text:
Body water
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Not to be confused with Body of water.
In physiology, body water is the water content of an animal body that is contained in the tissues, the blood, the bones and elsewhere. The percentages of body water contained in various fluid compartments add up to total body water (TBW). This water makes up a significant fraction of the human body, both by weight and by volume. Ensuring the right amount of body water is part of fluid balance, an aspect of homeostasis.
Contents
1 Location
2 Measurement
2.1 Dilution and equilibration
2.2 Bioelectrical impedance analysis
3 Calculation
4 Functions
5 Changes
5.1 Loss of water
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Location[edit]
By weight, the average human adult male is approximately [1]60% water and the average adult female is approximately 50%. There can be considerable variation in body water percentage based on a number of factors like age, health, weight, and sex. In a large study of adults of all ages and both sexes, the adult human body averaged ~65% water. However, this varied substantially by age, sex, and adiposity (amount of fat in body composition). The figure for water fraction by weight in this sample was found to be 58 ±8% water for males and 48 ±6% for females.[2] The body water constitutes as much as 73% of the body weight of a newborn infant, whereas some obese people are as little as 45% water by weight.[3] This is due to how fat tissue does not retain water as well as lean tissue. These statistical averages will vary with factors such as type of population, age of people sampled, number of people sampled, and methodology. So there is not, and cannot be, a figure that is exactly the same for all people, for this or any other physiological measure.
Most of animal body water is contained in various body fluids. These include intracellular fluid; extracellular fluid; plasma; interstitial fluid; and transcellular fluid.[4] Water is also contained inside organs, in gastrointestinal, cerebrospinal, peritoneal, and ocular fluids. Adipose tissue contains about 10% of water, while muscle tissue contains about 75%.[5][6]
In Netter's Atlas of Human Physiology, body water is broken down into the following compartments:[4]
Intracellular fluid (2/3 of body water) is fluid contained within cells. In a 72-kg body containing 40 litres of fluid, about 25 litres is intracellular,[7] which amounts to 62.5%. Jackson's texts states 70% of body fluid is intracellular.[8]
Extracellular fluid (1/3 of body water) is fluid contained in areas outside of cells. For a 40-litre body, about 15 litres is extracellular,[7] which amounts to 37.5%.
Plasma (1/5 of extracellular fluid). Of this 15 litres of extracellular fluid, plasma volume averages 3 litres,[7] or 20%.
Interstitial fluid (4/5 of extracellular fluid)
Transcellular fluid (a.k.a. "third space," normally ignored in calculations) contained inside organs, such as the gastrointestinal, cerebrospinal, peritoneal, and ocular fluids.
Measurement[edit]
Dilution and equilibration[edit]
Total body water can be determined using Flowing afterglow mass spectrometry measurement of deuterium abundance in breath samples from individuals. A known dose of deuterated water (Heavy water, D2O) is ingested and allowed to equilibrate within the body water. The FA-MS instrument then measures the deuterium-to-hydrogen (D:H) ratio in the exhaled breath water vapour. The total body water is then accurately measured from the increase in breath deuterium content in relation to the volume of D2O ingested.
Different substances can be used to measure different fluid compartments:[9]
total body water: tritiated water or heavy water.
extracellular fluid: inulin
blood plasma: Evans blue
Intracellular fluid may then be estimated by subtracting extracellular fluid from total body water.
Bioelectrical impedance analysis[edit]
Another method of determining total body water percentage (TBW%) is via Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA). In the traditional BIA method, a person lies on a cot and spot electrodes are placed on the hands and bare feet. Electrolyte gel is applied first, and then a weak current of frequency 50kHz is introduced. This AC waveform allows the creation of a current inside the body via the very capacitive skin without causing a DC flow or burns, and limited in the ~20mA range current for safety.[10]
BIA has emerged as a promising technique because of its simplicity, low cost, high reproducibility and noninvasiveness. BIA prediction equations can be either generalized or population-specific, allowing this method to be potentially very accurate. Selecting the appropriate equation is important to determining the quality of the results.
