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1967–68 Football League
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The Football League
Season
1967–68
Champions
Manchester City
← 1966–67
1968–69 →
The 1967–1968 season was the 69th completed season of the English Football League.
For the first time since 1937 Manchester City won the league title, finishing two points clear of their local rivals Manchester United. Fulham finished bottom of the league and were relegated along with Sheffield United. Coventry City, in their first ever top flight season escaped relegation by one point and would go on to stay in the top division until their eventual relegation at the end of the 2000–01 season.
Bill McGarry's Ipswich Town team won the Second Division by one point from Queens Park Rangers, with both teams promoted. Blackpool finished third on goal average and so missed out. Rotherham United and bottom club Plymouth Argyle were both relegated to the Third Division.
Oxford United won their first divisional title and achieved what was then their highest ever finish in only their sixth season as a league club in the Third Division. Runners-up Bury joined them in promotion. Grimsby Town, Colchester United and Scunthorpe United were relegated, although the biggest story concerned bottom placed Peterborough United who were docked 19 points for offering irregular bonuses to their players. Had the points been restored the club would have finished in the top half. As a result of the ruling Mansfield Town escaped relegation.
Luton Town won the Fourth Division and were promoted along with Barnsley, Hartlepool United and Crewe Alexandra. No clubs were voted out of the league.
Contents
[hide]
1 Final league tables and results
2 First Division
2.1 Results
2.2 Maps
3 Second Division
3.1 Results
3.2 Maps
4 Third Division
4.1 Results
4.2 Maps
5 Fourth Division
5.1 Results
5.2 Maps
6 See also
7 References
Final league tables and results[edit]
Beginning with the season 1894–95, clubs finishing level on points were separated according to goal average (goals scored divided by goals conceded), or more properly put, goal ratio. In case one or more teams had the same goal difference, this system favoured those teams who had scored fewer goals. The goal average system was eventually replaced by goal difference, beginning with the 1976–77 season.
Since the Fourth Division was established in the 1958–59 season, the re-election process has concerned the bottom four clubs in that division.[1][2]
First Division[edit]
Football League
First Division
Season
1967–68
Champions
Manchester City (2nd English title)
Relegated
Sheffield United
Fulham
1968–69 European Cup
Manchester City
Manchester United (defending champions)
FA Cup winners
1968–69 European Cup Winners' Cup
West Bromwich Albion (5th FA Cup title)
1967–68 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup
Leeds United
Liverpool
Nottingham Forest
Matches played
462
Goals scored
1,398 (3.03 per match)
Top goalscorer
George Best (Manchester United), 28
Ron Davies (Southampton), 28[3]
Longest winning run
Everton (7)
Longest unbeaten run
Leeds United (14)
Longest losing run
Stoke City (7)
← 1966–67
1968–69 →
Pos
Team
Pld
W
D
L
GF
GA
GD
Pts
Qualification or relegation
1 Manchester City !Manchester City (C) 42 26 6 10 86 43 2 58 1968–69 European Cup
2 Manchester United !Manchester United 42 24 8 10 89 55 1.618 56
3 Liverpool !Liverpool 42 22 11 9 71 40 1.775 55 01967–68 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup0
4 Leeds United !Leeds United 42 22 9 11 71 41 1.732 53
5 Everton !Everton 42 23 6 13 67 40 1.675 52
6 Chelsea !Chelsea 42 18 12 12 62 68 0.912 48
7 Tottenham Hotspur !Tottenham Hotspur 42 19 9 14 70 59 1.186 47
8 West Bromwich Albion !West Bromwich Albion 42 17 12 13 75 62 1.21 46 01968–69 European Cup Winners' Cup0
9 Arsenal !Arsenal 42 17 10 15 60 56 1.071 44
10 Newcastle United !Newcastle United 42 13 15 14 54 67 0.806 41
11 Nottingham Forest !Nottingham Forest 42 14 11 17 52 64 0.813 39 1967–68 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup
12 West Ham United !West Ham United 42 14 10 18 73 69 1.058 38
13 Leicester City !Leicester City 42 13 12 17 64 69 0.928 38
14 Burnley !Burnley 42 14 10 18 64 71 0.901 38
15 Sunderland !Sunderland 42 13 11 18 51 61 0.836 37
16 Southampton !Southampton 42 13 11 18 66 83 0.795 37
17 Wolverhampton Wanderers !Wolverhampton Wanderers 42 14 8 20 66 75 0.88 36
18 Stoke City !Stoke City 42 14 7 21 50 73 0.685 35
19 Sheffield Wednesday !Sheffield Wednesday 42 11 12 19 51 63 0.81 34
20 Coventry City !Coventry City 42 9 15 18 51 71 0.718 33
21 Sheffield United !Sheffield United (R) 42 11 10 21 49 70 0.7 32 Relegation to 1968–69 Second Division
22 Fulham !Fulham (R) 42 10 7 25 56 98 0.571 27
Source: rsssf.com
Rules for classification: 1) points; 2) goal difference; 3) number of goals scored
(C) = Champion; (R) = Relegated; (P) = Promoted; (E) = Eliminated; (O) = Play-off winner; (A) = Advances to a further round.
Only applicable when the season is not finished:
(Q) = Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated; (TQ) = Qualified to tournament, but not yet to the particular phase indicated; (RQ) = Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated; (DQ) = Disqualified from tournament.
Results[edit]
‹ The template below (Fb r header) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. ›
Home ╲ Away Arsenal !ARS Burnley !BUR Chelsea !CHE Coventry City !COV Everton !EVE Fulham !FUL Leeds United !LEE Leicester City !LEI Liverpool !LIV Manchester City !MCI Manchester United !MUN Newcastle United !NEW Nottingham Forest !NOT Sheffield United !SHU Sheffield Wednesday !SHW Southampton !SOU Stoke City !STK Sunderland !SUN Tottenham Hotspur !TOT West Bromwich Albion !WBA West Ham United !WHU Wolverhampton Wanderers !WOL
Arsenal !Arsenal 2–0 1–1 1–1 2–2 5–3 4–3 2–1 2–0 1–0 0–2 0–0 3–0 1–1 3–2 0–3 2–0 2–1 4–0 2–1 0–0 0–2
Burnley !Burnley 1–0 1–1 2–1 2–1 2–0 3–0 1–1 1–1 0–1 2–1 2–0 1–1 0–2 2–1 2–0 4–0 3–0 5–1 0–0 3–3 1–1
Chelsea !Chelsea 2–1 2–1 1–1 1–1 1–1 0–0 4–1 3–1 1–0 1–1 1–1 1–0 4–2 3–0 2–6 2–2 1–0 2–0 0–3 1–3 1–0
Coventry City !Coventry City 1–1 5–1 2–1 0–2 0–3 0–1 0–1 1–1 0–3 2–0 1–4 1–3 2–2 3–0 2–1 2–0 2–2 2–3 4–2 1–1 1–0
Everton !Everton 2–0 2–0 2–1 3–1 5–1 0–1 2–1 1–0 1–1 3–1 1–0 1–0 1–0 1–0 4–2 3–0 3–0 0–1 2–1 2–0 4–2
Fulham !Fulham 1–3 4–3 2–2 1–1 2–1 0–5 0–1 1–1 2–4 0–4 2–0 2–0 0–1 2–0 2–2 0–2 3–2 1–2 1–2 0–3 1–2
Leeds United !Leeds United 3–1 2–1 7–0 1–1 2–0 2–0 3–2 1–2 2–0 1–0 2–0 1–1 3–0 3–2 5–0 2–0 1–1 1–0 3–1 2–1 2–1
Leicester City !Leicester City 2–2 0–2 2–2 0–0 0–2 1–2 2–2 2–1 1–0 2–2 2–2 4–2 3–1 3–0 4–1 0–0 0–2 2–3 2–3 2–4 3–1
Liverpool !Liverpool 2–0 3–2 3–1 1–0 1–0 4–1 2–0 3–1 1–1 1–2 6–0 6–1 1–2 1–0 2–0 2–1 2–1 1–1 4–1 3–1 2–1
Manchester City !Manchester City 1–1 4–2 1–0 3–1 2–0 5–1 1–0 6–0 0–0 1–2 2–0 2–0 5–2 1–0 4–2 4–2 1–0 4–1 0–2 3–0 2–0
Manchester United !Manchester United 1–0 2–2 1–3 4–0 3–1 3–0 1–0 1–1 1–2 1–3 6–0 3–0 1–0 4–2 3–2 1–0 1–2 3–1 2–1 3–1 4–0
Newcastle United !Newcastle United 2–1 1–0 5–1 3–2 1–0 2–1 1–1 0–0 1–1 3–4 2–2 0–0 1–0 4–0 3–0 1–1 2–1 1–3 2–2 1–0 2–0
Nottingham Forest !Nottingham Forest 2–0 1–0 3–0 3–3 1–0 2–2 0–2 2–1 0–1 0–3 3–1 4–0 1–0 0–0 2–2 3–0 0–3 0–0 3–2 1–1 3–1
Sheffield United !Sheffield United 2–4 1–0 1–2 2–0 0–1 2–3 1–0 0–0 1–1 0–3 0–3 2–1 1–3 0–1 4–1 1–0 1–2 3–2 1–1 1–2 1–1
Sheffield Wednesday !Sheffield Wednesday 1–2 2–1 2–2 4–0 0–0 4–2 0–1 2–1 1–2 1–1 1–1 1–1 0–0 1–1 2–0 1–1 0–1 1–2 2–2 4–1 2–2
Southampton !Southampton 2–0 2–2 3–5 0–0 3–2 2–1 1–1 1–5 1–0 3–2 2–2 0–0 2–1 3–3 2–0 1–2 3–2 1–2 4–0 0–0 1–1
Stoke City !Stoke City 0–1 0–2 0–1 3–3 1–0 0–1 3–2 3–2 2–1 3–0 2–4 2–1 1–3 1–1 0–1 3–2 2–1 2–1 0–0 2–0 0–2
Sunderland !Sunderland 2–0 2–2 2–3 1–1 1–0 3–0 2–2 0–2 1–1 1–0 1–1 3–3 1–0 2–1 0–2 0–3 3–1 0–1 0–0 1–5 2–0
Tottenham Hotspur !Tottenham Hotspur 1–0 5–0 2–0 4–2 1–1 2–2 2–1 0–1 1–1 1–3 1–2 1–1 1–1 1–1 2–1 6–1 3–0 3–0 0–0 5–1 2–1
West Bromwich Albion !West Bromwich Albion 1–3 8–1 0–1 0–1 2–6 2–1 2–0 0–0 0–2 3–2 6–3 2–0 2–1 4–1 1–1 0–0 3–0 0–0 2–0 3–1 4–1
West Ham United !West Ham United 1–1 4–2 0–1 0–0 1–1 7–2 0–0 4–2 1–0 2–3 1–3 5–0 3–0 3–0 2–3 0–1 3–4 1–1 2–1 2–3 1–2
Wolverhampton Wanderers !Wolverhampton Wanderers 3–2 3–2 3–0 2–0 1–3 3–2 2–0 1–3 1–1 0–0 2–3 2–2 6–1 1–3 2–3 2–0 3–4 2–1 2–1 3–3 1–2
Source: Ian Laschke: Rothmans Book of Football League Records 1888–89 to 1978–79. Macdonald and Jane’s, London & Sydney, 1980.
