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Agricultural subsidy
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An agricultural subsidy is a governmental subsidy paid to farmers and agribusinesses to supplement their income, manage the supply of agricultural commodities, and influence the cost and supply of such commodities. Examples of such commodities include: wheat, feed grains (grain used as fodder, such as maize or corn, sorghum, barley and oats), cotton, milk, rice, peanuts, sugar, tobacco, oilseeds such as soybeans and meat products such as beef, pork, and lamb and mutton.[1]
OECD countries support their livestock and dairy industries with subsidies worth billions of dollars.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 By region
1.1 European Union
1.2 Malawi
1.3 New Zealand
1.4 United States
1.5 Asia
2 Impact of subsidies
2.1 Global food prices and international trade
2.2 Poverty in developing countries
2.2.1 Haiti and US rice imports
2.3 Impact on nutrition
2.4 Cross-border movement of businesses
2.5 Non-farming companies
2.6 Public economics implications
2.7 Environmental implications
3 Alternatives
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
By region[edit]
European Union[edit]
Main article: Common Agricultural Policy
See also: Intervention storage
In 2010, the EU spent €57 billion on agricultural development, of which €39 billion was spent on direct subsidies.[4] Agricultural and fisheries subsidies form over 40% of the EU budget.[5] Since 1992 (and especially since 2005), the EU's Common Agricultural Policy has undergone significant change as subsidies have mostly been decoupled from production. The largest subsidy is the Single Farm Payment.
Malawi[edit]
Increases in food and fertilizer prices have underlined the vulnerability of poor urban and rural households in many developing countries, especially in Africa, renewing policymakers' focus on the need to increase staple food crop productivity.
A study by the Overseas Development Institute evaluates the benefits of the Malawi Government Agricultural Inputs Subsidy Programme, which was implemented in 2006/2007 to promote access to and use of fertilizers in both maize and tobacco production to increase agricultural productivity and food security. The subsidy was implemented by means of a coupon system which could be redeemed by the recipients for fertilizer types at approximately one-third of the normal cash price.[6] According to policy conclusions of the Overseas Development Institute the voucher for coupon system can be an effective way of rationing and targeting subsidy access to maximize production and economic and social gains. Many practical and political challenges remain in the program design and implementation required to increase efficiency, control costs, and limit patronage and fraud.[6]
New Zealand[edit]
New Zealand is reputed to have the most open agricultural markets in the world[7][8][9] after radical reforms started in 1984 by the Fourth Labour Government stopped all subsidies.
In 1984 New Zealand's Labor government took the dramatic step of ending all farm subsidies, which then consisted of 30 separate production payments and export incentives. This was a truly striking policy action, because New Zealand's economy is roughly five times more dependent on farming than is the U.S. economy, measured by either output or employment. Subsidies in New Zealand accounted for more than 30 percent of the value of production before reform, somewhat higher than U.S. subsidies today. And New Zealand farming was marred by the same problems caused by U.S. subsidies, including overproduction, environmental degradation and inflated land prices.
As the country is a large agricultural exporter, continued subsidies by other countries are a long-standing bone of contention,[10][11] with New Zealand being a founding member of the 20-member Cairns Group fighting to improve market access for exported agricultural goods.
United States[edit]
From a Congressional Budget Office report
See also: Agricultural policy of the United States and Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008
The United States paid around $20 billion in 2005 to farmers in direct subsidies as "farm income stabilization"[12][13][14] via farm bills. These bills pre-date the economic turmoil of the Great Depression with the 1922 Grain Futures Act, the 1929 Agricultural Marketing Act, and the 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act creating a tradition of government support.
The subsidy programs give farmers extra money for their crops and guarantee a price floor. For instance, in the 2002 Farm Bill, for every bushel of wheat sold, farmers were paid an extra 52 cents and guaranteed a price of 3.86 from 2002–03 and 3.92 from 2004–2007.[15] That is, if the price of wheat in 2002 was $3.80, farmers would get an extra 58¢ per bushel (52¢ plus the 6¢ price difference).
