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Just Dropped In (To See What Condition My Condition Was In)
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"Just Dropped In (To See What Condition My Condition Was In)"
Single by Mickey Newbury
from the album Harlequin Melodies
Genre
Psychedelic pop[1]
Songwriter(s)
Mickey Newbury
"Just Dropped In (To See What Condition My Condition Was In)" is a counterculture era song written by Mickey Newbury and, in 1968, a chart hit for Kenny Rogers and the First Edition. Said to reflect the LSD experience, the song was intended to be a warning about the dangers of using the drug. First recorded on October 10, 1967, by Teddy Hill & the Southern Soul as a single on Rice Records (Rice 5028 b/w "Stagger Lee") and produced by Norro Wilson, Jerry Lee Lewis covered the song on his album Soul My Way released November 1, 1967.
"Just Dropped In ..." by Kenny Rogers and the First Edition (with Kenny Rogers on lead vocals) peaked at number five [2] on the Billboard charts. It was Rogers' first top ten hit. The song captures the short-lived psychedelic era of the late 1960s, stands apart from the country folk harmonies that characterized most of the First Edition's catalog,[3] and got the group their first national TV audience on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour.
It was the group's second single from their eponymous album, The First Edition. Producer Mike Post reversed a few riffs to create the intro; the solo played by Glen Campbell was heavily compressed and a tremolo effect was used to achieve its sound. Another studio guitarist, Mike Deasy, provided the acoustic lead guitar parts.
When Rogers signed with United Artists Records, in the mid-1970s after the group split, he re-recorded the track for his Ten Years of Gold album.
Covers[edit]
Bettye LaVette, Karen Records (KA 1544), 1968, flip side to "Get Away". On that release it is called "What Condition My Condition Is In"
Styvar Manor, British group, 1970, issued as single on Polydor.
Jim Turner of comedy troupe Duck's Breath Mystery Theatre performed (as his character Randee of the Redwoods) a surprisingly faithful version on the Ducks' 1986 album Born To Be Tiled.
Die Haut, 1988, with Nick Cave as guest singer.
Supergrass as a B-Side to their 1995 single Alright/Time
Tinsley Ellis, 1997, on his 1997 album 'Fire It Up (Tinsley Ellis album)'
The Raymen, Death-Country/Goth-Americana-Billy band, 1998
Willie Nelson, on his 2001 album "Rainbow Connection" and his 2002 album The Great Divide
Mojo Nixon, 2001
Children of Bodom, melodic death metal band, on the Japanese release of their "Blooddrunk" album as a bonus track and on their 2009 cover album "Skeletons in the Closet"
Tom Jones, on the Deluxe Edition of "Spirit in the Room" in 2012
Murder by Death, Americana band, 2012
the Launderettes, Norwegian rock group, 2013, [4]
The Fantastics, Donegal-based band, 2014.
Sinister Dexter, San Francisco soul/funk group, 2014
White Denim exclusively for the black comedy–crime drama television series Fargo, which played over the credits of the "Did you do this? No, you did it!" episode of the second season in 2015.[5]
Abe Diddy and The Krautboys on the album Follow in 2016
Sharon Jones & The Dap-Kings, on the original motion picture soundtrack for the film Soul Men
Reef for their compilation album Together.[6]
Jeff Walker Und Die Fluffers (former lead singer of Carcass), on album Welcome to Carcass Cuntry
Sam Feldt, in his 2017 album Sunrise, with Girls Love DJs and Joe Cleere.
Jacob Needham & The Blue Trees, a Southern Rock Group from Nashville,TN released "Just Dropped In" with Spectra Music Group on their debut album Procrastinated Memoirs" April of 2018. Their version of the song brings out a hard more grungy sound while adding touches of mainstream influence to build and bring back a classic song that had such impact for its time. Their version of the song has already been making and name while reaching a new audience in the new millennial generation.
In popular culture (First Edition version)[edit]
The song is featured in a dream sequence from the Coen Brothers' 1998 film The Big Lebowski. Additionally, it plays during the end credits of the 2000 video game Driver 2, the title screen and end credits of the 2013 video game Stick It To The Man, and is featured in the 2010 action movie Faster. It is also used is season 3, episode 1 of Chuck: "Chuck Versus the Pink Slip". A short clip is heard in the 2015 HBO documentary Going Clear: Scientology and the Prison of Belief. It is also on the TV series Fargo, season 2 episode 7.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Pemberton, Pat (21 May 2013). "10 Artists Who Switched Genres". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 23 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits: Eighth Edition. Record Research. p. 536.
Jump up ^ "Kenny Rogers | Awards". AllMusic. 1938-08-21. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ "Getaway - The Launderettes | Songs, Reviews, Credits". AllMusic. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
Jump up ^ "White Denim – "Just Dropped In (To See What Condition My Condition Was In)" (Mickey Newbury Cover)".
Jump up ^ Bush, John. "Together, the Best of Reef". Allmusic. Retrieved 27 June 2013.
show
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Kenny Rogers
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Love Lifted Me
Kenny Rogers
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Love or Something Like It
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We've Got Tonight
Eyes That See in the Dark
What About Me?
