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The Carrie Diaries (season 2)
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The Carrie Diaries (season 2)
Promotional poster
Country of origin
United States
No. of episodes
13
Release
Original network
The CW
Original release
October 25, 2013 (2013-10-25) – January 31, 2014 (2014-01-31)
Season chronology
← Previous
Season 1
List of The Carrie Diaries episodes
The second and final season of The Carrie Diaries aired from October 25, 2013, through January 31, 2014, on The CW.[1] The series serves as a prequel to the HBO series Sex and the City.
Contents
[hide]
1 Cast
1.1 Main cast
1.2 Recurring cast
2 Episodes
3 Ratings
4 References
Cast[edit]
Main cast[edit]
AnnaSophia Robb as Carrie Bradshaw (13 episodes)
Austin Butler as Sebastian Kydd (13 episodes)
Lindsey Gort as Samantha Jones[2][3] (10 episodes)
Katie Findlay as Maggie Landers (11 episodes)
Brendan Dooling as Walt Reynolds (10 episodes)
Ellen Wong as Jill "Mouse" Chen (13 episodes)
Freema Agyeman as Larissa Loughlin (10 episodes)
Stefania Owen as Dorrit Bradshaw (10 episodes)
Matt Letscher as Tom Bradshaw (12 episodes)
Chloe Bridges as Donna LaDonna (10 episodes)
Recurring cast[edit]
Jake Robinson as Bennet Wilcox (9 episodes)
Chris Wood as Adam Weaver[4] (4 episodes)
Josh Salatin as Simon Byrnes (3 episodes)
Scott Cohen as Harlan Silver (4 episodes)
Nadia Dajani as Deb (3 episodes)
R.J. Brown as Thomas West (7 episodes)
Whitney Vance and Alexandra Miller as the Jens (3 episodes)
Evan Crooks as Miller (3 episodes)
Giullian Yao Gioiello as Scott (3 episodes)
Terry Serpico as Mr. Kydd (3 episodes)
Noelle Beck as Mrs. Kydd (3 episodes)
Kate Nowlin as Barbara (2 episodes)
Molly Sims as Vicky Donovan (2 episodes)
Boris McGiver as Eddie Landers (2 episodes)
John Boyd as Elliot (2 episodes)
Claybourne Elder as Pete (3 episodes)
Episodes[edit]
No. in
series
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Production
code
U.S. viewers
(million)
14
1 "Win Some, Lose Some" Andy Wolk Amy B. Harris October 25, 2013 (2013-10-25) 4X5201 0.78[5]
This episode's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Carrie has been living at Larissa's apartment in Manhattan for the past three or four weeks of the summer with Walt as her platonic roommate. With Larissa still out of the country, Carrie has been filling in for her at Interview magazine full-time during the day and partying at local nightclubs at night. She has not seen or spoken to either Sebastian or Maggie since their falling out. But by chance during the Fourth of July weekend, Carrie runs into Sebastian when he tags along with Donna to the city to meet Donna's cousin Samantha Jones, an older woman in her late 20s, who co-manages a rock music nightclub. Carrie declines going with Walt, Sebastian, and Donna and instead goes to her regular hangout where, due to a combination of bad luck and carelessness, her valued purse gets stolen. She later has a chance meeting with Samantha who agrees to help her out of being locked out of her apartment. Back in Castlebury, Mouse invites West as her date to the local golf and tennis club's July 4th fireworks display where they find Maggie working as a waitress. Mouse is openly hostile towards Maggie for interfering with Carrie and Sebastian's relationship, but they eventually reconcile after Maggie confides in Mouse that she is only working at the country club to help herself pay for college and fears being stuck in Castlebury for the rest of her life like her parents. Elsewhere, Tom finds out about Dorrit dating Miller and wants to meet him. Dorrit tries to prevent her father from meeting Miller fearing that Tom may find out that she and Miller are in a sexual relationship and that they both take recreational drugs. Miller eventually goes behind Dorrit's back and meets with Tom where he makes a good impression upon Tom who allows Miller and Dorrit to date. Samantha crashes at Larissas loft with Carrie and Walt and Carrie finds herself with a lifelong friend.
15
2 "Express Yourself" Amy Heckerling Jessica O'Toole & Amy Rardin November 1, 2013 (2013-11-01) 4X5202 0.89[6]
With the brash and man-hungry Samantha having crashed with Carrie and Walt for the past three weeks, they are both faced with kicking out Samantha when she makes herself too comfortable. Later, Walt summons the courage to tell Bennet how he feels about him when Bennet takes Walt out to a VIP Z100 concert to celebrate Walt's 18th birthday. Things go horribly wrong before Bennet can respond when Walt, Bennet, Donna, Mouse, and Carrie come down with a case of food poisoning. Meanwhile, Samantha and Mouse meet and Samantha wastes no time giving Mouse sex tips over how to "go at it" with West. Back in Castlebury, Sebastian and Maggie run into each other after three months apart. Sebastian also deals with his estranged father who comes back into town, but is more interested in business then father-son bonding. Elsewhere, Tom invites his girlfriend, Deb, to spend the weekend with him, which doesn't go exactly as planned.
16
3 "Strings Attached" Daisy von Scherler Mayer Doug Stockstill November 8, 2013 (2013-11-08) 4X5203 0.77[7]
Larissa returns from her overseas vacation and gives Carrie and Walt inspiration with zen to take the next step with their lives. Larissa and Samantha take an instant dislike to each other when they first meet since Samantha's streetwise demeanor and attitude clashes with Larissa's prim and proper routine. On Carrie's first day back at school for her senior year, Sebastian asks Doritt for a little help to try to get Carrie to talk with him. Walt fears that Maggie will out his true sexual orientation. Mouse tries to get Maggie to look at more college options despite her lack of interest. Meanwhile, Samantha hooks up with a masked karate instructor as an outlet to her troubled feelings. Elsewhere, Tom is offered a job back at Harlan's law firm.