Corn is the top crop for subsidy payments. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 mandates that billions of gallons of ethanol be blended into vehicle fuel each year, guaranteeing demand, but US corn ethanol subsidies are between $5.5 billion and $7.3 billion per year. Producers also benefitted from a federal subsidy of 51 cents per gallon, additional state subsidies, and federal crop subsidies that can bring the total to 85 cents per gallon or more. However, the federal ethanol subsidy expired December 31, 2011.[16] (US corn-ethanol producers were shielded from competition from cheaper Brazilian sugarcane-ethanol by a 54-cent-per-gallon tariff; however, that tariff also expired December 31, 2011.[17][18])
2004 U.S. Crop Subsidies[19]
Commodity
Millions of US$
Share
Feed grains, mostly corn 2,841 35.4%
Upland cotton and ELS cotton 1,420 17.7%
Wheat 1,173 14.6%
Rice 1,130 14.1%
Soybeans and products 610 7.6%
Dairy 295 3.7%
Peanuts 259 3.2%
Sugar 61 0.8%
Minor oilseeds 29 0.4%
Tobacco 18 0.2%
Wool and mohair 12 0.1%
Vegetable oil products 11 0.1%
Honey 3 0.0%
Other crops 160 2.0%
Total 8,022 100%
Asia[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2012)
Farm subsidies in Asia remain a point of contention in global trade talks.[20][21]
In 2009, Japan paid USD$46.5 billion in subsidies to its farmers,[22] and continued state support of farmers in Japan remains a controversial topic.[23]
South Korea has made attempts to reform its agricultural sector, despite resistance from vested interests.[24]
Impact of subsidies[edit]
Global food prices and international trade[edit]
Although some critics and proponents of the World Trade Organization have noted that export subsidies, by driving down the price of commodities, can provide cheap food for consumers in developing countries,[25][26] low prices are harmful to farmers not receiving the subsidy. Because it is usually wealthy countries that can afford domestic subsidies, critics argue that they promote poverty in developing countries by artificially driving down world crop prices.[27] Generally, developing countries have a comparative advantage in producing agricultural goods,[citation needed] but low crop prices encourage developing countries to be dependent buyers of food from wealthy countries. So local farmers, instead of improving the agricultural and economic self-sufficiency of their home country, are forced out of the market and perhaps even off their land. This occurs as a result of a process known as "international dumping" in which subsidized farmers are able to "dump" low-cost agricultural goods on foreign markets at costs that un-subsidized farmers cannot compete with. Agricultural subsidies often are a common stumbling block in trade negotiations. In 2006, talks at the Doha round of WTO trade negotiations stalled because the US refused to cut subsidies to a level where other countries' non-subsidized exports would have been competitive.[28]
Others argue that a world market with farm subsidies and other market distortions (as happens today) results in higher food prices, rather than lower food prices, as compared to a free market.[citation needed]
Mark Malloch Brown, former head of the United Nations Development Programme, estimated that farm subsidies cost poor countries about US$50 billion a year in lost agricultural exports:
It is the extraordinary distortion of global trade, where the West spends $360 billion a year on protecting its agriculture with a network of subsidies and tariffs that costs developing countries about US$50 billion in potential lost agricultural exports. Fifty billion dollars is the equivalent of today's level of development assistance.[29][30]
Poverty in developing countries[edit]
The impact of agricultural subsidies in developed countries upon developing-country farmers and international development is well documented. Agricultural subsidies can help drive prices down to benefit consumers, but also mean that unsubsidised developing-country farmers have a more difficult time competing in the world market;[31] and the effects on poverty are particularly negative when subsidies are provided for crops that are also grown in developing countries since developing-country farmers must then compete directly with subsidised developed-country farmers, for example in cotton and sugar.[32][33] The IFPRI has estimated in 2003 that the impact of subsidies costs developing countries $24 billion in lost incomes going to agricultural and agro-industrial production; and more than $40Bn is displaced from net agricultural exports.[34] Moreover, the same study found that the least developed countries have a higher proportion of GDP dependent upon agriculture, at around 36.7%, thus may be even more vulnerable to the effects of subsidies. It has been argued that subsidised agriculture in the developed world is one of the greatest obstacles to economic growth in the developing world; which has an indirect impact on reducing the income available to invest in rural infrastructure such as health, safe water supplies and electricity for the rural poor.[35] The total amount of subsidies that go towards agriculture in OECD countries far exceeds the amount that countries provide in development aid. In the case of Africa, it is estimated that a 1% increase in its total agricultural exports could lift its GDP by $70 billion, nearly five times what the region is provided in total foreign aid.[36]
Haiti and US rice imports[edit]
