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Lucas Oil Stadium
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Lucas Oil Stadium
The House that Manning Built
Aerial photograph of Lucas Oil Stadium (2016).
Address
500 South Capitol Avenue
Location
Indianapolis, Indiana
Coordinates
39°45′36.2″N 86°9′49.7″W / 39.760056°N 86.163806°W / 39.760056; -86.163806Coordinates: 39°45′36.2″N 86°9′49.7″W / 39.760056°N 86.163806°W / 39.760056; -86.163806
Owner
Indiana Stadium and Convention Building Authority
(State of Indiana)[1]
Operator
Capital Improvement Board of Managers of Marion County, Indiana
Executive suites
139
Capacity
American football: 67,000 (expandable to 70,000)[2]
Basketball: 70,000 (approx)
Surface
FieldTurf[3]
Construction
Broke ground
September 20, 2005
Opened
August 16, 2008
Construction cost
US$720 million[4]
($808 million in 2016 dollars[5])
Architect
HKS, Inc.
A2so4 Architecture[6]
Browning Day Mullins Dierdorf, Inc.[7]
Project manager
John Klipsch Consulting LLC[8]
Structural engineer
Walter P Moore/Fink Roberts & Petrie[9]
Services engineer
Moore Engineers PC[10][11]
General contractor
Hunt/Smoot/Mezzetta[4]
Tenants
Indianapolis Colts (NFL) (2008–present)
Indy Eleven (USL) (2018–present)
Lucas Oil Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium in Downtown Indianapolis, Indiana, United States. It replaced the RCA Dome as the home field of the NFL's Indianapolis Colts and opened on August 16, 2008.[12] The stadium was constructed to allow the removal of the RCA Dome and expansion of the Indiana Convention Center on its site. The stadium is on the south side of South Street, a block south of the former site of the RCA Dome. In 2006, prior to the stadium's construction, Lucas Oil Products secured the naming rights for the stadium at a cost of $122 million over 20 years. [13] The venue also serves as the current home for the United Soccer League's Indy Eleven.
The architectural firm HKS, Inc. was responsible for the stadium's design, with Walter P Moore working as the Structural Engineer of Record. The stadium features a retractable roof and window wall, thus allowing the Colts and the Eleven to play both indoors and outdoors. The implementation of these elements of kinetic architecture provides for quick conversion of the facility to accommodate a variety of events. The field surface is FieldTurf.
The exterior of the new stadium is faced with a reddish-brown brick trimmed with Indiana Limestone, similar to several other sports venues in the area such as Bankers Life Fieldhouse, Hinkle Fieldhouse, and the Fairgrounds Coliseum. The architectural style complements other older structures in the downtown area.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Features
1.1 Retractable Roof
1.1.1 NFL rules for roof opening
1.2 Retractable Window
1.3 Gate sponsorship
2 Events
2.1 Football
2.2 Soccer
2.3 Entertainment
2.3.1 Concerts
3 Financing
3.1 Budget shortfall
4 Complications
5 Construction pictures
6 References
7 External links
Features[edit]
Lucas Oil Stadium has a seating capacity of 67,000 [4] and covers approximately 1.8 million square feet. The stadium offers 139 suites, two club lounges, two exhibit halls and 12 meeting rooms. There are also 360 degree ribbon boards and two massive high definition video boards. [14] An underground walkway directly connects the stadium to the Indiana Convention Center. [3]
Other features include:
183,000 square feet of exhibit space
7 locker rooms
11 indoor truck docks
14 escalators
11 passenger elevators
2 accessible pedestrian ramps
Retractable Roof[edit]
The stadium's retractable roof can open or close in 9 to 11 minutes. It is composed of two panels that each weigh 2.5 million pounds. [15] [4]
NFL rules for roof opening[edit]
The home team determines if the roof is to be opened or closed 90 minutes before kickoff. The roof remains open unless precipitation or lightning is within the vicinity of the stadium, the temperature drops below 40 °F (4 °C), or wind gusts are greater than 40 miles per hour (64 km/h), in which case the roof operators will close the roof. Once the roof is closed, it is not allowed to be reopened.[4]
Retractable Window[edit]
Attendees can see the Indianapolis skyline through this movable window
The retractable north window offers a view of downtown Indianapolis during games, concerts and other events due to the stadium's angled position on the city block. [16] [15]
Gate sponsorship[edit]
The four gates leading into Lucas Oil Stadium are each named for sponsoring corporation: Lucas Oil, Verizon, HHGregg, and Huntington Bank. The ground-level concourses of their respective gates are feature banners and floor coverings with the corporations' logos, advertisements and merchandise displays. Each corporation is reported to have paid in excess of $1 million.[17]
Events[edit]
Interior of Lucas Oil Stadium
Annual Events
Bands of America Grand National Championships and Indianapolis Super Regionals
Big Ten Football Championship Game [18]
Circle City Classic
Drum Corps International World Championships
FDIC International (Firefighting Convention)
IHSAA Indiana State football championships
ISSMA band state finals
Monster Energy Supercross (since 2009)
Monster Jam
NFL Draft Combine
Upcoming Events
Taylor Swift's Reputation Stadium Tour in Indianapolis, Indiana(September 15, 2018)[19]
College Football Playoff National Championship (January 10, 2022)
NCAA Men's Basketball Final Four (April 2021)
Past Events
Super Bowl XLVI (February 5, 2012) [20]
Kenny Chesney (2008, 2009, 2012, 2015)
Chelsea vs. Inter Milan (International Champions Cup) (August 1, 2013)
NCAA Men's Basketball Final Four (2010, 2015)
One Direction – On The Road Again Tour (July 31, 2015)
Gen Con 50 (August 2017)
U2 – The Joshua Tree Tour 2017 (September 10, 2017)
Football[edit]
The 2008 NFL season featured the first NBC Sunday Night Football game of the season in the stadium, as the Colts faced the Chicago Bears in a rematch of Super Bowl XLI.[21]
The first games played at Lucas Oil Stadium occurred on August 22, 2008 and were part of the PeyBack Classic, featuring Indiana High School Football games between Noblesville High School and Fishers High School in Game 1, followed by New Palestine High School and Whiteland Community High School in Game 2.[22] On November 26, 2008, Cardinal Ritter High School became the first high school to win a state championship on the field, beating Sheridan High School 34-27 for the class A state title.
