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Major League Baseball Wild Card Game
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"Wild Card Playoff" and "Wild Card Game" redirect here. For those in the National Football League, see NFL playoffs § Current playoff system. For general information on wild cards in sports, see Wild card (sports).
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The Major League Baseball Wild Card Game is a play-in game which was added to the Major League Baseball postseason in 2012.[1] The addition keeps the playoff format similar to the three-tiered postseason format used from 1995 through 2011, but adds a second wild-card team. Two wild-card teams in each league play each other in a single-game playoff after the end of the regular season. The winner of the game advances to face the 1st seeded team in the Division Series. The home team for the wild-card game is the team with the better regular-season record (4th Seed).
If both teams have the same number of wins and losses, tie-breaking procedures are used, with no additional games being played. On the other hand, teams tied for the division title will now always play a one-game playoff for the division title, even if both teams are already qualified for the postseason. This is in contrast to the earlier wild card format used, for example in the 2005 season when the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox tied for first place in their division but did not play an additional game as both teams were qualified for the postseason in any event.
In the division series, the winner of the wild-card game will always face whichever division champion has the best record. All division winners receive a bye as they await the result of the game. Previously, a wild-card team could not face the champion of its own division. This change makes it possible for the two teams with the best record in the league to face each other before the League Championship Series for the first time since 1997, if the wild card winner has the second-best record only to its own division's champion. From 1995 to 1997 the matchups for the division series were determined by annual rotation between the west, central and east divisions.
Nineteen of the thirty MLB franchises have appeared in a Wild Card Game. The New York Yankees of the American League and the Pittsburgh Pirates of the National League have appeared in a record three games. The San Francisco Giants and the New York Yankees have won the most Wild Card Games with two each.
Contents
1 Purpose
2 Implementation
3 Results
3.1 American League
3.2 National League
3.3 Win–loss records by team
4 Records
5 See also
6 References
Purpose[edit]
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The addition of a second wild-card team to each league was completed for multiple reasons:
Added importance to division races [2]. Before 1994, only division-winning teams advanced to the playoffs, creating excitement when teams within a division competed for the best record in that division. From 1994 to 2011, the urgency of a division race was somewhat reduced as one second place team from each league made the playoffs as a wild card. In addition, the winner of the wild-card game is at a disadvantage in the next series, due to having to make strategic decisions to avoid immediate elimination, such as play its best pitchers available, without regard for future playoff games.
Wild-card teams are penalized. In the four-team format from 1994 to 2011, the wild-card team had to win just as many postseason games as a division winner in order to reach the World Series. Now the winner of the wild-card game is at a disadvantage because it has to play an extra game.
Increases postseason interest and revenue, with the tension of a sudden-death match at the start of the playoffs, similar to tie-breaker games held to resolve regular season ties. Recent examples of this were seen in tie-breaking games in 2007, 2008, and 2009, as well as the final day of the 2011 regular season.
With an additional playoff spot at stake, more teams are competing at the end of the regular season for a place in the playoffs.
Implementation[edit]
With the adoption of MLB's new collective bargaining agreement in November 2011, baseball commissioner Bud Selig announced that a new playoff system would begin within the next two years; the change was ultimately put into place in 2012.[3]
Even though one of the stated purposes of the Wild Card game was to create disadvantages for Wild Card teams in the postseason,[4] Wild Card Game winners have won six of the first twelve Division Series played under the new format. Of the best-of-five Division Series lost by Wild Card Game winners, three lost in five games, two lost in four games, and only one team has been swept. The 2014 postseason featured the first Series sweeps involving Wild Card Game winners, but they were both in favor of the AL Wild Card Kansas City Royals who swept both the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim and the Baltimore Orioles en route to the second World Series featuring both NL and AL Wild Card Game winners, with the San Francisco Giants defeating the Royals in seven games. The first all Wild Card World Series also involved the Giants, but they were on the losing end, losing the 2002 World Series to the then Anaheim Angels in seven games.
The one-game, win-or-go-home Wild Card format favors teams with at least one dominant pitcher. In the twelve games played since the new Wild Card system began in 2012, five have been shutouts. In four of the seven others, the losing team scored 3 or fewer runs. Only the 2014 AL Wild Card game between the Kansas City Royals and Oakland Athletics and the 2017 NL Wild Card game between the Colorado Rockies and the Arizona Diamondbacks featured high scoring[clarification needed] by both teams, with the Royals eventually winning 9-8 in 12 innings and the Diamondbacks winning 11-8 with the most runs scored in a Wild Card game. The margin of victory has been four runs or more in six of the twelve games played, and one run only twice—in the 2014 Royals-Athletics game and the 2018 Rockies-Cubs game.
Results[edit]
Key
bold Wild Card Game winner
↓ Lost tie-breaker game to reach Wild Card Game (arrow links to game)
↑ Won tie-breaker game to reach Wild Card Game (arrow links to game)
Reached League Championship Series
Reached World Series
Won World Series
The visiting team has had a surprising amount of success in the wild card game, having won 8 of the 14 games played by an average of 3.75 runs per win. 5 games have ended in a shutout, all 5 of them being thrown by the visiting team (including 3 straight in the 2014-16 NL editions). 2017 was the first year in which the home team won both wild card games. Despite the road team's statistical advantage, 2 games have ended in walk-off fashion, the 2014 and 2016 AL wild card games.