17
4 "Borderline" Michael Fields Heney Alonso Myers November 15, 2013 (2013-11-15) 4X5204 0.78[8]
Carrie pitches Larissa a profile on New York wunderkind playwright Adam Weaver, but when he proves a difficult, yet fascinating, interview, Carrie's job is on the line. Bennet's rules in his relationship with Walt force Bennet to acknowledge his real feelings. Carrie and Dorrit are surprised to find a common enemy in Tom's girlfriend Deb's ill-behaved son. Meanwhile, Sebastian seeks comfort in the arms of an older woman.
18
5 "Too Close for Comfort" Zetna Fuentes Jessica Queller November 22, 2013 (2013-11-22) 4X5205 0.71[9]
When Sebastian learns that his mother is getting remarried, he asks Carrie's dad, Tom, for help to make sure she is legally protected. Meanwhile, Carrie is furious when she discovers that Weaver has secretly read her journal. After reading that Carrie is a virgin and apologizing relentlessly, Carrie and Weaver have SEX and Carrie experiences intimacy for the first time. Mouse volunteers to help with the Homecoming float, but tries to distance herself when West wins Homecoming King. Samantha finds herself a new place to live and another unusual job. Elsewhere, Dorrit begins to feel smothered by Miller, especially when he befriends her dad, and Donna gives Dorrit some advice resulting in Dorrit and Millers relationship ending.
19
6 "The Safety Dance" David Warren Sascha Rothchild December 6, 2013 (2013-12-06) 4X5206 0.90[10]
Carrie struggles with what she should write about in her essay. Weaver encourages her to write about what she fears the most but when Carrie decides to write about sex, Weaver tries to help her figure out something better and just ends up getting in the way leading them to later break up. Maggie and Sebastian start to grow closer as Maggie discovers some shocking news: she's pregnant! Carrie feels a potential love interest in Sebastian once again after seeing his jacket in her closet and drives to his house to tell him her feelings but instead leaves he jacket on his front foor after seeing Maggie asleep on the couch. Meanwhile, Mouse is apprehensive about applying to safety schools but West thinks it's good to be on the safe side. Walt takes drastic measures to keep himself safe when Bennet moves to a dangerous neighborhood. Also, Larissa and Samantha plan to have a threesome with Harlan but instead make a sex tape with each other after finding out Harlan is stuck in traffic.
20
7 "I Heard a Rumor" Norman Buckley Amy B. Harris December 13, 2013 (2013-12-13) 4X5207 0.70[11]
Weaver makes some false accusations to the press about Carrie to prevent people from thinking anything bad about him. Samantha brings Carrie, Walt, and Bennet to an event with a raffle with a free trip to Paris as the prize. Carrie meets the journalist who wrote about her, and in spite says awful things about Weaver. Meanwhile, Sebastian lets people think that he's the father to Maggie's baby just to keep Maggie's secret about who the real father is. This makes Carrie decide to call the journalist and tells the truth, that she is the ex that Weaver had said awful words about in the paper. Maggie collapses and ends up in the hospital where she has to partake a major surgery. Elsewhere, Mouse is worried that she and West are boring and therefore tries to spice up their relationship by planting a surprise in West's backback but then starts to freak out when the "surprise" (a topless Polaroid photo of herself) is missing.
21
8 "The Second Time Around" Janice Cooke Terri Minsky December 20, 2013 (2013-12-20) 4X5208 0.73[12]
Carrie is excited when she gets the chance to interview the CEO of Bongo Jeans. But Larissa tells Carrie that the interview is Carrie's last chance to land a piece in Interview magazine or she will be let go. Meanwhile, Mouse gets some news that drives an unexpected wedge between her and West. Sebastian's estranged father delivers other news that could forever change Sebastian and Carrie's relationship. Elsewhere, Walt finds himself homeless after his conservative parents kick him out when he's forced to confess to them his sexual orientation. He moves in with Carrie where he finds a surprising father figure in Carrie's father Tom. Also, Maggie tries to muster the courage to tell her neglectful father the truth about her past relations with Simon, resulting in him getting fired. He goes to Maggies school and confronts her about his unemployment while Sebastian and Carrie are there. Sebastian and Simon end up fighting, resulting in Sebastian getting expelled. His father supports him for fighting for Maggie and Carrie and tells him they are both moving to California since Sebastian is no longer in school. Carrie and Sebastian decide that they will have a long-distance relationship and hope things work out. Carries article is published in Interview magazie, Sebastian arrives in California with his dad and Walt and Bennet celebrate Christmas with Samantha and Larissa.
22
9 "Under Pressure" Andy Wolk Logan Slakter January 3, 2014 (2014-01-03) 4X5209 0.99[13]
When her father's away on business for the weekend, Dorrit and her friends have a party. Carrie tries to maintain a long-distance relationship with Sebastian, only to have him show up a month later claiming that he is back for good. Mouse and Donna find common ground to talk and bond over their respective lives. Meanwhile, Tom is invited into the city by Harlan where he asks him to draw up a pre-nuptial agreement after Harlan announces his engagement to Larissa. Larissa lets Sebastian stay in her loft in Manhattan which gives him a chance to start anew.
23
10 "Date Expectations" Amy Heckerling Jessica O'Toole & Amy Rardin January 10, 2014 (2014-01-10) 4X5210 0.81[14]
On Valentine's Day, Carrie becomes resentful when Sebastian breaks their dinner date in New York because of a work opportunity for him to meet an investor for his new skateboard clothing business. Walt and Bennet get devastating news that changes their future together, when Bennet learns that one of his former boyfriends has AIDS. The news sends Walt into such a panic that he flees from Bennet and the city, refusing to deal with anything or get tested for the virus. Larissa and Samantha continue their personal feud over Samantha being hired as a nude model of Lady Godiva. Meanwhile, the insecure Maggie accidentally enlists in the US Army, and she's forced to ask Mouse and Donna for help to retrieve her consent form. Elsewhere, Tom decides to use reverse psychology on Dorrit to encourage her to start dating again by play-acting as the bad parent.
