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Taken at the Flood
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"There is a Tide" redirects here. "There is a Tide" is also the name of a short story by Larry Niven, set in the Known Space universe.
Taken at the Flood
Dust-jacket illustration of the US (true first) edition with alternative title. See Publication history (below) for the UK first edition jacket image with original title.
Author
Agatha Christie
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre
Crime novel
Publisher
Dodd, Mead and Company
Publication date
March 1948
Media type
Print (hardback & paperback)
Pages
242 pp (first edition, hardcover)
Preceded by
The Labours of Hercules
Followed by
The Witness for the Prosecution and Other Stories
Taken at the Flood is a work of detective fiction by British writer Agatha Christie, first published in the US by Dodd, Mead and Company in March 1948 under the title of There is a Tide . . .[1] and in the UK by the Collins Crime Club in the November of the same year under Christie's original title.[2] The US edition retailed at $2.50[1] and the UK edition at eight shillings and sixpence (8/6).[2] It features her famous Belgian detective, Hercule Poirot, and is set in 1946.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot summary
2 Characters
3 Explanation of the novel's title
4 Literary significance and reception
5 References to other works
6 Adaptations
6.1 Television
6.2 Radio
7 Publication history
8 References
9 External links
Plot summary[edit]
In a flashback from late Spring to early Spring, Lynn Marchmont, newly demobilised from the Women's Royal Naval Service, finds difficulty settling into the village life of Warmsley Vale. She is engaged to Rowley, one of several members of the Cloade family living nearby. Each of them grew dependent on money from Gordon Cloade, a childless widower who was expected to die and leave his fortune to them. But instead he marries an Irishwoman, Rosaleen Turner, invalidating his previous will, before being killed in an explosion at his home, which his new wife survives. As a result, Rosaleen inherits Gordon's fortune and the entire family now faces financial crisis, augmented by the poor state of the economy in the aftermath of World War II. Rosaleen's fortune is zealously guarded by her brother, David Hunter, and although various family members manage to wheedle small sums out of Rosaleen, David refuses to help Frances Cloade, whose husband Jeremy is on the brink of ruin.
A man calling himself Enoch Arden arrives in the village, and attempts to blackmail David by saying he knows how to find Rosaleen's first husband, Robert. Their conversation in Arden's hotel room is overheard by the landlady, who immediately tells Rowley Cloade. Later, Arden's body is discovered in his room with his head smashed in. Rowley Cloade appeals to a detective, Hercule Poirot, to prove the dead man was Robert Underhay, and Poirot produces Major Porter, who knew Underhay in Africa. At the inquest, despite Rosaleen's protests that the dead man was not Robert, Porter confirms that Arden was indeed her first husband. The estate will revert to the Cloades.
Rosaleen has a strong alibi for the time of the murder since she was in the London flat that evening. David has only a weak alibi: down from London for the day, he met Lynn on his dash to catch the last train to London leaving at 9:20 pm, and evidently telephoned her from the London flat shortly after 11 pm. Since the murder is believed to have taken place shortly before 9 pm, he had enough opportunity and motive to be arrested.
David's alibi improves when it is discovered that a heavily made-up woman in an orange headscarf left Arden's room after 10 p.m. The investigation shifts back to the female Cloades, but Poirot discovers that the immediate cause of Arden's death may have been smashing his head against a heavy marble fireplace fender. The appearance of a murder may have been created after some form of accidental death.
Lynn, though engaged to Rowley, seems to love David. Rowley may be attracted to Rosaleen, who seems to be consumed with guilt and fear. Major Porter apparently commits suicide but leaves no note. It comes to light that Arden was actually Charles Trenton, second cousin to Frances Cloade. She came up with the plan to blackmail Rosaleen after hearing Major Porter's anecdote from Jeremy. Although this explains Arden's identity, it does not clarify who killed him or who bribed Porter to falsely identify the corpse.
Rosaleen dies in her sleep from an overdose. Superintendent Spence, the investigating officer, suggests that perhaps she was the murderer; the police have so focused on David's alibi that they subjected hers to little scrutiny.
Lynn tells Rowley that she wishes to marry David Hunter. Rowley is strangling Lynn when Poirot stops him. David arrives and Poirot explains everything. Rowley visited Arden, and seeing the physical resemblance to Frances, reacted angrily to the deception that was being played. Pushed by Rowley, Arden fell against the marble fireplace fender and died. Rowley saw the opportunity to incriminate David. He smashed in Arden's head with fire tongs and left David's lighter at the scene. It was Rowley who persuaded Porter to give the false identification, carefully employing Poirot, who would be sure to go to Porter on the basis of that first scene at the club, which Rowley also knew of from Jeremy. Porter's guilt got the better of him and he committed suicide, leaving a note that Rowley destroyed.
Discovering Arden's body, David ran for the 9:20 train but missed it; Lynn actually saw the smoke from the departing train on the evening, but he convinced her that it was earlier than it was and that he had time to meet her. He then backtracked to The Stag, disguised himself as a woman, and played out the scene that established the later time of death. Then he returned to the station and called Rosaleen, who placed a call to Lynn that was delivered by the operator but then cut off. Afterward, David spoke to Lynn from the station, giving the impression that a single call from London was interrupted. He returned to London on the milk train the next day.
Of the three deaths, one is accidental, one a genuine suicide. The only true murder was Rosaleen's. David had no apparent motive to kill his own sister, especially when it would mean depriving himself of the Cloade fortune. But the woman posing as Rosaleen was not his sister; his sister was killed during the bombing of Gordon Cloade's estate two years earlier. The woman posing as Rosaleen was one of Gordon's housemaids, who became David's lover and his accomplice in obtaining the Cloade fortune. Now he could kill this accomplice and marry Lynn, whom he really loved and who would gain a portion of the fortune through family connections. In the end, no one is tried other than David. Rowley is implicated in the deaths of Trenton ("Enoch Arden") and Porter, and he is guilty of misleading the police and assaulting Lynn. However, Poirot keeps silence about Rowley's crimes, allowing Rowley to marry Lynn, who has loved him without realising it.
Characters[edit]
Hercule Poirot, Belgian detective
Superintendent Spence, investigating officer
Sergeant Graves, Spence's assistant
George, Poirot's valet
Rosaleen Cloade, formerly Mrs. Robert Underhay, a wealthy young widow
David Hunter, Rosaleen's brother
Jeremy Cloade, a solicitor
Frances Cloade, Jeremy's wife
Lionel Cloade, a doctor
Katherine Cloade, Lionel's wife
Rowley Cloade, a farmer
Lynn Marchmont, a demobbed Wren, fiancée to Rowley
Adela Marchmont, Lynn's mother
Beatrice Lippincott, pub landlady of The Stag
Major Porter, the club bore
"Enoch Arden", a blackmailer
Mrs. Leadbetter, a resident of The Stag
Explanation of the novel's title[edit]
The title of the book in both the UK and US markets is a line from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar in a speech by Brutus in Act IV: "There is a tide in the affairs of men, which taken at the flood leads on to fortune . . .". The quotation is given in full as the epigraph to the novel.
Literary significance and reception[edit]
No review of this book appeared in the Times Literary Supplement.
For once, Maurice Richardson, in his review of the 21 November 1948 issue of The Observer was slightly unimpressed: "Agatha Christie has, if not a whole day off, at least part of the afternoon. The killing of the blackmailing Enoch Arden, who puts up at the local to harry the already embarrassed Cloade family, the murder that follows, and Poirot's doubly twisted solution are ingenious enough, but the characterisation is a little below par. The quintessential zest, the sense of well-being which goes to make up that Christie feeling, is missing."[3]
An unnamed reviewer in the Toronto Daily Star of 10 April 1948 said, "Hercule Poirot, whose eggshaped cranium is crammed with lively gray cells, proves himself a bit of a mug before he sorts out all the details of [Enoch Arden's] death and other even more baffling mysteries. But he does it with all the acumen that has endeared him to Agatha Christie fans. Fantastic and topping."[4]
Robert Barnard: "Elderly man married to a glamorous nitwit of dubious social background is a common plot-element in Christie. Here she is widowed (in an air-raid – this is one of the few Christies anchored to an actual time), and burdened by financially insatiable relatives, both of blood and in-law. But who exactly is dead, and who isn't? And who is what they seem, and who isn't? Compulsive reworking of Tennysonian and Christiean themes, and pretty high up in the range of classic titles. "[5]
References to other works[edit]
The false alibi used by the murderer of a witness sighting the missed train smoke was a partial re-use of a plot device used by Christie in the 1925 short story The Sign in the Sky, later published in the 1930 collection The Mysterious Mr. Quin.