American League[edit]
Year
Visitor
Manager
Score
Host
Manager
Winner's postseason performance
2012
Baltimore Orioles Buck Showalter 5–1 Texas Rangers Ron Washington Lost ALDS 3–2 (Yankees)
2013
Tampa Bay Rays↑ Joe Maddon 4–0 Cleveland Indians Terry Francona Lost ALDS 3–1 (Red Sox)
2014
Oakland Athletics Bob Melvin 8–9
(12 inn.) Kansas City Royals Ned Yost Won ALDS 3–0 (Angels), Won ALCS 4–0 (Orioles), Lost WS 4–3 (Giants)
2015
Houston Astros A. J. Hinch 3–0 New York Yankees Joe Girardi Lost ALDS 3–2 (Royals)
2016
Baltimore Orioles Buck Showalter 2–5
(11 inn.) Toronto Blue Jays John Gibbons Won ALDS 3–0 (Rangers), Lost ALCS 4–1 (Indians)
2017
Minnesota Twins Paul Molitor 4–8 New York Yankees Joe Girardi Won ALDS 3–2 (Indians), Lost ALCS 4–3 (Astros)
2018
Oakland Athletics Bob Melvin 2–7 New York Yankees Aaron Boone Lost ALDS 3-1 (Red Sox)
National League[edit]
Year
Visitor
Manager
Score
Host
Manager
Winner's postseason performance
2012
St. Louis Cardinals Mike Matheny 6–3[5] Atlanta Braves Fredi González Won NLDS 3–2 (Nationals), Lost NLCS 4–3 (Giants)
2013
Cincinnati Reds Dusty Baker 2–6 Pittsburgh Pirates Clint Hurdle Lost NLDS 3–2 (Cardinals)
2014
San Francisco Giants Bruce Bochy 8–0 Pittsburgh Pirates Clint Hurdle Won NLDS 3–1 (Nationals), Won NLCS 4–1 (Cardinals), Won WS 4–3 (Royals)
2015
Chicago Cubs Joe Maddon 4–0 Pittsburgh Pirates Clint Hurdle Won NLDS 3–1 (Cardinals), Lost NLCS 4–0 (Mets)
2016
San Francisco Giants Bruce Bochy 3–0 New York Mets Terry Collins Lost NLDS 3–1 (Cubs)
2017
Colorado Rockies Bud Black 8–11 Arizona Diamondbacks Torey Lovullo Lost NLDS 3–0 (Dodgers)
2018
Colorado Rockies↓ Bud Black 2–1
(13 inn.) Chicago Cubs↓ Joe Maddon Lost NLDS 3-0 (Brewers)
Win–loss records by team[edit]
Team
Win–loss record
Appearances
Arizona Diamondbacks
1–0 1
Atlanta Braves
0–1 1
Baltimore Orioles
1–1 2
Cincinnati Reds
0–1 1
Chicago Cubs
1–1 2
Cleveland Indians
0–1 1
Colorado Rockies
1–1 2
Houston Astros
1–0 1
Kansas City Royals
1–0 1
Minnesota Twins
0–1 1
New York Mets
0–1 1
New York Yankees
2–1 3
Oakland Athletics
0–2 2
Pittsburgh Pirates
1–2 3
San Francisco Giants
2–0 2
St. Louis Cardinals
1–0 1
Tampa Bay Rays
1–0 1
Texas Rangers
0–1 1
Toronto Blue Jays
1–0 1
Records[edit]
Most runs scored, one team: 11, Arizona Diamondbacks vs Colorado Rockies, October 4 in the 2017 NLWC[6]
Most runs scored, both teams: 19, Colorado Rockies 8–11 Arizona Diamondbacks, October 4 in the 2017 NLWC[6]
Most hits, one team: 17, Arizona Diamondbacks vs Colorado Rockies, October 4 in the 2017 NLWC[6]
Most hits, both teams: 30, Colorado Rockies at Arizona Diamondbacks, October 4 in the 2017 NLWC[6]
Longest game, by innings: 2018 NLWC, 13 innings (Colorado Rockies 2, Chicago Cubs 1)[7]
See also[edit]
Baseball portal
List of American League Wild Card winners
List of National League Wild Card winners
List of Major League Baseball Wild Card Game broadcasters
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jayson Stark (March 2, 2012). "The new MLB postseason". ESPN.com.
Jump up ^ "MLB adopts expanded format for 2012 postseason". Retrieved Oct 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ Bloom, Barry M. (March 2, 2012). "Addition of Wild Card berths finalized for 2012". MLB.com. MLB.com.
Jump up ^ "Fixing the Wild Card". September 26, 1999.
Jump up ^ Game was played "under protest" by the Atlanta Braves regarding a perceived incorrect call regarding the infield fly rule, but shortly after the game Joe Torre, MLB executive vice president for baseball operations, denied the protest, citing umpire's judgment. "Wild-card game stopped after call". Associated Press/ESPN. October 5, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Team Batting Game Finder: In the LWC, From 1903 to 2017, sorted by most recent date". Baseball Reference. Retrieved March 4, 2018.
Jump up ^ Dale, Shane (October 3, 2018). "Rockies beat Cubs in longest winner-take-all game in MLB history". KNXV. Retrieved October 3, 2018.
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Musket
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the long gun. For the racehorse, see Musket (horse).
Muskets and bayonets aboard the frigate Grand Turk.
