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Intro (R&B group)
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Intro
Origin
Brooklyn, New York City, United States
Genres
R&B, soul
Occupation(s)
R&B group
Instruments
vocals
Years active
1985-2001; 2012-present
Labels
Atlantic Records (1992-2001)
Innovative Entertainment (2012-present)
Associated acts
Eddie F, Dave "Jam" Hall, Mary J. Blige
Members
Clinton "Buddy" Wike
Jeff Sanders
Eric Pruitt
Past members
Kenny Greene (deceased)
Ramon Adams
Intro is an American R&B trio from Brooklyn, New York City, New York. The trio consisted of members Jeff Sanders, Clinton "Buddy" Wike and lead singer/songwriter Kenny Greene. Intro released two albums (for Atlantic Records): 1993's Intro and their second album, 1995's New Life. The group had a string of US hits in the 1990s.[1] The hits included the singles "Let Me Be The One", the Stevie Wonder cover "Ribbon in the Sky", "Funny How Time Flies" and their highest charting hit, "Come Inside". Greene died from complications of AIDS in 2001, which led to the group's disbanding.
In 2012, Intro re-emerged, now as a quartet consisting of Wike, Sanders, Ramon Adams and Eric Pruitt. Adams departed in 2014, with the group back down to its lineup as a trio. Since then, the group has released new singles "I Didn't Sleep With Her" in August 2013,[2] "Lucky" in October 2014[3] and "Lose Control" in July 2015.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Discography
1.1 Albums
1.2 Singles
2 References
Discography[edit]
Albums[edit]
Year
Title
Label
US R&B Chart[5]
US Top 200[5]
1993 Intro Atlantic Records 11 65
1995 New Life 16 86
Singles[edit]
Year
Title
Chart Positions[5]
US Billboard Hot 100
US Hot R&B/Hip Hop Songs
1993 "Come Inside" 33 9
"Let Me Be the One" - 23
"Love Thang" - 28
1994 "Never Again" - 60
"Ribbon in the Sky" - 11
1995 "Funny How Time Flies" 90 25
1996 "Feels Like the First Time" - 52
2013 "I Didn't Sleep With Her" - -
2014 "Lucky" - -
2015 "Lose Control" - -
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Intro. "Intro - Music Biography, Credits and Discography". AllMusic. Retrieved 2013-06-29.
Jump up ^ Sanders, Jeffrey. "NEW MUSIC BY R&B GROUP INTRO- I DIDN'T SLEEP WITH HER". youtube.com. YouTube. Retrieved 2014-11-20.
Jump up ^ "Lucky: Intro: MP3 Music". amazon.com. Amazon. Retrieved 2014-11-20.
Jump up ^ https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0124VU81I/ref=ap_ws_tlw_trk2
^ Jump up to: a b c Intro. "Intro - Awards". AllMusic. Retrieved 2013-06-29.
Authority control
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text:
Smiling Buddha
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the religious figure known as the Laughing Buddha, see Budai.
Pokhran-I
Smiling Buddha
The Indian nuclear test site in Rajasthan
Information
Country
India
Test site
Pokhran Test Range (IA)
Coordinates
27°05′42″N 71°45′11″E / 27.095°N 71.753°E / 27.095; 71.753Coordinates: 27°05′42″N 71°45′11″E / 27.095°N 71.753°E / 27.095; 71.753
Period
18 May 1974, 8:05 a.m. (IST)
Number of tests
1
Test type
Underground
Device type
Fission
Max. yield
8 kilotons of TNT (33 TJ)
Test chronology
Pokhran-II →
Smiling Buddha[a] (MEA designation: Pokhran-I) was the assigned code name of India's first successful nuclear bomb test on 18 May 1974.[1] The bomb was detonated on the army base, Pokhran Test Range (PTR), in Rajasthan by the Indian Army under the supervision of several key Indian generals.[2]
Pokhran-I was also the first confirmed nuclear weapons test by a nation outside the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.[3] Officially, the Indian Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) claimed this test was a "peaceful nuclear explosion", but it was an accelerated nuclear programme.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early origins, 1944–1960s
1.2 Weapons development, 1967–72
1.3 Secrecy and test preparations, 1972–74
1.4 Development teams and sites
2 Nuclear weapon design
2.1 Cross-section
2.2 Controversy regarding the yield
3 Aftermath
3.1 Domestic reaction
3.2 International reaction
3.2.1 Pakistan
3.2.2 Canada and United States
3.2.3 France
4 Subsequent nuclear explosions
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Early origins, 1944–1960s[edit]
India started its own nuclear programme in 1944 when Homi J. Bhabha founded the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.[4] Physicist Raja Ramanna played an essential role in nuclear weapons technology research; he expanded and supervised scientific research on nuclear weapons and was the first directing officer of the small team of scientists that supervised and carried out the test.[4]
After Indian independence from the British Empire, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru authorised the development of a nuclear programme headed by Homi Bhabha. The Atomic Energy Act of 1948 focused on peaceful development.[4] India was heavily involved in the development of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but ultimately opted not to sign it.[5]
We must develop this atomic energy quite apart from war – indeed I think we must develop it for the purpose of using it for peaceful purposes. ... Of course, if we are compelled as a nation to use it for other purposes, possibly no pious sentiments of any of us will stop the nation from using it that way.