24
11 "Hungry Like the Wolf" Sarah Price Henry Alonso Myers January 17, 2014 (2014-01-17) 4X5211 0.86[15]
Larissa blames Bennet for slacking off since his breakup with Walt, forcing Carrie to cover for him. But when Bennet takes advantage of Carrie's generosity by continuing to skip work, she takes it upon herself to interview a professional ballerina whom Bennet was assigned to interview. Meanwhile, Samantha makes an unruly decision by seducing a married man while she is looking for a lost parakeet to claim a reward. Sebastian's future could change forever when his father arrives in town and asks for money, claiming that he is broke from a lifetime of bad investments. Meanwhile, Tom gets taken advantage of by a female lawyer which prompts Doritt to offer Tom her help. Elsewhere, Maggie seeks Mouse and Donna's advice when her potentially new boyfriend, Pete, comes to visit during his R&R.
25
12 "This Is the Time" Jason Reilly Sascha Rothchild January 24, 2014 (2014-01-24) 4X5212 0.90[16]
Carrie and her friends get together for perhaps the last time before graduation from high school: the senior prom. Since all of them are dateless they attend as a group. Dorrit also tags along with her boyfriend Scott to try to stir up trouble and drama. Meanwhile, Larissa convinces Carrie to rethink her college plans by offering her a full-time job at Interview magazine. Tom learns about this and threatens to financially cut Carrie off if she does not choose to attend college first. Mouse threatens Donna with revealing a secret about Donna's future plans that could bring Donna to her knees. Walt re-thinks his current situation and decides to reconcile with Bennet. Maggie finds herself uncertain over her future with her Army boyfriend Pete. Elsewhere, Sebastian tries to hide something from Carrie when he is offered a career opportunity to move to California to further his skateboard clothing company.
26
13 "Run to You" Andrew McCarthy Amy B. Harris January 31, 2014 (2014-01-31) 4X5213 0.86[17]
Carrie and all of her friends finally graduate from high school. As a result of Larissa's firing, Carrie loses her job at Interview magazine and worse still, cannot get into NYU for at least a year. Meanwhile, Maggie tries to uncover a secret about her new military man, Pete. Mouse and West get thrown together as co-valedictorians as they prepare to leave for their separate colleges. While attempting to get her life back in order, Carrie temporarily moves in with Sebastian, who's keeping a secret from her. Elsewhere, Samantha tries to get out of New York City when she has a run-in with her one-time married lover Elliot. After Larissa reveals Carrie's secret about being fired to her father Tom, he confronts Carrie about her poor judgment and refuses to take her back home. After learning about Carrie's situation, Sebastian tells her that he is moving to California to further his business and asks her to come. Larissa and Harlan have the biggest wedding of all: at the TWA terminal at JFK International Airport. In the end, Carrie makes a life changing decision to stay in New York City and try to rebuild her life by focusing on writing as well as waitressing.
Ratings[edit]
No. in
series
No. in
season
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR Viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)
14 1 "Win Some, Lose Some" 000000002013-10-25-0000October 25, 2013 0.3/1[5] 0.78[5] 0.2[18] N/A 0.5[18] N/A
15 2 "Express Yourself" 000000002013-11-01-0000November 1, 2013 0.3/1[6] 0.89[6] 0.2[19] N/A 0.5[19] N/A
16 3 "Strings Attached" 000000002013-11-08-0000November 8, 2013 0.3/1[7] 0.77[7] 0.2[20] N/A 0.5[20] N/A
17 4 "Borderline" 000000002013-11-15-0000November 15, 2013 0.3/1[8] 0.78[8] 0.2[21] N/A 0.5[21] N/A
18 5 "Too Close for Comfort" 000000002013-11-22-0000November 22, 2013 0.3/1[9] 0.71[9] 0.2[22] N/A 0.5[22] N/A
19 6 "The Safety Dance" 000000002013-12-06-0000December 6, 2013 0.3/1[10] 0.90[10] 0.2[23] N/A 0.5[23] N/A
20 7 "I Heard a Rumor" 000000002013-12-13-0000December 13, 2013 0.2/1[11] 0.70[11] 0.2[24] N/A 0.4[24] N/A
21 8 "The Second Time Around" 000000002013-12-20-0000December 20, 2013 0.3/1[12] 0.73[12] 0.2[25] 0.32[25] 0.5[25] 1.16[25]
22 9 "Under Pressure" 000000002014-01-03-0000January 3, 2014 0.4/1[13] 0.99[13] 0.1[26] 0.28[26] 0.5[26] 1.28[26]
23 10 "Date Expectations" 000000002014-01-10-0000January 10, 2014 0.3/1[14] 0.81[14] 0.2[27] N/A 0.5[27] N/A
24 11 "Hungry Like the Wolf" 000000002014-01-17-0000January 17, 2014 0.4/1[15] 0.86[15] N/A N/A N/A N/A
25 12 "This Is the Time" 000000002014-01-24-0000January 24, 2014 0.3/1[16] 0.90[16] 0.2[28] N/A 0.5[28] N/A
26 13 "Run to You" 000000002014-01-31-0000January 31, 2014 0.3/1[17] 0.86[17] 0.2[29] N/A 0.5[29] N/A
In the netlet's target demo W18-34, the season premiere averaged 0.3, doubling the numbers with the following episode to 0.6.[30] The third episode of the season slipped to 0.5 points.[31] The fourth episode surged to 0.7, a new season high in that demo.[32] The fifth episode of the season fell to 0.3.[33] However, the sixth episode rose to 0.5.[34] The seventh episode dropped to 0.4. The midseason finale rose to 0.5.[35] The ninth episode rose again, this time to 0.6.[36] The tenth episode dropped to 0.4.[37] The eleventh episode rose to 0.5.[38] The penultimate episode scored a 0.6.[39] The season finale tumbled to 0.4.[40]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (May 9, 2013). "'Nikita' Renewed For A Short (Final?) 4th Season & 'The Carrie Diaries' Renewed For 2nd Season". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved May 16, 2013.
