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Helena (A Midsummer Night's Dream)
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Helena
A Midsummer Night's Dream character
Washington Allston's 1818 painting Hermia and Helena.
Created by
William Shakespeare
Date(s)
Shakespearean times
Helena is a fictional character and one of the four young lovers – Demetrius, Lysander, Hermia and Helena – featured in William Shakespeare's play A Midsummer Night's Dream.
She is the daughter of Nedar, a member of Theseus court and the Athenian aristocracy, and a friend of Hermia, with whom she is often compared. Prior to the play's beginning, she is betrothed to the nobleman Demetrius but is jilted when his affections turn to Hermia instead. Despite this, Helena's abiding love for Demetrius remains consistent throughout the play. Hermia and her lover, Lysander, confide in Helena that they plan to elope. In the hopes that she will gain back some of his respect, Helena tells Demetrius of Hermia and Lysander's escape and, that night, the two follow the lovers into the forest.
Though Demetrius is deliberately cruel towards her, Helena remains honest in her devotion to him. Her behaviour catches the attention of Oberon, who commands that Puck enchant a sleeping Demetrius so that he will fall back in love with Helena. When Puck mistakenly enchants Lysander instead, then put the potion on the real Demetrius. Both men become enamoured with her and desert Hermia in the woods. Confused by the sudden change in behaviour, Helena convinces herself that the three other lovers have banded together to ridicule her. Throughout her conquest for Demetrius' love, she becomes convinced the others are merely mocking her tried, but true efforts for love. Helena is left confused and hurt by how ungentlemanly and unfriendly her closest comrades are. In the play's climax, she and Hermia nearly come to blows while the two men set out to kill one another for Helena's affections.
Separated by Oberon and Puck and with dawn approaching, the lovers each decide to sleep again. Oberon commands Puck to reverse the enchantment placed on Lysander, and when the lovers are discovered in the morning by Theseus, Duke of Athens, all is put to rights. Demetrius claims that a metaphorical 'sickness' made him love Hermia, but in health, his love has returned to Helena. The four lovers are married in a joint ceremony with Theseus and Hippolyta and together mock the show put on by the Mechanicals in the play's final act.
While not the protagonist of A Midsummer Night's Dream, Helena is one of its most talkative characters.[1] Her dialogue provides key insight for the audience into humanist beliefs on the nature of love and the process of falling in love.
Helena is never criticised for her unrequited love for Demetrius; her constancy is seen by other characters as a great virtue, compared to his fickle nature. She also demonstrates great platonic love and sisterly devotion to Hermia. Within the cast of the lovers, her role is comparable to Lysander's. Both are more outwardly romantic and thoughtful than their partners, and both speak those lines most pertinent to the play's themes of romantic maturity and the source of lasting love. While Lysander says, 'the course of true love ne'er did run smooth', Helena's speech in Act I includes the well-known quote: "Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind; And therefore is wing'd Cupid painted blind."
Her name is reminiscent of Helen of Troy, a reference made by Theseus towards the play's end, and her character is similar to another of Shakespeare's Helenas in All's Well That Ends Well.
Helena's character was portrayed in movies by famous actresses like Jean Muir in Max Reinhardt's and William Dieterle's 1935 version, by Vanessa Redgrave in Peter Hall's 1959 TV movie, by Diana Rigg in Hall's second adaptation in 1968, by Claude Jade in Jean-Christophe Averty's famous 1969 French adaptation and by Calista Flockhart in the 1999 film directed by Michael Hoffman. [2]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "All Shakespeare characters ordered by part size". ShakespeareWords.com. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
Jump up ^ "Helena in A Midsummer Night's Dream". Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
Shakespeare, William & Gill, Roma (ed.)1981, "A Midsummer Night's Dream", Oxford University Press, United Kingdom.
Shakespeare, William. A Midsummer Night's Dream. "The Penguin Shakespeare." Penguin/Puffin Books, 1977.
Jacobson, Karin. CliffsNotes on A Midsummer Night's Dream. 15 November 2010 <http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/literature/id-78.html>.
Shakespeare, William. A Midsummer Night's Dream. Evans, Bertrand, ed.; Lynch, James J., ed. The Merchant of Venice, A Midsummer Night's Dream. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1963. 131–238.
[hide]
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William Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream
Characters
Lovers
Theseus and Hippolyta
Oberon and Titania
Hermia and Lysander
Helena and Demetrius
Mechanicals
Nick Bottom
Peter Quince
Francis Flute
Robin Starveling
Tom Snout
Snug
Other characters
Puck
Egeus
Philostrate
Film
1909
1935
1959
1968
1969
1999
Television
1980
1992
1994
2016
Stage
A Midsummer Night's Dream (1970, play)
The Park (1983, play)
The Donkey Show (1999, musical)
The Dreaming (2001, musical)
Ballet
A Midsummer Night's Dream (1962)
The Dream (1964)
Opera
The Fairy-Queen (1692)
Pyramus and Thisbe (1745)
Puck (1949)
A Midsummer Night's Dream (1960, opera)
The Enchanted Island (2011)
Film adaptations
Wood Love (1925)
Dream of a Summer Night (1983)
Get Over It (2001)
A Midsummer Night's Rave (2002)
Midsummer Dream (2005)
Were the World Mine (2008)
Strange Magic (2015)
Other adaptations
The Triumph of Beauty (1646)
St. John's Eve (1852)
"Fascination" (1994)
Literature
A Midsummer Tempest (1974)
A Midsummer Night's Gene (1997)
A Midsummer's Nightmare (1997)
Lords and Ladies (1992)
The Great Night (2011)
Comics
Auberon
Faerie
Titania
Music
A Midsummer Night's Dream (1842, Mendelssohn)
Wedding March (1842, Mendelssohn)
Three Shakespeare Songs (1951)
Symphony No. 8 (1992, Henze)
Il Sogno (2004)
Art
Hermia and Lysander
The Quarrel of Oberon and Titania
Scene from A Midsummer Night's Dream
Related
The Sandman: Dream Country (1991)
Pyramus and Thisbe
Mechanical
Love-in-idleness
The Apartment (1996)
Wicker Park (2004)

'Then puts the potion on the real demetrius" was made by Connie Allen on 1 February 2015
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Cell theory
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Human cancer cells with nuclei (specifically the DNA) stained blue. The central and rightmost cell are in interphase, so the entire nuclei are labeled. The cell on the left is going through mitosis and its DNA has condensed.