For clinical purposes, scientists are developing a multi-frequency BIA method that may further improve the method's ability to predict a person's hydration level. New segmental BIA equipment that uses more electrodes may lead to more precise measurements of specific parts of the body.
Calculation[edit]
In humans, total body water can be estimated based on the premorbid (or ideal) body weight and correction factor.
T B W = w e i g h t ∗ C {\displaystyle TBW=weight*C} .
C is a coefficient for the expected percentage of weight made up of free water. For adult, non-elderly males, C = 0.6. For adult elderly males, malnourished males, or females, C = 0.5. For adult elderly or malnourished females C = 0.45. A total body water deficit (TBWD) can then be approximated by the following formula:
T B W D = T B W ∗ ( 1 − [ N a ] t / [ N a ] m ) {\displaystyle TBWD=TBW*(1-[Na]t/[Na]m)}
Where [Na]t = target sodium concentration (usually 140 mEq/L), and [Na]m = measured sodium concentration.
The resultant value is the approximate volume of free water required to correct a hypernatremic state. In practice, the value rarely approximates the actual amount of free water required to correct a deficit due to insensible losses, urinary output, and differences in water distribution among patients. [11]
Functions[edit]
Water in the animal body performs a number of functions: as a solvent for transportation of nutrients; as a medium for excretion; a means for heat control; as a lubricant for joints; and for shock absorption.[5]
Changes[edit]
The usual way of adding water to a body is by drinking. Water also enters the body with foods, especially those rich in water, such as plants, raw meat, and fish.
The amount of this water that is retained in animals is affected by several factors. Water amounts vary with the age of the animal. The older the vertebrate animal, the higher its relative bone mass and the lower its body water content.
In diseased states, where body water is affected, the fluid compartment or compartments that have changed can give clues to the nature of the problem, or problems. Body water is regulated by hormones, including anti-diuretic hormone, aldosterone and atrial natriuretic peptide.
Loss of water[edit]
Main articles: Volume contraction and Dehydration
Volume contraction is a decrease in body fluid volume, with or without a concomitant loss of osmolytes. The loss of the body water component of body fluid is specifically termed dehydration.[12]
Sodium loss approximately correlates with fluid loss from extracellular fluid, since sodium has a much higher concentration in extracelluliar fluid (ECF) than intracellular fluid (ICF). In contrast, K+ has a much higher concentration in ICF than ECF, and therefore its loss rather correlates with fluid loss from ICF, since K+ loss from ECF causes the K+ in ICF to diffuse out of the cells, dragging water with it by osmosis.[citation needed]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The water in you". Howard Perlman. December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Total body water volumes for adult males and females estimated from simple anthropometric measurements" (PDF). 33 (1). The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. January 1980. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Guyton, Arthur C. (1976). Textbook of Medical Physiology (5th ed.). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. pp. 284, 424. ISBN 0-7216-4393-0.
^ Jump up to: a b John T. Hansen; Bruce M. Koeppen (2002). Netter's Atlas of Human Physiology. Teterboro, N.J: Icon Learning Systems. ISBN 1-929007-01-9.
^ Jump up to: a b "FCS Animal Production L2". google.com.
Jump up ^ "Nutrient Requirements of Nonhuman Primates:". google.com.
^ Jump up to: a b c Guyton, Arthur C. (1976). Textbook of Medical Physiology (5th ed.). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. p. 275. ISBN 0-7216-4393-0.
Jump up ^ Jackson, Sheila (1985). Anatomy & Physiology for Nurses. Nurses' Aids Series (9th ed.). London: Bailliere Tindall. ISBN 0-7020-0737-4.
Jump up ^ Physiology: 7/7ch02/7ch02p13 - Essentials of Human Physiology
Jump up ^ "US Patent 4719922, Stimulator Apparatus - this website has ended". patentstorm.us. Archived from the original on 2012-10-13.
Jump up ^ Lee., Goldman,; I., Schafer, Andrew; Fayette., Cecil, Russell La (2012-01-01). Goldman's Cecil medicine. Elsevier/Saunders. ISBN 9781437716047. OCLC 779501249.