1 ^ The home team is listed in the left-hand column.
Colours: Blue = home team win; Yellow = draw; Red = away team win.
Maps[edit]
Arsenal
Burnley
Chelsea
Coventry
Everton
Fulham
Leeds United
Leicester City
Liverpool
Manchester City
Manchester United
Newcastle
Nottingham Forest
Sheffield United
Sheffield Wednesday
Southampton
Stoke
Sunderland
Tottenham
West Bromwich Albion
West Ham
Wolverhampton Wanderers
Locations of the Football League First Division 1967–1968 teams
Arsenal
Chelsea
Fulham
Tottenham
West Ham
Locations of the Football League First Division London teams 1967–1968
Second Division[edit]
Football League
Second Division
Season
1967–68
Champions
Ipswich Town (2nd title)
Promoted
Queens Park Rangers
Relegated
Plymouth Argyle,
Rotherham United
Matches played
462
Goals scored
1,303 (2.82 per match)
Top goalscorer
John Hickton (Middlesbrough), 24[3]
← 1966–67
1968–69 →
Pos
Team
Pld
W
D
L
GF
GA
GD
Pts
Promotion or relegation
1 Ipswich Town !Ipswich Town (C) (P) 42 22 15 5 79 44 1.795 59 Promotion to 1968–69 First Division
2 Queens Park Rangers !Queens Park Rangers (P) 42 25 8 9 67 36 1.861 58
3 Blackpool !Blackpool 42 24 10 8 71 43 1.651 58
4 Birmingham City !Birmingham City 42 19 14 9 83 51 1.627 52
5 Portsmouth !Portsmouth 42 18 13 11 68 55 1.236 49
6 Middlesbrough !Middlesbrough 42 17 12 13 60 54 1.111 46
7 Millwall !Millwall 42 14 17 11 62 50 1.24 45
8 Blackburn Rovers !Blackburn Rovers 42 16 11 15 56 49 1.143 43
9 Norwich City !Norwich City 42 16 11 15 60 65 0.923 43
10 Carlisle United !Carlisle United 42 14 13 15 58 52 1.115 41
11 Crystal Palace !Crystal Palace 42 14 11 17 56 56 1 39
12 Bolton Wanderers !Bolton Wanderers 42 13 13 16 60 63 0.952 39
13 Cardiff City !Cardiff City 42 13 12 17 60 66 0.909 38 1968–69 European Cup Winners' Cup
14 Huddersfield Town !Huddersfield Town 42 13 12 17 46 61 0.754 38
15 Charlton Athletic !Charlton Athletic 42 12 13 17 63 68 0.926 37
16 Aston Villa !Aston Villa 42 15 7 20 54 64 0.844 37
17 Hull City !Hull City 42 12 13 17 58 73 0.795 37
18 Derby County !Derby County 42 13 10 19 71 78 0.91 36
19 Bristol City !Bristol City 42 13 10 19 48 62 0.774 36
20 Preston North End !Preston North End 42 12 11 19 43 65 0.662 35
21 Rotherham United !Rotherham United (R) 42 10 11 21 42 76 0.553 31 Relegation to 1968–69 Third Division
22 Plymouth Argyle !Plymouth Argyle (R) 42 9 9 24 38 72 0.528 27
Source: rsssf.com
Rules for classification: 1) points; 2) goal difference; 3) number of goals scored
(C) = Champion; (R) = Relegated; (P) = Promoted; (E) = Eliminated; (O) = Play-off winner; (A) = Advances to a further round.
Only applicable when the season is not finished:
(Q) = Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated; (TQ) = Qualified to tournament, but not yet to the particular phase indicated; (RQ) = Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated; (DQ) = Disqualified from tournament.
Results[edit]
‹ The template below (Fb r header) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. ›
Home ╲ Away Aston Villa !AST Birmingham !BIR Blackburn Rovers !BLB Blackpool !BLP Bolton Wanderers !BOL Bristol City !BRI Cardiff City !CAR Carlisle United !CRL Charlton Athletic !CHA Crystal Palace !CRY Derby County !DER Huddersfield Town !HUD Hull City !HUL Ipswich Town !IPS Middlesbrough !MID Millwall !MIL Norwich City !NWC Plymouth Argyle !PLY Portsmouth !POR Preston North End !PNE Queens Park Rangers !QPR Rotherham United !ROT
Aston Villa !Aston Villa 2–4 1–2 3–2 1–1 2–4 2–1 1–0 4–1 0–1 2–1 0–0 2–3 2–2 0–1 3–1 4–2 0–1 1–0 1–0 1–2 3–1
Birmingham !Birmingham 2–1 1–1 1–2 4–0 4–1 0–0 1–3 4–0 1–0 3–1 6–1 6–2 0–0 6–1 2–3 0–0 2–2 2–2 3–0 2–0 4–1
Blackburn Rovers !Blackburn Rovers 2–1 1–2 2–1 2–1 2–0 1–1 1–0 3–2 2–1 3–0 0–0 2–0 2–1 3–0 2–0 0–0 1–1 2–2 0–1 0–1 3–1
Blackpool !Blackpool 1–0 1–0 2–1 1–1 1–1 3–1 1–1 2–0 2–0 1–1 2–0 3–1 0–0 3–0 1–4 0–2 2–0 2–0 4–1 0–1 1–1
Bolton Wanderers !Bolton Wanderers 2–3 1–1 2–1 1–2 1–0 1–1 2–3 2–0 2–2 5–3 3–1 6–1 1–2 2–0 1–1 2–0 1–2 1–2 0–0 1–1 0–2
Bristol City !Bristol City 0–0 3–1 0–0 2–4 1–1 1–1 1–0 0–2 2–1 1–0 2–3 3–3 1–1 0–0 0–2 0–2 2–0 3–0 4–1 0–2 0–1
Cardiff City !Cardiff City 3–0 1–3 3–2 1–3 1–3 0–1 1–0 0–0 4–2 1–5 0–0 2–3 1–1 3–0 2–2 3–1 1–1 3–0 2–0 1–0 2–2
Carlisle United !Carlisle United 1–2 1–1 1–0 1–3 3–0 0–0 1–3 0–0 3–0 1–1 2–1 1–1 4–1 2–2 1–1 2–2 2–0 1–1 4–1 3–1 4–1
Charlton Athletic !Charlton Athletic 3–0 3–1 3–0 0–2 2–0 1–2 1–1 2–2 0–1 1–2 4–2 5–1 0–1 2–2 1–0 3–3 1–0 4–1 0–0 3–3 4–1
Crystal Palace !Crystal Palace 0–1 0–0 1–0 3–1 0–3 2–0 2–1 1–1 3–0 1–0 0–1 0–1 1–3 1–3 2–2 6–0 5–0 2–2 2–0 1–0 1–0
Derby County !Derby County 3–1 2–2 2–2 1–3 2–1 3–1 3–4 0–1 3–2 1–1 1–0 1–2 2–3 2–4 3–3 1–1 1–0 0–1 1–2 4–0 4–1
Huddersfield Town !Huddersfield Town 0–0 2–3 2–1 1–3 1–1 0–3 1–0 1–1 4–1 1–1 3–1 2–0 1–4 1–0 1–0 2–0 0–1 2–2 1–1 1–0 2–0
Hull City !Hull City 3–0 0–1 1–1 0–1 1–2 4–2 1–2 1–0 1–1 1–1 3–0 1–1 1–1 0–2 1–1 0–2 0–2 1–1 1–1 2–0 2–1
Ipswich Town !Ipswich Town 2–1 2–1 1–1 1–1 1–1 5–0 4–2 3–1 3–2 2–2 4–0 2–0 2–0 1–2 2–1 0–0 1–1 1–2 4–0 2–2 2–0
Middlesbrough !Middlesbrough 1–1 1–1 0–0 0–0 1–2 2–1 2–3 4–0 1–1 3–0 2–2 3–2 2–1 0–2 0–1 2–0 5–0 1–0 5–0 3–1 1–1
Millwall !Millwall 1–2 1–1 1–2 1–1 3–0 1–1 3–1 1–0 0–0 5–1 1–1 1–1 1–1 1–1 4–0 1–0 3–0 3–2 2–0 1–1 0–0
Norwich City !Norwich City 1–0 4–2 1–0 1–2 3–1 3–2 1–0 2–1 1–1 2–1 3–2 0–1 2–2 3–4 2–1 5–0 2–0 1–3 1–3 0–0 2–2
Plymouth Argyle !Plymouth Argyle 2–1 1–2 2–1 2–2 1–2 0–1 0–0 3–1 1–4 2–1 3–4 1–1 2–5 0–1 0–1 2–1 2–2 1–2 1–2 0–1 0–1
Portsmouth !Portsmouth 2–2 1–2 2–1 3–1 3–0 2–0 3–1 2–1 4–0 2–2 3–2 3–1 3–0 1–2 2–0 0–0 3–0 0–0 2–1 1–1 1–1
Preston North End !Preston North End 2–1 0–0 3–5 0–2 1–1 0–1 3–0 0–2 4–1 0–0 1–1 3–1 3–2 1–1 0–0 0–1 1–0 2–0 3–1 0–2 2–2
Queens Park Rangers !Queens Park Rangers 3–0 2–0 3–1 2–0 1–0 3–1 1–0 1–0 2–1 2–1 0–1 3–0 1–1 1–0 1–1 3–1 2–0 4–1 2–0 2–0 6–0
Rotherham United !Rotherham United 0–2 1–1 1–0 1–2 2–2 1–0 3–2 1–2 1–1 0–3 1–3 1–0 1–3 1–3 0–1 2–0 1–3 1–0 1–1 1–0 1–3
Source: Ian Laschke: Rothmans Book of Football League Records 1888–89 to 1978–79. Macdonald and Jane’s, London & Sydney, 1980.