Adaptations[edit]
Television[edit]
A television film was produced in 2006 with David Suchet as Poirot in the ITV series Agatha Christie's Poirot. The cast included Elliot Cowan as David Hunter, Eva Birthistle as Rosaleen, Celia Imrie as Kathy Cloade, Jenny Agutter as Adela Marchmont and Tim Pigott-Smith as Dr. Lionel Woodward.The film made several significant changes to the plot:
Like almost all episodes of the TV series, the adaptation shifts the setting to the late 1930s.
David's motive is modified in the adaption, upgrading him from a simple murderer, to that of a mass murderer. In the adaptation, the deaths of Gordon Cloade, Rosaleen Turner, and the entire Cloade estate that is present with them, are assumed to be the result of an apparent gas explosion, but Poirot later investigates this, and reveals in his denouement that the explosion was caused by dynamite that David had planted in the house, who sought revenge against his sister for marrying Gordon and excluding her brother as her "first love". Whereas in the novel, there is no mentioning of incest. He and his accomplice, Eileen Corrigan, who were present in the house at the time, took shelter in the basement once the explosives had been planted, and then emerged from the ruins afterwards.
Eileen's involvement is significantly changed - She is an Irish Catholic in the adaptation, who was raped and impregnated by David, and then forced into an induced abortion. This breaks her and forces her to submit to David's will under the promise of heaven if she obeys his commands, or eternal damnation in "the fires of hell" if she refuses. Unlike the novel, she is saved from dying of a morphine overdose, thanks to Dr. Woodward's addiction to the drug leading him to steal some, with Poirot proving that David had set it up so that she would be an addict herself out of guilt, and try to kill herself as a result of her own guilty actions.
Kathy repeatedly harasses Eileen's with anonymous phone calls, in which she calls her "whore", "slut", "bitch" and "bigamist", an event that does not occur in the novel. In addition, she becomes Adela's sister: Lionel is no longer a member of the Cloade family, despite a mistake in the adaptation's credits that refer him to be so; he is instead renamed as Lionel Woodward, and introduced as such by Kathy when she visits Poirot at the beginning of the adaptation.
After David is denounced for his crimes in the Stag Inn, he threatens to blow it all up with everyone inside it, but reveals this to be nothing more than a cruel joke as there is no dynamite inside, after being talked into sparing everyone by Lynn; the event which does not occur in the novel.
Lynn does not marry Rowley towards the end. Instead, after David is hanged, she leaves England to head for Africa, stating in a letter to Poirot that despite everything, she is still in love with him.
Radio[edit]
John Moffatt played Poirot in the 2004 BBC Radio 4 adaptation of the novel.
Publication history[edit]
Dustjacket illustration of the UK First Edition (Book was first published in the US)
1948, Dodd Mead and Company (New York), March 1948, Hardcover, 242 pp
1948, Collins Crime Club (London), November 1948, Hardcover, 192 pp
1949, Pocket Books (New York), Paperback
1955, Dell Books, Paperback, 224 pp
1961, Fontana Books (Imprint of HarperCollins), Paperback, 192 pp
1965, Pan Books, Paperback, 204 pp
1971, Ulverscroft Large-print Edition, Hardcover, 386 pp ISBN 0-85456-084-X
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b American Tribute to Agatha Christie
^ Jump up to: a b Chris Peers, Ralph Spurrier and Jamie Sturgeon. Collins Crime Club – A checklist of First Editions. Dragonby Press (Second Edition) March 1999 (Page 15)
Jump up ^ The Observer 21 November 1948 (Page 3)
Jump up ^ Toronto Daily Star 10 April 1948 (Page 27)
Jump up ^ Barnard, Robert. A Talent to Deceive – an appreciation of Agatha Christie – Revised edition (Page 206). Fontana Books, 1990. ISBN 0-00-637474-3
External links[edit]
Taken at the Flood at the official Agatha Christie website
Taken at the Flood (2006) on IMDb
show
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Agatha Christie's Hercule Poirot
Characters
Hercule Poirot
Arthur Hastings
James Harold Japp
Ariadne Oliver
Colonel Race
Books
Novels
The Mysterious Affair at Styles (1920)
The Murder on the Links (1923)
The Murder of Roger Ackroyd (1926)
The Big Four (1927)
The Mystery of the Blue Train (1928)
Peril at End House (1932)
Lord Edgware Dies (1933)
Murder on the Orient Express (1934)
Three Act Tragedy (1934)
Death in the Clouds (1935)
The A.B.C. Murders (1936)
Murder in Mesopotamia (1936)
Cards on the Table (1936)
Dumb Witness (1937)
Death on the Nile (1937)
Appointment with Death (1938)
Hercule Poirot's Christmas (1938)
Sad Cypress (1940)
One, Two, Buckle My Shoe (1940)
Evil Under the Sun (1941)
Five Little Pigs (1942)
The Hollow (1946)
Taken at the Flood (1948)
Mrs McGinty's Dead (1952)
After the Funeral (1953)
Hickory Dickory Dock (1955)
Dead Man's Folly (1956)
Cat Among the Pigeons (1959)
The Clocks (1963)
Third Girl (1966)
Hallowe'en Party (1969)
Elephants Can Remember (1972)
Curtain (1975)
The Monogram Murders (2014)
Closed Casket (2016)
Short story
collections
Poirot Investigates (1924)
Murder in the Mews (1937)
The Regatta Mystery (1939)
The Labours of Hercules (1947)
The Witness for the Prosecution and Other Stories (1948)
Three Blind Mice and Other Stories (1950)
The Under Dog and Other Stories (1951)
The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding (1960)
Double Sin and Other Stories (1961)
Poirot's Early Cases (1974)
Problem at Pollensa Bay and Other Stories (1991)
The Harlequin Tea Set (1997)
While the Light Lasts and Other Stories (1997)
Film adaptations
Alibi (1931)
Black Coffee (1931)
Lord Edgware Dies (1934)
The Alphabet Murders (1965)
Murder on the Orient Express (1974)
Death on the Nile (1978)
Evil Under the Sun (1982)
Appointment with Death (1988)
Murder on the Orient Express (2017)
Plays
Alibi (1928)
Black Coffee (1930)
Peril at End House (1932)
Wasp's Nest (1937)
The Yellow Iris (1937, radio)
Television
adaptations
Thirteen at Dinner (1985)
Dead Man's Folly (1986)
Murder in Three Acts (1986)
Murder by the Book (1986)
Agatha Christie's Poirot (1989–2013)
episodes
Murder on the Orient Express (2001)
Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple (2004–2005)
Video games
Agatha Christie: Murder on the Orient Express (2006)
Agatha Christie: Death on the Nile (2007)
Agatha Christie: Evil Under the Sun (2007)
Agatha Christie: The ABC Murders (2009)
See also
Black Coffee
Orient Express (board game)
Miss Marple
Agatha Christie's fictional universe
Category
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Universe
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Tommy and Tuppence
Ariadne Oliver
Arthur Hastings
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Mr. Harley Quin
Colonel Race
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Sir Henry Clithering
Raymond West
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Countess Vera Rossakoff
Locations
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Novels
The Mysterious Affair at Styles
The Secret Adversary
The Murder on the Links
The Man in the Brown Suit
The Secret of Chimneys
The Murder of Roger Ackroyd
The Big Four
The Mystery of the Blue Train
The Seven Dials Mystery
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The Sittaford Mystery
Peril at End House
Lord Edgware Dies
Murder on the Orient Express
Why Didn't They Ask Evans?
Three Act Tragedy
Death in the Clouds
The A.B.C. Murders
Murder in Mesopotamia
Cards on the Table
Dumb Witness
Death on the Nile
Appointment with Death
Hercule Poirot's Christmas
Murder Is Easy
And Then There Were None
Sad Cypress
One, Two, Buckle My Shoe
Evil Under the Sun
N or M?
