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Hans Selye
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Hans Selye
CC
Bust of Hans Selye at Selye János University, Komárom, Hungary
Born
(1907-01-26)January 26, 1907
Vienna, Austria-Hungary
Died
October 16, 1982(1982-10-16) (aged 75)
Montreal, Québec, Canada
Other names
Selye János (Hungarian)
Scientific career
Influenced
Marshall McLuhan[1]
János Hugo Bruno "Hans" Selye CC (/ˈsɛljeɪ/; Hungarian: Selye János; January 26, 1907 – October 16, 1982), was a pioneering Hungarian-Canadian endocrinologist of Hungarian origin. He conducted much important scientific work on the hypothetical non-specific response of an organism to stressors. Although he did not recognize all of the many aspects of glucocorticoids, Selye was aware of their role in the stress response. Charlotte Gerson[2] considers him the first to demonstrate the existence of biological stress.
Contents
1 Biography
2 Work on stress
3 Former graduate students
4 Publications
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Biography[edit]
Selye was born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary on 26 January 1907.[3] He grew up in Komárom, Hungary, and the Selye János University a Hungarian language university in that town bears his name. He became a Doctor of Medicine and Chemistry in Prague in 1929, went to Johns Hopkins University on a Rockefeller Foundation Scholarship in 1931 and then went to McGill University in Montreal where he started researching the issue of stress in 1936. In 1945, he joined the Université de Montréal where he had 40 assistants and worked with 15,000 laboratory animals. Kantha (1992), in a survey of an elite group of scientists who have authored over 1,000 research publications, identified Selye as one who had published 1,700 research papers, 15 monographs, and 7 popular books. He died on 16 October 1982 in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. He was a nominee to the Nobel prize for the first time in 1949.[4] He often visited Hungary, giving lectures as well as interviews in Hungarian television programs. His book "The Stress of Life" appeared in Hungarian as "Az Életünk és a stressz" in 1964 and becoming a bestseller.
Selye was of Austro-Hungarian origin, his father was of Hungarian ethnicity while his mother was Austrian. His father a doctor moved back to Budapest with his Austrian wife. Selye's mother died in 1956 from bullet hits during the revolution. He conducted a lecture in 1973 at the Hungarian Scientific Academy in Hungarian with no accent though he had lived many years abroad. [5]
Work on stress[edit]
His last inspiration for general adaptation syndrome (GAS, a theory of stress) came from an endocrinological experiment in which he injected mice with extracts of various organs. He at first believed he had discovered a new hormone, but was proved wrong when every irritating substance he injected produced the same symptoms (swelling of the adrenal cortex, atrophy of the thymus, gastric and duodenal ulcers). This, paired with his observation that people with different diseases exhibit similar symptoms, led to his description of the effects of "noxious agents" as he at first called it. He later coined the term "stress", which has been accepted into the lexicon of most other languages.[citation needed]
Selye has acknowledged the influence of Claude Bernard (who developed the idea of milieu intérieur) and Walter Cannon's "homeostasis". Selye conceptualized the physiology of stress as having two components: a set of responses which he called the "general adaptation syndrome", and the development of a pathological state from ongoing, unrelieved stress.
Selye discovered and documented that stress differs from other physical responses in that stress is stressful whether one receives good or bad news, whether the impulse is positive or negative. He called negative stress "distress" and positive stress "eustress". The system whereby the body copes with stress, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) system, was also first described by Selye. He also pointed to an "alarm state", a "resistance state", and an "exhaustion state", largely referring to glandular states. Later he developed the idea of two "reservoirs" of stress resistance, or alternatively stress energy.
Selye wrote The Stress of Life (1956), From Dream to Discovery: On Being a Scientist (1964) and Stress without Distress (1974). He worked as a professor and director of the Institute of Experimental Medicine and Surgery at the Université de Montréal. In 1975 he created the International Institute of Stress, and in 1979, Dr. Selye and Arthur Antille started the Hans Selye Foundation. Later Selye and eight Nobel laureates founded the Canadian Institute of Stress.[6]
In 1968 he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. In 1976, he was awarded the Loyola Medal by Concordia University.[7]
In recent years it has emerged that Selye worked as a consultant for the tobacco industry from the 1950s until his death, receiving extensive funding for his research, and taking part in pro-smoking campaigns paid for by the tobacco industry.[8] He also helped RJ Reynolds to recruit other scientists, and there is evidence that industry lawyers helped with the wording and content of some of Selye’s later academic papers. The tobacco industry’s funding of Selye’s research was cited as an example of racketeering in the successful anti-racketeering case brought by the US Department of Justice against 7 tobacco companies in 2009.