1 ^ The home team is listed in the left-hand column.
Colours: Blue = home team win; Yellow = draw; Red = away team win.
Maps[edit]
Aston Villa
Birmingham
Blackpool
Blackburn Rovers
Bolton
Bristol City
Carlisle United
Cardiff City
Charlton
Crystal Palace
Derby County
Huddersfield
Hull
Ipswich Town
Middlesbrough
Millwall
Norwich City
Plymouth Argyle
Portsmouth
Preston North End
QPR
Rotherham
Locations of the Football League Second Division 1967–1968 teams
Charlton Athletic
Crystal Palace
Millwall
Queens Park Rangers
Locations of the Football League Second Division London teams 1967–1968
Third Division[edit]
Football League
Third Division
Season
1967–68
Champions
Oxford United (1st title)
Promoted
Bury
Relegated
Colchester United,
Grimsby Town,
Peterborough United,
Scunthorpe United
Matches played
552
Goals scored
1,531 (2.77 per match)
Top goalscorer
Don Rogers (Swindon Town), 25[3]
← 1966–67
1968–69 →

Pos
Team
Pld
W
D
L
GF
GA
GD
Pts
Promotion or relegation
1 Oxford United !Oxford United (C) (P) 46 22 13 11 69 47 1.468 57 Promotion to 1968–69 Second Division
2 Bury !Bury (P) 46 24 8 14 91 66 1.379 56
3 Shrewsbury Town !Shrewsbury Town 46 20 15 11 61 49 1.245 55
4 Torquay United !Torquay United 46 21 11 14 81 51 1.588 53
5 Reading !Reading 46 21 9 16 70 60 1.167 51
6 Watford !Watford 46 21 8 17 74 50 1.48 50
7 Walsall !Walsall 46 19 12 15 74 61 1.213 50
8 Barrow !Barrow 46 21 8 17 65 54 1.204 50
9 Swindon Town !Swindon Town 46 16 17 13 74 51 1.451 49
10 Brighton & Hove Albion !Brighton & Hove Albion 46 16 16 14 57 55 1.036 48
11 Gillingham !Gillingham 46 18 12 16 59 63 0.937 48
12 Bournemouth & Boscombe Athletic !Bournemouth & Boscombe Athletic 46 16 15 15 56 51 1.098 47
13 Stockport County !Stockport County 46 19 9 18 70 75 0.933 47
14 Southport !Southport 46 17 12 17 65 65 1 46
15 Bristol Rovers !Bristol Rovers 46 17 9 20 72 78 0.923 43
16 Oldham Athletic !Oldham Athletic 46 18 7 21 60 65 0.923 43
17 Northampton Town !Northampton Town 46 14 13 19 58 72 0.806 41
18 Orient !Orient 46 12 17 17 46 62 0.742 41
19 Tranmere Rovers !Tranmere Rovers 46 14 12 20 62 74 0.838 40
20 Mansfield Town !Mansfield Town 46 12 13 21 51 67 0.761 37
21 Grimsby Town !Grimsby Town (R) 46 14 9 23 52 69 0.754 37 Relegation to 1968–69 Fourth Division
22 Colchester United !Colchester United (R) 46 9 15 22 50 87 0.575 33
23 Scunthorpe United !Scunthorpe United (R) 46 10 12 24 56 87 0.644 32
24 Peterborough United !Peterborough United (R) 46 20 10 16 79 67 1.179 31
Source: rsssf.com
Rules for classification: 1) points; 2) goal difference; 3) number of goals scored
(C) = Champion; (R) = Relegated; (P) = Promoted; (E) = Eliminated; (O) = Play-off winner; (A) = Advances to a further round.
Only applicable when the season is not finished:
(Q) = Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated; (TQ) = Qualified to tournament, but not yet to the particular phase indicated; (RQ) = Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated; (DQ) = Disqualified from tournament.
Peterborough deducted 19 points for making irregular payments to players.

Results[edit]
‹ The template below (Fb r header) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. ›
Home ╲ Away Barrow !BRW Bournemouth & Boscombe Athletic !B&BA Brighton & Hove Albion !B&HA Bristol Rovers !BRR Bury !Bury Colchester United !COL Gillingham !GIL Grimsby Town !GRI Mansfield Town !MAN Northampton Town !NOR Oldham Athletic !OLD Orient !ORI Oxford United !OXF Peterborough United !PET Reading !REA Scunthorpe United !SCU Shrewsbury Town !SHR Southport !SOU Stockport County !STP Swindon Town !SWI Torquay United !TOR Tranmere !TRA Walsall !WAL Watford !WAT
Barrow !Barrow 1–1 1–1 1–0 1–1 5–0 0–1 2–0 0–1 4–0 4–1 1–0 3–0 1–2 1–0 2–1 3–0 3–1 3–0 1–1 3–0 2–1 1–1 0–0
Bournemouth & Boscombe Athletic !Bournemouth & Boscombe Athletic 3–0 2–2 3–1 1–0 1–2 4–0 1–0 3–0 0–2 0–0 0–0 2–1 3–3 2–0 1–0 1–1 4–1 1–0 2–1 1–1 3–0 1–1 0–1
Brighton & Hove Albion !Brighton & Hove Albion 1–1 2–3 1–1 1–0 0–0 3–0 3–1 3–0 0–2 0–1 1–1 0–0 1–1 1–1 3–1 3–0 1–0 3–0 0–0 0–1 2–0 1–0 1–0
Bristol Rovers !Bristol Rovers 1–0 2–0 3–1 3–1 1–1 1–1 3–0 2–0 2–0 4–3 0–2 1–1 2–1 1–0 4–0 4–1 1–3 0–2 1–2 1–0 3–1 2–3 0–2
Bury !Bury 1–2 4–0 4–0 4–2 2–0 3–2 2–0 3–1 3–1 3–1 1–0 1–1 4–0 2–0 4–3 2–0 3–2 5–3 1–1 5–1 3–3 2–1 2–0
Colchester United !Colchester United 3–2 0–1 0–0 2–0 0–0 2–2 1–3 1–2 2–1 0–0 1–1 1–2 1–5 2–5 1–0 0–3 1–1 1–1 2–1 3–5 1–2 2–2 2–1
Gillingham !Gillingham 3–0 0–0 1–1 0–0 2–0 1–0 1–0 2–1 2–0 1–0 2–3 2–1 3–2 3–0 3–1 0–1 1–4 3–1 3–1 1–1 1–1 0–1 0–0
Grimsby Town !Grimsby Town 0–1 2–1 4–2 3–2 3–1 1–2 1–1 0–0 0–0 0–1 0–0 0–1 1–1 1–1 2–1 0–1 2–0 3–1 3–2 1–1 3–0 3–0 0–1
Mansfield Town !Mansfield Town 1–2 1–1 1–3 3–0 1–1 2–1 0–1 1–1 3–2 1–1 0–0 1–0 2–3 2–2 3–0 0–1 4–2 1–0 2–2 2–0 0–3 0–3 1–2
Northampton Town !Northampton Town 3–0 1–0 2–2 4–5 0–1 2–2 1–1 3–0 1–1 1–2 2–1 1–1 3–1 1–2 1–0 2–2 1–1 4–1 2–0 1–0 0–1 3–0 1–1
Oldham Athletic !Oldham Athletic 3–1 1–1 3–0 3–5 1–2 2–1 0–1 2–1 1–0 2–0 2–2 3–1 0–2 1–3 3–4 0–0 2–0 4–1 0–2 0–1 2–1 0–3 2–0
Orient !Orient 4–2 1–0 1–2 2–2 1–0 1–1 0–4 1–0 0–0 1–3 0–2 1–0 3–0 1–0 2–1 1–1 3–0 2–2 0–0 0–2 0–1 2–0 0–1
Oxford United !Oxford United 3–1 3–2 2–0 0–2 5–4 3–1 3–0 2–1 2–0 1–0 3–1 2–0 3–1 2–0 2–3 2–2 1–0 2–2 0–0 2–0 1–0 4–0 1–0
Peterborough United !Peterborough United 0–1 2–0 2–3 4–1 0–2 3–1 3–0 3–2 2–0 4–0 2–1 3–2 1–1 2–3 1–1 0–1 1–0 2–0 1–1 2–0 1–1 2–1 5–1
Reading !Reading 3–0 1–0 1–0 2–1 3–4 1–0 3–1 3–0 2–1 0–0 0–1 4–2 1–1 0–1 2–1 0–0 1–1 3–0 2–1 4–0 3–0 2–2 2–0
Scunthorpe United !Scunthorpe United 2–4 1–1 1–3 1–1 3–1 5–1 2–1 0–3 3–3 1–1 2–0 1–1 1–1 2–1 1–2 0–0 1–0 0–2 3–1 2–0 1–1 2–5 1–1
Shrewsbury Town !Shrewsbury Town 1–0 1–0 0–0 0–0 1–0 4–0 1–2 3–2 2–1 2–0 4–2 2–2 2–0 1–1 2–1 4–0 3–2 0–0 0–1 5–0 1–1 0–1 3–1
Southport !Southport 1–0 1–1 1–0 2–1 2–2 2–3 4–1 0–1 3–1 1–3 1–0 0–0 1–0 2–1 2–1 1–1 0–0 4–3 1–1 0–2 2–0 2–0 2–0
Stockport County !Stockport County 1–0 3–1 2–0 3–1 4–2 1–0 1–1 1–1 1–0 4–0 0–2 2–0 0–4 2–2 3–0 4–1 4–2 4–3 2–0 0–0 5–2 0–0 2–0
Swindon Town !Swindon Town 0–1 4–0 2–1 4–1 2–3 1–1 2–2 5–0 1–1 4–0 0–0 4–0 1–1 0–0 5–1 2–0 0–0 3–3 2–0 1–0 3–1 3–0 2–0
Torquay United !Torquay United 0–2 2–1 1–1 2–0 3–0 3–0 2–1 1–0 0–2 0–0 2–1 1–1 1–1 3–1 2–1 2–1 3–0 2–2 3–0 1–1 1–0 4–1 1–0
Tranmere !Tranmere 0–0 0–0 2–2 3–3 2–0 4–2 2–1 1–2 1–1 2–2 1–0 3–0 1–1 0–1 1–2 2–0 4–1 0–2 2–1 3–2 2–3 2–0 1–2
Walsall !Walsall 4–0 1–1 1–2 2–1 2–1 1–1 3–0 2–0 2–1 4–0 3–1 5–0 0–1 3–2 2–2 0–0 1–2 1–1 0–1 3–2 1–1 5–1 1–1
Watford !Watford 3–2 0–2 4–0 4–0 1–1 1–1 3–0 7–1 1–2 5–1 1–2 1–1 2–0 4–1 3–0 4–0 2–0 0–1 5–0 2–0 2–1 3–2 1–2
Source: Ian Laschke: Rothmans Book of Football League Records 1888–89 to 1978–79. Macdonald and Jane’s, London & Sydney, 1980.