Jump up ^ Bricker, Tierney (July 20, 2013). "The Carrie Diaries Casts Samantha Jones For Season 2". E! Online. Retrieved August 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ Slezak, Michael (July 20, 2013). "The Carrie Diaries Scoop: Meet Young Samantha!". TV Line. Retrieved August 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "'The Carrie Diaries' Scoop: Chris Wood Cast As Carrie's New Love". Hollywood Life. August 16, 2013. Retrieved January 22, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (October 28, 2013). "Friday Final TV Ratings: No Adjustments to 'Grimm,' Dracula' or 'The Carrie Diaries'". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 28, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (November 4, 2013). "Friday Final Ratings: 'Shark Tank' Adjusted Up, 'Blue Bloods' Adjusted Down + No Adjustment for 'Grimm' or 'Dracula'". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 4, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (November 11, 2013). "Friday Final Ratings: 'Dracula' & 'The Neighbors' Adjusted Down". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 11, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (November 18, 2013). "Friday Final Ratings: 'Hawaii Five-0', 'Undercover Boss', 'Grimm' & 'Raising Hope' Adjusted Up; 'Last Man Standing', 'The Carrie Diaries' & 'The Neighbors' Adjusted Down". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 18, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (November 25, 2013). "Friday Final Ratings: 'Raising Hope' & 'Where Were You When JFK Died?' Adjusted Down; No Adjustment for 'Nikita'". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 25, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (December 9, 2013). "Friday Final Ratings: 'Bones' & 'Raising Hope' Adjusted Up; 'The Neighbors' & 'The Carrie Diaries' Adjusted Down". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 9, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (December 16, 2013). "Friday Final Ratings: No Adjustment for 'Last Man Standing', 'Raising Hope' or 'The Carrie Diaries'". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 16, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (December 23, 2013). "Friday Final Ratings: 'Hawaii Five-0' & 'Blue Bloods' Adjusted Up". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 23, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (January 6, 2014). "Friday Final Ratings: 'Grimm' Adjusted Up". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 6, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (January 13, 2014). "Friday Final Ratings: 'Hawaii Five-0' Adjusted Up; 'Dracula' Adjusted Down". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 13, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (January 21, 2014). "Friday Final Ratings: No Adjustments to 'Grimm', 'Dracula', 'Hawaii Five-0' or 'The Carrie Diaries'". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 21, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondolojy, Amanda (January 27, 2014). "Friday Final Ratings: 'The Neighbors' Adjusted Down; No Adjustment for 'Enlisted' or 'The Carrie Diaries'". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 27, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bibel, Sara (February 3, 2014). "Friday Final Ratings: 'Hawaii Five-0' Adjusted Up; 'The Carrie Diaries' Adjusted Down". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 3, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Bibel, Sara (November 11, 2013). "Live+7 DVR Ratings: 'Big Bang Theory' Tops Adults 18-49 Ratings Increase, 'Beauty and the Beast' Earns Biggest Percentage Gain, 'The Blacklist' Tops Viewer Increases in Week 5". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 11, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Kondolojy, Amanda (November 18, 2013). "Live+7 DVR Ratings: 'The Blacklist' & 'Grey's Anatomy' Top Adults 18-49 Ratings Increase, 'Beauty and the Beast', 'Parenthood' & 'Nashville' Lead Percentage Gains, 'The Blacklist' Tops Viewer Increases in Week 6". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 25, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Bibel, Sara (November 25, 2013). "Live+7 DVR Ratings: 'The Big Bang Theory' Tops Adults 18-49 Ratings Increase, 'Dracula' Leads Percentage Gains, 'The Blacklist' Tops Viewer Increases in Week 7". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 25, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Kondolojy, Amanda (December 3, 2013). "Live+7 DVR Ratings: 'The Big Bang Theory' Tops Adults 18-49 Ratings Increase, 'Elementary' Leads Percentage Gains, 'The Blacklist' Tops Viewer Increases in Week 8". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 8, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b DarkUFO (December 10, 2013). "Live+7 DVR Ratings - Week 9 (18th Nov - 24th Nov 2013)". Spoiler TV. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Bibel, Sara (December 23, 2013). "Live+7 DVR Ratings: 'The Big Bang Theory' Tops Adults 18-49 Ratings, 'Glee' Leads Percentage Gains & 'The Blacklist' Wins Total Viewer Increase in Week 11". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 23, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Kondolojy, Amanda (December 30, 2013). "Live+7 DVR Ratings: 'The Big Bang Theory' Tops Adults 18-49 & Viewership Gains, 'Grimm' Leads Percentage Increase in Week 12". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 2, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bibel, Sara (January 6, 2014). "Live+7 DVR Ratings: 'How I Met Your Mother' Tops Adults 18-49, 'Almost Human' & 'Hawaii Five-0' Lead Percentage Increase, 'Person of Interest' Biggest Viewership Gains in Week 13". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 6, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bibel, Sara (January 21, 2014). "Live+7 DVR Ratings: 'The Big Bang Theory' Has Biggest 18-49 Ratings & Total Viewership Increase, 'Elementary' Tops Percentage Gains in Week 15". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 21, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Bibel, Sara (January 26, 2014). "Live+7 DVR Ratings: 'The Big Bang Theory' Has Biggest 18-49 Ratings & Total Viewer Increase, 'Enlisted' Tops Percentage Gains in Week 16 (Updated)". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved January 30, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Kondolojy, Amanda (February 10, 2014). "Live+7 DVR Ratings: 'Modern Family' Has Biggest 18-49 Ratings Gain, 'The Blacklist' Tops Percentage & Total Viewer Increase in Week 18". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved March 2, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Bibel, Sara (February 18, 2014). "Live+7 DVR Ratings: 'The Big Bang Theory' Has Biggest 18-49 Ratings Gain, 'Beauty and the Beast' Tops Percentage Gain & 'The Blacklist' Has Largest Total Viewer Increase in Week 19". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved March 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Ratings - The CW Is Up +9% Year to Year in Total Viewers and +10% in Adults 18-49". The Futon Critic. November 5, 2013. Retrieved November 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Ratings - Friday's Broadcast Ratings: CBS Tops Viewers, Shares Demo Crown with ABC". The Futon Critic. November 9, 2013. Retrieved November 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Friday's Broadcast Ratings: CBS Pulls in Front Among Viewers, Demos". The Futon Critic. November 16, 2013. Retrieved November 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Friday's Broadcast Ratings: CBS Tops Viewers, Splits Demos with ABC". The Futon Critic. November 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Friday's Broadcast Ratings: ABC Tops Viewers, Shares Demos with NBC". The Futon Critic. December 7, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Friday's Broadcast Ratings: "I Love Lucy Christmas Special" Sparks CBS Victory". The Futon Critic. December 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Friday's Broadcast Ratings: FOX Rides the Cotton Bowl to Victory". The Futon Critic. January 3, 2014. Retrieved January 5, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Friday's Broadcast Ratings: ABC Wins Demo Race with "Shark Tank"". The Futon Critic. January 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Friday's Broadcast Ratings: ABC Tops Demos Once Again with "Shark Tank"". The Futon Critic. January 18, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Friday's Broadcast Ratings: "Shark Tank" Powers Another Demo Victory for ABC". The Futon Critic. January 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Friday's Broadcast Ratings: "Shark Tank" Helps ABC Hold Off CBS in Demos". The Futon Critic. February 1, 2014.