—  Jawaharalal Nehru, First Prime Minister of India, [4]
In 1954, Bhabha steered the nuclear programme in the direction of weapons design and production. Two important infrastructure projects were commissioned. The first established Trombay Atomic Energy Establishment at Mumbai (Bombay). The other created a governmental secretariat, Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), of which Bhabha was the first secretary. From 1954 to 1959, the nuclear programme grew swiftly. By 1958, the DAE had one-third of the defence budget for research purposes.[4] In 1954, India reached a verbal understanding with Canada and the United States under the Atoms for Peace programme; Canada and the United States ultimately agreed to provide and establish the CIRUS research reactor also at Trombay. The acquisition of CIRUS was a watershed event in nuclear proliferation with the understanding between India and the United States that the reactor would be used for peaceful purposes only.[4] CIRUS was an ideal facility to develop a plutonium device, and therefore Nehru refused to accept nuclear fuel from Canada and started the programme to develop an indigenous nuclear fuel cycle.[4]
In July 1958, Nehru authorised "Project Phoenix" to build a reprocessing plant with a capacity of 20 tons of fuel a year – a size to match the production capacity of CIRUS[clarification needed].[4] The plant used the PUREX process and was designed by the American firm Vitro International.[4] Construction of the plutonium plant began at Trombay on 27 March 1961, and it was commissioned in mid-1964.[4]
The nuclear programme continued to mature, and by 1960, Nehru made the critical decision to move the programme into production.[4] At about the same time, Nehru held discussions with the American firm Westinghouse Electric to construct India's first nuclear power plant in Tarapur, Maharashtra.[4] Kenneth Nichols, a US Army engineer, recalls from a meeting[6] with Nehru, "it was that time when Nehru turned to Bhabha and asked Bhabha for the timeline of the development of a nuclear weapon". Bhabha estimated he would need about a year to accomplish the task.[4]
By 1962, the nuclear programme was still developing, but at a slow rate. Nehru was distracted by the Sino-Indian War, during which India lost territory to China.[4] Nehru turned to the Soviet Union for help, but the Soviet Union was preoccupied with the Cuban Missile Crisis.[4] The Soviet Politburo turned down Nehru's request for arms and continued backing the Chinese.[4] India concluded that the Soviet Union was an unreliable ally, and this conclusion strengthened India's determination to create a nuclear deterrent.[4] Design work began in 1965 under Bhabha and proceeded under Raja Ramanna who took over the programme after the former's death.[4]
Weapons development, 1967–72[edit]
Bhabha was now aggressively lobbying for nuclear weapons and made several speeches on Indian radio.[7] In 1964, Bhabha told the Indian public via Indian radio that "such nuclear weapons are remarkably cheap" and supported his arguments by referring to the economical cost of American nuclear testing programme (Plowshare).[7] Bhabha stated to the politicians that a 10 kt device would cost around $350,000, and $600,000 for a 2 mt.[7] From this, he estimated that "a stockpile" of around 50 atomic bombs would cost under $21 million and a stockpile of 50 two-megaton hydrogen bombs would cost around $31.5 million."[7] Bhabha did not realise, however, that the U.S. Plowshare cost-figures were produced by a vast industrial complex costing tens of billions of dollars, which had already manufactured nuclear weapons numbering in the tens of thousands.[7] The delivery systems for nuclear weapons typically cost several times as much as the weapons themselves.[7]
The nuclear programme was partially slowed down when Lal Bahadur Shastri became the prime minister.[8] In 1965, Shastri faced another war with Pakistan. Shastri appointed physicist Vikram Sarabhai as the head of the nuclear programme but because of his Gandhian beliefs Sarabhai directed the programme toward peaceful purposes rather than military development.[8]
In 1967, Indira Gandhi became the prime minister and work on the nuclear programme resumed with renewed vigour.[4] Homi Sethna, a chemical engineer, played a significant role in the development of weapon-grade plutonium while Ramanna designed and manufactured the whole nuclear device.[8] The first nuclear bomb project did not employ more than 75 scientists because of its sensitivity.[8] The nuclear weapons programme was now directed towards the production of plutonium rather than uranium.[9]
In 1968–69, P. K. Iyengar visited the Soviet Union with three colleagues and toured the nuclear research facilities at Dubna, Russia.[9] During his visit, Iyengar was impressed by the plutonium-fueled pulsed fast reactor.[9] Upon his return to India, Iyengar set about developing plutonium reactors approved by the Indian political leadership in January 1969.[9] The secret plutonium plant was known as Purnima,[10] and construction began in March 1969. The plant's leadership included Iyengar, Ramanna, Homi Sethna, and Sarabhai. Sarabhai's presence indicates that, with or without formal approval, the work on nuclear weapons at Trombay had been commenced.[9]
Secrecy and test preparations, 1972–74[edit]
India continued to harbour ambivalent feelings about nuclear weapons, and accorded low priority to their production until the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. In December 1971, Richard Nixon sent a carrier battle group led by the USS Enterprise (CVN-65) into the Bay of Bengal in an attempt to intimidate India. The Soviet Union responded by sending a submarine armed with nuclear missiles from Vladivostok to trail the US task force. The Soviet response demonstrated the deterrent value and significance of nuclear weapons and ballistic missile submarines to Indira Gandhi.[11] India gained the military and political initiative over Pakistan after acceding to the treaty that divided Pakistan into two different political entities.[9]
On 7 September 1972, near the peak of her post-war popularity, Indira Gandhi authorised the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) to manufacture a nuclear device and prepare it for a test.[5] Although the Indian Army was not fully involved in the nuclear testing, the army's highest command was kept fully informed of the test preparations.[9] The preparations were carried out under the watchful eyes of the Indian political leadership, with civilian scientists assisting the Indian Army.[2]
The device was formally called the "Peaceful Nuclear Explosive", but it was usually referred to as the Smiling Buddha.[2] The device was detonated on 18 May 1974, Buddha Jayanti (a festival day in India marking the birth of Gautama Buddha).[12] Indira Gandhi maintained tight control of all aspects of the preparations of the Smiling Buddha test, which was conducted in extreme secrecy; besides Gandhi, only advisers Parmeshwar Haksar and Durga Dhar were kept informed.[2] Scholar Raj Chengappa asserts the Indian Defence Minister Jagjivan Ram was not provided with any knowledge of this test and came to learn of it only after it was conducted.[13] Swaran Singh, the Minister of External Affairs, was given 48 hours advance notice.[14] The Indira Gandhi administration employed no more than 75 civilian scientists while General G. G. Bewoor, Indian army chief, and the commander of Indian Western Command were the only military commanders kept informed.[2]
Development teams and sites[edit]
The head of this entire nuclear bomb project was the director of the BARC, Raja Ramanna. In later years, his role in the nuclear programme would be more deeply integrated as he remained head of the nuclear programme most of his life. The designer and creator of the bomb was P. K. Iyengar, who was the second in command of this project. Iyengar's work was further assisted by the chief metallurgist, R. Chidambaram, and by Nagapattinam Sambasiva Venkatesan of the Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory, who developed and manufactured the high explosive implosion system. The explosive materials and the detonation system were developed by Waman Dattatreya Patwardhan of the High Energy Materials Research Laboratory.
The overall project was supervised by chemical engineer Homi Sethna, Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission of India. Chidambaram, who would later coordinate work on the Pokhran-II tests, began work on the equation of state of plutonium in late 1967 or early 1968. To preserve secrecy, the project employed no more than 75 scientists and engineers from 1967–74.[5][15] Abdul Kalam also arrived at the test site as the representative of the DRDO.
