements of Chemistry (1787)
Robert Boyle[34] The Sceptical Chymist (1661)
Jöns Berzelius[35][36] Development of chemical nomenclature (1800s)
John Dalton[34] Revival of atomic theory (1803)
Green chemistry Paul Anastas[37] Design and manufacture of chemicals that are non-hazardous and environmentally benign.
Nuclear chemistry Otto Hahn[38]
Applied Radiochemistry (1936)
First person to split an atomic nucleus (nuclear fission, 1938)
Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this discovery (1944)
Periodic table Dmitri Mendeleev[39] Arranged the sixty-six elements known at the time in order of atomic weight by periodic intervals (1869).
Physical chemistry Mikhail Lomonosov The first to read lectures in physical chemistry and coin the term (1752).
Jacobus van 't Hoff Jacobus van 't Hoff is considered to be one of the founders of the discipline of physical chemistry. His work helped found the discipline as it is today.[40][41][42]
Svante Arrhenius[43] Devised much of the theoretical foundation for physical chemistry. On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876), Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgange (1882).
Wilhelm Ostwald "Wilhelm Ostwald is considered one of the founders of the discipline of physical chemistry..."[44]
Hermann von Helmholtz [citation needed]
Earth sciences[edit]
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale
Geochemistry (modern) Victor Goldschmidt For developing the Goldschmidt classification of elements.
Early Geodesy (mathematical geography) Eratosthenes[45][46]
Modern Geodesy Al-Biruni[47][48]
Geology (modern)
Father Nicholas Steno[49]
James Hutton[50]
For setting down most of the principles of modern geology.
For formulating uniformitarianism and the Plutonic theory.
Limnology (modern) G. Evelyn Hutchinson [51]
Mineralogy Georgius Agricola [52]
Meteorology
Naval oceanography (modern)
Matthew Fontaine Maury [53]
Plate tectonics Alfred Wegener [citation needed]
Acoustical oceanography Leonid Brekhovskikh [54]
Stratigraphy Father Nicholas Steno [49]
Speleology Édouard-Alfred Martel Began the first systematic exploration of cave systems and promoted speleology as a field separate from geology.
Medicine and physiology[edit]
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale
Anatomy (modern) Marcello Malpighi
Audiology Raymond Carhart
"…the Father of Audiology himself, Raymond Carhart at Northwestern University…"[55]
"Carhart notch: A decrease in the bone-conduction hearing at the 2000 Hz region of patients with otosclerosis first reported by and therefore named after the father of audiology, Raymond Carhart."[56]
Biophysics Hermann von Helmholtz
Biomechanics Christian Wilhelm Braune First to describe the methodology of human gait walking.
Bioelectromagnetics Luigi Galvani First to discover animal electricity through a series of experiments.
Cognitive therapy Aaron T. Beck
"In developing ways to do this, Beck became the father of cognitive therapy, one of the most important developments in psychotherapy in the last 50 years."[57]
The Prospect of Immortality (1962)
Cryonics Robert Ettinger [58]
Dentistry (modern) Pierre Fauchard [59]
Electrophysiology Emil du Bois-Reymond The discoverer of nerve action potential.
Emergency medicine
Peter Safar[60][61]
Frank Pantridge
Safar pioneered CPR, intensive-care units and developed standards for EMT, ambulance design and equipment.
Pantridge: [62]
Epidemiology (modern) John Snow
Fitness Jack LaLanne [63]
Gynaecology J. Marion Sims [64][65]
Histology Marcello Malpighi
Human anatomy (modern) Vesalius[66] De humani corporis fabrica (1543)
Medical genetics Victor McKusick[67] Mendelian Inheritance in Man
Medicine (early)
Imhotep[68]
Charaka[69]
Hippocrates[70][71]
None.
Wrote the Charaka Samhitā and founded the Ayurveda system of medicine.
Prescribed professional practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Oath.
Medicine (modern)
Sir William Osler
Neurosurgery Harvey Cushing[72] Developed techniques that considerably reduced the risks involved with brain surgery in the early 20th Century.[72]
Neuroscience Santiago Ramón y Cajal Comprehensive work on structure of the brain.
Nursing (modern) Florence Nightingale See Nursing#History.
Nutrition (modern)
Justus von Liebig
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier
"Justus Von Liebig, the 'father of modern nutrition', developed the perfect infant food. It consisted of [...]"[73]
"In addition to being known as the Father of Modern Chemistry, Lavoisier is also considered the Father of Modern Nutrition, as the first to discover the metabolism that occurs inside the human body..."[74]
Organ transplantation Thomas Starzl[75] Performed the first human liver transplant and established the clinical utility of anti-rejection drugs including ciclosporin. Developed major advances in organ preservation, procurement and transplantation.
Orthopedic surgery (modern) Hugh Owen Thomas[76] He stressed the importance of rest in treatment and was responsible for many landmark contributions to orthopaedic surgery. He was especially celebrated for his design and use of splints; the famous Thomas knee splint was still in wide use at the end of World War II.
Orthomolecular medicine Linus Pauling
Pathology (modern) Rudolf Virchow Founded modern Pathology and Social Medicine and published Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische und pathologische Gewebelehre which is regarded as the basis of modern medical science.
Psychology (experimental) Wilhelm Wundt[77] Founded the first laboratory for psychological research.
Pediatrics Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi ("Rhazes")[78] Wrote The Diseases of Children, the first book to deal with pediatrics as an independent field.
Physiology Claude Bernard[79] An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865)
Physical culture Bernarr Macfadden "It delighted the heart of our old friend Bernarr Macfadden, 'the Father of Physical Culture,' when we told him how much athletic activity and good sportsmanship had to do with the rehabilitation of boys."[80]
Plastic surgery
Sushruta[81][82]
Harold Gillies
Wrote the Sushruta Samhita.
Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud [83]
Psychophysics Gustav Fechner[84] Elements of Psychophysics (1860)
Space medicine Hubertus Strughold "After Wernher von Braun, he was the top Nazi scientist employed by the American government, and he was subsequently hailed by NASA as the 'father of space medicine'"[85]
Surgery (early) Sushruta[81][82] Wrote the Sushruta Samhita.
