text:
Social learning theory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Social learning theory is a theory of learning and social behavior which proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others.[1] It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement.[2] In addition to the observation of behavior, learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement. When a particular behavior is rewarded regularly, it will most likely persist; conversely, if a particular behavior is constantly punished, it will most likely desist.[3] The theory expands on traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior is governed solely by reinforcements, by placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes in the learning individual.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History and theoretical background
2 Theory
2.1 Observation and direct experience
2.2 Modeling and underlying cognitive processes
2.3 Evolution and cultural intelligence
3 Social learning in neuroscience
4 Applications
4.1 Criminology
4.2 Developmental psychology
4.3 Management
4.4 Media violence
4.5 Creating social change with media
4.5.1 Applications for Social Change
4.6 Psychotherapy
4.7 School psychology
4.8 Social learning algorithm for computer optimization
5 References
6 External links
History and theoretical background[edit]
In the 1940s, B.F. Skinner delivered a series of lectures in Sunyani Fiapre, Ghana on verbal behavior, putting forth a more empirical approach to the subject than existed in psychology at the time.[4] In them, he proposed the use of stimulus-response theories to describe language use and development, and that all verbal behavior was underpinned by operant conditioning. He did however mention that some forms of speech derived from words and sounds that had previously been heard (echoic response), and that reinforcement from parents allowed these 'echoic responses' to be pared down to that of understandable speech. While he denied that there was any "instinct or faculty of imitation",[4] Skinner's behaviorist theories formed a basis for redevelopment into social learning theory.
At around the same time, Clark Lewis Hull, an American psychologist, was a strong proponent of behaviorist stimulus-response theories,[5] and headed a group at Yale University's Institute of Human Relations. Under him, Neil Miller and John Dollard aimed to come up with a reinterpretation of psychoanalytic theory in terms of stimulus-response. This led to their book, Social Learning Theory, published in 1941, which posited that personality consisted of learned habits. They used Hull's drive theory, where a drive is a need that stimulates a behavioral response, crucially conceiving a drive of imitation, which was positively reinforced by social interaction and widespread as a result.[6]
Julian B. Rotter, a professor at Ohio State University published his book, Social Learning and Clinical Psychology in 1954.[7] His theories moved away from the strictly behaviorist learning of the past, and considered instead the holistic interaction between the individual and the environment. In his theory, the social environment and individual personality created probabilities of behavior, and the reinforcement of these behaviors led to learning.He emphasized the subjective nature of the responses and effectiveness of reinforcement types.[7] While his theory used vocabulary common to that of behaviorism, the focus on internal functioning and traits differentiated his theories, and can be seen as a precursor to more cognitive approaches to learning.[6]
In 1959, Noam Chomsky published his criticism[8] of Skinner's book Verbal Behavior, an extension of Skinner's initial lectures.[9] In his review, Chomsky stated that pure stimulus-response theories of behavior could not account for the process of language acquisition, an argument that contributed significantly to psychology's cognitive revolution. He theorized that "human beings are somehow specially designed to" understand and acquire language, ascribing a definite but unknown cognitive mechanism to it.[8]
Within this context, Albert Bandura studied learning processes that occurred in interpersonal contexts and were not adequately explained by theories of operant conditioning or existing models of social learning.[2] Specifically, Bandura argued that "the weaknesses of learning approaches that discount the influence of social variables are nowhere more clearly revealed than in their treatment of the acquisition of novel responses."[2] Skinner's explanation of the acquisition of new responses relied on the process of successive approximation, which required multiple trials, reinforcement for components of behavior, and gradual change.[10] Rotter's theory proposed that the likelihood of a behavior occurring was a function of the subjective expectancy and value of the reinforcement.[11] This model assumed a hierarchy of existing responses and thus did not (according to Bandura[2]) account for a response that had not yet been learned. Bandura began to conduct studies of the rapid acquisition of novel behaviors via social observation, the most famous of which were the Bobo doll experiments.
Theory[edit]
Social learning theory integrated behavioral and cognitive theories of learning in order to provide a comprehensive model that could account for the wide range of learning experiences that occur in the real world. As initially outlined by Bandura and Walters in 1963[2] and further detailed in 1977,[12] key tenets of social learning theory are as follows:[13]
Learning is not purely behavioral; rather, it is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context.
Learning can occur by observing a behavior and by observing the consequences of the behavior (vicarious reinforcement).
Learning involves observation, extraction of information from those observations, and making decisions about the performance of the behavior (observational learning or modeling). Thus, learning can occur without an observable change in behavior.
Reinforcement plays a role in learning but is not entirely responsible for learning.
The learner is not a passive recipient of information. Cognition, environment, and behavior all mutually influence each other (reciprocal determinism).
Observation and direct experience[edit]
Typical stimulus-response theories rely entirely upon direct experience (of the stimulus) to inform behavior. Bandura opens up the scope of learning mechanisms by introducing observation as a possibility.[1] He adds to this the ability of modeling – a means by which humans "represent actual outcomes symbolically".[1] These models, cognitively mediated, allow future consequences to have as much of an impact as actual consequences would in a typical S-R theory. An important factor in social learning theory is the concept of reciprocal determinism. This notion states that just as an individual's behavior is influenced by the environment, the environment is also influenced by the individual's behavior.[12] In other words, a person's behavior, environment, and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each other. For example, a child who plays violent video games will likely influence their peers to play as well, which then encourages the child to play more often. This could lead to the child becoming desensitized to violence, which in turn will likely affect the child's real life behaviors.[citation needed]
Modeling and underlying cognitive processes[edit]
Social learning theory draws heavily on the concept of modeling as described above. Bandura outlined three types of modeling stimuli:
Live models, where a person is demonstrating the desired behavior
Verbal instruction, in which an individual describes the desired behavior in detail and instructs the participant in how to engage in the behavior