Former graduate students[edit]
Roger Guillemin
Paola S. Timiras
Publications[edit]
"A Syndrome Produced by Diverse Nocuous Agents" - 1936 article by Hans Selye from The journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences
The Stress of Life. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956, ISBN 978-0070562127
Selye, H. (Oct 7, 1955). "Stress and disease". Science. 122: 625–631. doi:10.1126/science.122.3171.625.
From Dream to Discovery: On being a scientist. New York: McGraw-Hill 1964, ISBN 978-0405066160
Hormones and Resistance. Berlin; New York: Springer-Verlag, 1971, ISBN 978-3540054115
Stress Without Distress. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., c1974, ISBN 978-0397010264
See also[edit]
Science and technology in Canada
Alvin Toffler
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kroker, Arthur (1984). Technology and the Canadian Mind: Innis/McLuhan/Grant. Montreal: New World Perspectives. p. 73. hdl:1828/7129  . ISBN 978-0-920393-14-7.
Jump up ^ Healing the Gerson Way, Defeating Cancer and Other Chronic Diseases, New Edition. Charlotte Gerson with Beata Bishop, Gerson Health Media, 2010, p. 48.
Jump up ^ "Hans Selye". Encyclopædia Britannica (2008 ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
Jump up ^ The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1901-1953
Jump up ^ Selye János 1907–1982, Hungarian Academic Journal, 2007
Jump up ^ "Welcome To The Canadian Institute Of Stress". Stresscanada.org. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
Jump up ^ "Hans Selye". www.concordia.ca. Retrieved 2017-08-17.
Jump up ^ Petticrew, M. P.; Lee, K (2011). "The "father of stress" meets "big tobacco": Hans Selye and the tobacco industry" (PDF). American Journal of Public Health. 101 (3): 411–418. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.177634. PMC 3036703  . PMID 20466961.
External links[edit]
Mementos and photos
Stress, by Hans Selye, National Film Board
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
BIBSYS: 90240163
BNE: XX831815
BNF: cb125733667 (data)
GND: 118613103
ISNI: 0000 0000 8174 1054
LCCN: n50007283
LNB: 000036036
NDL: 00456079
SELIBR: 199261
SNAC: w6x9327d
SUDOC: 03505056X
VIAF: 109027342
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text:
Fish and chips
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Fish n' chips" redirects here. For other topics, see Fish 'n' Chips (disambiguation).
Fish and chips
Fish and chips in a polystyrene take-away container
Alternative names
Fish supper / Fish ‘n’ Chips
Course
Main dish
Place of origin
England
Serving temperature
Hot
Main ingredients
Battered and fried fish with deep-fried chips
Cookbook: Fish and chips
Media: Fish and chips
British cuisine
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English
Scottish
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v
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e
Fish and chips is a hot dish of English origin consisting of fried battered fish and hot potato chips. It is a common take-away food and an early example of culinary fusion.[1][2] Fish and chips first appeared in the 1860s; by 1910 there were more than 25,000 fish and chip shops across the UK, and by the 1930s there were over 35,000.[2] Fish and chips are now a staple takeaway meal in numerous countries, particularly in English-speaking commonwealth countries including Australia, New Zealand and Canada.
