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Restriction enzyme
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Restriction Enzyme Glossary
Restriction[hide]
The cutting of DNA at specific sites
Enzyme[hide]
A protein that catalyzes a chemical reaction
Molecular recognition[hide]
Used by restriction enzymes to locate specific sequences of DNA on which to bind and subsequently cleave
Recognition sequence[hide]
The DNA sequence to which restriction enzymes bind
Restriction site[hide]
The site of the DNA sequence where it cleaved by the restriction enzyme
v
t
e
A restriction enzyme or restriction endonuclease is an enzyme that cleaves DNA into fragments at or near specific recognition sites within the molecule known as restriction sites.[1][2][3] Restriction enzymes are commonly classified into five types, which differ in their structure and whether they cut their DNA substrate at their recognition site, or if the recognition and cleavage sites are separate from one another. To cut DNA, all restriction enzymes make two incisions, once through each sugar-phosphate backbone (i.e. each strand) of the DNA double helix.
These enzymes are found in bacteria and archaea and provide a defence mechanism against invading viruses.[4][5] Inside a prokaryote, the restriction enzymes selectively cut up foreign DNA in a process called restriction; meanwhile, host DNA is protected by a modification enzyme (a methyltransferase) that modifies the prokaryotic DNA and blocks cleavage. Together, these two processes form the restriction modification system.[6]
Over 3000 restriction enzymes have been studied in detail, and more than 600 of these are available commercially.[7] These enzymes are routinely used for DNA modification in laboratories, and they are a vital tool in molecular cloning.[8][9][10]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Origins
3 Recognition site
4 Types
4.1 Type l
4.2 Type II
4.3 Type III
4.4 Type IV
4.5 Type V
4.6 Artificial restriction enzymes
5 Nomenclature
6 Applications
7 Examples
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
The term restriction enzyme originated from the studies of phage λ, a virus that infects bacteria, and the phenomenon of host-controlled restriction and modification of such bacterial phage or bacteriophage.[11] The phenomenon was first identified in work done in the laboratories of Salvador Luria and Giuseppe Bertani in the early 1950s.[12][13] It was found that, for a bacteriophage λ that can grow well in one strain of Escherichia coli, for example E. coli C, when grown in another strain, for example E. coli K, its yields can drop significantly, by as much as 3-5 orders of magnitude. The host cell, in this example E. coli K, is known as the restricting host and appears to have the ability to reduce the biological activity of the phage λ. If a phage becomes established in one strain, the ability of that phage to grow also becomes restricted in other strains. In the 1960s, it was shown in work done in the laboratories of Werner Arber and Matthew Meselson that the restriction is caused by an enzymatic cleavage of the phage DNA, and the enzyme involved was therefore termed a restriction enzyme.[4][14][15][16]
The restriction enzymes studied by Arber and Meselson were type I restriction enzymes, which cleave DNA randomly away from the recognition site.[17] In 1970, Hamilton O. Smith, Thomas Kelly and Kent Wilcox isolated and characterized the first type II restriction enzyme, HindII, from the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae.[18][19] Restriction enzymes of this type are more useful for laboratory work as they cleave DNA at the site of their recognition sequence. Later, Daniel Nathans and Kathleen Danna showed that cleavage of simian virus 40 (SV40) DNA by restriction enzymes yields specific fragments that can be separated using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, thus showing that restriction enzymes can also be used for mapping DNA.[20] For their work in the discovery and characterization of restriction enzymes, the 1978 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Werner Arber, Daniel Nathans, and Hamilton O. Smith.[21] The discovery of restriction enzymes allows DNA to be manipulated, leading to the development of recombinant DNA technology that has many applications, for example, allowing the large scale production of proteins such as human insulin used by diabetics.[12][22]
Origins[edit]
Restriction enzymes likely evolved from a common ancestor and became widespread via horizontal gene transfer.[23][24] In addition, there is mounting evidence that restriction endonucleases evolved as a selfish genetic element.[25]
Recognition site[edit]
A palindromic recognition site reads the same on the reverse strand as it does on the forward strand when both are read in the same orientation
Restriction enzymes recognize a specific sequence of nucleotides[2] and produce a double-stranded cut in the DNA. The recognition sequences can also be classified by the number of bases in its recognition site, usually between 4 and 8 bases, and the number of bases in the sequence will determine how often the site will appear by chance in any given genome, e.g., a 4-base pair sequence would theoretically occur once every 4^4 or 256bp, 6 bases, 4^6 or 4,096bp, and 8 bases would be 4^8 or 65,536bp.[26] Many of them are palindromic, meaning the base sequence reads the same backwards and forwards.[27] In theory, there are two types of palindromic sequences that can be possible in DNA. The mirror-like palindrome is similar to those found in ordinary text, in which a sequence reads the same forward and backward on a single strand of DNA, as in GTAATG. The inverted repeat palindrome is also a sequence that reads the same forward and backward, but the forward and backward sequences are found in complementary DNA strands (i.e., of double-stranded DNA), as in GTATAC (GTATAC being complementary to CATATG).[28] Inverted repeat palindromes are more common and have greater biological importance than mirror-like palindromes.
EcoRI digestion produces "sticky" ends,
whereas SmaI restriction enzyme cleavage produces "blunt" ends:
Recognition sequences in DNA differ for each restriction enzyme, producing differences in the length, sequence and strand orientation (5' end or 3' end) of a sticky-end "overhang" of an enzyme restriction.[29]
Different restriction enzymes that recognize the same sequence are known as neoschizomers. These often cleave in different locales of the sequence. Different enzymes that recognize and cleave in the same location are known as isoschizomers.
Types[edit]
Naturally occurring restriction endonucleases are categorized into four groups (Types I, II III, and IV) based on their composition and enzyme cofactor requirements, the nature of their target sequence, and the position of their DNA cleavage site relative to the target sequence.[30][31][32] DNA sequence analyses of restriction enzymes however show great variations, indicating that there are more than four types.[33] All types of enzymes recognize specific short DNA sequences and carry out the endonucleolytic cleavage of DNA to give specific fragments with terminal 5'-phosphates. They differ in their recognition sequence, subunit composition, cleavage position, and cofactor requirements,[34][35] as summarised below:
Type I enzymes (EC 3.1.21.3) cleave at sites remote from a recognition site; require both ATP and S-adenosyl-L-methionine to function; multifunctional protein with both restriction and methylase (EC 2.1.1.72) activities.