Haiti is an excellent example of a developing country negatively affected by agricultural subsidies in the developed world. Haiti is a nation with the capacity to produce rice and was at one time self-sufficient in meeting its own needs.[37][38] At present, Haiti does not produce enough to feed its people; 60 percent of the food consumed in the country is imported.[39] Following advice to liberalize its economy by lowering tariffs, domestically produced rice was displaced by cheaper subsidised rice from the United States. The Food and Agriculture Organization describes this liberalization process as being the removal of barriers to trade and a simplification of tariffs, which lowers costs to consumers and promotes efficiency among producers.[40]
Opening up Haiti's economy granted consumers access to food at a lower cost; allowing foreign producers to compete for the Haitian market drove down the price of rice. However, for Haitian rice farmers without access to subsidies, the downward pressure on prices led to a decline in profits. Subsidies received by American rice farmers, plus increased efficiencies, made it impossible for their Haitian counterparts to compete.[41][42] According to Oxfam and the International Monetary Fund, tariffs on imports fell from 50 percent to three percent in 1995 and the nation is currently importing 80 percent of the rice it consumes.[43][44]
The United States Department of Agriculture notes that since 1980, rice production in Haiti has been largely unchanged, while consumption on the other hand, is roughly eight times what it was in that same year.[45] Haiti is among the top three consumers of long grain milled rice produced in the United States.[46]
As rice farmers struggled to compete, many migrated from rural to urban areas in search of alternative economic opportunities.[47]
Impact on nutrition[edit]
One peer-reviewed research suggests that any effects of US farm policies on US obesity patterns must have been negligible.[48] However, some critics argue that the artificially low prices resulting from subsidies create unhealthy incentives for consumers. For example, in the USA, cane sugar was replaced with cheap corn syrup, making high-sugar food cheaper;[49] beet and cane sugar are subject to subsidies, price controls, and import tariffs that distort the prices of these products as well.
The lower price of energy-dense foods such as grains and sugars could be one reason why low-income people and food insecure people in industrialized countries are more vulnerable to being overweight and obese.[50] According to the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine(A pro-vegan organization), meat and dairy production receive 63% of subsidies in the United States,[51] as well as sugar subsidies for unhealthy foods, which contribute to heart disease, obesity and diabetes, with enormous costs for the health sector.[51]
Market distortions due to subsidies have led to an increase in corn fed cattle rather than grass fed. Corn fed cattle require more antibiotics and their beef has a higher fat content.[52]
Cross-border movement of businesses[edit]
Tariffs on sugar have also caused large candy makers in the USA to relocate to Canada and Mexico, where sugar is often half to a third the price.[53] The Dominican Republic Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), though, does not seen to be very impact in this area but known to not amounting to much. The sugar issue causing alarm had reasoning due to what plausible effects could come through the tariffs as well as the undetermined future of these types of negotiations considering sugar importation in the United States. Due to various continuing disputes in trade, Mexico began to have fewer exports of sugar into the United States, where the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) allowed. Those who left and sought out other companies for sugar have leaned marginally more towards Canada than Mexico. The tariffs are what keeps the large pressure from competition from south of the Rio Grande at bay.[53]
Non-farming companies[edit]
Subsidies are also given to companies and individuals with little connection to traditional farming. It has been reported that the largest part of the sum given to these companies flow to multinational companies like food conglomerates, sugar manufacturers and liquor distillers. For example, in France, the single largest beneficiary was the chicken processor Groupe Doux, at €62.8m, and was followed by about a dozen sugar manufacturers which together reaped more than €103m.[citation needed]
Public economics implications[edit]
Government intervention, through agricultural subsidies, interferes with the price mechanism which would normally determine commodity prices, often creating crop overproduction and market discrimination. Subsidies are also an inefficient use of taxpayer’s money. For instance, in 2006, the Department of Agriculture estimated that the average farm household income was $77,654 or about 17% higher than the average US household income.[54] From a public economics perspective, subsidies of any kind work to create a socially and politically acceptable equilibrium that is not necessarily Pareto efficient.[55]
Environmental implications[edit]