A musket is a muzzle-loaded, smoothbore long gun that appeared in early 16th century Europe, at first as a heavier variant of the arquebus, capable of penetrating heavy armor.[1] By the mid-16th century, this type of musket went out of use as heavy armor declined, but as the matchlock became standard, the term musket continued as the name given for any long gun with a flintlock, and then its successors, all the way through the mid 1800s.[2] This style of musket was retired in the 19th century when rifled muskets (simply called rifles in modern terminology) became common as a result of cartridged breech-loading firearms introduced by Casimir Lefaucheux in 1835,[3] the invention of the Minié ball by Claude-Étienne Minié in 1849,[4] and the first reliable repeating rifle produced by Volcanic Repeating Arms in 1854.[4] By the time repeating rifles became common, they were known as simply "rifles", ending the era of the musket.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
1.1 Terminology
2 History
2.1 Europe
2.1.1 Heavy arquebus
2.1.2 Flintlock Musket
2.1.3 Rifling
2.2 Asia
3 Operation
4 Tactics
4.1 Volley fire
4.2 Countermarch
4.3 Attack column
5 Replacement by the rifle
6 Outside Eurasia
7 Parts of a musket
8 Ammunition
9 Accessories
10 See also
11 References
12 Bibliography
13 External links
Etymology[edit]
According to the Etymology Dictionary, firearms were often named after animals, and the word musket derived from the French word mousquette, which is a male sparrowhawk.[5] An alternative theory is that derives from the 16th century French mousquet, -ette, from the Italian moschetto, -etta, meaning the bolt of a crossbow. The Italian moschetto is a diminutive of mosca, a fly.[6]
Terminology[edit]
The first recorded usage of the term "musket" or moschetto appeared in Europe in the year 1499.[7] Evidence of the musket as a type of firearm does not appear until 1521 when it was used to describe a heavy arquebus capable of penetrating heavy armor.[1] This version of the musket fell out of use after the mid-16th century with the decline of heavy armor,[8] however the term itself stuck around as a general descriptor for 'shoulder arms' fireweapons into the 1800s. The differences between the arquebus and musket post-16th century are therefore not entirely clear, and the two have been used interchangeably on several occasions.[9]
History[edit]
See also: Arquebus, History of gunpowder, and Timeline of the Gunpowder Age
Heavy muskets, image produced 1664.
Europe[edit]
Heavy arquebus[edit]
The musket first came about as a variant of the matchlock arquebus, which was developed in Europe around 1475.[10] The arquebus was used in relatively high ratios in Hungary under king Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458–1490). Every fourth soldier in the Black Army of Hungary had an arquebus, which was an unusually high ratio in its era.[11][12]
In response to firearms, thicker armor was produced, from 15 kg in the 15th century to 25 kg in the late 16th century.[13] Armour that was 2 mm thick, required 2.9 times as much energy to penetrate armour that was 1 mm thick.[14]
In 1521, the heavy arquebus known as the musket, was invented in Europe.[1] During the siege of Parma in 1521, many Spanish soldiers reportedly used an "arquebus with rest," a weapon much larger and more powerful than the regular arquebus. However, at this point long-barreled, musket-caliber weapons had been in use as wall-defence weapons in Europe for almost a century.[15] The musketeers were the first infantry to give up armour entirely. Musketeers began to take cover behind walls or in sunken lanes and sometimes acted as skirmishers to take advantage of their ranged weapons. In England, the musket barrel was cut down from 4 feet to 3 feet around 1630.[16]
According to Sir John Smythe, muskets were first used around 1530 in Italy where they had been "devised to encounter heavily armed opponents, and for the defence of towns and fortresses."[17]
Flintlock Musket[edit]
Flintlock mechanism
The heavy musket went out of favor around the same time the snaphance flintlock was invented in Europe, in 1550.[18] After the arrival of the snaphance and then the "true" flintlock in the late 17th century, the arquebus died out as a term for firearms and flintlocks are not usually associated with arquebuses.[19] The term "musket" itself however, stuck around as a general term for 'shoulder arms' fireweapons into the 1800s. The differences between the arquebus and musket post-16th century are therefore not entirely clear, and the two have been used interchangeably on several occasions.[9]
The number of musketeers relative to pikemen increased partly because they were now more mobile than pikemen.[20]
An intermediate between the arquebus and the musket was the caliver,[21] a standardized arquebus deriving from the English corruption of "caliber", which appeared in Europe around 1567-9.[7]
Rifling[edit]
Projectiles in smoothbore firearms are quite loose in the barrel. The last contact with the barrel gives the ball a spin around an axis at right angles to the direction of flight. The aerodynamics result in the ball veering off in a random direction from the aiming point. The practice of rifling, putting grooves in the barrel of a weapon, causing the projectile to spin on the same axis as the line of flight, prevented this veering off from the aiming point. Initially rifles were used primarily as sporting weapons and had little presence in warfare. However, by 1611 rifles were already starting to see some use in warfare by Denmark.[7] From around 1750, rifles began to be used by skirmishers (Frederick the Great raised a Jäger unit in 1744 from game-keepers and foresters, armed with rifles),[22] but the very slow rate of fire of muzzle-loading rifles restricted their use until the invention of the Minié ball in 1849, ending the smoothbore musket era.[4] Rifled muskets of the mid-19th century, like the Springfield Model 1861, were significantly more accurate, with the ability to hit a man sized target at a distance of 500 yards (460 m) or more.[23] The advantage of this extended range was demonstrated at the Battle of Four Lakes, where Springfield Model 1855 rifled muskets inflicted heavy casualties among the Indian warriors before they could get their smooth bore muskets into range.[24] However, in the Italian War of 1859, French forces were able to defeat the longer range of Austrian rifle muskets by aggressive skirmishing and rapid bayonet assaults during close quarters combat.[25]
Asia[edit]
Early matchlocks as illustrated in the Baburnama (16th century)
Matchlock firearms were used in India by 1500,[26] in Đại Việt by 1516,[27] and in Southeast Asia by 1540.[28]