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Urinary bladder
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Bladder" redirects here. For other uses, see bladder (disambiguation).
Urinary bladder
1. Human urinary system: 2. Kidney, 3. Renal pelvis, 4. Ureter, 5. Urinary bladder, 6. Urethra. (Left side with frontal section)
7. Adrenal gland
Vessels: 8. Renal artery and vein, 9. Inferior vena cava, 10. Abdominal aorta, 11. Common iliac artery and vein
With transparency: 12. Liver, 13. Large intestine, 14. Pelvis
Details
Precursor
urogenital sinus
System
Urinary system
Artery
Superior vesical artery
Inferior vesical artery
Umbilical artery
Vaginal artery
Vein
Vesical venous plexus
Nerve
Vesical nervous plexus
Identifiers
Latin
vesica urinaria
MeSH
A05.810.161
Dorlands
/Elsevier
Urinary bladder
TA
A08.3.01.001
FMA
15900
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The urinary bladder is a hollow muscular organ in many animals, that collects and stores urine from the kidneys before disposal by urination. In the human the bladder is a hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic) organ, that sits on the pelvic floor. Urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra. The typical human bladder will hold between 300 and 500 mL (10.14 and 16.91 fl oz) before the urge to empty occurs, but can hold considerably more.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Microanatomy
1.2 Detrusor muscle
1.3 Blood- and lymph-supply
1.4 Nerve supply
1.5 Development
2 Function
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Inflammation and infection
3.2 Incontinence and retention
3.3 Cancer
3.4 Investigation
4 Other animals
4.1 Reptiles
4.2 Amphibians
4.3 Fish
4.4 Mammals
4.5 Birds
5 Additional images
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Structure[edit]
Further information: Urination § Anatomy of the bladder and outlet
Bladder location and associated structures in the male
In humans the bladder is a hollow muscular organ situated at the base of the pelvis. Urine collects in the bladder, fed from the two ureters that connect the bladder with the kidneys. Urine leaves the bladder via the urethra, a single muscular tube which ends in an opening – the urinary meatus, where it exits the body.
Anatomists divide the bladder into:.[3]
a broad fundus
a body
an apex
a neck
The apex (prev.vertex) is directed forward toward the upper part of the pubic symphysis, and from there the median umbilical ligament continues upward on the back of the anterior abdominal wall to the umbilicus. The peritoneum is carried by it from the apex on to the abdominal wall to form the middle umbilical fold.
The neck of the bladder is the area at the base of the trigone that surrounds the internal urethral orifice that leads to the urethra.[3] In males the neck of the urinary bladder is adjacent to the prostate gland.
The three openings, two ureteric orifices, and the internal urethral orifice mark the triangular area called the trigone of the bladder. These openings have mucosal flaps in front of them that act as valves in preventing the backflow of urine into the ureters,[4] known as vesicoureteral reflux. Between the two ureteric openings is a raised area of tissue called the interureteric crest.[3] This makes the upper boundary of the trigone. The trigone is a smooth-muscle area that forms the floor of the bladder above the urethra.[5] It is an area of smooth tissue for the easy flow of urine into and from this part of the bladder - in contrast to the irregular surface formed by the rugae.
In men, the prostate gland lies outside the opening for the urethra. The middle lobe of the prostate causes an elevation in the mucous membrane behind the internal urethral orifice called the uvula of urinary bladder. The uvula can enlarge when the prostate becomes enlarged.
The bladder is situated below the peritoneal cavity near the pelvic floor and behind the pubic symphysis. In men, it lies in front of the rectum, separated by the recto-vesical pouch, and is supported by fibres of the levator ani and of the prostate gland. In women, it lies in front of the uterus, separated by the vesico-uterine pouch, and is supported by the elevator ani and the upper part of the vagina. The wall of the urinary bladder is normally 3–5 mm thick.[6] When well distended, the wall is normally less than 3 mm.[6]
The inner walls have a series of ridges, thick mucosal folds known as rugae that allow for the expansion of the bladder.
The Latin phrase for "urinary bladder" is vesica urinaria, and the term vesical or prefix vesico - appear in connection with associated structures such as vesical veins. The modern Latin word for "bladder" - cystis - appears in associated terms such as cystitis (inflammation of the bladder).
Microanatomy[edit]
The outside of the bladder is protected by a serous membrane.[7] The bladder wall itself is smooth muscle.[7] The inner side of the bladder is lined with a mucosal membrane consisting of a surface glycocalyx that protects the cells beneath it from urine, the urothelium (a form of transitional epithelium), a basement membrane, and the lamina propria.[7][8] The mucosal lining also offers a urothelial barrier against the passing of infections.[9]
Vertical section of bladder wall.
Layers of the urinary bladder wall and cross section of the detrusor muscle.
Anatomy of the male bladder, showing transitional epithelium and part of the wall in a histological cut-out.