Type II enzymes (EC 3.1.21.4) cleave within or at short specific distances from a recognition site; most require magnesium; single function (restriction) enzymes independent of methylase.
Type III enzymes (EC 3.1.21.5) cleave at sites a short distance from a recognition site; require ATP (but do not hydrolyse it); S-adenosyl-L-methionine stimulates the reaction but is not required; exist as part of a complex with a modification methylase (EC 2.1.1.72).
Type IV enzymes target modified DNA, e.g. methylated, hydroxymethylated and glucosyl-hydroxymethylated DNA
Type l[edit]
Type I restriction enzymes were the first to be identified and were first identified in two different strains (K-12 and B) of E. coli.[36] These enzymes cut at a site that differs, and is a random distance (at least 1000 bp) away, from their recognition site. Cleavage at these random sites follows a process of DNA translocation, which shows that these enzymes are also molecular motors. The recognition site is asymmetrical and is composed of two specific portions—one containing 3–4 nucleotides, and another containing 4–5 nucleotides—separated by a non-specific spacer of about 6–8 nucleotides. These enzymes are multifunctional and are capable of both restriction and modification activities, depending upon the methylation status of the target DNA. The cofactors S-Adenosyl methionine (AdoMet), hydrolyzed adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and magnesium (Mg2+) ions, are required for their full activity. Type I restriction enzymes possess three subunits called HsdR, HsdM, and HsdS; HsdR is required for restriction; HsdM is necessary for adding methyl groups to host DNA (methyltransferase activity), and HsdS is important for specificity of the recognition (DNA-binding) site in addition to both restriction (DNA cleavage) and modification (DNA methyltransferase) activity.[30][36]
Type II[edit]
Type II site-specific deoxyribonuclease
Structure of the homodimeric restriction enzyme EcoRI (cyan and green cartoon diagram) bound to double stranded DNA (brown tubes).[37] Two catalytic magnesium ions (one from each monomer) are shown as magenta spheres and are adjacent to the cleaved sites in the DNA made by the enzyme (depicted as gaps in the DNA backbone).
Identifiers
EC number
3.1.21.4
CAS number
9075-08-5
Databases
IntEnz
IntEnz view
BRENDA
BRENDA entry
ExPASy
NiceZyme view
KEGG
KEGG entry
MetaCyc
metabolic pathway
PRIAM
profile
PDB structures
RCSB PDB PDBe PDBsum
Gene Ontology
AmiGO / QuickGO
[show]Search
PMC
articles
PubMed
articles
NCBI
proteins
Typical type II restriction enzymes differ from type I restriction enzymes in several ways. They form homodimers, with recognition sites that are usually undivided and palindromic and 4–8 nucleotides in length. They recognize and cleave DNA at the same site, and they do not use ATP or AdoMet for their activity—they usually require only Mg2+ as a cofactor.[27] These enzymes cleave the phosphodiester bond of double helix DNA. It can either cleave at the center of both strands to yield a blunt end. Or it can cleave at a staggered position leaving overhangs called sticky ends.[38] These are the most commonly available and used restriction enzymes. In the 1990s and early 2000s, new enzymes from this family were discovered that did not follow all the classical criteria of this enzyme class, and new subfamily nomenclature was developed to divide this large family into subcategories based on deviations from typical characteristics of type II enzymes.[27] These subgroups are defined using a letter suffix.
Type IIB restriction enzymes (e.g., BcgI and BplI) are multimers, containing more than one subunit.[27] They cleave DNA on both sides of their recognition to cut out the recognition site. They require both AdoMet and Mg2+ cofactors. Type IIE restriction endonucleases (e.g., NaeI) cleave DNA following interaction with two copies of their recognition sequence.[27] One recognition site acts as the target for cleavage, while the other acts as an allosteric effector that speeds up or improves the efficiency of enzyme cleavage. Similar to type IIE enzymes, type IIF restriction endonucleases (e.g. NgoMIV) interact with two copies of their recognition sequence but cleave both sequences at the same time.[27] Type IIG restriction endonucleases (e.g., Eco57I) do have a single subunit, like classical Type II restriction enzymes, but require the cofactor AdoMet to be active.[27] Type IIM restriction endonucleases, such as DpnI, are able to recognize and cut methylated DNA.[27] Type IIS restriction endonucleases (e.g., FokI) cleave DNA at a defined distance from their non-palindromic asymmetric recognition sites;[27] this characteristic is widely used to perform in-vitro cloning techniques such as Golden Gate cloning. These enzymes may function as dimers. Similarly, Type IIT restriction enzymes (e.g., Bpu10I and BslI) are composed of two different subunits. Some recognize palindromic sequences while others have asymmetric recognition sites.[27]
Type III[edit]
Type III restriction enzymes (e.g., EcoP15) recognize two separate non-palindromic sequences that are inversely oriented. They cut DNA about 20–30 base pairs after the recognition site.[39] These enzymes contain more than one subunit and require AdoMet and ATP cofactors for their roles in DNA methylation and restriction, respectively.[40] They are components of prokaryotic DNA restriction-modification mechanisms that protect the organism against invading foreign DNA. Type III enzymes are hetero-oligomeric, multifunctional proteins composed of two subunits, Res and Mod. The Mod subunit recognises the DNA sequence specific for the system and is a modification methyltransferase; as such, it is functionally equivalent to the M and S subunits of type I restriction endonuclease. Res is required for restriction, although it has no enzymatic activity on its own. Type III enzymes recognise short 5–6 bp-long asymmetric DNA sequences and cleave 25–27 bp downstream to leave short, single-stranded 5' protrusions. They require the presence of two inversely oriented unmethylated recognition sites for restriction to occur. These enzymes methylate only one strand of the DNA, at the N-6 position of adenosyl residues, so newly replicated DNA will have only one strand methylated, which is sufficient to protect against restriction. Type III enzymes belong to the beta-subfamily of N6 adenine methyltransferases, containing the nine motifs that characterise this family, including motif I, the AdoMet binding pocket (FXGXG), and motif IV, the catalytic region (S/D/N (PP) Y/F).[34][41]
Type IV[edit]
Type IV enzymes recognize modified, typically methylated DNA and are exemplified by the McrBC and Mrr systems of E. coli.[33]
Type V[edit]
Type V restriction enzymes (e.g., the cas9-gRNA complex from CRISPRs[42]) utilize guide RNAs to target specific non-palindromic sequences found on invading organisms. They can cut DNA of variable length, provided that a suitable guide RNA is provided. The flexibility and ease of use of these enzymes make them promising for future genetic engineering applications.[42][43]
Artificial restriction enzymes[edit]
Artificial restriction enzymes can be generated by fusing a natural or engineered DNA binding domain to a nuclease domain (often the cleavage domain of the type IIS restriction enzyme FokI).[44] Such artificial restriction enzymes can target large DNA sites (up to 36 bp) and can be engineered to bind to desired DNA sequences.[45] Zinc finger nucleases are the most commonly used artificial restriction enzymes and are generally used in genetic engineering applications,[46][47][48][49] but can also be used for more standard gene cloning applications.[50] Other artificial restriction enzymes are based on the DNA binding domain of TAL effectors.[51][52]
In 2013, a new technology CRISPR-Cas9, based on a prokaryotic viral defense system, was engineered for editing the genome, and it was quickly adopted in laboratories.[53] For more detail, read CRISPR (Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats).
