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History of colonialism
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Territories colonized by European, Russian, Turkish, American, and Japanese powers since 1492
The historical phenomenon of colonization is one that stretches around the globe and across time. Modern state global colonialism, or imperialism, began in the 15th century with the "Age of Discovery", led by Portuguese, and then by the Spanish exploration of the Americas, the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India and East Asia. The Spanish and Portuguese empires were the first global empires because they were the first to stretch across different continents, covering vast territories around the globe. In 1492, notable Genoese (Italian)[1][2] explorer Christopher Columbus and his Castilian (Spanish) crew discovered the Americas for the Crown of Castile. The phrase "the empire on which the sun never sets" was first used for the Spanish Empire in the 16th century. During the late 16th and 17th centuries, England, France and the Dutch Republic also established their own overseas empires, in direct competition with each other.
The end of the 18th and early 19th century saw the first era of decolonization, when most of the European colonies in the Americas gained their independence from their respective metropoles. Spain was irreversibly weakened after the loss of their New World colonies, but the Kingdom of Great Britain (uniting Scotland with England and Wales), France, Portugal, and the Dutch turned their attention to the Old World, particularly South Africa, India and South East Asia, where coastal enclaves had already been established. The second industrial revolution, in the 19th century, led to what has been termed the era of New Imperialism, when the pace of colonization rapidly accelerated, the height of which was the Scramble for Africa, in which Belgium, Germany and Italy were also participants.
There were conflicts between colonizing states and revolutions from colonized areas shaping areas of control and establishing independent nations. During the 20th century, the colonies of the defeated central powers in World War I were distributed amongst the victors as mandates, but it was not until the end of World War II that the second phase of decolonization began in earnest.
Contents
1 Portuguese and Spanish exploration and colonization
1.1 Northern European challenges to the Iberian hegemony
1.2 Role of companies in early colonialism
1.3 European colonies in India
2 Independence in the Americas (1770–1820)
2.1 Britain and the Thirteen Colonies
2.2 France and the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)
2.3 Spain and the Wars of Independence in Latin America
2.4 Portugal and Brazil
3 India (1858 onwards)
3.1 The British in India
3.2 Other European Empires in India
4 New Imperialism (1870–1914)
4.1 The scramble for Africa
4.2 Imperialism in Asia
5 Inter-War Period (1918–1939)
5.1 Japanese imperialism
6 Second Decolonization (1945–99)
6.1 Role of the USSR and China
7 Postcolonialism
8 See also
9 References
10 Bibliography
Portuguese and Spanish exploration and colonization[edit]
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Elmina Castle, Ghana, one in a chain of about fifty fortified factories to enforce Portuguese trade rule along the coast. View from the sea in 1668.
The combined Spanish and Portuguese empires during the Iberian Union (1580–1640)
Main articles: Portuguese Empire, Portugal in the Age of Discovery, and Spanish colonization of the Americas
European colonization of both Eastern and Western Hemispheres has its roots in Portuguese exploration. There were financial and religious motives behind this exploration. By finding the source of the lucrative spice trade, the Portuguese could reap its profits for themselves. They would also be able to probe the existence of the fabled Christian kingdom of Prester John, with an eye to encircling the Islamic Ottoman Empire, itself gaining territories and colonies in Eastern Europe. The first foothold outside of Europe was gained with the conquest of Ceuta in 1415. During the 15th century, Portuguese sailors discovered the Atlantic islands of Madeira, Azores, and Cape Verde, which were duly populated, and pressed progressively further along the west African coast until Bartolomeu Dias demonstrated it was possible to sail around Africa by rounding the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, paving the way for Vasco da Gama to reach India in 1498.
Portuguese successes led to Spanish financing of a mission by Christopher Columbus in 1492 to explore an alternative route to Asia, by sailing west. When Columbus eventually made landfall in the Caribbean Antilles he believed he had reached the coast of India, and that the people he encountered there were Indians with red skin. This is why Native Americans have been called Indians or red-Indians.[3] In truth, Columbus had arrived on a continent that was new to the Europeans, the Americas.
After Columbus' first trips, competing Spanish and Portuguese claims to new territories and sea routes were solved with the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the world outside of Europe in two areas of trade an exploration, between the Iberian kingdoms of Castile and Portugal along a north-south meridian, 370 leagues west of Cape Verde. According to this international agreement, the larger part of the Americas and the Pacific Ocean were open to Spanish exploration and colonization, while Africa, the Indian Ocean and most of Asia were assigned to Portugal.