Jump up ^ MedicineNet > Definition of Dehydration Retrieved on July 2, 2009
Further reading[edit]
Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Disorders in Small Animal Practice
Essentials of Animal Physiology
The Encyclopedia of Farm Animal Nutrition
Animal Osmoregulation
Animal Nutrition Science
External links[edit]
Animals portal
Body+water at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Body+fluid+compartments at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
hide
v
t
e
Physiology of the kidneys and acid-base physiology
Renal function
Secretion
clearance
Pharmacokinetics
Clearance of medications
Urine flow rate
Reabsorption
Solvent drag
sodium
chloride
urea
glucose
oligopeptides
protein
Renal function
Glomerular filtration rate
Creatinine clearance
Renal clearance ratio
Urea reduction ratio
Kt/V
Standardized Kt/V
Measures of dialysis
Hemodialysis product
PAH clearance (Effective renal plasma flow
Extraction ratio)
Filtration
Renal blood flow
Ultrafiltration
Countercurrent exchange
Filtration fraction
Hormones
Antidiuretic hormone
Aldosterone
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Renin
Erythropoietin
Calcitriol
Prostaglandins
Acid-base balance
Fluid balance
Darrow Yannet diagram
Body water: Intracellular fluid/Cytosol
Extracellular fluid
(Interstitial fluid
Plasma
Transcellular fluid)
Base excess
Davenport diagram
Anion gap
Arterial blood gas
Winters' formula
Buffering
Bicarbonate buffer system
Respiratory compensation
Renal compensation
Other
Fractional sodium excretion
BUN-to-creatinine ratio
Tubuloglomerular feedback
Natriuresis
Urine
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Independence of Brazil
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Independence of Brazil
Declaration of Brazil's independence by Prince Pedro on 7 September 1822. His Guard of Honor greets him in support while some discard blue and white armbands that represented loyalty to Portugal
Date
7 September 1822
Location
São Paulo, Brazil
Participants
Prince Pedro
Archduchess Leopoldina
José Bonifácio de Andrada
Outcome
Independence of the Kingdom of Brazil from the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves and subsequent formation of the Empire of Brazil
The Independence of Brazil comprised a series of political and military events that occurred in 1821–1824, most of which involved disputes between Brazil and Portugal regarding the call for independence presented by the Brazilian Empire.
It is celebrated on 7 September, the anniversary of the date in 1822 that prince regent Dom Pedro declared Brazil's independence from Portugal. Formal recognition came with a treaty signed by both Brazil and Portugal in late 1825.
Contents
1 Background
2 Path to independence
2.1 Portuguese Cortes
2.2 Avilez rebellion
2.3 From united kingdom to independent empire
3 War of Independence
3.1 In Pernambuco
3.2 In Piauí and Maranhão
3.3 In Grão-Pará
3.4 In Bahia
3.5 In Cisplatina
4 Peace treaty and aftermath
5 See also
6 Further reading
7 Footnotes
8 References
9 External links
Background[edit]
Landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in Brazil, 1500.
The land now called Brazil was claimed by Portugal in April 1500, on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral. The Portuguese encountered Indigenous nations divided into several tribes, most of whom shared the same Tupi-Guaraní language family, and shared and disputed the territory.[citation needed]
Though the first settlement was founded in 1532, colonization was effectively started in 1534 when King John III divided the territory into fifteen hereditary captaincies. This arrangement proved problematic, however, and in 1549 the king assigned a Governor-General to administer the entire colony. The Portuguese assimilated some of the native tribes while others slowly disappeared in long wars or by European diseases to which they had no immunity..[citation needed]
By the mid-16th century, sugar had become Brazil's most important export due to the increasing international demand for sugar. To profit from the situation, by 1700 over 963,000 African slaves had been brought across the Atlantic to work in Brazil. More Africans were brought to Brazil up until that date than to all the other places in the Americas combined.[1]
Departure of the Portuguese royal family to Brazil on 29 November 1807.
Acclamation ceremony of King John VI of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 6 February 1818.