The Body in the Library
Five Little Pigs
The Moving Finger
Towards Zero
Death Comes as the End
Sparkling Cyanide
The Hollow
Taken at the Flood
Crooked House
A Murder Is Announced
They Came to Baghdad
Mrs McGinty's Dead
They Do It with Mirrors
After the Funeral
A Pocket Full of Rye
Destination Unknown
Hickory Dickory Dock
Dead Man's Folly
4.50 from Paddington
Ordeal by Innocence
Cat Among the Pigeons
The Pale Horse
The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side
The Clocks
A Caribbean Mystery
At Bertram's Hotel
Third Girl
Endless Night
By the Pricking of My Thumbs
Hallowe'en Party
Passenger to Frankfurt
Nemesis
Elephants Can Remember
Postern of Fate
Curtain
Sleeping Murder
As Mary
Westmacott
Giant's Bread
Unfinished Portrait
Absent in the Spring
The Rose and the Yew Tree
A Daughter's a Daughter
The Burden
Short story
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Partners in Crime
The Mysterious Mr Quin
The Thirteen Problems
The Hound of Death
The Listerdale Mystery
Parker Pyne Investigates
Murder in the Mews
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The Labours of Hercules
The Witness for the Prosecution and Other Stories
Three Blind Mice and Other Stories
The Under Dog and Other Stories
The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding
Double Sin and Other Stories
The Golden Ball and Other Stories
Poirot's Early Cases
Miss Marple's Final Cases and Two Other Stories
Problem at Pollensa Bay and Other Stories
The Harlequin Tea Set
While the Light Lasts and Other Stories
Plays
Black Coffee
And Then There Were None
Appointment with Death
Murder on the Nile
The Hollow
The Mousetrap
Witness for the Prosecution
Spider's Web
Verdict
The Unexpected Guest
Fiddlers Three
Akhnaton
Chimneys
Radio and
television plays
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The Yellow Iris
Three Blind Mice
Butter in a Lordly Dish
Personal Call
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The Road of Dreams
Come, Tell Me How You Live
Star Over Bethlehem
Poems
An Autobiography
Book
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The Eleventh Hour (children's book)
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Eleventh Day of the Amazing Year
Author
Graeme Base
Illustrator
Graeme Base
Cover artist
Graeme Base
Country
Australia
Language
English
Media type
Print (hardcover)
Children's literature portal
The Eleventh Hour: A Curious Mystery (1988) is an illustrated children's book by Graeme Base. In it, Horace the Elephant holds a party for his eleventh birthday, to which he invites his ten best friends (various animals) to play eleven games and share in a feast that he has prepared. However, at the time they are to eat—11:00—they are startled to find that someone has already eaten all the food. They accuse each other until, finally, they're left puzzled as to who could have eaten it all. It is left up to the reader to solve the mystery, through careful analysis of the pictures on each page and the words in the story.
The book was a joint-winner of the "Picture Book of the Year" award from The Children's Book Council of Australia.[1]
History[edit]
Base was inspired to write the book by reading Agatha Christie novels. He travelled to Kenya and Tanzania in 1987 observing animals in game parks and collecting ideas for the book.[2]
Style[edit]
Written in rhyme, the book includes large and lavish full-page illustrations of Horace's opulent house and the events of the party, packed with hidden details. The author invites the reader to deduce the identity of the thief by examining the illustrations and making deductions and observations. Also among the details in the illustrations are hidden messages, ciphers, and codes for amateur cryptographers (for example, one page's border consists of Morse code while another page set in the ballroom contains musical clues as to which guest is guilty). The biggest and most noticeable clue lies in a paragraph of ciphertext at the end of the book, which is to be decrypted, once the reader has discovered the identity of the thief, by means of a Caesar cipher mapping A to the first letter of the guilty animal's name. The solution to the cipher confirms the answer to the puzzle and offers an additional challenge to the reader.
The final portion of the book contains the answers to almost all of the clues in the book (including the cipher), and how to solve them. These last pages are sealed together, as the reader is encouraged to try to solve the puzzles themselves first. This sealed section was absent from earlier prints of the book - but was available by mail.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Winners and Commended Books 1980 - 1989 - CBCA". Children's Book Council of Australia. Retrieved 2014-11-28.
Jump up ^ Graeme Base - Penguin Group (USA)
[show]
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Works by Graeme Base
Books
My Grandma Lived in Gooligulch (1983)
Animalia (1986)
Jabberwocky (1987, illustrated)
The Eleventh Hour (1989)
The Sign of the Seahorse (1992)
The Discovery of Dragons (1996)
The Worst Band in the Universe (1999)
The Water Hole (2001)
Truck Dogs (2003)
Jungle Drums (2004)
Uno's Garden (2006)
The Discovery of Dragons: New Research Revealed (2007)
Enigma (2008)
The Art of Graeme Base (2008, illustrated)
The Legend of the Golden Snail (2010)
The Jewel Fish of Karnak (2011)
Little Elephants (2012)
Adaptations
Animalia (2007-2008)
[show]
v
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Children's Book of the Year Award: Picture Book
1955-1959
Wish and the Magic Nut by Peggy Barnard (1956)
Piccaninny Walkabout by Axel Poignant (1958)
1960-1969
Hugh's Zoo by Elizabeth MacIntyre (1965)
Sly Old Wardrobe by Ivan Southall (1969)
1970-1979
Waltzing Matilda by A. B. Paterson (1971)
The Bunyip of Berkeley's Creek by Jenny Wagner (1974)
The Man from Ironbark by A. B. Paterson (1975)
The Rainbow Serpent by Dick Roughsey (1976)
John Brown, Rose and the Midnight Cat by Jenny Wagner (1978)
The Quinkins by Percy Trezise (1979)
1980-1989
One Dragon's Dream by Peter Pavey (1980)
Rummage by Christobel Mattingley (1982)
Who Sank the Boat? by Pamela Allen (1983)
Bertie and the Bear by Pamela Allen (1984)
Felix & Alexander by Terry Denton (1986)
Kojuro and the Bears by Helen Smith (1987)
Crusher is Coming! by Bob Graham (1988)
The Eleventh Hour by Graeme Base (1989)
Drac and the Gremlin by Allan Baillie (1989)
1990-1999
The Very Best of Friends by Margaret Wild (1990)
Greetings from Sandy Beach by Bob Graham (1991)
Window by Jeannie Baker (1992)
Rose Meets Mr Wintergarten by Bob Graham (1993)
First Light by Gary Crew (1994)
The Watertower by Gary Crew (1995)
The Hunt by Narelle Oliver (1996)
Not a Nibble! by Elizabeth Honey (1997)
The Two Bullies by Junko Morimoto (1998)
The Rabbits by John Marsden (1999)
2000-2009
Jenny Angel by Margaret Wild (2000)
Fox by Margaret Wild (2001)
An Ordinary Day by Libby Gleeson (2002)
In Flanders Fields by Norman Jorgensen (2003)
Cat and Fish by Joan Grant (2004)
Are We There Yet?: A Journey Around Australia by Alison Lester (2005)
The Short and Incredibly Happy Life of Riley by Colin Thompson (2006)
The Arrival by Shaun Tan (2007)
Requiem for a Beast by Matt Ottley (2008)
Collecting Colour by Kylie Dunstan (2009)
2010-present
The Hero of Little Street by Gregory Rogers (2010)
Mirror by Jeannie Baker (2011)
Hamlet by Nicki Greenberg (2011)
A Bus Called Heaven by Bob Graham (2012)
Early Childhood (2001-present)
Younger Readers (1982-present)
Older Readers (1946-present)
Eve Pownall Award for Information Books (1988-present)
[show]
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1991-1999
Round the Twist by Paul Jennings (1991)
The Cabbage Patch Fib by Paul Jennings (1992)
Unreal! by Paul Jennings (1993)
The Eleventh Hour by Graeme Base (1994)
The Gizmo by Paul Jennings (1995)
Belly Flop by Morris Gleitzman (1996)
Belly Flop by Morris Gleitzman (1997)
Wicked by Paul Jennings (1998)
Bumface by Morris Gleitzman (1999)
2000-2009
Bob the Builder and the Elves by Emily Rodda (2000)
Deltora Quest 2 series by Emily Rodda (2003)
Deltora Quest 3 series by Emily Rodda (2004)
Selby's Stardom by Duncan Ball (2005)
Tashi and the Forbidden Room by Anna Fienberg (2006)
The Cat on the Mat is Flat by Andy Griffiths (2007)
Just Shocking! by Andy Griffiths (2008)
Go Girl! Two Sides: #1 Track Stars! by Kathy Castle (2009)
2010-present
The Big Fat Cow Goes Kapow by Andy Griffiths (2010)
The Very Bad Book by Andy Griffiths (2011)
Picture Book Award (1993-present)
Fiction for Older Readers Award (1991-present)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Eleventh_Hour_(children%27s_book)&oldid=791599030"
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1989 children's books
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text:
Chuck Versus the Gravitron
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
"Chuck Versus the Gravitron"
Chuck episode
Episode no.