Contents
1 History
1.1 United Kingdom
1.1.1 Fish & Chips Awards
1.2 Ireland
1.3 New Zealand
1.4 United States
2 Composition
2.1 Cooking
2.2 Thickness
2.3 Batter
2.4 Choice of fish
2.5 Accompaniments
2.6 Nutrition information
3 Vendors
4 Cultural impact
5 Environment
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
History[edit]
Main article: English cuisine
The tradition in England of fish battered and fried in oil may have come from Jewish immigrants from Spain and Portugal.[3][2][4] Originally, Western Sephardic Jews settling in England as early as the 16th century would have prepared fried fish in a manner similar to pescado frito, which is coated in flour then fried in oil.[5] Charles Dickens mentions "fried fish warehouses" in Oliver Twist (1838),[6] and in 1845 Alexis Soyer in his first edition of A Shilling cookery for the People, gives a recipe for "Fried fish, Jewish fashion", which is dipped in a batter of flour and water.[7]
Fish and chips, served in a paper wrapper (greaseproof paper inner and ordinary paper outer), as a "takeaway"
The exact location of the first fish and chip shop is unclear. The earliest known shops were opened in the 1860s, in London by Joseph Malin[8] and in Mossley, near Oldham, Lancashire, by John Lees.[9][10] However, fried fish, as well as chips, had existed independently for at least fifty years, so the possibility that they had been combined at an earlier time cannot be ruled out.[11]
Fish and chips became a stock meal among the working classes in England as a consequence of the rapid development of trawl fishing in the North Sea,[12] and the development of railways which connected the ports to major industrial cities during the second half of the 19th century, so that fresh fish could be rapidly transported to the heavily populated areas.[13]
Deep-fried chips (slices or pieces of potato) as a dish may have first appeared in England in about the same period: the Oxford English Dictionary notes as its earliest usage of "chips" in this sense the mention in Charles Dickens' A Tale of Two Cities (1859): "Husky chips of potatoes, fried with some reluctant drops of oil".[14]
The modern fish-and-chip shop ("chippy" or "chipper" in modern British slang[15][16]) originated in the United Kingdom, although outlets selling fried food occurred commonly throughout Europe. Early fish-and-chip shops had only very basic facilities. Usually these consisted principally of a large cauldron of cooking fat, heated by a coal fire. The fish-and-chip shop later evolved into a fairly standard format, with the food served, in paper wrappings, to queuing customers, over a counter in front of the fryers. By 1910, there were more than 25,000 fish and chip shops across the country, and in the 1920s there were more than 35,000 shops.[17] As a boy Alfred Hitchcock lived above a fish and chip shop in London, which was the family business.[18] According to Professor John Walton, author of Fish and Chips and the British Working Class, the British government made safeguarding supplies of fish and chips during World War I a priority: "The cabinet knew it was vital to keep families on the home front in good heart, unlike the German regime that failed to keep its people well fed".[2]
Harry Ramsden's fish and chip shop in Bournemouth, England. The restaurant chain has 45 franchised outlets throughout the UK and Ireland
In 1928, Harry Ramsden opened his first fish and chip shop in Guiseley, West Yorkshire. On a single day in 1952, the shop served 10,000 portions of fish and chips, earning a place in the Guinness Book of Records.[17] In George Orwell's The Road to Wigan Pier (1937), which documents his experience of working class life in the north of England, the author considered fish and chips chief among the 'home comforts' which acted as a panacea to the working classes.[17] During World War II, fish and chips remained one of the few foods in the United Kingdom not subject to rationing.[19] Prime Minister Winston Churchill referred to the combination of fish and chips as "the good companions".[2] John Lennon enjoyed his fish and chips—a staple of the working class—smothered in ketchup.[2]
British fish and chips were originally served in a wrapping of old newspapers but this practice has now largely ceased, with plain paper, cardboard, or plastic being used instead. In the United Kingdom, the Fish Labelling Regulations 2003[20] and in Ireland the European Communities (Labelling of Fishery and Aquaculture Products) Regulations 2003 [21] respectively enact directive 2065/2001/EC, and generally mean that "fish" must be sold with the particular commercial name or species named; so, for example, "cod and chips" now appears on menus rather than the more vague "fish and chips". In the United Kingdom the Food Standards Agency guidance excludes caterers from this;[22] but several local Trading Standards authorities and others do say it cannot be sold merely as "fish and chips".[23][24][25]
United Kingdom[edit]
A blue plaque in Oldham (Greater Manchester) in England marking the 1860s origins of the fish and chip shop and the fast food industry
A prominent meal in British culture, the dish became popular in wider circles in London and South East England in the middle of the 19th century: Charles Dickens mentions a "fried fish warehouse" in Oliver Twist, first published in 1838, while in the north of England a trade in deep-fried chipped potatoes developed. The first chip shop stood on the present site of Oldham's Tommyfield Market.[26] It remains unclear exactly when and where these two trades combined to become the fish-and-chip shop industry we know. A Jewish immigrant, Joseph Malin, opened the first recorded combined fish-and-chip shop in London in 1860 or in 1865; a Mr Lees pioneered the concept in the North of England, in Mossley, in 1863.[27]
The concept of a fish restaurant, as opposed to take-away, was introduced by Samuel Isaacs (born 1856 in Whitechapel, London; died 1939 in Brighton, Sussex) who ran a thriving wholesale and retail fish business throughout London and the South of England in the latter part of the 19th century. Isaacs' first restaurant opened in London in 1896 serving fish and chips, bread and butter, and tea for nine pence,[28] and its popularity ensured a rapid expansion of the chain.
Fish and chips traditionally wrapped in white paper and newspaper
Fish and chips in a box.