The device was of the implosion-type design and had a close resemblance to the American nuclear bomb called the Fat Man.[2] The implosion system was assembled at the Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory (TBRL) of the DRDO in Chandigarh.[2] The detonation system was developed at the High Energy Materials Research Laboratory (HEMRL) of the DRDO in Pune, Maharashtra State.[2] The 6 kg of plutonium came from the CIRUS reactor at BARC.[2] The neutron initiator was of the polonium–beryllium type and code-named Flower. The complete nuclear bomb was engineered and finally assembled by Indian engineers at Trombay before transportation to the test site.[2]
Nuclear weapon design[edit]
Cross-section[edit]
The fully assembled device had a hexagonal cross section, 1.25 metres in diameter, and weighed 1400 kg.[2] The device was mounted on a hexagonal metal tripod, and was transported to the shaft on rails which the army kept covered with sand.[2] The device was detonated when Dastidar pushed the firing button at 8.05 a.m.; it was in a shaft 107 m under the army Pokhran test range in the Thar Desert (or Great Indian Desert), Rajasthan.[2]
Controversy regarding the yield[edit]
The nuclear yield of this test still remains controversial, with unclear data provided by Indian sources, although Indian politicians have given the country's press a range from 2 kt to 20 kt.[2] The official yield was initially set at 12 kt; post-Operation Shakti claims have raised it to 13 kt.[2] Independent seismic data from outside and analysis of the crater features indicate a lower figure.[2] Analysts usually estimate the yield at 4 to 6 kt, using conventional seismic magnitude-to-yield conversion formulas. In recent years, both Homi Sethna and P. K. Iyengar have conceded the official yield to be an exaggeration.[2]
Iyengar has variously stated that the yield was 8–10 kt, that the device was designed to yield 10 kt, and that the yield was 8 kt "exactly as predicted". Although seismic scaling laws lead to an estimated yield range between 3.2 kt and 21 kt,[16] an analysis of hard rock cratering effects suggests a narrow range of around 8 kt for the yield,[2] which is within the uncertainties of the seismic yield estimate.[16]
Aftermath[edit]
Domestic reaction[edit]
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had already gained much popularity and publicity after her successful military campaign against Pakistan in the 1971 war.[17] The test caused an immediate revival of Indira Gandhi's popularity, which had flagged considerably from its high after the 1971 war. The overall popularity and image of the Congress Party was enhanced and the Congress Party was well received in the Indian Parliament.[17] In 1975, Homi Sethna, a chemical engineer and the chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission (AECI), Raja Ramanna of BARC, and Basanti Nagchaudhuri of DRDO, all were honoured with the Padma Vibhushan, India's second highest civilian award.[17] Five other project members received the Padma Shri, India's fourth highest civilian award.[17] India consistently maintained that this was a peaceful nuclear bomb test and that it had no intentions of militarising its nuclear programme. However, according to independent monitors, this test was part of an accelerated Indian nuclear programme.[1] In 1997 Raja Ramanna, speaking to the Press Trust of India, maintained:
The Pokhran test was a bomb, I can tell you now.... An explosion is an explosion, a gun is a gun, whether you shoot at someone or shoot at the ground.... I just want to make clear that the test was not all that peaceful.
—  Raja Ramanna 1997, giving interview to Press Trust of India in 1997[2]
International reaction[edit]
Main article: Nuclear Suppliers Group
While India continued to state that the test was for peaceful purposes, it encountered opposition from many quarters. The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) was formed in reaction to the Indian tests to check international nuclear proliferation.[18] The NSG decided in 1992 to require full-scope IAEA safeguards for any new nuclear export deals,[19] which effectively ruled out nuclear exports to India, but in 2008 it waived this restriction on nuclear trade with India as part of the Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement.[20]
Pakistan[edit]
Pakistan did not view the test as a "peaceful nuclear explosion", and cancelled talks scheduled for 10 June on normalisation of relations.[5] Pakistan's Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto vowed in June 1974 that he would never succumb to "nuclear blackmail" or accept "Indian hegemony or domination over the subcontinent".[21] The chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, Munir Ahmed Khan, said that the test would force Pakistan to test its own nuclear bomb.[22] Pakistan's leading nuclear physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, stated in 2011 that he believed the test "pushed [Pakistan] further into the nuclear arena".[23]
Canada and United States[edit]
The plutonium used in the test was created in the CIRUS reactor supplied by Canada and using heavy water supplied by the United States. Both countries reacted negatively, especially in light of then ongoing negotiations on the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the economic aid both countries had provided to India.[5][24] Canada concluded that the test violated a 1971 understanding between the two states, and froze nuclear energy assistance for the two heavy water reactors then under construction.[5] The United States concluded that the test did not violate any agreement and proceeded with a June 1974 shipment of enriched uranium for the Tarapur reactor.[5]
France[edit]
France sent a congratulatory telegram to India but later withdrew it.[25]
Subsequent nuclear explosions[edit]
Despite many proposals, India did not carry out further nuclear tests until 1998. After the 1998 general elections, Operation Shakti (also known as Pokhran-II) was carried out at the Pokhran test site, using devices designed and built over the preceding two decades.[5][26]
See also[edit]
India and weapons of mass destruction
History of nuclear weapons
List of countries with nuclear weapons
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This test has many code names. Civilian scientists called it "Operation Smiling Buddha" and the Indian Army referred to it as Operation Happy Krishna. According to United States Military Intelligence, Operation Happy Krishna was the code name for the Indian Army's construction of the underground site in which the tests were conducted. The Ministry of External Affairs designated the test as Pokhran-I.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c FIles. "1974 Nuclear files". Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. Nuclear files archives. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s "Smiling Buddha, 1974". India's Nuclear Weapons Program. Nuclear Weapon Archive.
Jump up ^ NSG. "History of the NSG". Nuclear Suppliers Group. Nuclear Suppliers Group. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Sublette, Carey. "Origins of Indian nuclear program". Nuclear weapon Archive. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Perkovich, George (2002). India's nuclear bomb: the impact on global proliferation. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-23210-5.
Jump up ^ "INDIA THE ULTIMATE POWER with Adi Kalita and 4 others". Facebook.com. 30 May 2014. Retrieved 8 Sep 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f et. al 30 March 2001 (30 March 2001). "On to Weapons Development, 1960–67". India's Nuclear Weapons Program. India's Nuclear Weapons Program. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kanavi, Shivanand. "How Indian PMs reacted to nuclear bombs". Shivanand Kanavi. Retrieved 13 November 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "India's First Bomb, 1967–74". India's First Bomb, 1967–74. Retrieved 14 January 2013.