In 2017 a group in Illinois announced using an Argonaute protein taken from Pyrococcus furiosus (PfAgo) along with guide DNA to edit DNA as artificial restriction enzymes.[54]
Artificial ribonucleases that act as restriction enzymes for RNA are also being developed. A PNA-based system, called PNAzymes, has a Cu(II)-2,9-dimethylphenanthroline group that mimics ribonucleases for specific RNA sequence and cleaves at a non-base-paired region (RNA bulge) of the targeted RNA formed when the enzyme binds the RNA. This enzyme shows selectivity by cleaving only at one site that either does not have a mismatch or is kinetically preferred out of two possible cleavage sites.[55]
Nomenclature[edit]
Derivation of the EcoRI name
Abbreviation
Meaning
Description
E Escherichia genus
co coli specific species
R RY13 strain
I First identified order of identification
in the bacterium
Since their discovery in the 1970s, many restriction enzymes have been identified; for example, more than 3500 different Type II restriction enzymes have been characterized.[56] Each enzyme is named after the bacterium from which it was isolated, using a naming system based on bacterial genus, species and strain.[57][58] For example, the name of the EcoRI restriction enzyme was derived as shown in the box.
Applications[edit]
Main article: Restriction digest
Isolated restriction enzymes are used to manipulate DNA for different scientific applications.
They are used to assist insertion of genes into plasmid vectors during gene cloning and protein production experiments. For optimal use, plasmids that are commonly used for gene cloning are modified to include a short polylinker sequence (called the multiple cloning site, or MCS) rich in restriction enzyme recognition sequences. This allows flexibility when inserting gene fragments into the plasmid vector; restriction sites contained naturally within genes influence the choice of endonuclease for digesting the DNA, since it is necessary to avoid restriction of wanted DNA while intentionally cutting the ends of the DNA. To clone a gene fragment into a vector, both plasmid DNA and gene insert are typically cut with the same restriction enzymes, and then glued together with the assistance of an enzyme known as a DNA ligase.[59][60]
Restriction enzymes can also be used to distinguish gene alleles by specifically recognizing single base changes in DNA known as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).[61][62] This is however only possible if a SNP alters the restriction site present in the allele. In this method, the restriction enzyme can be used to genotype a DNA sample without the need for expensive gene sequencing. The sample is first digested with the restriction enzyme to generate DNA fragments, and then the different sized fragments separated by gel electrophoresis. In general, alleles with correct restriction sites will generate two visible bands of DNA on the gel, and those with altered restriction sites will not be cut and will generate only a single band. A DNA map by restriction digest can also be generated that can give the relative positions of the genes.[63] The different lengths of DNA generated by restriction digest also produce a specific pattern of bands after gel electrophoresis, and can be used for DNA fingerprinting.