Soccer[edit]
The stadium hosted its first soccer game on August 1, 2013, when Chelsea played Inter Milan in a first-round game of the International Champions Cup, drawing 41,983 fans.[23]
Date
Winning Team
Result
Losing Team
Tournament
Spectators
August 1, 2013 Chelsea 2–0 Inter Milan 2013 International Champions Cup First Round 41,983
As of 2018, Lucas Oil Stadium serves as the home field for the United Soccer League's Indy Eleven, replacing the venue they used while in the North American Soccer League, Carroll Stadium.[24]
Entertainment[edit]
Drum Corps International (DCI) announced on August 9, 2006 that it would move its corporate offices to Indianapolis and that the DCI World Championships would be the inaugural event for the stadium and would be held at Lucas Oil Stadium every year through 2018.[25] In 2015, Drum Corps International and the city of Indianapolis announced a 10-year contract extension, allowing the World Championships to continue through 2028.[26] Because the stadium would not be completed in time, DCI announced on April 4, 2008 that it would move the event to Memorial Stadium on the campus of Indiana University for 2008. The competition was held for the first time at Lucas Oil Stadium in 2009.[27]
Other regular events include the Bands of America Grand National Championships[28] and the Indiana Marching Band State Finals,[29] both major events for the city in Marching band competitions. The Drum Corps International World Championships are scheduled the site annually through the 2018 season, and the Circle City Classic that is an annual American football game featuring two historically black colleges/universities (HBCUs) that is held in October.
Concerts[edit]
Date
Artist
Opening act(s)
Tour / Concert name
Attendance
Revenue
Notes
September 13, 2008 Kenny Chesney Keith Urban
LeAnn Rimes
Gary Allan
Luke Bryan
Sammy Hagar The Poets and Pirates Tour 50,528 / 50,528 $3,835,609 The stadium's first public concert .[30]
September 19, 2009 Kenny Chesney Miranda Lambert
Sugarland
Montgomery Gentry
Zac Brown Band Sun City Carnival Tour 45,178 / 45,178 $3,016,365
July 28, 2012 Kenny Chesney
Tim McGraw Grace Potter and the Nocturnals
Jake Owen Brothers of the Sun Tour 41,671 / 43,864 $3,509,151
May 9, 2015 Kenny Chesney
Eric Church Brantley Gilbert
Chase Rice
Old Dominion The Big Revival Tour 43,675 / 44,872 $4,064,335
July 31, 2015 One Direction Icona Pop On the Road Again Tour 42,196 / 42,196 $3,426,589 "Drag Me Down" was performed for the first time and was added to the setlist of the tour replacing "Alive" and "Happy Birthday" by Mildred J. Hill was covered again.
September 10, 2017 U2 Beck The Joshua Tree Tour 2017 51,731 / 51,731 $5,970,055
September 15, 2018 Taylor Swift Camila Cabello
Charli XCX Taylor Swift's Reputation Stadium Tour TBA TBA
Financing[edit]
The total cost of Lucas Oil Stadium was $720 million. The stadium is being financed with funds raised by the State of Indiana and the City of Indianapolis, with the Indianapolis Colts providing $100 million. Marion County has raised taxes for food and beverage sales, auto rental taxes, innkeeper's taxes, and admission taxes for its share of the costs. Meanwhile, there has been an increase in food and beverage taxes in the 8 surrounding doughnut counties (with the exception of Morgan County) and the sale of Colts license plates.[4]
The County Commissioners of each county voted whether to levy the 1% food and beverage tax proposed by Marion County. Sweetening the deal for those counties was the fact that half of the revenue from the tax would stay in the respective county. Morgan County was the only county to turn down the offer, yet in a later vote, it levied its own 1% tax – thus keeping all of its additional generated revenue.
Budget shortfall[edit]
In August 2006, the Capital Improvement Board, which operates the stadium, estimated that daily operating expenses of the new stadium would be $10 million more per year than the RCA Dome. The board urged the Indiana General Assembly to authorize funding to cover the shortfall.[31] The Indiana Legislature considered a bill to raise sales taxes statewide to cover the shortfall, however this plan faces stiff opposition from legislators outside the Indianapolis metro area.[32]
The assembly ultimately authorized a tax increase in Indianapolis-Marion County. In addition, the CIB trimmed staff and cut $10 million from its budget. Still, the agency anticipated a $20 million operating deficit for Lucas Oil Stadium in 2009. Anticipated expenses are $27.7 million—far outstripping the $7.7 million CIB expects to collect from its share of revenue from stadium events.[33] The Colts organization has been criticized for the favorable lease terms and the high percentage of revenue it can keep under the terms of its agreements with the stadium authorities and there have been calls for the team to cover the shortfalls of the CIB. The Colts responded to these criticisms in an open letter to fans on September 16, 2009.[34]
Complications[edit]
On September 8, 2013 after the Colts defeated the Oakland Raiders in the season opener, a rail over the opposing team tunnel collapsed injuring two fans. One fan was transferred to the hospital for evaluation. No serious injuries were reported.