The boundaries specified by the Treaty of Tordesillas were put to the test in 1521 when Ferdinand Magellan and his Spanish sailors (among other europeans)[4], sailing for the Spanish Crown became the first European to cross the Pacific Ocean,[5] reaching Guam and the Philippines, parts of which the Portuguese had already explored, sailing from the Indian Ocean. The two by now global empires, which had set out from opposing directions, had finally met on the other side of the world. The conflicts that arose between both powers were finally solved with the Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529, which defined the areas of Spanish and Portuguese influence in Asia, establishing the anti meridian, or line of demarcation on the other side of the world.
During the 16th century the Portuguese continued to press both eastwards and westwards into the Oceans. Towards Asia they made the first direct contact between Europeans and the peoples inhabiting present day countries such as Mozambique, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, East Timor (1512), China, and finally Japan. In the opposite direction, the Portuguese colonized the huge territory that eventually became Brasil, and the Spanish conquistadores established the vast Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru, and later of Río de la Plata (Argentina) and New Granada (Colombia). In Asia, the Portuguese encountered ancient and well populated societies, and established a seaborne empire consisting of armed coastal trading posts along their trade routes (such as Goa, Malacca and Macau), so they had relatively little cultural impact on the societies they engaged. In the Western Hemisphere, the European colonization involved the emigration of large numbers of settlers, soldiers and administrators intent on owning land and exploiting the apparently primitive (as perceived by Old World standards) indigenous peoples of the Americas. The result was that the colonization of the New World was catastrophic: native peoples were no match for European technology, ruthlessness, or their diseases which decimated the indigenous population.
Spanish treatment of the indigenous populations caused a fierce debate, the Valladolid Controversy, over whether Indians possessed souls and if so, whether they were entitled to the basic rights of mankind. Bartolomé de Las Casas, author of A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, championed the cause of the native peoples, and was opposed by Sepúlveda, who claimed Amerindians were "natural slaves".
The Roman Catholic Church played a large role in Spanish and Portuguese overseas activities. The Dominicans, Jesuits, and Franciscans, notably Francis Xavier in Asia and Junípero Serra in North America, were particularly active in this endeavour. Many buildings erected by the Jesuits still stand, such as the Cathedral of Saint Paul in Macau and the Santisima Trinidad de Paraná in Paraguay, the latter an example of the Jesuit Reductions. The Dominican and Franciscan buildings of California's missions and New Mexico's missions stand restored, such as Mission Santa Barbara in Santa Barbara, California and San Francisco de Asis Mission Church in Ranchos de Taos, New Mexico.
Map indicating the territories colonized by the European powers over the Americas in 1750 (mainly Spain, Portugal and France at the time).
As characteristically happens in any colonialism, European or not, previous or subsequent, both Spain and Portugal profited handsomely from their newfound overseas colonies: the Spanish from gold and silver from mines such as Potosí and Zacateca in New Spain, the Portuguese from the huge markups they enjoyed as trade intermediaries, particarlarly during the Namban Japan trade period. The influx of precious metals to the Spanish monarchy's coffers allowed it to finance costly religious wars in Europe which ultimately proved its economic undoing: the supply of metals was not infinite and the large inflow caused inflation and debt, and subsequently affected the rest of Europe.[6]
Northern European challenges to the Iberian hegemony[edit]
It was not long before the exclusivity of Iberian claims to the Americas was challenged by other up and coming European powers, primarily the Netherlands, France and England: the view taken by the rulers of these nations is epitomized by the quotation attributed to Francis I of France demanding to be shown the clause in Adam's will excluding his authority from the New World.
This challenge initially took the form of piratical attacks (such as those by Francis Drake) on Spanish treasure fleets or coastal settlements, but later the Northern European countries began establishing settlements of their own, primarily in areas that were outside of Spanish interests, such as what is now the eastern seaboard of the United States and Canada, or islands in the Caribbean, such as Aruba, Martinique and Barbados, that had been abandoned by the Spanish in favour of the mainland and larger islands.
Whereas Spanish colonialism was based on the religious conversion and exploitation of local populations via encomiendas (many Spaniards emigrated to the Americas to elevate their social status, and were not interested in manual labour), Northern European colonialism was bolstered by those emigrating for religious reasons (for example, the Mayflower voyage). The motive for emigration was not to become an aristocrat or to spread one's faith but to start a new society afresh, structured according to the colonists wishes. The most populous emigration of the 17th century was that of the English, who after a series of wars with the Dutch and French came to dominate the Thirteen Colonies on the eastern coast of the present day United States and other colonies such as Newfoundland and Rupert's Land in what is now Canada.