Season 2
Episode 8
Directed by
Allison Liddi-Brown
Written by
Chris Fedak
Featured music
"Hot Mess" by Sam Sparro
"Knock Knock" by The Accidental
"Can You Tell" by Ra Ra Riot
Production code
3T7258
Original air date
November 24, 2008
Guest appearance(s)
Jordana Brewster as Jill Roberts
Bonita Friedericy as Diane Beckman
Patrick Kilpatrick as Leader
Episode chronology
← Previous
"Chuck Versus the Fat Lady" Next →
"Chuck Versus the Sensei"
List of Chuck episodes
"Chuck Versus the Gravitron" is the eighth episode of the second season of Chuck. It was broadcast on November 24, 2008. Chuck, Sarah and Casey are shocked to discover that Chuck's girlfriend Jill is a Fulcrum agent in search of the Intersect. In the wake of his disbelief, Chuck is asked to use his relationship with Jill to get to an agent called Leader.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Buy More/Family
3 References to popular culture
4 External links
Plot[edit]
In 2003 Chuck and Jill sit atop a Ferris wheel as Chuck tries to ask Jill out. Back in the present, Sarah and Casey worry about Chuck after finding out Jill is Fulcrum and that she has Chuck. Jill is in bed with Chuck at a hotel. When Jill leaves to take a shower Chuck flashes on her cell phone and realizes she's a Fulcrum agent.
Back at Chuck's apartment, Chuck kisses Jill goodbye, pretending absolutely nothing is wrong. Inside his sister's house, Chuck feels sorry for himself, while General Beckman gives tells them the flash in Jill's room referenced an agent called Leader. Chuck must stay close to Jill to find him.
Chuck and Jill go to a carnival where Jill tells Chuck she's Fulcrum and they run into Leader, who Jill betrays to protect Chuck. However, Leader escapes and Jill is captured.
At the castle Casey and Sarah interrogate Jill with a lie detector and she gives them the location of a Fulcrum hospital currently treating Leader. Casey and Sarah go after him while Chuck talks to Jill about Stanford and Bryce.
Sarah and Casey return to headquarters to find Chuck sitting at a desk, head in his hands. Jill emerges from behind the corner holding two guns. She makes them uncuff Leader and drop their weapons. Leader accesses the computer and begins searching for someone. Jill tells Chuck he is looking for Bryce Larkin, because they think he is the Intersect. Chuck is put in a glass cell opposite Sarah and Casey.
Chuck uses the Castle manual to lock Leader and Jill out of the computer system, jam the communications, and summon the CIA. However, Leader attaches a mine to Sarah and Casey's door, demanding Chuck open the door or they die. Chuck opens the door and is taken out of Castle, but he sends a message to Sarah and Casey that he also unlocked their door and is leading them to Buy More. After Leader falls over one of Big Mike's trip wires, Casey starts fighting him while Sarah looks for Jill. Leader defeats Casey but is knocked out by Big Mike, who came back from his fishing trip after Jeff tripped over a wire earlier.
Chuck leads Jill to one of the Nerd Herd vehicles, telling her to get away in it. But once she is inside, he puts the car in "detention mode," automatically handcuffing her to the wheel. He admits he was going to let her get away, but when she was about to kill Sarah, he changed his mind.
Outside Sarah tries to comfort Chuck before going inside, and when they do, Ellie, Jeff, Lester, Morgan and Awesome are waiting to celebrate Thanksgiving.
Buy More/Family[edit]
Ellie is furiously trying to clean the house in preparation for the arrival of Devon's parents. She also tells Morgan that he cannot come to dinner.
Big Mike tells Jeff, Lester and Morgan that he needs them to guard the store because it will be full of product in preparation for Black Friday. On Thanksgiving Day, Morgan hatches a plan: He will venture outside the store to find a real turkey for Thanksgiving. Jeff hot wires the front door (they have all been locked inside by Big Mike) allowing Morgan to slip out. Unfortunately, the plan inadvertently sets off the silent alarm. Big Mike, relaxing on a fishing trip, looks down at his phone to see security breach flashing in red.
At Ellie's place, Devon's parents are not coming to dinner after all. Ellie is so overjoyed that she does not get angry upon discovering Morgan digging through the trash for turkey scraps. In the end Ellie, Jeff, Lester, Morgan, Awesome, Sarah and Chuck celebrate Thanksgiving.
References to popular culture[edit]
The title refers to a carnival ride featured in the episode, the "Gravitron", which Chuck uses to escape Leader. "Uncle Tobias" is a character on the television series Arrested Development, which starred Tony Hale, who plays Buy More assistant manager Emmett Milbarge on Chuck.
External links[edit]
"Chuck Versus the Gravitron" on IMDb
"Chuck Versus the Gravitron" at TV.com
[hide]
v
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Chuck episodes
Season 1
"Chuck Versus the Intersect"
"Chuck Versus the Helicopter"
"Chuck Versus the Tango"
"Chuck Versus the Wookiee"
"Chuck Versus the Sizzling Shrimp"
"Chuck Versus the Sandworm"
"Chuck Versus the Alma Mater"
"Chuck Versus the Truth"
"Chuck Versus the Imported Hard Salami"
"Chuck Versus the Nemesis"
"Chuck Versus the Crown Vic"
"Chuck Versus the Undercover Lover"
"Chuck Versus the Marlin"
Season 2
"Chuck Versus the First Date"
"Chuck Versus the Seduction"
"Chuck Versus the Break-Up"
"Chuck Versus the Cougars"
"Chuck Versus Tom Sawyer"
"Chuck Versus the Ex"
"Chuck Versus the Fat Lady"
"Chuck Versus the Gravitron"
"Chuck Versus the Sensei"
"Chuck Versus the DeLorean"
"Chuck Versus Santa Claus"
"Chuck Versus the Third Dimension"
"Chuck Versus the Suburbs"
"Chuck Versus the Best Friend"
"Chuck Versus the Beefcake"
"Chuck Versus the Lethal Weapon"
"Chuck Versus the Predator"
"Chuck Versus the Broken Heart"
"Chuck Versus the Dream Job"
"Chuck Versus the First Kill"
"Chuck Versus the Colonel"
"Chuck Versus the Ring"
Season 3
"Chuck Versus the Pink Slip"
"Chuck Versus the Three Words"
"Chuck Versus the Angel de la Muerte"
"Chuck Versus Operation Awesome"
"Chuck Versus First Class"
"Chuck Versus the Nacho Sampler"
"Chuck Versus the Mask"
"Chuck Versus the Fake Name"
"Chuck Versus the Beard"
"Chuck Versus the Tic Tac"
"Chuck Versus the Final Exam"
"Chuck Versus the American Hero"
"Chuck Versus the Other Guy"
"Chuck Versus the Honeymooners"
"Chuck Versus the Role Models"
"Chuck Versus the Tooth"
"Chuck Versus the Living Dead"
"Chuck Versus the Subway"
"Chuck Versus the Ring: Part II"
Season 4
"Chuck Versus the Anniversary"
"Chuck Versus the Suitcase"
"Chuck Versus the Push Mix"
"Chuck Versus the Seduction Impossible"
"Chuck Versus the Cat Squad"
"Chuck Versus the Masquerade"
"Chuck Versus the First Bank of Evil"
"Chuck Versus the A-Team"
"Chuck Versus the Muuurder"
"Chuck Versus the Family Volkoff"
"Chuck Versus the Wedding Planner"
"Chuck Versus Agent X"
"Chuck Versus the Last Details"
"Chuck Versus the Cliffhanger"
Season 5
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chuck_Versus_the_Gravitron&oldid=776891196"
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text:
Gravitational constant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The gravitational constant G is a key quantity in Newton's law of universal gravitation.