The monoculture system associated with subsidized large-scale production has been implicated as a contributory factor in Colony Collapse Disorder which has affected bee populations. Bee pollination is an essential ecosystem service essential for the production of many varieties of fruits and vegetables. Subsidies often go towards subsidising meat production which has other nutritional and environmental implications; and it has been found that out of the $200Bn subsidies to subsidise crops from 1995–2010 around two thirds of this went to animal feed, tobacco and cotton production.[56] On the other hand, farmers producing fruits and vegetables received no direct subsidies. The environmental impact of meat production is high due to the resource and energy requirements that go into production of feed for livestock throughout their lifespan, for example, a kilogram of beef uses about 60 times as much water as an equivalent amount of potato.[57] The subsidies contribute to meat consumption by allowing for an artificially low cost of meat products.[58]
Alternatives[edit]
Neoliberals argue that the current subsidies distort incentives for the global trade of agricultural commodities in which other countries may have a comparative advantage. Allowing countries to specialize in commodities in which they have a comparative advantage in and then freely trade across borders would therefore increase global welfare and reduce food prices.[59] Ending direct payments to farmers and deregulating the farm industry would eliminate inefficiencies and deadweight loss created by government intervention.
However, others disagree, arguing that a more radical transformation of agriculture is needed, one guided by the notion that ecological change in agriculture cannot be promoted without comparable changes in the social, political, cultural and economic arenas that conform and determine agriculture. The organized peasant and indigenous based agrarian movements, e.g. Via Campesina, consider that only by changing the export-led, free-trade based, industrial agriculture model of large farms can what they call the downward spiral of poverty, low wages, rural-urban migration, hunger and environmental degradation be halted.[60]
See also[edit]
Perverse agricultural subsidies
Protectionism
Free trade
Agricultural policy
Price support
2007–2008 world food price crisis
Electrical energy efficiency on United States farms
References[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
Farm Commodity Programs: A Short Primer, a Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, 20 June 2002.
External links[edit]
You Are What You Grow – Article on farm subsidies from The New York Times.
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Glycogen
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This article needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources. Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2015)
Schematic two-dimensional cross-sectional view of glycogen: A core protein of glycogenin is surrounded by branches of glucose units. The entire globular granule may contain around 30,000 glucose units.[1]
A view of the atomic structure of a single branched strand of glucose units in a glycogen molecule.
Glycogen (black granules) in spermatozoa of a flatworm; transmission electron microscopy, scale: 0.3 µm
Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in humans,[2] animals,[3] fungi, and bacteria.[citation needed] The polysaccharide structure represents the main storage form of glucose in the body.
Glycogen functions as one of two forms of long-term energy reserves, with the other form being triglyceride stores in adipose tissue (i.e., body fat). In humans, glycogen is made and stored primarily in the cells of the liver and skeletal muscle.[2][4] In the liver, glycogen can make up from 5–6% of the organ's fresh weight and the liver of an adult weighing 70 kg can store roughly 100–120 grams of glycogen.[2][5] In skeletal muscle, glycogen is found in a low concentration (1–2% of the muscle mass) and the skeletal muscle of an adult weighing 70 kg stores roughly 400 grams of glycogen.[2] The amount of glycogen stored in the body—particularly within the muscles and liver—mostly depends on physical training, basal metabolic rate, and eating habits. Small amounts of glycogen are also found in other tissues and cells, including the kidneys, red blood cells,[6][7][8] white blood cells,[medical citation needed] and glial cells in the brain.[9] The uterus also stores glycogen during pregnancy to nourish the embryo.[10]
Approximately 4 grams of glucose are present in the blood of humans at all times;[2] in fasted individuals, blood glucose is maintained constant at this level at the expense of glycogen stores in the liver and skeletal muscle.[2] Glycogen stores in skeletal muscle serve as a form of energy storage for the muscle itself;[2] however, the breakdown of muscle glycogen impedes muscle glucose uptake, thereby increasing the amount of blood glucose available for use in other tissues.[2] Liver glycogen stores serve as a store of glucose for use throughout the body, particularly the central nervous system.[2] The human brain consumes approximately 60% of blood glucose in fasted, sedentary individuals.[2]