However, the English, French and Dutch were no more averse to making a profit than the Spanish and Portuguese, and whilst their areas of settlement in the Americas proved to be devoid of the precious metals found by the Spanish, trade in other commodities and products that could be sold at massive profit in Europe provided another reason for crossing the Atlantic, in particular furs from Canada, tobacco and cotton grown in Virginia and sugar in the islands of the Caribbean and Brazil. Due to the massive depletion of indigenous labour, plantation owners had to look elsewhere for manpower for these labour-intensive crops. They turned to the centuries-old slave trade of west Africa and began transporting Africans across the Atlantic on a massive scale – historians estimate that the Atlantic slave trade brought between 10 and 12 million African (mostly black skinned) slaves to the New World. The islands of the Caribbean soon came to be populated by slaves of African descent, ruled over by a white minority of plantation owners interested in making a fortune and then returning to their home country to spend it.
Role of companies in early colonialism[edit]
From its very outset, Western colonialism was operated as a joint public-private venture. Columbus' voyages to the Americas were partially funded by Italian investors, but whereas the Spanish state maintained a tight rein on trade with its colonies (by law, the colonies could only trade with one designated port in the mother country and treasure was brought back in special convoys), the English, French and Dutch granted what were effectively trade monopolies to joint-stock companies such as the East India Companies and the Hudson's Bay Company. Imperial Russia had no state sponsored expeditions or colonization in the Americas, but did charter the first Russian joint-stock commercial enterprise, the Russian America Company, which did sponsor those activities in its territories.
European colonies in India[edit]
Lord Clive meeting with Mir Jafar at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, painted by Francis Hayman
Main article: European colonies in India
In May 1498, the Portuguese set foot in Kozhikode in Kerala, making them the first Europeans to sail to India. Rivalry among reigning European powers saw the entry of the Dutch, English, French, Danish and others. The kingdoms of India were gradually taken over by the Europeans and indirectly controlled by puppet rulers. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I accorded a charter, forming the East India Company to trade with India and eastern Asia. The English landed in India in Surat in 1612. By the 19th century, they had assumed direct and indirect control over most of India.
Independence in the Americas (1770–1820)[edit]
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See also: Colonization of Canada
During the five decades following 1770, Britain, France, Spain and Portugal lost many of their possessions in the Americas.
Britain and the Thirteen Colonies[edit]
Main articles: Thirteen Colonies, American Revolution, American Revolutionary War, and United States Declaration of Independence
After the conclusion of the Seven Years' War in 1763, Britain had emerged as the world's dominant power, but found itself mired in debt and struggling to finance the Navy and Army necessary to maintain a global empire. The British Parliament's attempt to raise taxes from North American colonists raised fears among the Americans that their rights as "Englishmen", and particularly their rights of self-government, were in danger.
From 1765, a series of disputes with Parliament over taxation led to the American Revolution, first to informal committees of correspondence among the colonies, then to coordinated protest and resistance, with an important event in 1770, the Boston Massacre. A standing army was formed by the United Colonies, and independence was declared by the Second Continental Congress on 4 July 1776.
The Patriots fought the British in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783). Formal acts of rebellion against British authority began in 1774 when the Patriot Suffolk Resolves effectively abolished the legal government of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and expelled all royal officials. The tensions caused by this would lead to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775.
The American War of Independence continued until 1783, when the Treaty of Paris was signed. Britain recognised the sovereignty of the United States over the territory bounded by the British possessions to the North, Florida to the South, and the Mississippi River to the west.
France and the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)[edit]
The Haitian Revolution, a slave revolt led by Toussaint L'Ouverture in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, established Haïti as a free, black republic, the first of its kind. Haiti became the second independent nation that was a former European colony in the Western Hemisphere after the United States. Africans and people of African ancestry freed themselves from slavery and colonization by taking advantage of the conflict among whites over how to implement the reforms of the French Revolution in this slave society. Although independence was declared in 1804, it was not until 1825 that it was formally recognized by King Charles X of France.
Spain and the Wars of Independence in Latin America[edit]
Independent republics in the Americas, c. 1830.