In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, also known as cell biology. Over a century later, many debates about cells began amongst scientists. Most of these debates involved the nature of cellular regeneration, and the idea of cells as a fundamental unit of life. Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1839. This is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. However, many other scientists like Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory.
The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below:
All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms.
Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
The first of these tenets is disputed, as non-cellular entities such as viruses are sometimes considered life-forms.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Microscopes
2 Discovery of cells
3 Cell theory
4 Modern interpretation
5 The modern version of the cell theory
6 Opposing concepts in cell theory: history and background
6.1 Evolution of the membrane and bulk phase theories
6.2 The emergence of the steady-state membrane pump concept
6.3 The reemergence of the bulk phase theories
7 Types of cells
8 See also
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 Further reading
12 External links
Microscopes
Anton van Leeuwenhoek's microscope from the 17th century with a magnification of 270x.
Robert Hooke's microscope
The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. In the first century BC, Romans were able to make glass, discovering that objects appeared to be larger under the glass. In Italy during the 12th century, Salvino D’Armate made a piece of glass fit over one eye, allowing for a magnification effect to that eye. The expanded use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century probably led to wider spread use of simple microscopes (magnifying glasses) with limited magnification.[2] Compound microscope, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image achieving much higher magnification, first appeared in Europe around 1620[3][4] In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope about six inches long with two convex lenses inside and examined specimens under reflected light for the observations in his book Micrographia. Hooke also used a simpler microscope with a single lens for examining specimens with directly transmitted light, because this allowed for a clearer image.[5]
Extensive microscopic study was done by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a draper who took the interest in microscopes after seeing one while on an apprenticeship in Amsterdam in 1648. At some point in his life before 1668, he was able to learn how to grind lenses. This eventually led to Leeuwenhoek making his own unique microscope. His were a single lens simple microscope, rather than a compound microscope. This was because he was able to use a single lens that was a small glass sphere but allowed for a magnification of 270x. This was a large progression since the magnification before was only a maximum of 50x. After Leeuwenhoek, there was not much progress for the microscopes until the 1850s, two hundred years later. Carl Zeiss, a German engineer who manufactured microscopes, began to make changes to the lenses used. But the optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired Otto Schott and eventually Ernst Abbe.[6]
Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.[6]
Discovery of cells
Drawing of the structure of cork by Robert Hooke that appeared in Micrographia.
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 ‘observations’ in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope.[5] One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells". This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function.[7] What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae" were alive.[8] His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe “seeds” that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.[5]
Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x.[8] Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he states that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek named these “animalcules,” which included protozoa and other unicellular organisms, like bacteria.[6] Though he did not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox, then leading him to study "pepper water" in 1676. He also found for the first time the sperm cells of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells, Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter the egg cell. This put an end to the previous theory of spontaneous generation. After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.[5]
The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because the tissues were so fragile and susceptible to tearing, it was difficult for such thin slices to be prepared for studying. Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit to life, but were unsure what this was. It would not be until over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was connected to cellular structure and existence of cells in animals or plants.[9] This conclusion was not made until Henri Dutrochet. Besides stating “the cell is the fundamental element of organization”,[10] Dutrochet also claimed that cells were not just a structural unit, but also a physiological unit.
In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link were awarded the prize for "solving the problem of the nature of cells", meaning they were the first to prove that cells had independent cell walls by the Königliche Societät der Wissenschaft (Royal Society of Science), Göttingen.[11] Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and the fluid passed between them this way.
Cell theory
Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1804–1881)
Theodor Schwann (1810–1882)
Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to two scientists: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden.[12] While Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory, he is not as credited for his attributions toward it. In 1839, Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the result of cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either within other cells or from the outside.[13] However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden. He claimed this theory as his own, though Barthelemy Dumortier had stated it years before him. This crystallization process is no longer accepted with modern cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their structures.[14] This was a major advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated.[9]
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells
2. The cell is the most basic unit of life
Schleiden's theory of free cell formation through crystallization was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak, Rudolf Virchow, and Albert Kolliker.[6] In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added the third tenet to cell theory. In Latin, this tenet states Omnis cellula e cellula.[9] This translated to:
3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells
However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit.[15] Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission, which was first introduced by Dumortier, was how reproduction of new animal cells were made. Once this tenet was added, the classical cell theory was complete.
Modern interpretation
The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:
All known living things are made up of one or more cells[16]
All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.[17]
The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.[citation needed]
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.[citation needed]
Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and RNA found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.[18]
All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species .[citation needed]
The modern version of the cell theory
The modern version of the cell theory includes the ideas that:
Energy flow occurs within cells.[19]
Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.[19]
All cells have the same basic chemical composition.[19]
Opposing concepts in cell theory: history and background
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first cell theory is credited to the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s. In this theory the internal contents of cells were called protoplasm and described as a jelly-like substance, sometimes called living jelly. At about the same time, colloidal chemistry began its development, and the concepts of bound water emerged. A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension, where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation. The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it wasn’t until 1877, when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. In 1889 Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50% in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells.
Evolution of the membrane and bulk phase theories
Two opposing concepts developed within the context of studies on osmosis, permeability, and electrical properties of cells.[20] The first held that these properties all belonged to the plasma membrane whereas the other predominant view was that the protoplasm was responsible for these properties. The membrane theory developed as a succession of ad-hoc additions and changes to the theory to overcome experimental hurdles. Overton (a distant cousin of Charles Darwin) first proposed the concept of a lipid (oil) plasma membrane in 1899. The major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so Nathansohn (1904) proposed the mosaic theory. In this view, the membrane is not a pure lipid layer, but a mosaic of areas with lipid and areas with semipermeable gel. Ruhland refined the mosaic theory to include pores to allow additional passage of small molecules. Since membranes are generally less permeable to anions, Leonor Michaelis concluded that ions are adsorbed to the walls of the pores, changing the permeability of the pores to ions by electrostatic repulsion. Michaelis demonstrated the membrane potential (1926) and proposed that it was related to the distribution of ions across the membrane.[21] Harvey and Danielli (1939) proposed a lipid bilayer membrane covered on each side with a layer of protein to account for measurements of surface tension. In 1941 Boyle & Conway showed that the membrane of frog muscle was permeable to both K+ and Cl-, but apparently not to Na+, so the idea of electrical charges in the pores was unnecessary since a single critical pore size would explain the permeability to K+, H+, and Cl- as well as the impermeability to Na+, Ca+, and Mg++. Over the same time period, it was shown (Procter & Wilson, 1916) that gels, which do not have a semipermeable membrane, would swell in dilute solutions. Loeb (1920) also studied gelatin extensively, with and without a membrane, showing that more of the properties attributed to the plasma membrane could be duplicated in gels without a membrane. In particular, he found that an electrical potential difference between the gelatin and the outside medium could be developed, based on the H+ concentration. Some criticisms of the membrane theory developed in the 1930s, based on observations such as the ability of some cells to swell and increase their surface area by a factor of 1000. A lipid layer cannot stretch to that extent without becoming a patchwork (thereby losing its barrier properties. Such criticisms stimulated continued studies on protoplasm as the principal agent determining cell permeability properties. In 1938, Fischer and Suer proposed that water in the protoplasm is not free but in a chemically combined form—the protoplasm represents a combination of protein, salt and water—and demonstrated the basic similarity between swelling in living tissues and the swelling of gelatin and fibrin gels. Dimitri Nasonov (1944) viewed proteins as the central components responsible for many properties of the cell, including electrical properties. By the 1940s, the bulk phase theories were not as well developed as the membrane theories. In 1941, Brooks & Brooks published a monograph The Permeability of Living Cells, which rejects the bulk phase theories.
