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Social contract
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"Social Agreement" redirects here. For the Greek political party, see Social Agreement (Greece). For Rousseau's 1762 treatise on the concept, see The Social Contract. For other uses, see Social Contract (disambiguation).
The original cover of Thomas Hobbes's work Leviathan (1651), in which he discusses the concept of the social contract theory
In both moral and political philosophy, the social contract is a theory or model that originated during the Age of Enlightenment. Usually, the social contract concerns the origin of society and the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual.[1] Social contract arguments typically posit that individuals have consented, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the authority of the ruler or magistrate (or to the decision of a majority), in exchange for protection of their remaining rights. The question of the relation between natural and legal rights, therefore, is often an aspect of social contract theory. The term takes its name from The Social Contract (French: Du contrat social ou Principes du droit politique), a 1762 book by Jean-Jacques Rousseau that discussed this concept.
Although the antecedents of social contract theory are found in antiquity, in Greek and Stoic philosophy and Roman and Canon Law, the heyday of the social contract was the mid-17th to early 19th centuries, when it emerged as the leading doctrine of political legitimacy. The starting point for most social contract theories is an examination of the human condition absent of any political order that Thomas Hobbes termed the "state of nature".[2] In this condition, individuals' actions are bound only by their personal power and conscience. From this shared starting point, social contract theorists seek to demonstrate, in different ways, why a rational individual would voluntarily consent to give up their natural freedom to obtain the benefits of political order.
Hugo Grotius (1625), Thomas Hobbes (1651), Samuel von Pufendorf (1673), John Locke (1689), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762), and Immanuel Kant (1797) are among the most prominent of 17th-century and 18th-century theorists of social contract and natural rights. Each solved the problem of political authority in a different way. Grotius posited that individual human beings had natural rights. Thomas Hobbes famously said that in a "state of nature", human life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short". In the absence of political order and law, everyone would have unlimited natural freedoms, including the "right to all things" and thus the freedom to plunder, rape, and murder; there would be an endless "war of all against all" (bellum omnium contra omnes). To avoid this, free men contract with each other to establish political community (civil society) through a social contract in which they all gain security in return for subjecting themselves to an absolute sovereign, one man or an assembly of men. Though the sovereign's edicts may well be arbitrary and tyrannical, Hobbes saw absolute government as the only alternative to the terrifying anarchy of a state of nature. Hobbes asserted that humans consent to abdicate their rights in favor of the absolute authority of government (whether monarchical or parliamentary). Pufendorf disputed Hobbes's equation of a state of nature with war.[3]
Alternatively, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau have argued that we gain civil rights in return for accepting the obligation to respect and defend the rights of others, giving up some freedoms to do so. The central assertion of social contract approaches is that law and political order are not natural, but are instead human creations. The social contract and the political order it creates are simply the means towards an end—the benefit of the individuals involved—and legitimate only to the extent that they fulfill their part of the agreement. According to Hobbes (in whose view government is not a party to the original contract) citizens are not obligated to submit to the government when it is too weak to act effectively to suppress factionalism and civil unrest. According to other social contract theorists, when the government fails to secure their natural rights (Locke) or satisfy the best interests of society (called the "general will" in Rousseau), citizens can withdraw their obligation to obey, or change the leadership through elections or other means including, when necessary, violence.
Locke believed that natural rights were inalienable, and that the rule of God therefore superseded government authority, and Rousseau believed that democracy (self-rule) was the best way of ensuring the general welfare while maintaining individual freedom under the rule of law. The Lockean concept of the social contract was invoked in the United States Declaration of Independence. Social contract theories were eclipsed in the 19th century in favor of utilitarianism, Hegelianism, and Marxism, and were revived in the 20th century, notably in the form of a thought experiment by John Rawls.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Classical thought
1.2 Renaissance developments
2 Philosophers
2.1 Hugo Grotius (1625)
2.2 Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan (1651)
2.3 John Locke's Second Treatise of Government (1689)
2.4 Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Du contrat social (1762)
2.5 Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's individualist social contract (1851)
2.6 John Rawls' Theory of Justice (1971)
2.7 David Gauthier's Morals By Agreement (1986)
2.8 Philip Pettit's Republicanism (1997)
3 Critical theories
3.1 Consent of the governed
3.2 Natural law and constitutionalism
3.3 Tacit consent
3.4 Explicit Consent
3.5 Voluntarism
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
History[edit]
The concept of the social contract was originally posed by Glaucon, as described by Plato in The Republic, Book II.
They say that to do injustice is, by nature, good; to suffer injustice, evil; but that the evil is greater than the good. And so when men have both done and suffered injustice and have had experience of both, not being able to avoid the one and obtain the other, they think that they had better agree among themselves to have neither; hence there arise laws and mutual covenants; and that which is ordained by law is termed by them lawful and just. This they affirm to be the origin and nature of justice;—it is a mean or compromise, between the best of all, which is to do injustice and not be punished, and the worst of all, which is to suffer injustice without the power of retaliation; and justice, being at a middle point between the two, is tolerated not as a good, but as the lesser evil, and honoured by reason of the inability of men to do injustice. For no man who is worthy to be called a man would ever submit to such an agreement if he were able to resist; he would be mad if he did. Such is the received account, Socrates, of the nature and origin of justice.[4]
The social contract theory also appears in Crito, another dialogue from Plato. Over time, the social contract theory became more widespread after Epicurus (341-270 BC), the first philosopher who saw justice as a social contract, and not as existing in Nature due to divine intervention (see below and also Epicurean ethics), decided to bring the theory to the forefront of his society. As time went on, philosophers of traditional political and social thought, such as Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau put forward their opinions on social contract, which then caused the topic to become much more mainstream.
Classical thought[edit]
Social contract formulations are preserved in many of the world's oldest records.[5] The Buddhist text of the second century BCE, Mahāvastu, recounts the legend of Mahasammata. The story goes as follows:
In the early days of the cosmic cycle mankind lived on an immaterial plane, dancing on air in a sort of fairyland, where there was no need of food or clothing, and no private property, family, government or laws. Then gradually the process of cosmic decay began its work, and mankind became earthbound, and felt the need of food and shelter. As men lost their primeval glory, distinctions of class arose, and they entered into agreements with one another, accepting the institution of private property and the family. With this theft, murder, adultery, and other crime began, and so the people met together and decided to appoint one man from among them to maintain order in return for a share of the produce of their fields and herds. He was called "the Great Chosen One" (Mahasammata), and he received the title of raja because he pleased the people.[6]
In his rock edicts, the Buddhist king Asoka was said to have argued for a broad and far-reaching social contract. The Buddhist vinaya also reflects social contracts expected of the monks; one such instance is when the people of a certain town complained about monks felling saka trees, the Buddha tells his monks that they must stop and give way to social norms.