Main articles: Spanish American wars of independence and Latin American wars of independence
The gradual decline of Spain as an imperial power throughout the 17th century was hastened by the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14), as a result of which it lost its European imperial possessions. The death knell for the Spanish Empire in the Americas was Napoleon's invasion of the Iberian peninsula in 1808. With the installation of his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne, the main tie between the metropole and its colonies in the Americas, the Spanish monarchy, had been cut, leading the colonists to question their continued subordination to a declining and distant country.
With an eye on the events of the American Revolution forty years earlier, revolutionary leaders began bloody wars of independence against Spain, whose armies were ultimately unable to maintain control. By 1831, Spain had been ejected from the mainland of the Americas, leaving a collection of independent republics that stretched from Chile and Argentina in the south to Mexico in the north. Spain's colonial possessions were reduced to Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines and a number of small islands in the Pacific, all of which she was to lose to the United States in the 1898 Spanish–American War or sell to Germany shortly thereafter.
Portugal and Brazil[edit]
Brazil was the only country in Latin America to gain its independence without bloodshed. The invasion of Portugal by Napoleon in 1808 had forced King João VI to escape to Brazil and establish his court in Rio de Janeiro. For thirteen years, Portugal was ruled from Brazil (the only instance of such a reversal of roles between colony and metropole) until his return to Portugal in 1821. His son, Dom Pedro, was left in charge of Brazil and in 1822 he declared independence from Portugal and himself the Emperor of Brazil. Unlike Spain's former colonies which had abandoned the monarchy in favour of republicanism, Brazil therefore retained its links with its monarchy, the House of Braganza.
India (1858 onwards)[edit]
Main articles: Colonial India and Western imperialism in Asia
Vasco da Gama's maritime success to discover for Europeans a new sea route to India in 1498 paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce.[7] The Portuguese soon set up trading-posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. The next to arrive were the Dutch, the English—who set up a trading-post in the west-coast port of Surat in 1619—and the French. The internal conflicts among Indian Kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Although these continental European powers were to control various regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they would eventually lose all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondicherry and Chandernagore, the Dutch port in Travancore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman, and Diu.
The British in India[edit]
Main article: British Raj
The British Indian Empire and surrounding countries in 1909
The English East India Company had been given permission by the Mughal emperor Jahangir in 1617 to trade in India.[8] Gradually the Company's increasing influence led the de jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them dastaks or permits for duty-free trade in Bengal in 1717.[9] The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the de facto ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these permits. This led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the armies of the East India Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the Nawab's forces. This was the first political foothold with territorial implications that the British had acquired in India. Clive was appointed by the Company as its first Governor of Bengal in 1757.[10] This was combined with British victories over the French at Madras, Wandiwash and Pondicherry that, along with wider British successes during the Seven Years' War, reduced French influence in India. After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company acquired the civil rights of administration in Bengal from the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II; it marked the beginning of its formal rule, which was to engulf eventually most of India and extinguish the Moghul rule and dynasty itself in less than a century.[11] The East India Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the Permanent Settlement which introduced a feudal-like structurea (See Zamindar) in Bengal. By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. Their policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups.