The Portuguese may have introduced muskets to Sri Lanka during their conquest of the coastline and low lands in 1505, as they regularly used short barreled matchlocks during combat. However, P.E.P.Deraniyagala points out that the Sinhalese term for gun, 'bondikula' matches the Arabic term for gun, 'bunduk'. Also, certain technical aspects of the early Sinhalese matchlock were similar to the matchlocks used in the Middle East, thus forming the generally accepted theory that the musket was not entirely new to the island by the time the Portuguese came. In any case, soon native Sri Lankan kingdoms, most notably the kingdom of Sitawaka and the Kandyan Kingdom, manufactured hundreds of Sinhalese muskets, with a unique bifurcated stock, longer barrel and smaller calibre, which made it more efficient in directing and using the energy of the gunpowder. These were mastered by native soldiers to the point where, according to the Portuguese chronicler, Queirós, they could "fire at night to put out a match" and "by day at 60 paces would sever a knife with four or five bullets" and "send as many on the same spot in the target."[29]
Arquebuses were imported by the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) at an uncertain point, but the Ming only began fielding matchlocks in 1548.[30] The Chinese used the term "bird-gun" to refer to arquebuses and Turkish arquebuses may have reached China before Portuguese ones.[31] In Zhao Shizhen's book of 1598 AD, the Shenqipu, there were illustrations of Ottoman Turkish musketmen with detailed illustrations of their muskets, alongside European musketeers with detailed illustrations of their muskets.[32] There was also illustration and description of how the Chinese had adopted the Ottoman kneeling position in firing while favoring European-made muskets.[33]
Despite initial reluctance, the Safavid Empire of Persia rapidly acquired the art of making and using handguns. A Venetian envoy, Vincenzo di Alessandri, in a report presented to the Council of Ten on 24 September 1572, observed:
They used for arms, swords, lances, arquebuses, which all the soldiers carry and use; their arms are also superior and better tempered than those of any other nation. The barrels of the arquebuses are generally six spans long, and carry a ball little less than three ounces in weight. They use them with such facility that it does not hinder them drawing their bows nor handling their swords, keeping the latter hung at their saddle bows till occasion requires them. The arquebus is then put away behind the back so that one weapon does not impede the use of the other.[2]
Various antique Tanegashima.
In Japan, arquebuses were introduced in 1543 by Portuguese merchantmen and by the 1560s were being mass-produced locally.[28]
Large Korean Jochong(Matchlock Musket) in Unhyeon Palace with Korean cannon Hongyipao(Culverin).
In Korea the Joseon dynasty underwent a devastating war with newly unified Japan that lasted from 1592 to 1598. The shock of this encounter spurred the court to undergo a process of military strengthening. One of the core elements of military strengthening was to adopt the musket. According to reformers, "In recent times in China they did not have muskets; they first learned about them from the Wokou pirates in Zhejiang Province. Qi Jiguang trained troops in their use for several years until they [muskets] became one of the skills of the Chinese, who subsequently used them to defeat the Japanese."[34] By 1607 Korean musketeers had been trained in the fashion which Qi Jiguang prescribed, and a drill manual had been produced based on the Chinese leader's Jixiao Xinshu. Of the volley fire, the manual says that "every musketeer squad should either divide into two musketeers per layer or one and deliver fire in five volleys or in ten."[34] Another Korean manual produced in 1649 describes a similar process: "When the enemy approaches to within a hundred paces, a signal gun is fired and a conch is blown, at which the soldiers stand. Then a gong is sounded, the conch stops blowing, and the heavenly swan [a double-reed horn] is sounded, at which the musketeers fire in concert, either all at once or in five volleys (齊放一次盡擧或分五擧)."[34] This training method proved to be quite formidable in the 1619 Battle of Sarhu when 10,000 Korean musketeers managed to kill many Manchus before their allies surrendered. While Korea went on to lose both wars against the Manchu invasions of 1627 and 1636, their musketeers were well respected by Manchu leaders. It was the first Qing emperor Hong Taiji who wrote: "The Koreans are incapable on horseback but do not transgress the principles of the military arts. They excel at infantry fighting, especially in musketeer tactics."[35]
Afterwards, the Qing dynasty requested Joseon to aid in their border conflict with Russia. In 1654, 370 Russians engaged a thousand-man Qing-Joseon force at the mouth of the Songhua River and were defeated by Joseon musketeers.[36] In 1658, 500 Russians engaged a 1400 string Qing-Joseon force and were defeated again by Joseon musketeers.[37] Under the Three Branch System, similar to the Spanish Tercio, Joseon organized their army under firearm troops (artillery and mueketeers), archers, and pikemen or swordsmen. The percentage of firearms in the Joseon army rose dramatically as a result of the shorter training period for firearms. In addition, the sulfur mines discovered in Jinsan reduced the expense of producing gunpowder. Under the reign of Sukjong of Joseon (1700's), 76.4% of the local standing army in Chungcheong were musketeers.[38] Under the reign of King Yeongjo, Yoon Pil-Un, Commander of the Sua-chung, improved on firearms with the Chunbochong (천보총), which had a larger range of fire than the existing ones. Its usage is thought to have been similar to the Afghanistan Jezail or American Kentucky Rifle.[39][40]
Operation[edit]
An English Civil War manual of the New Model Army showing a part of the steps required to load and fire an earlier musket. The need to complete this difficult and potentially dangerous process as quickly as possible led to the creation of the military drill.[41]
In the 18th century, as typified by the English Brown Bess musket, loading and firing was done in the following way:
Upon the command "prime and load", the soldier would make a quarter turn to the right at the same time bringing the musket to the priming position. The pan would be open following the discharge of the previous shot, meaning that the frizzen would be tilted forward. If the musket was not being reloaded after a previous shot, the soldiers would be ordered to "Open Pan".