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They Don't Make Them Like They Used To
I Prefer the Moonlight
Something Inside So Strong
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Vote for Love
Across My Heart
She Rides Wild Horses
There You Go Again
Back to the Well
Water & Bridges
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You Can't Make Old Friends
Collaboration albums
Every Time Two Fools Collide (with Dottie West)
Classics (with Dottie West)
Timepiece (with David Foster)
Christmas albums
Christmas
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Christmas in America
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Love Is What We Make It
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Greatest Hits (1988)
Daytime Friends – The Very Best of Kenny Rogers
Live by Request
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Notable singles
"That Crazy Feeling"
"Just Dropped In (To See What Condition My Condition Was In)"
"But You Know I Love You"
"Ruby, Don't Take Your Love to Town"
"Laura (What's He Got That I Ain't Got)"
"Lucille"
"Daytime Friends"
"Sweet Music Man"
"Every Time Two Fools Collide" (with Dottie West)
"Love or Something Like It"
"Anyone Who Isn't Me Tonight" (with Dottie West)
"The Gambler"
"All I Ever Need Is You" (with Dottie West)
"She Believes in Me"
"'Til I Can Make It on My Own" (with Dottie West)
"You Decorated My Life"
"Coward of the County"
"Don't Fall in Love with a Dreamer" (with Kim Carnes)
"Love the World Away"
"Lady"
"I Don't Need You"
"Share Your Love with Me"
"Blaze of Glory"
"Through the Years"
"Love Will Turn You Around"
"A Love Song"
"We've Got Tonight" (with Sheena Easton)
"All My Life"
"Scarlet Fever"
"Islands in the Stream" (with Dolly Parton)
"Eyes That See in the Dark"
"This Woman"
"Buried Treasure"
"Together Again" (with Dottie West)
"What About Me?" (with Kim Carnes and James Ingram)
"Evening Star"
"Crazy"
"Morning Desire"
"Goodbye Marie"
"Tomb of the Unknown Love"
"Twenty Years Ago"
"Make No Mistake, She's Mine" (with Ronnie Milsap)
"I Prefer the Moonlight"
"The Factory"
"I Don't Call Him Daddy"
"When You Put Your Heart in It"
"Planet Texas"
"The Vows Go Unbroken (Always True to You)"
"Maybe" (with Holly Dunn)
"Love Is Strange" (with Dolly Parton)
"Crazy in Love"
"If You Want to Find Love"
"Ol' Red"
"Mary, Did You Know?" (with Wynonna Judd)
"The Greatest"
"Buy Me a Rose" (with Alison Krauss and Billy Dean)
"He Will, She Knows"
"There You Go Again"
"Homeland"
"I Can't Unlove You"
Guest singles
"What Are We Doin' in Love" (with Dottie West)
"Real Love" (with Dolly Parton)
"If I Ever Fall in Love Again" (with Anne Murray)
Related articles
Discography
The First Edition
Kenny Rogers Roasters
Book:Kenny Rogers
show
v
t
e
Kenny Rogers and The First Edition
Kenny Rogers
Mary Arnold
Thelma Camacho
Jimmy Hassell
John Hobbs
Mickey Jones
Gene Lorenzo
Mike Settle
Kin Vassy
Terry Williams
Studio albums
The First Edition (1967)
Ruby, Don't Take Your Love To Town (1969)
Something's Burning (1970)
Tell It All Brother (1970)
Transition (1971)
The Ballad of Calico (1972)
I'm Not Making Music for Money (1974)
Singles
"Just Dropped In (To See What Condition My Condition Was In)"
"But You Know I Love You"
"Ruby, Don't Take Your Love to Town"
"Today I Started Loving You Again"
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Timeline of the Manhattan Project
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Timelines of World War II
Chronological
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(in Asia
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1939
1940
1941
1942

1943
1944
1945 onwards
By topic
Diplomacy
Declarations of war
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The Manhattan Project was a research and development project that produced the first atomic bombs during World War II. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom and Canada. From 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the US Army Corps of Engineers. The Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District; "Manhattan" gradually became the codename for the entire project. Along the way, the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, Tube Alloys. The Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US$2 billion (about $27 billion in 2017[1] dollars). Over 90% of the cost was for building factories and producing the fissionable materials, with less than 10% for development and production of the weapons.[2][3]
Two types of atomic bomb were developed during the war. A relatively simple gun-type fission weapon was made using uranium-235, an isotope that makes up only 0.7 percent of natural uranium. Since it is chemically identical to the most common isotope, uranium-238, and has almost the same mass, it proved difficult to separate. Three methods were employed for uranium enrichment: electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal. Most of this work was performed at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. In parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. Reactors were constructed at Oak Ridge and Hanford, Washington, in which uranium was irradiated and transmuted into plutonium. The plutonium was then chemically separated from the uranium. The gun-type design proved impractical to use with plutonium so a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon was developed in a concerted design and construction effort at the project's principal research and design laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico.
The following is a timeline of the Manhattan Project. It includes a number of events prior to the official formation of the Manhattan Project, and a number of events after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, until the Manhattan Project was formally replaced by the Atomic Energy Commission in 1947.
Los Alamos Laboratory director Robert Oppenheimer (left), Manhattan Project director Major General Leslie Groves (center) and University of California president Robert Gordon Sproul (right) at the ceremony to present the laboratory with the Army-Navy "E" Award in October 1945
Operators at their calutron control panels at Y-12. Gladys Owens, the woman seated in the foreground, did not know what she had been involved with until seeing this photo in a public tour of the facility fifty years later.[4]
Replica of the Uranverein's German experimental nuclear reactor at Haigerloch captured by the Alsos Mission[5]
Explosive stack of the 100 Ton Test
Play media
Video of the Trinity nuclear test
Aircraft of the 509th Composite Group that took part in the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Left to right: backup plane, The Great Artiste, Enola Gay
Casing of a Fat Man nuclear bomb, painted like the one dropped on Nagasaki
Aerial view of the Operation Crossroads Able mushroom cloud rising from the lagoon with the Bikini Island visible in the background
Contents
[hide]
1 1939
2 1940
3 1941
4 1942
5 1943
6 1944
7 1945
8 1946
9 1947
10 Notes
11 References
12 External links
1939[edit]
August 2: Albert Einstein signs the letter (Einstein–Szilárd letter), authored by physicist Leó Szilárd and addressed to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, advising him to fund research into the possibility of using nuclear fission as a weapon as Nazi Germany may also be conducting such research.[6]
September 3: Great Britain and France declare war on Nazi Germany in response to its invasion of Poland, beginning World War II.[7]
October 11: Economist Alexander Sachs meets with President Roosevelt and delivers the Einstein–Szilárd letter. Roosevelt authorizes the creation of the Advisory Committee on Uranium.[8]
October 21: First meeting of the Advisory Committee on Uranium, headed by Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards. $6,000 is budgeted for neutron experiments.[9]
1940[edit]
March 2: John R. Dunning's team at Columbia University verifies Niels Bohr's hypothesis that uranium 235 is responsible for fission by slow neutrons.[10]
March: University of Birmingham-based scientists Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls author the Frisch–Peierls memorandum, calculate that an atomic bomb might need as little as 1 pound (0.45 kg) of enriched uranium to work. The memorandum is given to Mark Oliphant, who in turn hands it over to Sir Henry Tizard.[11]
April 10: MAUD Committee established by Tizard to investigate feasibility of an atomic bomb.[12]
May 21: George Kistiakowsky suggests using gaseous diffusion as a means of isotope separation.[13]
June 12: Roosevelt creates the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) under Vannevar Bush, which absorbs the Uranium Committee.[14]
September 6: Bush tells Briggs that NDRC will provide $40,000 for the uranium project.[15]
1941[edit]
February 25: Conclusive discovery of plutonium by Glenn Seaborg and Arthur Wahl.[16]