Symbolic, in which modeling occurs by means of the media, including movies, television, Internet, literature, and radio. Stimuli can be either real or fictional characters.
Exactly what information is gleaned from observation is influenced by the type of model, as well as a series of cognitive and behavioral processes, including:[14]
Attention – in order to learn, observers must attend to the modeled behavior. Experimental studies[15] have found that awareness of what is being learned and the mechanisms of reinforcement greatly boosts learning outcomes. Attention is impacted by characteristics of the observer (e.g., perceptual abilities, cognitive abilities, arousal, past performance) and characteristics of the behavior or event (e.g., relevance, novelty, affective valence, and functional value). In this way, social factors contribute to attention – the prestige of different models affects the relevance and functional value of observation and therefore modulates attention.
Retention – In order to reproduce an observed behavior, observers must be able to remember features of the behavior. Again, this process is influenced by observer characteristics (cognitive capabilities, cognitive rehearsal) and event characteristics (complexity). The cognitive processes underlying retention are described by Bandura as visual and verbal, where verbal descriptions of models are used in more complex scenarios.
Reproduction – By reproduction, Bandura refers not to the propagation of the model but the implementation of it. This requires a degree of cognitive skill, and may in some cases require sensorimotor capabilities.[6] Reproduction can be difficult because in the case of behaviors that are reinforced through self-observation (he cites improvement in sports), it can be difficult to observe behavior well. This can require the input of others to provide self-correcting feedback. Newer studies on feedback[16] support this idea by suggesting effective feedback, which would help with observation and correction improves the performance on participants on tasks.
Motivation – The decision to reproduce (or refrain from reproducing) an observed behavior is dependent on the motivations and expectations of the observer, including anticipated consequences and internal standards. Bandura's description of motivation is also fundamentally based on environmental and thus social factors, since motivational factors are driven by the functional value of different behaviors in a given environment.
Evolution and cultural intelligence[edit]
Social learning theory has more recently applied alongside and been used to justify the theory of cultural intelligence.[17] The cultural intelligence hypothesis argues that humans possess a set of specific behaviors and skills that allow them to exchange information culturally.[18] This hinges on a model of human learning where social learning is key, and that humans have selected for traits that maximize opportunities for social learning. The theory builds on extant social theory by suggesting that social learning abilities, like Bandura's cognitive processes required for modeling, correlate with other forms of intelligence and learning.[17] Experimental evidence has shown that humans overimitate behavior compared to chimpanzees, lending credence to the idea that we have selected for methods of social learning.[19] Some academics have suggested that our ability to learn socially and culturally have led to our success as a species.[20]
Social learning in neuroscience[edit]
Recent research in neuroscience has implicated mirror neurons as a neurophysiology basis for social learning, observational learning, motor cognition and social cognition.[21] Mirror neurons have been heavily linked to social learning in humans. Mirror neurons were first discovered in primates in studies which involved teaching the monkey motor activity tasks. One such study, focused on teaching primates to crack nuts with a hammer. When the primate witnessed another individual cracking nuts with a hammer, the mirror neuron systems became activated as the primate learned to use the hammer to crack nuts. However, when the primate was not presented with a social learning opportunity, the mirror neuron systems did not activate and learning did not occur.[22] Similar studies with humans also show similar evidence to the human mirror neuron system activating when observing another person perform a physical task. The activation of the mirror neuron system is thought to be critical for the understanding of goal directed behaviors and understanding their intention. Although still controversial, this provides a direct neurological link to understanding social cognition.[23]
Applications[edit]
Criminology[edit]
Social learning theory has been used to explain the emergence and maintenance of deviant behavior, especially aggression. Criminologists Ronald Akers and Robert Burgess integrated the principles of social learning theory and operant conditioning with Edwin Sutherland's Differential Association Theory to create a comprehensive theory of criminal behavior.[24][25] Burgess and Akers emphasized that criminal behavior is learned in both social and nonsocial situations through combinations of direct reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement, explicit instruction, and observation. Both the probability of being exposed to certain behaviors and the nature of the reinforcement are dependent on group norms.
Developmental psychology[edit]
In her book Theories of Developmental Psychology, Patricia H. Miller lists both moral development and gender-role development as important areas of research within social learning theory.[26] Social learning theorists emphasize observable behavior regarding the acquisition of these two skills. For gender-role development, the same-sex parent provides only one of many models from which the individual learns gender-roles. Social learning theory also emphasizes the variable nature of moral development due to the changing social circumstances of each decision: "The particular factors the child thinks are important vary from situation to situation, depending on variables such as which situational factors are operating, which causes are most salient, and what the child processes cognitively. Moral judgments involve a complex process of considering and weighing various criteria in a given social situation."[26]
For social learning theory, gender development has to do with the interactions of numerous social factors, involving all the interactions the individual encounters. For social learning theory, biological factors are important but take a back seat to the importance of learned, observable behavior. Because of the highly gendered society in which an individual might develop, individuals begin to distinguish people by gender even as infants. Bandura's account of gender allows for more than cognitive factors in predicting gendered behavior: for Bandura, motivational factors and a broad network of social influences determine if, when, and where gender knowledge is expressed.[26]
Management[edit]
Social Learning theory proposes that rewards aren't the sole force behind creating motivation. Thoughts, beliefs, morals, and feedback all help to motivate us. Three other ways in which we learn are vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Modeling, or the scenario in which we see someone's behaviors and adopt them as our own, aide the learning process as well as mental states and the cognitive process.(citation? more description)
Media violence[edit]
Main article: Media violence research
Principles of social learning theory have been applied extensively to the study of media violence. Akers and Burgess hypothesized that observed or experienced positive rewards and lack of punishment for aggressive behaviors reinforces aggression. Many research studies have discovered significant correlations between viewing violent television and aggression later in life and many have not, as well as playing violent video games and aggressive behaviors.[27][28] The role of observational learning has also been cited as an important factor in the rise of rating systems for TV, movies, and video games.