On September 3, 2015, three fans were injured by a bolt that fell from the roof of the stadium as it was being opened during an NFL preseason game against the Cincinnati Bengals.[35] The stadium was pronounced safe by officials, but the roof was to remain closed for events until a final investigation was completed as to why the bolt fell.[36]
Construction pictures[edit]
Early phases of construction
Satellite image
Mid-stage of construction
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "About ISCBA". State of Indiana. Archived from the original on December 10, 2011. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ Chappel, Mike (August 1, 2012). "Indianapolis Colts: Team Will Turn to Single-Game Tickets in Chase for Sellouts". The Indianapolis Star. Retrieved September 6, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c "If You Build It..." (PDF). The Indianapolis Star. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 14, 2011. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Facts and Information". Lucas Oil Stadium. 2008. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2018). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved January 5, 2018. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series.
Jump up ^ "Lucas Oil Stadium". A2SO4. Archived from the original on April 2, 2012. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Lucas Oil Stadium". Browning Day Mullins Dierdorf, Inc. Retrieved February 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Lucas Oil Stadium – Home of the Indianapolis Colts". John Klipsch Consulting LLC. Retrieved February 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Lucas Oil Stadium". Emporis. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Super Bowl XLVI/Lucas Oil Stadium". ArchDaily. Retrieved October 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Indianapolis International Airport Receives the 2009 Monumental Award". Kibi.org. November 19, 2009. Archived from the original on January 14, 2010. Retrieved October 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Iscba Announces Lucas Oil Stadium Grand Opening Events" (Press release). ISCBA. June 23, 2008. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Lucas Oil Gets Stadium Naming Rights, Colts Confirm". WRTV. wrtv.com. March 1, 2006. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ Ingerson, Meagan (November 26, 2007). "Lucas Oil Stadium Scoreboards: 53 feet high, $11.4M Pricetag". The Indianapolis Star. indystar.com. Archived from the original on November 28, 2007. Retrieved November 26, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b "Lucas Oil Stadium". Uni-Systems. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Super Bowl XLV Visitor Guide: Stadium". NFL. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ "HHGregg Signs On As Lucas Oil Stadium Founding Sponsor". SportsBusiness Daily. sportsbusinessdaily.com. December 11, 2007. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Montee Ball's Four Touchdowns Spark Wisconsin to Big Ten Title". ESPN. Associated Press. December 3, 2011. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Taylor Swift's Reputation Stadium Tour". Wikipedia. 2017-12-13.
Jump up ^ Callahan, Rick (July 19, 2012). "Indianapolis to make bid for 2018 Super Bowl". Yahoo! Finance. Retrieved October 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ Milz, Mary (March 31, 2008). "Colts Season Opener Puts New Stadium in National Spotlight". WTHR. wthr.com. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Lucas Oil Stadium Preparing For Grand Opening Events". Indiana Stadium and Convention Building Authority (Press release). Inside Indiana Business. June 24, 2008. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Guinness International Champion Cup Teams, Venues, and Bracket Announced". http://internationalchampionscup.com/. Retrieved June 28, 2013. External link in |publisher= (help)
Jump up ^ Mack, Justin (January 29, 2018). "'We can't wait to see you at our new venue.' Indy Eleven headed to Lucas Oil Stadium".
Jump up ^ "Drum Corps International Moving Headquarters, Bringing World Championships to Indianapolis" (Press release). Drum Corps International. August 9, 2006. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ http://www.dci.org/ViewArticle.dbml?DB_LANG=C&DB_OEM_ID=33500&ATCLID=210253294&SPID=166025&SPSID=965782
Jump up ^ "2008 Drum Corps International World Championships Relocated to Indiana University" (Press release). DCI. April 4, 2008. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ "2011 Grand National Championships Review" (Press release). Music For All. 12 November 2011. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bradner, Eric. "Bands Take the Field at Lucas Oil Stadium for Annual Competition". Evansville Courier & Press. courierpress.com. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Chesney Concert Will Be First at Lucas Oil Stadium". WTHR. wthr.com. September 16, 2008. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ Eschbacher, Karen (August 27, 2006). "Operating in the Red Zone: Stadium Plan Faces Shortfall on Day-to-Day Costs". The Indianapolis Star. Pacer Digest. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ "CIB President: Stadium Could Close If Deal Isn't Reached". WRTV. April 3, 2009. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ Olson, Scott (September 15, 2009). "More Layoffs, Furloughs Possible for Cash-Strapped Indianapolis CIB". Indianapolis Business Journal. Indiana Economic Digest. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Colts Letter to Fans on Lucas Oil Stadium". WTHR. wthr.com. September 16, 2009. Retrieved January 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bonesteel, Matt (September 4, 2015). "Three fans injured during Colts game after bolt falls from Lucas Oil Stadium roof". The Washington Post. Retrieved September 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Officials: Lucas Oil Stadium safe for events with roof closed, bolt investigation continues". Fox 59. fox59.com. September 18, 2015. Retrieved September 19, 2015.
External links[edit]
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lucas Oil Stadium.