May 17: A report by Arthur Compton and the National Academy of Sciences is issued which finds favorable the prospects of developing nuclear power production for military use.[17]
June 28: Roosevelt creates the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) under Vannevar Bush with the signing of Executive Order 8807.[18] OSRD absorbs NDRC and the Uranium Committee. James B. Conant succeeds Bush as the head of NDRC.[19]
July 2: The MAUD Committee chooses James Chadwick to write the second (and final) draft of its report on the design and costs of developing a bomb.[20]
July 15: The MAUD Committee issues final detailed technical report on design and costs to develop a bomb. Advance copy sent to Vannevar Bush who decides to wait for official version before taking any action.[21]
August: Mark Oliphant travels to USA to urge development of a bomb rather than power production.[22]
September 3: British Chiefs of Staff Committee approve nuclear weapons project.[23]
October 3: Official copy of MAUD Report (written by Chadwick) reaches Bush.[22]
October 9: Bush takes MAUD Report to Roosevelt, who approves Project to confirm MAUD's findings. Roosevelt asks Bush to draft a letter so that the British government could be approached "at the top." [24]
December 6: Bush holds a meeting to organize an accelerated research project, still managed by Arthur Compton. Harold Urey is assigned to develop research into gaseous diffusion as a uranium enrichment method, while Ernest O. Lawrence is assigned to investigate electromagnetic separation methods. Compton puts the case for plutonium before Bush and Conant. [25]
December 7: The Japanese attack Pearl Harbor. The United States and Great Britain issue a formal declaration of war against Japan the next day.[26]
December 11: The same day after Germany and Italy declares war on the United States, the United States declares war on Germany and Italy.[27]
December 18: First meeting of the OSRD sponsored S-1 Section, dedicated to developing nuclear weapons.[28]
1942[edit]
January 19: Roosevelt formally authorizes the atomic bomb project.[29]
January 24: Compton decides to centralize plutonium work at the University of Chicago.[30]
June 19: S-1 Executive Committee is formed, consisting of Bush, Conant, Compton, Lawrence and Urey.[31]
June 25: S-1 Executive Committee selects Stone & Webster as primary contractor for construction at the Tennessee site.[32]
July–September: Physicist Robert Oppenheimer convenes a summer conference at the University of California, Berkeley to discuss the design of a fission bomb. Edward Teller brings up the possibility of a hydrogen bomb as a major point of discussion.[33]
July 30: Sir John Anderson urges Prime Minister Winston Churchill to pursue a joint project with the United States.[34]
August 13: The Manhattan Engineering District with James C. Marshall as District Engineer is established by the Chief of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, Major General Eugene Reybold, effective August 16.[35]
September 17: Major General Wilhelm D. Styer and Reybold order Colonel Leslie Groves to take over the project.[36]
September 23: Groves is promoted to brigadier general, and becomes director of the project. The Military Policy Committee, consisting of Bush (with Conant as his alternative), Styer and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell is created to oversee the project.[37]
September 29: Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson authorizes the Corps of Engineers to acquire 56,000 acres (23,000 ha) in Tennessee for Site X, which will become the Oak Ridge, Tennessee, laboratory and production site.[38]
September 26: The Manhattan Project is given permission to use the highest wartime priority rating by the War Production Board.[39]
October 19: Groves appoints Oppenheimer to coordinate the scientific research of the project at the Site Y laboratory.[40]
November 16: Groves and Oppenheimer visit Los Alamos, New Mexico and designate it as the location for Site Y.[41]
December 2: Chicago Pile-1, the first nuclear reactor goes critical at the University of Chicago under the leadership and design of Enrico Fermi, achieving a self-sustaining reaction just one month after construction was started.[42]
1943[edit]
January 16: Groves approves development of the Hanford Site.[43]
February 9: Patterson approves acquisition of 400,000 acres (160,000 ha) at Hanford.[43]
February 18: Construction begins for Y-12, a massive electromagnetic separation plant for enriching uranium at Oak Ridge.[44]
April 1: Los Alamos laboratory is established.[45]
April 5–14: Robert Serber delivers introductory lectures at Los Alamos, later are compiled into The Los Alamos Primer.[46]
April 20: The University of California becomes the formal business manager of the Los Alamos laboratory.[47]
Mid-1943: The S-1 Committee was eliminated by mid-1943, as it had been superseded by the Military Policy Committee.[48]
June 2: Construction begins of K-25, the gaseous diffusion plant.[49]
July: The president proclaims Los Alamos, Clinton Engineer Works (CEW) and Hanford Engineer Works (HEW) as military districts. The Governor of Tennessee Prentice Cooper was officially handed the proclamation making Oak Ridge a military district not subject to state control by a junior officer (a lieutenant) he tore it up and refused to see the MED District Engineer Lt-Col James C. Marshall. The new District Engineer Kenneth Nichols had to placate him.[50][51]
July 10: First sample of plutonium arrives at Los Alamos.[52]
August 13: First drop test of gun-type fission weapon at Dahlgren Proving Ground under the direction of Norman F. Ramsey.[53]
August 13: Kenneth Nichols replaces Marshall as head of the Manhattan Engineer District.[54] One of his first tasks as district engineer is to move the district headquarters to Oak Ridge, although its name did not change.[45]
August 19: Roosevelt and Churchill sign Quebec Agreement.[55]
September 8: First meeting of the Combined Policy Committee, established by the Quebec Agreement to coordinate the efforts of the United States, United Kingdom and Canada. United States Secretary of War Henry Stimson, Bush and Conant are the American members; Field Marshal Sir John Dill and Colonel J. J. Llewellin are the British members, and C. D. Howe is the Canadian member.[56]
October 10: Construction begins for the first reactor at the Hanford Site.[57]
November 4: X-10 Graphite Reactor goes critical at Oak Ridge.[58]
December 3: The British Mission, 15 scientists including Rudolf Peierls, Franz Simon and Klaus Fuchs, arrives at Newport News, Virginia.[59]
1944[edit]
January 11: A special group of the Theoretical Division is created at Los Alamos under Edward Teller to study implosion.[60]
March 11: Beta calutrons commence operation at Oak Ridge.[61]
April 5: At Los Alamos, Emilio Segrè receives the first sample of reactor-bred plutonium from Oak Ridge, and within ten days discovers that the spontaneous fission rate is too high for use in a gun-type fission weapon (because of Pu-240 isotope present as an impurity in the Pu-239).[62]
May 9: The world's third reactor, LOPO, the first aqueous homogeneous reactor, and the first fueled by enriched uranium, goes critical at Los Alamos.[63]
July 4: Oppenheimer reveals Segrè's final measurements to the Los Alamos staff, and the development of the gun-type plutonium weapon "Thin Man" is abandoned. Designing a workable implosion design (Fat Man) becomes the top priority of the laboratory, and design of the uranium gun-type weapon (Little Boy) continued. [64]
July 20: The Los Alamos organizational structure is completely changed to reflect the new priority.[65]
September 2: Two chemists are killed, and Arnold Kramish almost killed, after being sprayed with highly corrosive hydrofluoric acid while attempting to unclog a uranium enrichment device which is part of the pilot thermal diffusion plant at the Philadelphia Navy Yard.[66]
September 22: First RaLa test with a radioactive source performed at Los Alamos.[67]
September 26: The largest nuclear reactor, the B reactor, goes critical at the Hanford Site.[68]
Late November: Samuel Goudsmit, scientific head of the Alsos Mission, concludes, based on papers recovered in Strasbourg, that the Germans did not make substantial progress towards an atomic bomb or nuclear reactor, and that the programs were not even considered high priority.[69]
December 14: Definite evidence of achievable compression obtained in a RaLa test.[70]
December 17: 509th Composite Group formed under Colonel Paul W. Tibbets to deliver the bomb.[71]
1945[edit]
January: Brigadier General Thomas Farrell is named Groves' deputy.[72]
January 7: First RaLa test using exploding-bridgewire detonators.[70]
January 20: First stages of K-25 are charged with uranium hexafluoride gas.[73]
February 2: First Hanford plutonium arrives at Los Alamos.[74]
April 22: Alsos Mission captures German experimental nuclear reactor at Haigerloch.[75]