The restaurants were carpeted, had table service, tablecloths, flowers, china and cutlery, and made the trappings of upmarket dining affordable to the working classes for the first time. They were located in Tottenham Court Road, St Pancras, The Strand, Hoxton, Shoreditch, Brixton and other London districts, as well as Clacton, Brighton, Ramsgate, Margate and other seaside resorts in southern England. Menus were expanded in the early 20th century to include meat dishes and other variations as their popularity grew to a total of thirty restaurants. Sam Isaacs' trademark was the phrase "This is the Plaice", combined with a picture of the punned-upon fish in question. A glimpse of the old Brighton restaurant at No.1 Marine Parade can be seen in the background of Norman Wisdom's 1955 film One Good Turn just as Wisdom/Pitkin runs onto the seafront; this is now the site of a Harry Ramsden's fish and chips restaurant. A blue plaque at Oldham's Tommyfield Market marks the first chips fried in England in 1860, and the origin of the fish and chip shop and fast food industries.[29]
Dundee City Council claims that chips were first sold by a Belgian immigrant, Edward De Gernier, in the city's Greenmarket in the 1870s.[30]
In Edinburgh, a combination of Gold Star brown sauce and water or malt vinegar, known as "sauce", or more specifically as "chippy sauce", has great popularity.[31]
Fish & Chips Awards[edit]
The annual National Fish & Chips Awards were set up in the UK in 1988.[32] The 30th Annual Fish & Chips Awards ceremony was attended by Norwegian ambassador to the UK Mona Juul.[33]
Ireland[edit]
Main article: Irish cuisine
In Ireland, the first fish and chips were sold by an Italian immigrant, Giuseppe Cervi, who mistakenly stepped off an North American-bound ship at Queenstown (now Cobh) in County Cork in the 1880s and walked all the way to Dublin.[34] He started by selling fish and chips outside Dublin pubs from a handcart. He then found a permanent spot in Great Brunswick Street (now Pearse Street). His wife Palma would ask customers "Uno di questa, uno di quella?" This phrase (meaning "one of this, one of that") entered the vernacular in Dublin as "one and one", which is still a way of referring to fish and chips in the city.[16]
New Zealand[edit]
Main article: New Zealand cuisine
Fish and chips are the most popular takeaway food in New Zealand. Food historians have been unable to pinpoint exactly when the meal became an established part of New Zealand cuisine but all recognise that the first fish and chips shops were introduced by British settlers before World War I.[35] During the 20th century, nearly every small town and suburb in New Zealand had at least one fish-and-chip shop. As in Britain, Friday night has been the traditional night to eat fish.[35]
Traditionally, fish and chips were served in wrappings of newspaper. With the decline of the newspaper industry, this has become less common.
In 1980, four up-and-coming Labour Party politicians, including David Lange, were nicknamed the "Fish and Chip Brigade" due to a picture published at the time with the group eating fish and chips.[36]
United States[edit]
Main article: Cuisine of the United States
In the United States, the dish is most commonly sold as "fish and chips", except in Upstate New York and Wisconsin and other parts of the Northeast and Upper Midwest, where this dish would be called a fish fry.[37] Despite the name "fish and chips", and the US meaning of "chips", the dish is served with French fries (much thinner than British and Irish chips).[38] In the Southern United States, a common form of cuisine is fried catfish with French fries, accompanied by coleslaw, pickles, raw onion slices and lemon slices.
Composition[edit]
Cooking[edit]
Frying range
Traditional frying uses beef dripping or lard; however, vegetable oils, such as peanut oil (used because of its relatively high smoke point) now[update] predominate. A minority of vendors in the North of England and Scotland, and the majority of vendors in Northern Ireland, still use dripping or lard, as it imparts a different flavour to the dish, but this makes the fried chips unsuitable for vegetarians and for adherents of certain faiths. Lard is used in some living industrial history museums, such as the Black Country Living Museum.
Thickness[edit]
Fish and chips at a Hesburger fast food restaurant in Finland, advertised as particularly English
British and Irish chips are usually thicker than American-style French fries sold by major multinational fast food chains, resulting in a lower fat content per portion. In their homes or in some restaurants, people in or from the United States may eat a thick type of chip, more similar to the British and Irish variant, sometimes referred to as steak fries.[39][40]
Batter[edit]
In Britain and Ireland, fish and chip shops traditionally use a simple water and flour batter, adding a little sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and a little vinegar to create lightness, as they react to create bubbles in the batter. Other recipes may use beer or milk batter, where these liquids are often substitutes for water. The carbon dioxide in the beer lends a lighter texture to the batter. Beer also results in an orange-brown colour. A simple beer batter might consist of a 2:3 ratio of flour to beer by volume. The type of beer alters the taste of the batter; some prefer lager[41][42] whereas others use stout or bitter.