Upon the command "handle cartridge", the soldier would draw a cartridge from the cartridge box worn on the soldier's right hip or on a belt in front of the soldier's belly. Cartridges consisted of a spherical lead ball wrapped in a paper cartridge which also held the gunpowder propellant. The end of the cartridge opposite from the ball would be sealed by a mere twist of the paper. The soldier then tore off the twisted end of the cartridge with the teeth and spat it out, and continued to hold the now open cartridge in his right hand.
Upon the command "prime", the soldier then pulled the hammer back to half-cock, and poured a small amount of powder from the cartridge into the priming pan. He then closed the frizzen so that the priming powder was trapped.
Upon the command "about", the butt of the musket was then lowered and moved to a position against the soldier's left calf, and held so that the soldier could then access the muzzle of the musket barrel. The soldier then poured the rest of the powder from the cartridge down the muzzle. The cartridge was then reversed, and the end of the cartridge holding the musket ball was inserted into the muzzle, with the remaining paper shoved into the muzzle above the musket ball. This paper acted as wadding to stop the ball and powder from falling out if the muzzle was lowered.
Upon the command "draw ramrods", the soldier drew the ramrod from the musket. The ramrod was grasped and reversed when removed, and the large end was inserted about one inch into the muzzle.
Upon the command "ram down cartridge", the soldier then used the ramrod to firmly ram the wadding, bullet, and powder down to the breech of the barrel. The ramrod was then removed, reversed, and returned to half way in the musket by inserting it into the first and second ramrod pipes. The soldier's hand then grasped the top of the ramrod.
Upon the command "return rammers", the soldier would quickly push the rammer the remaining amount to completely return it to its normal position. Once the ramrod was properly replaced, the soldier's right arm would be held parallel to the ground at shoulder level, with the right fingertips touching the bayonet lug, and lightly pressing the musket to the soldier's left shoulder. The soldier's left hand still supported the musket.
(At no time did the soldier place the musket on the ground to load)
Upon the command "Make Ready", the musket was brought straight up, perpendicular to the ground, with the left hand on the swell of the musket stock, the lock turned toward the soldier's face, and the soldier's right hand pulled the lock to full cock, and grasped the wrist of the musket.
Upon the command "present", the butt of the musket was brought to the soldier's right shoulder, while at the same time the soldier lowered the muzzle to firing position, parallel to the ground, and sighting (if the soldier had been trained to fire at "marks") along the barrel at the enemy.
Upon the command of "fire", the soldier pulled the trigger, and the musket (hopefully) fired. A full second was allowed to pass, and the musket was then quickly lowered to the loading position, butt against the soldier's right hip, muzzle held off center to the left at about a forty-five degree angle, and the soldier would look down at his open pan to determine if the prime had been ignited.
This process was drilled into troops until they could complete the procedure upon hearing a single command of "prime and load". No additional verbal orders were given until the musket was loaded, and the option was either to give the soldiers the command "Make Ready", or to hold the musket for movement with the command of "Shoulder your firelock". The main advantage of the British Army was that the infantry soldier trained at this procedure almost every day. A properly trained group of regular infantry soldiers was able to load and fire four rounds per minute. A crack infantry company could load and fire five rounds in a minute.
Tactics[edit]
Volley fire[edit]
Diagram of a 1594 Dutch musketry volley formation.
Illustration of a 1639 Ming musketry volley formation. From Bi Maokang 畢懋康, Jun qi tu shuo 軍器圖說, ca. 1639.
The development of volley fire — by the Ottomans, the Chinese, the Japanese, and the Dutch — made muskets more feasible for widespread adoption by the military. The volley fire technique transformed soldiers carrying firearms into organized firing squads with each row of soldiers firing in turn and reloading in a systematic fashion. Volley fire was implemented with cannons as early as 1388 by Ming artillerists,[42] but volley fire with matchlocks was not implemented until 1526 when the Ottoman Janissaries utilized it during the Battle of Mohács.[43] The matchlock volley fire technique was next seen in mid 16th century China as pioneered by Qi Jiguang and in late 16th century Japan.[44][28] Qi Jiguang elaborates on his volley fire technique in the Jixiao Xinshu:
All the musketeers, when they get near the enemy are not allowed to fire early, and they're not allowed to just fire everything off in one go, [because] whenever the enemy then approaches close, there won't be enough time to load the guns (銃裝不及), and frequently this mismanagement costs the lives of many people. Thus, whenever the enemy gets to within a hundred paces' distance, they [the musketeers] are to wait until they hear a blast on the bamboo flute, at which they deploy themselves in front of the troops, with each platoon (哨) putting in front one team (隊). They [the musketeer team members] wait until they hear their own leader fire a shot, and only then are they allowed to give fire. Each time the trumpet gives a blast, they fire one time, spread out in battle array according to the drilling patterns. If the trumpet keeps blasting without stopping, then they are allowed to fire all together until their fire is exhausted, and it's not necessary [in this case] to divide into layers.[44]
—  Jixiao Xinshu
Countermarch[edit]
In Europe the volley fire countermarch technique was illustrated by the Spanish captain Martín de Eguiluz in his Milicia, Discurso y Regla Militar written in 1586 and first published in Madrid in 1592. His most significant contribution to early modern warfare rests on his detailed description of the countermarch[45] which the Spanish derived from a maneuver described in De Re Militari conducted with javelins. This complex battlefield maneuver consisted of lining up three files of soldiers five ranks deep to shoot and then yield their place at the front to those who had been behind them and then to load again and continue in order to maintain a steady rate of fire. Most historians, including Geoffrey Parker, have ignored Eguiluz, and have erroneously attributed the invention of the countermarch to Maurice of Nassau, although the publication of the Milicia, Discurso y Regla Militar antedates Maurice's first letter on the subject by two years.[46] Nassau copied the maneuver and taught it to Dutch troops in the Eighty Years' War. Eguiluz also stressed constant drills and training.[47]