Jump up ^ N/A, N/A (1 Sep 2003). "NTI.org and [1] Andrew Koch, "Selected Indian Nuclear Facilities," Center for Nonproliferation Studies (CNS), 1999; http://cns.miis.edu; [2] Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC), www.barc.ernet.in; [3] George Perkovich, India's Nuclear Bomb: the impact on Global Proliferation (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1999), pp. 149–150; [4] 2000 World Nuclear Industry Handbook (Wilmington, UK: Nuclear Engineering International, 2000), p. 198". NTI Building a Safer World. NTI. Retrieved 8 Sep 2014.
Jump up ^ "Arihant: the annihilator". Indian Defence Review. 25 October 2010. Retrieved 8 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Pahuja, Om Parkash. India: A Nuclear Weapon State. Prabhat Prakashan. pp. 63–. ISBN 978-81-87100-69-0. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Chengappa, Raj (2000). Weapons of peace : the secret story of India's quest to be a nuclear power. New Delhi: Harper Collins Publishers, India. ISBN 81-7223-330-2.
Jump up ^ Perkovich, George (1999). India's nuclear bomb : the impact on global proliferation ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). Berkeley [u.a.]: Univ. of California Press. ISBN 0-520-21772-1.
Jump up ^ Richelson, Jefferey T (March 1999). Spying on the Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea. WW Norton. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-393-05383-8.
^ Jump up to: a b http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaRealYields.html
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Reaction and Long Pause". Reaction and Long Pause. Retrieved 15 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "History". Nuclear Suppliers Group. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)" (PDF). Nuclear Threat Initiative. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 May 2003. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Nuclear Deal: A chronology of key developments". The Indian Express. 2 October 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali (18 May 1974), Prime minister Secretariat Press Release, Associated Press of Pakistan (APP) and Pakistan Television (PTV), archived from the original on 18 September 2011, India's so-called Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE) is tested and designed to intimidate and establish "Indian hegemony in the subcontinent", most particularly Pakistan...
Jump up ^ Khan, Munir Ahmad (18 May 1974). "India's nuclear explosion: Challenge and Response". International Atomic Energy Agency and Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Hoodbhoy, Pervez Amerali, PhD (Nuclear Physics) (23 January 2011). "Pakistan's nuclear bayonet". The Herald. Retrieved 9 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "Ripples in the nuclear pond". The Deseret News. 22 May 1974. Retrieved 5 September 2011.
Jump up ^ [1] Anderson, Robert (24 June – 7 July 2000), "Who is smiling now?", Frontline, The Hindu, 17 (13), retrieved 12 March 2012
Jump up ^ Reed, Thomas C; Stillman, Danny B (2009). The nuclear express: a political history of the bomb and its proliferation. Zenith. ISBN 978-0-7603-3502-4.
External links[edit]
[hide]
v
t
e
Smiling Buddha (Pokhran-I)
Sites
Trombay
Pokhran
CIRUS reactor
Rajasthan
Thar Desert
Research Institutes
Defence Research and Development Organisation
Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory
High Energy Materials Research Laboratory
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
Administrators
Indira Gandhi
Jagjivan Ram
Tapishwar Narain Raina
Swaran Singh
Scientists
Raja Ramanna
Homi Sethna
Waman Dattatreya Patwardhan
P. K. Iyengar
Rajagopala Chidambaram
Ravi Grover
Anil Kakodkar
M. P. Parameswaran
Related
articles
Indian nuclear programme
History of nuclear weapons
Pokhran-II (May 13, 1998)
Indo-American nuclear deal
Nuclear proliferation
See also: Nuclear power in India
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Porter's five forces analysis
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A graphical representation of Porter's five forces
Porter's Five Forces Framework is a tool for analyzing competition of a business. It draws from industrial organization (IO) economics to derive five forces that determine the competitive intensity and, therefore, the attractiveness (or lack of it) of an industry in terms of its profitability. An "unattractive" industry is one in which the effect of these five forces reduces overall profitability. The most unattractive industry would be one approaching "pure competition", in which available profits for all firms are driven to normal profit levels. The five-forces perspective is associated with its originator, Michael E. Porter of Harvard University. This framework was first published in Harvard Business Review in 1979.[1]
Porter refers to these forces as the microenvironment, to contrast it with the more general term macroenvironment. They consist of those forces close to a company that affect its ability to serve its customers and make a profit. A change in any of the forces normally requires a business unit to re-assess the marketplace given the overall change in industry information. The overall industry attractiveness does not imply that every firm in the industry will return the same profitability. Firms are able to apply their core competencies, business model or network to achieve a profit above the industry average. A clear example of this is the airline industry. As an industry, profitability is low because the industry's underlying structure of high fixed costs and low variable costs afford enormous latitude in the price of airline travel. Airlines tend to compete on cost, and that drives down the profitability of individual carriers as well as the industry itself because it simplifies the decision by a customer to buy or not buy a ticket. A few carriers--Richard Branson's Virgin Atlantic is one--have tried, with limited success, to use sources of differentiation in order to increase profitability.
Porter's five forces include three forces from 'horizontal' competition--the threat of substitute products or services, the threat of established rivals, and the threat of new entrants--and two others from 'vertical' competition--the bargaining power of suppliers and the bargaining power of customers.
Porter developed his five forces framework in reaction to the then-popular SWOT analysis, which he found both lacking in rigor and ad hoc.[2] Porter's five-forces framework is based on the structure–conduct–performance paradigm in industrial organizational economics. It has been applied to try to address a diverse range of problems, from helping businesses become more profitable to helping governments stabilize industries.[3] Other Porter strategy tools include the value chain and generic competitive strategies.
Contents
1 Five Forces
1.1 Threat of new entrants
1.2 Threat of substitutes
1.3 Bargaining power of customers
1.4 Bargaining power of suppliers
1.5 Industry rivalry
2 Usages
3 Criticisms
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
Five Forces[edit]
Part of a series on
Strategy
Major dimensions[hide]
Strategy • Strategic management
Military strategy • Maritime strategy
Strategic planning • Game theory
Strategic studies • Strategic thinking
Major thinkers[hide]
Michael Porter • Rita Gunther McGrath
Bruce Henderson • Gary Hamel
Candace A. Yano • C. K. Prahalad
Jim Collins • Liddell Hart
Carl von Clausewitz • Sun Tzu
Julian Corbett • Alfred Thayer Mahan
J.C. Wylie • Adrian Slywotzky
Sharon Oster • Chris Zook
Henry Mintzberg • Clay Christensen
Concepts[hide]
Business model
Competitive advantage • Experience curve
Value chain • Portfolio theory
Core competency • Generic strategies
Uberisation
Sharing economy
Frameworks and tools[hide]
SWOT • Five forces
Balanced scorecard
PEST analysis • Growth–share matrix
v
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Threat of new entrants[edit]
Profitable industries that yield high returns will attract new firms. New entrants eventually will decrease profitability for other firms in the industry. Unless the entry of new firms can be made more difficult by incumbents, abnormal profitability will fall towards zero (perfect competition), which is the minimum level of profitability required to keep an industry in business.