1 ^ The home team is listed in the left-hand column.
Colours: Blue = home team win; Yellow = draw; Red = away team win.
Maps[edit]
Barrow
Brighton & Hove
Bournemouth
Bristol Rovers
Bury
Colchester
Gillingham
Grimsby Town
Orient
Mansfield Town
Northampton Town
Oldham
Oxford
Peterborough
Reading
Scunthorpe & Lindsey
Shrewsbury
Southport
Stockport
Swindon
Tranmere
Torquay
Watford
Walsall
Locations of the Football League Third Division teams 1967–1968
Fourth Division[edit]
Football League
Fourth Division
Season
1967–68
Champions
Luton Town (1st title)
Promoted
Barnsley,
Crewe Alexandra,
Hartlepools United
Failed re-election
none
Matches played
552
Goals scored
1,485 (2.69 per match)
Top goalscorer
Les Massie (Halifax Town), 25
Roy Chapman (Port Vale), 25[3]
← 1966–67
1968–69 →
Pos
Team
Pld
W
D
L
GF
GA
GD
Pts
Promotion or relegation
1 Luton Town !Luton Town (C) (P) 46 27 12 7 87 44 1.977 66 Promotion to 1968–69 Third Division
2 Barnsley !Barnsley (P) 46 24 13 9 68 46 1.478 61
3 Hartlepools United !Hartlepools United (P) 46 25 10 11 60 46 1.304 60
4 Crewe Alexandra !Crewe Alexandra (P) 46 20 18 8 74 49 1.51 58
5 Bradford City !Bradford City 46 23 11 12 72 51 1.412 57
6 Southend United !Southend United 46 20 14 12 77 58 1.328 54
7 Chesterfield !Chesterfield 46 21 11 14 71 50 1.42 53
8 Wrexham !Wrexham 46 20 13 13 72 53 1.358 53
9 Aldershot !Aldershot 46 18 17 11 70 55 1.273 53
10 Doncaster Rovers !Doncaster Rovers 46 18 15 13 66 56 1.179 51
11 Halifax Town !Halifax Town 46 15 16 15 52 49 1.061 46
12 Newport County !Newport County 46 16 13 17 58 63 0.921 45
13 Lincoln City !Lincoln City 46 17 9 20 71 68 1.044 43
14 Brentford !Brentford 46 18 7 21 61 64 0.953 43
15 Swansea Town !Swansea Town 46 16 10 20 63 77 0.818 42
16 Darlington !Darlington 46 12 17 17 47 53 0.887 41
17 Notts County !Notts County 46 15 11 20 53 79 0.671 41
18 Port Vale !Port Vale 46 12 15 19 61 72 0.847 39 Re-elected
19 Rochdale !Rochdale 46 12 14 20 51 72 0.708 38
20 Exeter City !Exeter City 46 11 16 19 45 65 0.692 38
21 York City !York City 46 11 14 21 65 68 0.956 36 Re-elected
22 Chester !Chester 46 9 14 23 57 78 0.731 32
23 Workington !Workington 46 10 11 25 54 87 0.621 31
24 Bradford Park Avenue !Bradford Park Avenue 46 4 15 27 30 82 0.366 23
Source: rsssf.com
Rules for classification: 1) points; 2) goal difference; 3) number of goals scored
(C) = Champion; (R) = Relegated; (P) = Promoted; (E) = Eliminated; (O) = Play-off winner; (A) = Advances to a further round.
Only applicable when the season is not finished:
(Q) = Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated; (TQ) = Qualified to tournament, but not yet to the particular phase indicated; (RQ) = Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated; (DQ) = Disqualified from tournament.
NOTE: Due to financial irregularities, Port Vale were made to apply for re-election to the Football League despite not finishing in the bottom four.
Results[edit]
‹ The template below (Fb r header) is being considered for deletion. See templates for discussion to help reach a consensus. ›
Home ╲ Away Aldershot !ALD Barnsley !BAR Bradford City !BRA Bradford Park Avenue !BPA Brentford !BRE Chester !CHE Chesterfield !CHF Crewe Alexandra !CRE Darlington !DAR Doncaster Rovers !DON Exeter City !EXE Halifax Town !HAL Hartlepool !HAR Lincoln City !LIN Luton Town !LUT Newport County !NPC Notts County !NTC Port Vale !PTV Rochdale !ROC Southend !STD Swansea Town !SWA Workington !WRK Wrexham !WRE York City !YOR
Aldershot !Aldershot 1–1 3–3 1–1 0–0 2–1 3–0 2–0 0–0 2–1 0–0 1–1 2–0 3–2 0–1 0–0 0–0 2–0 2–1 1–3 1–1 5–0 3–1 2–2
Barnsley !Barnsley 1–0 1–0 2–0 3–0 2–1 0–0 3–1 1–0 1–0 2–1 0–0 4–0 2–1 2–2 4–2 3–1 2–0 1–1 1–1 3–0 2–1 2–2 1–0
Bradford City !Bradford City 1–3 1–0 1–2 2–3 2–2 3–1 2–1 1–0 1–1 2–1 0–1 1–1 2–1 2–0 3–0 5–1 2–1 0–0 2–1 4–1 1–0 3–1 0–0
Bradford Park Avenue !Bradford Park Avenue 1–1 1–1 1–2 1–0 0–2 2–1 1–2 1–2 1–1 0–1 0–1 0–1 1–5 2–1 0–2 1–4 2–2 0–0 0–1 1–2 1–1 0–1 1–1
Brentford !Brentford 1–1 0–1 0–1 2–1 3–1 1–1 2–1 2–0 4–2 5–1 0–0 0–1 1–3 0–2 2–1 2–1 3–1 4–0 1–2 2–1 2–1 0–0 3–1
Chester !Chester 2–5 1–1 2–3 0–0 3–0 3–0 0–4 0–1 2–3 3–1 3–2 0–2 6–0 1–3 2–1 1–3 1–1 0–1 0–0 2–3 1–2 1–1 1–1
Chesterfield !Chesterfield 1–2 2–3 2–1 2–0 2–1 3–1 4–1 3–1 2–0 1–1 0–0 3–1 2–0 0–0 1–2 4–0 3–0 0–2 3–1 3–1 0–0 3–1 3–1
Crewe Alexandra !Crewe Alexandra 1–1 3–3 1–1 4–0 2–0 2–0 1–1 1–1 2–2 2–0 5–1 2–1 2–1 2–1 1–1 4–0 1–1 2–1 1–0 2–0 3–2 0–0 0–0
Darlington !Darlington 6–2 0–2 2–2 0–0 2–3 0–2 1–1 0–0 1–1 0–1 0–0 2–3 1–1 1–2 1–0 2–2 2–2 2–0 1–1 2–0 1–0 1–1 3–1
Doncaster Rovers !Doncaster Rovers 3–0 1–2 2–2 2–0 2–0 0–0 1–0 2–2 2–1 3–1 0–0 0–1 0–0 2–0 1–1 3–1 0–0 2–0 2–1 1–2 3–0 2–2 2–0
Exeter City !Exeter City 3–0 2–0 4–1 0–0 0–3 1–0 1–1 1–4 0–0 0–1 0–0 0–0 0–1 0–5 2–1 3–3 3–1 3–1 0–2 1–3 1–0 2–2 3–1
Halifax Town !Halifax Town 2–2 1–1 1–0 1–0 3–0 2–2 0–2 0–1 2–0 2–3 1–1 3–0 1–0 0–1 4–1 0–1 0–1 2–0 1–2 2–2 2–1 2–2 2–1
Hartlepool !Hartlepool 1–0 2–1 1–0 2–0 2–0 0–0 2–1 1–1 1–0 0–0 3–1 0–0 1–1 2–1 2–0 3–1 2–2 1–1 0–1 2–0 2–1 3–0 1–0
Lincoln City !Lincoln City 1–1 0–1 2–0 5–1 1–0 3–0 2–2 2–4 1–2 2–0 1–1 1–0 1–2 2–3 2–1 1–3 0–1 3–2 4–2 3–0 3–0 0–2 1–3
Luton Town !Luton Town 3–1 2–0 1–3 2–0 2–1 0–0 1–0 4–0 3–1 5–3 0–0 2–0 1–0 4–2 1–1 2–0 2–0 4–1 3–1 4–0 4–0 2–1 3–1
Newport County !Newport County 0–2 3–0 0–3 4–0 2–2 1–1 0–3 0–0 1–0 2–1 1–1 0–1 2–0 0–1 1–1 1–0 1–1 1–1 2–0 3–0 2–1 3–2 2–1
Notts County !Notts County 0–1 1–4 1–0 0–0 2–1 1–2 1–0 1–0 0–0 0–2 1–0 1–3 0–3 0–0 2–2 3–1 0–0 2–0 4–3 3–2 2–1 1–1 1–1
Port Vale !Port Vale 0–3 2–0 1–2 4–0 4–1 4–4 0–1 0–2 0–1 4–2 1–0 2–1 2–3 1–1 0–0 0–1 4–1 1–1 1–2 4–2 4–2 1–1 1–0
Rochdale !Rochdale 0–2 1–0 3–2 1–1 1–1 1–1 1–4 1–1 1–0 2–0 2–2 2–1 1–1 1–2 2–2 4–3 0–0 3–1 0–1 1–2 1–3 3–0 3–2
Southend !Southend 1–1 4–1 1–1 2–1 1–0 5–1 1–1 0–0 2–2 1–2 1–0 2–2 2–1 2–1 3–0 2–2 0–1 1–1 3–1 1–0 7–0 3–1 0–1
Swansea Town !Swansea Town 1–0 1–1 0–0 1–1 2–1 1–0 0–1 1–2 0–1 3–1 1–1 2–1 0–2 2–2 2–2 4–2 2–0 4–2 1–0 2–2 5–2 2–0 1–1
Workington !Workington 3–2 0–1 0–1 2–2 2–0 1–0 3–1 2–2 0–1 2–2 1–0 1–1 2–1 2–4 0–1 1–1 5–1 1–1 0–1 2–2 3–1 1–2 1–1
Wrexham !Wrexham 2–1 2–0 0–2 3–0 1–2 2–0 3–0 1–0 3–1 0–0 0–0 2–0 6–0 2–1 1–1 0–1 2–0 1–0 2–0 4–1 2–1 5–0 3–1
York City !York City 2–3 1–1 0–1 6–2 0–1 4–1 0–2 1–1 1–1 1–2 4–0 1–2 0–2 1–0 1–1 0–1 4–2 5–1 4–1 2–2 2–1 1–1 3–1
Source: Ian Laschke: Rothmans Book of Football League Records 1888–89 to 1978–79. Macdonald and Jane’s, London & Sydney, 1980.