Epicurus in the fourth century BCE seemed to have had a strong sense of social contract, with justice and law being rooted in mutual agreement and advantage, as evidenced by these lines, among others, from his Principal Doctrines (see also Epicurean ethics):
31. Natural justice is a pledge of reciprocal benefit, to prevent one man from harming or being harmed by another.
32. Those animals which are incapable of making binding agreements with one another not to inflict nor suffer harm are without either justice or injustice; and likewise for those peoples who either could not or would not form binding agreements not to inflict nor suffer harm.
33. There never was such a thing as absolute justice, but only agreements made in mutual dealings among men in whatever places at various times providing against the infliction or suffering of harm.[7]
Renaissance developments[edit]
Quentin Skinner has argued that several critical modern innovations in contract theory are found in the writings from French Calvinists and Huguenots, whose work in turn was invoked by writers in the Low Countries who objected to their subjection to Spain and, later still, by Catholics in England.[8] Francisco Suárez (1548–1617), from the School of Salamanca, might be considered an early theorist of the social contract, theorizing natural law in an attempt to limit the divine right of absolute monarchy. All of these groups were led to articulate notions of popular sovereignty by means of a social covenant or contract, and all of these arguments began with proto-"state of nature" arguments, to the effect that the basis of politics is that everyone is by nature free of subjection to any government.
These arguments, however, relied on a corporatist theory found in Roman law, according to which "a populus" can exist as a distinct legal entity. Thus, these arguments held that a group of people can join a government because it has the capacity to exercise a single will and make decisions with a single voice in the absence of sovereign authority—a notion rejected by Hobbes and later contract theorists.
Philosophers[edit]
Hugo Grotius (1625)[edit]
In the early 17th century, Grotius (1583–1645) introduced the modern idea that individuals had natural rights that enabled self-preservation, employing this idea as a basis for moral consensus in the face of religious diversity and the rise of natural science. He seeks to find a parsimonious basis for a moral beginning for society, a kind of natural law that everyone could accept. He goes so far as to say in his On the Law of War and Peace that even if we were to concede what we cannot concede without the utmost wickedness, namely that there is no God, these laws would still hold.
The idea was considered incendiary since it suggested that power can ultimately go back to the individuals if the political society that they have set up forfeits the purpose for which it was originally established, which is to preserve themselves. In other words, individual persons are sovereign. Grotius says that the people are sui juris (under their own jurisdiction). People have rights as human beings, but there is a delineation of those rights because of what is possible for everyone to accept morally; everyone has to accept that each person as an individual is entitled to try to preserve himself. Each person should, therefore, avoid doing harm to, or interfering with, another, and any breach of these rights should be punished.
Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan (1651)[edit]
Main article: Leviathan (Hobbes book)
The first modern philosopher to articulate a detailed contract theory was Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). According to Hobbes, the lives of individuals in the state of nature were "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short", a state in which self-interest and the absence of rights and contracts prevented the "social", or society. Life was "anarchic" (without leadership or the concept of sovereignty). Individuals in the state of nature were apolitical and asocial. This state of nature is followed by the social contract.
The social contract was an "occurrence" during which individuals came together and ceded some of their individual rights so that others would cede theirs.[9] This resulted in the establishment of the state, a sovereign entity like the individuals now under its rule used to be, which would create laws to regulate social interactions. Human life was thus no longer "a war of all against all".
The state system, which grew out of the social contract, was, however, also anarchic (without leadership). Just as the individuals in the state of nature had been sovereigns and thus guided by self-interest and the absence of rights, so states now acted in their self-interest in competition with each other. Just like the state of nature, states were thus bound to be in conflict because there was no sovereign over and above the state (more powerful) capable of imposing some system such as social-contract laws on everyone by force. Indeed, Hobbes' work helped to serve as a basis for the realism theories of international relations, advanced by E. H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau. Hobbes wrote in Leviathan that humans ("we") need the "terrour of some Power" otherwise humans will not heed the law of reciprocity, "(in summe) doing to others, as wee would be done to".[10]
John Locke's Second Treatise of Government (1689)[edit]
John Locke's conception of the social contract differed from Hobbes' in several fundamental ways, retaining only the central notion that persons in a state of nature would willingly come together to form a state. Locke believed that individuals in a state of nature would be bound morally, by the Law of Nature, not to harm each other in their lives or possessions, but without government to defend them against those seeking to injure or enslave them, people would have no security in their rights and would live in fear. Locke argued that individuals would agree to form a state that would provide a "neutral judge", acting to protect the lives, liberty, and property of those who lived within it.[citation needed]
While Hobbes argued for near-absolute authority, Locke argued for inviolate freedom under law in his Second Treatise of Government. Locke argued that a government's legitimacy comes from the citizens' delegation to the government of their absolute right of violence (reserving the inalienable right of self-defense or "self-preservation"), along with elements of other rights (e.g. property will be liable to taxation) as necessary to achieve the goal of security through granting the state a monopoly of violence, whereby the government, as an impartial judge, may use the collective force of the populace to administer and enforce the law, rather than each man acting as his own judge, jury, and executioner—the condition in the state of nature.[citation needed]
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Du contrat social (1762)[edit]
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), in his influential 1762 treatise The Social Contract, outlined a different version of social contract theory, as the foundations of political rights based on unlimited popular sovereignty. Although Rousseau wrote that the British were perhaps at the time the freest people on earth, he did not approve of their representative government. Rousseau believed that liberty was possible only where there was direct rule by the people as a whole in lawmaking, where popular sovereignty was indivisible and inalienable. But he also maintained that the people often did not know their "real will", and that a proper society would not occur until a great leader ("the Legislator") arose to change the values and customs of the people, likely through the strategic use of religion.
Rousseau's political theory differs in important ways from that of Locke and Hobbes. Rousseau's collectivism is most evident in his development of the "luminous conception" (which he credited to Denis Diderot) of the general will. Rousseau argues a citizen cannot pursue his true interest by being an egoist but must instead subordinate himself to the law created by the citizenry acting as a collective.
[The social contract] can be reduced to the following terms: Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will; and in a body we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.[11]
Rousseau's striking phrase that man must "be forced to be free"[12] should be understood this way: since the indivisible and inalienable popular sovereignty decides what is good for the whole, then if an individual lapses back into his ordinary egoism and disobeys the law, he will be forced to listen to what was decided when the people acted as a collectivity (as citizens). Thus, the law, inasmuch as it is created by the people acting as a body, is not a limitation of individual freedom, but rather its expression.