The following factors can have an effect on how much of a threat new entrants may pose:
The existence of barriers to entry (patents, rights, etc.). The most attractive segment is one in which entry barriers are high and exit barriers are low. It's worth noting, however, that high barriers to entry almost always make exit more difficult.
Government policy
Capital requirements
Absolute cost
Cost disadvantages independent of size
Economies of scale
Product differentiation
Brand equity
Switching costs
Expected retaliation
Access to distribution channels
Customer loyalty to established brands
Industry profitability (the more profitable the industry, the more attractive it will be to new competitors)
Network effect
Threat of substitutes[edit]
A substitute product uses a different technology to try to solve the same economic need. Examples of substitutes are meat, poultry, and fish; landlines and cellular telephones; airlines, automobiles, trains, and ships; beer and wine; and so on. For example, tap water is a substitute for Coke, but Pepsi is a product that uses the same technology (albeit different ingredients) to compete head-to-head with Coke, so it is not a substitute. Increased marketing for drinking tap water might "shrink the pie" for both Coke and Pepsi, whereas increased Pepsi advertising would likely "grow the pie" (increase consumption of all soft drinks), while giving Pepsi a larger market share at Coke's expense.
Potential factors:
Buyer propensity to substitute
Relative price performance of substitute
Buyer's switching costs
Perceived level of product differentiation
Number of substitute products available in the market
Ease of substitution
Availability of close substitute
Bargaining power of customers[edit]
The bargaining power of customers is also described as the market of outputs: the ability of customers to put the firm under pressure, which also affects the customer's sensitivity to price changes. Firms can take measures to reduce buyer power, such as implementing a loyalty program. Buyers' power is high if buyers have many alternatives. It is low if they have few choices.
Potential factors:
Buyer concentration to firm concentration ratio
Degree of dependency upon existing channels of distribution
Bargaining leverage, particularly in industries with high fixed costs
Buyer switching costs
Buyer information availability
Availability of existing substitute products
Buyer price sensitivity
Differential advantage (uniqueness) of industry products
RFM (customer value) Analysis
Bargaining power of suppliers[edit]
The bargaining power of suppliers is also described as the market of inputs. Suppliers of raw materials, components, labor, and services (such as expertise) to the firm can be a source of power over the firm when there are few substitutes. If you are making biscuits and there is only one person who sells flour, you have no alternative but to buy it from them. Suppliers may refuse to work with the firm or charge excessively high prices for unique resources.
Potential factors are:
Supplier switching costs relative to firm switching costs
Degree of differentiation of inputs
Impact of inputs on cost and differentiation
Presence of substitute inputs
Strength of distribution channel
Supplier concentration to firm concentration ratio
Employee solidarity (e.g. labor unions)
Supplier competition: the ability to forward vertically integrate and cut out the buyer.
Industry rivalry[edit]
For most industries the intensity of competitive rivalry is the major determinant of the competitiveness of the industry. Having an understanding of industry rivals is vital to successfully market a product. Positioning pertains to how the public perceives a product and distinguishes it from competitors. A business must be aware of its competitors marketing strategy and pricing and also be reactive to any changes made.
Potential factors:
Sustainable competitive advantage through innovation
Competition between online and offline companies
Level of advertising expense
Powerful competitive strategy
Firm concentration ratio
Degree of transparency
Usages[edit]
Strategy consultants occasionally use Porter's five forces framework when making a qualitative evaluation of a firm's strategic position. However, for most consultants, the framework is only a starting point. They might use value chain or another type of analysis in conjunction.[4] Like all general frameworks, an analysis that uses it to the exclusion of specifics about a particular situation is considered naive.
According to Porter, the five forces framework should be used at the line-of-business industry level; it is not designed to be used at the industry group or industry sector level. An industry is defined at a lower, more basic level: a market in which similar or closely related products and/or services are sold to buyers. (See industry information.) A firm that competes in a single industry should develop, at a minimum, one five forces analysis for its industry. Porter makes clear that for diversified companies, the primary issue in corporate strategy is the selection of industries (lines of business) in which the company will compete. The average Fortune Global 1,000 company competes in 52 industries [5].
Criticisms[edit]
Porter's framework has been challenged by other academics and strategists. For instance, Kevin P. Coyne and Somu Subramaniam claim that three dubious assumptions underlie the five forces:
That buyers, competitors, and suppliers are unrelated and do not interact and collude.
That the source of value is structural advantage (creating barriers to entry).
That uncertainty is low, allowing participants in a market to plan for and respond to changes in competitive behavior.[6]
An important extension to Porter's work came from Adam Brandenburger and Barry Nalebuff of Yale School of Management in the mid-1990s. Using game theory, they added the concept of complementors (also called "the 6th force") to try to explain the reasoning behind strategic alliances. Complementors are known as the impact of related products and services already in the market.[7] The idea that complementors are the sixth force has often been credited to Andrew Grove, former CEO of Intel Corporation. Martyn Richard Jones, while consulting at Groupe Bull, developed an augmented five forces model in Scotland in 1993. It is based on Porter's Framework and includes Government (national and regional) as well as pressure groups as the notional 6th force. This model was the result of work carried out as part of Groupe Bull's Knowledge Asset Management Organisation initiative.
Porter indirectly rebutted the assertions of other forces, by referring to innovation, government, and complementary products and services as "factors" that affect the five forces.[8]
It is also perhaps not feasible to evaluate the attractiveness of an industry independently of the resources that a firm brings to that industry. It is thus argued (Wernerfelt 1984)[9] that this theory be combined with the resource-based view (RBV) in order for the firm to develop a sounder framework.
See also[edit]
Coopetition
Economics of Strategy
Industry classification
Marketing Strategy
National Diamond
Strategic management
Porter's four corners model
Nonmarket forces
Value chain
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Michael E. Porter, "How Competitive Forces Shape Strategy," May 1979 (Vol. 59, No. 2), pp. 137-145.