Choice of fish[edit]
Cod and chips, served with a lemon wedge and tartar sauce
In Britain and Ireland, cod and haddock appear most commonly as the fish used for fish and chips,[43] but vendors also sell many other kinds of fish, especially other white fish, such as pollock or coley, plaice, skate, and ray (particularly popular in Ireland); and huss or rock salmon (a term covering several species of dogfish and similar fish). In Northern Ireland, cod, plaice or whiting appear most commonly in 'fish suppers'—'supper' being Scottish and Northern Irish chip-shop terminology for a food item accompanied by chips.[citation needed] Suppliers in Devon and Cornwall often offer pollock and coley as cheap alternatives to haddock.[44]
In Australia, reef cod and rock cod (a different variety from that used in the United Kingdom), barramundi or flathead (more expensive options), flake (a type of shark meat) or snapper (cheaper options), are commonly used. From the early 21st century, farmed basa imported from Vietnam and hoki have become common in Australian fish and chip shops. Other types of fish are also used based on regional availability.[citation needed]
In New Zealand, snapper or gurnard was originally the preferred species for battered fillets in the North Island. As catches of this fish declined, it was replaced by hoki, shark (particularly rig) – marketed as lemon fish – and tarakihi. Bluefin gurnard and blue cod predominate in South Island fish and chips.[35]
In the United States, the type of fish used depends on availability in a given region. Some common types are cod, halibut, flounder, tilapia or, in New England, Atlantic cod or haddock. Salmon is growing common on the West Coast, while freshwater catfish is most frequently used in the Southeast.[citation needed]
In India, the dish is usually based on pomfret fish, and uses chilli paste, and more pepper than would be used in Britain.[45]
Accompaniments[edit]
Fish and chips served with coleslaw and tartar sauce in an iron bowl
In chip shops in most parts of Britain and Ireland, salt and vinegar are traditionally sprinkled over fish and chips at the time it is served.[43] Suppliers use malt vinegar, onion vinegar (used for pickling onions), or the cheaper non-brewed condiment. In a few places, notably Edinburgh, 'sauce' (as in 'salt and sauce') is more traditional than vinegar - with 'sauce' meaning a brown sauce. In England, a portion of mushy peas is a popular side dish,[46] as are a range of pickles that typically include gherkins, onions and eggs.[47] In table-service restaurants and pubs, the dish is usually served with a slice of lemon for squeezing over the fish and without any sauces or condiments, with salt, vinegar and sauces available at the customer's leisure.[48][unreliable source?]
In Ireland, Wales and England, most takeaways serve warm side portions of sauces such as curry sauce, gravy or mushy peas. The sauces are usually poured over the chips. In some areas, this dish without fish is referred to as 'wet chips'. In the Midlands especially, chips with mushy peas or baked beans is known as a "pea mix" or a "bean mix". Other fried products include 'scraps' (also known as 'bits' in Southern England and "scrumps" in South Wales), originally a by-product of fish frying. Still popular in Northern England, they were given as treats to the children of customers. Portions prepared and sold today consist of loose blobs of batter, deep fried to a crunchy golden crisp in the cooking-fat. The potato scallop or potato cake consists of slices of potato dipped in fish batter and deep fried until golden brown. These are often accompanied for dipping by the warm sauces listed above.[49]
There are distinct regional variations in how accompaniments are added to the meal where it is as a take away - related partly to whether the food is entirely wrapped in paper. In some all shops would expect the customer to add these. In others the expectation is that the server does so.
Nutrition information[edit]
An average serving of fish and chips consisting of 6 ounces (170 grams) of fried fish with 10 ounces (280 grams) of fried chips has approximately 1,000 calories and contains approximately 52 grams of fat.[50] The use of tartar sauce as a condiment adds more calories and fat to the dish.
Vendors[edit]
Main article: Fish and chip shop
Fish and chip stalls
A mobile fish and chip vendor
In the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa, fish and chips are usually sold by independent restaurants and take-aways known as fish and chip shops. Outlets range from small affairs to chain restaurants. Locally owned seafood restaurants are also popular in many places, as are mobile "chip vans".[51] In Canada, the outlets may be referred to as "chip wagons". In the United Kingdom some shops have amusing names, such as "A Salt and Battery", "The Codfather", "The Frying Scotsman", "Oh My Cod" and "Frying Nemo"[52] In New Zealand and Australia, fish-and-chip vendors are a popular business and source of income among the Asian community, particularly Chinese migrants.[53] In Indonesia, fish and chips are commonly found in big cities like Jakarta in western and seafood restaurants, as well as chain restaurants like The Manhattan Fish Market, Fish & Chips etc.[54]
In Ireland, the majority of traditional vendors are migrants or the descendants of migrants from southern Italy. A trade organisation exists to represent this tradition.[55]
Sign in Lanzarote, Spain
Fish and chips is a popular lunch meal eaten by families travelling to seaside resorts for day trips who do not bring their own picnic meals.