The emergence of the steady-state membrane pump concept
With the development of radioactive tracers, it was shown that cells are not impermeable to Na+. This was difficult to explain with the membrane barrier theory, so the sodium pump was proposed to continually remove Na+ as it permeates cells. This drove the concept that cells are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly using energy to maintain ion gradients. In 1935, Karl Lohmann discovered ATP and its role as a source of energy for cells, so the concept of a metabolically-driven sodium pump was proposed. The tremendous success of Hodgkin, Huxley, and Katz in the development of the membrane theory of cellular membrane potentials, with differential equations that modeled the phenomena correctly, provided even more support for the membrane pump hypothesis.
The modern view of the plasma membrane is of a fluid lipid bilayer that has protein components embedded within it. The structure of the membrane is now known in great detail, including 3D models of many of the hundreds of different proteins that are bound to the membrane. These major developments in cell physiology placed the membrane theory in a position of dominance and stimulated the imagination of most physiologists, who now apparently accept the theory as fact—there are, however, a few dissenters.[citation needed]
The reemergence of the bulk phase theories
In 1956, Afanasy S. Troshin published a book, The Problems of Cell Permeability, in Russian (1958 in German, 1961 in Chinese, 1966 in English) in which he found that permeability was of secondary importance in determination of the patterns of equilibrium between the cell and its environment. Troshin showed that cell water decreased in solutions of galactose or urea although these compounds did slowly permeate cells. Since the membrane theory requires an impermanent solute to sustain cell shrinkage, these experiments cast doubt on the theory. Others questioned whether the cell has enough energy to sustain the sodium/potassium pump. Such questions became even more urgent as dozens of new metabolic pumps were added as new chemical gradients were discovered.
In 1962, Gilbert Ling became the champion of the bulk phase theories and proposed his association-induction hypothesis of living cells.
Types of cells
Main article: Cell types
Prokaryote cell.
Eukaryote cell.
Cells can be subdivided into the following subcategories:
Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes are relatively small cells surrounded by the plasma membrane, with a characteristic cell wall that may differ in composition depending on the particular organism.[22] Prokaryotes lack a nucleus (although they do have circular or linear DNA) and other membrane-bound organelles (though they do contain ribosomes). The protoplasm of a prokaryote contains the chromosomal region that appears as fibrous deposits under the microscope, and the cytoplasm.[22] Bacteria and Archaea are the two domains of prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells are also surrounded by the plasma membrane, but on the other hand, they have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane or envelope. Eukaryotic cells also contain membrane-bound organelles, such as (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles).[23] In addition, they possess organized chromosomes which store genetic material.[citation needed]
Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100–150 different cell types), compared with 10–20 in plants, fungi, and protoctista.[24]
See also
Biology portal
Cell adhesion
Cell biology
Cellular differentiation
Germ theory of disease
Membrane models
References
Jump up ^ Villarreal, Luis P. (August 8, 2008) Are Viruses Alive? Scientific American
Jump up ^ Atti Della Fondazione Giorgio Ronchi E Contributi Dell'Istituto Nazionale Di Ottica, Volume 30, La Fondazione-1975, page 554
Jump up ^ Albert Van Helden; Sven Dupré; Rob van Gent (2010). The Origins of the Telescope. Amsterdam University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-90-6984-615-6.
Jump up ^ William Rosenthal, Spectacles and Other Vision Aids: A History and Guide to Collecting, Norman Publishing, 1996, page 391 - 392
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gest, H (2004). "The discovery of microorganisms by Robert Hooke and Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek, fellows of the Royal Society". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 58 (2): 187–201. doi:10.1098/rsnr.2004.0055. PMID 15209075.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mazzarello, P. (1999). "A unifying concept: the history of cell theory". Nature Cell Biology. 1 (1): E13–5. doi:10.1038/8964. PMID 10559875. Archived from the original on 2015-06-03.
Jump up ^ Inwood, Stephen (2003). The man who knew too much: the strange and inventive life of Robert Hooke, 1635–1703. London: Pan. p. 72. ISBN 0-330-48829-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Becker, Wayne M.; Kleinsmith, Lewis J.; Hardin, Jeff (2003). The World of the Cell. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8053-4854-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c Robinson, Richard. "History of Biology: Cell Theory and Cell Structure". Advameg, Inc. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Dutrochet, Henri (1824) "Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur la structure intime des animaux et des vegetaux, et sur leur motilite, par M.H. Dutrochet, avec deux planches"
Jump up ^ Kalenderblatt Dezember 2013 – Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät – Universität Rostock. Mathnat.uni-rostock.de (2013-11-28). Retrieved on 2015-10-15.
Jump up ^ Sharp, L. W. (1921). Introduction To Cytology. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company Inc.
Jump up ^ Schleiden, M. J. (1839). "Beiträge zur Phytogenesis". Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin: 137–176.
Jump up ^ Schwann, T. (1839). Mikroskopische Untersuchungen über die Uebereinstimmung in der Struktur und dem Wachsthum der Thiere und Pflanzen. Berlin: Sander.
Jump up ^ Silver, GA (1987). "Virchow, the heroic model in medicine: health policy by accolade". American Journal of Public Health. 77 (1): 82–8. doi:10.2105/AJPH.77.1.82. PMC 1646803  . PMID 3538915.