April 27: First meeting of the Target Committee.[76]
May 7: Nazi Germany formally surrenders to Allied powers, marking the end of World War II in Europe;[77] 100-ton test explosion at Alamogordo, New Mexico.[70]
May 10: Second meeting of the Target Committee, at Los Alamos.[78]
May 28: Third meeting which works to finalize the list of cities on which atomic bombs may be dropped: Kokura, Hiroshima, Niigata and Kyoto.[78]
May 30: Stimson drops Kyoto from the target list.[78]
June 11: Metallurgical Laboratory scientists under James Franck issue the Franck Report arguing for a demonstration of the bomb before using it against civilian targets.[79]
July 16: the first nuclear explosion, the Trinity nuclear test of an implosion-style plutonium-based nuclear weapon known as the gadget at Alamogordo;[80] USS Indianapolis sails for Tinian with nuclear components on board.[81]
July 19: Oppenheimer recommends to Groves that gun-type design be abandoned and the uranium-235 used to make composite cores.[82]
July 24: President Harry S. Truman discloses to Soviet leader Joseph Stalin that the United States has atomic weapons. Stalin feigns little surprise; he already knows this through espionage.[83]
July 25: General Carl Spaatz is ordered to bomb one of the targets: Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata or Nagasaki as soon as weather permitted, some time after August 3.[84]
July 26: Potsdam Declaration is issued, threatening Japan with "prompt and utter destruction".[85]
August 6: B-29 Enola Gay drops Little Boy, a gun-type uranium-235 weapon, on the city of Hiroshima, the primary target.[86]
August 9: B-29 Bockscar drops a Fat Man implosion-type plutonium weapon on the city of Nagasaki, the secondary target, as the primary, Kokura, is obscured by cloud and smoke.[87]
August 12: The Smyth Report is released to the public, giving the first technical history of the development of the first atomic bombs.[88]
August 14: Surrender of Japan to the Allied powers.[89]
August 21: Harry Daghlian, a physicist, receives a fatal dose (510 rems) of radiation from a criticality accident when he accidentally dropped a tungsten carbide brick onto a plutonium bomb core. He dies on September 15.[90]
September 4: Manhattan District orders shutdown of S-50 liquid thermal diffusion plant and the Y-12 Alpha plant.[91]
September 8: Manhattan Project survey group under Farrell arrives in Nagasaki.[92]
September 17: Survey group under Colonel Stafford L. Warren arrives in Nagasaki.[92]
September 22: Last Y-12 alpha track ceases operating.[91]
October 16: Oppenheimer resigns as director of Los Alamos, and is succeeded by Norris Bradbury the next day.[93]
1946[edit]
February: News of the Russian spy ring in Canada exposed by defector Igor Gouzenko is made public, creating a mild "atomic spy" hysteria, pushing American Congressional discussions about postwar atomic regulation in a more conservative direction.[94]
May 21: Physicist Louis Slotin receives a fatal dose of radiation (2100 rems) when the screwdriver he was using to keep two beryllium hemispheres apart slips.[95]
July 1: Able test at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads.[96]
July 25: Underwater Baker test at Bikini.[96]
August 1: Truman signs the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 into law, ending almost a year of uncertainty about the control of atomic research in the postwar United States.[97]
1947[edit]
January 1: the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (known as the McMahon Act) takes effect, and the Manhattan Project is officially turned over to the United States Atomic Energy Commission.[98]
August 15: Manhattan District is abolished.[99]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Nichols 1987, pp. 34–35.
Jump up ^ "Atomic Bomb Seen as Cheap at Price". Edmonton Journal. 7 August 1945. p. 1. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "The Calutron Girls". SmithDRay. Retrieved 22 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Beck, Alfred M, et al, United States Army in World War II: The Technical Services – The Corps of Engineers: The War Against Germany, 1985 Chapter 24, Into the Heart of Germany, p. 558
Jump up ^ Rhodes 1986, p. 307.
Jump up ^ Rhodes 1986, p. 310.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 17.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 20.
Jump up ^ Rhodes 1986, p. 332.
Jump up ^ Gowing 1964, pp. 40–43.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 18.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 31.
Jump up ^ Zachary 1997, p. 112.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 27.
Jump up ^ Rhodes 1986, pp. 383–384.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 37.
Jump up ^ Roosevelt, Franklin D. (June 28, 1941). "Executive Order 8807 Establishing the Office of Scientific Research and Development". The American Presidency Project. Retrieved June 28, 2011.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 41.
Jump up ^ Gowing 1964, p. 76.
Jump up ^ Rhodes 1986, pp. 368–369.
^ Jump up to: a b Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 43–44.
Jump up ^ Gowing 1964, p. 106.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 44–46.
Jump up ^ Rhodes 1986, pp. 388–389.
Jump up ^ Williams 1960, p. 3.
Jump up ^ Williams 1960, p. 4.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 53.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 49.
Jump up ^ Rhodes 1986, p. 399.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 75.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 126.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, pp. 42–47.
Jump up ^ Gowing 1964, pp. 437–438.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 43.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 75.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 77.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 78.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 81.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 83.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 84.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 112.
^ Jump up to: a b Jones 1985, p. 110.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 152.
^ Jump up to: a b Jones 1985, p. 88.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 69.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 66.
Jump up ^ Nichols 1987, p. 115.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 130.
Jump up ^ Groves 1962, pp. 26,27.
Jump up ^ Nichols 1987, p. 99,100.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 79.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 380.
Jump up ^ Nichols 1987, p. 101.
Jump up ^ Gowing 1964, p. 171.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 241.
Jump up ^ Rhodes 1986, p. 499.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 211.
Jump up ^ Rhodes 1995, p. 103.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 157.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 164.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 238.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 202.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 240.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 245.
Jump up ^ "Explosion at Navy Yard". Manhattan Project Heritage Preservation Association. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 269.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 221.
Jump up ^ Goudsmit 1947, pp. 69–79.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 271.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 521.
Jump up ^ Nichols 1987, p. 171.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 300.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 310.
Jump up ^ Rhodes 1986, p. 609.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 528.
Jump up ^ Williams 1960, p. 534.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jones 1985, p. 529.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, pp. 532–533.
Jump up ^ Williams 1960, p. 550.
Jump up ^ Rhodes 1986, p. 670.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 377.
Jump up ^ Rhodes 1986, p. 690.
Jump up ^ Rhodes 1986, p. 691.
Jump up ^ Rhodes 1986, p. 692.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, pp. 536–538.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, pp. 538–541.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 561.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 405–406.
Jump up ^ McLaughlin, Thomas P.; Monahan, Shean P.; Pruvost, Norman L.; Frolov, Vladimir V.; Ryazanov, Boris G.; Sviridov, Victor I. (May 2000). "A Review of Criticality Accidents" (PDF). Los Alamos, New Mexico: Los Alamos National Laboratory. pp. 74–75. LA-13638. Retrieved April 21, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 624.
^ Jump up to: a b Jones 1985, p. 544.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 401.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 480–481.