Fish-and-chip outlets sell roughly 25% of all the white fish consumed in the United Kingdom, and 10% of all potatoes.[56]
The numerous competitions and awards for "best fish-and-chip shop"[57] testify to the recognised status of this type of outlet in popular culture.[58]
Fish-and-chip shops traditionally wrapped their product in newspaper, or with an inner layer of white paper (for hygiene) and an outer layer of newspaper or blank newsprint (for insulation and to absorb grease), though the use of newspaper for wrapping has almost ceased on grounds of hygiene. Nowadays[update], establishments usually use food-quality wrapping paper, occasionally printed on the outside to imitate newspaper.
The British National Federation of Fish Friers was founded in 1913. It promotes fish and chips and offers training courses.
A previous world record for the "largest serving of fish and chips" was held by Gadaleto's Seafood Market in New Paltz, New York.[59][60] This 2004 record was broken by Yorkshire pub Wensleydale Heifer in July 2011.[61] An attempt to break this record was made by Doncaster fish and chip shop Scawsby Fisheries in August 2012, which served 33 pounds (15 kg) of battered cod alongside 64 pounds (29 kg) of chips.[62]
Cultural impact[edit]
A neon sign for Fish and Chips
The long-standing Roman Catholic tradition of not eating meat on Fridays, especially during Lent, and of substituting fish for meat on that day continues to influence habits even in predominantly Protestant, Anglican, semi-secular and secular societies. Friday night remains a traditional occasion for eating fish-and-chips; and many cafeterias and similar establishments, while varying their menus on other days of the week, habitually offer fish and chips every Friday.[63]
In Australia and New Zealand, the words "fish and chips" are often used as a shibboleth to highlight the difference in each country's short-i vowel sound /ɪ/. Australian English has a higher forward sound [i], close to the ee in see (but shorter), while New Zealand English has a lower backward sound [ɘ] akin to the a in Rosa's (but not in Rosa, which is typically lower [ɐ]). Thus, New Zealanders hear Australians say "feesh and cheeps," while Australians hear New Zealanders say "fush and chups."[64]
Environment[edit]
In the UK, waste oil from fish and chip shops has become a useful source of biodiesel.[65] The German biodiesel company Petrotec has outlined plans to produce biodiesel in the UK from waste oil from the British fish-and-chip industry.[65]
See also[edit]
Food portal
Chicken and chips – another take-away dish often sold in the same establishments.
Fried potatoes
Fish fry
Fried fish
List of deep fried foods
List of fish and chip restaurants
List of fish dishes
Pescado frito
Kibbeling
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Bibliography[edit]
Priestland, Gerald (1972). Frying tonight: the saga of fish & chips. London: Gentry Books. ISBN 978-0-85614-014-3.
Walton, John K. (1989). "Fish and Chips and the British Working Class, 1870–1930". Journal of Social History. 23 (2): 243–266. JSTOR 3787879.
Walton, John K. (1994). Fish and Chips, and the British Working Class, 1870–1940 (1st ed.). Leicester: Leicester University Press. ISBN 978-0-567-21232-0.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fish and chips.
Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
Fish and Chips
"Top UK dish 'hooked French first'": BBC News: Fish and chips invented in France? Retrieved 2008-05-27
"My plaice or yours?" - article from The Guardian detailing some chippy terminology. Retrieved 2008-05-27
Far Flung Fish and Chips - historical article
"Fish and chips": the (UK) Sea Fish Industry Authority's views. Retrieved 2008-05-27
BBC TWO Ching He Huang-style fish and chips
National Federation of Fish Friers, the UK industry body for fish and chip shops.
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Valence electron
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Four covalent bonds. Carbon has four valence electrons and here a valence of four. Each hydrogen atom has one valence electron and is univalent.
In chemistry, a valence electron is an outer shell electron that is associated with an atom, and that can participate in the formation of a chemical bond if the outer shell is not closed; in a single covalent bond, both atoms in the bond contribute one valence electron in order to form a shared pair. The presence of valence electrons can determine the element's chemical properties, such as its valence—whether it may bond with other elements and, if so, how readily and with how many. For a main group element, a valence electron can exist only in the outermost electron shell; in a transition metal, a valence electron can also be in an inner shell.