Jump up ^ Wolfe
Jump up ^ Wolfe, p. 5
Jump up ^ Wolfe, p. 8
^ Jump up to: a b c "The modern version of the Cell Theory". Retrieved 12 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Ling, Gilbert N. (1984). In search of the physical basis of life. New York: Plenum Press. ISBN 0306414090.
Jump up ^ Michaelis, L. (1925). "Contribution to the Theory of Permeability of Membranes for Electrolytes". The Journal of General Physiology. 8 (2): 33–59. doi:10.1085/jgp.8.2.33. PMC 2140746  . PMID 19872189.
^ Jump up to: a b Wolfe, p. 11
Jump up ^ Wolfe, p. 13
Jump up ^ Margulis, L. & Chapman, M.J. (2009). Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth ([4th ed.]. ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press/Elsevier. p. 116.
Bibliography
Wolfe, Stephen L. (1972). Biology of the cell. Wadsworth Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-534-00106-3.
Further reading
Turner W (January 1890). "The Cell Theory Past and Present". J Anat Physiol. 24 (Pt 2): 253–87. PMC 1328050  . PMID 17231856.
Tavassoli M (1980). "The cell theory: a foundation to the edifice of biology". Am. J. Pathol. 98 (1): 44. PMC 1903404  . PMID 6985772.
External links
Mallery C (2008-02-11). "Cell Theory". Retrieved 2008-11-25.
"Studying Cells Tutorial". 2004. Retrieved 2008-11-25.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cell_theory&oldid=812343178"
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Ryan Atwood
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Ryan Atwood
The O.C. character
Benjamin McKenzie as Ryan Atwood
First appearance
"Premiere"
(episode 1.01)
Last appearance
"The End's Not Near, It's Here"
(episode 4.16)
Created by
Josh Schwartz
Portrayed by
Benjamin McKenzie
Information
Full name
Ryan Francis Atwood
Nickname(s)
Chino (by Luke)
Atwood (by Summer)
Kid (by Sandy)
Ry (by Trey)
Gender
Male
Occupation
Architect
High school student
(at the Harbor School; graduated)
College student
(at UC Berkeley; graduated)
Family
Francis "Frank" Atwood
(biological father)
Dawn Atwood
(biological mother)
Sanford "Sandy" Cohen
(adoptive father)
Kirsten Cohen
(adoptive mother)
Trey Atwood
(biological older brother)
Cooper Atwood
(paternal half-brother)
Seth Cohen
(adoptive brother)
Sophie Rose Cohen
(adoptive sister)
Sophie Cohen
(adoptive paternal grandmother)
Caleb and Rose Nichol
(adoptive grandparents; deceased)
Hailey Nichol
(adoptive maternal aunt)
Lindsay Gardner
(adoptive maternal half-aunt)
Significant other(s)
Theresa Diaz
(ex-girlfriend)
Marissa Cooper
(ex-girlfriend, deceased)
Gabrielle
(fling)
Lindsay Gardner
(ex-girlfriend)
Sadie Campbell
(ex-girlfriend)
Chloe
(one-night stand)
Taylor Townsend
(girlfriend, undefined)
Relatives
Summer Roberts
(sister-in-law, via Seth)
Residence
Newport Beach, California
Formerly:
Chino, California
Ryan Francis Atwood is a fictional character on the FOX television series The O.C., portrayed by Benjamin McKenzie. A troubled teenager from Chino, California, he is an outcast who is given a second chance when the wealthy Cohen family takes him in.
Contents
1 Concept and creation
1.1 Casting
2 Characterization
2.1 Background
2.2 Personality
3 Character arc
3.1 Season 1
3.2 Season 2
3.3 Season 3
3.4 Season 4
3.4.1 Series finale
4 References
Concept and creation[edit]
Casting[edit]
"When Benjamin [McKenzie] came in, he wasn't physically what Josh [Schwartz] had envisioned, but he inhabited the character unlike anyone we had seen. I think that the character of Ryan is a kid that always seems a little lost and has a sense of mystery and danger; Benjamin has all those qualities."
— Patrick Rush on the casting of Benjamin McKenzie as Ryan[1]
Casting director Patrick Rush found the role of Ryan Atwood particularly hard to cast for The O.C..[1] Chad Michael Murray turned the role down to play Lucas Scott on One Tree Hill.[2] Rush invited Benjamin McKenzie to audition after Warner Bros. made him aware of the young actor after an unsuccessful audition for a UPN sitcom. McKenzie, who had spent two years in New York and Los Angeles seeking acting work, lacked experience and later described his selection as "a tremendous leap of faith" on the producers' part.[1][3] Show creator Josh Schwartz said in 2014, "[McKenzie] took it really seriously, and brought just a lot of integrity, and integrity is not always required in a Fox teen drama."[4]
Characterization[edit]
Background[edit]
Ryan was physically abused by his biological father Frank and some of his mother Dawn's boyfriends. He has a complicated, love-hate relationship with his older brother Trey.[5] Both parents struggled with alcohol – Frank became physically abusive while Dawn neglected and verbally abused him – and it left a deep impression on him, as shown by his aversion to strong alcoholic drinks.[6] By his own statements, Ryan never had a father figure for much of his life, due to Frank being in prison and his mother's revolving door of boyfriends, prior to being adopted by the Cohens.[7] The Atwoods used to live in Fresno but moved to Chino after Frank was imprisoned.[8] In season 4, it is stated that Ryan had not seen Frank in eight years.[9] In regards to his biological family, a major recurring theme was Ryan being abandoned[10] – Dawn abandoned him twice, Trey left for Las Vegas without telling him and their dad left them and their mom "with nothing" after being imprisoned[11] – which contrasts his adopted family, the Cohens, who have stood by him despite his juvenile record, vocal criticisms and disdain from the other "Newpsies" about his adoption and his multiple attempts to run away from them. Although he does not address Sandy and Kirsten as Dad or Mom, he has made it clear that he considers them to be his parents, rather than Frank and Dawn.[9]
He generally dislikes speaking about his biological family and has hinted during Christmas and Thanksgiving that the holidays brought up painful memories for him. During his first Chrismukkah in Newport, he tells the Cohens that his holidays mainly consisted of him "getting [his] ass kicked" and sums up his Christmas memories in three words: drinking, crying and cops.[12]
Personality[edit]
Born and raised in a working class family, Ryan knows the lifestyle and attitudes of people from his neighborhood of Chino, California and the dangers that occur if outsiders are influenced by its environment. His abusive past is reflected by the fact that he has an extremely high pain threshold[13] and displays an impassive expression after being physically beat up. He is tough, cynical and quick-tempered,[6] yet compassionate and empathetic toward people in trouble and those less fortunate than himself. During his first months in Newport, he had the tendency to physically express his anger at the incessant teasing from his schoolmates by punching them, which led them intentionally goad him even more, but he gradually calmed down, after some serious lecturing from Sandy and being sent to anger management counseling. He at times appears burdened by an almost-compulsive need to rescue others at the expense of his own well-being, however, and is overly protective of Marissa and Theresa, his main love interests on the show. The product of an abusive household, he has difficulty trusting or getting close to people emotionally, which could also be due to the fact that his mother Dawn refused to get help for her alcoholism and brother Trey continuously broke his promises to stay out of trouble. He is extremely loyal to his family, both biological and adopted, and those he cares about. The fact that he rarely smiles or says much is something of a running joke among other members of the Cohen household; early in the first season when he first moves in with the Cohens, he often looks down and avoids making eye contact, likely a habit of self-preservation born out of his upbringing in an unstable home and would stiffen when hugged; by the final season, he becomes more open to his adoptive family. Despite his reticent nature and emotionless exterior, Ryan can be quite transparent, often "convey[ing] everything with just a look",[14] and is virtually incapable of lying, as Sandy proved in the episode "The O.Sea" when he caught Ryan trying to cover-up for Seth and Ryan's "guilty face" gave it away.