Surgery (modern)
Abu al-Qasim ("Abulcasis") al-Zahrawi[86]
Guy de Chauliac[87]
Ambroise Paré
John Hunter
Joseph Lister
William Stewart Halsted
See also Father of modern surgery
Kitab al-Tasrif (1000 AD).
Chirurgia magna
Leader in surgical techniques, especially the treatment of wounds.[88]
Experimental, scientific approach to surgery.[89][90]
Use of carbolic acid as an antiseptic.[91][92]
Introduction of residency system in the United States.[93]
Toxicology Paracelsus [94]
Physics and astronomy[edit]
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale
Acoustics Ernst Chladni[95] For important research in vibrating plates
Atomic bomb Enrico Fermi
J. Robert Oppenheimer
Leslie Groves
Edward Teller For their role in the Manhattan Project
Aerodynamics Nikolai Zhukovsky
George Cayley[96]
Zhukovsky was the first to undertake the study of airflow, was the first engineer scientist to explain mathematically the origin of aerodynamic lift. Cayley Investigated theoretical aspects of flight and experimented with flight a century before the first airplane was built
Physical cosmology Albert Einstein (founder)
Henrietta Leavitt (mother)[97]
Edwin Hubble (father)[97]
Leavitt discovered Cepheid variables, the "Standard Candle" by which Hubble later determined galactic distances. Einstein's general theory of relativity is usually recognized as the theoretic foundation of modern cosmology.
Classical mechanics Isaac Newton (founder)[98] Described laws of motion and law of gravity in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
Electricity William Gilbert[99]
Michael Faraday[100] Book: De Magnete (1600)
Discovered electromagnetic induction (1831)
Electrodynamics André-Marie Ampère[101] Book: Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience (1827)
Energetics Willard Gibbs[102] Publication: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876)
Experimental physics (founder) Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[103][104] For introducing experimental method into physics with his Book of Optics (1021)
Modern astronomy Nicolaus Copernicus[105] Developed the first explicit heliocentric model in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543)
Modern physics Galileo Galilei[106] His development and extensive use of experimental physics, e.g. the telescope
Nuclear physics Ernest Rutherford[107] Developed the Rutherford atom model (1909)
Nuclear science Marie Curie
Pierre Curie[108]
Optics Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[109] Correctly explained vision and carried out the first experiments on light and optics in the Book of Optics (1021).
Plasma physics Irving Langmuir
Hannes Alfvén[110] Langmuir first described ionised gas as plasma and observed fundamental plasma vibrations, Langmuir waves.
Alfvén pioneered the theoretical description of plasma by developing magnetohydrodynamics.
Quantum mechanics Max Planck (founder)[111]Werner Heisenberg Stated that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form
Relativity Albert Einstein (founder)[112] Pioneered special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915)
Spaceflight (rocketry) Robert Hutchings Goddard
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
Hermann Oberth Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket.
Tsiolkovsky created the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.
Thermodynamics Sadi Carnot (founder)[113] Publication: On the Motive Power of Fire and Machines Fitted to Develop that Power (1824)
Formal sciences[edit]
Mathematics[edit]
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale
Algebra
(see also The father of algebra) Muhammad Al-Khwarizmi (Algorismi)[114] Brahmagupta[115]
Diophantus[116][117] Full exposition of solving quadratic equations in his Al-Jabr and recognized algebra as an independent discipline.
First use of symbolism (syncopation) in his Arithmetica.
Algebraic topology Henri Poincaré[118] Published Analysis Situs in 1895,[119] introducing the concepts of homotopy and homology, which are now considered part of algebraic topology.
Analysis Augustin-Louis Cauchy[120]
Karl Weierstrass[121]
Analytic geometry René Descartes
Pierre de Fermat[122](founders) For their independent invention of the Cartesian Coordinate System
Calculus Isaac Newton[123]
Gottfried Leibniz See Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy.
Classical analysis Madhava of Sangamagrama[124] Developed Taylor series expansions of trigonometric functions
Computer science George Boole
Alan Turing
Rózsa Péter[125][126] Invented Boolean logic, which is the basis of modern digital computer logic
Provided an influential formalisation of the concept of the algorithm and computation with the Turing machine.
Considered the "founding mother of recursion theory", which provided the mathematical groundwork for computational theory.
Descriptive geometry Gaspard Monge[127]
(founder) Developed a graphical protocol that creates three-dimensional virtual space on a two-dimensional plane
Fractal geometry Benoît B. Mandelbrot
Geometry Euclid[128] Euclid's Elements deduced the principles of Euclidean geometry from a set of axioms.
Graph theory Leonhard Euler[129] See Seven Bridges of Königsberg
Italian school of algebraic geometry Corrado Segre[130] Publications and students developing algebraic geometry
Modern algebra Emmy Noether[131] Provided the first general definitions of a commutative ring, and suggested that topology be studied algebraically.[132] Combined the structure theory of associative algebras and the representation theory of groups into a single arithmetic theory of modules and ideals in rings satisfying ascending chain conditions.[133]
Non-Euclidean geometry János Bolyai,
Nikolai Lobachevsky[134](founders) Independent development of hyperbolic geometry in which Euclid's fifth postulate is not true
Number theory Pythagoras[135]
Probability Gerolamo Cardano, Pierre de Fermat, Blaise Pascal, Christiaan Huygens[136] (founders) Fermat and Pascal co-founded probability theory, about which Huygens wrote the first book
Projective geometry Girard Desargues[137](founder) By generalizing the use of vanishing points to include the case when these are infinitely far away
Tensor calculus Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro[138]
(founder) Book: The Absolute Differential Calculus
Trigonometry Hipparchus[139][140] Constructed the first trigonometric table.
Vector algebra,
vector calculus Willard Gibbs[141]
Oliver Heaviside[142]
(founders) For their development and use of vectors in algebra and calculus
Systems theory[edit]
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale
Chaos theory Henri Poincaré[143]
Mary Cartwright[144][145]
Edward Lorenz[146] Poincaré's work on the three-body problem was the first discovered example of a chaotic dynamical system. Cartwright made the first mathematical analysis of dynamical systems with chaos. Lorenz introduced strange attractor notation.
Cybernetics Norbert Wiener[147] Book Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. 1948.