Detrusor muscle[edit]
The detrusor muscle is a layer of the urinary bladder wall made of smooth muscle fibers arranged in spiral, longitudinal, and circular bundles. Stretch receptors in the bladder signal the parasympathetic nervous system to stimulate the muscarinic receptors in the detrusor to contract the muscle when the bladder is extended.[10] This encourages the bladder to expel urine through the urethra. The main receptor activated is the M3 receptor, although M2 receptors are also involved and whilst outnumbering the M3 receptors they are not so responsive.[11] The main relaxant pathway is via the adenylyl cyclase cAMP pathway, activated by β2 adrenergic receptors.[12] The detrusor muscle is unusually able to change its length. It can also contract for a long time whilst voiding, and it stays relaxed whilst the bladder is filling.[12]
Blood- and lymph-supply[edit]
The bladder is supplied by the vesical arteries and drained by the vesical veins.[13] The superior vesical artery supplies blood to the upper part of the bladder, and the inferior vesical artery, supplies the lower part. Both are branches of the internal iliac arteries.[13] The uterine arteries and vaginal arteries also supply blood in females.[13] Venous drainage of blood supplying the bladder begins in a network of small vessels on the outer and back surfaces of the bladder. These coalesce and pass backwards along the lateral ligaments of the bladder into the internal iliac veins.[13]
The lymph drained from the bladder begins in a series of networks throughout the mucosal, muscular and serosal layers. These then form three sets of vessels: one set near the trigone draining the bottom of the bladder; one set draining the top of the bladder; and another set draining the outer undersurface of the bladder. The majority of these vessels drain into the external iliac lymph nodes.[13]
Nerve supply[edit]
The bladder receives motor innervation from both sympathetic fibers, most of which arise from the superior and inferior hypogastric plexuses and nerves, and from parasympathetic fibers, which come from the pelvic splanchnic nerves.[14]
Sensation from the bladder is transmitted to the central nervous system (CNS) via general visceral afferent fibers (GVA). GVA fibers on the superior surface follow the course of the sympathetic efferent nerves back to the CNS, while GVA fibers on the inferior portion of the bladder follow the course of the parasympathetic efferents.[14]
For the urine to exit the bladder, both the autonomically controlled internal sphincter (in the male) and the voluntarily controlled external sphincter must be opened. Problems with these muscles can lead to incontinence.[15]
Development[edit]
The human urinary bladder derives from the urogenital sinus, and it is initially continuous with the allantois. The upper and lower parts of the bladder develop separately and join together around the middle part of development.[5] At this time the ureters move from the mesonephric ducts to the trigone.[5] In males, the base of the bladder lies between the rectum and the pubic symphysis. It is superior to the prostate, and separated from the rectum by the recto-vesical pouch. In females, the bladder sits inferior to the uterus and anterior to the vagina; thus its maximum capacity is lower than in males. It is separated from the uterus by the vesico-uterine pouch. In infants and young children the urinary bladder is in the abdomen even when empty.[16]
Function[edit]
Main article: Urination
Urine, excreted by the kidneys, collects in the bladder before disposal by urination (micturition). The urinary bladder usually holds 300-350 ml of urine. As urine accumulates, the rugae flatten and the wall of the bladder thins as it stretches, allowing the bladder to store larger amounts of urine without a significant rise in internal pressure.[17] Urination is controlled by the pontine micturition center in the brainstem.[18]
Clinical significance[edit]
See also: Urinary bladder disease
Inflammation and infection[edit]
Calcifiications on bladder wall caused by urinary schistosomiasis
Bacteriuria is the presence of bacteria in the urine which can indicate a urinary tract infection such as cystitis.
Interstitial cystitis
Incontinence and retention[edit]
Frequent urination can be due to excessive urine production, small bladder capacity, irritability or incomplete emptying. Males with an enlarged prostate urinate more frequently. One definition of an overactive bladder is when a person urinates more than eight times per day.[19] An overactive bladder can often cause urinary incontinence. Though both urinary frequency and volumes have been shown to have a circadian rhythm, meaning day and night cycles,[20] it is not entirely clear how these are disturbed in the overactive bladder. Urodynamic testing can help to explain the symptoms. An underactive bladder is the condition where there is a difficulty in passing urine and is the main symptom of a neurogenic bladder. Frequent urination at night may indicate the presence of bladder stones.
Disorders of or related to the bladder include:
Bladder exstrophy
Bladder sphincter dyssynergia, a condition in which the sufferer cannot coordinate relaxation of the urethra sphincter with the contraction of the bladder muscles
Paruresis
Trigonitis
Urinary retention
Disorders of bladder function may be dealt with surgically, by re-directing the flow of urine or by replacement with an artificial urinary bladder. The volume of the bladder may be increased by bladder augmentation. An obstruction of the bladder neck may be severe enough to warrant surgery.
Cancer[edit]
Bladder cancer
Investigation[edit]
A diverticulum of the bladder
Urodynamic testing can help to explain the symptoms.
Other animals[edit]
Reptiles[edit]
In all reptiles the urinogenital ducts and the anus both empty into an organ called a cloaca. In some reptiles, a midventral wall in the cloaca may open into a urinary bladder, but not all. It is present in all turtles and tortoises as well as most lizards, but is lacking in the monitor lizard, the legless lizards. It is absent in the snakes, alligators, and crocodiles.[21]:p. 474
Many turtles, tortoises, and lizards have proportionally very large bladders. Charles Darwin noted that the Galapagos tortoise had a bladder which could store up to 20% of its body weight.[22] Such adaptations are the result of environments such as remote islands and deserts where water is very scarce.[23]:143 Other desert-dwelling reptiles have large bladders that can store a long-term reservoir of water for up to several months and aid in osmoregulation.[24]
Turtles have two or more accessory urinary bladders, located lateral to the neck of the urinary bladder and dorsal to the pubis, occupying a significant portion of their body cavity.[25] Their bladder is also usually bilobed with a left and right section. The right section is located under the liver, which prevents large stones from remaining in that side while the left section is more likely to have calculi.[26]
Amphibians[edit]
Most aquatic and semi-aquatic amphibians have a membranous skin which allows them to absorb water directly through it. Some semi-aquatic animals also have similarly permeable bladder membrane.[27] As as result, they tend to have high rates of urine production to offset this high water intake, and have urine which is low in dissolved salts. The urinary bladder assists such animals to retain salts. Some aquatic amphibian such as Xenopus do not reabsorb water, to prevent excessive water influx.[28] For land-dwelling amphibians, dehydration results in reduced urine output.[29]:p. 184
The amphibian bladder is usually highly distensible and among some land-dwelling species of frogs and salamanders may account for between 20% and 50% of their total body weight.[29]:p. 184
Fish[edit]
Although the gills of most teleost fish assist with the elimination of ammonia from the body and although fish virtually by definition live in an environment surrounded by water, most still have a distinct bladder for storing waste fluid. The urinary bladder of teleosts is permeable to water, though this is less true for freshwater dwelling species than saltwater ones.[22]:p. 219 Most fish also have an organ called a swim-bladder which is unrelated to the urinary bladder except in its membranous nature. The loaches, pilchards, and herrings are among the few types of fish in which a urinary bladder is poorly developed. It is largest in those fish which lack an air bladder, and is situated in front of the oviducts and behind the rectum.[30]
Mammals[edit]
All mammals have a urinary bladder. This structure begins as an embryonic cloaca. In the vast majority, this eventually becomes differentiated into a dorsal part connected to the intestine and a ventral part which becomes associated with the urinogenital passage and urinary bladder. The only mammals in which this does not take place are the platypus and the anteater both of which retain the cloaca into adulthood.[21]
The mammalian bladder is an organ that regularly stores a hyperosmotic concentration of urine. It therefore is relatively impermeable and has multiple epithelial layers. The urinary bladder of the cetaceans (whales and dolphins) is proportionally smaller than that of land-dwelling mammals.[31]
Birds[edit]
In the whole class of Aves there is no urinary bladder per se. Although all birds have kidneys, the ureters open directly into a cloaca which serves as a reservoir for urine, fecal matter, and eggs.[32]
Additional images[edit]
Urinary bladder (black butterfly-like shape) and hyperplastic prostate (BPH) visualized by medical ultrasound.