The difficulty of reloading was diminished by making the musket ball much smaller than the internal diameter of the barrel to adjust for accumulated soot. As the interior of the barrel became dirty from soot from previously fired rounds, the musket ball from the next shot could still be easily rammed. In order to keep the ball in place once the weapon was loaded, it would be partially wrapped in a small piece of cloth.[48] However, the smaller ball could move within the barrel as the musket was fired, decreasing the accuracy of musket fire[49] (it was complained that it took a man's weight in lead musket balls to kill him).[50]
Attack column[edit]
In the 19th century, a new tactic was devised by the French during the French Revolutionary Wars. This was the colonne d'attaque, or attack column, consisting of one regiment up to two brigades of infantry. Instead of advancing slowly all across the battlefield in line formations, the French infantry were brought forward in such columns, preceded by masses of skirmishers to cover and mask their advance. The column would then normally deploy into line right before engaging the enemy with either fire or bayonet. This allowed the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic infantry a much greater degree of mobility compared to their Ancien Régime opponents, and also allowed much closer cooperation of infantry with cavalry and artillery, which were free to move in between the infantry columns of the former rather than being trapped in between the linear formation of the latter. The 'colonne d'attaque' was henceforth adopted by all European armies during and after the Napoleonic Wars. While some British historians, such as Sir Charles Oman, have postulated that it was the standard French tactic to charge enemy lines of infantry head on with their columns, relying on the morale effect of the huge column, and hence were often beaten off by the devastating firepower of the redcoats, more current research into the subject has revealed that such occasions were far from the norm, and that the French normally tried deploying into lines before combat as well.[51]
Replacement by the rifle[edit]
Minié balls
The musket had a smoothbore barrel and lacked rifling grooves in the barrel that spun the bullet, contributing to its accuracy. By modern standards, muskets are extremely inaccurate. Owing to this lack of accuracy, officers did not expect musketeers to aim at specific targets. Rather, their objective was to deliver massed fire into the enemy line.
Although rifling as a practice preceded the musket, it was primarily secluded to specialist weapons and limited in number.[1] The disadvantage of the early rifle for military use was its long reloading time and the tendency for powder fouling to accumulate in the rifling, making the piece more difficult to load with each shot. Eventually, the weapon could not be loaded until the bore was wiped clean. For this reason, smoothbore muskets remained the primary firearm of most armies until the mid-19th century. However, as early as 1611, rifles were already seeing limited usage in some parts of Europe such as Denmark.[7]
The invention of the Minié ball in 1849 solved both major problems of muzzle-loading rifles.[4] The Crimean War (1853–1856) saw the first widespread use of the rifled musket for the common infantryman and by the time of the American Civil War (1860s) most infantry were equipped with the rifled musket. These were far more accurate than smoothbore muskets and had a far longer range, while preserving the musket's comparatively faster reloading rate. Their use led to a decline in the use of massed attacking formations, as these formations were too vulnerable to the accurate, long-range fire a rifle could produce. In particular, attacking troops were within range of the defenders for a longer period of time, and the defenders could also fire at them more quickly than before. As a result, while 18th century attackers would only be within range of the defenders' weapons for the time it would take to fire a few shots, late 19th century attackers might suffer dozens of volleys before they drew close to the defenders, with correspondingly high casualty rates. However, the use of massed attacks on fortified positions did not vanish overnight, and as a result, major wars of the late 19th century and early 20th century tended to produce very high casualty figures.[4]
In the late 19th century, the rifle took another major step forward with the introduction of breech-loading rifles. These rifles also used brass cartridges. The brass cartridge had been introduced earlier; however, it was not widely adopted for various reasons. In the U.S. Army, generals thought their soldiers would waste ammunition, so they kept muzzle-loading black powder rifles until after the American Civil War. The introduction of breech loaders meant that the rifling of a weapon was no longer damaged when it was loaded, and reloading was a much faster process. Shortly afterwards, magazine loading rifles were introduced, which further increased the weapons' rate of fire. From this period (c. 1870) on, the musket was obsolete in modern warfare.[3]
Outside Eurasia[edit]
During the Musket war period in New Zealand between 1805 and 1843, at least 500 conflicts took place between various Maori groups - often using trade muskets in addition to traditional Maori weapons. The muskets were initially cheap Birmingham muskets designed for the use of coarse grain black powder. Maori favoured the shorter barrel versions. Some Maori groups took advantage of runaway sailors and escaped convicts to expand their understanding of muskets. Early missionaries - one of whom was a trained gunsmith - refused to help Maori repair muskets. Later, common practice was to enlarge the percussion hole and to hold progressively smaller lead balls between the fingers so that muskets could fire several shots without having to remove fouling. Likewise, Maori resorted to thumping the butt of the musket on the ground to settle the ball instead of using a ramrod. Maori favoured the use of the double barrel shot gun (Tuparra - two barrel) during fighting often using women to reload the weapons when fighting from a Pā (fortified village or hillfort). They often resorted to using nails, stones or anything convenient as "shot". From the 1850s Maori were able to obtain superior military style muskets with greater range. One of the authors was a Pakeha (European) who lived amongst Maori, spoke the language fluently, had a Maori wife and took part in many intertribal conflicts as a warrior.[52][53]
Parts of a musket[edit]
The phrase "lock, stock, and barrel" refers to the three main parts of a musket.[54]