1 ^ The home team is listed in the left-hand column.
Colours: Blue = home team win; Yellow = draw; Red = away team win.
Maps[edit]
Aldershot
Barnsley
Bradford City
Bradford Park Avenue
Brentford
Chester
Chesterfield
Crewe Alexandra
Darlington
Doncaster
Exeter City
Halifax Town
Hartlepool
Lincoln City
Luton Town
Newport County
Notts County
Port Vale
Rochdale
Southend
Swansea Town
Workington
Wrexham
York City
Locations of the Football League Fourth Division teams 1967–1968
See also[edit]
1967–68 in English football
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "England 1967–68". Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 24 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Ian Laschke: Rothmans Book of Football League Records 1888–89 to 1978–79. Macdonald and Jane’s, London & Sydney, 1980.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "English League Leading Goalscorers". RSSSF. Retrieved 31 October 2010.
Ian Laschke: Rothmans Book of Football League Records 1888–89 to 1978–79. Macdonald and Jane’s, London & Sydney, 1980.
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History of tea
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A tea plantation in Ciwidey, Bandung in Indonesia
The history of tea is long and complex, spreading across multiple cultures over the span of thousands of years. Tea likely originated in southwest China during the Shang dynasty as a medicinal drink.[1] An early credible record of tea drinking dates to the 3rd century AD, in a medical text written by Hua Tuo.[2] Tea was first introduced to Portuguese priests and merchants in China during the 16th century.[3] Drinking tea became popular in Britain during the 17th century. The British introduced tea production, as well as tea consumption, to India, in order to compete with the Chinese monopoly on tea.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Geographic origins
2 Origin myths
3 Early history
3.1 China
3.1.1 Hong Kong
3.2 Japan
3.3 Korea
3.4 Vietnam
4 Global expansion
4.1 Portugal and Italy
4.2 India
4.3 Iran
4.4 Taiwan
4.5 Thailand
4.6 Turkey
4.7 United Kingdom
4.8 United States
4.9 Canada
4.10 Australia
4.11 Sri Lanka
4.12 Africa and South America
5 References
5.1 Citations
5.2 Sources
6 Further reading
Geographic origins[edit]
Brick tea
"Camellia sinensis originated in southeast Asia, specifically around the intersection of latitude 29°N and longitude 98°E, the point of confluence of the lands of northeast India, north Burma, southwest China and Tibet. The plant was introduced to more than 52 countries, from this 'centre of origin'."[5]
On morphological differences between the Assamese and Chinese varieties, botanists have long asserted a dual botanical origin for tea; however, statistical cluster analysis, the same chromosome number (2n=30), easy hybridization, and various types of intermediate hybrids and spontaneous polyploids all appear to demonstrate a single place of origin for Camellia sinensis—the area including the northern part of Burma, and Yunnan and Sichuan provinces of China.[6]
Yunnan Province has also been identified as "the birthplace of tea...the first area where humans figured out that eating tea leaves or brewing a cup could be pleasant."[7] Fengqing County in the Lincang City Prefecture of Yunnan Province in China is said to be home to the world's oldest cultivated tea tree, some 3,200 years old.[8][9]
According to The Story of Tea, tea drinking likely began in Yunnan province during the Shang Dynasty (1500 BC–1046 BC), as a medicinal drink.[1] From there, the drink spread to Sichuan, and it is believed that there "for the first time, people began to boil tea leaves for consumption into a concentrated liquid without the addition of other leaves or herbs, thereby using tea as a bitter yet stimulating drink, rather than as a medicinal concoction."[1]
Origin myths[edit]
Japanese painting depicting Shennong.
In one popular Chinese legend, Shennong, the legendary Emperor of China and inventor of agriculture and Chinese medicine was drinking a bowl of just boiled water due to a decree that his subjects must boil water before drinking it [10] some time around 2737 BC when a few leaves were blown from a nearby tree into his water, changing the color. The emperor took a sip of the brew and was pleasantly surprised by its flavor and restorative properties. A variant of the legend tells that the emperor tested the medical properties of various herbs on himself, some of them poisonous, and found tea to work as an antidote.[11] Shennong is also mentioned in Lu Yu's famous early work on the subject, The Classic of Tea.[12] A similar Chinese legend goes that the god of agriculture would chew the leaves, stems, and roots of various plants to discover medicinal herbs. If he consumed a poisonous plant, he would chew tea leaves to counteract the poison.
A rather gruesome legend dates back to the Tang Dynasty. In the legend, Bodhidharma, the founder of Chan Buddhism, accidentally fell asleep after meditating in front of a wall for nine years. He woke up in such disgust at his weakness that he cut off his own eyelids. They fell to the ground and took root, growing into tea bushes.[13] Sometimes, another version of the story is told with Gautama Buddha in place of Bodhidharma.[14]
Scholars however believe that tea drinking likely originated in the southwest of China, and that the Chinese words for tea themselves may have been originally derived from the Austro-Asiatic languages of the people who originally inhabited that area.[15]
Whether or not these legends have any basis in fact, tea has played a significant role in Asian culture for centuries as a staple beverage, a curative, and a status symbol. It is not surprising, therefore, that theories of its origin are often religious or royal in nature.
Early history[edit]
China[edit]
Main article: History of tea in China
Lu Yu's statue in Xi'an
The Chinese have consumed tea for thousands of years. The earliest physical evidence known to date, found in 2016, comes from the mausoleum of Emperor Jing of Han in Xi'an, indicating that tea was drunk by Han Dynasty emperors as early as the 2nd century BC.[16] The samples were identified as tea from the genus Camellia particularly via mass spectrometry.[16][17] and written records suggest that it may have been drunk earlier. People of the Han Dynasty used tea as medicine (though the first use of tea as a stimulant is unknown). China is considered to have the earliest records of tea consumption,[18][19] with possible records dating back to the 10th century BC.[18][19] Note however that the current word for tea in Chinese only came into use in the 8th century AD, there are therefore uncertainties as to whether the older words used are the same as tea. The word tu 荼 appears in Shijing and other ancient texts to signify a kind of "bitter vegetable" (苦菜), and it is possible that it referred to a number of different plants, such as sowthistle, chicory, or smartweed, including tea.[20][21] In the Chronicles of Huayang, it was recorded that the Ba people in Sichuan presented tu to the Zhou king. The state of Ba and its neighbour Shu were later conquered by the Qin, and according to the 17th century scholar Gu Yanwu who wrote in Ri Zhi Lu (日知錄): "It was after the Qin had taken Shu that they learned how to drink tea."[22]
The first known reference to boiling tea came from the Han dynasty work "The Contract for a Youth" written by Wang Bao where, among the tasks listed to be undertaken by the youth, "he shall boil tea and fill the utensils" and "he shall buy tea at Wuyang".[22] The first record of cultivation of tea also dated it to this period (Ganlu era of Emperor Xuan of Han) when tea was cultivated on Meng Mountain (蒙山) near Chengdu. From the Tang to the Qing dynasties, the first 360 leaves of tea grown here were picked each spring and presented to the emperor. Even today its green and yellow teas, such as the Mengding Ganlu tea, are still sought after.[23] An unknown Chinese inventor was also the first person to invent a tea shredder.[24] An early credible record of tea drinking dates to 220 AD, in a medical text Shi Lun (食论) by Hua Tuo, who stated, "to drink bitter t'u constantly makes one think better."[25] Another possible early reference to tea is found in a letter written by the Qin Dynasty general Liu Kun.[2] However, before the mid-8th century Tang dynasty, tea-drinking was primarily a southern Chinese practice.[20] It became widely popular during the Tang Dynasty, when it was spread to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
Laozi, the classical Chinese philosopher, was said to describe tea as "the froth of the liquid jade" and named it an indispensable ingredient to the elixir of life.[26] Legend has it that master Lao was saddened by society's moral decay and, sensing that the end of the dynasty was near, he journeyed westward to the unsettled territories, never to be seen again. While passing along the nation's border, he encountered and was offered tea by a customs inspector named Yin Hsi. Yin Hsi encouraged him to compile his teachings into a single book so that future generations might benefit from his wisdom. This then became known as the Dao De Jing, a collection of Laozi's sayings.[25]
During the Sui Dynasty (589–618 AD) tea was introduced to Japan by Buddhist monks.
The Tang Dynasty writer Lu Yu's (simplified Chinese: 陆羽; traditional Chinese: 陸羽; pinyin: lùyǔ) Cha Jing (The Classic of Tea) (simplified Chinese: 茶经; traditional Chinese: 茶經; pinyin: chá jīng) is an early work on the subject. (See also Tea Classics) According to Cha Jing tea drinking was widespread. The book describes how tea plants were grown, the leaves processed, and tea prepared as a beverage. It also describes how tea was evaluated. The book also discusses where the best tea leaves were produced. Teas produced in this period were mainly tea bricks which were often used as currency, especially further from the center of the empire where coins lost their value. In this period, tea leaves were steamed, then pounded and shaped into cake or brick forms.[27]
A Ming Dynasty painting by artist Wen Zhengming illustrating scholars greeting in a tea party
During the Song Dynasty (960–1279), production and preparation of all tea changed. The tea of Song included many loose-leaf styles (to preserve the delicate character favored by court society), and it is the origin of today's loose teas and the practice of brewed tea. A new powdered form of tea also emerged. Steaming tea leaves was the primary process used for centuries in the preparation of tea. After the transition from compressed tea to the powdered form, the production of tea for trade and distribution changed once again.