Compared to his adoptive brother, Ryan is the opposite of the socially awkward, sheltered and sometimes naïve Seth; he is street-savvy, which often results in him having to constantly bail Seth out of trouble during the first two seasons, athletic and charismatic, albeit in a more understated way. Seth often joked about he had known Summer and Marissa since they were in elementary but they never talked to one another while Ryan was invited to the annual charity fashion by Marissa barely twenty four hours after setting foot in Newport Beach. Inside the classroom, he has been described as highly intelligent despite his history of behavior problems (he was suspended multiple times for fighting and truancy). In the pilot episode, it is revealed that he had taken his SATs despite being only a sophomore and scored in the 98th percentile. According to Dawn, Ryan had always been "the smart one, the good one" in the family.[8]
Ryan's favorite fruit is peaches, and his favorite band is Journey. He suffers from acrophobia, the fear of heights.[14] He is athletic and played football (safety)[15] and soccer (striker) in school;[14] a soccer ball is sometimes seen in the Cohen's pool house. Despite the generosity of his adoptive family, Ryan repeatedly demonstrates he can earn his own keep by taking paying jobs around town, such as a busboy at the Crab Shack, a construction worker, an intern at the Newport Group, and a barback position. He used to smoke, like both Frank[9] and Dawn, but stopped after Sandy tells him on the first night that smoking wasn't allowed in the house.[16]
Of the characters in the show, Ryan is closest to his adoptive brother Seth, Summer and Marissa – this "core four" group of friends is the basis of Seth's Atomic County comic series. Ryan and Seth are often able to finish each other's sentences, according to Summer, "like they're composing a lie on the spot"[13] and read each other's body language and facial expressions.[17]
Character arc[edit]
Season 1[edit]
When Ryan and his brother Trey are caught attempting to steal a car, his mother Dawn kicks him out. His attorney, Sandy Cohen, takes him into his home in Newport Beach, California, despite objections from Sandy's wife, Kirsten. Sandy takes note of Ryan's high test scores in spite of his poor grades, which was more likely due to inconsistent attendance rather than Ryan's lack of intelligence. Initially Kirsten is wary of him and insisted Sandy take him back to juvie but, after witnessing him being physically assaulted in juvie for defending her from an unruly inmate, she takes him home. She subsequently welcomes him to stay permanently upon seeing that Dawn was incapable of adequately caring for Ryan due to her alcohol problem.[8] In the episode "The Debut", Sandy and Kirsten become his legal guardians, after Dawn leaves him at the Cohens' in the previous episode. Ryan becomes part of the Cohen family, living in their pool house, and becomes a brother to Sandy and Kirsten's son, Seth Cohen; even Sandy and Kirsten consider him their second son, referring to him as such rather than the more legally accurate term "ward". However, even though he is accepted by the immediate Cohen family, he still feels like and is seen by other characters as an outsider, a recurring theme throughout the season. In particular, Harbor School dean Dr. Kim, water polo team captain Luke Ward, Kirsten's father Caleb Nichol and the Cohens' neighbor Julie Cooper had reservations about Ryan. Shortly after meeting her, he begins a relationship with Marissa Cooper, Julie's daughter.
Initially Ryan has trouble fitting in at Harbor School, the local private school most "Newpsies" attend. He joins the soccer team, only to find that Luke was also on the team.[14] The fact that Luke, his rival for Marissa's affections and the water polo team captain, was there exacerbated the problem. Ryan takes it out on Luke with a rash tackle during soccer practice, earning him a suspension and a stern reminder from Sandy that they (the Cohens) were "always one mistake away from someone taking you from us".[14] He and Luke become friends in the aftermath of the discovery that Luke's father was gay and is the first person Luke vents his frustration and anger to.[7] Luke becomes unlikely friends with Ryan and his circle of "outcasts": Marissa, who was ostracized by other girls following her parents' divorce and suicide attempt, and the socially awkward Seth, whom he and other jocks used to bully.
Ryan's relationship with Marissa is interrupted by Oliver Trask, a deeply disturbed boy Marissa meets in therapy who becomes obsessed with her. Ryan becomes suspicious, which brings significant trust issues between the couple, eventually resulting in a breakup, although they remain friends.
At the same time, Theresa Diaz, Ryan's childhood sweetheart, comes to Newport, resulting in a rekindled romance between them. However, Theresa leaves Newport after her fiancé Eddie, one of Ryan's friends in Chino, convinces her to return to Chino with him. Ryan and Marissa resume their relationship shortly after, but this is complicated when Theresa returns after suffering domestic abuse by Eddie. Theresa reveals she is pregnant but does not know whether the father is Ryan or Eddie. She decides to keep the baby and return home to Chino to be with her mother. Feeling compelled to help her bring up the child, Ryan decides to go with Theresa, leaving Marissa, the Cohens, and everything else in his life behind.