Official website
Lucas Oil Stadium page at Ballparks.com
Lucas Oil Stadium Seating Chart
Indiana Stadium and Convention Building Authority
ISCBA High-Quality Webcam
Emporis Buildings Site Info
IndyStar.com Webcam
Link to High Quality Pictures Inside Lucas Oil Stadium
Lucas Oil Stadium construction pictures
Retractable roof technical description and illustration
[show]Events and tenants
Preceded by
RCA Dome Home of the
Indianapolis Colts
2008–present Succeeded by
current
Preceded by
Carroll Stadium Home of the
Indy Eleven
2018–present Succeeded by
current
Preceded by
Cowboys Stadium Host of
Super Bowl XLVI
2012 Succeeded by
Mercedes-Benz Superdome
Preceded by

Ford Field
AT&T Stadium
New Atlanta Stadium NCAA Men's Division I
Basketball Tournament
Finals Venue
2010
2015
2021 Succeeded by

Reliant Stadium
NRG Stadium
EverBank Field
Preceded by

Amalie Arena NCAA Women's Division I
Basketball Tournament
Finals Venue
2016 Succeeded by

American Airlines Center
Preceded by
first stadium Host of the
Big Ten Championship Game
2011–present Succeeded by
current
Preceded by
RCA Dome Home of
Bands of America
Grand National Championship
2008–present Succeeded by
current
Preceded by

Memorial Stadium, Bloomington
TBD Home of the
Drum Corps International
World Championship
2009–2013
2015–2018 Succeeded by

EverBank Field
EverBank Field
Preceded by
RCA Dome Home of the
NFL Scouting Combine
2009–present Succeeded by
current
Preceded by
Heinz Field Host of
AFC Championship Game
2010 Succeeded by
Heinz Field
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Gulf Stream
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A warm, swift Atlantic current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico flows round the tip of Florida, along the east coast of the United States before crossing the Atlantic Ocean
Surface temperatures in the western North Atlantic. The North American landmass is black and dark blue (cold), while the Gulf Stream is red (warm). Source: NASA
The Gulf Stream, together with its northern extension the North Atlantic Drift, is a warm and swift Atlantic ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and stretches to the tip of Florida, and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean. The process of western intensification causes the Gulf Stream to be a northward accelerating current off the east coast of North America. At about 40°0′N 30°0′W / 40.000°N 30.000°W / 40.000; -30.000, it splits in two, with the northern stream, the North Atlantic Drift, crossing to Northern Europe and the southern stream, the Canary Current, recirculating off West Africa.
The Gulf Stream influences the climate of the east coast of North America from Florida to Newfoundland, and the west coast of Europe. Although there has been recent debate, there is consensus that the climate of Western Europe and Northern Europe is warmer than it would otherwise be due to the North Atlantic drift which is the northeastern section of the Gulf Stream. It is part of the North Atlantic Gyre. Its presence has led to the development of strong cyclones of all types, both within the atmosphere and within the ocean. The Gulf Stream is also a significant potential source of renewable power generation.[citation needed] The Gulf Stream may be slowing down as a result of climate change.
The Gulf Stream is typically 100 kilometres (62 mi) wide and 800 metres (2,600 ft) to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) deep. The current velocity is fastest near the surface, with the maximum speed typically about 2.5 metres per second (5.6 mph).
Contents
1 History
2 Properties
3 Formation and behavior
4 Localized effects
5 Effect on cyclone formation
6 Possible renewable power source
7 In culture
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
History[edit]
Benjamin Franklin's chart of the Gulf Stream published in Philadelphia in 1786
European discovery of the Gulf Stream dates to the 1512 expedition of Juan Ponce de León, after which it became widely used by Spanish ships sailing from the Caribbean to Spain.[1] A summary of Ponce de León's voyage log, on April 22, 1513, noted, "A current such that, although they had great wind, they could not proceed forward, but backward and it seems that they were proceeding well; at the end it was known that the current was more powerful than the wind."[2] Its existence was also known to Peter Martyr d'Anghiera.
Benjamin Franklin became interested in the North Atlantic Ocean circulation patterns. In 1768, while in England, Franklin heard a curious complaint from the Colonial Board of Customs: Why did it take British packets several weeks longer to reach New York from England than it took an average American merchant ship to reach Newport, Rhode Island, despite the merchant ships leaving from London and having to sail down the River Thames and then the length of the English Channel before they sailed across the Atlantic, while the packets left from Falmouth in Cornwall?[3]
Franklin asked Timothy Folger, his cousin twice removed (Nantucket Historical Society), a Nantucket Island whaling captain, for an answer. Folger explained that merchant ships routinely crossed the then-unnamed Gulf Stream—identifying it by whale behavior, measurement of the water's temperature, and changes in the water's color—while the mail packet captains ran against it.[3] Franklin had Folger sketch the path of the Gulf Stream on an old chart of the Atlantic and add written notes on how to avoid the Stream when sailing from England to America. Franklin then forwarded the chart to Anthony Todd, secretary of the British Post Office.[3] Franklin's Gulf Stream chart was printed in 1769 in London, but it was mostly ignored by British sea captains.[4] A copy of the chart was printed in Paris circa 1770-1773, and a third version was published by Franklin in Philadelphia in 1786.[5][6] The inset in the upper left part of the 1786 chart is an illustration of the migration pattern of herring and not an ocean current.
Properties[edit]
The Gulf Stream proper is a western-intensified current, driven largely by wind stress.[7] The North Atlantic Drift, in contrast, is largely thermohaline circulation–driven. In 1958 the oceanographer Henry Stommel noted that "very little water from the Gulf of Mexico is actually in the Stream".[8] By carrying warm water northeast across the Atlantic, it makes Western and especially Northern Europe warmer than it otherwise would be.[9]
However, the extent of its contribution to the actual temperature differential between North America and Europe is a matter of dispute, as there is a recent minority opinion within the science community that this temperature difference (beyond that caused by contrasting maritime and continental climates) is mainly due to atmospheric waves created by the Rocky Mountains.[10]
Formation and behavior[edit]
Evolution of the Gulf Stream to the west of Ireland continuing as the North Atlantic Current
A river of sea water, called the Atlantic North Equatorial Current, flows westward off the coast of Central Africa. When this current interacts with the northeastern coast of South America, the current forks into two branches. One passes into the Caribbean Sea, while a second, the Antilles Current, flows north and east of the West Indies.[11] These two branches rejoin north of the Straits of Florida.