Creating social change with media[edit]
Entertainment-education in the form of a telenovela or soap opera can help viewers learn socially desired behaviors in a positive way from models portrayed in these programs.[29] The telenovela format allows the creators to incorporate elements that can bring a desired response.[30] These elements may include music, actors, melodrama, props or costumes.[30] Entertainment education is symbolic modeling and has a formula with three sets of characters with the cultural value that is to be examined is determined ahead of time:
Characters that support a value (positive role models)
Characters who reject the value (negative role models)
Characters who have doubts about the value (undecided)[30]
Within this formula there are at least three doubters that represent the demographic group within the target population.[30] One of these doubters will accept the value less than halfway through, the second will accept the value two-thirds of the way through and the third doubter does not accept the value and is seriously punished. This doubter is usually killed.[30] Positive social behaviors are reinforced with rewards and negative social behaviors are reinforced with punishment. At the end of the episode a short epilog done by a recognizable figure summarizes the educational content and within the program viewers are given resources in their community.[29]
Applications for Social Change[edit]
Through observational learning a model can bring forth new ways of thinking and behaving.[31] With a modeled emotional experience, the observer shows an affinity towards people, places and objects.[29] They dislike what the models do not like and like what the models care about.[31] Television helps contribute to how viewers see their social reality.[29] "Media representations gain influence because people's social constructions of reality depend heavily on what they see, hear and read rather than what they experience directly".[29] Any effort to change beliefs must be directed towards the sociocultural norms and practices at the social system level.[29] Before a drama is developed, extensive research is done through focus groups that represent the different sectors within a culture. Participants are asked what problems in society concern them most and what obstacles they face, giving creators of the drama culturally relevant information to incorporate into the show.[29]
The pioneer of entertainment-education is Miguel Sabido a creative writer/producer/director in the 1970s at the Mexican national television system, Televisa. Sabido spent 8 years working on a method that would create social change and is known as the Sabido Method.[30] He credits Albert Bandura's social learning theory, the drama theory of Eric Bentley, Carl Jung's theory of archetypes, MacLean's triune brain theory and Sabido's own soap opera theory for influences his method.[32] Sabido's method has been used worldwide to address social issues such as national literacy, population growth and health concerns such as HIV.[29]
Psychotherapy[edit]
Another important application of social learning theory has been in the treatment and conceptualization of anxiety disorders. The classical conditioning approach to anxiety disorders, which spurred the development of behavioral therapy and is considered by some to be the first modern theory of anxiety,[33] began to lose steam in the late 1970s as researchers began to question its underlying assumptions. For example, the classical conditioning approach holds that pathological fear and anxiety are developed through direct learning; however, many people with anxiety disorders cannot recall a traumatic conditioning event, in which the feared stimulus was experienced in close temporal and spatial contiguity with an intrinsically aversive stimulus.[34][35] Social learning theory helped salvage learning approaches to anxiety disorders by providing additional mechanisms beyond classical conditioning that could account for the acquisition of fear. For example, social learning theory suggests that a child could acquire a fear of snakes by observing a family member express fear in response to snakes. Alternatively, the child could learn the associations between snakes and unpleasant bites through direct experience, without developing excessive fear, but could later learn from others that snakes can have deadly venom, leading to a re-evaluation of the dangerousness of snake bites, and accordingly, a more exaggerated fear response to snakes.[36]
School psychology[edit]
Many classroom and teaching strategies draw on principles of social learning to enhance students' knowledge acquisition and retention. For example, using the technique of guided participation, a teacher says a phrase and asks the class to repeat the phrase. Thus, students both imitate and reproduce the teacher's action, aiding retention. An extension of guided participation is reciprocal learning, in which both student and teacher share responsibility in leading discussions.[37] Additionally, teachers can shape the classroom behavior of students by modelling appropriate behavior and visibly rewarding students for good behavior. By emphasizing the teacher's role as model and encouraging the students to adopt the position of observer, the teacher can make knowledge and practices explicit to students, enhancing their learning outcomes.[38]
Social learning algorithm for computer optimization[edit]
In modern field of computational intelligence, the social learning theory is adopted to develop a new computer optimization algorithm, the social learning algorithm.[39] Emulating the observational learning and reinforcement behaviors, a virtual society deployed in the algorithm seeks the strongest behavioral patterns with the best outcome. This corresponds to searching for the best solution in solving optimization problems. Compared with other bio-inspired global optimization algorithms that mimic natural evolution or animal behaviors, the social learning algorithm has its prominent advantages. First, since the self-improvement through learning is more direct and rapid than the evolution process, the social learning algorithm can improve the efficiency of the algorithms mimicking natural evolution. Second, compared with the interaction and learning behaviors in animal groups, the social learning process of human beings exhibits a higher level of intelligence. By emulating human learning behaviors, it is possible to arrive at more effective optimizers than existing swarm intelligence algorithms. Experimental results have demonstrated the effectiveness and efficiency of the social learning algorithm, which has in turn also verified through computer simulations the outcomes of the social learning behavior in human society.[39]
There also several mathematical models of social learning which try to model this phenomenon using probabilistic tools.
References[edit]
Library resources about
Social learning theory
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
^ Jump up to: a b c d Albert Bandura (1971). "Social Learning Theory" (PDF). General Learning Corporation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 October 2013. Retrieved 25 December 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Bandura, Albert (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Jump up ^ Renzetti, Claire; Curran, Daniel; Maier, Shana (2012). Women, Men, and Society. Pearson. pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-0205863693.