Jump up ^ Zeilig, Martin (August–September 1995). "Louis Slotin And 'The Invisible Killer'". The Beaver. 75 (4): 20–27. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 28 April 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 580–581.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 596.
Jump up ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 641.
Jump up ^ Jones 1985, p. 600.
References[edit]
Goudsmit, Samuel A. (1947). Alsos. New York: Henry Schuman. ISBN 0-938228-09-9. OCLC 8805725.
Gowing, Margaret (1964). Britain and Atomic Energy, 1935–1945. London: Macmillan Publishing. OCLC 3195209.
Groves, Leslie (1962). Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project. New York: Harper. ISBN 0-306-70738-1. OCLC 537684.
Hewlett, Richard G.; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). The New World, 1939–1946 (PDF). University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-520-07186-7. OCLC 637004643. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
Hoddeson, Lillian; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; Westfall, Catherine L. (1993). Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44132-3. OCLC 26764320.
Jones, Vincent (1985). Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. OCLC 10913875.
Nichols, Kenneth D. (1987). The Road to Trinity. New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-06910-X. OCLC 15223648.
Rhodes, Richard (1986). The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-44133-7. OCLC 13793436.
— (1995). Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80400-X.
Williams, Mary H. (1960). Chronology 1941–1945. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army.
Zachary, G. Pascal (1997). Endless Frontier: Vannevar Bush, Engineer of the American Century. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-82821-9. OCLC 36521020.
External links[edit]
AtomicArchive.com: Manhattan Project Chronology — from "The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb" by DOE−Department of Energy.
NuclearWeaponArchive.org: Chronology for the origin of atomic weapons
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Intestinal epithelium
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Intestinal epithelium
Simple columnar epithelial cells
Identifiers
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
This article is one of a series on
Epithelia
Squamous epithelial cell
Simple
Stratified
Columnar epithelial cell
Simple
Stratified
Pseudostratified
Cuboidal epithelial cell
Simple
Stratified
Specialised epithelia
Olfactory
Respiratory
Intestinal
Transitional
Vaginal
Germinal
female
male
Other
Table of epithelia of human organs
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This article is one of a series on the
Gastrointestinal wall
General structure[hide]
Epithelium
Mucosa
Submucosa
Circular muscle
Longitudinal muscle
Serosa
Adventitia
Specific[show]
Meissner's plexus
Auerbach's plexus
Organs[show]
Esophagus
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Intestines
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The intestinal epithelium is the layer of cells that forms the luminal surface or lining of both the small and large intestine (colon) of the gastrointestinal tract. It is composed of simple columnar epithelium. It has two important functions: absorbing helpful substances and providing a barrier against harmful substances. Some diseases and conditions are caused by dysfunction in the intestinal epithelium, and some diseases and conditions cause problems with these cells, which then leads to further complications.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Cell types
1.2 Structural components of cellular junctions
1.2.1 Gap junctions
1.2.2 Desmosomes
1.2.3 Adherens junctions
1.2.4 Tight junctions
2 Physiology
2.1 Nutrient uptake
2.2 Transcellular permeability
2.3 Paracellular permeability
3 Functions
4 Importance for human health
5 See also
6 References
Structure[edit]
The epithelium is part of the intestinal mucosa layer. The epithelium is composed of a single layer of cells. The other two layers of the mucosa, the lamina propria and the muscularis mucosae, support and articulate the epithelium layer. To securely contain of the contents of the intestinal lumen, the cells of the epithelial layer are joined together by tight junctions thus forming a contiguous and relatively impermeable membrane.
Stem cells residing at the base of the intestinal glands produce new epithelial cells which migrate upwards and out of the crypt. Eventually, they are shed into the intestinal lumen
Drawing showing the relationship between villi and microvilli of the small intestine. The luminal surface of the enterocytes have microvilli (1 micrometer long) while the cell layer itself is folded to form villi (0.5-1.6 millimeters long) and crypts. Both serve to increase the total absorption surface of the intestine.
Epithelial cells are continuously renewed every 4–5 days through a process of renewal and migration. Renewal relies on proliferative cells (stem cells) that reside at the crypt base of the intestinal glands (epithelial invasions into the underlying connective tissue).[1] After being formed at the base, the new cells migrate upwards and out of the crypt. Eventually, they undergo apoptosis and are shed off into the intestinal lumen.[2] In this way, the total number of cells making up the intestinal epithelium remains constant.[3]
In the small intestine, the mucosal layer is specially adapted to provide a large surface area in order to maximize the absorption of nutrients. The expansion of the absorptive surface, 600 times beyond that of a cylindrical tube, is achieved by three anatomical factors:[4]
Circular folds are transverse folds that slow the passage of the luminal contents and serve to expand the total surface area threefold.
Villi and intestinal glands serve to increase the mucosal surface area tenfold. (Intestinal villus)
Microvilli covering the apical surface of the enterocytes increase the absorptive surface twentyfold. These numerous microscopic (100 nanometers in diameter) finger-like projections form an undulated brush border.
The brush border on the apical surface of the epithelial cells is covered with glycocalyx, which is composed of oligosaccharides attached to membrane glycoproteins and glycolipids.[5]
Transmission electron microscope image of a thin section cut through an epithelial cell. This image shows that the luminal surface (apical end) of the cell is packed with microvilli that make up the absorbing surface. Each microvillus is approximately 1 micrometers long and 0.1 micrometer in diameter.
Cell types[edit]
Six different cell types are produced by the stem cells that reside at the base of the crypts.[6] Each type matures according to its specific differentiation program as it migrates up and out of the crypt. Many of genes necessary for differentiation into the different epithelial cell types have been identified and characterized (see this table). The cell types produced are: enterocytes, Goblet cells, enteroendocrine cells, Paneth cells, microfold cells, cup cells and tuft cells. Their functions are listed here:[7]
Enterocytes are the most numerous and function primarily for nutrient absorption. Enterocyes express many catablolic enzymes on their exterior luminal surface to break down molecules to sizes appropriate for uptake into the cell. Examples of molecules taken up by enterocytes are: ions, water, simple sugars, vitamins, lipids, peptides and amino acids.
Goblet cells secrete the mucus layer that protects the epitheilium from the lumenal contents.
Enteroendocrine cells secrete various gastrointestinal hormones including secretin, pancreozymin, enteroglucagon among others.
Paneth cells produce antimicrobial peptides such as human beta-defensin.[8][9]
Microfold cells (commonly referred to as M cells) sample antigens from the lumen and deliver them to the lymphoid tissue associated with the mucosa (MALT). In the small intestine, M cells are associated with Peyer’s patches.
Cup cells are a distinct cell type but with no known function.
Tuft cells play a part in the immune response.[10]
Throughout the digestive tract, the distribution of the different types of epithelial cells varies according to the function of that region.[3]
Structural components of cellular junctions[edit]
Types of cell junctions (click to enlarge).