Through wars against the French, the Portuguese slowly expanded their territory to the southeast, taking Rio de Janeiro in 1567, and to the northwest, taking São Luís in 1615. They sent military expeditions to the Amazon rainforest and conquered English and Dutch strongholds, founding villages and forts from 1669. In 1680 they reached the far south and founded Sacramento on the bank of the Rio de la Plata, in the Banda Oriental region (present-day Uruguay).[citation needed]
At the end of the 17th century, sugar exports started to decline but beginning in the 1690s, the discovery of gold by explorers in the region that would later be called Minas Gerais (General Mines) in current Mato Grosso, Goiás and the state of Minas Gerais, saved the colony from imminent collapse. From all over Brazil, as well as from Portugal, thousands of immigrants came to the mines.[citation needed]
The Spanish tried to prevent Portuguese expansion into the territory that belonged to them according to the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, and succeeded in conquering the Banda Oriental in 1777. However, this was in vain as the Treaty of San Ildefonso, signed in the same year, confirmed Portuguese sovereignty over all lands proceeding from its territorial expansion, thus creating most of the current Brazilian border.[citation needed]
During the invasion of Portugal (1807), the Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil, establishing Rio de Janeiro as the de facto capital of Portugal. This had the side effect of creating within Brazil many of the institutions required to exist as an independent state; most importantly, it freed Brazil to trade with other nations at will.[citation needed]
After Napoleon's army was finally defeated in 1815, in order to maintain the capital in Brazil and allay Brazilian fears of being returned to colonial status, King John VI of Portugal raised the de jure status of Brazil to an equal, integral part of a United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves, rather than a mere colony, a status which it enjoyed for the next seven years.
Path to independence[edit]
Portuguese Cortes[edit]
The Portuguese Cortes
In 1820 the Constitutionalist Revolution erupted in Portugal. The movement initiated by the liberal constitutionalists resulted in the meeting of the Cortes (or Constituent Assembly), that would have to create the kingdom's first constitution.[2][3] The Cortes at the same time demanded the return of King Dom John VI, who had been living in Brazil since 1808, who elevated Brazil to a kingdom as part of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves in 1815 and who nominated his son and heir prince Dom Pedro as regent, to govern Brazil in his place on 7 March 1821.[4][5] The king left for Europe on 26 April, while Dom Pedro remained in Brazil governing it with the aid of the ministers of the Kingdom (Interior) and Foreign Affairs, of War, of Navy and of Finance.[6][7]
The Portuguese military officers headquartered in Brazil were completely sympathetic to the Constitutionalist movement in Portugal.[8] The main leader of the Portuguese officers, General Jorge de Avilez Zuzarte de Sousa Tavares forced the prince to dismiss and banish from the country the ministers of Kingdom and Finance. Both were loyal allies of Pedro, who had become a pawn in the hands of the military.[9] The humiliation suffered by the prince, who swore he would never yield to the pressure of the military again, would have a decisive influence on his abdication ten years later.[10] Meanwhile, on 30 September 1821, the Cortes approved a decree that subordinated the governments of the Brazilian provinces directly to Portugal. Prince Pedro became for all purposes only the governor of the Rio de Janeiro Province.[11][12] Other decrees that came after ordered his return to Europe and also extinguished the judicial courts created by João VI in 1808.[13][14]
Dissatisfaction over the Cortes measures among most residents in Brazil (both Brazilian-born and Portuguese-born) rose to a point that it soon became publicly known.[11] Two groups that opposed the Cortes' actions to gradually undermine the Brazilian sovereignty appeared: Liberals led by Joaquim Gonçalves Ledo (which had the support of the Freemasons) and the Bonifacians led by José Bonifácio de Andrada. Both factions had nothing in common in their goals for Brazil, with the sole exception of their desire to keep the country united with Portugal as a sovereign monarchy.[15]
Avilez rebellion[edit]
Prince Pedro (right) orders Portuguese officer Jorge Avilez (left) to return to Portugal after his failed rebellion on February 8, 1822. José Bonifácio (in civilian clothes) can be seen next to the prince.