^ Jump up to: a b Skinner, B. F. (1947). "Verbal Behavior" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Hull, C. L. "Simple trial and error learning: A study in psychological theory". Psychological Review. 37 (3): 241–256. doi:10.1037/h0073614.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Learning". socrates.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2017-03-30.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Social Learning Theory of Julian B. Rotter". psych.fullerton.edu. Retrieved 2017-03-30.
^ Jump up to: a b Chomsky, Noam (1959). "A review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior". Language. 35 (1): 26–58. doi:10.2307/411334.
Jump up ^ Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Jump up ^ Skinner, B. F. (1963). Science and human behavior. New York: Appleton.
Jump up ^ Rotter, Julian (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
^ Jump up to: a b Bandura, Albert (1977). Social Learning Theory. Oxford, England: Prentice-Hall.
Jump up ^ Grusec, Joan (1992). "Social learning theory and developmental psychology: The legacies of Robert Sears and Albert Bandura". Developmental Psychology. 28 (5): 776–786. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.776.
Jump up ^ Bandura, A. (1972). "Modeling theory: Some traditions, trends, and disputes". In Parke, R.D. Recent trends in social learning theory. New York: Academic Press, Inc.
Jump up ^ Postman, Leo; Sassenrath, Julius (1961-07-01). "The Automatic Action of Verbal Rewards and Punishments". The Journal of General Psychology. 65 (1): 109–136. doi:10.1080/00221309.1961.9920464. ISSN 0022-1309. PMID 13737423.
Jump up ^ Wang, Shu-Ling; Wu, Pei-Yi (2008-12-01). "The role of feedback and self-efficacy on web-based learning: The social cognitive perspective". Computers & Education. 51 (4): 1589–1598. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.03.004.
^ Jump up to: a b Schaik, Carel P. van; Burkart, Judith M. (2011-04-12). "Social learning and evolution: the cultural intelligence hypothesis". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 366 (1567): 1008–1016. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0304. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 3049085  . PMID 21357223.
Jump up ^ Herrmann, Esther; Call, Josep; Hernàndez-Lloreda, María Victoria; Hare, Brian; Tomasello, Michael (2007-09-07). "Humans Have Evolved Specialized Skills of Social Cognition: The Cultural Intelligence Hypothesis". Science. 317 (5843): 1360–1366. doi:10.1126/science.1146282. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17823346.
Jump up ^ Whiten, Andrew; McGuigan, Nicola; Marshall-Pescini, Sarah; Hopper, Lydia M. (2009-08-27). "Emulation, imitation, over-imitation and the scope of culture for child and chimpanzee". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 364 (1528): 2417–2428. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0069. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 2865074  . PMID 19620112.
Jump up ^ "THE SECRET OF OUR SUCCESS". secretofoursuccess.fas.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2017-03-31.
Jump up ^ Uddin, L. Q.; Iacoboni, M.; Lange, C.; Keenan, J. P. (2007). "The self and social cognition: the role of cortical mid line structures and mirror neurons". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 11 (4): 153–157. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.01.001. PMID 17300981.
Jump up ^ Rear (2014). "Monkey brains wired to share". Nature. 506 (7489): 416–417. doi:10.1038/506416a. PMID 24572401.
Jump up ^ Fuhrmann, D.; Ravignani, A.; Marshall-Pescini, S.; Whiten, A. (2014). "Synchrony and motor mimicking in chimpanzee observational learning". Scientific Reports. 4: 5283. doi:10.1038/srep05283. PMID 24923651.
Jump up ^ Pfohl, S. J. Images of deviance and social control: A sociological history, New York: McGraw-Hill 1994, pp. 1-16,301-303
Jump up ^ Burgess, R., & Akers, R. A Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory of Criminal Behavior. Social Problems, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Autumn, 1966), pp. 128-147
^ Jump up to: a b c Miller, Patricia H. (2011). Theories of developmental psychology. New York: Worth Publishers.
Jump up ^ Anderson, C.A.; Bushman, B.J. (2001). "Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and pro-social behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature". Psychological Science. 12 (5): 353–359. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00366. PMID 11554666.
Jump up ^ Paik, H.; Comstock, G. (1994). "The effects of television violence on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis". Communication Research. 21 (4): 516–546. doi:10.1177/009365094021004004.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Bandura, A. (2004). Social cognitive theory for personal and social change by enabling media. Retrieved from http://web.stanford.edu/dept/psychology/bandura/pajares/Bandura2004Media.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Singhal, A., Rogers2, E. M., & Brown3, W. J. (1993). Harnessing the potential of entertainment-education telenovelas [Journal article]. Gazene, 51, 1-18. Retrieved from http://utminers.utep.edu/asinghal/technical%20reports/harnessing%20ee.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b Bandura, A. (2002, March). Growing primacy of human agency in adaptation and change in the electronic era [Journal article]. European Psychologist, 7(1), 2-16. Retrieved from http://utminers.utep.edu/asinghal/technical%20reports/harnessing%20ee.pdf
Jump up ^ Singhal, A., & Obregon, R. (1999). Social uses of commercial soap operas: A conversation with Miguel Sabido [Journal article]. Journal of Development Communication, 10(1), 68-77. Retrieved from http://www.media-diversity.org/en/additional-files/documents/D%20Miscellaneous/Social%20Uses%20of%20Commercial%20Soap%20Operas;%20Miguel%20Sabido%20[EN].pdf
Jump up ^ Rachman, S (1991). "Neo-conditioning and the classical theory of fear acquisition". Clinical Psychology Review. 11: 155–173. doi:10.1016/0272-7358(91)90093-a.
Jump up ^ Mathews, A., Gelder, M. & Johnston, D. (1981). Agoraphobia: Xature L3 Treatment. New York: Guilford Press.
Jump up ^ Ost, L.G.; Hugdahl, K. (1981). "Acquisition of phobias and anxiety response patterns in clinical patients". Behavior Research and Therapy. 19: 439–447. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(81)90134-0.
Jump up ^ Mineka, S.; Zinbarg, R. (2006). "A contemporary learning theory perspective on the etiology of anxiety disorders: It's not what you thought it was". American Psychologist. 61: 10–26. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.1.10. PMID 16435973.
Jump up ^ Kumpulainen, K., Wray, D. (2002). Classroom Interaction and Social Learning: From Theory to Practice. New York, NY: RoutledgeFalmer.
Jump up ^ There are some limitations to the social learning theory that make it more complicated than it is made out to be. Some of the limitations are that a changes in the environment does not automatically mean that a person changes too. The theory also seems to ignore biological and hormonal dispositions of people. You can read more about this by clicking on this link. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-03-21. Retrieved 2014-03-21.
^ Jump up to: a b Gong, Yue-Jiao (2014-10-11). "From the social learning theory to a social learning algorithm for global optimization" (PDF). Systems, Man and Cybernetics (SMC).
External links[edit]
Media related to Social learning theory at Wikimedia Commons
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_learning_theory&oldid=842425213"
Categories:
Social learning theory
Hidden categories:
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from May 2018
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Български
Català
Ελληνικά
Español
Français
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
ქართული
Polski
Русский
සිංහල
4 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 22 May 2018, at 10:49.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: b