The trade winds blow westward in the tropics,[12] and the westerlies blow eastward at mid-latitudes.[13] This wind pattern applies a stress to the subtropical ocean surface with negative curl across the north Atlantic Ocean.[14] The resulting Sverdrup transport is equatorward.[15]
Because of conservation of potential vorticity caused by the northward-moving winds on the subtropical ridge's western periphery and the increased relative vorticity of northward moving water, transport is balanced by a narrow, accelerating poleward current, which flows along the western boundary of the ocean basin, outweighing the effects of friction with the western boundary current, known as the Labrador current.[16] The conservation of potential vorticity also causes bends along the Gulf Stream, which occasionally break off due to a shift in the Gulf Stream's position, forming separate warm and cold eddies.[17] This overall process, known as western intensification, causes currents on the western boundary of an ocean basin, such as the Gulf Stream, to be stronger than those on the eastern boundary.[18]
As a consequence, the resulting Gulf Stream is a strong ocean current. It transports water at a rate of 30 million cubic meters per second (30 sverdrups) through the Florida Straits. As it passes south of Newfoundland, this rate increases to 150 million cubic metres per second.[19] The volume of the Gulf Stream dwarfs all rivers that empty into the Atlantic combined, which barely total 0.6 million cubic metres per second. It is weaker, however, than the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.[20] Given the strength and proximity of the Gulf Stream, beaches along the East Coast of the United States may be more vulnerable to large sea-level anomalies, which significantly impact rates of coastal erosion.[21]
The Gulf Stream is typically 100 kilometres (62 mi) wide and 800 metres (2,600 ft) to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) deep. The current velocity is fastest near the surface, with the maximum speed typically about 2.5 metres per second (5.6 mph).[22] As it travels north, the warm water transported by the Gulf Stream undergoes evaporative cooling. The cooling is wind-driven: Wind moving over the water causes evaporation, cooling the water and increasing its salinity and density. When sea ice forms, salts are left out of the ice, a process known as brine exclusion.[23] These two processes produce water that is denser and colder (or, more precisely, water that is still liquid at a lower temperature). In the North Atlantic Ocean, the water becomes so dense that it begins to sink down through less salty and less dense water. (The convective action is not unlike that of a lava lamp.) This downdraft of cold, dense water becomes a part of the North Atlantic Deep Water, a southgoing stream.[24] Very little seaweed lies within the current, although seaweed lies in clusters to its east.[25]
In April 2018, two studies published in Nature [26][27] found the Gulf Stream to be at its weakest for at least 1,600 years.[28]
Localized effects[edit]
See also: Climate of Florida
The Gulf Stream is influential on the climate of the Florida peninsula. The portion off the Florida coast, referred to as the Florida current, maintains an average water temperature at or above 24 °C (75 °F) during the winter.[29] East winds moving over this warm water move warm air from over the Gulf Stream inland,[30] helping to keep temperatures milder across the state than elsewhere across the Southeast during the winter. Also, the Gulf Stream's proximity to Nantucket, Massachusetts adds to its biodiversity, as it is the northern limit for southern varieties of plant life, and the southern limit for northern plant species, Nantucket being warmer during winter than the mainland.[31]
The North Atlantic Current of the Gulf Stream, along with similar warm air currents, helps keep Ireland and the western coast of Great Britain a couple of degrees warmer than the east.[32] However, the difference is most dramatic in the western coastal islands of Scotland.[33] A noticeable effect of the Gulf Stream and the strong westerly winds (driven by the warm water of the Gulf Stream) on Europe occurs along the Norwegian coast.[9] Northern parts of Norway lie close to the Arctic zone, most of which is covered with ice and snow in winter. However, almost all of Norway's coast remains free of ice and snow throughout the year.[34] Weather systems warmed by the Gulf Stream drift into Northern Europe, also warming the climate behind the Scandinavian mountains.
Effect on cyclone formation[edit]
Hurricane Sandy intensifying along the axis of the Gulf Stream in 2012.
The warm water and temperature contrast along the edge of the Gulf Stream often increase the intensity of cyclones, tropical or otherwise. Tropical cyclone generation normally requires water temperatures in excess of 26.5 °C (79.7 °F).[35] Tropical cyclone formation is common over the Gulf Stream, especially in the month of July. Storms travel westward through the Caribbean and then either move in a northward direction and curve toward the eastern coast of the United States or stay on a north-westward track and enter the Gulf of Mexico.[36] Such storms have the potential to create strong winds and extensive damage to the United States' Southeast Coastal Areas.
Strong extratropical cyclones have been shown to deepen significantly along a shallow frontal zone, forced by the Gulf Stream itself, during the cold season.[37] Subtropical cyclones also tend to generate near the Gulf Stream. 75 percent of such systems documented between 1951 and 2000 formed near this warm water current, with two annual peaks of activity occurring during the months of May and October.[38] Cyclones within the ocean form under the Gulf Stream, extending as deep as 3,500 metres (11,500 ft) beneath the ocean's surface.[39]
Possible renewable power source[edit]
The theoretical maximum energy dissipation from Gulf Stream by turbines is in the range of 20-60 GW.[40] One suggestion, which could theoretically supply power comparable to several nuclear power plants, would deploy a field of underwater turbines placed 300 meters (980 ft) under the center of the core of the Gulf Stream.[41] Ocean thermal energy could also be harnessed to produce electricity using the temperature difference between cold deep water and warm surface water.[42]
In culture[edit]
Some of the RMS Titanic's victims, whose bodies were buoyed by lifebelts but were never found by rescue or recovery ships sent to find them, are surmised to have been carried away in the Gulf Stream.[43][44][45]
See also[edit]
Arctic dipole anomaly
Boundary current
Humboldt Current
Latitude of the Gulf Stream and the Gulf Stream north wall index
North Atlantic oscillation
Shutdown of thermohaline circulation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe (2006). Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 194. ISBN 0-393-06259-7.
Jump up ^ Wilkinson, Jerry. "History of the Gulf Stream". Keys Historeum. Historical Preservation Society of the Upper Keys. Retrieved 15 July 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c Tuchman, Barbara W. The First Salute: A View of the American Revolution New York: Ballantine Books, 1988. pp.221–222.