See also[edit]
Alpha blocker
Cystitis glandularis
Ureterocele
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Boron, Walter F.; Boulpaep, Emile L. (2016). Medical Physiology. 3: Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 738. ISBN 9781455733286. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
Jump up ^ Walker-Smith, John; Murch, Simon (1999). Cardozo, Linda, ed. Diseases of the Small Intestine in Childhood (4 ed.). CRC Press. p. 16. ISBN 9781901865059. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Netter, Frank H. (2014). Atlas of Human Anatomy Including Student Consult Interactive Ancillaries and Guides (6th edition. ed.). Philadelphia, Penn.: W B Saunders Co. pp. 346–348. ISBN 978-14557-0418-7.
Jump up ^ "SEER Training:Urinary Bladder". training.seer.cancer.gov.
^ Jump up to: a b c Viana, R; et al. (October 2007). "The development of the bladder trigone, the center of the anti-reflux mechanism.". Development. 134 (20): 3763–9. PMID 17881488. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Page 12 in: Uday Patel (2010). Imaging and Urodynamics of the Lower Urinary Tract. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9781848828360.
^ Jump up to: a b c Fry, CH; Vahabi, B (October 2016). "The Role of the Mucosa in Normal and Abnormal Bladder Function.". Basic & clinical pharmacology & toxicology. 119 Suppl 3: 57–62. PMID 27228303. doi:10.1111/bcpt.12626.
Jump up ^ Merrill, L; et al. (April 2016). "Receptors, channels, and signalling in the urothelial sensory system in the bladder". Nature reviews. Urology. 13 (4): 193–204. PMID 26926246. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Janssen, DA (January 2013). "The distribution and function of chondroitin sulfate and other sulfated glycosaminoglycans in the human bladder and their contribution to the protective bladder barrier.". The Journal of urology. 189 (1): 336–42. PMID 23174248.
Jump up ^ Giglio, D; Tobin, G (2009). "Muscarinic receptor subtypes in the lower urinary tract". Pharmacology. 83 (5): 259–69. PMID 19295256.
Jump up ^ Uchiyama, T; Chess-Williams, R (December 2004). "Muscarinic receptor subtypes of the bladder and gastrointestinal tract". Journal of smooth muscle research = Nihon Heikatsukin Gakkai kikanshi. 40 (6): 237–47. PMID 15725706.
^ Jump up to: a b Andersson, K.-E. (1 July 2004). "Urinary Bladder Contraction and Relaxation: Physiology and Pathophysiology". Physiological Reviews. 84 (3): 935–986. doi:10.1152/physrev.00038.2003.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Gray's 2008, p. 1249.
^ Jump up to: a b Moore, Keith; Anne Agur (2007). Essential Clinical Anatomy, Third Edition. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 227–228. ISBN 0-7817-6274-X.
Jump up ^ "Urinary Incontinence - Causes". NHS. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
Jump up ^ Moore, Keith L.; Dalley, Arthur F (2006). Clinically Oriented Anatomy (5th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Jump up ^ Marieb, Mallatt. "23". Human Anatomy (5th ed.). Pearson International. p. 700.
Jump up ^ Purves, Dale (2011). Neuroscience (5. ed. ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer. p. 471. ISBN 978-0-87893-695-3. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
Jump up ^ "Overactive Bladder". Cornell Medical College. Retrieved 2013-08-21.
Jump up ^ Negoro, Hiromitsu (2012). "Involvement of urinary bladder Connexin43 and the circadian clock in coordination of diurnal micturition rhythm". doi:10.1038/ncomms1812.
^ Jump up to: a b Herbert W. Rand (1950). The Chordates. Balkiston.
^ Jump up to: a b P.J. Bentley (14 March 2013). Endocrines and Osmoregulation: A Comparative Account in Vertebrates. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-662-05014-9.
Jump up ^ Paré, Jean (January 11, 2006). "Reptile Basics: Clinical Anatomy 101" (PDF). Proceedings of the North American Veterinary Conference. 20: 1657–1660.
Jump up ^ Davis, Jon R.; DeNardo, Dale F. (2007-04-15). "The urinary bladder as a physiological reservoir that moderates dehydration in a large desert lizard, the Gila monster Heloderma suspectum". Journal of Experimental Biology. 210 (8): 1472–1480. ISSN 0022-0949. PMID 17401130. doi:10.1242/jeb.003061.
Jump up ^ Wyneken, Jeanette; Witherington, Dawn (February 2015). "Urogenital System" (PDF). Anatomy of Sea Turtles. 1: 153–165.
Jump up ^ Divers, Stephen J.; Mader, Douglas R. (2005). Reptile Medicine and Surgery. Amsterdam: Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 481, 597. ISBN 9781416064770.