value: sup

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Cognitive_process
mw-redirect
Cognitive process

values:
/wiki/Social_context
mw-redirect
Social context

values: Edit section: History and theoretical background

values:
/wiki/B.F._Skinner
mw-redirect
B.F. Skinner

values: Edit section: Observation and direct experience

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2018)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: Modeling and underlying cognitive processes

values: Edit section: Evolution and cultural intelligence

values: Edit section: Social learning in neuroscience

values:
/wiki/Differential_Association_Theory
mw-redirect
Differential Association Theory

values:
/wiki/Media_violence_research
mw-redirect
Media violence research

values: Edit section: Creating social change with media

values: Edit section: Applications for Social Change

values: Edit section: Social learning algorithm for computer optimization

values:
plainlist
padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;text-align:left;

values: float:right;clear:right;width:auto;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0073614

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F411334

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-1309

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13737423

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2010.0304

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0962-8436

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21357223

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1146282

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17823346

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2009.0069

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19620112

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tics.2007.01.001

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17300981

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2F506416a

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24572401

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep05283

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24923651

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11554666

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16435973

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2018

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Social_learning_theory
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values: نظرية التعلم الاجتماعي – Arabic

values: Теория за социално научаване – Bulgarian

values: Teoria de l'aprenentatge social – Catalan

values: Κοινωνική μάθηση – Greek

values: Théorie de l'apprentissage social – French

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values: Teoria dell'apprendimento sociale – Italian

values: תאוריית הלמידה החברתית – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: სოციალური დასწავლის თეორია – Georgian

values: Теория социального научения Альберта Бандуры – Russian

values: සමාජ ඉගෙනුම් වාදය – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Social_learning_theory rootpage-Social_learning_theory skin-vector action-view