Glycogen is the analogue of starch, a glucose polymer that functions as energy storage in plants. It has a structure similar to amylopectin (a component of starch), but is more extensively branched and compact than starch. Both are white powders in their dry state. Glycogen is found in the form of granules in the cytosol/cytoplasm in many cell types, and plays an important role in the glucose cycle. Glycogen forms an energy reserve that can be quickly mobilized to meet a sudden need for glucose, but one that is less compact than the energy reserves of triglycerides (lipids). As such it is also found as storage reserve in many parasitic protozoa.[11][12][13]
Contents
1 Structure
2 Functions
2.1 Liver
2.2 Muscle
3 History
4 Metabolism
4.1 Synthesis
4.2 Breakdown
5 Clinical relevance
5.1 Disorders of glycogen metabolism
5.2 Glycogen depletion and endurance exercise
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
1,4-α-glycosidic linkages in the glycogen oligomer
1,4-α-glycosidic and 1,6-glycosidic linkages in the glycogen oligomer
Glycogen is a branched biopolymer consisting of linear chains of glucose residues with an average chain length of approximately 8–12 glucose units.[14] Glucose units are linked together linearly by α(1→4) glycosidic bonds from one glucose to the next. Branches are linked to the chains from which they are branching off by α(1→6) glycosidic bonds between the first glucose of the new branch and a glucose on the stem chain.[15]
Due to the way glycogen is synthesised, every glycogen granule has at its core a glycogenin protein.[16]
Glycogen in muscle, liver, and fat cells is stored in a hydrated form, composed of three or four parts of water per part of glycogen associated with 0.45 millimoles (18 mg) of potassium per gram of glycogen.[4]
Functions[edit]
Liver[edit]
As a meal containing carbohydrates or protein is eaten and digested, blood glucose levels rise, and the pancreas secretes insulin. Blood glucose from the portal vein enters liver cells (hepatocytes). Insulin acts on the hepatocytes to stimulate the action of several enzymes, including glycogen synthase. Glucose molecules are added to the chains of glycogen as long as both insulin and glucose remain plentiful. In this postprandial or "fed" state, the liver takes in more glucose from the blood than it releases.
After a meal has been digested and glucose levels begin to fall, insulin secretion is reduced, and glycogen synthesis stops. When it is needed for energy, glycogen is broken down and converted again to glucose. Glycogen phosphorylase is the primary enzyme of glycogen breakdown. For the next 8–12 hours, glucose derived from liver glycogen is the primary source of blood glucose used by the rest of the body for fuel.
Glucagon, another hormone produced by the pancreas, in many respects serves as a countersignal to insulin. In response to insulin levels being below normal (when blood levels of glucose begin to fall below the normal range), glucagon is secreted in increasing amounts and stimulates both glycogenolysis (the breakdown of glycogen) and gluconeogenesis (the production of glucose from other sources).
Muscle[edit]
Muscle cell glycogen appears to function as an immediate reserve source of available glucose for muscle cells. Other cells that contain small amounts use it locally, as well. As muscle cells lack glucose-6-phosphatase, which is required to pass glucose into the blood, the glycogen they store is available solely for internal use and is not shared with other cells. This is in contrast to liver cells, which, on demand, readily do break down their stored glycogen into glucose and send it through the blood stream as fuel for other organs.[17]
History[edit]
Glycogen was discovered by Claude Bernard. His experiments showed that the liver contained a substance that could give rise to reducing sugar by the action of a "ferment" in the liver. By 1857, he described the isolation of a substance he called "la matière glycogène", or "sugar-forming substance". Soon after the discovery of glycogen in the liver, A. Sanson found that muscular tissue also contains glycogen. The empirical formula for glycogen of (C
6H
10O
5)n was established by Kekulé in 1858.[18]
Metabolism[edit]
Synthesis[edit]
Main article: Glycogenesis
Glycogen synthesis is, unlike its breakdown, endergonic—it requires the input of energy. Energy for glycogen synthesis comes from uridine triphosphate (UTP), which reacts with glucose-1-phosphate, forming UDP-glucose, in a reaction catalysed by UTP—glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase. Glycogen is synthesized from monomers of UDP-glucose initially by the protein glycogenin, which has two tyrosine anchors for the reducing end of glycogen, since glycogenin is a homodimer. After about eight glucose molecules have been added to a tyrosine residue, the enzyme glycogen synthase progressively lengthens the glycogen chain using UDP-glucose, adding α(1→4)-bonded glucose to the reducing end of the glycogen chain.[19]
The glycogen branching enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a terminal fragment of six or seven glucose residues from a nonreducing end to the C-6 hydroxyl group of a glucose residue deeper into the interior of the glycogen molecule. The branching enzyme can act upon only a branch having at least 11 residues, and the enzyme may transfer to the same glucose chain or adjacent glucose chains.