In a similar manner, restriction enzymes are used to digest genomic DNA for gene analysis by Southern blot. This technique allows researchers to identify how many copies (or paralogues) of a gene are present in the genome of one individual, or how many gene mutations (polymorphisms) have occurred within a population. The latter example is called restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP).[64]
Artificial restriction enzymes created by linking the FokI DNA cleavage domain with an array of DNA binding proteins or zinc finger arrays, denoted zinc finger nucleases (ZFN), are a powerful tool for host genome editing due to their enhanced sequence specificity. ZFN work in pairs, their dimerization being mediated in-situ through the FokI domain. Each zinc finger array (ZFA) is capable of recognizing 9–12 base pairs, making for 18–24 for the pair. A 5–7 bp spacer between the cleavage sites further enhances the specificity of ZFN, making them a safe and more precise tool that can be applied in humans. A recent Phase I clinical trial of ZFN for the targeted abolition of the CCR5 co-receptor for HIV-1 has been undertaken.[65]
Others have proposed using the bacteria R-M system as a model for devising human anti-viral gene or genomic vaccines and therapies since the RM system serves an innate defense-role in bacteria by restricting tropism by bacteriophages.[66] There is research on REases and ZFN that can cleave the DNA of various human viruses, including HSV-2, high-risk HPVs and HIV-1, with the ultimate goal of inducing target mutagenesis and aberrations of human-infecting viruses.[67][68][69] Interestingly, the human genome already contains remnants of retroviral genomes that have been inactivated and harnessed for self-gain. Indeed, the mechanisms for silencing active L1 genomic retroelements by the three prime repair exonuclease 1 (TREX1) and excision repair cross complementing 1(ERCC) appear to mimic the action of RM-systems in bacteria, and the non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) that follows the use of ZFN without a repair template.[70][71]
Examples[edit]
See also: List of restriction enzyme cutting sites
Examples of restriction enzymes include:[72]
Enzyme
Source
Recognition Sequence
Cut
EcoRI Escherichia coli
5'GAATTC
3'CTTAAG
5'---G     AATTC---3'
3'---CTTAA     G---5'
EcoRII Escherichia coli
5'CCWGG
3'GGWCC
5'---     CCWGG---3'
3'---GGWCC     ---5'
BamHI Bacillus amyloliquefaciens
5'GGATCC
3'CCTAGG
5'---G     GATCC---3'
3'---CCTAG     G---5'
HindIII Haemophilus influenzae
5'AAGCTT
3'TTCGAA
5'---A     AGCTT---3'
3'---TTCGA     A---5'
TaqI Thermus aquaticus
5'TCGA
3'AGCT
5'---T   CGA---3'
3'---AGC   T---5'
NotI Nocardia otitidis
5'GCGGCCGC
3'CGCCGGCG
5'---GC   GGCCGC---3'
3'---CGCCGG   CG---5'
HinFI Haemophilus influenzae
5'GANTC
3'CTNAG
5'---G   ANTC---3'
3'---CTNA   G---5'
Sau3AI Staphylococcus aureus
5'GATC
3'CTAG
5'---     GATC---3'
3'---CTAG     ---5'
PvuII* Proteus vulgaris
5'CAGCTG
3'GTCGAC
5'---CAG  CTG---3'
3'---GTC  GAC---5'
SmaI* Serratia marcescens
5'CCCGGG
3'GGGCCC
5'---CCC  GGG---3'
3'---GGG  CCC---5'
HaeIII* Haemophilus aegyptius
5'GGCC
3'CCGG
5'---GG  CC---3'
3'---CC  GG---5'
HgaI[73] Haemophilus gallinarum
5'GACGC
3'CTGCG
5'---NN  NN---3'
3'---NN  NN---5'
AluI* Arthrobacter luteus
5'AGCT
3'TCGA
5'---AG  CT---3'
3'---TC  GA---5'
EcoRV* Escherichia coli
5'GATATC
3'CTATAG
5'---GAT  ATC---3'
3'---CTA  TAG---5'
EcoP15I Escherichia coli
5'CAGCAGN25NN 3'GTCGTCN25NN
5'---CAGCAGN25 NN---3' 3'---GTCGTCN25NN ---5'
KpnI[74] Klebsiella pneumoniae
5'GGTACC
3'CCATGG
5'---GGTAC  C---3'
3'---C  CATGG---5'
PstI[74] Providencia stuartii
5'CTGCAG
3'GACGTC
5'---CTGCA  G---3'
3'---G  ACGTC---5'
SacI[74] Streptomyces achromogenes
5'GAGCTC
3'CTCGAG
5'---GAGCT  C---3'
3'---C  TCGAG---5'
SalI[74] Streptomyces albus
5'GTCGAC
3'CAGCTG
5'---G  TCGAC---3'
3'---CAGCT  G---5'
ScaI*[74] Streptomyces caespitosus
5'AGTACT
3'TCATGA
5'---AGT  ACT---3'
3'---TCA  TGA---5'
SpeI Sphaerotilus natans
5'ACTAGT
3'TGATCA
5'---A  CTAGT---3'
3'---TGATC  A---5'
SphI[74] Streptomyces phaeochromogenes
5'GCATGC
3'CGTACG
5'---GCATG  C---3'
3'---C  GTACG---5'
StuI*[75][76] Streptomyces tubercidicus
5'AGGCCT
3'TCCGGA
5'---AGG  CCT---3'
3'---TCC  GGA---5'
XbaI[74] Xanthomonas badrii
5'TCTAGA
3'AGATCT
5'---T  CTAGA---3'
3'---AGATC  T---5'
Key:
* = blunt ends
N = C or G or T or A
W = A or T
See also[edit]
Detailed articles about certain restriction enzymes: EcoRI, HindIII, BglII.
Homing endonuclease
Isoschizomer.
List of homing endonuclease cutting sites
List of restriction enzyme cutting sites
Molecular weight size marker
Restriction map
Star activity
CRISPR
CAS9
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^ Jump up to: a b Types of Restriction Endonucleases | NEB
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Jump up ^ Roberts RJ, Belfort M, Bestor T, Bhagwat AS, Bickle TA, Bitinaite J, Blumenthal RM, Degtyarev SKh, Dryden DT, Dybvig K, Firman K, Gromova ES, Gumport RI, Halford SE, Hattman S, Heitman J, Hornby DP, Janulaitis A, Jeltsch A, Josephsen J, Kiss A, Klaenhammer TR, Kobayashi I, Kong H, Krüger DH, Lacks S, Marinus MG, Miyahara M, Morgan RD, Murray NE, Nagaraja V, Piekarowicz A, Pingoud A, Raleigh E, Rao DN, Reich N, Repin VE, Selker EU, Shaw PC, Stein DC, Stoddard BL, Szybalski W, Trautner TA, Van Etten JL, Vitor JM, Wilson GG, Xu SY (Apr 2003). "A nomenclature for restriction enzymes, DNA methyltransferases, homing endonucleases and their genes". Nucleic Acids Research. 31 (7): 1805–12. doi:10.1093/nar/gkg274. PMC 152790  . PMID 12654995.
Jump up ^ Geerlof A. "Cloning using restriction enzymes". European Molecular Biology Laboratory - Hamburg. Retrieved 2008-06-07.