The Portuguese deputies of the Cortes showed no respect towards the prince and openly mocked him.[16] And so the loyalty that Pedro had shown towards the Cortes gradually shifted to the Brazilian cause.[13] His wife, princess Leopoldina of Habsburg, favoured the Brazilian side and encouraged him to remain in the country[17] while the Liberals and Bonifacians made open representations. Pedro's reply came on 9 January 1822, who, according to newspapers, spoke: "As it is for the good of all and for the nation's general happiness, I am ready: Tell the people that I will stay".[18]
After Pedro's decision to defy the Cortes, around 2,000 men led by Jorge Avilez rioted before concentrating on mount Castelo, which was soon surrounded by 10,000 armed Brazilians, led by the Royal Police Guard.[19] Dom Pedro then "dismissed" the Portuguese commanding general and ordered him to remove his soldiers across the bay to Niterói, where they would await transport to Portugal.[20]
Jose Bonifácio was nominated minister of Kingdom and Foreign Affairs on 18 January 1822.[21] Bonifácio soon established a fatherlike relationship with Pedro, who began to consider the experienced statesman his greatest ally.[22] Gonçalves Ledo and the liberals tried to minimize the close relationship between Bonifácio and Pedro offering to the prince the title of Perpetual Defender of Brazil.[23][24] For the liberals, the meeting of a Constituent Assembly for Brazil was necessary, while the Bonifacians preferred that Pedro grant the constitution himself to avoid the possibility of similar anarchy to the one that occurred during the first years of the French Revolution.[23]
The prince acquiesced to the liberals’ desires and signed a decree on 3 June 1822 calling for the election of the deputies that would gather in the Constituent and Legislative General Assembly in Brazil.[24][25]
From united kingdom to independent empire[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Prince Pedro is surrounded by a cheering crowd in São Paulo after giving the news of the Brazilian independence on 7 September 1822.
Pedro departed to São Paulo Province to secure the province's loyalty to the Brazilian cause. He reached its capital on 25 August and remained there until 5 September. While on his way back to Rio de Janeiro on 7 September he received mail from José Bonifácio and his wife, Leopoldina.[citation needed] The letter told him that the Cortes had annulled all acts from the Bonifácio cabinet, removed Pedro's remaining powers and ordered him to return to Portugal. It was clear that independence was the only option left. Pedro turned to his companions that included his Guard of Honor and spoke: "Friends, the Portuguese Cortes want to enslave and pursue us. From today on our relations are broken. No ties can unite us anymore" and continued after he pulled out his blue-white armband that symbolized Portugal: "Armbands off, soldiers. Hail to the independence, to freedom and to the separation of Brazil from Portugal!" He unsheathed his sword affirming that "For my blood, my honor, my God, I swear to give Brazil freedom," and later cried out: "Brazilians, Independence or death!". This event is remembered as "Cry of Ipiranga".[26]
Returning to the city of São Paulo on the night of 7 September 1822, Pedro and his companions announced the news of Brazilian independence from Portugal. The Prince was received with great popular celebration and was called not only "King of Brazil" but also "Emperor of Brazil".[27][28]
Pedro returned to Rio de Janeiro on 14 September and in the following days the liberals had spread pamphlets (written by Joaquim Gonçalves Ledo) that suggested the idea that the Prince should be acclaimed Constitutional Emperor.[27] On 17 September the President of the Municipal Chamber of Rio de Janeiro, Josė Clemente Pereira, sent to the other Chambers of the country the news that the Acclamation would occur in the anniversary of Pedro on 12 October.[29]
Coronation of Emperor Pedro I on December 1, 1822.
The official separation would only occur on 22 September 1822 in a letter written by Pedro to João VI. In it, Pedro still calls himself Prince Regent and his father is considered the King of the independent Brazil.[30][31] On 12 October 1822, in the Field of Santana (later known as Field of the Acclamation) Prince Pedro was acclaimed Dom Pedro I, Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender of Brazil. It was at the same time the beginning of Pedro's reign and also of the Empire of Brazil.[32] However, the Emperor made it clear that although he accepted the emperorship, if João VI returned to Brazil he would step down from the throne in favor of his father.[33]
The reason for the imperial title was that the title of king would symbolically mean a continuation of the Portuguese dynastic tradition and perhaps of the feared absolutism, while the title of emperor derived from popular acclamation as in Ancient Rome or at least reigning through popular sanction as in the case of Napoleon. [34][35] On 1 December 1822, Pedro I was crowned and consecrated.[36]
War of Independence[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: War of Independence of Brazil
The Brazilian Army entering Salvador after the surrender of the Portuguese forces in 1823.