The first major movement against the British Company's high handed rule resulted in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the "Indian Mutiny" or "Sepoy Mutiny" or the "First War of Independence". After a year of turmoil, and reinforcement of the East India Company's troops with British soldiers, the Company overcame the rebellion. The nominal leader of the uprising, the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, was exiled to Burma, his children were beheaded and the Moghul line abolished. In the aftermath all power was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as a colony; the Company's lands were controlled directly and the rest through the rulers of what it called the Princely states. There were 565 princely states when the Indian subcontinent gained independence from Britain in August 1947.[12]
During period of the British Raj, famines in India, often attributed to failed government policies, were some of the worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 1876–78, in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died[13] and the Indian famine of 1899–1900, in which 1.25 to 10 million people died.[14] The Third Plague Pandemic started in China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading plague to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.[15] Despite persistent diseases and famines, however, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at about 125 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.[16]
Other European Empires in India[edit]
Main articles: French India and Portuguese India
Like the other European colonists, the French began their colonisation via commercial activities, starting with the establishment of a factory in Surat in 1668. The French started to settle down in India in 1673, beginning with the purchase of land at Chandernagore from the Mughal Governor of Bengal, followed by the acquisition of Pondicherry from the Sultan of Bijapur the next year. Both became the centres of the maritime commercial activities that the French conducted in India.[17] The French also had trading posts in Mahe, Karikal and Yanaom. Similar to the situation in Tahiti and Martinique, the French colonial administrative area was insular, but, in India, the French authority was isolated on the peripheries of a British-dominated territory.[18]
By the early eighteenth century, the French had become the chief European rivals of the British. During the eighteenth century, it was highly possible for the Indian subcontinent to have succumbed to French control, but the defeat inflicted on them in the Seven Years War (1756–1763) permanently curtailed French ambitions. The Treaty of Paris of 1763 restored the original five to the French while making it clear that France could not expand its control beyond these areas.[19]
The beginning of the Portuguese occupation of India can be traced back to the arrival of Vasco da Gama near Calicut on 20 May 1498. Soon after this, other explorers, traders and missionaries followed. By 1515, the Portuguese were the strongest naval power in the Indian Ocean and the Malabar Coast was dominated by them.[20]
New Imperialism (1870–1914)[edit]
Main article: New Imperialism
Empires of the world in 1910
The policy and ideology of European colonial expansion between the 1870s (circa opening of Suez Canal and Second Industrial Revolution) and the outbreak of World War I in 1914 are often characterised as the "New Imperialism." The period is distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of what has been termed "empire for empire's sake," aggressive competition for overseas territorial acquisitions and the emergence in colonising countries of doctrines of racial superiority which denied the fitness of subjugated peoples for self-government.[21][22]
During this period, Europe's powers added nearly 8,880,000 square miles (23,000,000 km²) to their overseas colonial possessions. As it was mostly unoccupied by the Western powers as late as the 1880s, Africa became the primary target of the "new" imperialist expansion (known as the Scramble for Africa), although conquest took place also in other areas — notably south-east Asia and the East Asian seaboard, where Japan joined the European powers' scramble for territory.[23]
The Berlin Conference (1884–1885) mediated the imperial competition among Britain, France and Germany, defining "effective occupation" as the criterion for international recognition of colonial claims and codifying the imposition of direct rule, accomplished usually through armed force.
In Germany, rising pan-Germanism was coupled to imperialism in the Alldeutsche Verband ("Pangermanic League"), which argued that Britain's world power position gave the British unfair advantages on international markets, thus limiting Germany's economic growth and threatening its security.
Asking whether colonies paid, economic historian Grover Clark argues an emphatic "No!" He reports that in every case the support cost, especially the military system necessary to support and defend the colonies outran the total trade they produced. Apart from the British Empire, they were not favored destinations for the immigration of surplus populations.[24]
The scramble for Africa[edit]
European territories in Africa, 1914, following the Scramble for Africa.
Main article: Scramble for Africa
Africa was the target of the third wave of European colonialism, after that of the Americas and Asia.[25] Many European statesmen and industrialists wanted to accelerate the Scramble for Africa, securing colonies before they strictly needed them. As a champion of Realpolitik, Bismarck disliked colonies and thought they were a waste of time, but his hand was forced by pressure from both the elites and the general population which considered the colonization a necessity for German prestige. German colonies in Togoland, Samoa, South-West Africa and New Guinea had corporate commercial roots, while the equivalent German-dominated areas in East Africa and China owed more to political motives. The British also took an interest in Africa, using the East Africa Company to take over what are now Kenya and Uganda. The British crown formally took over in 1895 and renamed the area the East Africa Protectorate.
Leopold II of Belgium personally owned the Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908, When round after round of international scandal regarding the abusive treatment of native workers forced the Belgium government to take full ownership and responsibility. The Dutch Empire continued to hold the Dutch East Indies, which was one of the few profitable overseas colonies.
In the same manner, Italy tried to conquer its "place in the sun," acquiring Somaliland in 1899–90, Eritrea and 1899, and, taking advantage of the "Sick man of Europe," the Ottoman Empire, also conquered Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (modern Libya) with the 1911 Treaty of Lausanne. The conquest of Ethiopia, which had remained the last African independent territory, had to wait till the Second Italo-Abyssinian War in 1935–36 (the First Italo-Ethiopian War in 1895–96 had ended in defeat for Italy).
The Portuguese and Spanish colonial empire were smaller, mostly legacies of past colonization. Most of their colonies had acquired independence during the Latin American revolutions at the beginning of the 19th century.