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External links[edit]
Library resources about
Restriction enzymes
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
General Information:
DNA Restriction Enzymes at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Firman K (2007-11-24). "Type I Restriction-Modification". University of Portsmouth. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
Goodsell DS (2000-08-01). "Restriction Enzymes". Molecule of the Month. RCSB Protein Data Bank. Archived from the original on 2008-05-31. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
Simmer M, Secko D (2003-08-01). "Restriction Endonucleases: Molecular Scissors for Specifically Cutting DNA". The Science Creative Quarterly. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
Databases:
Roberts RJ, Vincze T, Posfai, J, Macelis D. "REBASE". Archived from the original on 2016-12-30. Retrieved 2008-06-06. Restriction Enzyme Database
Software:
Bikandi J, San Millán R, Rementeria A, Garaizar J. "Restriction enzyme digest of DNA". insilico.ehu.es. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
Palmer M. "WatCut". University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Retrieved 2008-06-06. An on-line tool for restriction analysis, silent mutation scanning, SNP-RFLP analysis
Vincze T, Posfai J, Roberts RJ. "NEBcutter V2.0". New England Biolabs Inc. Retrieved 2008-06-06. Restriction enzyme finder
"Restriction enzyme digest of DNA software". BioPHP: PHP for Bioinformatics. Retrieved 2008-06-06. Online tool, free source code
"pDRAW32". AcaClone software. Retrieved 2008-06-06. Freeware DNA cloning, sequence analysis and plasmid/DNA plotting software
Čermák V. "Restriction Analyzer". Retrieved 2016-08-22. Free online tool for restriction analysis
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text:
Daylight saving time in the United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Ohio Clock in the U.S. Capitol being turned forward for the country's first daylight saving time in 1918
Daylight saving time in the United States is the practice of setting the clock forward by one hour during the warmer part of the year, so that evenings have more daylight and mornings have less. Most areas of the United States observe daylight saving time (DST), the exceptions being Arizona (except for the Navajo, who do observe daylight saving time on tribal lands),[1] Hawaii,[2] and the overseas territories of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the United States Virgin Islands.
In general, daylight saving time is not observed in lower-latitude regions, as summer days are not much longer than winter ones as in higher latitudes.
Daylight saving time starts on the second Sunday in March and ends on the first Sunday in November, with the time changes taking place at 2:00 a.m. local time. With a mnemonic word play referring to seasons, clocks "spring forward, fall back" —that is, in springtime the clocks are moved forward from 2:00 a.m. to 3:00 a.m. and in fall they are moved back from 2:00 a.m. to 1:00 a.m. Daylight saving time lasts for a total of 34 weeks (238 days) every year, about 65% of the entire year.
The following table lists recent past and near future starting and ending dates of daylight saving time in the United States:
Year
Start
End
2015 March 8 November 1
2016 March 13 November 6
2017 March 12 November 5
2018 March 11 November 4
2019 March 10 November 3
2020 March 8 November 1
2021 March 14 November 7
2022 March 13 November 6
2023 March 12 November 5
2024 March 10 November 3
Contents
[hide]
1 History of DST in the United States
1.1 1916–1966: Early, inconsistent use
1.2 1966–1972: Federal standard established
1.3 1973–1975: Year-round experiment
1.4 1975–1986: Extension of daylight saving time
1.5 2005–2009: Second extension
2 Procedure for modifications
2.1 Changing an area's time zone
2.2 Moving an area on or off DST
3 Local DST observance
3.1 Alaska
3.2 Arizona
3.2.1 Reservations in Arizona
3.3 California
3.4 Florida
3.5 Hawaii
3.6 Indiana
3.7 Michigan
3.8 Nevada
3.9 Washington
3.10 Other U.S. locations
4 Time zones
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History of DST in the United States[edit]
Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. His essay, “An Economical Project for Diminishing the Cost of Light”, written to the editor of The Journal of Paris, observed that Parisians could save on candles by getting out of bed earlier in the morning, making use of the natural morning light instead. Franklin's suggestion seems to have been more of a joke than a real proposal, and nothing came of it.[3]
1916–1966: Early, inconsistent use[edit]
During World War I, in an effort to conserve fuel, Germany began observing DST on May 1, 1916. The rest of Europe soon followed. The plan was not adopted in the United States until the Standard Time Act of March 19, 1918, which confirmed the existing standard time zone system and set summer DST to begin on March 31, 1918 (reverting October 27).[4] The idea was unpopular and Congress abolished DST after the war, overriding President Woodrow Wilson's veto.[5] DST became a local option and was observed in some states until World War II, when President Franklin Roosevelt instituted year-round DST, called "War Time", on February 9, 1942.[6] It lasted until the last Sunday (the 30th) in September 1945. After 1945 many states and cities east of the Mississippi River (and mostly north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers) adopted summer DST.[7]
From 1945 to 1966 there was no federal law on daylight saving time, so localities could choose when it began and ended or drop it entirely. As of 1954, only California and Nevada had statewide DST west of the Mississippi, and only a few cities between Nevada and St. Louis. In the 1964 Official Railway Guide, 21 of the 48 states had no DST anywhere.