Dynamic programming Richard E. Bellman
Fuzzy logic Lotfi Asker Zadeh
Information theory Claude Shannon[148] Article: A Mathematical Theory of Communication (1948)
Optimal control Arthur E. Bryson[149] Book: Applied Optimal Control[150]
Robust control George Zames[citation needed] Small gain theorem and H infinity control.
Stability theory Alexander Lyapunov[citation needed] Lyapunov function
System dynamics Jay Wright Forrester[151] Book: Industrial dynamics (1961)
Social sciences[edit]
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale
Anthropology Herodotus[152]
Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[153][154]
Demography Ibn Khaldun[155] Muqaddimah (Prolegomena) (1377)
Egyptology Father Athanasius Kircher[156]
Jean-François Champollion[citation needed]
First to identify the phoenetic importance of the hieroglyph, and he demonstrated Coptic as a vestige of early Egyptian, before the Rosetta stone's discovery.
Translated parts of the Rosetta Stone.
Historiography Ibn Khaldun Wrote several essential books
History Herodotus (who also coined the term)
Indology Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[154] Wrote the Indica
International law Alberico Gentili
Francisco de Vitoria
Hugo Grotius Influential contributions to the theory of international law, war and human rights
Linguistics (early) Panini Wrote the first descriptive grammar (of Sanskrit)
Linguistics (modern) Ferdinand de Saussure
Noam Chomsky
Sociology Ibn Khaldun[155][157]
Adam Ferguson[158]
Auguste Comte (who also coined the term)[159]
Marquis de Condorcet (founder)[160] Wrote the first sociological book, the Muqaddimah (Prolegomena).
"Father of modern sociology"
Introduced the scientific method into sociology.
Economics[edit]
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale
Accounting and Bookkeeping Luca Pacioli[161] Establisher of accounting and the first person to publish a work on bookkeeping.[161]
Economics (early) Ibn Khaldun[162]
Chanakya / Kautilya[163] Publication: Muqaddimah (1370)
Publication: Arthashastra (400 BCE - 200 CE)
Economics (modern)
Richard Cantillon[164]
Anders Chydenius[165]
Adam Smith[166]
First specific treatise on economics.
The National Gain (1765), a pamphlet that included key ideas about free trade.[167]
The Wealth of Nations (1776).
Evolutionary economics
Ecological economics
Thermoeconomics
bioeconomics
Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen[168][169][170][171][172] The Entropy Law and the Economic Process (1971)
Macroeconomics John Maynard Keynes[173] Author of The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money and groundbreaking economist, Keynes spearheaded a revolution in economic thinking. Prior to Keynes, the general consensus among economists was that the economy was self-fixing. During the Great Depression, when people began to realize that the economy would not fix itself, Keynes proposed that the government needed to intervene to combat excessive boom and bust. This idea was the largest influence in U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal.[174][175]
Mathematical economics Daniel Bernoulli Forerunner of the Tableau économique.[176]
Monetary economics
Nicole Oresme (c.1322-1382)[177]
Irving Fisher (1867-1947)
Milton Friedman (1912-2006)
Oresme's De Moneta.
"Irving Fisher [...] spent his career studying questions about money and the economy - how money affects interest rates, how money affects inflation, and the impact of money on overall economic activity. For this work, he is regarded as the father of monetary economics."[178]
"[...] no less an authority than the University of Chicago's Milton Friedman, the father of monetary economics, [...]"[179]
Microcredit Muhammad Yunus[180] Founded Grameen Bank
Personnel economics Edward Lazear Published the first paper in the field.
Schools of thought[edit]
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale
Austrian School Carl Menger[181]
Communism Karl Marx
Friedrich Engels
David Ricardo[182]
School of Salamanca Francisco de Vitoria[183] Highly influential teacher and lecturer on commercial morality
Theories[edit]
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale
Expectations theory Thomas Cardinal Cajetan[184] Recognised the effect of market expectations on the value of money
Modern portfolio theory Harry Markowitz[185]
Social choice theory Kenneth Arrow Created the field with his 1951 book, Social Choice and Individual Values
Other fields[edit]
Field
Person/s
considered "father" or "mother"
Rationale
Science (modern) Galileo Galilei[186]
[187][188] For systemic use of experimentation in science and contributions to scientific method, physics and observational astronomy
Physics (early) Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[189][190] Alhazen developed rigorous experimental methods of controlled scientific testing to verify theoretical hypotheses and substantiate inductive conjectures.
Developed Baconian method in his Novum Organum (1620).
Family and consumer science Ellen Swallow Richards Founded the American Association of Home Economics, currently the American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences. "Bringing science into the home, Richards hoped to "...attain the best physical, mental, and moral development" for the family, which she believed was the basic unit of civilization."[191]
See also[edit]
Founders of statistics
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ A name suggested in 1802 by the German naturalist Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus and introduced as a scientific term later that year by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Pamela Gossin, Encyclopedia of Literature and Science, 2002.
Jump up ^ Drews G (1999). "Ferdinand Cohn, a Founder of Modern Microbiology". ASM News 65 (8).
^ Jump up to: a b p. 18, Foundations in microbiology: basic principles, Kathleen Park Talaro, 6th ed., international ed., McGraw-Hill, 2007, ISBN 978-0-07-126232-3.
Jump up ^ DK Publishing (2010). Explorers: Tales of Endurance and Exploration. Penguin. p. 272. ISBN 9780756675110.
Jump up ^ Strong, W. F.; Cook, John A. (July 2007), "Reviving the Dead Greek Guys", Global Media Journal, Indian Edition, ISSN 1550-7521, archived from the original on 2007-12-07
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Jump up ^ p. 208, A history of social thought, Paul Hanly Furfey, The Macmillan company, 1942.
Jump up ^ p. 162, Museum: the Macleays, their collections and the search for order, Robyn Stacey, Ashley Hay, Cambridge University Press, 2007, ISBN 0-521-87453-X.
Jump up ^ p. 118, The fossil hunter: dinosaurs, evolution, and the woman whose discoveries changed the world, Shelley Emling, Macmillan, 2009, ISBN 0-230-61156-7.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 9 September 2016. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973 was awarded jointly to Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen 'for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns'.