Jump up ^ Michael Porter, Nicholas Argyres and Anita M. McGahan, "An Interview with Michael Porter", The Academy of Management Executive 16:2:44 at JSTOR
Jump up ^ Michael Simkovic, Competition and Crisis in Mortgage Securitization
Jump up ^ Tang, David (21 October 2014). "Introduction to Strategy Development and Strategy Execution". Flevy. Retrieved 2 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "External Inputs to Strategy | Boundless Management". courses.lumenlearning.com. Retrieved 2017-12-06.
Jump up ^ Kevin P. Coyne and Somu Subramaniam, "Bringing Discipline to Strategy, McKinsey Quarterly, 1996, (Vol. 33, No. 4), pp. 14-25.
Jump up ^ Brandenburger, A. M., & Nalebuff, B. J. (1995). The Right Game: Use Game Theory to Shape Strategy. Harvard Business Review, (Vol. 73, No. 4), 57-71. PDF
Jump up ^ Michael E. Porter. "The Five Competitive Forces that Shape Strategy", Harvard Business Review, January 2008 (Vol. 88, No. 1), pp. 78-93. PDF
Jump up ^ Wernerfelt, B. (1984), A Resource-based View of the Firm, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 5: pp. 171-180 PDF
Further reading[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Porter's Five Forces Model.
Coyne, K.P. and Sujit Balakrishnan (1996),Bringing discipline to strategy, The McKinsey Quarterly, No.4.
Porter, M.E. (March–April 1979) How Competitive Forces Shape Strategy, Harvard Business Review.
Porter, M.E. (1980) Competitive Strategy, Free Press, New York.
Porter, M.E. (January 2008) The Five Competitive Forces That Shape Strategy, Harvard Business Review.
Ireland, R. D., Hoskisson, R. and Hitt, M. (2008). Understanding business strategy: Concepts and cases. Cengage Learning.
Rainer R.K. and Turban E. (2009), Introduction to Information Systems (2nd edition), Wiley, pp 36–41.
Kotler P. (1997), Marketing Management, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Mintzberg, H., Ahlstrand, B. and Lampel J. (1998) Strategy Safari, Simon & Schuster.
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PEST analysis
Porter's five forces analysis
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SWOT analysis
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Grieg's music in popular culture
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The music of the Norwegian composer Edvard Grieg has been used extensively in media, music education, and popular music.
Contents
[hide]
1 Music education
2 Neopaganism
3 References to Grieg's music in popular culture
3.1 Peer Gynt
3.1.1 "In the Hall of the Mountain King"
3.1.1.1 Music
3.1.1.2 Film and TV
3.1.1.3 Video Games
3.1.1.4 Other uses
3.1.2 "Morning"
3.1.3 "Death of Åse"
3.1.4 "Anitra's Dance"
3.2 Piano Sonata
3.3 "Brothers, Sing On!"
3.4 Other pieces
4 See also
5 References
Music education[edit]
For the 150th anniversary of his birth, Norway organized a huge celebration, "Grieg in the Schools", which included programs for children from pre-school to secondary school in 1993. The programs were repeated in 1996 in Germany, and called "Grieg in der Schule", in which over a thousand students participated. There were Grieg observances in 39 countries, from Mexico to Moscow.[1]
Further celebrations of Grieg and his music were held in 2007, the 100th anniversary of his death. Bosnia and Herzegovina held a large-scale celebration, featuring Peer Gynt and the Piano Concerto a public concert for children and adults.[2][3] The July 2007 Australasian Piano Pedagogy Conference featured Grieg's works.[4]
The Sheldon Memorial Art Gallery in Nebraska presented a chamber music concert that featured one of Grieg's string quartets.[5] Annual conferences are held for continuing education of music teachers and music therapists in the United States.[6]
The New York Times reviewed one of many concerts for young people with Grieg's music, made popular for today's audiences.[7] The reviewer noted, "Kurt Masur has put youth high on his agenda at the New York Philharmonic, and he was conspicuously present at the orchestra's first Young People's Concert at Avery Fisher Hall on Saturday afternoon.... Children and parents came in fair numbers."[7] However, "the enormous grip of popular culture under which such elements are subsumed and it looks like Mr. Masur and the Philharmonic will have the fight of their lives."[7] Masur the teacher-conductor "wisely called for the Grieg themes about to be heard. His delivery was warm, not without humor and occasionally muddled by struggles with the language." He even "stopped in mid-performance to admire Irene Breslaw's viola solo [in Peer Gynt] and to point out its connection to the American hoedown tradition."[7] In conclusion, The Times asserted that "the melodies, already identified by instrument, emerged from the larger mass and did their work. There is a directness in Grieg's music that travels well across cultural divides."[7]
The Bergen University College, and later, the University of Bergen both named their tertiary music departments "Griegakademiet", in honor of Grieg.[8]
Neopaganism[edit]
See also: Paganism
Grieg is alleged to have created the neopagan neologism Ásatrú in his 1870 opera Olaf Tryggvasson.[9]
References to Grieg's music in popular culture[edit]
This article may contain indiscriminate, excessive, or irrelevant examples. Please improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for further suggestions. (November 2012)
Peer Gynt[edit]
Main article: Peer Gynt (Grieg)
In 1960 Duke Ellington recorded a jazz interpretation of "Peer Gynt" in his Swinging Suites by Edward E. and Edward G. album. A struggle ensued in Norway between the Grieg Foundation and its supporters, who found the recordings offensive to Norwegian culture, and Norwegian supporters of Ellington. Ellington's versions were withdrawn from distribution in the country until 1967, when Grieg's copyrights expired.[10]
"In the Hall of the Mountain King"[edit]
Main article: In the Hall of the Mountain King
Music[edit]
American Bass Trombonist George Roberts recorded a jazz rendition of the song, playing the melody on his bass trombone. It appeared in his 1959 album "Meet Mr. Roberts" as the first song, entitled "In The Hall of the Mountain King".[11]
British rock band The Who recorded another performance of "Hall of the Mountain King" in 1967. This version went unreleased until 1995, when it appeared as a bonus track on a CD reissue of The Who Sell Out.[12][13][14] Tucson Weekly has called this cover a "Who-freakout arrangement"[15] One reviewer calls The Who's version the "weirdest of these" covers on the CD, and claims it is "a rendition of the corresponding extract from Grieg's Peer Gynt suite ... [yet] it hardly sounds like Grieg here, anyway..." Another claims that "the main function of the composition is to evoke thoughts of (naturally) King Crimson and (unnaturally) Pink Floyd, because in parts it sounds exactly like 'Interstellar Overdrive'."[16]
Electric Light Orchestra recorded a 6:37 long version of "In the Hall of the Mountain King" in 1973 as the concluding selection of their album On the Third Day and performed it with Great Balls of Fire in 1974 for their live album The Night the Light Went On in Long Beach.