Season 2[edit]
Having quit school and working in construction, Ryan lives with Theresa, but she realizes he is unhappy and encourages him to visit Seth in Portland, Oregon, where he ran away following Ryan's departure. He hesitantly goes, hoping to convince his friend to go home to his parents before the fall semester starts, but while he stays in Portland, Theresa notifies him through the telephone she has miscarried. Although Ryan is devastated and wants to return to her, Theresa tells him he needs to go back to Newport with Seth.[18]
Ryan returns to school and is still uncertain about his plans beyond high school. By chance, he catches Sandy and Kirsten's contractor cutting corners and quickly points out discrepancies in the floor plan and finished product. The school counselor discovers some technical drawings and sketches of the lower floor of the Cohens' home in his notebook and advises him to consider architecture as a career.[19]
As part of Seth's idea of a reunion of the "Fab Four" (consisting of Ryan, Marissa, Seth and his girlfriend Summer Roberts), Ryan and Marissa are pulled closer together. When he overhears Marissa admitting to Summer that Ryan is the only one she ever loved and she misses him every day, he confesses his own lingering feelings for her. The two get back together, just as Ryan's brother Trey is released from jail.[5] Ryan, along with the Cohens and Marissa, attempts to get Trey back onto his feet. However, during his trip to Florida with Sandy and Seth to pay Sandy's mother a visit, Trey tries to rape Marissa while intoxicated on drugs. Marissa does not tell anyone, causing tension with Ryan, who suspects she cheated on him with Trey. After he questions his brother, who hides at a bar in Chino and blames a drunken Marissa, Ryan bumps into Theresa and confides his problems. She tells him that out of the two, Marissa would never hurt him and she would be the one to trust. Following Theresa's advice, Ryan makes up with Marissa.
Meanwhile, Sandy becomes concerned with Kirsten's alcoholism and decides to stage an intervention. Ryan reassures Sandy he is doing the right thing. Ryan takes part, stating that, having lost his mother to alcoholism, he would not be able to bear it if he lost someone else he loved to the bottle. Following similar statements of love from the rest of the Cohens, Kirsten gives in and checks herself into rehab. When Marissa tells Summer about Trey's attempted rape, Summer informs Seth. Seth, knowing he cannot lie to Ryan, tells him, who prompts a confrontation with his brother. The brothers fight, and Trey almost kills Ryan. Marissa turns up and shoots Trey in the back with his own gun.
Season 3[edit]
Marissa's death in "The Graduates" (episode 3.25)
Trey survives the gunshot but remains in a coma. When he regains consciousness, Marissa's mother Julie blackmails him to place the blame on Ryan so Marissa's innocence will clear her reputation in society, but following Ryan's initial arrest, Marissa convinces him to tell the truth. With Ryan's charges dropped, Trey flees Newport, leaving Marissa expelled from Harbor High to instead attend public school. When she befriends amateur surfer Johnny Harper, Ryan becomes suspicious of their closeness, fueling their on and off relationship. After Johnny dies in an accident, Ryan questions Marissa's true feelings towards Johnny, ending their relationship. Following their split, Marissa begins spiraling down a disastrous relationship with Kevin Volchok, Johnny's former surfing rival, while Ryan develops his own rivalry against Volchok, including instances of blackmail, extortion and violence.
In the season finale, Ryan, Marissa, Seth and Summer graduate from high school, following their prospective futures. Ryan became the first in his family to graduate from high school[20] and is accepted by the University of California, Berkeley, Sandy and Kirsten's alma mater. Volchok attempts to blackmail Ryan, threatening to inform the authorities of Ryan's earlier involvement in a robbery which he was forced to assist him with. In an effort to fulfill Volchok's ransom, Marissa gives Ryan her mother's graduation gift: pearls he can pawn for the money. Volchok doesn't accept the money, demanding more, including a talk with Marissa, which she refuses, instead staying with Ryan. While Ryan drives Marissa to the airport, Volchok, drunk and furious, attempts to crash Ryan's car. In a blind rage, he sideswipes Ryan's vehicle, knocking it over a barrier to roll down an embankment. Ryan manages to pull an unconscious Marissa out of the wreckage before the car exploded due to the leaking gas tank. Marissa dies of her injuries in his arms minutes later.
Season 4[edit]
Following Marissa's death, Ryan moves into a storage closet at a bar where he works while avoiding the Cohens and starts cage fighting, which becomes an outlet for his anger and grief. The Cohens repeatedly call him up to check up on him and ask him to come over for dinner and Sandy even goes to the bar to look for Ryan himself but Ryan continues to elude them on purpose. Meanwhile, a desperate Seth calls Summer, who is away at Brown University in Rhode Island, to come back and hopefully convince Ryan to return home with the Cohens. Sandy, Kirsten and Seth finally convince him to return home after they reveal to him, through Seth's Atomic County comic strips, how he has changed their family for the better. Julie, finding any way necessary to cope with her grief, hires a private investigator to dig up evidence of Volchok's whereabouts, in hopes of exacting her revenge. She passes the information to Ryan, the only person who can truly understand the pain she feels, and suggests he do with Volchok whatever he wishes, as giving the police the information is too valuable a deal to pass up. Ryan heads to Mexico to finish the job, but Seth tags along to ensure Ryan doesn't ruin his life by committing murder. Seth calls Sandy and Kirsten, who have driven to Mexico to find the boys, then warns Volchok to leave town before Ryan gets to him and advises that he take advantage of his lawyer father. His plan fools Ryan, who returns home; his relationship with Seth is severely compromised, however. Heeding Seth's advice, Volchok contacts Sandy to be his defense attorney, although Ryan discovers it. Sandy, knowing Ryan would never kill anyone, drives him to the hotel where he's housed Volchok. Inside, Ryan puts a broken bottle against Volchok's throat; he spares Volchok's life, however, leaving him for the police.
Ryan settles back down to life in Newport, determined to have an uneventful summer, until Taylor Townsend returns from France trapped in a loveless marriage, seeking a divorce. Ryan is reluctantly drawn in and, during a heart-to-heart conversation with Sandy, he is reminded that he's always been the one to help people when they need it the most. Ryan kisses Taylor in front of her husband's lawyer, who can grant a divorce only if one member was unfaithful and agrees that their kiss was heartfelt. Seth warns Ryan that Taylor is unstable and clings to anyone who shows her kindness; while Ryan appreciates the notion, he admits that he is not yet over Marissa and decides to confront Taylor; she initially denies her own feelings but later confesses that she is attracted to him. Following a second kiss, the idea being to discover if it sparks any feelings, he admits he does like her, except that he does not want anything too serious.