1966–1972: Federal standard established[edit]
By 1962, the transportation industry found the lack of consistency confusing enough to push for federal regulation. The result was the Uniform Time Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-387). Beginning in 1967, the act mandated standard time within the established time zones and provided for advanced time: clocks would be advanced one hour beginning at 2:00 a.m. on the last Sunday in April and turned back one hour at 2:00 a.m. on the last Sunday in October. States were allowed to exempt themselves from DST as long as the entire state did so. If a state chose to observe DST, the time changes were required to begin and end on the established dates. In 1967, Arizona and Michigan became the first states to exempt themselves from DST (Michigan would begin observing DST in 1972). In 1972, the act was amended (P.L. 92-267), allowing those states split between time zones to exempt either the entire state or that part of the state lying within a different time zone. The newly created Department of Transportation (DOT) was given power to enforce the law. As of 2014, the following states and territories are not observing DST: Arizona, Hawaii, American Samoa, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.[7]
1973–1975: Year-round experiment[edit]
During the 1973 oil embargo by the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), in an effort to conserve fuel, Congress enacted a trial period of year-round DST (P.L. 93-182), beginning January 6, 1974, and ending April 27, 1975.[8] The trial was hotly debated. Those in favor pointed to increased daylight hours in the winter evening: more time for recreation, reduced lighting and heating demands, reduced crime, and reduced automobile accidents. The opposition was concerned about children leaving for school in the dark. The act was amended in October 1974 (P.L. 93-434) to return to standard time for the period beginning October 27, 1974, and ending February 23, 1975, when DST resumed. When the trial ended in 1975, the country returned to observing summer DST (with the aforementioned exceptions).[7]
1975–1986: Extension of daylight saving time[edit]
The DOT, evaluating the plan of extending DST into March, reported in 1975 that "modest overall benefits might be realized by a shift from the historic six-month DST (May through October) in areas of energy conservation, overall traffic safety and reduced violent crime." However, DOT also reported that these benefits were minimal and difficult to distinguish from seasonal variations and fluctuations in energy prices.[7]
Congress then asked the National Bureau of Standards (NBS, today NIST) to evaluate the DOT report. Its report, "Review and Technical Evaluation of the DOT Daylight Saving Time Study" (April 1976), found no significant energy savings or differences in traffic fatalities.[9] It did find statistically significant evidence of increased fatalities among school-age children in the mornings during the four-month period January–April 1974 as compared with the same period (non-DST) of 1973. NBS stated that it was impossible to determine, what, if any, of this increase was due to DST. When these data were compared between 1973 and 1974 for the months of March and April, no significant difference was found in fatalities among school-age children in the mornings.[7]
In 1986 Congress enacted P.L. 99-359, amending the Uniform Time Act by changing the beginning of DST to the first Sunday in April and having the end remain the last Sunday in October.[7] These start and end dates were in effect from 1987 to 2006. The time was adjusted at 2:00 a.m. local time.
2005–2009: Second extension[edit]
By the Energy Policy Act of 2005, daylight saving time (DST) was extended in the United States beginning in 2007.[10] As from that year, DST begins on the second Sunday of March and ends on the first Sunday of November. In years when April 1 falls on Monday through Wednesday, these changes result in a DST period that is five weeks longer; in all other years the DST period is instead four weeks longer.[11] In 2008 daylight saving time ended at 2:00 a.m. DST (0200) (1:00 a.m. ST) on Sunday, November 2, and in 2009 it began at 2:00 a.m. (3:00 a.m. DST) on Sunday, March 8.[12] Wyoming Senator Michael Enzi and Michigan Representative Fred Upton advocated the extension from October into November especially to allow children to go trick-or-treating in more daylight.[13]
Under Section 110 of the Act, the U.S. Department of Energy was required to study the impact of the 2007 DST extension no later than nine months after the change took effect. The report, released in October 2008, reported a nationwide electricity savings of 0.03% for the year of 2007.[14]
An October 2008 study conducted by the University of California at Santa Barbara for the National Bureau of Economic Research found that the 2006 DST adoption in Indiana increased energy consumption in Indiana by an average of 1%. Although consumption for lighting dropped as a result of the DST adoption, consumption for heating and cooling increased by 2% to 4%. The cost to the average Indiana household of the DST adoption was determined to be $3.29 per year, for an aggregate cost of $1.7 million to $5.5 million per year.[15]
Procedure for modifications[edit]
Changing an area's time zone[edit]
Under the Standard Time Act of 1918, as amended by the Uniform Time Act of 1966, moving a state or an area within a state from one time zone to another requires a regulation issued by DOT. The governor or state legislature may initiate a request for the state or any part of the state; the highest elected officials in the county may make a request for that county. The standard in the statute for such decisions is the convenience of commerce in that area. The convenience of commerce is defined broadly to consider such circumstances as the shipment of goods within the community; the origin of television and radio broadcasts; the areas where most residents work, attend school, worship, or receive health care; the location of airports, railway, and bus stations; and the major elements of the community's economy.[7]
After receiving a request for altering a time zone, DOT determines whether it meets the requirement of minimum statutory criteria before issuing a notice of proposed rulemaking, soliciting public comment and scheduling a public hearing. Usually the hearing is held in the area requesting the change so that all affected parties can be represented. After the close of the comment period, the comments are reviewed and appropriate final action taken. If the Secretary agrees that the statutory requirement has been met, the change is instituted, usually at the next changeover to or from DST.[7]
Moving an area on or off DST[edit]
Under the Uniform Time Act, moving an area on or off DST is accomplished through legal action at the state level. Some states require legislation while others require executive action such as a governor's executive order. Information on procedures required in a specific state may be obtained from that state's legislature or governor's office. Although it may exempt itself, if a state decides to observe DST, the dates of observance must comply with federal legislation.[7]
Local DST observance[edit]
Alaska[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2017)
Alaska observes DST. Due to its high latitude, Alaska has nearly round-the-clock daylight during summer, and DST is seen by some Alaskans as unnecessary and a nuisance. Another issue is that the Alaskan mainland's single time zone, which approximates solar time in the capital, Juneau, leads to a large disparity between civil time and solar time for much of the state, with solar noon occurring as late as 2:00 p.m. in the population centers of Anchorage and Fairbanks, and as late as 3:00 p.m. in places such as Nome. In Fairbanks, for example, sunset occurs well after civil midnight in the summer. Others argue that ending daylight saving time will place Alaska as much as five hours from Eastern Daylight Time, making coordination of travel and phone conversations more difficult.
In March 2015 the Alaska Senate passed a bill, introduced by state senator Anna MacKinnon, to end daylight saving time. The Alaska House formed a sub-committee that was due to look into the issue during the 2016 legislative session.[16]
Arizona[edit]
Arizona observed DST in 1967 under the Uniform Time Act because the state legislature did not enact an exemption statute that year. In March 1968 the DST exemption statute was enacted and the state of Arizona has not observed DST since 1967. This is in large part due to an effort to conserve energy. Phoenix and Tucson are among the hottest U.S. metropolitan areas during the summer, resulting in more power usage from air conditioning units and evaporative coolers in homes and businesses. An extra hour of sunlight while people are active would cause people to run their cooling systems longer, thereby using more energy.[17]
Reservations in Arizona[edit]
The Navajo Indian Reservation extends into Utah and New Mexico and does observe daylight saving time.[18] The Hopi Reservation is entirely within the state of Arizona and is an enclave within the Navajo Indian Reservation, but does not observe DST.