The gravitational constant (also known as the "universal gravitational constant", the "Newtonian constant of gravitation", or the "Cavendish gravitational constant"[1]), denoted by the letter G, is an empirical physical constant involved in the calculation of gravitational effects in Sir Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation and in Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity.
In Newton's law, it is the proportionality constant connecting the gravitational force between two bodies with the product of their masses and the inverse square of their distance. In the Einstein field equations, it quantifies the relation between the geometry of spacetime and the energy–momentum tensor.
The measured value of the constant is known with some certainty to four significant digits. In SI units its value is approximately 6989667400000000000♠6.674×10−11 N·kg–2·m2.
The modern notation of Newton's law involving G was introduced in the 1890s by C. V. Boys. The first implicit measurement with an accuracy within about 1% is attributed to Henry Cavendish in a 1798 experiment.[2]
Contents
1 Definition
2 Value and dimensions
2.1 Natural units
2.2 Orbital mechanics
3 History of measurement
3.1 Early history
3.2 19th century
3.3 Modern value
4 Suggested time-variation
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Definition[edit]
According to Newton's law of universal gravitation, the attractive force (F) between two point-like bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses (m1 and m2), and inversely proportional to the square of the distance, r, (inverse-square law) between them:
F = G m 1 m 2 r 2 . {\displaystyle F=G{\frac {m_{1}m_{2}}{r^{2}}}\,.}
The constant of proportionality, G, is the gravitational constant. Colloquially, the gravitational constant is also called "Big G", for disambiguation with "small g" (g), which is the local gravitational field of Earth (equivalent to the free-fall acceleration).[3][4] The two quantities are related by g = GM⊕/r⊕2 (where M⊕ is the mass of the Earth and r⊕ is the radius of the Earth).
In the general theory of relativity, the Einstein field equations,[5][6]
R μ ν − 1 2 R g μ ν = 8 π G c 4 T μ ν , {\displaystyle R_{\mu \nu }-{\tfrac {1}{2}}R\,g_{\mu \nu }={\frac {8\pi G}{c^{4}}}T_{\mu \nu }\,,}
Newton's constant appears in the proportionality between the spacetime curvature and the energy density component of the stress–energy tensor. The scaled gravitational constant κ = 8π/c4G ≈ 6957207100000000000♠2.071×10−43 s2⋅m−1⋅kg−1 (depending on the choice of definition of the stress–energy tensor it can also be normalized as κ = 8π/c2G ≈ 6974186600000000000♠1.866×10−26 m⋅kg−1) is also known as Einstein's constant.[7]
Value and dimensions[edit]
The gravitational constant is a physical constant that is difficult to measure with high accuracy.[8] This is because the gravitational force is extremely weak as compared to other fundamental forces.[a]
In SI units, the 2014 CODATA-recommended value of the gravitational constant (with standard uncertainty in parentheses) is:[9][10]
G = 6.67408 ( 31 ) × 10 − 11 m 3 k g − 1 s − 2 {\displaystyle G=6.67408(31)\times 10^{-11}{\rm {\ m^{3}\ kg^{-1}\ s^{-2}}}}
This corresponds to a relative standard uncertainty of 6995460000000000000♠4.6×10−5 (46 ppm).
The dimensions assigned to the gravitational constant are force times length squared divided by mass squared; this is equivalent to length cubed, divided by mass and by time squared:
[ G ] = [ F ] [ L ] 2 [ M ] 2 = [ L ] 3 [ M ] [ T ] 2 {\displaystyle [G]={\frac {[F][L]^{2}}{[M]^{2}}}={\frac {[L]^{3}}{[M][T]^{2}}}}
In SI base units, this amounts to meters cubed per kilogram per second squared:
N m 2 k g − 2 = m 3 k g − 1 s − 2 {\displaystyle {\rm {\ N\ m^{2}\ kg^{-2}}}={\rm {\ m^{3}\ kg^{-1}\ s^{-2}}}} .
In cgs, G can be written as G ≈ 6992667400000000000♠6.674×10−8 cm3⋅g−1⋅s−2.
Natural units[edit]
Further information: Natural units and Gravitational coupling constant
The gravitational constant is taken as the basis of the Planck units: it is equal to the cube of the Planck length divided by the product of the Planck mass and the square of Planck time:
G = l P 3 m P t P 2 . {\displaystyle G={\frac {l_{\rm {P}}^{3}}{m_{\rm {P}}t_{\rm {P}}^{2}}}.}
In other words, in Planck units, G has the numerical value of 7000100000000000000♠1.
Thus, in Planck units, and other natural units taking G as their basis, the gravitational constant cannot be measured as it is set to its value by definition. Depending on the choice of units, variation in a physical constant in one system of units shows up as variation of another constant in another system of units; variation in dimensionless physical constants is preserved independently of the choice of units; in the case of the gravitational constant, such a dimensionless value is the gravitational coupling constant,
α G = G m e 2 ℏ c = ( m e m P ) 2 ≈ 1.7518 × 10 − 45 {\displaystyle \alpha _{\text{G}}={\frac {Gm_{\text{e}}^{2}}{\hbar c}}=\left({\frac {m_{\text{e}}}{m_{\text{P}}}}\right)^{2}\approx 1.7518\times 10^{-45}} ,
a measure for the gravitational attraction between a pair of electrons, proportional to the square of the electron rest mass.
Orbital mechanics[edit]
Further information: Standard gravitational parameter, orbital mechanics, celestial mechanics, Gaussian gravitational constant, Earth mass, and Solar mass
In astrophysics, it is convenient to measure distances in parsecs (pc), velocities in kilometers per second (km/s) and masses in solar units M⊙. In these units, the gravitational constant is:
G ≈ 4.302 × 10 − 3 p c M ⊙ − 1 ( k m / s ) 2 . {\displaystyle G\approx 4.302\times 10^{-3}{\rm {\ pc}}\ M_{\odot }^{-1}{\rm {\ (km/s)^{2}}}.\,}
For situations where tides are important, the relevant length scales are solar radii rather than parsecs. In these units, the gravitational constant is:
G ≈ 1.90809 × 10 5 R ⊙ M ⊙ − 1 ( k m / s ) 2 . {\displaystyle G\approx 1.90809\times 10^{5}{\rm {R_{\odot }}}\ M_{\odot }^{-1}{\rm {\ (km/s)^{2}}}.\,}
In orbital mechanics, the period P of an object in circular orbit around a spherical object obeys
G M = 3 π V P 2 {\displaystyle GM={\frac {3\pi V}{P^{2}}}}
where V is the volume inside the radius of the orbit. It follows that
P 2 = 3 π G V M ≈ 10.896 h r 2 g c m − 3 V M . {\displaystyle P^{2}={\frac {3\pi }{G}}{\frac {V}{M}}\approx 10.896\ {\rm {hr^{2}\ g\ cm^{-3}}}{\frac {V}{M}}.}
This way of expressing G shows the relationship between the average density of a planet and the period of a satellite orbiting just above its surface.
For elliptical orbits, applying Kepler's 3rd law, expressed in units characteristic of Earth's orbit:
G = 4 π 2 A U 3 y r − 2 M − 1 ≈ 39.478 A U 3 y r − 2 M ⊙ − 1 {\displaystyle G=4\pi ^{2}{\rm {\ AU^{3}}}{\rm {\ yr^{-2}}}\ M^{-1}\approx 39.478{\rm {\ AU^{3}}}{\rm {\ yr^{-2}}}\ M_{\odot }^{-1}\,} ,
where distance is measured in terms of the semi-major axis of Earth's orbit (the astronomical unit, AU), time in years, and mass in the total mass of the orbiting system (M = M☉+M⊕+M☾[11]).
The above equation is exact only within the approximation of the Earth's orbit around the Sun as a two-body problem in Newtonian mechanics, the measured quantities contain corrections from the perturbations from other bodies in the solar system and from general relativity. From 1964 until 2012, however, it was used as the definition of the astronomical unit and thus held by definition:
1 A U = ( G M 4 π 2 y r 2 ) 1 3 ≈ 1.495979 ⋅ 10 11 m . {\displaystyle 1\ {\rm {AU}}=\left({\frac {GM}{4\pi ^{2}}}{\rm {yr}}^{2}\right)^{\frac {1}{3}}\approx 1.495979\cdot 10^{11}{\rm {m}}.}
Since 2012, the AU is defined as 7011149597870700000♠1.495978707×1011 m exactly, and the equation can no longer be taken as holding precisely.