Breakdown[edit]
Main article: Glycogenolysis
Glycogen is cleaved from the nonreducing ends of the chain by the enzyme glycogen phosphorylase to produce monomers of glucose-1-phosphate:
In vivo, phosphorolysis proceeds in the direction of glycogen breakdown because the ratio of phosphate and glucose-1-phosphate is usually greater than 100.[20] Glucose-1-phosphate is then converted to glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) by phosphoglucomutase. A special debranching enzyme is needed to remove the α(1-6) branches in branched glycogen and reshape the chain into a linear polymer. The G6P monomers produced have three possible fates:
G6P can continue on the glycolysis pathway and be used as fuel.
G6P can enter the pentose phosphate pathway via the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase to produce NADPH and 5-carbon sugars.
In the liver and kidney, G6P can be dephosphorylated back to glucose by the enzyme glucose 6-phosphatase. This is the final step in the gluconeogenesis pathway.
Clinical relevance[edit]
Disorders of glycogen metabolism[edit]
The most common disease in which glycogen metabolism becomes abnormal is diabetes, in which, because of abnormal amounts of insulin, liver glycogen can be abnormally accumulated or depleted. Restoration of normal glucose metabolism usually normalizes glycogen metabolism, as well.
In hypoglycemia caused by excessive insulin, liver glycogen levels are high, but the high insulin levels prevent the glycogenolysis necessary to maintain normal blood sugar levels. Glucagon is a common treatment for this type of hypoglycemia.
Various inborn errors of metabolism are caused by deficiencies of enzymes necessary for glycogen synthesis or breakdown. These are collectively referred to as glycogen storage diseases.
Glycogen depletion and endurance exercise[edit]
See also: Central nervous system fatigue
Long-distance athletes, such as marathon runners, cross-country skiers, and cyclists, often experience glycogen depletion, where almost all of the athlete's glycogen stores are depleted after long periods of exertion without sufficient carbohydrate consumption. This phenomenon is referred to as "hitting the wall".
Glycogen depletion can be forestalled in three possible ways. First, during exercise, carbohydrates with the highest possible rate of conversion to blood glucose (high glycemic index) are ingested continuously. The best possible outcome of this strategy replaces about 35% of glucose consumed at heart rates above about 80% of maximum. Second, through endurance training adaptations and specialized regimens (e.g. fasting low-intensity endurance training), the body can condition type I muscle fibers to improve both fuel use efficiency and workload capacity to increase the percentage of fatty acids used as fuel,[21][22][citation needed] sparing carbohydrate use from all sources. Third, by consuming large quantities of carbohydrates after depleting glycogen stores as a result of exercise or diet, the body can increase storage capacity of intramuscular glycogen stores.[23][24][25] This process is known as carbohydrate loading. In general, glycemic index of carbohydrate source does not matter since muscular insulin sensitivity is increased as a result of temporary glycogen depletion.[26][27]
When experiencing glycogen debt, athletes often experience extreme fatigue to the point that it is difficult to move. As a reference, the very best professional cyclists in the world will usually finish a 4- to 5-hr stage race right at the limit of glycogen depletion using the first three strategies.
When athletes ingest both carbohydrate and caffeine following exhaustive exercise, their glycogen stores tend to be replenished more rapidly;[28][29][30] however, the minimum dose of caffeine at which there is a clinically significant effect on glycogen repletion has not been established.[30]
See also[edit]
Chitin
Peptidoglycan
References[edit]
Jump up ^ William D. McArdle; Frank I. Katch; Victor L. Katch (2006). Exercise physiology: energy, nutrition, and human performance (6 ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7817-4990-9.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Wasserman DH (January 2009). "Four grams of glucose". American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism. 296 (1): E11–21. doi:10.1152/ajpendo.90563.2008. PMC 2636990  . PMID 18840763. Four grams of glucose circulates in the blood of a person weighing 70 kg. This glucose is critical for normal function in many cell types. In accordance with the importance of these 4 g of glucose, a sophisticated control system is in place to maintain blood glucose constant. Our focus has been on the mechanisms by which the flux of glucose from liver to blood and from blood to skeletal muscle is regulated. ... The brain consumes ∼60% of the blood glucose used in the sedentary, fasted person. ... The amount of glucose in the blood is preserved at the expense of glycogen reservoirs (Fig. 2). In postabsorptive humans, there are ∼100 g of glycogen in the liver and ∼400 g of glycogen in muscle. Carbohydrate oxidation by the working muscle can go up by ∼10-fold with exercise, and yet after 1 h, blood glucose is maintained at ∼4 g.