California[edit]
California voters passed Proposition 12[19] in 1949, approving DST in the state.[20] In February 2017, California Assembly member Kansen Chu introduced A.B. 807,[21] which, if enacted and approved by voters, would enable the legislature to eliminate DST in the state, or, if federal law allows, to adopt DST for the entire year..[22]
Florida[edit]
Daylight time is less useful in Florida than in many other states because its southern location leads to less variation in day length between winter and summer. Without DST, Miami, for instance, would experience similar sunrise and sunset times throughout the year to cities such as Honolulu or Hong Kong, both of which have abandoned DST for decades. There is opposition to DST in Florida.[23] State senator Bill Posey introduced a bill in March 2008 to abolish daylight time in the state and keep Florida on year-round standard time.[24] Because Florida straddles two time zones, the Florida legislature has the option of returning all or part of the state to standard time along time zone boundaries (i.e. placing the portion of the state in the Eastern time zone on standard time, while leaving the portion in the Central time zone on DST, so that the whole state had a common time).
Hawaii[edit]
Hawaii has never observed daylight saving time under the Uniform Time Act, having opted out of the Act's provisions in 1967.[25]
Because of Hawaii's tropical latitude, there is not a large variation in daylight length between winter and summer. Advancing the clock in Hawaii would make sunrise times close to 7:00 a.m. even in June.[26] Most of the inhabited islands are located close to the west end of the Hawaii-Aleutian time zone, but Oahu, Kauai, and Niihau are located more than 7 degrees west of the Hawaii-Aleutian time zone's meridian and should, theoretically, be located in the next time zone to the west. (Until about 1946 Hawaiian standard time was based on longitude 157.5 degrees west rather than 150 degrees.)
On April 26, 1933, the Territorial Legislature enacted a bill placing Hawaii on daylight saving time from the last Sunday in April (April 30 in that year) to the last Sunday in September, but the law was repealed three weeks later on May 21, 1933.[27] During World War II between February 9, 1942 and September 30, 1945, Hawaiian Standard Time was advanced one hour to so-called "Hawaiian War Time," effectively placing the territory on year-round daylight saving time.[28]
Indiana[edit]
See also: Time in Indiana
From 1970 until 2006, most of Indiana in the Eastern Time Zone did not observe daylight saving time, but the entire state started to do so in April 2006 after eight counties in western Indiana were shifted from the Central Time Zone to the Eastern Time Zone.[29] One goal for observing DST was to get more Indiana counties observing the same time zone; formerly, 77 counties observed EST, 5 observed EST/EDT (the EDT usage being unofficial only), and 10 observed CST/CDT. As of 2016[update], Indiana has 12 counties observing Central Daylight Time while the remaining 80 counties observe Eastern Daylight Time. Those counties observing CST are in two groups: one near or in the Chicago metropolitan area, and the other around Evansville in the southwest corner of the state.
Michigan[edit]
In 1967 the Michigan Legislature adopted a statute, Act 6 of the Public Acts of 1967, exempting the state from the observance of DST. The exemption statute was suspended on June 14, 1967, however, when the referendum was invoked. From June 14, 1967 until the last Sunday in October, 1967, Michigan observed DST, and did so in 1968 as well. The exemption statute was submitted to the voters at the General Election held in November 1968, and, in a close vote, the exemption statute was sustained. As a result, Michigan did not observe DST in 1969, 1970, 1971, or 1972. (Radio station CKLW in Windsor, Ontario, just across the river from Detroit, was popular on both sides of the border and would often give both times on the air, e.g. "It's 4:30 in Detroit and 5:30 in Windsor!") In November 1972, an initiative measure, repealing the exemption statute, was approved by the voters. Michigan again observed DST in 1973, and has continued to do so since then.
The vast majority of Michigan is in the Eastern Time Zone. Only the Upper Peninsula counties that border Wisconsin (Gogebic, Iron, Dickinson, and Menominee) are in Central Time.
Nevada[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2017)
In 2015 the Nevada Senate passed Nevada Assembly Joint Resolution 4, which would make it so that Nevada remains on Daylight Saving Time throughout the year. This would mean that Nevada is on the same time as Arizona all year, but would be an hour ahead of California in the winter.[30] The United States Congress must now approve the change.
Washington[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2017)
In 2015, Rep. Elizabeth Scott (R-Monroe) filed a House bill to end DST in Washington, and a companion bill was filed in the Senate.[31] She told a House committee that the semiannual time switches are not only inconvenient but lead to health problems and accidents due to lost sleep.[32] She added that the bill to drop daylight saving time would reduce heart attacks, car wrecks and work accidents found to increase with the sleep-schedule disruptions.[31] A different Senate Bill would petition the federal government for year-round DST.[31]
Other U.S. locations[edit]
All U.S. insular territories with civilian government (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands) lie in the tropics and do not observe DST.
While neighboring Samoa began observing DST in September 2010, the smaller American Samoa cannot legally follow because of the DST observation period mandated by the Uniform Time Act. This period is actually wintertime in this Southern Hemisphere territory.
Time zones[edit]
Many computer operating systems (such as Microsoft Windows, Linux, UNIX, and macOS) and programming languages (such as Java, perl, and most shell languages) allow a local time zone setting in the format of (standard time zone abbreviation)(UTC hour difference)(daylight saving time zone abbreviation). This allows programs and programming languages that must do calculations based on local time to more easily calculate differences between local time and UTC, as well as knowing whether calculations should be changed during daylight saving time. For example, a time zone setting of EST5EDT indicates that local time on the computer is 5 hours behind UTC and should be adjusted for daylight saving time.