Trigger guards began appearing in 1575.[8]
Bayonets were attached to muskets in several parts of the world from the late 16th to 17th centuries.[55][56][55]
Locks came in many different varieties. Early matchlock and wheel lock mechanisms were replaced by later flintlock mechanisms and finally percussion locks. In some parts of the world such as China and Japan, the flintlock mechanism never caught on and they continued using matchlocks until the 19th century when percussion locks were introduced.[57]
In the latter half of the 18th century several improvements were added to the musket. In 1750 a detent was added to prevent the sear from catching in the half-cock notch.[7] A roller bearing was introduced in 1770 to reduce friction and increase sparks.[7] In 1780 waterproof pans were added.[7]
Ammunition[edit]
Iron ball mould
The Minié ball, which despite its name was actually bullet shaped and not ball shaped, was developed in the 1840s.[58] The Minié ball had an expanding skirt which was intended to be used with rifled barrels, leading to what was called the rifled musket, which came into widespread use in the mid-19th century. The Minié ball was small enough in diameter that it could be loaded as quickly as a round ball, even with a barrel that had been fouled with black powder residue after firing many shots, and the expanding skirt of the Minié ball meant that it would still form a tight fit with the barrel and impart a good spin into the round when fired. This gave the rifled musket an effective range of several hundred yards, which was a significant improvement over the smooth bore musket. For example, combat ranges of 300 yards were achievable using the rifled muskets of the American Civil War.[59]
Musketeers often used paper cartridges, which served a purpose similar to that of modern metallic cartridges in combining bullet and powder charge. A musket cartridge consisted of a pre-measured amount of black powder and ammunition such as a round ball, Nessler ball or Minié ball all wrapped up in paper. Cartridges would then be placed in a cartridge box, which would typically be worn on the musketeer's belt during a battle. Unlike a modern cartridge, this paper cartridge was not simply loaded into the weapon and fired. Instead, the musketeer would tear open the paper (usually with his teeth), pour some of the powder into the pan and the rest into the barrel, follow it with the ammunition (and the paper as wadding if not using a Minié ball), then use the ramrod as normal to push it all into the barrel. While not as fast as loading a modern cartridge, this method did significantly speed up the loading process since the pre-measured charges meant that the musketeer did not have to carefully measure out the black powder with every shot.[60]
Accessories[edit]
Some ramrods were equipped with threaded ends, allowing different attachments to be used. One of the more common attachments was a ball screw or ball puller, which was literally just a screw that could be screwed into the lead ball to remove it if it had become jammed in the barrel, similar to the way that a corkscrew is used to remove a wine cork. Another attachment was called a worm, which was used to clear debris from the barrel, such as paper wadding that had not been expelled. Some worm designs were sturdy enough that they could be used to remove stuck ammunition. The worm could also be used with a small piece of cloth for cleaning. A variation on the worm called the "screw and wiper" combined the typical design of a worm with a ball puller's screw.[61]
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Muskets.
Arquebus
Musketoon
Pike and shot
Grenadier
Line infantry
Gun
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text:
Muller v. Oregon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Muller v. Oregon
Supreme Court of the United States
Argued January 15, 1908
Decided February 24, 1908
Full case name
Curt Muller, Plaintiff in Error v. The State of Oregon. Appellant's claim: Oregon's 1903 maximum hours law is unconstitutional.
Citations
208 U.S. 412 (more)
28 S. Ct. 324;52 L. Ed. 551;1908 U.S. LEXIS 1452
Prior history
Defendant convicted; affirmed, 85 P. 855 (Or. 1906)
Subsequent history
None
Holding
Oregon's limit on the working hours of women was constitutional under the Fourteenth Amendment, as it was justified by the strong state interest in protecting women's health. Supreme Court of Oregon affirmed.
Court membership
Chief Justice
Melville Fuller
Associate Justices
John M. Harlan · David J. Brewer
Edward D. White · Rufus W. Peckham
Joseph McKenna · Oliver W. Holmes, Jr.
William R. Day · William H. Moody
Case opinions
Majority
Brewer, joined unanimously
Laws applied
U.S. Const. amend. XIV; 1903 Or. Laws p. 148
Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908), was a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court. Women were provided by state mandate, lesser work-hours than allotted to men. The poised question was whether women's liberty to negotiate a contract with an employer should be equal to a man's. There was no such thing as sex discrimination in 1908, because gender based discrimination had not been recognized until the case of Reed v. Reed, in 1971[1]; here, the test was not under the equal protections clause, but a test based on the general police powers of the state to protect the welfare of women when it infringed on her fundamental right to negotiate contracts; inequality was not a deciding factor because the sexes were inherently different in their particular conditions and had completely different functions[2]; usage of labor laws that were made to nurture women's welfare and for the "benefit of all" people[3] was decided to be not a violation of the contact clause within the U.S. constitution.
The case describes women as having dependency upon men in a manner that such women needed their rights to be preserved by the state; their "rights" were in effect, to have maternal gender roles, again however to the loss of some of their contractual liberties. The quotes for the decision follows:
"woman has always been dependent upon man." Id. at 421.
"in the struggle for subsistence she is not an equal competitor with her brother." Id. at 422.
"Though limitations upon personal and contractual rights may be removed by legislation, there is that in her disposition and habits of life which will operate against a full assertion of those rights." Id.
"her physical structure and a proper discharge of her maternal functions — having in view not merely her own health, but the well-being of the race — justify legislation to protect her from the greed as well as the passion of man." Id.
"The limitations which this statute places upon her contractual powers, upon her right to agree with her employer as to the time she shall labor, are not imposed solely for her benefit, but also largely for the benefit of all." Id.