Thus, enforcement of laws, including criminal law, is not a restriction on individual liberty: the individual, as a citizen, explicitly agreed to be constrained if, as a private individual, he did not respect his own will as formulated in the general will. Because laws represent the restraints of civil freedom, they represent the leap made from humans in the state of nature into civil society. In this sense, the law is a civilizing force, and therefore Rousseau believed that the laws that govern a people helped to mold their character.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's individualist social contract (1851)[edit]
While Rousseau's social contract is based on popular sovereignty and not on individual sovereignty, there are other theories espoused by individualists, libertarians, and anarchists that do not involve agreeing to anything more than negative rights and creates only a limited state, if any.
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) advocated a conception of social contract that did not involve an individual surrendering sovereignty to others. According to him, the social contract was not between individuals and the state, but rather among individuals who refrain from coercing or governing each other, each one maintaining complete sovereignty upon him- or herself:
What really is the Social Contract? An agreement of the citizen with the government? No, that would mean but the continuation of [Rousseau's] idea. The social contract is an agreement of man with man; an agreement from which must result what we call society. In this, the notion of commutative justice, first brought forward by the primitive fact of exchange, ... is substituted for that of distributive justice ... Translating these words, contract, commutative justice, which are the language of the law, into the language of business, and you have commerce, that is to say, in its highest significance, the act by which man and man declare themselves essentially producers, and abdicate all pretension to govern each other.
—  Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century (1851)
John Rawls' Theory of Justice (1971)[edit]
Building on the work of Immanuel Kant with its presumption of limits on the state,[13] John Rawls (1921–2002), in A Theory of Justice (1971), proposed a contractarian approach whereby rational people in a hypothetical "original position" would set aside their individual preferences and capacities under a "veil of ignorance" and agree to certain general principles of justice and legal organization. This idea is also used as a game-theoretical formalization of the notion of fairness.
David Gauthier's Morals By Agreement (1986)[edit]
Main article: Contractarian ethics
David Gauthier "neo-Hobbesian" theory argues that cooperation between two independent and self-interested parties is indeed possible, especially when it comes to understanding morality and politics.[14] Gauthier notably points out the advantages of cooperation between two parties when it comes to the challenge of the prisoner's dilemma. He proposes that, if two parties were to stick to the original agreed-upon arrangement and morals outlined by the contract, they would both experience an optimal result.[14][15] In his model for the social contract, factors including trust, rationality, and self-interest keep each party honest and dissuade them from breaking the rules.[14][15]
Philip Pettit's Republicanism (1997)[edit]
Philip Pettit (b. 1945) has argued, in Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government (1997), that the theory of social contract, classically based on the consent of the governed, should be modified. Instead of arguing for explicit consent, which can always be manufactured, Pettit argues that the absence of an effective rebellion against it is a contract's only legitimacy.
Critical theories[edit]
Consent of the governed[edit]
An early critic of social contract theory was Rousseau's friend, the philosopher David Hume, who in 1742 published an essay "Of Civil Liberty". The second part of this essay, entitled "Of the Original Contract",[16] stresses that the concept of a "social contract" is a convenient fiction:
As no party, in the present age can well support itself without a philosophical or speculative system of principles annexed to its political or practical one; we accordingly find that each of the factions into which this nation is divided has reared up a fabric of the former kind, in order to protect and cover that scheme of actions which it pursues. ... The one party [defenders of the absolute and divine right of kings, or Tories], by tracing up government to the DEITY, endeavor to render it so sacred and inviolate that it must be little less than sacrilege, however tyrannical it may become, to touch or invade it in the smallest article. The other party [the Whigs, or believers in constitutional monarchy], by founding government altogether on the consent of the PEOPLE suppose that there is a kind of original contract by which the subjects have tacitly reserved the power of resisting their sovereign, whenever they find themselves aggrieved by that authority with which they have for certain purposes voluntarily entrusted him.
—  David Hume, "On Civil Liberty" [II.XII.1][16]
Hume argued that consent of the governed was the ideal foundation on which a government should rest, but that it had not actually occurred this way in general.
My intention here is not to exclude the consent of the people from being one just foundation of government where it has place. It is surely the best and most sacred of any. I only contend that it has very seldom had place in any degree and never almost in its full extent. And that therefore some other foundation of government must also be admitted.
—  Ibid II.XII.20
Natural law and constitutionalism[edit]
Legal scholar Randy Barnett has argued[17] that, while presence in the territory of a society may be necessary for consent, this does not constitute consent to all rules the society might make regardless of their content. A second condition of consent is that the rules be consistent with underlying principles of justice and the protection of natural and social rights, and have procedures for effective protection of those rights (or liberties). This has also been discussed by O. A. Brownson,[18] who argued that, in a sense, three "constitutions" are involved: first, the constitution of nature that includes all of what the Founders called "natural law"; second, the constitution of society, an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it does establish the third, a constitution of government. To consent, a necessary condition is that the rules be constitutional in that sense.
Tacit consent[edit]
The theory of an implicit social contract holds that by remaining in the territory controlled by some society, which usually has a government, people give consent to join that society and be governed by its government, if any. This consent is what gives legitimacy to such a government.
Other writers have argued that consent to join the society is not necessarily consent to its government. For that, the government must be set up according to a constitution of government that is consistent with the superior unwritten constitutions of nature and society.[18]
Explicit Consent[edit]
The theory of an implicit social contract also goes under the principles of explicit consent[19]. The main difference between Tacit consent and explicit consent is that explicit consent is meant to leave no room for misinterpretation. Moreover, you should directly state what it is that you want and the person has to respond in a concise manner that either confirms or denies the proposition.
Voluntarism[edit]
According to the will theory of contract, a contract is not presumed valid unless all parties voluntarily agree to it, either tacitly or explicitly, without coercion. Lysander Spooner, a 19th-century lawyer and staunch supporter of a right of contract between individuals, argued in his essay No Treason that a supposed social contract cannot be used to justify governmental actions such as taxation because government will initiate force against anyone who does not wish to enter into such a contract. As a result, he maintains that such an agreement is not voluntary and therefore cannot be considered a legitimate contract at all.