Jump up ^ Darwin, Charles (1842, published 1909), "Pencil Sketch of 1842", in Darwin, Francis, The foundations of The origin of species: Two essays written in 1842 and 1844., Cambridge University Press, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID = F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
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Jump up ^ van Wyhe, John (2006), Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch, <http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html> Retrieved on 2006-12-15
Jump up ^ The Father of Genetics
Jump up ^ p. 91, Theory change in science: strategies from Mendelian genetics, Lindley Darden, Oxford University Press US, 1991, ISBN 0-19-506797-5.
Jump up ^ Jordan, David Starr (1905). A Guide to the Study of Fishes. Henry Holt and Company. , online at Google Books, p. 390.
Jump up ^ Department of Cryptogamic Botany at the Swedish Museum of Natural History (17 December 1999).
Jump up ^ Madigan M, Martinko J (editors) (2006). Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 11th ed., Prentice Hall.
Jump up ^ Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers - Special Collections - Oregon State University
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Jump up ^ p. 287, On social structure and science (volume 1996 of Heritage of sociology), Robert King Merton and Piotr Sztompka, University of Chicago Press, 1996, ISBN 0-226-52071-4.
Jump up ^ Levine R, Evers C. "The Slow Death of Spontaneous Generation (1668-1859)". Retrieved 2013-04-18.
Jump up ^ Hovey, Edmund Otis, "The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus", New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1908.
Jump up ^ Rothbard, Murray N. (2006). Economic thought before Adam Smith: An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought (PDF). Cheltnam, UK: Edward Elgar. p. 10. ISBN 0-945466-48-X.
Jump up ^ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 107. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
Jump up ^ Patterson, Elizabeth C. (1970). John Dalton and the Atomic Theory. Garden City, New York: Anchor. p. 10.
Jump up ^ Ott, Bevan, J.; Boerio-Goates, Juliana (2001). Chemical Thermodynamics - Principles and Applications. ISBN 0-12-530990-2.
Jump up ^ Derewenda, Zygmunt S. (2007), "On wine, chirality and crystallography", Acta Crystallographica A, 64: 246–258 [247], PMID 18156689, doi:10.1107/s0108767307054293
Jump up ^ John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged affair", Third World Quarterly, Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.
Jump up ^ Dr. A. Zahoor (1997). JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber) Archived 2008-06-30 at the Wayback Machine.. University of Indonesia.
Jump up ^ Paul Vallely. How Islamic inventors changed the world. The Independent.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kim, Mi Gyung (2003). Affinity, That Elusive Dream - A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution (Epilogue: A Tale of Three Fathers). ISBN 0-262-11273-6.
Jump up ^ Berzelius, Jöns (1779–1848) - Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography
Jump up ^ Jons Jacob - Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2 Aug 2007
Jump up ^ "ACS Green Chemistry at a Glance"
Jump up ^ O. Hahn and F. Strassmann Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle (On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons), Naturwissenschaften Volume 27, Number 1, 11-15 (1939). The authors were identified as being at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Chemie, Berlin-Dahlem. Received 22 December 1938.
Jump up ^ Chemistry Contexts. by Irwin, D; Farrelly, R; Garnett, P. Longman Sciences, (2001)
Jump up ^ Meijer, E. W. (2001). "Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff; Hundred Years of Impact on Stereochemistry in the Netherlands". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 40 (20): 3783–3789. PMID 11668534. doi:10.1002/1521-3773(20011015)40:20<3783::AID-ANIE3783>3.0.CO;2-J.
Jump up ^ Spek, Trienke M. van der (2006). "Selling a Theory: The Role of Molecular Models in J. H. van 't Hoff's Stereochemistry Theory". Annals of Science. 63 (2): 157–177. doi:10.1080/00033790500480816.
Jump up ^ Kreuzfeld, HJ; Hateley, MJ. (1999). "125 years of enantiomers: back to the roots Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff 1852–1911". Enantiomer. 4 (6): 491–6. PMID 10672458.
Jump up ^ Jacob Darwin Hamblin (2005). Science in the Early Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 9. ISBN 9781851096657. His interest in both fields would serve him well, because he became a principal founder of physical chemistry.
Jump up ^ Elizabeth H. Oakes (2010). Encyclopedia of World Scientists. Infobase Publishing. p. 562. ISBN 9781438118826.
Jump up ^ p. 12, Plotting the globe: stories of meridians, parallels, and the international date line, Avraham Ariel and Nora Ariel Berger, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 0-275-98895-3.
Jump up ^ p. 389, "Eratosthenes", D. R. Dicks, in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie, vol. 4, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971.
Jump up ^ Ahmed, Akbar S. (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist". RAIN. 60 (60): 9–10. doi:10.2307/3033407
Jump up ^ https://books.google.fr/books?id=iJ0bDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA12&lpg=PA12&dq=al+biruni+father+of+geodesy&source=bl&ots=8-uDuI_uCz&sig=RKfV1sspBTE3QNgMOuG6mxA1cgg&hl=fr&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwinwpScqbvWAhVHC8AKHcrnBK44ChDoAQgtMAc#v=onepage&q=al%20biruni%20father%20of%20geodesy&f=false
^ Jump up to: a b Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 96. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
Jump up ^ Jack Repcheck: The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity. London and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Simon & Schuster (2003).
Jump up ^ G. Evelyn Hutchinson a.k.a. Father of modern limnology and the modern Darwin (1903–1991)
Jump up ^ p. 19, Reader's guide to the history of science, Arne Hessenbruch, Taylor & Francis, 2000, ISBN 1-884964-29-X.
Jump up ^ Lewis, Charles Lee, associate professor of the United States Naval Academy: Pathfinder of the Seas (book).
Jump up ^ Mikhalevsky, P; Godin, O; Naugolnykh, K; Dubrovsky, N (2005). "Leonid Maksimovich Brekhovskikh". Physics Today. 58 (11): 70–71. Bibcode:2005PhT....58k..70M. doi:10.1063/1.2155769.
Jump up ^ Hall, James W. (1999). Handbook of Otoacoustic Emissions. Thomson Delmar Learning. p. 2. ISBN 1-56593-873-9.
Jump up ^ Hall, James W.; H. Gustav Mueller (1998). Audiologists Desk Reference: Audiolologic Management, Rehabilitation and Terminology. Thomson Delmar Learning. p. 912. ISBN 1-56593-711-2.
Jump up ^ Durand, V. Mark, Jim; David H Barlow (2005). Essentials of Abnormal Psychology. Thomson Wadsworth. p. 235. ISBN 0-495-03128-3.