But in spite of these fine words, the new flag and the Acclamation of Pedro as Constitutional Emperor, the authority of the new regime only extended to Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and the adjacent provinces. The rest of Brazil remained firmly under the control of Portuguese juntas and garrisons. It would take a war to put the whole of Brazil under Pedro's control. The fighting began with skirmishes between rival militias in 1822 and lasted until January 1824, when the last Portuguese garrisons and naval units surrendered or left the country.
Meanwhile the Imperial government had to create a regular Army and Navy. Forced enlistment was widespread, extending to foreign immigrants, and Brazil made use of slaves in militias, as well as freeing slaves to enlist them in army and navy. The campaigns on land and sea covered the vast territories of Bahia, Montevideo and Cisplatina, Grão-Pará. Maranhão, Pernambuco, Ceará and Piauí.
By 1822, Brazilian forces were firmly in control of Rio de Janeiro and the central area of Brazil. Loyal militias began insurrections in the aforementioned territories, but strong, and regularly reinforced Portuguese garrisons in the port cities of Salvador, Montevideo, São Luís and Belém continued to dominate the adjacent areas and to pose the threat of a reconquest that the irregular Brazilian militias and guerrilla forces, which were loosely besieging them by land supported by newly created units of the Brazilian army, would be unable to prevent.
For the Brazilians, the answer to this stalemate was to seize control of the sea. Fortunately, 11 former Portuguese warships, great and small, had fallen into Brazilian hands in Rio de Janeiro and these formed the basis of a new navy. The problem was manpower. The crews of these ships were largely Portuguese who were openly mutinous, and although many Portuguese naval officers had declared allegiance to Brazil their loyalty could not be relied on. The Brazilian Government solved the problem by recruiting 50 officers and 500 seamen in secret in London and Liverpool, many of them veterans of the Napoleonic Wars, and appointed the Thomas Cochrane as commander-in-chief.[37] On 1 April 1823, a Brazilian squadron 6 of ships sailed for Bahia. After an initial disappointing engagement with a superior Portuguese fleet, Cochrane blockaded Salvador. Deprived now of supplies and reinforcements by sea and besieged by the Brazilian army on land, on 2 July the Portuguese forces abandoned Bahia in a convoy of 90 ships. Leaving the frigate ‘Niteroi’ under Captain John Taylor to harry them to the coasts of Europe, Cochrane then sailed north to San Luis. There he tricked the Portuguese garrison into evacuating Maranhão by pretending that a huge Brazilian fleet and army were over the horizon. He then sent Captain John Pascoe Grenfell to play the same trick on the Portuguese in Belem do Para at the mouth of the Amazon. [38] By November 1823, the whole of the north of Brazil was under Brazilian control, and the following month, the demoralized Portuguese also evacuated Montevideo and the Cisplatine Province. By 1824, Brazil was free of all enemy troops and was ‘de facto’ independent. [39]
There are still today no reliable statistics[40] related to the numbers of, for example, the total of the war casualties. However based upon historical registration and contemporary reports of some battles of this war as well as upon the admitted numbers in similar fights that happened in these times around the globe, and considering how long the Brazilian independence war lasted (22 months), estimates of all killed in action on both sides are placed from around 5,700 to 6,200.
In Pernambuco[edit]
Siege of Recife
In Piauí and Maranhão[edit]
Battle of Jenipapo
Siege of Caxias
In Grão-Pará[edit]
Siege of Belém
In Bahia[edit]
Battle of Pirajá
Battle of Itaparica
Battle of 4 May
Siege of Salvador
In Cisplatina[edit]
Siege of Montevideo (1823)
Peace treaty and aftermath[edit]
The last Portuguese soldiers left Brazil in 1824. A peace treaty recognizing Brazil's independence was drafted in summer 1825, and signed by Brazil and Portugal that autumn.