Modern Anglo-American law, like European civil law, is based on a will theory of contract, according to which all terms of a contract are binding on the parties because they chose those terms for themselves. This was less true when Hobbes wrote Leviathan; at that time more importance was attached to consideration, meaning a mutual exchange of benefits necessary to the formation of a valid contract, and most contracts had implicit terms that arose from the nature of the contractual relationship rather than from the choices made by the parties. Accordingly, it has been argued that social contract theory is more consistent with the contract law of the time of Hobbes and Locke than with the contract law of our time, and that certain features in the social contract which seem anomalous to us, such as the belief that we are bound by a contract formulated by our distant ancestors, would not have seemed as strange to Hobbes' contemporaries as they do to us.[20]
See also[edit]
Philosophy portal
Mandate of Heaven
Classical republicanism
Consent
Contract
Epicurean ethics
Federalism
Mandate (politics)
Mayflower Compact
Monarchomachs
The Racial Contract
Right of rebellion
School of Salamanca
Social capital
Social cohesion
Social Contract (Britain) - British Labour Party policy involving trade-offs between employment conditions and social welfare
Social disintegration
Social Justice in the Liberal State
Social rights (social contract theory)
Social solidarity
Societal collapse
Consent theory
Crito – dialogue by Plato
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "For the name social contract (or original contract) often covers two different kinds of contract, and, in tracing the evolution of the theory, it is well to distinguish them. Both were current in the 17th century and both can be discovered in Greek political thought. ... [The first] generally involved some theory of the origin of the state. The second form of social contract may be more accurately called the contract of government, or the contract of submission.... Generally, it has nothing to do with the origins of society, but, presupposing a society already formed, it purports to define the terms on which that society is to be governed: the people have made a contract with their ruler which determines their relations with him. They promise him obedience, while he promises his protection and good government. While he keeps his part of the bargain, they must keep theirs, but if he misgoverns the contract is broken and allegiance is at an end." J. W. Gough, The Social Contract (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936), pp. 2–3. Modern revivals of social contract theories have not been as concerned with the origin of the state.
Jump up ^ Ross Harrison writes that "Hobbes seems to have invented this useful term." See Ross Harrison, Locke, Hobbs, and Confusion's Masterpiece (Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 70. The phrase "state of nature" does occur, in Thomas Aquinas's Quaestiones disputatae de veritate, Question 19, Article 1, Answer 13. However, Aquinas uses it in the context of a discussion of the nature of the soul after death, not in reference to politics.
^ Jump up to: a b Patrick Riley, The Social Contract and Its Critics, chapter 12 in The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Political Thought, Eds. Mark Goldie and Robert Wokler, Vol 4 of The Cambridge History of Political Thought (Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 347–75.
Jump up ^ The Republic, Book II. Quoted from http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/republic.3.ii.html
Jump up ^ "https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/enlightenment--33?print=1". www.timetoast.com. Retrieved 2016-11-10. External link in |title= (help)
Jump up ^ AL Basham, The Wonder That Was India, pp. 83
Jump up ^ Vincent Cook (2000-08-26). "Principal Doctrines". Epicurus. Retrieved 2012-09-26.
Jump up ^ Quentin Skinner, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought: Volume 2: The Age of the Reformation (Cambridge, 1978)
Jump up ^ E.g. person A gives up his/her right to kill person B if person B does the same.
Jump up ^ Hobbes, Thomas (1985). Leviathan. London: Penguin. p. 223.
Jump up ^ Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Oeuvres complètes, ed. B. Gagnebin and M. Raymond (Paris, 1959–95), III, 361; The Collected Writings of Rousseau, ed. C. Kelley and R. Masters (Hanover, 1990–), IV, 139.
Jump up ^ Oeuvres complètes, III, 364; The Collected Writings of Rousseau, IV, 141.
Jump up ^ • Gerald Gaus and Shane D. Courtland, 2011, "Liberalism", 1.1, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Immanuel Kant, ([1797]). The Metaphysics of Morals, Part 1.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Social Contract Theory [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]". Iep.utm.edu. 2004-10-15. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
^ Jump up to: a b "Contractarianism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)". Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Hume, David. Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary, Part II, Essay XII, Of The Original Contract.
Jump up ^ Restoring the Lost Constitution: The Presumption of Liberty, Randy Barnett (2004)
^ Jump up to: a b O. A. Brownson (1866). "The American Republic: its Constitution, Tendencies, and Destiny". Retrieved 2011-02-13.
Jump up ^ "Gaining explicit consent under the GDPR". IT Governance Blog. 2017-07-05. Retrieved 2018-02-08.
Jump up ^ Joseph Kary, "Contract Law and the Social Contract: What Legal History Can Teach Us About the Political Theory of Hobbes and Locke", 31 Ottawa Law Review 73 (Jan. 2000)
Further reading[edit]
Ankerl, Guy. Towards a Social Contract on a Worldwide Scale: Solidarity contracts. Research series. Geneva: International Institute for Labour Studies [Pamphlet], 1980, ISBN 92-9014-165-4.
Carlyle, R. W. A History of mediæval political theory in the West. Edinburgh London: W. Blackwood and sons, 1916.
Falaky, Faycal (2014). Social Contract, Masochist Contract: Aesthetics of Freedom and Submission in Rousseau. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-4989-0
Gierke, Otto Friedrich Von and Ernst Troeltsch. Natural Law and the Theory of Society 1500 to 1800. Translated by Sir Ernest Barker, with a Lecture on "The Ideas of Natural Law and Humanity", by Ernst Troeltsch. Cambridge: The University Press, 1950.
Gough, J. W.. The Social Contract. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1936.
Harrison, Ross. Hobbes, Locke, and Confusion's Empire: an Examination of Seventeenth-Century Political Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan. 1651.
Locke, John. Second Treatise on Government 1689.
Narveson, Jan; Trenchard, David (2008). "Contractarianism/Social Contract". In Hamowy, Ronald. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 103–05. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n66. ISBN 978-1412965804. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
Pettit, Philip. Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government. NY: Oxford U.P., 1997, ISBN 0-19-829083-7, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997
Pufendorf, Samuel, James Tully and Michael Silverthorne. Pufendorf: On the Duty of Man and Citizen according to Natural Law. Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought. Cambridge University Press 1991.
Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice (1971)
Riley, Patrick. "How Coherent is the Social Contract Tradition?" Journal of the History of Ideas 34: 4 (Oct. – Dec., 1973): 543–62.
Riley, Patrick. Will and Political Legitimacy: A Critical Exposition of Social Contract Theory in Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Kant, and Hegel. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1982.
Riley, Patrick. The Social Contract and Its Critics, chapter 12 in The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Political Thought. Eds. Mark Goldie and Robert Wokler. Vol 4 of The Cambridge History of Political Thought. Cambridge University Press, 2006. pp. 347–75.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Social Contract, or Principles of Political Right (1762)
External links[edit]
Library resources about
Social contract
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Social Contract.
"The Social Contract". In Our Time (7 Feb 2008). BBC Radio Program. Melvyn Bragg, moderator; with Melissa Lane, Cambridge University; Susan James, University of London; Karen O'Brien, University of Warwick.
"Game Theory". In Our Time (May 10, 2012). BBC Radio Program. Melvin Bragg, moderator, with Ian Stewart, Emeritus, University of Warwick, Andrew Colman, University of Leicester, and Richard Bradley, London School of Economics. Discussion of game theory that touches on relation of game theory to the Social Contract.