Imperialism in Asia[edit]
Main article: Western imperialism in Asia
In Asia, The Great Game, which lasted from 1813 to 1907, opposed the British Empire against Imperial Russia for supremacy in central Asia. China was opened to Western influence starting with the First and Second Opium Wars (1839–1842; 1856–1860). After the visits of Commodore Matthew Perry in 1852–1854, Japan opened itself to the Western world during the Meiji Era (1868–1912).
Imperialism also took place in Burma, Indonesia (Netherlands East Indies), Malaya and the Philippines. Burma had been under British rule for nearly a hundred years, however, it was always considered an “imperial backwater”. This accounts for the fact that Burma does not have an obvious colonial legacy and is not a part of the Commonwealth. In the beginning, in the mid-1820s, Burma was administered from Penang in Britain’s Straits Settlements. However, it was soon brought within British India, of which it remained a part until 1937.[26] Burma was governed as a province of India, not considered very important, and barely any accommodation was made to Burmese political culture or sensitivities. As reforms began to move India towards independence, Burma was simply dragged along.[27]
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Inter-War Period (1918–1939)[edit]
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Further information: Aftermath of World War I and League of Nations Mandate
The colonial map was redrawn following the defeat of the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire after the First World War (1914–18). Colonies from the defeated empires were transferred to the newly founded League of Nations, which itself redistributed it to the victorious powers as "mandates".
The secret 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement partitioned the Middle East between Britain and France. French mandates included Syria and Lebanon, whilst the British were granted Iraq and Palestine. The bulk of the Arabian peninsula became the independent Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1922. The discovery of the world's largest easily accessible crude oil deposits led to an influx of Western oil companies that dominated the region's economies until the 1970s, and making the emirs of the oil states immensely rich, enabling them to consolidate their hold on power and giving them a stake in preserving Western hegemony over the region.
During the 1920 and 1930s Iraq, Syria and Egypt moved towards independence, although the British and French did not formally depart the region until they were forced to do so after World War II.
Japanese imperialism[edit]
Main articles: Japanese imperialism and Empire of Japan
For Japan, the second half of the nineteenth century was a period of internal turmoil succeeded by a period of rapid development.[28] After being closed for centuries to Western influence, Japan opened itself to the West during the Meiji Era (1868–1912), characterized by swift modernization and borrowings from European culture (in law, science, etc.) This, in turn, helped make Japan the modern power that it is now, which was symbolized as soon as the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War: this war marked the first victory of an Asian power against a European imperial power, and led to widespread fears among European populations (first appearance of the "Yellow Peril"). During the first part of the 20th century, while China was still subject to various European imperialisms, Japan became an imperialist power, conquering what it called a "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere".
With the final revision of treaties in 1894, Japan may be considered to have joined the family of nations on a basis of equality with the western states. From this same time imperialism became a dominant motive in Japanese policy.
Japan ruled over and governed Korea and Taiwan from 1895 when the Treaty of Shimonoseki was concluded to 1945 when Japan was defeated. In 1910, Korea was formally annexed to the Japanese Empire. According to the Korean, The Japanese colonization of Korea was particularly brutal, even by 20th-century standards. This brutal colonization included the use of Korean "comfort women" who were forced to serve as sex slaves in Japanese Army brothels.[29]
In 1931 Japanese army units based in Manchuria seized control of the region; full-scale war with China followed in 1937, drawing Japan toward an overambitious bid for Asian hegemony (Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere), which ultimately led to defeat and the loss of all its overseas territories after World War II (see Japanese expansionism and Japanese nationalism). As in Korea, the Japanese treatment of the Chinese people was particularly brutal as exemplified by the Nanjing Massacre.
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Second Decolonization (1945–99)[edit]
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Dates of independence of African countries.