Illustration of the legend of monkeys harvesting tea
The Chinese learned to process tea in a different way in the mid-13th century. Tea leaves were roasted and then crumbled rather than steamed. By the Yuan and Ming dynasties, unfermented tea leaves were first pan-fried, then rolled and dried. This stops the oxidation process which turns the leaves dark and allows tea to remain green. In the 15th century, Oolong tea, where the tea leaves were allowed to partially ferment before pan-frying, was developed.[28] Western taste, however, preferred the fully oxidized black tea, and the leaves were allowed to ferment further. Yellow tea was an accidental discovery in the production of green tea during the Ming dynasty, when apparently sloppy practices allowed the leaves to turn yellow, but yielded a different flavour as a result.[29]
Tea production in China, historically, was a laborious process, conducted in distant and often poorly accessible regions. This led to the rise of many apocryphal stories and legends surrounding the harvesting process. For example, one story that has been told for many years is that of a village where monkeys pick tea. According to this legend, the villagers stand below the monkeys and taunt them. The monkeys, in turn, become angry, and grab handfuls of tea leaves and throw them at the villagers.[30] There are products sold today that claim to be harvested in this manner, but no reliable commentators have observed this firsthand, and most doubt that it happened at all.[31] For many hundreds of years the commercially used tea tree has been, in shape, more of a bush than a tree.[32] "Monkey picked tea" is more likely a name of certain varieties than a description of how it was obtained.[33]
In 1391, the Ming court issued a decree that only loose tea would be accepted as a "tribute". As a result, loose tea production increased and processing techniques advanced. Soon, most tea was distributed in full-leaf, loose form and steeped in earthenware vessels.
Hong Kong[edit]
See also: Hong Kong tea culture
In Hong Kong, apart from the yum cha culture of southern China, a localised version of English tea was developed, the Hong Kong-style milk tea.
Japan[edit]
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Ancient Tea Urns used by merchants to store tea
Japanese tea ceremony
Main article: History of tea in Japan
Tea use spread to Japan about the sixth century AD.[34] Tea became a drink of the religious classes in Japan when Japanese priests and envoys, sent to China to learn about its culture, brought tea to Japan. Ancient recordings indicate the first batch of tea seeds were brought by a priest named Saichō (最澄, 767–822) in 805 and then by another named Kūkai (空海, 774–835) in 806. It became a drink of the royal classes when Emperor Saga (嵯峨天皇), the Japanese emperor, encouraged the growth of tea plants. Seeds were imported from China, and cultivation in Japan began.
In 1191, the famous Zen priest Eisai (栄西, 1141–1215) brought back tea seeds to Kyoto. Some of the tea seeds were given to the priest Myoe Shonin, and became the basis for Uji tea. The oldest tea specialty book in Japan, Kissa Yōjōki (喫茶養生記, How to Stay Healthy by Drinking Tea), was written by Eisai. The two-volume book was written in 1211 after his second and last visit to China. The first sentence states, "Tea is the ultimate mental and medical remedy and has the ability to make one's life more full and complete." Eisai was also instrumental in introducing tea consumption to the warrior class, which rose to political prominence after the Heian Period.
Green tea became a staple among cultured people in Japan—a brew for the gentry and the Buddhist priesthood alike. Production grew and tea became increasingly accessible, though still a privilege enjoyed mostly by the upper classes. The tea ceremony of Japan was introduced from China in the 15th century by Buddhists as a semi-religious social custom. The modern tea ceremony developed over several centuries by Zen Buddhist monks under the original guidance of the monk Sen no Rikyū (千 利休, 1522–1591). In fact, both the beverage and the ceremony surrounding it played a prominent role in feudal diplomacy.
In 1738, Soen Nagatani developed Japanese sencha (煎茶), literally roasted tea, which is an unfermented form of green tea. It is the most popular form of tea in Japan today. In 1835, Kahei Yamamoto developed gyokuro (玉露), literally jewel dew, by shading tea trees during the weeks leading up to harvesting. At the end of the Meiji period (1868–1912), machine manufacturing of green tea was introduced and began replacing handmade tea.
Korea[edit]
See also: Korean tea ceremony and Korean tea
Darye, Korean tea ceremony
The first historical record documenting the offering of tea to an ancestral god describes a rite in the year 661 in which a tea offering was made to the spirit of King Suro, the founder of the Geumgwan Gaya Kingdom (42–562). Records from the Goryeo Dynasty (918–1392) show that tea offerings were made in Buddhist temples to the spirits of revered monks.
During the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), the royal Yi family and the aristocracy used tea for simple rites. The "Day Tea Rite" was a common daytime ceremony, whereas the "Special Tea Rite" was reserved for specific occasions. Toward the end of the Joseon Dynasty, commoners joined the trend and used tea for ancestral rites, following the Chinese example based on Zhu Xi's text formalities of Family.
Stoneware was common, ceramic more frequent, mostly made in provincial kilns, with porcelain rare, imperial porcelain with dragons the rarest. The earliest kinds of tea used in tea ceremonies were heavily pressed cakes of black tea, the equivalent of aged pu-erh tea still popular in China. However, importation of tea plants by Buddhist monks brought a more delicate series of teas into Korea, and the tea ceremony. Green tea, "Jakseol(작설, 雀舌)" or "Jungno(죽로, 竹露)", is most often served. However, other teas such as "Byeoksoryeong(벽소령, 碧宵嶺)" Cheonhachun(천하춘, 天下春), Ujeon(우전, 雨前), Okcheon(옥천, 玉泉), as well as native chrysanthemum tea, persimmon leaf tea, or mugwort tea may be served at different times of the year.
Vietnam[edit]
Vietnamese green teas have been largely unknown outside of mainland Asia until the present day. Recent free-enterprise initiatives are introducing these green teas to outside countries through new export activities. Some specialty Vietnamese teas include Lotus tea and Jasmine tea. Vietnam also produces black and oolong teas in lesser quantities.
Vietnamese teas are produced in many areas that have been known for tea-house "retreats." For example, some are located amidst immense tea forests of the Lamdong highlands, where there is a community of ancient Ruong houses built at the end of the 18th century.
Global expansion[edit]
A conical urn-shaped silver-plated samovar used for boiling water for tea in Russia and some Middle eastern countries
The earliest record of tea in a more occidental writing is said to be found in the statement of an Arabian traveler, that after the year 879 the main sources of revenue in Canton were the duties on salt and tea. Marco Polo records the deposition of a Chinese minister of finance in 1285 for his arbitrary augmentation of the tea taxes. The travelers Giovanni Batista Ramusio (1559), L. Almeida (1576), Maffei (1588), and Teixeira (1610) also mentioned tea. In 1557, Portugal established a trading port in Macau and word of the Chinese drink "chá" spread quickly, but there is no mention of them bringing any samples home. In the early 17th century, a ship of the Dutch East India Company brought the first green tea leaves to Amsterdam from China. Tea was known in France by 1636. It enjoyed a brief period of popularity in Paris around 1648. The history of tea in Russia can also be traced back to the seventeenth century. Tea was first offered by China as a gift to Czar Michael I in 1618. The Russian ambassador tried the drink; he did not care for it and rejected the offer, delaying tea's Russian introduction by fifty years. In 1689, tea was regularly imported from China to Russia via a caravan of hundreds of camels traveling the year-long journey, making it a precious commodity at the time. Tea was appearing in German apothecaries by 1657 but never gained much esteem except in coastal areas such as Ostfriesland.[35] Tea first appeared publicly in England during the 1650s, where it was introduced through coffeehouses. From there it was introduced to British colonies in America and elsewhere.
Portugal and Italy[edit]
Tea was first introduced to Europe by Italian traveler Giovanni Battista Ramusio, who in 1555 published Voyages and Travels, containing the first European reference to tea, which he calls "Chai Catai"; his accounts were based on second-hand reports.
Portuguese priests and merchants in the 16th century made their first contact with tea in China, at which time it was termed chá.[3] The first Portuguese ships reached China in 1516, and in 1560 Portuguese missionary Gaspar da Cruz published the first Portuguese account of Chinese tea; in 1565 Italian missionary Louis Almeida published the first European account of tea in Japan.[36]
India[edit]
A view of tea Plantations in Munnar, Kerala, India
Tea Garden in Assam, India
Main article: History of tea in India
See also: Assam tea, Darjeeling tea, Masala chai, Nilgiri tea, Doodh Pati Chai, and Munnar
Commercial production of tea was first introduced into India by the British, in an attempt to break the Chinese monopoly on tea.[4] The British, "using Chinese seeds, plus Chinese planting and cultivating techniques, launched a tea industry by offering land in Assam to any European who agreed to cultivate tea for export."[4] Tea was originally only consumed by Anglicized Indians, it was not until the 1950s that tea grew widely popular in India through a successful advertising campaign by the India Tea Board.[37]
Prior to the British, the plant may have been used for medicinal purposes. Some cite the Sanjeevani tea plant first recorded reference of tea use in India. However, scientific studies have shown that the Sanjeevani plant is in fact a different plant and is not related to tea.[38] The Singpho tribe and the Khamti tribe also validate that they have been consuming tea since the 12th century. However, commercial production of tea in India did not begin until the arrival of the British East India Company, at which point large tracts of land were converted for mass tea production.
The Chinese variety is used for Sikkim, Darjeeling tea, and the Assamese variety, clonal to the native to Assam, everywhere else. The British started commercial tea plantations in India and in Ceylon: "In 1824 tea plants were discovered in the hills along the frontier between Burma and Assam. The British introduced tea culture into India in 1836 and into Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in 1867. At first they used seeds from China, but later seeds from the clonal Assam plant were used."[39] Only black tea was produced until recent decades.
India was the top producer of tea for nearly a century, but was displaced by China as the top tea producer in the 21st century.[40] Indian tea companies have acquired a number of iconic foreign tea enterprises including British brands Tetley and Typhoo.[40] While India is the largest consumer of tea worldwide, the per-capita consumption of tea in India remains a modest 750 grams per person every year.[40] Recently consumption of green tea has seen a great upsurge across the cities. Average growth in the consumption is assumed to be over 50%. One estimate suggest the market size has already crossed over INR 1400crore and will reach a 6000 crore in next few years.
Top station, 41 km (1 Hour) from Munnar, is aptly named, as it is home to some of the highest tea plantations in India. It lies on the state of Kerala and commands a panoramic view of rolling green hills.
A panoramic view of tea plantations in Munnar, Kerala, India.
Iran[edit]
Tea harvest in Lahijan, Iran
Gilan in North of Iran is main production center of Iranian Tea. Historically, Lahijan is the first town in Iran to have tea plantations. With its mild weather, soil quality and fresh spring water, Lahijan stands to have the largest area of tea cultivation in Iran. "Lahijan Spring Tea" is the best quality tea produced in the country. Tea is cultivated at other cities of Gilan, for example Fuman and Roudsar.