Jump up ^ Klein, Bruce (August 13, 2004). "The Father of Cryonics, Robert C. W. Ettinger, Interview with Bruce Klein". Immortality Institute. Retrieved 2009-05-24.
Jump up ^ de Vaux, Jean Claude. "The Pierre Fauchard Academy". Archived from the original on 2000-12-13. Retrieved 2006-07-22.
Jump up ^ Acierno, LJ; Worrell, LT (January 2007). "Peter Safar: father of modern cardiopulmonary resuscitation". Clinical Cardiology. 30 (1): 52–4. ISSN 0160-9289. PMID 17262769. doi:10.1002/clc.20042.
Jump up ^ Mitka, Mike (May 2003). "Peter J. Safar, MD: 'father of CPR,' innovator, teacher, humanist" (PDF). JAMA. 289 (19): 2485–6. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 12759308. doi:10.1001/jama.289.19.2485. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-06-27.
Jump up ^ UK Daily Telegraph obituary 12/29/2004.
Jump up ^ Father of fitness, Jack La Lanne, turns 90, MSNBC, September 24, 2004. "He continues to live by his motto, 'I can't die, it would ruin my image!'"
Jump up ^ Log In Problems
Jump up ^ History of Women and Science, Health, and Technology
Jump up ^ Vallejo-Manzur F et al. (2003) "The resuscitation greats. Andreas Vesalius, the concept of an artificial airway." Resuscitation" 56:3-7
Jump up ^ Geneticists Mourn Loss of the ‘Father of Genetic Medicine’
Jump up ^ Mostafa Shehata MD (2004). "The Father of Medicine: A Historical Reconsideration". Turk Klin J Med Ethics. 12: 171–176 [176].
Jump up ^ Nirupama Laroia M.D.; Sharma Deeksha (2006). "The Religious and Cultural Bases for Breastfeeding Practices Among the Hindus". Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. 1 (2): 94–98. doi:10.1089/bfm.2006.1.94.
Jump up ^ Hippocrates, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation. Archived 2009-10-31.
Jump up ^ p. 4, Surgery: Basic Science and Clinical Evidence, Jeffrey A. Norton, Philip S. Barie, R. Randal Bollinger, Alfred E. Chang, Stephen F. Lowry, Sean J Mulvihill, M.D., Harvey I Pass, M.D., Robert W Thompson, M.D., Springer, 2008, ISBN 0-387-30800-8.
^ Jump up to: a b "Father of neurosurgery Dr Harvey Cushing's legacy". Retrieved 2015-05-20.
Jump up ^ Black, Rebecca. The Support of Breastfeeding: Module 1. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. p. 9. ISBN 0-7637-0208-0.
Jump up ^ Lavoisier, Antoine. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 July 2007.
Jump up ^ Cronin, Mike (2010-01-29). "Starzl, Tribune-Review reporters claim Carnegie Science Awards". Pittsburgh Tribune-Review. Retrieved 2010-01-29.
Jump up ^ p. 533, Orthopaedic Pathology, Peter G. Bullough, Elsevier Health Sciences, 2009, 5th ed., ISBN 03-23074-73-1.
Jump up ^ Wilhelm Wundt in Psychology Biographies at ALLPSYCH Online
Jump up ^ Tschanz David W. (2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine". Heart Views. 4: 2.
Jump up ^ Bernard, Claude. An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, 1865. First English translation by Henry Copley Greene, published by Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1927; reprinted in 1949. The Dover Edition of 1957 is a reprint of the original translation with a new Foreword by I. Bernard Cohen of Harvard University.
Jump up ^ Oursler, Fulton; Will Oursler (1949). Father Flanagan of Boys Town. Doubleday. p. 270.
^ Jump up to: a b A. Singh and D. Sarangi (2003). "We need to think and act", Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery.
^ Jump up to: a b H. W. Longfellow (2002). "History of Plastic Surgery in India", Journal of Postgraduate Medicine.
Jump up ^ Sigmund Freud [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
Jump up ^ Aaen-Stockdale, Craig (2008), "Ibn al-Haytham and psychophysics", Perception, 37 (4): 636–638, PMID 18546671, doi:10.1068/p5940
Jump up ^ Lee, Martin A.; Bruce Shlain (1986). Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond. Grove Press. p. 6. ISBN 0-8021-3062-3. . See also Harry Armstrong.
Jump up ^ Martin-Araguz A.; Bustamante-Martinez C.; Fernandez-Armayor Ajo V.; Moreno-Martinez J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine". Revista de neurología. 34 (9): 877–892. PMID 12134355.
Jump up ^ p. 283, Old-Time Makers of Medicine, James J. Walsh, New York: Fordham University Press, 1911.
Jump up ^ Pare, Ambroise." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058441>.
Jump up ^ Gray C (May 1983). "The remarkable surgical collection of John Hunter". Can Med Assoc J. 128 (10): 1225–8. PMC 1875296  . PMID 6340814.
Jump up ^ The knife man: the extraordinary life and times of John Hunter, father of modern surgery, Wendy Moore, Random House, 2005, ISBN 0-7679-1652-2.
Jump up ^ pp. 51-55, Pioneers of microbiology and the Nobel prize, Ulf Lagerkvist, World Scientific, 2003, ISBN 981-238-234-8.
Jump up ^ Joseph Lister, Father of Modern Surgery, Rhoda Truax, Bobbs Merrill, Indianapolis and New York, 1944.
Jump up ^ Voorhees, J. R.; Tubbs, R. S.; Nahed, B.; Cohen-Gadol, A. A. (2009). "William S. Halsted and Harvey W. Cushing: reflections on their complex association". Journal of Neurosurgery. 110 (2): 384–390. PMID 18976064. doi:10.3171/2008.4.17516.
Jump up ^ Paracelsus: Herald of Modern Toxicology - Borzelleca 53 (1): 2 - Toxicological Sciences
Jump up ^ Chladniite: A New Mineral Honoring the Father of Meteoritics, McCoy, T. J.; Steele, I. M.; Keil, K.; Leonard, B. F.; Endress, M., Meteoritics, vol. 28, no. 3, volume 28, page 394, 07/1993
Jump up ^ "Cayley, Sir George." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9360092>.