Foisneau, Luc. "Governing a Republic: Rousseau's General Will and the Problem of Government". Republics of Letters: A Journal for the Study of Knowledge, Politics, and the Arts 2, no. 1 (December 15, 2010)
"The Social Contract and Constitutional Republics". Constitution Society, website.
Sigmund, Paul E. "Natural Law, Consent, and Equality: William of Ockham to Richard Hooker". Published on website Natural Law, Natural Rights, and American Constitutionalism. A We the People project of the National Endowment for the Humanities.
Cudd, Ann. "Contractarianism". In Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
D'Agostino, Fred. "Contemporary Approaches to the Social Contract". In Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
"Social contract". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Jan Narveson. "The Contractarian Theory of Morals:FAQ". On website Against Politics: Anarchy Naturalized.
A satirical example of a social contract for the United States from the Libertarian Party. Parody.
Social Contract: A Basic Contradiction in Western Liberal Democracy, Eric Engle. A critique of social contract theory as counter-factual myth.
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Soul2Soul: The World Tour
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Soul2Soul: The World Tour
Tour by Tim McGraw and Faith Hill
Promotional poster for the tour.
Start date
April 7, 2017 (2017-04-07)
End date
July 24, 2018 (2018-07-24)
Legs
3
No. of shows
109 North America
3 in Europe
112 total
Box office
$79.3 million
Tim McGraw and Faith Hill concert chronology
Soul2Soul II Tour
(2006–07)
Soul2Soul: The World Tour
(2017)
Tim McGraw tour chronology
Shotgun Rider Tour
(2016) Soul2Soul: The World Tour
(2017)
Faith Hill tour chronology
Tim McGraw & Faith Hill Australia 2012 Tour
(2012) Soul2Soul: The World Tour
(2017)
The Soul2Soul: The World Tour is the third and current co-headlining tour by American country music recording artists, and husband and wife, Tim McGraw and Faith Hill. It marks the first time the duo have toured together since 2007. It began on April 7, 2017, in New Orleans. Performances consist of a setlist of duets between the couple and solos. The first leg of the tour played seventy shows, and as of December 11, 2017, every show was sold out, and grossed over 79 million dollars. Accoridng to Pollstar's 2017 Mid-Year report, it was ranked the 24th best tour.[1]
Contents
1 Background
2 The show and the stage
3 Opening acts
4 Setlist
5 Tour dates
6 Critical reception
7 Notable events
8 References
Background[edit]
In October 2016, a special concert was planned at the Ryman Auditorium in Nashville. Under the moniker "Sam & Audrey", the duo performed their hits, while announcing the forthcoming 2017 tour.[2] The itinerary was released the following day.[3] On January 31, 2017, McGraw and Hill announced the opening acts via Facebook Live.[4] Each weekend will feature a different opening act, handpicked by the duo. They also revealed additional tour dates and plans to perform shows outside North America. When introducing the tour, Hill stated:
"We have the best fans in the world, who have been with us through our entire journey and we are so excited to celebrate with them by going back on the road and showcasing an exciting new show. It's always great when we get to work together and it's been awhile since we got to do that."[5]
On September 28, 2017, Bob Harris revealed on his BBC Radio 2 show that McGraw and Hill were the first announced headliners for the 2018 C2C: Country to Country festival which takes place in London, Glasgow and Dublin.[6] In November 2017, a second American leg of the tour was announced.
The show and the stage[edit]
The show begins with a ten-second countdown clock, after that futuristic music begins to play. Hill and McGraw begin to say a speech which ends with, "face to face, heart to heart, and soul to soul." Then two black boxes rise up onto the b-stage, as the boxes descends both Hill and McGraw appear, and perform Aretha Franklin and George Michael's "I Knew You Were Waiting For Me". During "Break First" (a new pop centric song from the couple), the video screens displays fragments of glass shattering behind them. When McGraw performs "Angry All the Time", Hill plays the acoustic guitar while singing background vocals. The show lasts for two hours and fifteen minutes with a setlist of thirty songs. They go back and forth singing with each other and alone during solos. McGraw and Hill perform their past hits and songs off their upcoming album. They close with "I Need You".[7][8]
The stage and production is made up of laser lights, risers, special effects, eighty-foot wide video board, HD and LED screens. During the show family photos are projected onto the eighty-foot wide video board. A ten piece band backs the couple.[7][9][10][7]
Opening acts[edit]
[11]
Kelsea Ballerini
Brothers Osborne
Cam
Brandy Clark
Brent Cobb
Devin Dawson
Seth Ennis
Rhiannon Giddens
Natalie Hemby
High Valley
Chris Janson
Joseph
Chris Lane
LoCash
Lori McKenna
Midland
Old Dominion
Steve Moakler
NEEDTOBREATHE
Jon Pardi
Eric Paslay
Rachel Platten
Margo Price
Ben Rector
Maggie Rose
The Shadowboxers
Caitlyn Smith
Charlie Worsham
Setlist[edit]
The following setlist was performed at the concert held on April 21, 2017, at the Legacy Arena in Birmingham, Alabama. It does not represent all concerts for the duration of the tour.[12]
McGraw and Hill
"I Knew You Were Waiting (For Me)" (Aretha Franklin & George Michael cover)
McGraw
"Felt Good on My Lips"
Hill
"The Lucky One"
McGraw
"I Like It, I Love It"
Hill
"The Way You Love Me"
McGraw and Hill
"Like We Never Loved at All"
"Break First"
"Telluride"