An atom with a closed shell of valence electrons (corresponding to an electron configuration s2p6) tends to be chemically inert. Atoms with one or two more valence electrons than are needed for a "closed" shell are highly reactive due to the following reasons:
1) It requires relatively low energy (compared to the lattice enthalpy) to remove the extra valence electrons to form a positive ion.
2) Because of their tendency either to gain the missing valence electrons (thereby forming a negative ion), or to share valence electrons (thereby forming a covalent bond).
Similar to an electron in an inner shell, a valence electron has the ability to absorb or release energy in the form of a photon. An energy gain can trigger an electron to move (jump) to an outer shell; this is known as atomic excitation. Or the electron can even break free from its associated atom's valence shell; this is ionization to form a positive ion. When an electron loses energy (thereby causing a photon to be emitted), then it can move to an inner shell which is not fully occupied.
Valence energy levels correspond to the principal quantum numbers (n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ...) or are labeled alphabetically with letters used in the X-ray notation (K, L, M, …).
Contents
[hide]
1 The number of valence electrons
2 Electron configuration
3 Chemical reactions
4 Electrical conductivity
5 References
6 External links
The number of valence electrons[edit]
The number of valence electrons of an element can be determined by the periodic table group (vertical column) in which the element is categorized. With the exception of groups 3–12 (the transition metals), the units digit of the group number identifies how many valence electrons are associated with a neutral atom of an element listed under that particular column.
The periodic table of the chemical elements
Periodic table group
Valence electrons
Group 1 (I) (alkali metals) 1
Group 2 (II) (alkaline earth metals) 2
Groups 3-12 (transition metals) 3–12*
Group 13 (III) (boron group) 3
Group 14 (IV) (carbon group) 4
Group 15 (V) (pnictogens or nitrogen group) 5
Group 16 (VI) (chalcogens or oxygen group) 6
Group 17 (VII) (halogens) 7
Group 18 (VIII or 0) (noble gases) 8**
* Consists of ns and (n-1)d electrons. Alternatively, the d electron count is used.
** Except for helium, which has only two valence electrons.
Electron configuration[edit]
The electrons that determine how an atom reacts chemically are those whose average distance from the nucleus is greatest; that is, those with the highest energy.
For a main group element, the valence electrons are defined as those electrons residing in the electronic shell of highest principal quantum number n.[1] Thus, the number of valence electrons that it may have depends on the electron configuration in a simple way. For example, the electronic configuration of phosphorus (P) is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 so that there are 5 valence electrons (3s2 3p3), corresponding to a maximum valence for P of 5 as in the molecule PF5; this configuration is normally abbreviated to [Ne] 3s2 3p3, where [Ne] signifies the core electrons whose configuration is identical to that of the noble gas neon.
However, transition elements have partially filled (n − 1)d energy levels, that are very close in energy to the ns level.[2] So as opposed to main group elements, a valence electron for a transition metal is defined as an electron that resides outside a noble-gas core.[3] Thus, generally, the d electrons in transition metals behave as valence electrons although they are not in the valence shell. For example, manganese (Mn) has configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5; this is abbreviated to [Ar] 4s2 3d5, where [Ar] denotes a core configuration identical to that of the noble gas argon. In this atom, a 3d electron has energy similar to that of a 4s electron, and much higher than that of a 3s or 3p electron. In effect, there are possibly seven valence electrons (4s2 3d5) outside the argon-like core; this is consistent with the chemical fact that manganese can have an oxidation state as high as +7 (in the permanganate ion: MnO−
4).
The farther right in each transition metal series, the lower the energy of an electron in a d subshell and the less such an electron has the properties of a valence electron. Thus, although a nickel atom has, in principle, ten valence electrons (4s2 3d8), its oxidation state never exceeds four. For zinc, the 3d subshell is complete and behaves similarly to core electrons.
Because the number of valence electrons which actually participate in chemical reactions is difficult to predict, the concept of the valence electron is less useful for a transition metal than for a main group element; the d electron count is an alternative tool for understanding the chemistry of a transition metal.
Chemical reactions[edit]
Main article: Valence (chemistry)
The number of electrons in an atom's outermost valence shell governs its bonding behavior. Therefore, elements whose atoms can have the same number of valence electrons are grouped together in the periodic table of the elements. As a general rule, a main group element (except hydrogen or helium) tends to react to form a closed shell, corresponding to the electron configuration s2p6. This tendency is called the octet rule, because each bonded atom has eight valence electrons including shared electrons.