^ Jump up to: a b Milestones in the birth of Cosmology
Jump up ^ Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & his times. New York: Free Press.
Jump up ^ Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 2000, CD-ROM, version 2.5.
Jump up ^ He also invented the electrical generator, which is the basic source for producing electricity to begin with. (1831) Frank Ashall, Remarkable Discoveries!, Cambridge University Press - 1996. page 1
Jump up ^ André-Marie Ampère - Encyclopædia Britannica
Jump up ^ Josiah Willard Gibbs Archived 2013-05-17 at the Wayback Machine. - Britannica, 1911
Jump up ^ Thiele, Rüdiger (2005), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, 15: 329–331, doi:10.1017/S0957423905000214
Jump up ^ Thiele, Rüdiger (August 2005), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm, 1928–2005", Historia Mathematica, 32 (3): 271–274, doi:10.1016/j.hm.2005.05.002
Jump up ^ Danielson, Dennis, "The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution", Walker & Company, 2006
Jump up ^ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse, p. 155. ISBN 0-595-36877-8.
Jump up ^ Pasachoff, Naomi (2005). Ernest Rutherford: Father Of Nuclear Science (Great Minds of Science). ISBN 0-7660-2441-5.
Jump up ^ Resources
Jump up ^ R. L. Verma (1969). Al-Hazen: father of modern optics.
Jump up ^ R. Fitzpatrick (2011). A brief history of plasma physics.
Jump up ^ Heilbron, J. L. The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science (Harvard, 2000)
Jump up ^ [2]. URL accessed December 5, 2006.
Jump up ^ Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6.
Jump up ^ Solomon Gandz (1936), The sources of al-Khwarizmi's algebra, Osiris I, p. 263–277: "In a sense, Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called the father of algebra than Diophantus, because Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers."
Jump up ^ Serish Nanisetti, Father of algorithms and algebra, The Hindu, June 23, 2006.
Jump up ^ Boyer, Carl B. (1991). "The Arabic Hegemony". A History of Mathematics (Second ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 228. ISBN 0-471-54397-7. Diophantus sometimes is called "the father of algebra," but this title more appropriately belongs to al-Khwarizmi. It is true that in two respects the work of al-Khwarizmi represented a retrogression from that of Diophantus. First, it is on a far more elementary level than that found in the Diophantine problems and, second, the algebra of al-naren is thoroughly rhetorical, with none of the syncopation found in the Greek Arithmetica or in Brahmagupta's work. Even numbers were written out in words rather than symbols! It is quite unlikely that al-Khwarizmi knew of the work of Diophantus, but he must have been familiar with at least the astronomical and computational portions of Brahmagupta; yet neither al-Khwarizmi nor other Arabic scholars made use of syncopation or of negative numbers.
Jump up ^ Derbyshire, John (2006). "The Father of Algebra". Unknown Quantity: A Real And Imaginary History of Algebra. Joseph Henry Press. p. 31. ISBN 0-309-09657-X. Diophantus, the father of algebra, in whose honor I have named this chapter, lived in Alexandria, in Roman Egypt, in either the 1st, the 2nd, or the 3rd century CE.
Jump up ^ Ioan Mackenzie James, ed. (1999). History of Topology. Elsevier. p. 544. ISBN 9780444823755. Poincaré: the founder of algebraic topology
Jump up ^ Poincaré, Henri, "Analysis situs", Journal de l'École Polytechnique ser 2, 1 (1895) pp. 1–123
Jump up ^ p. 750, Rudiments of Mathematics Part 1, M. N. Mukherjee, P. Mukhopadhyay, S. Sinha Roy & U. Dasgupta, Academic Publishers, 2008, 5th ed., ISBN 81-89781-54-5.
Jump up ^ p. 147, Collisions, rings, and other Newtonian N-body problems, Donald Saari, American Mathematical Society, 2005, ISBN 0-8218-3250-6.
Jump up ^ Gullberg, Jan (1997). Mathematics From The Birth Of Numbers. W. W. Norton
Jump up ^ Bell, E.T. [1937] (1986). Men of Mathematics, Touchstone edition, New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 91–2.
Jump up ^ George Gheverghese Joseph (2000). The Crest of the Peacock. Princeton University Press.
Jump up ^ Morris, Edie; Harkleroad, Leon (1990), "Rózsa Péter: recursive function theory’s founding mother", The Mathematical Intelligence, 12 (1): 59–64
Jump up ^ "Rozsa Peter: Founder of Recursive Function Theory". Women in Science: A Selection of 16 Contributors. San Diego Supercomputer Center. 1997. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
Jump up ^ "Monge, Gaspard, comte de Peluse." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053349>.
Jump up ^ Artmann, Benno (1999). Euclid: The Creation of Mathematics. New York: Springer.
Jump up ^ Biggs, N. Lloyd, E. and Wilson, R. (1986). Graph Theory, 1736-1936 . London: Oxford University Press
Jump up ^ H.F. Baker (1926), "Corrado Segre", Journal of the London Mathematical Society 1:269
Jump up ^ Ne'eman, Yuval (1999), "The Impact of Emmy Noether's Theorems on XXIst Century Physics", in Teicher, M., The Heritage of Emmy Noether, Israel Mathematical Conference Proceedings, Bar-Ilan University, American Mathematical Society, Oxford University Press, pp. 83–101, ISBN 978-0-19-851045-1, OCLC 223099225
Jump up ^ Dick 1981, p. 174.
Jump up ^ van der Waerden 1985, p. 244.
Jump up ^ Marvin Jay Greenberg, Euclidean and Non-Euclidean geometries: Development and history New York: W. H. Freeman, 1993.
Jump up ^ p. 46, Aristarchus of Samos: The Ancient Copernicus, Thomas Heath, Oxford, 1913.
Jump up ^ Stigler, Stephen M. (1990). The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900. Belknap Press/Harvard University Press.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gérard Desargues". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
Jump up ^ Boyer (1991). "Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration". A History of Mathematics (Second ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 162. ISBN 0-471-54397-7. For some two and a half centuries, from Hippocrates to Eratosthenes, Greek mathematicians had studied relationships between lines and circles and had applied these in a variety of astronomical problems, but no systematic trigonometry had resulted. Then, presumably during the second half of the second century B.C., the first trigonometric table apparently was compiled by the astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea (ca. 180-ca. 125 B.C.), who thus earned the right to be known as the father of trigonometry. Aristarchus had known that in a given circle the ratio of arc to chord decreases from 180° to 0°, tending toward a limit of 1. However, it appears that not until Hipparchus undertook the task had anyone tabulated corresponding values of arc and chord for a whole series of angles.