"Devil Calling Me Back"
Hill
"Free"
"This Kiss"
"Breathe"
"Wild One"
"Stronger"
"Piece of My Heart"
McGraw and Hill
"Angry All the Time"
McGraw
"One of Those Nights"
"Real Good Man"
"Shotgun Rider"
"Humble and Kind"
"Live Like You Were Dying"
McGraw and Hill
"Speak to a Girl"
"It's Your Love"
Hill
"Mississippi Girl"
McGraw
"Something Like That"
McGraw and Hill
"I Need You"
Tour dates[edit]
Date
City
Country
Venue
Opening acts
Attendance
Revenue
North America Leg 1[13]
April 7, 2017 New Orleans United States Smoothie King Center Brothers Osborne 14,959 / 14,959 $1,324,355[14]
April 9, 2017 Tupelo BancorpSouth Arena 8,323 / 8,323 $685,612[14]
April 20, 2017 North Charleston North Charleston Coliseum NEEDTOBREATHE 9,097 / 9,097 $798,478[15]
April 21, 2017 Birmingham Legacy Arena 11,259 / 11,259 $821,751[15]
April 23, 2017 Atlanta Philips Arena 13,033 / 13,033 $1,170,004[15]
April 27, 2017 St. Louis Scottrade Center Seth Ennis 12,906 / 12,906 $1,066,330[15]
April 28, 2017 Louisville KFC Yum! Center 14,653 / 14,653 $1,220,499[15]
April 29, 2017 Indianapolis Bankers Life Fieldhouse 12,726 / 12,726 $999,040[15]
May 4, 2017 Newark Prudential Center The Shadowboxers 11,815 / 11,815 $1,134,267[16]
May 5, 2017 Uncasville Mohegan Sun Arena 11,686 / 11,686 $1,532,244[16]
May 6, 2017
May 11, 2017 Tulsa BOK Center Jon Pardi 11,391 / 11,391 $818,172[16]
May 12, 2017 Lincoln Pinnacle Bank Arena 13,853 / 13,853 $1,262,422[16]
May 13, 2017 Oklahoma City Chesapeake Energy Arena 11,490 / 11,490 $859,619[16]
May 18, 2017 Spokane Spokane Veterans Memorial Arena Chris Lane 10,700 / 10,700 $887,903[16]
May 19, 2017 Bozeman Brick Breeden Fieldhouse 15,544 / 15,544 $1,181,828[16]
May 20, 2017
May 25, 2017 Boise Taco Bell Arena Joseph 9,156 / 9,156 $829,945[16]
May 26, 2017 Portland Moda Center 13,736 / 13,736 $1,192,723[16]
May 27, 2017 Tacoma Tacoma Dome 16,744 / 16,744 $1,321,429[16]
May 31, 2017 Vancouver Canada Rogers Arena Midland 12,756 / 12,756 $1,021,510[16]
June 2, 2017 Calgary Scotiabank Saddledome 12,765 / 12,765 $1,170,500[16]
June 3, 2017 Edmonton Rogers Place 13,358 / 13,358 $1,126,310[16]
June 4, 2017 Saskatoon SaskTel Centre 12,709 / 12,709 $1,095,770[16]
June 7, 2017 Winnipeg MTS Centre Caitlyn Smith 11,581 / 11,581 $915,797[16]
June 9, 2017 Sioux Falls United States Denny Sanford Premier Center 11,127 / 11,127 $1,088,360[17]
June 10, 2017 Des Moines Wells Fargo Arena 13,236 / 13,236 $1,256,399[17]
June 15, 2017 Grand Rapids Van Andel Arena High Valley 11,788 / 11,788 $1,079,900[17]
June 16, 2017 Milwaukee BMO Harris Bradley Center 12,137 / 12,137 $974,098[17]
June 17, 2017 Moline iWireless Center 10,670 / 10,670 $891,006[17]
June 22, 2017 Ottawa Canada Canadian Tire Centre Charlie Worsham 13,396 / 13,396 $1,112,650[18]
June 23, 2017 Toronto Air Canada Centre 26,956 / 26,956 $2,241,830[18]
June 24, 2017
July 7, 2017 Boston United States TD Garden Lori McKenna 24,187 / 24,187 $2,132,287[19]
July 8, 2017
July 13, 2017 Las Vegas T-Mobile Arena Rachel Platten 6,611 / 6,611 $783,705[19]
July 14, 2017 Los Angeles Staples Center 25,571 / 25,571 $2,028,973[19]
July 15, 2017
July 21, 2017 Glendale Gila River Arena Rhiannon Giddens 13,540 / 13,540 $1,264,313[19]
July 22, 2017 Ontario Citizens Business Bank Arena 8,903 / 8,903 $963,746[19]
July 23, 2017 San Diego Valley View Casino Center 10,290 / 10,290 $846,246[19]
July 28, 2017 Sacramento Golden 1 Center Devin Dawson 13,540 / 13,540 $1,413,260[20]
July 29, 2017 San Jose SAP Center 12,385 / 12,385 $1,122,601[20]
July 31, 2017 Denver Pepsi Center 23,073 / 23,073 $1,568,171[20]
August 1, 2017
August 3, 2017 North Little Rock Verizon Arena -
August 4, 2017 Nashville Bridgestone Arena Andra Day 28,357 / 28,357 $2,231,533[20]
August 5, 2017
August 17, 2017 Cleveland Quicken Loans Arena Maggie Rose 11,290 / 11,290 $834,495[20]
August 18, 2017 Philadelphia Wells Fargo Center 14,370 / 14,370 $1,115,596[20]
August 19, 2017 Albany Times Union Center 9,094 / 9,094 $667,410[20]
August 24, 2017 Fargo Fargodome Natalie Hemby 14,146 / 14,146 $1,097,627
August 25, 2017 Saint Paul Xcel Energy Center 29,842 / 29,842 $2,815,245
August 26, 2017
August 31, 2017 Rosemont Allstate Arena Ben Rector 22,912 / 22,912 $1,797,553
September 1, 2017
September 2, 2017 Cincinnati U.S. Bank Arena 11,456 / 11,456 $780,635
September 7, 2017 Columbus Nationwide Arena Brent Cobb 13,822 / 13,822 $1,223,715
September 8, 2017 Auburn Hills The Palace of Auburn Hills 13,445 / 13,445 $1,212,946
September 9, 2017 Fort Wayne Allen County War Memorial Coliseum 9,602 / 9,602 $800,062
September 14, 2017 Knoxville Thompson–Boling Arena Eric Paslay 8,164 / 8,164 $628,975
September 15, 2017 Greenville Bon Secours Wellness Arena 10,470 / 10,470 $849,741
September 16, 2017 Jacksonville Jacksonville Veterans Memorial Arena 10,651 / 10,651 $798,041
September 21, 2017 Wichita Intrust Bank Arena Brandy Clark 10,982 / 10,982 $889,516
September 22, 2017 Omaha CenturyLink Center Omaha 14,277 / 14,277 $1,054,164
September 23, 2017 Kansas City Sprint Center 13,132 / 13,132 $1,083,278
September 27, 2017 Salt Lake City Vivint Smart Home Arena Cam 12,528 / 12,528 $1,189,950
September 29, 2017 Fresno Save Mart Center 11,703 / 11,703 $1,033,055
September 30, 2017 Bakersfield Rabobank Arena 8,741 / 8,741 $828,635
October 5, 2017 San Antonio AT&T Center Chris Janson 11,471 / 11,471 $934,996
October 6, 2017 Houston Toyota Center 11,284 / 11,284 $987,317
October 7, 2017 Dallas American Airlines Center 13,255 / 13,255 $1,260,647
October 12, 2017 Pittsburgh PPG Paints Arena Steve Moakler 11,414 / 11,414 $885,368
October 13, 2017 Washington, D.C. Capital One Arena 13,537 / 13,537 $1,200,627
October 14, 2017 Greensboro Greensboro Coliseum 12,043 / 12,043 $974,210