Taiwan[edit]
Tea plantation in Taiwan
Taiwan is famous for the making of Oolong tea and green tea, as well as many western-styled teas. Bubble Tea or "Zhen Zhu Nai Cha" (Mandarin: 珍珠奶茶) is black tea mixed with sweetened condensed milk and tapioca. Since the island was known to Westerners for many centuries as Formosa—short for the Portuguese Ilha Formosa, or "beautiful island"—tea grown in Taiwan is often identified by that name.
Thailand[edit]
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Thai tea or "cha-yen" (Thai: ชาเย็น) in Thailand, is a drink made from strongly brewed black tea ("red tea" in East Asia). Other ingredients may include added orange blossom water, star anise, crushed tamarind seed or red and yellow food coloring, and sometimes other spices as well. This tea is sweetened with sugar and condensed milk.
Usually, Thai people drink Thai hot tea in the morning, frequently with Yau ja gwai (fried dough) or Pa-tong-ko (Thai: ปาท่องโก๋). The varieties of Thai tea include:
Thai hot tea (Thai: ชาร้อน, cha-ron) is Thai tea served hot.
Dark Thai hot tea (Thai: ชาดำร้อน, cha-dam-ron) is Thai tea served hot with no milk content, sweetened with sugar only.
Dark Thai iced tea (Thai: ชาดำเย็น, cha-dam-yen) is Thai tea served cold with ice and without milk.
Turkey[edit]
See also: Turkish tea
Turkish tea
Turkey is traditionally one of the largest tea markets in the world. Turkish black tea is the most popular drink in Turkey, even more popular than Turkish coffee.
United Kingdom[edit]
See also: British tea culture
Tea plantation in the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia
The first record of tea in English came from a letter written by Richard Wickham, who ran an East India Company office in Japan, writing to a merchant in Macao requesting "the best sort of chaw" in 1615. Peter Mundy, a traveller and merchant who came across tea in Fujian in 1637, wrote, "chaa—only water with a kind of herb boiled in it".[41] In 1657, Thomas Garway, a "tobacconist and coffee-man" was the first to sell tea in London at his house in Exchange Alley, charging between 16 and 50 shillings per pound.[42] The same year, tea was listed as an item in the price list in a London coffee house, and the first advertisement for tea appeared in 1658.[41] On 25 September 1660 Samuel Pepys recorded in his diary: "I did send for a cup of tee (a China drink) of which I never had drank before."[43] It is probable that early imports were smuggled via Amsterdam or through sailors arriving on eastern boats.[44] The marriage of King Charles II in 1662 to the Portuguese princess Catherine of Braganza also brought the tea drinking habit to court. Official trade of tea began in 1664 with an import of only two pound two ounces for presentation to the king,[45] but grew to 24 million pounds a year by 1801.[44]
Regular trade began in Canton (now Guangzhou),[44] where it was controlled by two monopolies: the Chinese Cohong (trading companies) and the British East India Company.[44] The Cohong acquired tea from 'tea men' who had an elaborate supply chain into the mountains and provinces where tea grew.[44]
The East India Company brought back many products, of which tea was just one, but proved one of the most successful.[44] It was initially promoted as a medicinal beverage or tonic[44] but by the end of the seventeenth century was taken as an all-purpose drink, albeit mainly by the elite, as it was still expensive.[44] Tea was not traded in significant amounts until the 18th century. By 1700 tea was being sold by grocers and tea shops in London, the latter frequented by women as well as men.[46] By the 1720s black tea overtook green tea in popularity as the price dropped, and early on British drinkers began adding sugar and milk to tea, a practice that was not done in China.[44] By the 1720s European maritime trade with China was dominated by exchange of silver for tea.[46] As prices continued to drop, tea became increasingly popular, and by 1750 had become the British national drink.[44]
A fungus reduced coffee production in Ceylon by 95% in the 19th century, cementing tea's popularity.[47]
The escalation of tea importation and sales over the period 1690 to 1750 is mirrored closely by the increase in importation and sales of cane sugar: the British were not drinking just tea but sweet tea.[44] Thus, two of Britain's trading triangles converged: the sugar sourced from Britain's trading triangle encompassing Britain, Africa and the West Indies and the tea from the triangle encompassing Britain, India and China.[44]
In China, the Qing dynasty Qianlong Emperor wrote to King George III in response to the MaCartney Mission's request for trade in 1793: "Our Celestial Empire possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no product within its borders. There is therefore no need to import the manufactures of outside barbarians in exchange for our own produce."[48] Tea also had to be paid in silver bullion, and critics of the tea trade at this time would point to the damage caused to Britain's wealth by this loss of bullion.[44] As a way to generate the silver needed as payment for tea, Britain began exporting opium from the traditional growing regions of British India (in present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan) into China. Although opium use in China had a long history, the British importation of opium, which began in the late 18th century, increased fivefold between 1821 and 1837, and usage of the drug became more widespread across Chinese society. The Qing government attitude towards opium, which was often ambivalent, hardened due to the social problems created by drug use, and took serious measures to curtail importation of opium in 1838–39. Tea by now had become an important source of tax revenue for the British Empire and the banning of the opium trade and thus the creation of funding issues for tea importers was one of the main causes of the First Opium War.[49]
While waging war on China was one of Britain's tactics, it also began to explore, then executed, a plan to use India for growing tea. After tea plants were smuggled out of China, plantations were established in areas such as Darjeeling, Assam, and Ceylon.[50] As an attempt to circumvent its dependence on Chinese tea, the East India Company sent Scottish botanist Robert Fortune to China to purchase and bring out of China tea plants, which were then taken to India, although it was the discovery of native varieties of tea plant in India which proved more important for the development of production there.
Tea remained a very important item in Britain's global trade, contributing in part to Britain's global dominance by the end of the eighteenth century. To this day tea is seen worldwide as a symbol of 'Britishness', but also, to some, as a symbol of old British colonialism.[44]
The London 2012 section of the paralympic handover in Beijing included tea as part of the routine.[51] A cup or mug of tea in Britain is usually made in a different way than is common in China and other Eastern countries. Over 90% of tea consumed is black tea, often but not always with a small amount of milk and / or sugar added. The tea used is often contained in a tea bag. As of 2009, the UK can boast one commercial tea plantation with another planned. The existing one lies in Cornwall and is owned by the Tregothnan Estate.[52] By 2015, another will lie in Pembrokeshire, Wales, owned by the Pembrokeshire Tea Company.[53]
United States[edit]
See also: American tea culture and Tea production in the United States
While coffee is by far more popular, hot brewed black tea is enjoyed both with meals and as a refreshment by much of the population. Similarly, iced tea is consumed throughout. In the Southern states sweet tea, sweetened with large amounts of sugar or an artificial sweetener and chilled, is the fashion. Outside the South, sweet tea is sometimes found, but primarily because of cultural migration and commercialization.[citation needed]
The drinking of tea in the United States was largely influenced by the passage of the Tea Act and its subsequent protest during the American Revolution. Tea consumption sharply decreased in America during and after the Revolution, when many Americans switched from drinking tea to drinking coffee, considering tea drinking to be unpatriotic.[54]
The American specialty tea market quadrupled in the years from 1993 to 2008, now being worth $6.8 billion a year.[55] Similar to the trend of better coffee and better wines, this tremendous increase was partly due to consumers who choose to trade up.[citation needed] Specialty tea houses and retailers also started to pop up during this period.[56]
Canada[edit]
Canadians were big tea drinkers from the days of British colonisation until the Second World War, when they began drinking more coffee like their American neighbors to the south. During the 1990s, Canadians begun to purchase more specialty teas instead of coffee.[57]
A commercial tea farm has opened on Vancouver Island in British Columbia in 2010 and expects production to start in 2015.[58]
Australia[edit]
See also: Tea in Australia
The Aboriginal Australians drank an infusion from the plant species leptospermum (a different plant from the tea plant or camellia sinensis). Upon discovering Australia, Captain Cook noticed the aboriginal peoples drinking it and called it tea. Today the plant is referred to as the "ti tree".
Through colonisation by the British, tea was introduced to Australia. In fact, tea was aboard the First Fleet in 1788. Tea is a large part of modern Australian culture due to its British origins. Australians drink tea and have afternoon tea and morning tea much the way the British do. Additionally, due to Australia's climate, tea is able to be grown and produced in northern Australia. In 2000, Australia consumed 14,000 tonnes of tea annually.[59] Tea production in Australia remains very small and is primarily in northern New South Wales and Queensland. Most tea produced in Australia is black tea, although there are small quantities of green tea produced in the Alpine Valleys region of Victoria.[60]
In 1884, the Cutten brothers established the first commercial tea plantation in Australia in Bingil Bay in northern Queensland.[61] In 1883, Alfred Bushell opened the first tea shop in Australia in present-day Queensland. In 1899, Bushell's sons moved the enterprise to Sydney and began selling tea commercially, founding Australia's first commercial tea seller Bushell's Company.[62]
Sri Lanka[edit]
Tea Garden in Sri Lanka
See also: Tea production in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is renowned for its high quality tea and as the fourth biggest tea producing country globally, after China, India and Kenya, and has a production share of 9% in the international sphere. The total extent of land under tea cultivation has been assessed at approximately 187,309 hectares.[63]
The plantations started by the British were initially taken over by the government in the 1960s, but have been privatized and are now run by 'plantation companies' which own a few 'estates' or tea plantations each.
Ceylon tea is divided into 3 groups as Upcountry, Mid country and Low country tea based on the geography of the land on which it is grown.[63]
Africa and South America[edit]
Africa and South America have seen greatly increased tea production in recent decades, the great majority for export to Europe and North America respectively, produced on large estates, often owned by tea companies from the export markets. Almost all production is of basic mass-market teas, processed by the Crush, Tear, Curl method. Kenya is now the third largest global producer (figures below), after China and India, and is now the largest exporter of tea to the United Kingdom. There is also a great consumption of tea in Chile.[64] In South Africa, the non-Camellia sinensis beverage rooibos is popular. In South America yerba mate is a popular infused beverage. The only European plantation is Chá Gorreana, located in Ribeira Grande, São Miguel island, Azores (Portugal).
In South America, the tea production in Brazil has strong roots due to the country's origins in Portugal, the strong presence of Japanese immigrants and also because of the influences of their neighbor's yerba mate culture. Brazil had a big tea production until the 80s, but it has weakened in the past decades. Right now, there's only a few families trying to reorganize the tea production in the Registro, São Paulo, facing strong competition against the coffee companies.