The most reactive kind of metallic element is an alkali metal of group 1 (e.g., sodium or potassium); this is because such an atom has only a single valence electron; during the formation of an ionic bond which provides the necessary ionization energy, this one valence electron is easily lost to form a positive ion (cation) with a closed shell (e.g., Na+ or K+). An alkaline earth metal of Group 2 (e.g., magnesium) is somewhat less reactive, because each atom must lose two valence electrons to form a positive ion with a closed shell (e.g., Mg2+).
Within each group (each periodic table column) of metals, reactivity increases with each lower row of the table (from a light element to a heavier element), because a heavier element has more electron shells than a lighter element; a heavier element's valence electrons exist at higher principal quantum numbers (they are farther away from the nucleus of the atom, and are thus at higher potential energies, which means they are less tightly bound).
A nonmetal atom tends to attract additional valence electrons to attain a full valence shell; this can be achieved in one of two ways: An atom can either share electrons with a neighboring atom (a covalent bond), or it can remove electrons from another atom (an ionic bond). The most reactive kind of nonmetal element is a halogen (e.g., fluorine (F) or chlorine (Cl)). Such an atom has the following electron configuration: s2p5; this requires only one additional valence electron to form a closed shell. To form an ionic bond, a halogen atom can remove an electron from another atom in order to form an anion (e.g., F−, Cl−, etc.). To form a covalent bond, one electron from the halogen and one electron from another atom form a shared pair (e.g., in the molecule H–F, the line represents a shared pair of valence electrons, one from H and one from F).
Within each group of nonmetals, reactivity decreases with each lower rows of the table (from a light element to a heavy element) in the periodic table, because the valence electrons are at progressively higher energies and thus progressively less tightly bound. In fact, oxygen (the lightest element in group 16) is the most reactive nonmetal after fluorine, even though it is not a halogen, because the valence shell of a halogen is at a higher principal quantum number.
In these simple cases where the octet rule is obeyed, the valence of an atom equals the number of electrons gained, lost, or shared in order to form the stable octet. However, there are also many molecules which are exceptions, and for which the valence is less clearly defined.
Electrical conductivity[edit]
Valence electrons are also responsible for the electrical conductivity of an element; as a result, an element may be classified as a metal, a nonmetal, or a semiconductor (or metalloid).
Metallic elements generally have high electrical conductivity when in the solid state. In each row of the periodic table, the metals occur to the left of the nonmetals, and thus a metal has fewer possible valence electrons than a nonmetal. However, a valence electron of a metal atom has a small ionization energy, and in the solid state this valence electron is relatively free to leave one atom in order to associate with another nearby. Such a "free" electron can be moved under the influence of an electric field, and its motion constitutes an electric current; it is responsible for the electrical conductivity of the metal. Copper, aluminium, silver, and gold are examples of good conductors.
A nonmetallic element has low electrical conductivity; it acts as an insulator. Such an element is found toward the right of the periodic table, and it has a valence shell that is at least half full (the exception is boron). Its ionization energy is large; an electron cannot leave an atom easily when an electric field is applied, and thus such an element can conduct only very small electric currents. Examples of solid elemental insulators are diamond (an allotrope of carbon) and sulfur.
A solid compound containing metals can also be an insulator if the valence electrons of the metal atoms are used to form ionic bonds. For example, although elemental sodium is a metal, solid sodium chloride is an insulator, because the valence electron of sodium is transferred to chlorine to form an ionic bond, and thus that electron cannot be moved easily.
A semiconductor has an electrical conductivity that is intermediate between that of a metal and that of a nonmetal; a semiconductor also differs from a metal in that a semiconductor's conductivity increases with temperature. The typical elemental semiconductors are silicon and germanium, each atom of which has four valence electrons. The properties of semiconductors are best explained using band theory, as a consequence of a small energy gap between a valence band (which contains the valence electrons at absolute zero) and a conduction band (to which valence electrons are excited by thermal energy).
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Petrucci R.H., Harwood W.S. and Herring F.G., General Chemistry (8th edn, Prentice-Hall 2002), p.339.
Jump up ^ THE ORDER OF FILLING 3d AND 4s ORBITALS. chemguide.co.uk
Jump up ^ Miessler G.L. and Tarr, D.A., Inorganic Chemistry (2nd edn. Prentice-Hall 1999). p.48.
External links[edit]
Francis, Eden. Valence Electrons.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valence_electron&oldid=801754351"
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