Important for the barrier function of intenstinal epithelium, its cells are joined securely together by four types of junctions (cell junctions),[11] which can be identified at the ultrastructural level:[12]
Gap junctions
Desmosomes
Adherens junctions
Tight junctions
Gap junctions[edit]
Gap junctions bring the adjacent cells within 2 nanometers of each other. They are formed by several homologous proteins encoded by the connexin gene family coming together to form a multiprotein complex. The molecular structure of this complex is in the form of a hexamer. The complex, which is embedded in the cell walls of the two joined cells, forms a gap or channel in the middle of the six proteins. This channel allows various molecules, ions and electrical impulses to pass between the two cells.[13]
Desmosomes[edit]
These complexes, consisting of transmembrane adhesion proteins of the cadherin family, link adjacent cells together through their cytoskeletons.[14] Desmosomes leave a gap of 30 nanometers between cells.[13]
Adherens junctions[edit]
Adherens junctions, also called zonula adherens, are multiprotein complexes formed by proteins of the catenin and cadherin families. They are located in the membrane at the contact points between the cells. They are formed by interactions between intracellular adapter proteins, transmembrane proteins and the actin cytoskeletons of the cells . Besides their role in linking adjacent cells, these complexes are important for regulating epithelial migration, cell polarity, and the formation of other cell junction complexes.[12]
Tight junctions[edit]
Tight junctions, also called zonula occludens, are the most important components of the intenstinal epithelium for its barrier function.[15] These complexes, formed primarily of members of the claudin and the occludin families, consist of about 35 different proteins,[11] form a ring shaped continuous ribbon around the cells, and are located near the borders of the lateral and apical membranes.[12]
The extracellular domains of the transmembrane proteins in adjacent cells cross connect to form a tight seal. These interactions include those between proteins in the same membrane ("cis") and proteins in adjacent cells ("trans"). In addition, interactions can be homophilic (between identical proteins) or heterophilic (between different proteins).[12]
Similar to adherens junctions, the intracellular domains of tight junctions interact with different scaffold proteins, adapter proteins and signaling complexes to regulate cytoskeletal linking, cell polarity, cell signaling and vesical trafficking.[12]
Tight junctions provide a narrow but modifiable seal between adjacent cells in the epithelial layer and thereby provide selective paracellular transport of solutes.[12] While previously thought to be static structures, tight junctions are now known to be dynamic and can change the size of the opening between cells and thereby adapt to the different states of development, physiologies and pathologies.[15] They function as a selective and semipermeable paracellular barrier between apical and basolateral compartments of the epithelial layer. They function to facilitate the passage of small ions and water-soluble solutes through the paracellular space while preventing the passage of luminal antigens, microorganisms and their toxins.[12]
Physiology[edit]
Further information: Intestinal permeability
The intestinal epithelium has a complex anatomical structure which facilitates motility and coordinated digestive, absorptive, immunological and neuroendocrine functions.[16]
The mucus secreted by goblet cells acts as a lubricant and protects the epithelial cell layer against irritation from mucosal contents.[17]
Traditionally, crypt cells were considered primarily as secretory cells while enterocytes are considered principally absorptive. However, recent studies have challenged this classical functional partitioning and have shown that both the surface and crypt cells can perform both secretory and absorptive functions and that, in fact, these functions can occur simultaneously.[18][19]
Nutrient uptake[edit]
Overlaying the brush border of the apical surface of the enterocytes is the glycocalyx, which is a loose network composed of the oligosaccharide side chains of integral membrane hydrolases and other enzymes essential for the digestion of proteins and carbohydrates. These glycoproteins, glycolipids, and enzymes catalyze the final digestive stages of luminal carbohydrates and proteins. The monosaccharides and amino acids thus produced are subsequently transported across the intestinal epithelium and eventually into the bloodstream.[5]
The absorption of electrolytes and water is one of the most important functions of the digestive tract. Water absorption is passive and isotonic - depending on the speed and direction of solute flow. Other factors influencing fluid absorption are osmolarity and the specific intestinal region.[16] Regulated selective permability is performed through two major routes: the transcellular (transepithelial) route and the paracellular route.[12]
Transcellular permeability[edit]
Scheme of selective permeability routes of epithelial cells (red arrows). The transcellular (through the cells) and paracellular (between the cells) routes control the passage of substances between the intestinal lumen and blood.
This consists of specific transport of solutes across the epithelial cells. It is predominantly regulated by the activities of specialised transporters that translocate specific electrolytes, amino acids, sugars, short chain fatty acids and other molecules into or out of the cell.[12]
Paracellular permeability[edit]
Paracellular permeability depends on transport through the spaces that exist between epithelial cells. It is regulated by cellular junctions that are localized in the laminal membranes of the cells.[12] This is the main route of passive flow of water and solutes across the intestinal epithelium. Regulation depends on the intercellular tight junctions which have the most influence on paracellular transport.[20] Studies using the electron microscope showed that the electrical resistance of epithelial layers depends on the complexity and number of filaments within the tight junction transmembrane protein complexes.[16] Also, the plasma membrane resistance and variable transmembrane conductance of the epithelial cells can also modulate paracellular pathway function.[16]
Functions[edit]
The barrier formed by the intestinal epithelium separates the external environment (the contents of the intestinal lumen) from the body[12] and is the most extensive and important mucosal surface of body.[15]
The intestinal epithelium serves several crucial functions, exhibiting both innate and adaptive immune features. It closely monitors its intracellular and extracellular environment, communicates messages to neighbouring cells and rapidly initiates active defensive and repair measures, if necessary.[21] On the one hand, it acts as a barrier, preventing the entry of harmful substances such as foreign antigens, toxins and microorganisms.[11][12] On the other hand, it acts as a selective filter which facilitates the uptake of dietary nutrients, electrolytes, water and various other beneficial substances from the intestinal lumen.[12]
When barrier integrity is lost, intestinal permeability increases and uncontrolled passage of harmful substances can occur. This can lead to, depending on the genetic predisposition of the individual, the development of inflammation, infection, allergies, autoimmune diseases or cancer - within the intestine itself or other organs.[16]
Although they primarily function as part of the digestive system, enterocytes of the intestinal epithelium also express toll-like receptors and nucleotide oligomerization domain proteins that recognize diverse types of microbes and contribute to immune system function.[22][23] Thus the intestinal epithelium not only serves as a physical barrier separating the intestinal lumen from the body proper but also carries out pathogen recognition functions as part of the intrinsic immune system.
Importance for human health[edit]
Loss of integrity of the intestinal epithelium plays a key pathogenic role in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).[24] Changes in the composition of the intestinal microbiota are an important environmental factor in the development of IBD. Detrimental changes in the intestinal microbiota induce an inappropriate (uncontrolled) immune response that results in damage to the intestinal epithelium. Breaches in this critical barrier (the intestinal epithelium) allow further infiltration of microbiota that, in turn, elicit further immune responses. IBD is a multifactorial disease that is nonetheless driven in part by an exaggerated immune response to gut microbiota that causes defects in epithelial barrier function.[25]
See also[edit]
Intestinal mucosal barrier
Intestinal permeability
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Clevers H (2013). "The intestinal crypt, a prototype stem cell compartment". Cell. 154 (2): 274–84. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2013.07.004. PMID 23870119.