Jump up ^ Urakabe, Shigeharu; Shirai, Dairoku; Yuasa, Shigekazu; Kimura, Genjiro; Orita, Yoshimasa; Abe, Hiroshi. "Comparative study of the effects of different diuretics on the permeability properties of the toad bladder". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Comparative Pharmacology. 53 (2): 115–119. doi:10.1016/0306-4492(76)90063-0.
Jump up ^ Shibata, Yuki; Katayama, Izumi; Nakakura, Takashi; Ogushi, Yuji; Okada, Reiko; Tanaka, Shigeyasu; Suzuki, Masakazu. "Molecular and cellular characterization of urinary bladder-type aquaporin in Xenopus laevis". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 222: 11–19. doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2014.09.001.
^ Jump up to: a b Laurie J. Vitt; Janalee P. Caldwell (25 March 2013). Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles. Academic. ISBN 978-0-12-386920-3.
Jump up ^ Owen, Richard (1843). Lectures on the comparative anatomy and physiology of the invertebrate animals. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. pp. 283–284.
Jump up ^ John Hunter (26 March 2015). The Works of John Hunter, F.R.S. Cambridge University. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-108-07960-0.
Jump up ^ Charles Knight (1854). The English Cyclopaedia: A New Dictionary of Universal Knowledge. Bradbury and Evans. p. 136.
Books
editor-in-chief, Susan Standring ; section editors, Neil R. Borley; et al. (2008). Gray's anatomy : the anatomical basis of clinical practice (40th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-8089-2371-8. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Britton, the editors Nicki R. Colledge, Brian R. Walker, Stuart H. Ralston ; illustated by Robert (2010). Davidson's principles and practice of medicine. (21st ed. ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7020-3085-7. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Urinary bladder.
Histology at KUMC epithel-epith09 "Urinary Bladder"
Anatomy photo: Urinary/mammal/bladder/bladder1 - Comparative Organology at University of California, Davis — "Mammal, bladder (LM, Medium)"
Virtual Slidebox at Univ. Iowa Slide 445
Anatomy photo:43:07-0100 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center — "The Female Pelvis: The Urinary bladder"
Anatomy photo:44:04-0103 at the SUNY Downstate Medical Center — "The Male Pelvis: The Urinary bladder"
Bladder (ISSN 2327-2120) — An open-access journal on bladder biology and diseases.
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Anti-streptolysin O
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Anti-streptolysin O (ASO or ASLO) is the antibody made against streptolysin O, an immunogenic, oxygen-labile streptococcal hemolytic exotoxin produced by most strains of group A and many strains of groups C and G Streptococcus bacteria. The "O" in the name stands for oxygen-labile; the other related toxin being oxygen-stable streptolysin-S. The main function of streptolysin O is to cause hemolysis (the breaking open of red blood cells) — in particular, beta-hemolysis.
Increased levels of aso titre in the blood could cause damage to the heart and joints. In most cases, penicillin is used to treat patients with increased levels of aso titre.
Contents
[hide]
1 Clinical significance
2 Estimation
3 Mechanism of action
4 Antistreptolysin O titre
5 References
6 External links
Clinical significance[edit]
When the body is infected with streptococci, it produces antibodies against the various antigens that the streptococci produce. ASO is one such antibody. A raised or rising levels can indicate past or present infection. Historically it was one of the first bacterial markers used for diagnosis and follow up of rheumatic fever or scarlet fever. Its importance in this regard has not diminished.
Since these antibodies are produced as a delayed antibody reaction to the above-mentioned bacteria, there is no normal value. The presence of these antibodies indicates an exposure to these bacteria. However, as many people are exposed to these bacteria and remain asymptomatic, the mere presence of ASO does not indicate disease.
Acceptable values, where there is no clinical suspicion of rheumatism are as follows:
Adults: less than 200 units
Children: less than 400 units
This titre has a significance only if it is greatly elevated (>200), or if a rise in titre can be demonstrated in paired blood samples taken days apart. The antibody levels begin to rise after 1 to 3 weeks of strep infection, peaks in 3 to 5 weeks and falls back to insignificant levels in 6 months. Values need to be correlated with a clinical diagnosis.
Estimation[edit]
Further information: serology
It is done by serological methods like latex agglutination or slide agglutination. ELISA may be performed to detect the exact titre value.
To detect the titre value, by a non-ELISA method, one has to perform the above agglutination using a serial dilution technique.
Mechanism of action[edit]
Further information: rheumatic fever
These antibodies produced against the bacteria cross-react with human antigens (mainly collagen) and hence attack the cellular matrix of various organs, mainly the heart, joints, skin, brain, etc.
Antistreptolysin O titre[edit]
Antistreptolysin O titer (AS(L)O titer or AS(L)OT) is a measure of the blood plasma levels of antistreptolysin O antibodies used in tests for the diagnosis of a streptococcal infection or indicate a past exposure to streptococci.
The ASOT helps direct antimicrobial treatment and is used to assist in the diagnosis of scarlet fever, rheumatic fever, and post infectious glomerulonephritis.
A positive test usually is >200 units/mL,[1] but normal ranges vary from laboratory to laboratory and by age.[2]
The false negatives rate is 20-30%.[1] If a false negative is suspected, then an anti-DNase B titre should be sought. False positives can result from liver disease and tuberculosis.[1]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Antistreptococcal antibody titres. gpnotebook. URL: http://www.gpnotebook.co.uk/cache/-1630535637.htm Archived January 26, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed on: March 31, 2007.
Jump up ^ Danchin M, Carlin J, Devenish W, Nolan T, Carapetis J (2005). "New normal ranges of antistreptolysin O and antideoxyribonuclease B titres for Australian children". J Paediatr Child Health. 41 (11): 583–6. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1754.2005.00726.x. PMID 16398843.
External links[edit]
Antistreptococcal antibody titres - GPnotebook.co.uk.
Antistreptolysin O Titer - medterms.com.
Antistreptolysin O Titer, Serum
Streptococcal antibody tests - healthAtoZ.com
[hide]
v
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Medical test: Infectious disease blood tests (CPT 87001–87999)
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rapid plasma reagin
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