The quantity GM—the product of the gravitational constant and the mass of a given astronomical body such as the Sun or Earth—is known as the standard gravitational parameter and (also denoted μ). The standard gravitational parameter GM appears as above in Newton's law of universal gravitation, as well as in formulas for the deflection of light caused by gravitational lensing, in Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and in the formula for escape velocity.
This quantity gives a convenient simplification of various gravity-related formulas. For the Sun, GM☉ is known to ten digits' accuracy, 7020132712440018000♠1.32712440018(9)×1020 m3s−2;[12] for the Earth, GM⊕ is known to nine digits, 7014398600441800000♠3.986004418(8)×1014 m3s−2,[13] i.e. much more accurately than each factor independently.
Calculations in celestial mechanics can also be carried out using the units of solar masses, mean solar days and astronomical units rather than standard SI units. For this purpose, the Gaussian gravitational constant was historically in widespread use, k = 6998172020989500000♠0.01720209895, expressing the mean angular velocity of the Sun-Earth system measured in radians per day. The use of this constant, and the implied definition of the astronomical unit discussed above, has been deprecated by the IAU in 2012.
History of measurement[edit]
Further information: Earth mass, Schiehallion experiment, and Cavendish experiment
Early history[edit]
Between 1640 and 1650, Grimaldi and Riccioli had discovered that the distance covered by objects in free fall was proportional to the square of the time taken, which led them to attempt a calculation of the gravitational constant by recording the oscillations of a pendulum.[14]
The constant appears as G in Newton's law of universal gravitation, but is not calculated in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica where it postulates the inverse-square law of gravitation. In the Principia, Newton considered the possibility of measuring gravity's strength by measuring the deflection of a pendulum in the vicinity of a large hill, but thought that the effect would be too small to be measurable.[15] Nevertheless, he estimated the order of magnitude of the constant when he surmised that "the mean density of the earth might be five or six times as great as the density of water", which is equivalent to a gravitational constant of the order:[16]
G ≈ 6989700000000000000♠(7±1)×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s−2
A measurement was attempted in 1738 by Pierre Bouguer and Charles Marie de La Condamine, in their "Peruvian expedition". Bouguer downplayed the significance of their results in 1740, suggesting that the experiment had at least proved that the Earth could not be a hollow shell, as some thinkers of the day, including Edmond Halley, had suggested.[17]
The Schiehallion experiment, proposed in 1772 and completed in 1776, was the first successful measurement of the mean density of the Earth, and thus indirectly of the gravitational constant. The result reported by Charles Hutton (1778) suggested a density of 7000450000000000000♠4.5 g/cm3 (41⁄2 times the density of water), about 20% below the modern value.[18] This immediately led to estimates on the densities and masses of the Sun, Moon and planets, sent by Hutton to Jérôme Lalande for inclusion in his planetary tables. As discussed above, establishing the average density of Earth is equivalent to measuring the gravitational constant, given Earth's mean radius and the mean gravitational acceleration at Earth's surface, by setting
G = g R ⊕ 2 M ⊕ = 3 g 4 π R ⊕ ρ ⊕ . {\displaystyle G=g{\frac {R_{\oplus }^{2}}{M_{\oplus }}}={\frac {3g}{4\pi R_{\oplus }\rho _{\oplus }}}.} [19]
Based on this, Hutton's 1778 result is equivalent to G ≈ 6989800000000000000♠8×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s−2.
Diagram of torsion balance used in the Cavendish experiment performed by Henry Cavendish in 1798, to measure G, with the help of a pulley, large balls hung from a frame were rotated into position next to the small balls.
The first direct measurement of gravitational attraction between two bodies in the laboratory was performed in 1798, seventy-one years after Newton's death, by Henry Cavendish.[20] He determined a value for G implicitly, using a torsion balance invented by the geologist Rev. John Michell (1753). He used a horizontal torsion beam with lead balls whose inertia (in relation to the torsion constant) he could tell by timing the beam's oscillation. Their faint attraction to other balls placed alongside the beam was detectable by the deflection it caused. In spite of the experimental design being due to Michell, the experiment is now known as the Cavendish experiment for its first successful execution by Cavendish.
Cavendish's stated aim was the "weighing of Earth", that is, determining the average density of Earth and the Earth's mass. His result, ρ⊕= 7000544800000000000♠5.448(33) g·cm−3, corresponds to value of G = 6989674000000000000♠6.74(4)×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s−2. It is surprisingly accurate, perhaps by chance, about 1% above the modern value (and thus still outside the cited standard uncertainty of 0.6%).[21]
19th century[edit]
The accuracy of the measured value of G has increased only modestly since the original Cavendish experiment.[22] G is quite difficult to measure because gravity is much weaker than other fundamental forces, and an experimental apparatus cannot be separated from the gravitational influence of other bodies. Furthermore, gravity has no established relation to other fundamental forces, so it does not appear possible to calculate it indirectly from other constants that can be measured more accurately, as is done in some other areas of physics.
Measurements with pendulums were made by Francesco Carlini (1821, 7000438999999999999♠4.39 g/cm3), Edward Sabine (1827, 7000476999999999999♠4.77 g/cm3) Carlo Ignazio Giulio (1841, 7000495000000000000♠4.95 g/cm3) and George Biddell Airy (1854, 7000660000000000000♠6.6 g/cm3).[23]
Cavendish's experiment was first repeated by Ferdinand Reich (1838, 1842, 1853), who found a value of 7000558320000000000♠5.5832(149) g·cm−3,[24] which is actually worse than Cavendish's result, differing from the modern value by 1.5%. Cornu and Baille (1873), found 7000555999999999999♠5.56 g·cm−3.[25]
Cavendish's experiment proved to result in more reliable measurements than pendulum experiments of the "Schiehallion" (deflection) type or "Peruvian" (period as a function of altitude) type. Pendulum experiments still continued to be performed, by Robert von Sterneck (1883, results between 5.0 and 7000630000000000000♠6.3 g/cm3) and Thomas Corwin Mendenhall (1880, 7000577000000000000♠5.77 g/cm3).[26]
Cavendish's result was first improved upon by John Henry Poynting (1891), who published a value of 7000549000000000000♠5.49(3) g·cm−3, differing from the modern value by 0.2%, but compatible with the modern value within the cited standard uncertainty of 0.55%. In addition to Poynting, measurements were made by C. V. Boys (1895)[27] and Carl Braun (1897),[28] with compatible results suggesting G = 6989666000000000000♠6.66(1)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2. The modern notation involving the constant G was introduced by Boys in 1894[19] and becomes standard by the end of the 1890s, with values usually cited in the cgs system. Richarz and Krigar-Menzel (1898) attempted a repetition of the Cavendish experiment using 100,000 kg of lead for the attracting mass. The precision of their result of 6989668300000000000♠6.683(11)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 was, however, of the same order of magnitude as the other results at the time.[29]
Arthur Stanley Mackenzie in The Laws of Gravitation (1899) reviews the work done in the 19th century.[30] Poynting is the author of the article "Gravitation" in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911). Here, he cites a value of G = 6989666000000000000♠6.66×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 with an uncertainty of 0.2%.
Modern value[edit]
Paul R. Heyl (1930) published the value of 6989667000000000000♠6.670(5)×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s−2 (relative uncertainty 0.1%),[31] improved to 6989667300000000000♠6.673(3)×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s−2 (relative uncertainty 0.045% = 450 ppm) in 1942.[32]
Published values of G derived from high-precision measurements since the 1950s have remained compatible with Heyl (1930), but within the relative uncertainty of about 0.1% (or 1,000 ppm) have varied rather broadly, and it is not entirely clear if the uncertainty has been reduced at all since the 1942 measurement. Some measurements published in the 1980s to 2000s were, in fact, mutually exclusive.[8][33] Establishing a standard value for G with a standard uncertainty better than 0.1% has therefore remained rather speculative.
By 1969, the value recommended by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) was cited with a standard uncertainty of 0.046% (460 ppm), lowered to 0.012% (120 ppm) by 1986. But the continued publication of conflicting measurements led NIST to radically increase the standard uncertainty in the 1998 recommended value, by a factor of 12, to a standard uncertainty of 0.15%, larger than the one given by Heyl (1930).