October 19, 2017 Sunrise BB&T Center LoCash 9,281 / 9,281 $667,022
October 20, 2017 Tampa Amalie Arena 12,108 / 12,108 $960,177
October 21, 2017 Orlando Amway Center 12,071 / 12,071 $1,058,484
October 26, 2017 Buffalo KeyBank Center Margo Price 12,042 / 12,042 $909,707
October 27, 2017 Brooklyn Barclays Center 12,501 / 12,501 $1,023,077
Europe
March 9, 2018 London[A] England The O2 Arena Kelsea Ballerini
Old Dominion
March 10, 2018 Glasgow[A] Scotland SSE Hydro
March 11, 2018 Dublin[A] Ireland 3Arena
North America Leg 2[21]
May 31, 2018 Richmond United States Richmond Coliseum — 9,489 / 9,489 $873,206
June 1, 2018 Charleston Charleston Civic Center 8,483 / 8,483 $647,498
June 2, 2018 Lexington Rupp Arena 9,560 / 9,560 $643,856
June 5, 2018 Baltimore Royal Farms Arena 10,899 / 10,899 $727,114
June 7, 2018 Grand Rapids Van Andel Arena 10,936 / 10,936 $816,874
June 8, 2018 Toledo Huntington Center 14,963 / 14,963 $1,268,897
June 9, 2018
June 12, 2018 Hershey Giant Center 9,257 / 9,257 $905,605
June 14, 2018 Uniondale Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum 8,734 / 8,734 $751,624
June 15, 2018 Uncasville Mohegan Sun Arena 7,807 / 7,807 $781,038
June 16, 2018 Manchester SNHU Arena 8,499 / 8,499 $772,539
June 18, 2018 Hamilton Canada FirstOntario Centre 10,708 / 10,708 $797,048
June 19, 2018 London Budweiser Gardens 7,887 / 7,887 $743,975
June 22, 2018 Raleigh United States PNC Arena 12,093 / 12,093 $859,715
June 23, 2018 Duluth Infinite Energy Arena 9,912 / 9,912 $674,997
June 26, 2018 Bossier City CenturyLink Center 10,228 / 10,228 $598,411
June 29, 2018 Springfield JQH Arena 8,024 / 8,024 $644,900
June 30, 2018 Des Moines Wells Fargo Arena 11,436 / 11,436 $839,144
July 6, 2018 Green Bay Resch Center 8,242 / 8,242 $875,724
July 7, 2018 Minneapolis Target Center 11,748 / 11,748 $712,738
July 8, 2018 Sioux Falls Denny Sanford Premier Center 8,797 / 8,797 $695,622
July 10, 2018 Grand Forks Ralph Engelstad Arena 6,512 / 6,512 $387,300
July 13, 2018 Seattle KeyArena 11,146 / 11,146 $842,978
July 14, 2018 Eugene Matthew Knight Arena 9,413 / 9,413 $781,752
July 18, 2018 Salt Lake City Vivint Smart Home Arena 12,405 / 12,405 $992,034
July 20, 2018 Phoenix Talking Stick Resort Arena 12,773 / 12,773 $886,518
July 21, 2018 Los Angeles Staples Center 11,812 / 11,812 $803,817
July 22, 2018 Sacramento Golden 1 Center 12,189 / 12,189 $944,746
July 24, 2018 Paso Robles Mid State Fair — —
Total
933,641 / 933,641 $79,097,963
^ A. These shows will be part of the C2C: Country to Country festival.
Critical reception[edit]
Tulsa World's Andrea Eger says "the electricity they generated could have powered their megawatt stage production with no help from PSO"[9] According to the Orange County Register's Kelli Sky Fadroski, she was impressed with Hill's return to the tour stage stating that "she brought her A game" during her solo moments. For the duo's performance she described it as, "a connection and tenderness between them that just can't be faked."[22]
Reviewing the show in London, Pip Ellwood-Hughes of Entertainment Focus gave the set a 4.5/5 rating, stating that booking country music royalty McGraw and Hill was "a real coup for the Country to Country festival and stating that they were "warm and funny on stage" and their set was "inspiring". Mentioning that anticipation was high for the duo's first ever UK performance, Ellwood-Hughes noted that their "packed" set drew "huge cheers from the arena crowd", citing Break First as an early highlight. He stated that the best parts of the set where when McGraw and Hill sang together, referring to their chemistry as "magical" and "off the charts as they trade glances, interact with one another and, at times, look at each other as if there is no one else in the room". Regarding the solo performances, he praised Hill's "energy and enthusiasm", citing This Kiss as a "one of the night's special moments" when Hill "became visibly choked up" as an international audience loudly sang along. Additionally, he called Hill's rendition of Breathe "stunning" and her Piece of My Heart cover a "powerhouse performance". Similarly, McGraw's "confident charisma" was praised and the moment where the audience burst into a spontaneous singalong of Humble and Kind which left McGraw visibly "overwhelmed" was picked as a highlight. Ellwood-Hughes called their performance of Speak to a Girl "beautiful and timely" and said that It's Your Love was a "perfect way to end the night and absolutely stunning". He was critical of sound issues that resulted in complaints for a large amount of audience members who were unable to hear the artists because of loud bass reverb, causing many to leave midway through[23].
Notable events[edit]
During the show in Dubin on March 11, 2018, McGraw collapsed following his performance of "Humble and Kind" and was carried offstage by members of his crew. After twenty minutes, Hill returned to the stage and announced that McGraw was doing fine but was suffering from dehydration and she had made the decision not to allow him back onstage. Hill and the band performed “What a Friend We Have in Jesus” as a final a capella song for the crowd before ending the show early. Although disheartened, the crowd applauded and began chanting "get well Tim". A statement from the couple stated that McGraw "was attended to by local medical staff on-site and will be fine" before adding that "he and Faith thank everyone for their love and support and look forward to seeing their Irish fans again soon"[24].
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Mid Year Worldwide 2017 Tickets Sales Top 100 Tour" (PDF). Pollstar. Retrieved January 4, 2018.