See also[edit]
Brazil portal
Brazilian Empire
Colonial Brazil
Cry of Ipiranga
History of Brazil
Independence Day (Brazil)
Further reading[edit]
Gomes, Laurentino, 1822
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ See the tables here Archived 2013-10-27 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Lustosa, p.97
Jump up ^ Armitage. p.36
Jump up ^ Lustosa, p.106
Jump up ^ Armitage. p. 38
Jump up ^ Lustosa, pp. 109–10
Jump up ^ Armitage. p. 41
Jump up ^ Lustosa, p. 112
Jump up ^ Lustosa, pp. 113–14
Jump up ^ Lustosa, p. 114
^ Jump up to: a b Lustosa, p. 117
Jump up ^ Armitage. pp. 43–44
^ Jump up to: a b Lustosa, p.119
Jump up ^ Armitage. pp. 48–51
Jump up ^ Diégues, p. 70
Jump up ^ Lustosa, p.120
Jump up ^ Lustosa, pp. 121–22
Jump up ^ Lustosa, pp. 123-24
Jump up ^ Lustosa, pp. 132–34
Jump up ^ Lustosa, p. 135
Jump up ^ Lustosa, p. 138
Jump up ^ Lustosa, p. 139
^ Jump up to: a b Lustosa, p. 143
^ Jump up to: a b Armitage. p. 61
Jump up ^ Lustosa, p. 145
Jump up ^ Lustosa, pp. 150–53
^ Jump up to: a b Vianna, p. 408
Jump up ^ Lima (1997), p. 398
Jump up ^ Lustosa, p. 153
Jump up ^ Lima (1997), p. 379
Jump up ^ Vianna, p. 413
Jump up ^ Vianna, pp. 417–18
Jump up ^ Lima (1997), p. 404
Jump up ^ Lima (1997), p.339
Jump up ^ Barman (1999), p. 4; "Some weeks later he was acclaimed emperor as Pedro I of Brazil. In the terminology of the period, the word 'empire' signifying a monarchy of unusually large size and resources (as in the case of Russia), and this designation avoided D. Pedro's usurping the title of 'king' from his father, João VI."
Jump up ^ Vianna, p. 418
Jump up ^ Brian Vale 'Independence or Death: British Sailors and Brazilian Independence' I B Tauris, 1995
Jump up ^ Brian Vale 'The Audacious Admiral Cochrane; The True Life of a Naval Legend', Conway, 2004
Jump up ^ Vale
Jump up ^ (in Portuguese) Laurentino Gomes 1822 Nova Fronteira, Brasil 2010 ISBN 85-209-2409-3 Chapter 10, p. 163
References[edit]
Armitage, John. História do Brasil. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1981. (in Portuguese)
Barman, Roderick J. Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825–1891. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. (in English)
Diégues, Fernando. A revolução brasílica. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2004. (in Portuguese)
Dolhnikoff, Miriam. Pacto imperial: origens do federalismo no Brasil do século XIX. São Paulo: Globo, 2005. (in Portuguese)
Gomes, Laurentino. 1822. Nova Fronteira, 2010. ISBN 85-209-2409-3 (in Portuguese)
Holanda, Sérgio Buarque de. O Brasil Monárquico: o processo de emancipação. 4. ed. São Paulo: Difusão Européia do Livro, 1976. (in Portuguese)
Lima, Manuel de Oliveira. O movimento da independência. 6. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Topbooks, 1997. (in Portuguese)
Lustosa, Isabel. D. Pedro I. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2007. (in Portuguese)
Vainfas, Ronaldo. Dicionário do Brasil Imperial. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2002. (in Portuguese)
Vianna, Hélio. História do Brasil: período colonial, monarquia e república. 15. ed. São Paulo: Melhoramentos, 1994. (in Portuguese)
External links[edit]
Media related to Independence of Brazil at Wikimedia Commons
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