Time Zone
Standard Time
Daylight Saving Time
TZ
Atlantic Time Zone AST (UTC-4) ADT (UTC-3) AST4ADT
Eastern Time Zone EST (UTC-5) EDT (UTC-4) EST5EDT
Central Time Zone CST (UTC-6) CDT (UTC-5) CST6CDT
Mountain Time Zone MST (UTC-7) MDT (UTC-6) MST7MDT
Pacific Time Zone PST (UTC-8) PDT (UTC-7) PST8PDT
Alaska Time Zone AKST (UTC-9) AKDT (UTC-8) AKST9AKDT
Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone HAST (UTC-10) HADT (UTC-9)
Aleutian Islands only HAST10HADT
See also[edit]
General topic
Daylight saving time
Daylight saving time by country
CHU distributes official time in Canada
History of time in the United States includes a list of historical daylight saving dates back to 1918
Official civil time distribution
WWV and WWVH (NIST Shortwave)
WWVB (NIST Longwave)
Quasi-governmental time distribution systems
CDMA cellphone stratum 2 time distribution system
GNSS global navigation stratum 1 time distribution system
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Most of Exempt from Daylight Saving Time", timeanddate.com. Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Daylight Time". United States Naval Observatory. Retrieved October 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ History of Daylight Saving Time, timeanddate.com; accesses 2017.03.05.
Jump up ^ Editors (25 October 1918). "Clocks Change Tomorrow" (PDF). The New York Times Company. The New York Times. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
Jump up ^ 66th U.S. Congress. "CHAP. 51. An Act For the repeal of the daylight-saving law" (pdf). Legis Works. Retrieved November 3, 2013. (Pub.L. 66–40, 41 Stat. 280, enacted August 20, 1919)
Jump up ^ 77th U.S. Congress. "AN ACT To promote the national security and defense by establishing daylight saving time" (pdf). Legis Works. Retrieved November 3, 2013. (Pub.L. 77–403, 56 Stat. 9, enacted January 20, 1942)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Source: CRS Report to Congress s:Congressional Research Service Report RS22284 Daylight Saving Time
Jump up ^ 93rd U.S. Congress. "AN ACT To provide for daylight saving time on a year-round basis for a two-year trial period, .." (pdf). United States Government Printing Office. Retrieved 2 November 2013. (Pub.L. 93–182, 87 Stat. 707, enacted December 15, 1973)
Jump up ^ Dunning, Brian. "Skeptoid #172: Daylight Saving Time Myths". Skeptoid. Retrieved June 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ 109th U.S. Congress. "Sec. 110. Daylight Savings" (PDF). An Act To ensure jobs for our future with secure, affordable, and reliable energy. United States Government Printing Office. Retrieved November 3, 2013. (Pub.L. 109–58, 119 Stat. 594, enacted August 8, 2005)
Jump up ^ Douma, Michael (2008). "Daylight Saving Time — When do we change our clocks?". Institute for Dynamic Educational Advancement. Retrieved March 8, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Time and Frequency Division FAQ". National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Jump up ^ Ast, William F. III (October 30, 2009). "Time shifts backward early Sunday morning". The Herald-Palladium. Retrieved October 30, 2009.
Jump up ^ Belzer, David B. (October 2008). "Impact of Extended Daylight Saving Time on National Energy Consumption" (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-18.
Jump up ^ Lotchen, Matthew (October 2008). "Does Daylight Saving Time Save Energy? Evidence from a Natural Experiment in Indiana" (PDF). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Jump up ^ Moritz, Katie (April 10, 2015). "Clock Stopped on Daylight Saving Time Repeal – For Now". Juneau Empire. Retrieved May 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Shimoda, Yoshiyuki; Asahi, Takahiro; Taniguchi, Ayako; Mizuno, Minoru (2007). "Evaluation of city-scale impact of residential energy conservation measures using the detailed end-use simulation model". Energy. 32 (9): 1617. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2007.01.007.
Jump up ^ "Navajo Nation". Wwp.greenwichmeantime.com. Retrieved June 25, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Proposition 12: Daylight Saving Time". UC Hastings Scholarship Repository. University of California Hastings. 1949. Retrieved March 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "California Wants To Ban Daylight Saving Time". The Huffington Post. March 11, 2016. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ A.B. 807, 2017–2018 Reg. Sess. (Cal. 2017). An act to add Section 6808 to the Government Code, and to repeal Sections 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 of the Daylight Saving Time Act, an initiative measure approved at the November 8, 1949, special election, relating to daylight saving time.
Jump up ^ Murphy, Katy (March 10, 2017). "California debates daylight saving time — again". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved March 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "HB 701 – Daylight Saving Time". Retrieved May 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ Colavecchio-Van Sickler, Shannon (March 27, 2008). "Posey's daylight savings bill moves". Tampa Bay Times.
Jump up ^ "Hawaii Revised Statutes, § 1-31". Capitol.hawaii.gov. Retrieved June 25, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Astronomical Data Applications". U.S. Naval Meteorology & Oceanography Command. Retrieved June 25, 2010.
Jump up ^ Session Laws of Hawaii, 933, enacted by Act 90 (approved April 26, 1933) and repealed by Act 163 (approved May 21, 1933). Cited in Schmitt, Robert; Cox, Doak (1992). "Hawaiian Time". The Hawaiian Journal of History. 26: 220. Archived from the original on November 5, 2013. Retrieved November 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Schmitt and Cox, p. 221.
Jump up ^ Standard Time Zone Boundary in the State of Indiana (a 139 KB PDF file)
Jump up ^ Chereb, Sandra (May 18, 2015). "Nevada lawmakers urge Congress to allow state to stay on daylight savings time". Las Vegas Review-Journal.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Bill would end daylight saving time in Washington state". The Oregonian. AP. February 3, 2015. Retrieved November 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ Nunnally, Derrick (February 3, 2015). "Lawmakers want to end Daylight Saving Time in Washington". AP. Retrieved November 5, 2016.
External links[edit]
Washington Post: Overview of anti-DST initiatives by states in 2015
Steverman, Ben (March 10, 2017). "Proof daylight saving time is dumb, dangerous, and costly". Boston Globe. Bloomberg News. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
[hide]
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