Jump up ^ Isserman, Maurice (2002). "Ben Franklin and the Gulf Stream" (PDF). Study of place. TERC. Retrieved 15 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Anon. "1785: Benjamin Franklin's 'Sundry Maritime Observations'". Ocean Explorer: Readings for ocean explorers. NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research. Archived from the original on 18 December 2005. Retrieved 15 July 2010.
Jump up ^ Richardson, Philip L.; Adams, Nathan T. (Spring 2018). "Uncharted Waters: Nantucket Whalers and the Franklin-Folger Chart of the Gulf Stream". Historic Nantucket. 68 (1): 17–24.
Jump up ^ Wunsch, Carl (November 8, 2002). "What Is the Thermohaline Circulation?". Science. 298 (5596): 1179–1181. doi:10.1126/science.1079329. PMID 12424356. (see also Rahmstorf.)
Jump up ^ Henry Stommel. (1958). The Gulf Stream: A Physical and Dynamical Description. Berkeley: University of California Press. p.22
^ Jump up to: a b Barbie Bischof; Arthur J. Mariano; Edward H. Ryan (2003). "The North Atlantic Drift Current". The National Oceanographic Partnership Program. Retrieved 2008-09-10.
Jump up ^ Seager, Richard (July–August 2006). "The Source of Europe's Mild Climate". American Scientist Online. Retrieved 2008-09-23.
Jump up ^ Elizabeth Rowe; Arthur J. Mariano; Edward H. Ryan. "The Antilles Current". Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). "trade winds". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 2008-12-11. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology (2009). Westerlies. Archived 2010-06-22 at the Wayback Machine. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 2009-04-15.
Jump up ^ Matthias Tomczak and J. Stuart Godfrey (2001). Regional Oceanography: an Introduction. Matthias Tomczak, pp. 42. ISBN 81-7035-306-8. Retrieved on 2009-05-06.
Jump up ^ Earthguide (2007). Lesson 6: Unraveling the Gulf Stream Puzzle - On a Warm Current Running North. University of California at San Diego. Retrieved on 2009-05-06.
Jump up ^ Angela Colling (2001). Ocean Circulation. Butterworth-Heinemann, p. 96. Retrieved on 2009-05-07.
Jump up ^ Maurice L. Schwartz (2005). Encyclopedia of Coastal Science. Springer, p. 1037. ISBN 978-1-4020-1903-6. Retrieved on 2009-05-07.
Jump up ^ National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (2009). Investigating the Gulf Stream Archived 2010-05-03 at the Wayback Machine.. North Carolina State University. Retrieved on 2009-05-06.
Jump up ^ Joanna Gyory; Arthur J. Mariano; Edward H. Ryan. "The Gulf Stream". Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
Jump up ^ Ryan Smith; Melicie Desflots; Sean White; Arthur J. Mariano; Edward H. Ryan. "The Antarctic CP Current". Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
Jump up ^ Theuerkauf, Ethan J., et al. "Sea level anomalies exacerbate beach erosion". Geophysical Research Letters 41.14 (2014): 5139–5147.
Jump up ^ Phillips, Pamela. "The Gulf Stream". USNA/Johns Hopkins. Retrieved 2007-08-02.
Jump up ^ Russel, Randy. "Thermohaline Ocean Circulation". University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
Jump up ^ Behl, R. "Atlantic Ocean water masses". California State University Long Beach. Archived from the original on May 23, 2008. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
Jump up ^ Edward and George William Blunt (1857). The American Coast Pilot. Edward and George William Blunt. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
Jump up ^ "Anomalously weak Labrador Sea convection and Atlantic overturning during the past 150 years". Nature. 11 April 2018. Retrieved 12 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Observed fingerprint of a weakening Atlantic Ocean overturning circulation". Nature. 11 April 2018. Retrieved 12 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Gulf Stream current at its weakest in 1,600 years, studies show". The Guardian. 12 April 2018. Retrieved 12 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Geoff Samuels (2008). "Caribbean Mean SSTs and Winds". Cooperative Institute For Marine and Atmospheric Studies. Retrieved 2009-01-16.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center. Climatic Wind Data for the United States. Retrieved on 2007-06-02. Archived June 13, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Sarah Oktay. "Description of Nantucket Island". University of Massachusetts Boston. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
Jump up ^ Professor Hennessy (1858). Report of the Annual Meeting: On the Influence of the Gulf-stream on the Climate of Ireland. Richard Taylor and William Francis. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
Jump up ^ "Satellites Record Weakening North Atlantic Current Impact". NASA. Retrieved 2008-09-10.
Jump up ^ Erik A. Rasmussen; John Turner (2003). Polar Lows. Cambridge University Press. p. 68.
Jump up ^ Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. "Frequently Asked Questions: How do tropical cyclones form?". NOAA. Retrieved 2006-07-26.
Jump up ^ "Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)". Hurricane Research Division (Database). National Hurricane Center. May 1, 2018. Retrieved August 29, 2018.
Jump up ^ S. Businger, T. M. Graziano, M. L. Kaplan, and R. A. Rozumalski. Cold-air cyclogenesis along the Gulf-Stream front: investigation of diabatic impacts on cyclone development, frontal structure, and track. Retrieved on 2008-09-21.
Jump up ^ David M. Roth. P 1.43 A FIFTY YEAR HISTORY OF SUBTROPICAL CYCLONES. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 2008-09-21.
Jump up ^ D. K. Savidge and J. M. Bane. Cyclogenesis in the deep ocean beneath the Gulf Stream. 1. Description. Retrieved on 2008-09-21.
Jump up ^ Ocean Current Energy Assessment for the Gulf Stream Xiufeng Yang*, Kevin A. Haas, Hermann M. Fritz [1] Retrieved 2014-05-26
Jump up ^ The Institute for Environmental Research & Eductation. Tidal.pdf Archived 2010-10-11 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2010-07-28.