Progressive metal band Savatage's song "Prelude to Madness" is an arrangement of Grieg's "In the Hall of the Mountain King". It is included on their 1985 album Hall of the Mountain King which also includes a song of the same name which, however, is an original composition.[17]
The music of Foetus's song "Enter the Exterminator" from his 1985 album Nail is based on Grieg's "In the Hall of the Mountain King".[18]
Dutch symphonic metal band Epica performed a rendition of "In the Hall of the Mountain King" with the Extended Reményi Ede Chamber Orchestra at the Miskolc Opera Festival for their 2009 live album The Classical Conspiracy.[19]
British rock band Marillion included the main melody of "In the Hall of the Mountain King" in a live version of "Margaret" found on the b-side of the Garden Party single, and also on the b-sides compilation album B'Sides Themselves. The song was recorded at Edinburgh Playhouse, April 7, 1983. [20]
K-Pop band SF9 include the main melody of "In the Hall of the Mountain King" in their song "Jungle Game" from the album "Burning Sensation".[21]
Film and TV[edit]
D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation (1915) used the song to build up to the Union attack on Atlanta. The song had by that time already been used in film scores, whether for Ibsen's play or other works; yet the popularity of Griffith's film helped to establish it in American popular imagination.[22][23]
The song was used in the trailer for the movie Needful Things.
It plays during the end credits of Scoop 2006.[24]
"In the Hall of the Mountain King" plays a major plot point in Fritz Lang's early sound film M. Peter Lorre's character of child killer Hans Beckert whistles the tune whenever he is overcome with the urge to commit murder. However, Lorre himself could not whistle – it is actually Lang who is heard.[25] The film was one of the first to use a leitmotif, associating "In the Hall of the Mountain King" with the Lorre character. Later in the film, the mere sound of the song lets the audience know that he is nearby, off-screen. This association of a musical theme with a particular character or situation, a technique borrowed from opera, is now a film staple.[22][26]
It was also used in the 2001 film Rat Race[22] and during the depiction of the Henley Royal Regatta in the 2010 film The Social Network[27] where it is arranged, produced, and performed by Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross.
The song was used in the Beavis and Butt-Head episode "Beavis and Butt-Head Are Dead" when Principal McVicker has flashbacks of the duo's antics.
The main melody of "In the Hall of the Mountain King" appears as part of the theme song to the TV show Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog.
The song can be heard in a preview for The Santa Clause 3.
On television, the tune is often heard when The Smurfs are in danger.
It is also used as the theme music on advertisements for Alton Towers.
In 2004, Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers had "Petey's King of France," sung to the tune.
The song was used to title an episode of Mad Men, where the protagonist Donald Draper flashes back to the time spent with Anna Draper, the widow of his superior officer against whom he had committed identity theft. When Dick, young Don, is in California he pays her a visit where she is teaching a piano lesson. The boy is playing Grieg's piece, to which Dick comments the song is scary.
The original Halloween commercial for Wander Over Yonder. Disney Channel still uses the music for commercials for Good Luck Charlie: It's Christmas and Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day.
The song is used as the intro theme for The Dudesons.
"Hair Up" is a techno version of this song used in Trolls (film).
It appears in a 2016 TV commercial for Hanes underwear.
It appears in an episode of Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency.
It was used as intro music to the Season 24 of Dancing with the Stars.
Video Games[edit]
The theme is used in the video game Manic Miner and Tiny Toon Adventures: Babs' Big Break.
The theme is used in the 1983 video game Snake Pit.
In the final challenge of the 2016 video game "The Witness", the song is utilized to make the player feel a sense of urgency.
The 1983 video game "Mountain King" uses the theme as background music throughout.
The 2017 game The End is Nigh uses this song both as a theme for some of its secret levels and also for one of the worlds' themes ingame.
Other uses[edit]
In the safety demonstration animation that states the illegality of smoking in the CRH (China Railway High-Speed) the "In the Hall of the Mountain King" from the Peer Gynt Suite No. 1 is applied as the background music to accompany a smoker's behaviors before attempting smoking and while smoking, followed by the emergency brake of the train and finally the crying smoker under arrest by 2 policemen.
"Morning"[edit]
Main article: Morning Mood
Many people first heard "Morning" and "In the Hall of the Mountain King" when it was used in Warner Brothers cartoons featured in The Bugs Bunny Show in the 60s.[citation needed]
"Morning" was later used in the 1973 film Soylent Green as the music selected by Edward G. Robinson's character to listen to as he lay dying.
It was used in an episode of The Wonder Years where Kevin gets up in the morning and proudly faces the day. It changes to darker music, but not "Mountain King", when Kevin realizes he has acne.
In 1998, The Simpsons episode "Bart Carny" paid homage to its use in older cartoons in a sequence where a cheeseburger unwraps in the early sunlight.[28]
Later in the same year, German musical project In-Mood feat. Juliette sampled the theme for their song "Ocean of Light."[29][30]
It appears in the 1999 video game Army Men II.
It is also used as the opening theme music in PopCap Games' video game Peggle, accompanying the animation of a rising sun.
It was also used in the trailer for the second season of the Norwegian teen drama series, Skam.
It is also used in the Little Einsteins episodes "I Love To Conduct," "Dragon Kite," "A Little Einsteins Halloween," "The Good Knight and the Bad Knight," and "The Secred Mystery Prize."
"Death of Åse"[edit]
This piece appears as the main menu theme in the World War II-inspired vehicular combat MMO War Thunder.
A fast version of "The Death of Åse" is a piece of the background music for level 8 of the video game Descent.
The main melody of "The Death of Åse" is used in the song "Thokk" by the black metal band Pensées Nocturnes and in the song "Dolls and Ravens" by the doom metal band Consummatum Est.
The piece appears as background music in the video game "Civilization V" during gameplay.
It is also used as background music in Krillbite Studio's 2013 experimental Indie Game "The Plan".