Jump up ^ Boyer's opinion may constructively be compared to Øystein Ore's opinion, that the Babylonians constructed trigonometric tables ca 1600 BCE ( Ore (1988). "Diophantine Problems". Number Theory and its History. Dover Publications, Inc. pp. 176–179. ISBN 0-486-65620-9. The tablet, catalogued as Plimpton 322, is composed in Old Babylonian script so that it must fall in the period from 1900 B.C. and 1600 B.C., at least a millennium before the Pythagoreans… It is evident, however, that at this early date the Babylonians not only had completely mastered the Pythagorean problem, but also had used it as the basis for the construction of trigonometric tables. )
Jump up ^ Wheeler, Lynde, Phelps (1951). Josiah Willard Gibbs - the History of a Great Mind. Ox Bow Press.
Jump up ^ Michael J. Crowe (1994). A History of Vector Analysis : The Evolution of the Idea of a Vectorial System. Dover Publications; Reprint edition.
Jump up ^ Jonathan Mendelson & Elana Blumenthal. "Chaos Theory and Fractals". Mendelson Productions in collaboration with Blumenthal Enterprises. Retrieved 4 July 2012. Henri Poincaré was really the "Father of Chaos [Theory]," however.
Jump up ^ "Mistress of Girton whose mathematical work formed the basis of chaos theory". Obituaries Electronic Telegraph. 11 April 1998. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Freeman J. Dyson, Mary Lucy Cartwright (1900–1998): Chaos theory, pp. 169–177, in Out of the Shadows: Contributions of Twentieth-Century Women to Physics, edited by Nina Byers and Gary Williams, 498 p. (Cambridge University Press, 2006); ISBN 0-521-82197-5
Jump up ^ Edward Lorenz, father of chaos theory and butterfly effect, dies at 90 - MIT News Office
Jump up ^ Conway, F., and Siegelman, J., 2005. Dark Hero of the Information Age: in search of Norbert Wiener, the father of cybernetics. Basic Books, New York. 423pp. ISBN 0-7382-0368-8
Jump up ^ Bell Labs website: "For example, Claude Shannon, the father of Information Theory, had a passion…"
Jump up ^ 2004 Distinguished Alumni
Jump up ^ Bryson, A.E.; Ho, Y.C. (1975). Applied optimal control. Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
Jump up ^ Britannica Online Encyclopedia
Jump up ^ p. 22, A Short History of Scientific Ideas to 1900, Charles Singer, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959.
Jump up ^ Ahmed Akbar S (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist". RAIN. 60: 9–10. doi:10.2307/3033407.
^ Jump up to: a b Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshold [sic] Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
^ Jump up to: a b H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
Jump up ^ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 4 & 109. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
Jump up ^ Akhtar S. W. (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge". Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture. 12: 3.
Jump up ^ Willcox, William Bradford; Arnstein, Walter L. (1966). The Age of Aristocracy, 1688 to 1830. Volume III of A History of England, edited by Lacey Baldwin Smith (Sixth Edition, 1992 ed.). Lexington, MA. p. 133. ISBN 0-669-24459-7. Adam Ferguson of Edinburgh became "the father of modern sociology."
Jump up ^ Auguste Comte, Britannica Student Encyclopedia. Accessed October 5, 2006.
Jump up ^ p. 87, Full Meridian of Glory, Paul Murdin, New York: Springer, 2009, ISBN 978-0-387-75533-5 (print), ISBN 978-0-387-75534-2 (online).
^ Jump up to: a b DIWAN, Jaswith. ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS & THEORIES. LONDON: MORRE. pp. 001–002. id# 94452.
Jump up ^ I. M. Oweiss (1988), "Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics", Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses, New York University Press, ISBN 0-88706-698-4.
Jump up ^ L. K. Jha, K. N. Jha (1998). "Chanakya: the pioneer economist of the world", International Journal ertrtrtrtof Social Economics 25 (2-4), p. 267-282
Jump up ^ Rothbard, Murray N. (2006). "Chapter 12 — The founding father of modern economics: Richard Cantillon". Economic thought before Adam Smith: An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Cheltnam, UK: Edward Elgar. p. 345. ISBN 0-945466-48-X. The honour of being called the 'father of modern economics' belongs, then, not to its usual recipient, Adam Smith, but to a gallicized Irish merchant, banker, and adventurer who wrote the first treatise on economics more than four decades before the publication of the Wealth of Nations. Richard Cantillon (c. early 1680s-1734)…
Jump up ^ Pelo, June. "Anders Chydenius". Retrieved 2007-11-26.
Jump up ^ Steven Pressman, Fifty Major Economists, Routledge 1999 (ISBN 0-415-13481-1), p. 20.
Jump up ^ "Acton Institute: Anders Chydenius (1729-1803)". Retrieved 2007-11-26.
Jump up ^ Cleveland C.; Ruth M. (1997). "When, where, and by how much do biophysical limits constrain the economic process? A survey of Georgescu-Roegen's contribution to ecological economics". Ecological Economics. 22: 203–223. doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(97)00079-7.
Jump up ^ Daly H (1995). "On Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen's contributions to economics: An obituary essay". Ecological Economics. 13: 149–54. doi:10.1016/0921-8009(95)00011-w.
Jump up ^ Mayumi K (1995). "Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1906-1994)". Structural Change and Economic Dynamics. 6: 115–120. doi:10.1016/0954-349x(95)00014-e.
Jump up ^ Mayumi, Kozo; Gowdy, John, eds. (1999). Bioeconomics and Sustainability: Essays in Honor of Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. ISBN 1-85898-667-2.
Jump up ^ Mayumi, Kozo (2001). The Origins of Ecological Economics: The Bioeconomics of Georgescu-Roegen. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 0-415-23523-5.
Jump up ^ "John Maynard Keynes". Investopedia. Investopedia. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Blinder, Alan. "Keynesian Economics". Library of Economics and Liberty. Liberty Fund. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Briggs, Brad. "John Maynard Keynes: The Man Who Transformed the Economic World". Investing Answers. Retrieved 11 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Rothbard, p 379.