Jump up ^ Sadava; et al. (2011). Life (9th, International ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 9781429254311.
^ Jump up to: a b Kreitzman SN, Coxon AY, Szaz KF (1992). "Glycogen storage: illusions of easy weight loss, excessive weight regain, and distortions in estimates of body composition" (PDF). The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 56 (1 Suppl): 292s–93s. PMID 1615908.
Jump up ^ Guyton, Arthur C.; John Edward Hall (2011). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology. New York, New York: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN 978-5-98657-013-6.
Jump up ^ Moses SW, Bashan N, Gutman A (December 1972). "Glycogen metabolism in the normal red blood cell". Blood. 40 (6): 836–43. PMID 5083874.
Jump up ^ Ingermann RL, Virgin GL (1987). "Glycogen content and release of glucose from red blood cells of the sipunculan worm themiste dyscrita" (PDF). J Exp Biol. 129: 141–9.
Jump up ^ Miwa I, Suzuki S (November 2002). "An improved quantitative assay of glycogen in erythrocytes". Annals of Clinical Biochemistry. 39 (Pt 6): 612–13. doi:10.1258/000456302760413432. PMID 12564847.
Jump up ^ Oe Y, Baba O, Ashida H, Nakamura KC, Hirase H (June 2016). "Glycogen distribution in the microwave-fixed mouse brain reveals heterogeneous astrocytic patterns". Glia. 64 (9): 1532–45. doi:10.1002/glia.23020. PMC 5094520  . PMID 27353480.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden (2006). Biology: Exploring Life. Boston: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-250882-6.
Jump up ^ Ryley, JF (March 1955). "Studies on the metabolism of the protozoa. 5. Metabolism of the parasitic flagellate Trichomonas foetus". The Biochemical Journal. 59 (3): 361–9. PMID 14363101.
Jump up ^ Benchimol, Marlene; Elias, Cezar Antonio; De Souza, Wanderley (NaN). "Tritrichomonas foetus: Ultrastructural localization of calcium in the plasma membrane and in the hydrogenosome". Experimental Parasitology. 54 (3): 277–284. doi:10.1016/0014-4894(82)90036-4. ISSN 0014-4894. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Jump up ^ Mielewczik, Michael; Mehlhorn, Heinz; Al-Quraishy, Saleh; Grabensteiner, E.; Hess, M. (1 September 2008). "Transmission electron microscopic studies of stages of Histomonas meleagridis from clonal cultures". Parasitology Research. 103 (4): 745. doi:10.1007/s00436-008-1009-1. ISSN 0932-0113.
Jump up ^ Manners, D. J. Carbohydr. Polym. 1991, 16, 37.
Jump up ^ Berg, Tymoczko & Stryer (2012). Biochemistry (7th, International ed.). W. H. Freeman. p. 338. ISBN 1429203145.
Jump up ^ Berg; et al. (2012). Biochemistry (7th, International ed.). W. H. Freeman. p. 650.
Jump up ^ "Glycogen Biosynthesis; Glycogen Breakdown". oregonstate.edu. Retrieved 2018-02-28.
Jump up ^ F. G. Young (1957). "Claude Bernard and the Discovery of Glycogen". British Medical Journal. 1 (5033 (Jun. 22, 1957)): 1431–37. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.5033.1431. JSTOR 25382898.
Jump up ^ Nelson, D. (2013) Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, 6th ed., W.H. Freeman and Company (p. 618)
Jump up ^ Stryer, L. (1988) Biochemistry, 3rd ed., Freeman (p. 451)
Jump up ^ http://www.bodyrecomposition.com/training/methods-of-endurance-training-part-1.html
Jump up ^ http://www.bodyrecomposition.com/fat-loss/qa-steady-state-vs-tempo-training-and-fat-loss.html
Jump up ^ McDonald, Lyle. "Research Review: An In-Depth Look Into Carbing Up On The Cyclical Ketogenic Diet". Retrieved 19 February 2017.
Jump up ^ McDonald, Lyle. The Ketogenic Diet: A Complete Guide for the Dieter and the Practitioner. Lyle McDonald, 1998
Jump up ^ "Costill DL et. al. Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged exercise on successive days. J Appl Physiol (1971) 31: 834–38."
Jump up ^ Glycogen depletion and increased insulin sensitivity and responsiveness in muscle after exerciseAm J Physiol Endocrinol MetabDecember 1, 1986 251:(6) E664–69
Jump up ^ McDonald, Lyle. The Ultimate Diet 2.0. Lyle McDonald, 2003
Jump up ^ Pedersen DJ, Lessard SJ, Coffey VG, et al. (July 2008). "High rates of muscle glycogen resynthesis after exhaustive exercise when carbohydrate is coingested with caffeine". Journal of Applied Physiology (Original article). 105 (1): 7–13. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.01121.2007. PMID 18467543.
Jump up ^ Gaudet, Laura; Jackson, Allen; Streitz, Carmyn; McIntire, Kyle; McDaniel, Larry. "The Effects Of Caffeine On Athletic Performance". Clute Institute. Retrieved 17 June 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Beelen M, Burke LM, Gibala MJ, van Loon L JC (December 2010). "Nutritional strategies to promote postexercise recovery". International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. 20 (6): 515–32. doi:10.1123/ijsnem.20.6.515. PMID 21116024.
External links[edit]
Glycogen storage disease – McArdle's Disease Website
Glycogen at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
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values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikogeen
Glikogeen – Afrikaans
af
af
interlanguage-link-target