Jump up ^ Watts, Cindy; Neysa-Alund, Natalie (October 3, 2016). "Surprise Tim McGraw and Faith Hill Nashville show sells out in minutes". The Tennessean. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ Betts, Stephen L. (October 5, 2016). "Tim McGraw, Faith Hill to Embark on New Joint Tour". Rolling Stone. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ Konicki, Lisa (January 31, 2017). "Tim McGraw and Faith Hill Reveal More Dates and 26 Opening Acts For Soul2Soul Tour". Nash Country Daily. Cumulus Media. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Tim McGraw, Faith Hill Announce Pittsburgh Concert, Soul2Soul The World Tour 2017". WDSY-FM. CBS Radio. October 4, 2017. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ https://twitter.com/BHarrisCountry/status/913475984564899841
^ Jump up to: a b c Colurso, Mary (April 22, 2017). "16 224 shares Tim McGraw & Faith Hill romance a Birmingham audience in razzle-dazzle style on 'Soul2Soul' tour". al.com. Alabama Media Group. Retrieved May 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Williams, Lindsay (April 22, 2017). "Tim McGraw and Faith Hill's Soul2Soul Tour: 9 Best Things We Saw". Rolling Stone. Rolling Stone. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Eger, Andrea (May 12, 2017). "REVIEW: Faith Hill and Tim McGraw bring pure chemistry to BOK Center". Tulsa World. TownNews.com. Retrieved May 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Vain, Madison (June 20, 2017). "Tim McGraw and Faith Hill go behind the scenes of their over-the-top world tour". Entertainment Weekly. Time Inc. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Stefano, Angela (January 31, 2017). "Tim McGraw, Faith Hill Reveal 2017 Soul2Soul Tour Opening Acts". The Boot. Taste of Country Network. Retrieved January 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ Williams, Lindsay (April 22, 2017). "Tim McGraw and Faith Hill's Soul2Soul Tour: 9 Best Things We Saw". Rolling Stone. Wenner Media, LLC. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ Sources for tour dates:
Bonaguro, Alison (October 4, 2016). "Tim McGraw and Faith Hill Will Tour Together in 2017". CMT. Viacom Media Networks. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
"Concert Scheduled – Tim McGraw (Page 1 of 2)". Pollstar. May 2017. Archived from the original on May 4, 2017. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
"Concert Scheduled – Tim McGraw (Page 2 of 2)". Pollstar. May 2017. Archived from the original on May 4, 2017. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Current Boxscore". Billboard. Nashville, Tennessee. 129 (10). April 29, 2017. ISSN 0006-2510. Archived from the original on April 19, 2017. Retrieved April 19, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Current Boxscore". Billboard. Nashville, Tennessee. 129 (12). May 27, 2017. ISSN 0006-2510. Archived from the original on May 19, 2017. Retrieved May 19, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o "Current Boxscore". 129 (12). May 27, 2017. (webcit). Archived from the original on June 13, 2017. Retrieved June 13, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Current Boxscore". June 28, 2017. (webcit). Archived from the original on July 6, 2017. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Current Boxscore". July 4, 2017. (webcit). Archived from the original on July 6, 2017. Retrieved July 6, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Current Boxscore". Billboard. Nashville, Tennessee. July 25, 2017. Archived from the original on July 28, 2017. Retrieved July 28, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Current Boxscore". Billboard. Nashville, Tennessee. August 22, 2017. Archived from the original on August 22, 2017. Retrieved August 22, 2017.
Jump up ^
"Current Boxscore | Billboard". Billboard. Archived from the original on June 14, 2018. Retrieved June 14, 2018.
"Current Boxscore | Billboard". Billboard. Archived from the original on June 27, 2018. Retrieved June 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ Sky Fadroski, Kelli (July 15, 2017). "Tim McGraw and Faith Hill score again with revived Soul2Soul Tour in Los Angeles". Orange County Register. Retrieved January 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ https://www.entertainment-focus.com/music-section/ef-country/c2c-country-to-country-2018-faith-hill-and-tim-mcgraw-live-review/
Jump up ^ https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-43371141
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Vascular tissue
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Cross section of celery stalk, showing vascular bundles, which include both phloem and xylem.
Detail of the vasculature of a bramble leaf.
This article is about vascular tissue in plants. For transport in animals, see Circulatory system.
Vascular tissue is a complex conducting tissue, formed of more than one cell type, found in vascular plants. The primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem and phloem. These two tissues transport fluid and nutrients internally. There are also two meristems associated with vascular tissue: the vascular cambium and the cork cambium. All the vascular tissues within a particular plant together constitute the vascular tissue system of that plant.
The cells in vascular tissue are typically long and slender. Since the xylem and phloem function in the conduction of water, minerals, and nutrients throughout the plant, it is not surprising that their form should be similar to pipes. The individual cells of phloem are connected end-to-end, just as the sections of a pipe might be. As the plant grows, new vascular tissue differentiates in the growing tips of the plant. The new tissue is aligned with existing vascular tissue, maintaining its connection throughout the plant. The vascular tissue in plants is arranged in long, discrete strands called vascular bundles. These bundles include both xylem and phloem, as well as supporting and protective cells. In stems and roots, the xylem typically lies closer to the interior of the stem with phloem towards the exterior of the stem. In the stems of some Asterales dicots, there may be phloem located inwardly from the xylem as well.
Between the xylem and phloem is a meristem called the vascular cambium. This tissue divides off cells that will become additional xylem and phloem. This growth increases the girth of the plant, rather than its length. As long as the vascular cambium continues to produce new cells, the plant will continue to grow more stout. In trees and other plants that develop wood, the vascular cambium allows the expansion of vascular tissue that produces woody growth. Because this growth ruptures the epidermis of the stem, woody plants also have a cork cambium that develops among the phloem. The cork cambium gives rise to thickened cork cells to protect the surface of the plant and reduce water loss. Both the production of wood and the production of cork are forms of secondary growth.
In leaves, the vascular bundles are located among the spongy mesophyll. The xylem is oriented toward the adaxial surface of the leaf (usually the upper side), and phloem is oriented toward the abaxial surface of the leaf. This is why aphids are typically found on the undersides of the leaves rather than on the top, since the phloem transports sugars manufactured by the plant and they are closer to the lower surface.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Xylem
Phloem
Cork cambium
Vascular cambium
Vascular plant
Stele (biology)
Circulatory system
External links[edit]
Intro to Plant Structure Contains diagrams of the plant tissues, listed as an outline.
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/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
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values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values: نسيج وعائي – Arabic

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values: Проводяща тъкан – Bulgarian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

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https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juhtkude
Juhtkude – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

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interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Αγωγός ιστός – Greek

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interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values: بافت آوندی – Persian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-gl
display: none;

values: გამტარი ქსოვილი – Georgian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values: Өткізгіш ұлпа – Kazakh

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interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values: സംവഹന കലകൾ – Malayalam

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interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values: Проводящая ткань – Russian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values: Проводна ткива – Serbian

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interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

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interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values: கலன் இழையம் – Tamil

values: เนื้อเยื่อท่อลำเลียง – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Провідні тканини рослин – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

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