During Chrismukkah (a combination of Christmas and Hanukkah celebrated at the Cohen house), Ryan discovers a letter in the mail from Marissa but gets distracted by Kirsten. While he's hanging decorations on the house roof, Taylor arrives with her gift to him; he is preoccupied by Marissa's letter, however, and acts coldly towards her. When she climbs the ladder he's working on to angrily give him his present, the ladder falls, along with the two of them, knocking them both unconscious. While in the hospital, Ryan and Taylor dream of being in an alternate dream universe of Newport, as if Ryan had never been adopted by the Cohen family. When Taylor misunderstands a conversation with a housekeeper from this world, she informs Ryan that Marissa is alive; Ryan says he never wants to wake up so he can be with her again. When he finds out about her arrival at an airport from Berkeley and goes to meet her, he finds this world's version of Marissa's sister Kaitlin, who tells him that Marissa had died of the overdose he had saved her from. In the real world, Kirsten shows Julie Marissa's letter to Ryan, which she had written to Ryan before she left for Greece. In the letter, Marissa states that she had to leave because, even though she still loved him, they could not be together. After Julie sets the note beside an unconscious Ryan, it appears for him to read in his dream, during which he realizes he has to forgive himself for Marissa's death and to move on. Moments later, he regains consciousness. He finally gathers the courage to visit Marissa's grave, where he bumps into Julie, who consoles him with the knowledge that at least Marissa did not die alone. Since her daughter's death, Julie has softened towards Ryan after realizing that he sincerely cared for Marissa.
Days later, Ryan finds out from Sandy that his biological father, Frank Atwood, is out of jail and wishes to see him. Ryan is hesitant, recalling the abuse he suffered at Frank's hands, but Frank convinces him by claiming that he has lung cancer. However, following dinner with the Cohens, an already-suspicious Sandy reveals that Frank lied about the cancer after checking up with his contacts in the prison system.[9] Frank leaves Newport, although he returns apologetically and with help from Taylor forms a tentative relationship with his son. The situation becomes even more awkward when Frank begins dating Julie and stays at her house. They remain on friendly terms but Ryan has made it clear that even though he addresses Frank as "dad", he considers Sandy to be his father figure.[9]
Meanwhile, Taylor's ex-husband Henri-Michel comes to Newport on a book tour for his best-selling novel about their marriage. Feeling insecure about Taylor's exotic life in France, Ryan breaks up with her, claiming they are "too different". A week later, Ryan decides he was wrong but discovers it might be too late as Taylor is already considering a reconciliation with Henri, who still loves her. Ryan upstages a poetry reading by Henri at a book store with a poem of his own, where he confesses he can grow to love Taylor, given time.
Series finale[edit]
To make up for giving a pocket dictionary for her nineteenth birthday, Ryan gives Taylor his original present of a bound book full of love poems that she translated. He admits he loves her, but as they reconcile, an earthquake hits Newport. The two survive, but Ryan is injured while protecting Taylor and is brought to the hospital for recovery. Six months later, Ryan and Taylor spend time together before she leaves Newport for college in Paris. Ryan thanks her for saving him from self-destruction, and he and the Cohens depart from their Newport home, damaged beyond repair, to Sandy and Kirsten's old home in Berkeley, California, while Seth leaves for RISD.
In a flashforward, Ryan attends UC Berkeley, where Sandy is now a law professor. At Seth and Summer's wedding, he is best man and shares a smile with Taylor, the maid of honor (their relationship status is left ambiguous). Ryan achieves his dream of becoming an architect. As he walks away from a construction site, he notices a teenager down on his luck, seemingly in the same situation Ryan was when he was kicked out of his home. As he offers the youth help, Ryan's story comes full circle.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Backstage Pass - Production Notes". The OC Insider. Warner Bros. Retrieved 2008-07-27.
Jump up ^ Banks, Andrew (2007-06-12). "Top movie role reversals". News.com.au. News Digital Media. Archived from the original on April 21, 2012. Retrieved March 10, 2013.
Jump up ^ Katner, Ben (2003-08-12). "The 411 on The O.C.'s MVP". TV Guide. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
Jump up ^ Hale, Mike (2014-11-23). "Sometimes, Old-Fashioned Pays Off". The New York Times. pp. AR19. Retrieved 18 January 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Brothers Grim". The O.C. Season 2. Episode 17. March 24, 2005. Fox.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Ex-Factor". The O.C. Season 2. Episode 9. January 20, 2005. Fox.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Secret". The O.C. Season 1. Episode 12. November 26, 2003. Fox.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Gamble". The O.C. Season 1. Episode 3. August 19, 2003. Fox.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "My Two Dads". The O.C. Season 4. Episode 9. January 4, 2007. Fox.
Jump up ^ "The Mallpisode". The O.C. Season 2. Episode 15. March 10, 2005. Fox.
Jump up ^ "The Road Warrior". The O.C. Season 3. Episode 16. March 9, 2006. Fox.
Jump up ^ "The Best Chrismukkah Ever". The O.C. Season 1. Episode 13. December 3, 2003. Fox.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Night Moves". The O.C. Season 4. Episode 15. February 15, 2007. Fox.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "The Heights". The O.C. Season 1. Episode 9. November 5, 2003. Fox.
Jump up ^ "The Perfect Storm". The O.C. Season 3. Episode 5. November 3, 2005. Fox.
Jump up ^ "Growing Up Is Hard To Do: 'The O.C.' and How Ryan Atwood Learned to Let Himself Be Taken Care Of". Indiewire. July 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Christmukkah Bar Mitz-vahkkah". The O.C. Season 3. Episode 10. December 15, 2005. Fox.
Jump up ^ "The Distance". The O.C. Season 2. Episode 1. November 4, 2004. Fox.
Jump up ^ "The Way We Were". The O.C. Season 2. Episode 2. November 11, 2004. Fox.
Jump up ^ "The Game Plan". The O.C. Season 3. Episode 8. December 1, 2005. Fox.