Jump up ^ Jeremy Elton Jacquot. Gulf Stream's Tidal Energy Could Provide Up to a Third of Florida's Power. Retrieved on 2008-09-21.
Jump up ^ "Recovering the Dead". titanic-titanic.com.
Jump up ^ Walter Lord. The Night Lives On.
Jump up ^ Ticehurst, Brian J. (March 31, 2007). "CLASSified in Death: Recovering the Titanic's dead". Encyclopedia Titanica.
Further reading[edit]
Corona Magazine Issue 124: Science (German, Transported amount of power)
Hátún; Sandø, AB; Drange, H; Hansen, B; Valdimarsson, H; et al. (September 16, 2005). "Influence of the Atlantic Subpolar Gyre on the Thermohaline Circulation". Science. 309 (5742): 1841–1844. Bibcode:2005Sci...309.1841H. doi:10.1126/science.1114777. PMID 16166513. Archived from the original on 2007-08-06. Retrieved 2007-08-02. (Increased temperature and salinity in the Nordic Seas.)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gulf stream.
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Benjamin Franklin
January 6, 1706 – April 17, 1790
President of Pennsylvania (1785–1788), Ambassador to France (1779–1785)
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Maryland Toleration Act
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Maryland Toleration Act
Part of English Civil War and Protestant Revolution of Maryland
A small broadside reprint of the Maryland Toleration Act
Date
April 21, 1649
Location
Maryland Colony
Also known as
Act Concerning Religion
Participants
Colonial Assembly of Maryland
Outcome
Repealed in October 1694
The Maryland Toleration Act, also known as the Act Concerning Religion, was a law mandating religious tolerance for Trinitarian Christians. It was passed on April 21, 1649, by the assembly of the Maryland colony, in St. Mary's City. It was the second law requiring religious tolerance in the British North American colonies and created one of the pioneer statutes passed by the legislative body of an organized colonial government to guarantee any degree of religious liberty. Specifically, the bill, now usually referred to as the Toleration Act, granted freedom of conscience to all Christians.[1] (The colony which became Rhode Island passed a series of laws, the first in 1636, which prohibited religious persecution including against non-Trinitarians; Rhode Island was also the first government to separate church and state.) Historians argue that it helped inspire later legal protections for freedom of religion in the United States. The Calvert family, who founded Maryland partly as a refuge for English Catholics, sought enactment of the law to protect Catholic settlers and those of other religions that did not conform to the dominant Anglicanism of Britain and her colonies.
The Act allowed freedom of worship for all Trinitarian Christians in Maryland, but sentenced to death anyone who denied the divinity of Jesus. It was revoked in 1654 by William Claiborne, a Virginian who had been appointed as a commissioner by Oliver Cromwell; he was an Anglican, a Puritan sympathizer, and strongly hostile to the Catholic Religion. When the Calverts regained control of Maryland, the Act was reinstated, before being repealed permanently in 1692 following the events of the Glorious Revolution, and the Protestant Revolution in Maryland. As the first law on religious tolerance in the British North America, it influenced related laws in other colonies and portions of it were echoed in the writing of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which enshrined religious freedom in American law.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin of the law
2 Description
3 Repeal and legacy
4 See also
5 External links
6 Footnotes
7 References
Origin of the law[edit]
Cecil Calvert, proprietor of the Maryland colony when the Maryland Toleration Act was passed
The Maryland colony was founded by Cecil Calvert in 1634. Like his father George Calvert, who had originated the efforts that led to the colony's charter, Cecil Calvert was Catholic at a time when England was dominated by the Anglican Church.[2] The Calverts intended the colony as a haven for Catholics fleeing England and as a source of income for themselves and their descendants.[3] Many of Maryland's first settlers were Catholic, including at least two Catholic priests, one of whom became the earliest chronicler of the colony's history.[4] But whatever Calvert's intentions, Maryland was a colony of an Anglican nation. Its charter had been granted by an Anglican king and seems to have assumed that the Church of England would be its official church. Anglican and later Puritan newcomers quickly came to outnumber the early Catholic settlers. Thus, by 1649 when the law was passed, the colonial assembly was dominated by Protestants, and the law was in effect an act of Protestant tolerance for Catholics, rather than the reverse.[3]
From Maryland's earliest days, Cecil Calvert had enjoined its colonists to leave religious rivalries behind. Along with giving instructions on the establishment and defense of the colony, he asked the men he appointed to lead it to ensure peace between Protestants and Catholics. He also asked the Catholics to practice their faith as privately as possible, so as not to disturb that peace.[5] The Ordinance of 1639, Maryland's earliest comprehensive law, expressed a general commitment to the rights of man, but did not specifically detail protections for religious minorities of any kind.[6] Peace prevailed until the English Civil War, which opened religious rifts and threatened Calvert's control of Maryland.[7] In 1647, after the death of Governor Leonard Calvert, Protestants seized control of the colony. Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, quickly regained power, but recognized that religious tolerance not specifically enshrined in law was vulnerable.[8] This recognition was combined with the arrival of a group of Puritans whom Calvert had induced to establish Providence, now Annapolis, by guaranteeing their freedom of worship.[9] Partially to confirm the promises he made to them, Calvert wrote the Maryland Toleration Act and encouraged the colonial assembly to pass it. They did so on April 21, 1649.[8]
Description[edit]
The Maryland Toleration Act was an act of tolerance, allowing specific religious groups to practice their religion without being punished, but retaining the ability to revoke that right at any time. It also only granted tolerance to Christians who believed in the Trinity.[3] The law was very explicit in limiting its effects to Christians:[10]
...no person or persons...professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth be anyways troubled, Molested or discountenanced for or in respect of his or her religion nor in the free exercise thereof within this Province...