values: غلايكوجين – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ast
display: none;

values: গ্লাইকোজেন – Bangla

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-be
display: none;

values: Гликоген – Bulgarian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikogen
Glikogen – Bosnian
bs
bs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bs
display: none;

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicogen
Glicogen – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ca
display: none;

values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glykogen
Glykogen – Czech
cs
cs
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glykogen
Glykogen – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glykogen
Glykogen – German
de
de
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values: Γλυκογόνο – Greek

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-el
display: none;

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikogeno
Glikogeno – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glukogeno
Glukogeno – Basque
eu
eu
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eu
display: none;

values: گلیکوژن – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicigin
Glicigin – Irish
ga
ga
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ga
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ko
display: none;

values: Գլիկոգեն – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikogen
Glikogen – Croatian
hr
hr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikogen
Glikogen – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicogeno
Glicogeno – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values: גליקוגן – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: გლიკოგენი – Georgian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ka
display: none;

values: Гликоген – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values: Гликоген – Kyrgyz

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hu
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikogen
Glikogen – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycogeen
Glycogeen – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ja
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glykogen
Glykogen – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glykogen
Glykogen – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nn
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-oc
display: none;

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikogen
Glikogen – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uz
display: none;

values: ਗਲਾਈਕੋਜਨ – Punjabi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pa
display: none;

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikogen
Glikogen – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glicogen
Glicogen – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
display: none;

values: Гликоген – Russian

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycogen
Glycogen – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sco
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikogen
Glikogen – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: Гликоген – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikogen
Glikogen – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glykogen
Glykogen – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values: கிளைக்கோசன் – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

values: ไกลโคเจน – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glikojen
Glikojen – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Глікоген – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycogen
Glycogen – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Glycogen rootpage-Glycogen skin-vector action-view