The value was again lowered in 2002 and 2006, but once again raised, by a more conservative 20%, in 2010, matching the standard uncertainty of 120 ppm published in 1986.[34] For the 2014 update, CODATA reduced the uncertainty to 46 ppm, less than half the 2010 value, and one order of magnitude below the 1969 recommendation.
The following table shows the NIST recommended values published since 1969:
Timeline of measurements and recommended values for G since 1900: values recommended based on a literature review are shown in red, individual torsion balance experiments in blue, other types of experiments in green.
year
G
(10−11·m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2)
standard
uncertainty
(ppm)
ref.
1969 6.6732(31) 460 [35]
1973 6.6720(49) 730 [36]
1986 6.67449(81) 120 [37]
1998 6.673(10) 1,500 [38]
2002 6.6742(10) 150 [39]
2006 6.67428(67) 100 [40]
2010 6.67384(80) 120 [41]
2014 6.67408(31) 46 [42]
In the January 2007 issue of Science, Fixler et al. described a new measurement of the gravitational constant by atom interferometry, reporting a value of G = 6989669300000000000♠6.693(34)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2.[43] An improved cold atom measurement by Rosi et al. was published in 2014 of G = 6989667191000000000♠6.67191(99)×10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2,[44] below the recommended 2014 CODATA value by 1,200 ppm, with non-overlapping standard uncertainty intervals.
As of 2018, efforts to re-evaluate the conflicting results of measurements are underway, coordinated by NIST, notably a repetition of the experiments reported by Quinn et al. (2013) .[45] In August 2018 a Chinese research group announced new measurements based on torsion balances, 6989667418400000000♠6.674184(78)×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s−2 and 6989667448400000000♠6.674484(78)×10−11 m3⋅kg–1⋅s−2 based on two different methods.[46][47]
Suggested time-variation[edit]
Further information: Time-variation of fundamental constants
A controversial 2015 study of some previous measurements of G, by Anderson et al., suggested that most of the mutually exclusive values in high-precision measurements of G can be explained by a periodic variation.[48] The variation was measured as having a period of 5.9 years, similar to that observed in length-of-day (LOD) measurements, hinting at a common physical cause which is not necessarily a variation in G. A response was produced by some of the original authors of the G measurements used in Anderson et al.[49] This response notes that Anderson et al. not only omitted measurements, they also used the time of publication not the time the experiments were performed. A plot with estimated time of measurement from contacting original authors seriously degrades the length of day correlation. Also taking the data collected over a decade by Karagioz and Izmailov shows no correlation with length of day measurements.[49][50] As such the variations in G most likely arise from systematic measurement errors which have not properly been accounted for. Under the assumption that the physics of type Ia supernovae are universal, analysis of observations of 580 type Ia supernovae has shown that the gravitational constant has varied by less than one part in ten billion per year over the last nine billion years according to Mould et al. (2014).[51]
See also[edit]
Physics portal
Gravity of Earth
Standard gravity
Standard gravitational parameter
Gaussian gravitational constant
Orbital mechanics
Escape velocity
Gravitational coupling constant
Gravitational potential
Gravitational wave
Strong gravitational constant
Dirac large numbers hypothesis
Accelerating universe
Lunar Laser Ranging experiment
Cosmological constant
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ For example, the gravitational force between an electron and proton one meter apart is approximately 6933099999999999999♠10−67 N, whereas the electromagnetic force between the same two particles is approximately 6972100000000000000♠10−28 N. The electromagnetic force in this example is some 39 orders of magnitude (i.e. 1039) greater than the force of gravity—roughly the same ratio as the mass of the Sun to a microgram.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Newtonian constant of gravitation" is the name introduced for G by Boys (1894). Use of the term by T.E. Stern (1928) was misquoted as "Newton's constant of gravitation" in Pure Science Reviewed for Profound and Unsophisticated Students (1930), in what is apparently the first use of that term. Use of "Newton's constant" (without specifying "gravitation" or "gravity") is more recent, as "Newton's constant" was also used for the heat transfer coefficient in Newton's law of cooling, but has by now become quite common, e.g. Calmet et al, Quantum Black Holes (2013), p. 93; P. de Aquino, Beyond Standard Model Phenomenology at the LHC (2013), p. 3. The name "Cavendish gravitational constant", sometimes "Newton-Cavendish gravitational constant", appears to have been common in the 1970s to 1980s, especially in (translations from) Soviet-era Russian literature, e.g. Sagitov (1970 [1969]), Soviet Physics: Uspekhi 30 (1987), Issues 1-6, p. 342 [etc.]. "Cavendish constant" and "Cavendish gravitational constant" is also used in Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne, John Archibald Wheeler, "Gravitation", (1973), 1126f. Colloquial use of "Big G", as opposed to "little g" for gravitational acceleration dates to the 1960s (R.W. Fairbridge, The encyclopedia of atmospheric sciences and astrogeology, 1967, p. 436; note use of "Big G's" vs. "little g's" as early as the 1940s of the Einstein tensor Gμν vs. the metric tensor gμν, Scientific, medical, and technical books published in the United States of America: a selected list of titles in print with annotations : supplement of books published 1945-1948, Committee on American Scientific and Technical Bibliography National Research Council, 1950, p. 26).
Jump up ^ Cavendish determined the value of G indirectly, by reporting a value for the Earth's mass, or the average density of Earth, as 5.448 g·cm−3
Jump up ^ Gundlach, Jens H.; Merkowitz, Stephen M. (2002-12-23). "University of Washington Big G Measurement". Astrophysics Science Division. Goddard Space Flight Center. Since Cavendish first measured Newton's Gravitational constant 200 years ago, "Big G" remains one of the most elusive constants in physics
Jump up ^ Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl. Fundamentals of Physics (8th ed.). p. 336. ISBN 978-0-470-04618-0.
Jump up ^ Grøn, Øyvind; Hervik, Sigbjorn (2007). Einstein's General Theory of Relativity: With Modern Applications in Cosmology (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-387-69200-5.
Jump up ^ Einstein, Albert (1916). "The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity". Annalen der Physik. 354 (7): 769. Bibcode:1916AnP...354..769E. doi:10.1002/andp.19163540702. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-06.
Jump up ^ Adler, Ronald; Bazin, Maurice; Schiffer, Menahem (1975). Introduction to General Relativity (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 345. ISBN 0-07-000423-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Gillies, George T. (1997). "The Newtonian gravitational constant: recent measurements and related studies". Reports on Progress in Physics. 60 (2): 151–225. Bibcode:1997RPPh...60..151G. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/60/2/001. . A lengthy, detailed review. See Figure 1 and Table 2 in particular.
Jump up ^ Mohr, Peter J.; Newell, David B.; Taylor, Barry N. (2015-07-21). "CODATA Recommended Values of the Fundamental Physical Constants: 2014". Reviews of Modern Physics. 88. arXiv:1507.07956. Bibcode:2016RvMP...88c5009M. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.88.035009.
Jump up ^ "Newtonian constant of gravitation G". CODATA, NIST.
Jump up ^ M ≈ 1.000003040433 M☉, so that M = M☉ can be used for accuracies of five or fewer significant digits.
Jump up ^ "Astrodynamic Constants". NASA/JPL. 27 February 2009. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "Numerical Standards for Fundamental Astronomy". maia.usno.navy.mil. IAU Working Group. Retrieved 31 October 2017. , citing Ries, J. C., Eanes, R. J., Shum, C. K., and Watkins, M. M., 1992, "Progress in the Determination of the Gravitational Coefficient of the Earth," Geophys. Res. Lett., 19(6), pp. 529-531. Ries, J. C.; Eanes, R. J.; Shum, C. K.; Watkins, M. M. (20 March 1992). "Progress in the determination of the gravitational coefficient of the Earth". Geophysical Research Letters. 19 (6): 529–531. Bibcode:1992GeoRL..19..529R. doi:10.1029/92GL00259. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
Jump up ^ J.L. Heilbron, Electricity in the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Study of Early Modern Physics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), 180.
Jump up ^ Davies, R.D. (1985). "A Commemoration of Maskelyne at Schiehallion". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 26 (3): 289–294. Bibcode:1985QJRAS..26..289D.