"Anitra's Dance"[edit]
In the TI-99/4a video game, "Alpiner", this tune is used. It was also featured in a bathroom scene in the 2005 Amanda Bynes film She's The Man.
Piano Sonata[edit]
The motion picture The First Legion used Grieg's Piano Sonata in E minor as a way to introduce a Jesuit priest's prayer. The priest, Father Fulton, plays the sonata as a way of connecting himself to the other Jesuits, when "forced to revise their standards of belief after experiencing first a makeshift and later a 'real' miracle."[31]
"Brothers, Sing On!"[edit]
The folk song "Brothers, Sing On!" ( EG 170 - in the original Norwegian "Sangerhilsen") was written by Grieg with lyrics by Sigv. Skavlan, with English language lyrics by Herbert Dalmas and/or Howard McKinney.[32][33] The Mohawk-Hudson Male Chorus Association (MHMCA) presented a massed concert, with 90 male singers, at the historic Troy Savings Bank Music Hall on May 3, 2008, entitled "Brothers, Sing On!", with the titular song, which was also adopted as the organization's theme song in 1974.[34] They had previously performed the same song in the same venue in 2002.[35]
The University of Northern Iowa has gone so far as to name its web site and to start every concert with this song:
What if all men, everywhere in the world, could get together and sing? If there was just one song that could be sung, in a true spirit of peace and brotherhood, "Brothers, Sing On!" by Edvard Grieg would be it. "Brothers, Sing On!" is the timeless gem in many men’s choral repertoire. It has been called the ‘international anthem’ of men’s choral singing. For nearly 50 years, "Brothers, Sing On!" has been the mainstay of our Glee Club’s repertoire. We have sung it from the top of Mount Vesuvius; a glacier in the Tyrolean Alps; the ancient castles and underground slate mines of Wales; the deck of a ship on the tossing Irish Sea; the Coliseum in Rome, and a great many places in between. We salute the many excellent men’s choirs throughout the world, especially the collegiate men’s glee clubs, those ‘wandering troubadours’ whom we hope will inspire future generations of singers.
— the Brothers, Sing On! web site, [32]
Other pieces[edit]
The musical Song of Norway, based very loosely on Grieg's life and using his music, was created in 1944 by Robert Wright and George Forrest and a film version was released in 1970. The 1957 made-for-TV movie musical The Pied Piper of Hamelin uses Grieg's music almost exclusively, with "In the Hall of the Mountain King" being the melody that the Piper (Van Johnson) plays to rid the town of rats.
Eric Morecambe famously played "all the right notes, just not necessarily in the right order" in a sketch on the 1971 Morecambe and Wise Christmas special that featured Andre Previn.
See also[edit]
Ásatrú
Germanic neopaganism
List of compositions by Edvard Grieg
Neo-Medieval
Grieg Academy
References[edit]
Jump up ^ MNC Web Site, Edvard Grieg Remembered
Jump up ^ Grieg07 - English - Home
Jump up ^ Norveska Official web site for Bosnia-Herzegovina
Jump up ^ Australasian Piano Pedagogy Conference web site
Jump up ^ Quartet will 'string' at the Sheldon, by Ted Taylor, Daily Nebraskan, November 14, 1997 , found at Dail Nebraskan web site
Jump up ^ Grieg Music web site
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Classical Music in Review , by Bernard Holland, October 1, 1991, found at NY Times official web site
Jump up ^ "Griegakademiets historie". Griegakademiet (in Norwegian). Retrieved 26 July 2010.
Jump up ^ A Brief Overview of the Heathen Revival web page
Jump up ^ Cooke, Mervyn and David Horn (2003) The Cambridge Companion to Jazz
Jump up ^ "George Roberts - Meet Mr. Roberts - George Roberts And His Big Bass Trombone (Vinyl, LP, Album) at Discogs". Discogs. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
Jump up ^ The Who dot Net web site
Jump up ^ 200th Anniversary celebration of Grieg
Jump up ^ NNdB web site
Jump up ^ Tucson Weekly
Jump up ^ Only Solitaire
Jump up ^ Phillips, Fred (28 September 2015). "Savatage, “Prelude to Madness / Hall of the Mountain King” (1987): One Track Mind". Something Else! Reviews. Retrieved 23 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Duxbury, Janell R. (2000). "Rockin' the Classics and Classicizin' the Rock: A Selectively Annotated Discography: Second Supplement". Retrieved 10 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Epica To Release 'The Classical Conspiracy' Double Live Album". Blabbermouth.net. Roadrunner Records. 12 March 2009. Archived from the original on 6 April 2009. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
Jump up ^ Duxbury, Janell R. (5 February 2001). Rockin' the Classics and Classicizin' the Rock: A Selectively Annotated Discography: Second Supplement. Xlibris. p. 144. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Share+Music (2017-02-05), SF9 (에스에프나인) - Jungle Game, retrieved 2017-04-27
^ Jump up to: a b c Powrie, Phil and Robynn Jeananne Stilwell (2006) Changing Tunes: The Use of Pre-existing Music in Film
Jump up ^ Barbara Saltzman, "Griffith's 'Birth of a Nation' Reborn on Lumivision Disc," Los Angeles Times, June 21, 1991. Found at LA Times archives. Accessed May 23, 2011.
Jump up ^ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0457513/
Jump up ^ Falkenberg, Paul (2004). "Classroom Tapes — M". The Criterion Collection. Retrieved 2007-08-08.
Jump up ^ Costantini, Gustavo. "Leitmotif revisited". Filmsound. Retrieved 2006-05-10.
Jump up ^ Edvard Grieg on IMDb
Jump up ^ "The Simpsons (Classic): "Bart Carny"". avclub.com. Retrieved 20 Sep 2015.
Jump up ^ "In-Mood; Juliette - Musik / Poplexikon.de". SWR 3 (in German). August 7, 2007. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "In-Mood feat. Juliette - Ocean Of Light". hitparade.ch. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Lutz Koepnick, The Dark Mirror: German Cinema between Hitler and Hollywood, Weimar and Now: German Cultural Criticism, 32, found at U.C. Press web site.
^ Jump up to: a b University of Northern Iowa Varsity Men’s Glee Club (Brothers Sing On!) official web site. Accessed May 5, 2008.
Jump up ^ Choralnet ideas web site. Accessed May 5, 2008.
Jump up ^ "In 1974 'Brothers, Sing On!,' by Edvard Grieg, was adopted as the organization's theme song." See Conductor's Club web site. Accessed May 5, 2008.
Jump up ^ BH Singing web site. Accessed May 5, 2008.
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