Jump up ^ van der Flier, Laurens G.; Clevers, Hans (2009-01-01). "Stem cells, self-renewal, and differentiation in the intestinal epithelium". Annual Review of Physiology. 71: 241–260. doi:10.1146/annurev.physiol.010908.163145. ISSN 1545-1585. PMID 18808327.
^ Jump up to: a b Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Arnold; Zipursky, S. Lawrence; Matsudaira, Paul; Baltimore, David; Darnell, James (2000-01-01). "Intestinal Architecture and Development". Molecular Cell Biology (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0716731363.
Jump up ^ Khurana (2005-01-01). Textbook Of Medical Physiology. Elsevier India. p. 641. ISBN 9788181478504.
^ Jump up to: a b Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Arnold; Zipursky, S. Lawrence; Matsudaira, Paul; Baltimore, David; Darnell, James (2000-01-01). "Transport across Epithelia".
Jump up ^ Laurens G. van der Flier; Hans Clevers (2009). "Stem Cells, Self-Renewal, and Differentiation in the Intestinal Epithelium". Annual Review of Physiology. 71 (1): 241–260. doi:10.1146/annurev.physiol.010908.163145. PMID 18808327. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Sarmento, Bruno (2015-09-30). Concepts and Models for Drug Permeability Studies: Cell and Tissue based In Vitro Culture Models. Woodhead Publishing. pp. 57–58. ISBN 9780081001141.
Jump up ^ van Es, Johan H.; Clevers, Hans (2014-06-16). "Paneth cells". Current Biology. 24 (12): R547–548. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.04.049. ISSN 1879-0445. PMID 24937274.
Jump up ^ Santaolalla R, Abreu MT (2012). "Innate immunity in the small intestine". Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 28 (2): 124–9. doi:10.1097/MOG.0b013e3283506559. PMC 3502878  . PMID 22241076.
Jump up ^ Gerbe, F; Legraverend, C; Jay, P (September 2012). "The intestinal epithelium tuft cells: specification and function". Cellular and molecular life sciences : CMLS. 69 (17): 2907–17. doi:10.1007/s00018-012-0984-7. PMC 3417095  . PMID 22527717.
^ Jump up to: a b c Khan, Niamat; Asif, Abdul R. (2015-01-01). "Transcriptional Regulators of Claudins in Epithelial Tight Junctions". Mediators of Inflammation. 2015: 1–6. doi:10.1155/2015/219843. ISSN 0962-9351. PMC 4407569  . PMID 25948882.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Groschwitz, Katherine R.; Hogan, Simon P. (2009-07-01). "Intestinal Barrier Function: Molecular Regulation and Disease Pathogenesis". The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 124 (1): 3–22. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2009.05.038. ISSN 0091-6749. PMC 4266989  . PMID 19560575.
^ Jump up to: a b Bennett, M. V.; Barrio, L. C.; Bargiello, T. A.; Spray, D. C.; Hertzberg, E.; Sáez, J. C. (1991-03-01). "Gap junctions: new tools, new answers, new questions". Neuron. 6 (3): 305–320. doi:10.1016/0896-6273(91)90241-q. ISSN 0896-6273. PMID 1848077.
Jump up ^ Nekrasova, Oxana; Green, Kathleen J. (2013-11-01). "Desmosome assembly and dynamics". Trends in Cell Biology. 23 (11): 537–546. doi:10.1016/j.tcb.2013.06.004. ISSN 0962-8924. PMC 3913269  . PMID 23891292.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rao, Jaladanki N.; Wang, Jian-Ying (2010-01-01). "Intestinal Architecture and Development".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Fasano, Alessio (2011-01-01). "Zonulin and Its Regulation of Intestinal Barrier Function: The Biological Door to Inflammation, Autoimmunity, and Cancer". Physiological Reviews. 91 (1): 151–175. doi:10.1152/physrev.00003.2008. ISSN 0031-9333. PMID 21248165.
Jump up ^ Allen, Adrian; Flemström, Gunnar (2005-01-01). "Gastroduodenal mucus bicarbonate barrier: protection against acid and pepsin". American Journal of Physiology. Cell Physiology. 288 (1): C1–19. doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00102.2004. ISSN 0363-6143. PMID 15591243.
Jump up ^ Geibel, John P. (2005-01-01). "Secretion and absorption by colonic crypts". Annual Review of Physiology. 67: 471–490. doi:10.1146/annurev.physiol.67.031103.153530. ISSN 0066-4278. PMID 15709966.
Jump up ^ Binder, Henry J.; Rajendran, Vazhaikkurichi; Sadasivan, Vidyasagar; Geibel, John P. (2005-04-01). "Bicarbonate secretion: a neglected aspect of colonic ion transport". Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology. 39 (4 Suppl 2): S53–58. doi:10.1097/01.mcg.0000155521.81382.3a. ISSN 0192-0790. PMID 15758660.
Jump up ^ Näslund, Erik; Hellström, Per M. (2007-09-10). "Appetite signaling: from gut peptides and enteric nerves to brain". Physiology & Behavior. 92 (1-2): 256–262. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.05.017. ISSN 0031-9384. PMID 17582445.
Jump up ^ Cario, E (2010). "Heads up! How the intestinal epithelium safeguards mucosal barrier immunity through the inflammasome and beyond". Current Opinion in Gastroenterology. 26: 583–590. doi:10.1097/MOG.0b013e32833d4b88. PMID 20664345.
Jump up ^ Cario, E (2005). "Bacterial interactions with cells of the intestinal mucosa: Toll-like receptors and NOD2". Gut. 54: 1182–93. doi:10.1136/gut.2004.062794. PMC 1774880  . PMID 15840688.
Jump up ^ Abreu, Maria T.; Fukata, Masayuki; Arditi, Moshe (2005-04-15). "TLR signaling in the gut in health and disease". Journal of Immunology. 174 (8): 4453–4460. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.174.8.4453. ISSN 0022-1767. PMID 15814663.
Jump up ^ Maloy, Kevin J.; Powrie, Fiona (2011-06-16). "Intestinal homeostasis and its breakdown in inflammatory bowel disease". Nature. 474 (7351): 298–306. doi:10.1038/nature10208. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 21677746.
Jump up ^ Coskun, Mehmet (2014-08-25). "Intestinal Epithelium in Inflammatory Bowel Disease". Frontiers in Medicine. 1. doi:10.3389/fmed.2014.00024. ISSN 2296-858X. PMC 4292184  . PMID 25593900.
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Kurtz (Heart of Darkness)
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For the English jockey, see Charles Marlow (jockey).
Kurtz
First appearance
Heart of Darkness
Created by
Joseph Conrad
Information
Gender
Male
Occupation
Ivory trader
Nationality
British
Kurtz is a central fictional character in Joseph Conrad's novella Heart of Darkness. A trader of ivory in Africa and commander of a trading post, he monopolises his position as a demigod among native Africans. Kurtz meets with the novella's protagonist, Charles Marlow, who returns him to the coast via steamboat. Kurtz, whose reputation precedes him, impresses Marlow strongly, and during the return journey Marlow is witness to Kurtz's final moments.