Jump up ^ "Sir Isaac Newton thought it probable, that the mean density of the earth might be five or six times as great as the density of water; and we have now found, by experiment, that it is very little less than what he had thought it to be: so much justness was even in the surmises of this wonderful man!" Hutton (1778), p. 783
Jump up ^ Poynting, J.H. (1913). The Earth: its shape, size, weight and spin. Cambridge. pp. 50–56.
Jump up ^ Hutton, C. (1778). "An Account of the Calculations Made from the Survey and Measures Taken at Schehallien". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 68 (0). doi:10.1098/rstl.1778.0034.
^ Jump up to: a b Boys 1894, p.330 In this lecture before the Royal Society, Boys introduces G and argues for its acceptance. See: Poynting 1894, p. 4, MacKenzie 1900, p.vi
Jump up ^ Published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (1798); reprint: Cavendish, Henry (1798). "Experiments to Determine the Density of the Earth". In MacKenzie, A. S., Scientific Memoirs Vol. 9: The Laws of Gravitation. American Book Co. (1900), pp. 59–105.
Jump up ^ 2014 CODATA value 6989667400000000000♠6.674×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2.
Jump up ^ Brush, Stephen G.; Holton, Gerald James (2001). Physics, the human adventure: from Copernicus to Einstein and beyond. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. p. 137. ISBN 0-8135-2908-5. Lee, Jennifer Lauren (November 16, 2016). "Big G Redux: Solving the Mystery of a Perplexing Result". NIST.
Jump up ^ Poynting, John Henry (1894). The Mean Density of the Earth. London: Charles Griffin. pp. 22–24.
Jump up ^ F. Reich, On the Repetition of the Cavendish Experiments for Determining the mean density of the Earth" Philosophical Magazine 12: 283-284.
Jump up ^ Mackenzie (1899), p. 125.
Jump up ^ A.S. Mackenzie , The Laws of Gravitation (1899), 127f.
Jump up ^ C.V. Boys, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A. Pt. 1. (1895).
Jump up ^ Carl Braun, Denkschriften der k. Akad. d. Wiss. (Wien), math. u. naturwiss. Classe, 64 (1897). Braun (1897) quoted an optimistic standard uncertainty of 0.03%, 6989664900000000000♠6.649(2)×10−11 m3⋅kg−1⋅s−2 but his result was significantly worse than the 0.2% feasible at the time.
Jump up ^ Sagitov, M. U., "Current Status of Determinations of the Gravitational Constant and the Mass of the Earth", Soviet Astronomy, Vol. 13 (1970), 712-718, translated from Astronomicheskii Zhurnal Vol. 46, No. 4 (July–August 1969), 907-915 (table of historical experiments p. 715).
Jump up ^ Mackenzie, A. Stanley, The laws of gravitation; memoirs by Newton, Bouguer and Cavendish, together with abstracts of other important memoirs, American Book Company (1900 [1899]).
Jump up ^ P. R. Heyl, A redetermination of the constant of gravitation, National Bureau of Standards Journal of Research 5 (1930), 1243–1290.
Jump up ^ P. R. Heyl and P. Chrzanowski (1942), cited after Sagitov (1969:715).
Jump up ^ Mohr, Peter J.; Taylor, Barry N. (January 2005). "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2002" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 77 (1): 1–107. Bibcode:2005RvMP...77....1M. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.77.1. Retrieved 2006-07-01. . Section Q (pp. 42–47) describes the mutually inconsistent measurement experiments from which the CODATA value for G was derived.
Jump up ^ "CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2010" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 84: 1527–1605. 13 November 2012. arXiv:1203.5425. Bibcode:2012RvMP...84.1527M. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.84.1527.
Jump up ^ B. N. Taylor, W. H. Parker, and D. N. Langenberg, Rev. Mod. Phys. 41(3), 375-496 (1969)
Jump up ^ E. R. Cohen and B. N. Taylor, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 2(4) 663-734 (1973), p. 699.
Jump up ^ E. R. Cohen and B. N. Taylor, Rev. Mod. Phys. 59(4) 1121-1148 (1987)
Jump up ^ P. J. Mohr and B. N. Taylor, Rev. Mod. Phys. 72(2), 351-495 (2000)
Jump up ^ P. J. Mohr and B. N. Taylor, Rev. Mod. Phys. 77(1), 1-107 (2005)
Jump up ^ P. J. Mohr, B. N. Taylor, and D. B. Newell, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 37(3), 1187-1284 (2008)
Jump up ^ P. J. Mohr, B. N. Taylor, and D. B. Newell, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 41 (2012)
Jump up ^ P. J. Mohr, D. B. Newell, and B. N. Taylor, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 45 (2016)
Jump up ^ Fixler, J. B.; Foster, G. T.; McGuirk, J. M.; Kasevich, M. A. (2007-01-05). "Atom Interferometer Measurement of the Newtonian Constant of Gravity". Science. 315 (5808): 74–77. Bibcode:2007Sci...315...74F. doi:10.1126/science.1135459. PMID 17204644.
Jump up ^ Rosi, G., Sorrentino, F., Cacciapuoti, L., Prevedelli, M. & Tino, G. M., "Precision measurement of the Newtonian gravitational constant using cold atoms ", Nature 510 (2014), 518–521. Schlamminger, Stephan (18 June 2014). "Fundamental constants: A cool way to measure big G". Nature. 510: 478–480. Bibcode:2014Natur.510..478S. doi:10.1038/nature13507. PMID 24965646.
Jump up ^ C. Rothleitner, S. Schlamminger, "Invited Review Article: Measurements of the Newtonian constant of gravitation, G", Review of Scientific Instruments 88, 111101 (2017) doi:10.1063/1.4994619. "However, re-evaluating or repeating experiments that have already been performed may provide insights into hidden biases or dark uncertainty. NIST has the unique opportunity to repeat the experiment of Quinn et al. [2013] with an almost identical setup. By mid-2018, NIST researchers will publish their results and assign a number as well as an uncertainty to their value." (referencing T. Quinn, H. Parks, C. Speake, and R. Davis, "Improved determination of G using two methods," Phys. Rev. Lett. 111, 101102 (2013).) The 2018 experiment was described by C. Rothleitner, "Newton’s Gravitational Constant ‚Big‘ G – A proposed Free-fall Measurement", CODATA Fundamental Constants Meeting, Eltville, 5 February 2015].
Jump up ^ . doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0431-5. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "Physicists just made the most precise measurement ever of Gravity's strength". August 31, 2018. Retrieved October 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ Anderson, J. D.; Schubert, G.; Trimble, 3=V.; Feldman, M. R. (April 2015). "Measurements of Newton's gravitational constant and the length of day" (PDF). EPL. 110: 10002. arXiv:1504.06604. Bibcode:2015EL....11010002A. doi:10.1209/0295-5075/110/10002.
^ Jump up to: a b Schlamminger, S.; Gundlach, J. H.; Newman, R. D. (2015). "Recent measurements of the gravitational constant as a function of time". Physical Review D. 91 (12). arXiv:1505.01774. Bibcode:2015PhRvD..91l1101S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.91.121101. ISSN 1550-7998.
Jump up ^ Karagioz, O. V.; Izmailov, V. P. (1996). "Measurement of the gravitational constant with a torsion balance". Measurement Techniques. 39 (10): 979–987. doi:10.1007/BF02377461. ISSN 0543-1972.
Jump up ^ Mould, J.; Uddin, S. A. (2014-04-10). "Constraining a Possible Variation of G with Type Ia Supernovae". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia. 31: e015. arXiv:1402.1534. Bibcode:2014PASA...31...15M. doi:10.1017/pasa.2014.9.
Standish., E. Myles (1995). "Report of the IAU WGAS Sub-group on Numerical Standards". In Appenzeller, I. Highlights of Astronomy. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. (Complete report available online: PostScript; PDF. Tables from the report also available: Astrodynamic Constants and Parameters)
Gundlach, Jens H.; Merkowitz, Stephen M. (2000). "Measurement of Newton's Constant Using a Torsion Balance with Angular Acceleration Feedback". Physical Review Letters. 85 (14): 2869–2872. arXiv:gr-qc/0006043. Bibcode:2000PhRvL..85.2869G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.85.2869. PMID 11005956.
External links[edit]
Newtonian constant of gravitation G at the National Institute of Standards and Technology References on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
The Controversy over Newton's Gravitational Constant — additional commentary on measurement problems
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