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Eine kleine Nachtmusik
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Eine kleine Nachtmusik[1] (Serenade No. 13 for strings in G major), K. 525, is a 1787 composition for a chamber ensemble by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The German title means "a little serenade", though it is often rendered more literally but less accurately as "a little night music."[2] The work is written for an ensemble of two violins, viola, and cello with optional double bass but is often performed by string orchestras.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Composition, publication, and reception
2 Movements
2.1 I. Allegro
2.2 II. Romanze
2.3 III. Menuetto
2.4 IV. Rondo
3 Possible extra movement
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Composition, publication, and reception[edit]
The serenade was completed in Vienna on 10 August 1787,[3] around the time Mozart was working on the second act of his opera Don Giovanni.[4] It is not known why it was composed.[5] Hildesheimer, noting that most of Mozart's serenades were written on commission, suggests that this serenade, too, was a commission, whose origin and first performance were not recorded.[6]
The traditionally used name of the work comes from the entry Mozart made for it in his personal catalog, which begins, "Eine kleine Nacht-Musik."[7] As Zaslaw and Cowdery point out, Mozart almost certainly was not giving the piece a special title, but only entering in his records that he had completed a little serenade.[8]
The work was not published until about 1827, long after Mozart's death, by Johann André in Offenbach am Main.[3] It had been sold to this publisher in 1799 by Mozart's widow Constanze, part of a large bundle of her husband's compositions.
Today, the serenade is widely performed and recorded; indeed, both Jacobson and Hildesheimer opine that the serenade is the most popular of all Mozart's works.[9] Of the music, Hildesheimer writes, "even if we hear it on every street corner, its high quality is undisputed, an occasional piece from a light but happy pen."[6]
Movements[edit]
The work has four movements:
Allegro
Romanze: Andante
Menuetto: Allegretto
Rondo: Allegro
I. Allegro[edit]
The first theme
1. Allegro
Performed by the Advent Chamber Orchestra
Problems playing this file? See media help.
This first movement is in sonata-allegro form. It opens with an ascending Mannheim rocket theme. The second theme is more graceful and in D major, the dominant key of G major. The exposition closes in D major and is repeated. The development section begins on D major and touches on D minor and C major before the work returns to G major for the recapitulation. There is a brief coda.
II. Romanze[edit]
The second movement, with the tempo marked Andante, is a Romanze in the subdominant key of C major. A feeling of intimacy and tenderness prevails throughout this movement. It is in rondo form, taking the shape A–B–A–C–A plus a final coda. The keys of the sections are C major for A and B, C minor for C. The middle appearance of A is truncated, consisting of only the first half of the theme. Heartz describes the movement as evoking gavotte rhythm: each of its sections begins in the middle of the measure, with a double upbeat.[10]
III. Menuetto[edit]
The third movement, marked Allegretto, is a minuet and trio, both in 3
4 time. The minuet is in the home key of G major, the contrasting trio in the dominant key of D major. As is normal in this form, the minuet is played again da capo following the trio.
IV. Rondo[edit]
4. Rondo
Electronic version, arranged by Steamboat Electric/Hans-Peter Scholz
Problems playing this file? See media help.
The fourth and last movement is in lively tempo, marked Allegro; the key is again G major. The movement is written in sonata form. Mozart specifies repeats not just for the exposition section but also for the following development and recapitulation section. The work ends with a long coda.
Possible extra movement[edit]
In the catalog entry mentioned above, Mozart listed the work as having five movements ("Allegro – Minuet and Trio – Romance – Minuet and Trio – Finale.").[8] The second movement in his listing, a minuet and trio, was long thought lost and no one knows if it was Mozart or someone else who removed it. Musicologist Alfred Einstein suggested, however, that a minuet in Piano Sonata in B♭ major, K. 498a, is the missing movement.[11] The sonata's minuet has been recorded in an arrangement for strings made by Jonathan Del Mar for Nimbus Records.[12]
See also[edit]
Parodies by Peter Schickele:
Eine kleine Nichtmusik
A Little Nightmare Music
References[edit]
Jump up ^ German pronunciation: [ˈʔaɪnə ˈklaɪnə ˈnaxtmuˌziːk]
Jump up ^ See "Nachtmusik" and "Notturno" entries in Grove Music Online.
^ Jump up to: a b c Holoman (1992, 397)
Jump up ^ Einstein, Alfred; Arthur Mendel, Nathan Broder (translators) (1962). Mozart, His Character, His Work. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-19-500732-9.
Jump up ^ Holoman, D. Kern (1992). Evenings with the orchestra: a Norton companion for concertgoers. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 398. ISBN 978-0-393-02936-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Hildesheimer (1991, 215)
Jump up ^ The full entry reads (in German) "Eine kleine Nachtmusik, bestehend in einem Allegro.Menuett und Trio.–Romance.Menuett und Trio, und Finale.–2 violini, viola e bassi."; "A little serenade, consisting of an allegro, a minuet and trio, a romance, [another] minuet and trio, and a finale. For two violins, viola, and bass instruments." Mozart's "incipit" (quotation for identification purposes) consists of the first two bars of the first movement. The catalog is posted at the web site of the British Library. Quotation of text is from German Wikipedia, "Eine kleine Nachtmusik."
^ Jump up to: a b Zaslaw and Cowdery (1991, 250)
Jump up ^ Jacobson (2003, 38), Hildesheimer (1991, 215)
Jump up ^ Heartz (2009:185)
Jump up ^ Einstein, Alfred; Arthur Mendel, Nathan Broder (translators) (1965). Mozart: His Character, His Work. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-19-500732-9. OCLC 31827291.
Jump up ^ "Nimbus Records, track list". Archived from the original on 2009-04-26.
Sources
Heartz, Daniel (2009) Mozart, Haydn and Early Beethoven, 1781–1802. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Hildesheimer, Wolfgang (1991) Mozart. Translated by Marion Faber. Macmillan. ISBN 0-374-52298-7.
Holoman, D. Kern (1992) Evenings with the orchestra: a Norton companion for concertgoers. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-02936-0.
Jacobson, Julius H. (2003) The Classical Music Experience: Discover the Music of the World's Greatest Composers, vol. 2, narrated by Kevin Kline, Sourcebooks, Inc. ISBN 1-57071-950-0.
Zaslaw, Neal and Cowdery, W. (1991) The Compleat Mozart: A Guide to the Musical Works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Norton. (1991), ISBN 0-393-02886-0.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eine kleine Nachtmusik.
Serenade in G. Eine kleine Nachtmusik KV 525: Score and critical report (in German) in the Neue Mozart-Ausgabe
Eine kleine Nachtmusik: Scores at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
Performance of Eine kleine Nachtmusik by A Far Cry from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in MP3 format
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values: List of concert arias, songs and canons by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

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values: Piano concertos by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

values: List of solo piano compositions by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

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