text:
President of the Confederate States of America
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
President of the
Confederate States of America
Seal of the Confederate States
Jefferson Davis
Style
His Excellency
Residence
Executive Mansion,
Montgomery, Alabama
(1861)
Executive Mansion,
Richmond, Virginia
(1861–1865)
Seat
Alabama State Capitol,
Montgomery, Alabama
(1861)
President's Office,
Custom House,
Richmond, Virginia
(1861–1865)
Sutherlin House,
Danville, Virginia
(1865)
Appointer
Congress
(provisional)
Electoral College
(permanent)
Term length
One year
(provisional)
Six years
(permanent)
Formation
February 18, 1861
(provisional)
February 22, 1862
(permanent)
First holder
Jefferson Davis
Final holder
Jefferson Davis
Abolished
May 10, 1865
Deputy
Vice-President of the
Confederate States
Salary
CS$25,000 per annum
The President of the Confederate States of America was the elected head of state and government of the Confederate States. The president also headed the executive branch of government and was commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy, and of the militia of the several states when called into Confederate service.[1]
Article II of the Confederate States Constitution vested the executive power of the Confederacy in the president. The power included the execution of law, alongside the responsibility of appointing executive, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the senate. He was further empowered to grant reprieves and pardons, and convene and adjourn either or both houses of congress under extraordinary circumstances.[1]
The president was indirectly elected by the people through the Electoral College to a six-year term, and was one of only two nationally elected Confederate officers, the other being the Vice President of the Confederate States. On February 18, 1861, Jefferson Davis became president of the provisional government. On February 22, 1862, he became president of the permanent government and served in that capacity until being captured by elements of the United States Cavalry in 1865.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Powers and duties
2 Election and oath
3 Compensation
4 Post-presidency
5 List of presidents
5.1 Notes
6 Fictional Presidents of the Confederate States of America
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Powers and duties[edit]
The constitutional powers of the President of the Confederate States of America were similar to those of the President of the United States of America. The permanent Confederate States Constitution made him commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy, and of the militia of the confederated states when called into service of the Confederate States. He was also empowered to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the Confederate States. He was authorized to make treaties; to nominate and appoint diplomatic representatives, judges, and other officers of the Confederate States (including the heads of the executive departments) by and with the consent of the Confederate States Senate; and to remove such representatives and officers. He could fill vacancies during a recess of the Senate, but he could not reappoint, during a recess, persons previously rejected by it. He was to supply Congress with information, recommend legislation, receive ambassadors and other public ministers, see that the federal laws were faithfully executed, and commission all officers of the military and naval forces of the Confederate States.[2]
Election and oath[edit]
Confederate election ballot, Virginia, November 6, 1861
1861 Inauguration of Jefferson Davis at the Capitol, Montgomery, Alabama
On February 9, 1861, the provisional congress at Montgomery unanimously elected Jefferson Davis president and Alexander H. Stephens vice president. Stephens, who was a delegate to Congress from Georgia, was inaugurated on February 11. Davis was inaugurated on February 18 upon his arrival from Mississippi, where he had gone upon his resignation from the U.S. Senate. Davis and Stephens were elected on Wednesday November 6, 1861, for six-years terms, as provided by the permanent constitution. The Capital had been moved in June 1861, to Richmond, and the inauguration took place at the statue of Washington, on the public square, on February 22, 1862.[2]
Before Davis entered on the execution of his office as President of the Confederate States, he was constitutionally required to take the following oath or affirmation:
"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the Confederate States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution thereof."[1]
Compensation[edit]
In 1861, the President of the Confederate States earned a CS$25,000 annual salary, along with an expense account, and a nontaxable travel account.[3] The President's Office was located on the second floor of the Custom House on Main Street, a structure which also housed the Cabinet Room and the State and Treasury Department. The City of Richmond purchased the Brockenbrough house for presentation to the Confederate government for use as an executive mansion. Davis declined to accept the gift, but the mansion was leased for his use. Referred to as the "White House of the Confederacy" or the "Grey House," the mansion was used by President Davis throughout the existence of his presidency. Later it became a repository for documents, relics, and pictures, and in 1896 it was redesignated the Confederate Museum.[2]
Post-presidency[edit]
Late on the evening of April 2, 1865, President Davis, his aides, and members of the Cabinet, except Secretary of War Breckinridge, departed from Richmond on the Richmond and Danville Railroad. The Cabinet stayed at Danville, 140 miles (225 km) southwest of Richmond, until April 10, when, hearing of Lee's surrender, it continued farther south. At Greensboro, North Carolina, on April 12 the Cabinet met with Generals Johnston and Beauregard and discussed surrender of Johnston's army to General Sherman. As the railroad south of Greensboro had been destroyed, the flight from that location was on horseback and in ambulances, wagons, and carriages. The last Cabinet meetings took place at Charlotte, on April 24, and 26, and on May 4; when Davis left Washington, Georgia, the party consisted only of his aides and Postmaster General Reagan. Elements of the United States Cavalry captured Davis and his companions at an encampment near Irwinville, May 10, 1865.[2]
Jefferson Davis was imprisoned at Fort Monroe, Virginia, until his release on bail on May 13, 1867. During his confinement, the United States Government prepared to bring him to trial for treason and for complicity in the assassination of United States President Abraham Lincoln. He could not be tried in Virginia until the Federal court was reestablished there, but by the time the circuit judges were prepared in May 1867, the United States Government decided the outcome of a trial before a local jury was far too uncertain and dropped the proceedings. In November 1868, Davis was brought to trial under a new indictment, but the judges disagreed and the case was referred to the Supreme Court. President Johnson issued a general amnesty in December 1868 and the Supreme Court entered a nolle prosequi, thus freeing Davis.[2]