—  Maryland Toleration Act, 1649
Settlers who blasphemed by denying either the Trinity or the divinity of Jesus Christ could be punished by execution or the seizure of their lands. That meant that Jews, Unitarians, and other dissenters from Trinitarian Christianity were practicing their religions at risk to their lives.[8] Any person who insulted the Virgin Mary, the apostles, or the evangelists could be whipped, jailed, or fined. Otherwise, Trinitarian Christians' right to worship was protected. The law outlawed the use of "heretic" and other religious insults against them.[3] This attempt to limit the use of religious slurs and insults has been described as the first attempt in the world to limit the use of hate speech.[11]
The law was used in at least one attempt to prosecute a non-Christian. In 1658 a Jew named Jacob Lumbrozo was accused of blasphemy after saying that Jesus was not the son of God and that the miracles described in the New Testament were conjuring tricks. Lumbrozo did not deny having said such things, but argued that he had only been responding to questions asked of him.[12] He was held for trial but the case was later dismissed, and he was given full citizenship as a condition of the restoration of Calvert's rule following the English Civil War.[13]
The law had its detractors, even among those groups protected by it. Puritans were concerned that the act and the proprietary government in general were royalist. They were also concerned that by swearing allegiance to Calvert, who was Catholic, they were being required to submit to the Pope, whom they considered to be the antichrist. Some Anglicans also opposed the law, believing that the Church of England should be the colony's sole established church.[13]
Repeal and legacy[edit]
William Claiborne, who rescinded the Toleration Act when he took over the colony during the reign of Oliver Cromwell
In 1654, only five years after its passage, the Act was repealed.[8] Two years earlier the colony had been seized by Protestants following the execution of King Charles I of England and the outbreak of the English Civil War. In the early stages of that conflict, the colonial assembly of Maryland and its neighbors in Virginia had publicly declared their support for the King. Parliament appointed Protestant commissioners loyal to their cause to subdue the colonies, and two of them, the Virginian William Claiborne and Puritan leader Richard Bennett, took control of the colonial government in St. Mary's City in 1652. In addition to repealing the Maryland Toleration Act with the assistance of Protestant assemblymen, Claiborne and Bennett passed a new law barring Catholics from openly practicing their religion.[14] Calvert regained control after making a deal with the colony's Protestants, and in 1657 the Act was again passed by the colonial assembly. This time, it would last more than thirty years, until 1692.[8]
Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England, when the Catholic King James II of England was deposed and the Protestant William III ascended the throne, a rebellion of Maryland Puritan Protestants overthrew Calvert's rule. They quickly rescinded the Toleration Act and banned public practice of Catholicism, and it would never be reinstated under colonial rule. In fact, the colony established the Church of England as its official church in 1702 and explicitly barred Catholics from voting in 1718.[8] The Calvert family regained control over the colony in 1715, but only after Benedict Calvert converted to Protestantism. His political control remained tenses enough that he did not risk an attempt to reinstate protections for Catholics.[15] It took until the era of the American Revolution for religious tolerance or freedom to again become the practice in Maryland.[8]
While the law did not secure religious freedom, and while it included severe limitations, it was nonetheless a significant milestone. It predates the Enlightenment, which is generally considered to be when the idea of religious freedom took root, and stands as the first legal guarantee of religious tolerance in American and British history. Later laws ensuring religious tolerance and freedom, including the British Act of Toleration of 1689, the Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania, and laws concerning religion in other colonies such as South Carolina, may have been influenced by its example.[3][12] According to historian Robert Brugger, "...the measure marked a notable departure from Old World oppression."[9] It was not until the passage of the signed First Amendment to the Constitution over a century later that religious freedom was enshrined as a fundamental guarantee,[3] but even that document echoes the Toleration Act in its use of the phrase, "free exercise thereof". Thus, despite its lack of a full guarantee of religious freedom or broad-based tolerance, the law is, "a significant step forward in the struggle for religious liberty."[8]
See also[edit]
History of religion in the United States
External links[edit]
Original text of the Maryland Toleration Act Yale University law library
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ http://msa.maryland.gov/msa/speccol/sc2200/sc2221/000025/html/intro.html
Jump up ^ Brugger, p 5
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Holmes, pp 20–22
Jump up ^ Brugger, p 3
Jump up ^ Brugger, p 7
Jump up ^ Hanley, p 325
Jump up ^ Maclear, pp 45–46
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Finkelman, p 675
^ Jump up to: a b Brugger, p 20
Jump up ^ Toleration Act, paragraph 6
Jump up ^ McConnell, p 17
^ Jump up to: a b Underwood, pp 6–7
^ Jump up to: a b Brugger, p 22
Jump up ^ Brugger, p 21
Jump up ^ Hoffman, pp 79–80
References[edit]
Brugger, Robert J. (1988). Maryland: A Middle Temperament. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3399-X.
Finkelman, Paul (2006). "Maryland Toleration Act". The Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties. New York: CRC Press. ISBN 0-415-94342-6.
Hanley, Thomas O'Brien (1957). "Church and State in the Maryland Ordinance of 1639". Church History (New York: Cambridge University Press on behalf of the American Society of Church History) 26 (4): 325–341. Retrieved November 14, 2009.
Hoffman, Ronald (2000). Princes of Ireland, Planters of Maryland: A Carroll Saga, 1500–1782. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5347-X.
Holmes, David Lynn (2006). The Faiths of the Founding Fathers. New York: Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-530092-0.
Maclear, J.F. (1995). Church and State in the Modern Age: A Documentary History. New York: Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-508681-3.
McConnell, Michael W. (1992). "America's First "Hate Speech" Regulation". Constitutional Commentary (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota School of Law) 9 (17): 17–23. Retrieved November 14, 2009.
"Maryland Toleration Act". Yale University Avalon Project. 1649. Retrieved November 14, 2009.
Underwood, James L. and Burke, William Lewis (2006). The Dawn of Religious Freedom in South Carolina. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-621-7.
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