Jump up ^ Woods, p. 155.
Jump up ^ Pressman, Steven (2006). 50 Major Economists. Routledge Key Guides (2 ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 137. ISBN 9780415366489. Retrieved 2013-01-05.
Jump up ^ Dun's Review. Dun & Bradstreet Publications Corp. 94: 146. 1969 https://books.google.com/books?id=v8cSAQAAMAAJ. Retrieved 2013-01-05. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Expanding Microcredit in India: A Great Opportunity for Poverty Alleviation, Grameen Dialogue.
Jump up ^ Rothbard, p 167
Jump up ^ Karl Marx (1863): Theories of Surplus Value, Chapter 10:
Carey (the passage to be looked up later) therefore denounces him as the father of communism.
"Mr. Ricardo's system is one of discords …its whole tends to the production of hostility among classes and nations… His hook is the true manual of the demagogue, who seeks power by means of agrarianism, war, and plunder." (H. C. Carey, The Past, the Present, and the Future, Philadelphia, 1848, pp. 74–75.)
Jump up ^ Rothbard, p 102
Jump up ^ Rothbard, p 100-101
Jump up ^ Harry Markowitz, "the father of Modern Portfolio Theory," To Highlight Investment Consultants Conference
Jump up ^ Pamela Gossin, Encyclopedia of Literature and Science, 2002.
Jump up ^ Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (Fall 2007), "Book Review—The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History", The Historian 69 (3): 601–602
Jump up ^ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. Universe, p. 155.
Jump up ^ Jim Al-Khalili, The 'first true scientist', BBC.co.uk, 4 January 2009.
Jump up ^ MLA style: "Bacon, Francis, Viscount Saint Alban, Baron of Verulam." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 28 Dec. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108408>. APA style: Bacon, Francis, Viscount Saint Alban, Baron of Verulam. (2007).
Jump up ^ "Ellen S. Richards." Vassar College Encyclopedia. 2005. 20 Nov. 2011 <http://vcencyclopedia.vassar.edu/alumni/ellen-swallow-richards.html>.
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Rotameter
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the flow-rate measuring device. For the railway distance device, see Rotameter (railway).
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
TecFluid-CG34-2500 for water flow measurement
Medical oxygen regulator with rotameter
A rotameter is a device that measures the volumetric flow rate of fluid in a closed tube.
It belongs to a class of meters called variable area meters, which measure flow rate by allowing the cross-sectional area the fluid travels through to vary, causing a measurable effect.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Implementation
3 Advantages
4 Disadvantages
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
The first variable area meter with rotating float was invented by Karl Kueppers in Aachen in 1908. This is described in the German patent 215225. Felix Meyer founded the company "Deutsche Rotawerke GmbH" in Aachen recognizing the fundamental importance of this invention. They improved this invention with new shapes of the float and of the glass tube. Kueppers invented the special shape for the inside of the glass tube that realized a symmetrical flow scale.
The brand name Rotameter was registered by the British company GEC Elliot automation, Rotameter Co. In many other countries the brand name Rotameter is registered by Rota Yokogawa GmbH & Co. KG in Germany which is now owned by Yokogawa Electric Corp.
Implementation[edit]
A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass with a 'float' (a shaped weight, made either of anodized aluminum or a ceramic), inside that is pushed up by the drag force of the flow and pulled down by gravity. The drag force for a given fluid and float cross section is a function of flow speed squared only, see drag equation.
A higher volumetric flow rate through a given area increases flow speed and drag force, so the float will be pushed upwards. However, as the inside of the rotameter is cone shaped (widens), the area around the float through which the medium flows increases, the flow speed and drag force decrease until there is mechanical equilibrium with the float's weight.
Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and ellipsoids being the most common. The float may be diagonally grooved and partially colored so that it rotates axially as the fluid passes. This shows if the float is stuck since it will only rotate if it is free. Readings are usually taken at the top of the widest part of the float; the center for an ellipsoid, or the top for a cylinder. Some manufacturers use a different standard.
The "float" must not float in the fluid: it has to have a higher density than the fluid, otherwise it will float to the top even if there is no flow.
The mechanical nature of the measuring principle provides a flow measurement device that does not require any electrical power. If the tube is made of metal, the float position is transferred to an external indicator via a magnetic coupling. This capability has considerably expanded the range of applications for the variable area flowmeter, since the measurement can observed remotely from the process or used for automatic control.
Advantages[edit]
A rotameter requires no external power or fuel, it uses only the inherent properties of the fluid, along with gravity, to measure flow rate.
A rotameter is also a relatively simple device that can be mass manufactured out of cheap materials, allowing for its widespread use.
Since the area of the flow passage increases as the float moves up the tube, the scale is approximately linear.[1]
Clear glass is used which is highly resistant to thermal shock and chemical action.
Disadvantages[edit]
Due to its reliance on the ability of the fluid or gas to displace the float, graduations on a given rotameter will only be accurate for a given substance at a given temperature. The main property of importance is the density of the fluid; however, viscosity may also be significant. Floats are ideally designed to be insensitive to viscosity; however, this is seldom verifiable from manufacturers' specifications. Either separate rotameters for different densities and viscosities may be used, or multiple scales on the same rotameter can be used.
Due to the direct flow indication the resolution is relatively poor compared to other measurement principles. Readout uncertainty gets worse near the bottom of the scale. Oscillations of the float and parallax may further increase the uncertainty of the measurement.
Since the float must be read through the flowing medium, some fluids may obscure the reading. A transducer may be required for electronically measuring the position of the float.
Rotameters are not easily adapted for reading by machine; although magnetic floats that drive a follower outside the tube are available.
Rotameters are not generally manufactured in sizes greater than 6 inches/150 mm, but bypass designs are sometimes used on very large pipes.[1]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Brodkey, Robert S.; Hershey, Harry C. (2003), Transport Phenomena: A Unified Approach, Brodkey Publishing (McGraw Hill), pp. 471–476, ISBN 0-9726635-8-4
External links[edit]
eFunda: Introduction to Variable Area Flowmeters
KROHNE: Measuring Principle
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rotameters.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rotameter&oldid=809184599"
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