List of presidents[edit]
№
Portrait
President
State
Term of office
Party
Term
Previous office
Vice President
1
Jefferson Davis
(1808-06-03)June 3, 1808 – (1889-12-06)December 6, 1889
(Aged 81) Mississippi February 18, 1861
[n 1]
–
May 10, 1865 Non-partisan 1
(1861) U.S. Senator (Class 1) from Mississippi
(1857–1861) Alexander H. Stephens
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Jefferson Davis initially took an oath of office as President of the Confederate States of America on February 18, 1861, in Montgomery, Alabama, under conditions set forth in the Constitution of the Provisional Government. After being directly elected to the presidency, he took another oath of office (this time for a six-year term) on February 22, 1862, in Richmond, Virginia, as prescribed in the "permanent" Constitution of the Confederate States.
Fictional Presidents of the Confederate States of America[edit]
Jake Featherston, a fictional character in the Southern Victory novel series by Harry Turtledove. The fictional timeline's equivalent of Adolf Hitler, he is motivated by his desire to fight a second war against the United States as revenge for the Confederacy's humiliating defeat in the First Great War and to eliminate the Confederacy's black population and its ruling aristoracy, believing that the former had 'stabbed the South in the back' and that the latter had incompetently led the Confederacy via the War Department and the Whig Party during the First Great War.
President Lee, Jefferson Davis' successor as President in the Southern Victory Series and an Independent. Robert E. Lee is often depicted as Confederate President in American Civil War alternate histories, but in the case of the Southern Victory Series, it is never specified whether it is him, Fitzhugh Lee or some other relation.
Wade Hampton V, a fictional character in the Southern Victory novels by Harry Turtledove. The fictional descendent of Wade Hampton III, Hampton is elected President in 1921 over Jake Featherston (Freedom Party) and Ainsworth Layne (Radical Liberal), but is assassinated by Freedom Party stalwart Grady Calkins in Birmingham, Alabama in June 1922. In this alternate timeline, Hampton is the first President in either US or CS history to be assassinated.
Burton Mitchel, a fictional character in the Southern Victory novels by Harry Turtledove. Possibly the fictional descendent of Charles B. Mitchel, Mitchel becomes President in 1922 after the assassination of Wade Hampton V and successfully runs for election in 1927 after the Confederate Supreme Court rules that he was eligible despite serving out more than five years of his predecessor's term. After the start of the Great Depression in 1929, Mitchel is blamed for the Confederacy's economic woes, with shanty towns across the country being dubbed 'Mitcheltowns' (the equivalent of US 'Blackfordburghs' and the Hoovervilles of our timeline). Mitchel would be the last Whig President of the Confederacy after his defeat to Jake Featherston at the 1933 presidential election.
Donald Partridge, a fictional character in the Southern Victory novels by Harry Turtledove. A caricature of Dan Quayle, he became Vice President after an unsuccessful coup led by his predecessor Willy Knight (being considered Knight's polar opposite, a useless, harmless idiot who spent most of his time telling Featherston dumb farm-girl jokes and spending time in the company of various women). He eventually became President after Jake Featherson was assassinated by Cassius Madison, overseeing the Confederacy's surrender to and annexation by the United States after the Second Great War (1941-1944).
Gabriel Semmes, a fictional character in the Southern Victory novels by Harry Turtledove. The possible descendent of Raphael Semmes, Semmes succeeds Woodrow Wilson as President in 1916, having defeated Radical Liberal opponent Doroteo Arango at the 1915 presidential election. Semmes oversees the Confederate effort in the First Great War from 1916 until its eventual defeat by the United States in 1917.
See also[edit]
Jefferson Davis Presidential Library and Museum
Vice President of the Confederate States of America
Congress of the Confederate States
Postage stamps and postal history of the Confederate States
Treatment of slaves in the United States
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c C.S. Congress (provisional) (May 1861) [1st pub. March 1861]. "Article II". C.S. Constitution. Constitutional Convention. Syme & Hall, Printers to the Convention.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Beers, Henry Putney (2004) [1st pub. United States Government Publishing Office:1968]. "Chapter IV: The Presidency". The Confederacy: A Guide to the Archives of the Government of the Confederate States of America. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration. pp. 62–71. ISBN 0-911333-18-5 – via National Archives Trust Fund Board.
Jump up ^ Vanfelson, C. A. (1861). The Little Red Book or Department Directory: For the Use of the Public in the Confederate States of America. Richmond: Tyler, Wise and Allegre, Printers. p. 4. OCLC 52558640 – via Enquirer Job Office.
Further reading[edit]
Henry, Robert Selph (1931). "Chapter VII: Government, Provisional and "Permanent"". The Story of the Confederacy (1st ed.). Garden City, New York: Garden City Publishing Company. pp. 88–99. OCLC 1300151 – via The Bobbs-Merrill Co.
McPherson, James M. (2014). Embattled Rebel: Jefferson Davis as Commander in Chief. New York: The Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-59420-497-5. OCLC 870248703.
External links[edit]
The Papers of Jefferson Davis at Rice University
[hide]
v
t
e
Cabinet of President Jefferson Davis (1861–65)
Vice President
Alexander H. Stephens (1861–65)
Secretary of State
Robert Toombs (1861)
Robert M. T. Hunter (1861–62)
Judah P. Benjamin (1862–65)
Secretary of the Treasury
C. G. Memminger (1861–64)
G. A. Trenholm (1864–65)
John H. Reagan (1865)
Secretary of War
Leroy P. Walker (1861)
Judah P. Benjamin (1861–62)
George W. Randolph (1862)
James A. Seddon (1862–65)
John C. Breckinridge (1865)
Secretary of the Navy
Stephen R. Mallory (1861–65)
Postmaster General
John H. Reagan (1861–65)
Attorney General
Judah P. Benjamin (1861)
Thomas Bragg (1861–62)
Thomas H. Watts (1862–63)
George Davis (1864–65)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=President_of_the_Confederate_States_of_America&oldid=816743857"
Categories:
1861 establishments in Alabama
1865 disestablishments in Virginia
Commanders in chief
Government of the Confederate States
Heads of government of unrecognized or largely unrecognized states
Jefferson Davis
Presidents by former country
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Brezhoneg
Català
Deutsch
Ελληνικά
Español
Français
Italiano
ქართული
Nederlands
日本語
Polski
Русский
Suomi
Українська
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 23 December 2017, at 10:26.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: th