The ruling had important implications for protective labor legislation[4] and was decided just three years after Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905), in which a New York law restricting the weekly working hours of bakers in the state was invalidated.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Judgment
3 Significance of the case
4 See also
5 Notes
6 Further reading
7 External links
Background[edit]
Curt Muller, the owner of a laundry business, was convicted of violating Oregon labor laws by making a female employee work more than ten hours in a single day. Muller was fined $10. Muller appealed to the Oregon Supreme Court and then to the U.S. Supreme Court, both of which upheld the constitutionality of the labor law and affirmed his conviction.
Judgment[edit]
In Justice David Josiah Brewer's unanimous opinion, the Court upheld the Oregon regulation. The Court did not overrule Lochner, but instead distinguished it on the basis of "the difference between the sexes". The child-bearing physiology and social role of women provided a strong state interest in reducing their working hours.
That woman's physical structure and the performance of maternal functions place her at a disadvantage in the struggle for subsistence is obvious. This is especially true when the burdens of motherhood are upon her. Even when they are not, by abundant testimony of the medical fraternity continuance for a long time on her feet at work, repeating this from day to day, tends to injurious effects upon the body, and as healthy mothers are essential to vigorous offspring, the physical well-being of woman becomes an object of public interest and care in order to preserve the strength and vigor of the race.208 U.S. at 412.
"When the constitutionality of the Oregon ten-hour law for women was challenged, Florence Kelley committed The National Consumers League to it's [sic] defense. As Kathryn Kish Sklar has explained, NCL's research director, Josephine Goldmark, prepared a pathbreaking brief, of which only 2 pages consisted of traditional abstract legal reasoning, and over 100 pages offered sociological evidence. Her brother-in-law, the future Supreme Court Justice Louis D. Brandeis, argued the case in the U.S. Supreme Court. Goldmark and Brandeis's innovation would come to be known as a "Brandeis Brief," and many others would later be modeled on it."[5]
Goldmark and her team were able to assemble 98 out of the 118 pages of the brief, meaning much of the credit for the brief goes to her.[6]
Significance of the case[edit]
Groups like the National Consumer League (which included Florence Kelley and Josephine Goldmark as feminists) and the state won shorter hours for women. However, many equal-rights feminists opposed the ruling, since it allowed laws based on stereotyped gender roles that restricted women's rights and financial independence. While it provided protection from long hours to white women, it did not extend to women of color, food processors, agricultural workers, and women who worked in white-collar jobs. The government interest in public welfare outweighed the freedom of contract that is displayed in the 14th Amendment and the effects of Muller v. Oregon did not change until the New Deal days in the 1930s. It was also a watershed in the development of maternalist reforms.[7][8][9][10]
The ruling was criticized because it set a precedent to use sex differences, and in particular women's child-bearing capacity, as a basis for separate legislation, supporting the idea that the family has priority over women's rights as workers.[4]
"Until the late 1930s, when the Fair Labor Standards Act created gender-neutral workplace protections, the Equal Rights Amendment championed by the NWP would have demolished the gains for women workers won in Muller. This dispute between feminists who valued protection and feminists who valued equality continued until the latter group gained the upper hand in the 1970s."[11]
See also[edit]
Bunting v. Oregon
Brandeis Brief
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 208
Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905)
Adkins v. Children's Hospital, 261 U.S. 525 (1923)
West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, 300 U.S. 379 (1937)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution)". Wikipedia.
Jump up ^ Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412, 423 (1908)
Jump up ^ Id. at 422
^ Jump up to: a b Baron, Ava (1981). "Protective Labor Legislation and the Cult of Domesticity". Journal of Family Issues. SAGE Publications. 2 (1): 25–38. doi:10.1177/0192513X8100200103.
Jump up ^ 415 Protecting Women Wage-Workers, Women's America, Refocusing the Past.
Jump up ^ Ginsburg, Ruth Bader. "Lessons Learned from Louis D. Brandeis | BrandeisNOW." BrandeisNOW. N.p., 28 January 2016. Web. 28 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Brandeis, L. D. (1907). The Brandeis Brief. Retrieved January 27, 2010, from http://www.law.louisville.edu/library/collections/brandeis/node/235
Jump up ^ Woloch, N. (1996). Muller v. Oregon: A Brief History with Documents. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press.
Jump up ^ Barney, S. L. (1999). "Maternalism and the Promotion of Scientific Medicine during the Industrial Transformation of Appalachia, 1880-1930." NWSA Journal, 11(3), 68–92.
Jump up ^ Koven, S., & Michel, S. (1993). Mothers of a New World, Maternalist Politics and the Origins of Welfare States (). Routledge.
Jump up ^ "Muller v. State of Oregon." Open Collections Program: Women Working,. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Sept. 2016.
Further reading[edit]
Becker, Mary E. (1986). "From Muller v. Oregon to Fetal Vulnerability Policies". University of Chicago Law Review. The University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 53, No. 4. 53 (4): 1219–1273. doi:10.2307/1599748. JSTOR 1599748.
Bernstein, David E. (2011). Rehabilitating Lochner: Defending Individual Rights against Progressive Reform. Chapter 4. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-04353-3
Cushman, Clare (2001). Supreme Court Decisions and Women's Rights: Milestone to Equality. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly. pp. 17–18. ISBN 1-56802-614-5.
Woloch, Nancy (1996). Muller v. Oregon: A Brief History with Documents. Boston: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-12816-9.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Muller v. Oregon
Full text of the decision courtesy of Findlaw.com
Muller vs. Oregon
Women Working (1800-1930)
Oyez Citation
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