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Mary Lou Heiss; Robert J. Heiss (23 March 2011). The Story of Tea: A Cultural History and Drinking Guide. Random House. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-60774-172-5. By the time of the Shang dynasty (1766–1050 BC), tea was being consumed in Yunnan Province for its medicinal properties
^ Jump up to: a b Martin, p. 29: "beginning in the third century CE, references to tea seem more credible, in particular those dating to the time of Hua T'o, a highly respected physician and surgeon"
^ Jump up to: a b Bennett Alan Weinberg; Bonnie K. Bealer (2001). The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug. Psychology Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-415-92722-2. The Portuguese traders and the Portuguese Jesuit priests, who like Jesuits of every nation busied themselves with the affairs of caffeine, wrote frequently and favorably to compatriots in Europe about tea.
^ Jump up to: a b c Colleen Taylor Sen (2004). Food Culture in India. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-313-32487-1.
Jump up ^ Mary Lou Heiss; Robert J. Heiss. The Story of Tea: A Cultural History and Drinking Guide. citing Mondal (2007) p. 519
Jump up ^ Yamamoto, Kim & Juneja 1997:4 "For a long time, botanists have asserted the dualism of tea origin from their observations that there exist distinct differences in the morphological characteristics between Assamese varieties and Chinese varieties. Hashimoto and Shimura reported that the differences in the morphological characteristics in tea plants are not necessarily the evidence of the dualism hypothesis from the researches using the statistical cluster analysis method. In recent investigations, it has also been made clear that both varieties have the same chromosome number (2n=30) and can be easily hybridized with each other. In addition, various types of intermediate hybrids or spontaneous polyploids of tea plants have been found in a wide area extending over the regions mentioned above. These facts may prove that the place of origin of Camellia sinensis is in the area including the northern part of the Burma, Yunnan, and Sichuan districts of China."
Jump up ^ Fuller, Thomas (2008-04-21). "A Tea From the Jungle Enriches a Placid Village". The New York Times. New York. p. A8.
Jump up ^ The Oldest Tea Tree on the Earth, (Kunming, 2006).
Jump up ^ "Guangdong News, Pearl River Delta, Canton Fair - Newsgd.com, NewsGD". Archived from the original on 31 March 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
Jump up ^ Saberi, Helen. Tea, a global history. London. Reaktion books ltd. 2010. Print.
Jump up ^ Chow p. 19-20 (Czech edition); also Arcimovicova p. 9, Evans p. 2 and others
Jump up ^ Lu Ju p. 29-30 (Czech edition)
Jump up ^ Chow p. 20-21
Jump up ^ Evans p. 3
Jump up ^ Mair & Hoh 2009, pp. 264-267.
^ Jump up to: a b Houyuan Lu et al. (7 January 2016). "Earliest tea as evidence for one branch of the Silk Road across the Tibetan Plateau". Nature. doi:10.1038/srep18955. Retrieved 11 January 2016. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ "Archaeologists discover world's oldest tea buried with ancient Chinese emperor". The Independent. 10 January 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Tea". Encarta. Archived from the original on 2008-03-08. Retrieved 2008-07-23.
^ Jump up to: a b "Tea". The Columbia Encyclopedia Sixth Edition. 2001–07. Retrieved 2008-07-23.
^ Jump up to: a b James A. Benn. Tea in China: A Religious and Cultural History. Hong Kong University Press. p. 42. ISBN 9789888208739.
Jump up ^ Mair & Hoh 2009, pp. 264-265.
^ Jump up to: a b Mair & Hoh 2009, pp. 29-30.
Jump up ^ Mair & Hoh 2009, pp. 30-31.
Jump up ^ The History of Tea – Tea Bags and Makers. Inventors.about.com (9 April 2012). Retrieved on 13 May 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Bennett Alan Weinberg, Bonnie K. Bealer (2001). The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug. Routledge. p. 28. ISBN 978-0415927222. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Pettigrew, Jane (2009). "The discovery of Tea". afternoon tea. PITKIN. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-84165-143-9. Known as the 'Elixir of Life'
Jump up ^ Mair & Hoh 2009, pp. 39-41.
Jump up ^ James A. Benn. Tea in China: A Religious and Cultural History. Hong Kong University Press. p. 42. ISBN 9789888208739.
Jump up ^ Mair & Hoh 2009, pp. 118.
Jump up ^ George Staunton (1797). An Historical Account of the Embassy to the Emperor of China, Undertaken By Order of the King of Great Britain; Including the Manners and Customs of the Inhabitants; and Preceded By an Account of the Causes of the embassy and Voyage to China. J. Stockdale. p. 452. The Chinese perceiving these dispositions in the monkey took advantage of the propensities of the animal and converted them to life in a domestic state which in that of nature were exerted to their annoyance.
Jump up ^ Robert Fortune (1852). A Journey to the Tea Countries of China; including Sung-Lo and the Bohea Hills. J. Murray. p. 237. I should not like to assert that no tea is gathered on these hills by the agency of chains and monkeys but I think it may be safely affirmed that the quantity in such is small.
Jump up ^ Constance Frederica Gordon Cumming. Wanderings in China. W. Blackwood and Sons. p. 318.
Jump up ^ Laura C. Martin (2007). Tea: The Drink that Changed the World. Tuttle Publishing. p. 133. ISBN 0-8048-3724-4.
Jump up ^ Kiple & Ornelas 2000:4
Jump up ^ Book of Tea By Kakuzō Okakura (pp. 5–6). Published 1964. Courier Dover Publications. Sociology. 94 pages. ISBN 0-486-20070-1
Jump up ^ Ukers, William Harrison (1 January 1935). "All about Tea". Tea and coffee trade journal Company. Retrieved 8 January 2017 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Sen, Colleen Taylor. p. 26. "Ironically, it was the British who introduced tea drinking to India, initially to anglicized Indians.. tea did not become a mass drink in India until the 1950s when the India Tea Board, faced with a surplus of low-grade tea, launched an advertising campaign to popularize tea in the North, where the drink of choice was milk."
Jump up ^ "In search of Sanjeevani" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-11-17.
Jump up ^ tea. (2008). Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sanyal (2008)
^ Jump up to: a b Paul Chrystal (October 17, 2014). Tea: A Very British Beverage. Amberley Publishing Limited.
Jump up ^ Bradley, Rose M. (1912). The English housewife in the Seventeenth & Eighteenth Centuries. E. Arnold. p. 176.
Jump up ^ "The Diary of Samuel Pepys". Retrieved 2009-05-11.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "Tea". In Our Time. 29 April 2004. BBC Radio 4.
Jump up ^ The Cottager's monthly visitor. XX. 1842. p. 128.
^ Jump up to: a b Peterson, Willard J. (7 April 2016). "The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Dynasty to 1800". Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 8 January 2017 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Yong, Ed. "Ant farm". Aeon Magazine. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Qianlong Letter to George III (1792)". University of California, Santa Barbara.
Jump up ^ Movable Feasts, Sarah Murray, 2007, pp. 161
Jump up ^ Movable Feasts, Sarah Murray, 2007, pp. 164
Jump up ^ "www.london2012.com" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 30 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Levin, Angela (20 May 2013). "Welcome to Tregothnan, England's only tea estate". The Telegraph. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Turner, Robin (3 October 2009). "Duo plant tea in Wales". Wales Online. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ (1) Adams, John (1774-07-06). "John Adams to Abigail Adams". The Adams Papers: Digital Editions: Adams Family Correspondence, Volume 1. Massachusetts Historical Society. Archived from the original on 2014-02-26. Retrieved 2014-02-25. I believe I forgot to tell you one Anecdote: When I first came to this House it was late in the Afternoon, and I had ridden 35 miles at least. “Madam” said I to Mrs. Huston, “is it lawfull for a weary Traveller to refresh himself with a Dish of Tea provided it has been honestly smuggled, or paid no Duties?”
“No sir, said she, we have renounced all Tea in this Place. I cant make Tea, but I'le make you Coffee.” Accordingly I have drank Coffee every Afternoon since, and have borne it very well. Tea must be universally renounced. I must be weaned, and the sooner, the better.
(2) Stone, William L. (1867). "Continuation of Mrs. General Riedesel's Adventures". Mrs. General Riedesel: Letters and Journals relating to the War of Independence and the Capture of the Troops at Saratoga (Translated from the Original German). Albany: Joel Munsell. p. 147. She then became more gentle, and offered me bread and milk. I made tea for ourselves. The woman eyed us longingly, for the Americans love it very much; but they had resolved to drink it no longer, as the famous duty on the tea had occasioned the war. At Google Books. Note: Fredricka Charlotte Riedesel was the wife of General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel, commander of all German and Indian troops in General John Burgoyne's Saratoga campaign and American prisoner of war during the American Revolution.
(3) Heiss, Mary Lou; Heiss, Robert .J (2007). "A History of Tea: The Boston Tea Party". The Story of Tea: A Cultural History and Drinking Guide. pp. 21–24. At Google Books.
(4) Zuraw, Lydia (2013-04-24). "How Coffee Influenced The Course Of History". NPR. Archived from the original on 2014-02-26. Retrieved 2014-02-25.
(5) DeRupo, Joseph (2013-07-03). "American Revolution: Stars, Stripes—and Beans". National Coffee Association. Archived from the original on 2014-02-26. Retrieved 2014-02-25.
(6) Luttinger, Nina; Dicum, Gregory (2006). The coffee book: anatomy of an industry from crop to the last drop. The New Press. p. 33. At Google Books.
Jump up ^ 'Tea finally making a stir in America' Times Online. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Polly (April 26, 2006). "Suited to a tea." Cincinnati Enquirer.
Jump up ^ "Rising tea sales drive profits for beverage chains; Canadian tea drinking outside the home on the increase with spread of DavidsTea, Teavana". CBC News. November 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Tea farm on Vancouver Island, a Canadian first". Vancouver Sun. 5 May 2013. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Tea". Retrieved 8 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-09-12. Retrieved 2012-11-28.
Jump up ^ "Nerada Tea". Retrieved 8 January 2017.
Jump up ^ tea, Bushells. "About Bushells - Bushells tea". Retrieved 8 January 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Sri Lanka Tea Board". Pureceylontea.com. Archived from the original on 2010-06-27. Retrieved 2010-06-18.
Jump up ^ "Where the world's biggest tea drinkers are". QUARTZ. 2014-01-20. Retrieved 2015-01-04.
Sources[edit]
Mair, Victor H.; Hoh, Erling (2009). The True History of Tea. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-25146-1.
Mondal, T.K. (2007). Pua, E.C.; Davey, M.R., eds. "Tea". Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry. Berlin: Springer. Transgenic Crops V. (60).
Further reading[edit]
The Historyscoper
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Tea (Camellia sinensis)
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