attrs: colspan style

value: tr

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Seal of the Confederate States of America.svg

attrs: href class

attrs: href title

values: Great Seal of the Confederate States of America

value: td

values: text-align:center;padding-bottom:0.4em; border-bottom:solid 1px #ccd2d9;

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: padding-bottom:0.4em; border-bottom:solid 1px #ccd2d9; line-height:1.4em;

values: Lewis F. Powell Jr. United States Courthouse

values: Danville Public Library (Danville, Virginia)

values:
/wiki/Confederate_States_Congress
mw-redirect
Confederate States Congress

values: Provisional Confederate States Constitution

values: Vice President of the Confederate States

values: Resignation from the United States Senate

values: Confederate States presidential election, 1861

values: Confederate States Department of the Treasury

values:
/wiki/Fort_Monroe,_Virginia
mw-redirect
Fort Monroe, Virginia

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values: Edit section: Fictional Presidents of the Confederate States of America

values:
/wiki/Southern_Victory_Series
mw-redirect
Southern Victory Series

values:
/wiki/Shanty_towns
mw-redirect
Shanty towns

values: Treatment of slaves in the United States

values: United States Government Publishing Office

values: National Archives and Records Administration

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/52558640

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1300151

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/870248703

values:
nofollow
https://jeffersondavis.rice.edu/
external text

values:
/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_Confederate_States
mw-redirect
Cabinet of the Confederate States

values: Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States

values:
navbox-image
7
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: Confederate States Secretary of the Treasury

values: Confederate States Secretary of the Navy

values: George Davis (Confederate States politician)

values: nowraplinks collapsible expanded navbox-inner

values: Category:1865 disestablishments in Virginia

values: Category:Government of the Confederate States

values: Category:Heads of government of unrecognized or largely unrecognized states

values:
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
catlinks mw-normal-catlinks
interface

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: Prezidant Stadoù Kengevreet Amerika – Breton

values: President dels Estats Confederats d'Amèrica – Catalan

values: Präsident der Konföderierten Staaten – German

values: Πρόεδρος των Συνομόσπονδων Πολιτειών της Αμερικής – Greek

values: Presidente de los Estados Confederados – Spanish

values: Président des États confédérés d'Amérique – French

values: Presidente degli Stati Confederati d'America – Italian

values: ამერიკის კონფედერაციული შტატების პრეზიდენტი – Georgian

values: President van de Geconfedereerde Staten van Amerika – Dutch

values: アメリカ連合国大統領 – Japanese

values: Prezydent Skonfederowanych Stanów Ameryki – Polish

values: Президент Конфедеративных Штатов Америки – Russian

values: Amerikan valtioliiton presidentti – Finnish

values: Президент Конфедеративних Штатів Америки – Ukrainian

values: 美利堅聯盟國總統 – Chinese

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-President_of_the_Confederate_States_of_America rootpage-President_of_the_Confederate_States_of_America skin-vector action-view