Contents
[hide]
1 In the novella
2 Basis
3 In other works
3.1 Film
3.2 Games
3.3 Literature
4 Notes and references
5 External links
In the novella[edit]
Kurtz is an ivory trader, sent by a shadowy Belgian company into the heart of an unnamed place in Africa (generally regarded as the Congo Free State). With the help of his superior technology, Kurtz has turned himself into a charismatic demigod of all the tribes surrounding his station, and gathered vast quantities of ivory in this way. As a result, his name is known throughout the region. Kurtz's general manager is envious of Kurtz, and plots his downfall.
Kurtz's mother was half English, his father was half French and thus "All Europe contributed to the making of Kurtz.” As the reader finds out at the end, Kurtz is a multitalented man—painter, musician, writer, promising politician. He starts out, years before the novel begins, as an imperialist in the best tradition of the "white man's burden". The reader is introduced to a painting of Kurtz's, depicting a blindfolded woman bearing a torch against a nearly black background, and clearly symbolic of his former views. Kurtz is also the author of a pamphlet regarding the civilization of the natives. The presence of his admirer, the Russian "Harlequin", and what he reveals about Kurtz in his adulatory descriptions of him raises questions about Kurtz's actual beliefs and the sincerity of his progressive views.[1]
However, over the course of his stay in Africa, Kurtz becomes corrupted. He takes his pamphlet and scribbles in, at the very end, the words "Exterminate all the brutes!" He induces the natives to worship him, setting up rituals and venerations worthy of a tyrant. By the time Marlow, the protagonist, sees Kurtz, he is ill with jungle fever and almost dead. Marlow seizes Kurtz and endeavors to take him back down the river in his steamboat. Kurtz dies on the boat with the last words, "The horror! The horror!" Kurtz ultimately was changed by the jungle. At first he wanted to bring civilization to the natives, as his painting shows, but in the end he changed to wanting to "exterminate all the brutes!"
Basis[edit]
Kurtz's persona is generally understood to derive from the notoriously brutal history of the so-called "Congo Free State", which was later taken over by Belgium and became a Belgian colony in 1908. In his history book King Leopold's Ghost, Adam Hochschild suggests that Léon Rom, an administrator in King Leopold's Congo, i.e. in the Congo Free State, was the principal inspiration for the Kurtz character, citing references as the heads on the stakes outside of the station and other similarities between the two. Hochschild and other authors have also suggested that the fate of the disastrous "rear column" of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition (1886-8) on the Congo may have also been an influence. Column leader Edmund Musgrave Barttelot, "went mad, began hitting, whipping, and killing people, and was finally murdered". Bloom notes that Kurtz's sophisticated brutality is closer to that of Barttelot's associate slave trader Tippu Tip. The expedition's overall leader, Henry Morton Stanley, the principal figure involved in preparing the Congo for Leopold's rule, may also have been an influence.[2][3]
A personal acquaintance of Conrad's, Georges Antoine Klein, may also have been a real-life basis for the character.[4] Klein was an employee of the Brussels-based trading company Société Anonyme Belge pour le Commerce du Haut-Congo, and died shortly after being picked up on the steamboat Conrad was piloting. Further, "Klein" means "little" in German, and as Marlow muses in the novella, "Kurtz" means "short" in the same language.
Conrad also expressed an admiration of Robert Louis Stevenson's Pacific Ocean writings, in particular the stories "The Beach of Falesá" and The Ebb-Tide, as well as the non-fiction account of Tembinok' of the Gilbert Islands that appeared in In the South Seas. All three texts contain megalomaniacs who manipulate their circumstances and remote settings to assert power over others. It is widely believed that Conrad drew influence from these characters, as well as Stevenson's plot lines, when writing Heart of Darkness.
In other works[edit]
Film[edit]
In the 1958 loose adaptation for the CBS television anthology series Playhouse 90 Kurtz was played by Boris Karloff. This version uses the encounter between Marlow and Kurtz as its final act, and adds a backstory in which Marlow had been Kurtz's adopted son.
Francis Ford Coppola's acclaimed[5][6] Vietnam War film Apocalypse Now (1979) centers on the protagonist's mission to find and kill the renegade Colonel Kurtz (played by Marlon Brando), based on Conrad's character, who has gone rogue far up a river, deep in the Southeast Asian jungle. The script acknowledges Heart of Darkness as a source of information, and the last words of Colonel Kurtz, "The horror! The horror!", echo those of his namesake in the novel.
In the mostly poorly received[7][8] 1994 TNT version of the story directed by Nicolas Roeg, Kurtz, who has gone insane and is now doing the most horrible and blasphemous deeds, was portrayed by John Malkovich.
Games[edit]
The video game Fallout: New Vegas (2010) features a character in many ways similar to Kurtz; a man who refers to himself as Caesar. Caesar was originally a diplomat who went out into the post-apocalyptic world in an attempt to both increase the knowledge of the now tribal inhabitants and learn from their cultures to facilitate understanding in the wasteland. Caesar eventually went mad with power after becoming the de facto leader of one such tribe and led them in dismantling other tribes who then assimilated into his group. Now, he is the ruler of Caesar's Legion, a large army of tribals modeled after the Roman Empire. Like Kurtz, Caesar is an educated, charismatic figure who is worshipped as a god by his underlings; in Caesar's case, his followers believe him to be the reincarnation of Mars, the Roman god of war.
The video game Spec Ops: The Line (2012), another modernized loose adaptation of Heart of Darkness (set in a ruined Dubai), has a similar Kurtz figure named Colonel John Konrad.
Literature[edit]
Timothy Findley's novel Headhunter (1993) features Kurtz's escape from Heart of Darkness and subsequent reign of terror over the city of Toronto as the psychiatrist-in-chief at the Parkin Institute.
The poem "The Hollow Men" by T.S. Eliot starts off with the line "Mistah Kurtz - He Dead."
In Josef Škvorecký's novel The Engineer of Human Souls Kurtz is seen as the epitome of exterminatory colonialism.
James Reich's novel Mistah Kurtz! (Anti-Oedipus Press 2016) is a prelude to Heart of Darkness that presents meticulous and controversial solutions to the origins, mystery and messianic deterioration of Kurtz.
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Quod.lib.umich.edu
Jump up ^ Bloom 2009, p. 16
Jump up ^ Hochschild, Adam: King Leopold's Ghost. New York, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1998, pp. 98; 145,
Jump up ^ Conrad, Joseph (September 1997). Heart of Darkness. Introduction by Joyce Carol Oates. Penguin Putnam. pp. 4–5. ISBN 0-451-52657-0.
Jump up ^ "Apocalypse Now (1979)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 2017-10-13.
Jump up ^ "Apocalypse Now (1979) Awards". IMDb. Retrieved 2017-10-13.
Jump up ^ "Heart of Darkness (1994)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 2017-10-13.
Jump up ^ "Reviews & Ratings for Heart of Darkness (TV)". IMDb. Retrieved 2017-10-13.
External links[edit]
Kurtz in Heart of Darkness
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International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs
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Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse
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