Main article: Decolonization
Anticolonialist movements had begun to gain momentum after the close of World War I, which had seen colonial troops fight alongside those of the metropole, and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's speech on the Fourteen Points. However, it was not until the end of World War II that they were fully mobilised. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1941 Atlantic Charter declared that the signatories would "respect the right of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they will live". Though Churchill subsequently claimed this applied only to those countries under Nazi occupation, rather than the British Empire, the words were not so easily retracted: for example, the legislative assembly of Britain's most important colony, India, passed a resolution stating that the Charter should apply to it too.[30]
In 1945, the United Nations (UN) was founded when 50 nations signed the UN Charter,[31] which included a statement of its basis in the respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples. In 1952, demographer Alfred Sauvy coined the term "Third World" in reference to the French Third Estate.[32] The expression distinguished nations that aligned themselves with neither the West nor the Soviet Bloc during the Cold War. In the following decades, decolonization would strengthen this group which began to be represented at the United Nations. The Third World's first international move was the 1955 Bandung Conference, led by Jawaharlal Nehru for India, Gamal Abdel Nasser for Egypt and Josip Broz Tito for Yugoslavia. The Conference, which gathered 29 countries representing over half the world's population, led to the creation of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961.[33]
Although the U.S. had first opposed itself to colonial empires, the Cold War concerns about Soviet influence in the Third World caused it to downplay its advocacy of popular sovereignty and decolonization. France thus had a free hand in the First Indochina War (1946–54) and in the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62). Decolonization itself was a seemingly unstoppable process. In 1960, after a number countries gained independence, the UN had reached 99 members states: the decolonization of Africa was almost complete. In 1980, the UN had 154 member states, and in 1990, after Namibia's independence, 159 states[34]
Role of the USSR and China[edit]
The Soviet Union was a main supporter of decolonization movements. While the Non-Aligned Movement, created in 1961 following the Bandung 1955 Conference, was supposedly neutral, the "Third World" being opposed to both the "First" and the "Second" Worlds, geopolitical concerns, as well as the refusal of the U.S. to support decolonization movements against its NATO European allies, led the national liberation movements to look increasingly toward the East. However, China's appearance on the world scene, under the leadership of Mao Zedong, created a rupture between the Soviet Union and independentists movements. Globally, the non-aligned movement, led by Jawaharlal Nehru (India), Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia) and Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt) tried to create a block of nations powerful enough to be dependent on neither the United States nor the Soviet Union, but finally tilted towards the U.S.S.R, while smaller independence movements, both by strategic necessity and ideological choice, were supported either by Moscow or by Peking. The Cuban government, led by Fidel Castro after the Cuban Revolution of 1959, was at first neutral before turning itself towards Moscow. Cuba also sponsored independence movements in Angola and Mozambique. Few independence movements were totally independent from foreign aid.
Postcolonialism[edit]
Main article: Postcolonialism
Postcolonialism is a term used to recognise the continued and troubling presence and influence of colonialism within the period we designate as after-the-colonial. It refers to the ongoing effects that colonial encounters, dispossession and power have in shaping the familiar structures (social, political, spatial, uneven global interdependencies) of the present world. Postcolonialism, in itself, questions the end of colonialism.[35]
See also[edit]
American imperialism
Colonisation of China
Historiography of the British Empire
Neocolonialism
Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "Vasco da Gama: Round Africa to India, 1497–1498 CE". Internet Modern History Sourcebook. Paul Halsall. June 1998. Retrieved 7 May 2007. From: Oliver J. Thatcher, ed., The Library of Original Sources (Milwaukee: University Research Extension Co., 1907), Vol. V: 9th to 16th Centuries, pp. 26–40.
Jump up ^ "The Great Moghul Jahangir: Letter to James I, King of England, 1617 A.D." Indian History Sourcebook: England, India, and The East Indies, 1617 CE. Internet Indian History Sourcebook, Paul Halsall. June 1998. Retrieved 7 May 2007. From: James Harvey Robinson, ed., Readings in European History, 2 Vols. (Boston: Ginn and Co., 1904–1906), Vol. II: From the opening of the Protestant Revolt to the Present Day, pp. 333–335.
Jump up ^ "KOLKATA (CALCUTTA) : HISTORY". Calcuttaweb.com. Archived from the original on 10 May 2007. Retrieved 7 May 2007.
Jump up ^ Rickard, J. (1 November 2000). "Robert Clive, Baron Clive, 'Clive of India', 1725–1774". Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. historyofwar.org. Retrieved 7 May 2007.
Jump up ^ Prakash, Om. "The Transformation from a Pre-Colonial to a Colonial Order: The Case of India" (PDF). Global Economic History Network. Economic History Department, London School of Economics. pp. 3–40. Retrieved 7 May 2007.
Jump up ^ Kashmir: The origins of the dispute, BBC News, 16 January 2002
Jump up ^ Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. 1. Verso, 2000. ISBN 1-85984-739-0 p. 7
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Jump up ^ Ganesan, V. B. (2012-07-02). "A French colony that fought the British". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2017-11-04.
Jump up ^ Marsh, Kate (2013-08-28). Narratives of the French Empire: Fiction, Nostalgia, and Imperial Rivalries, 1784 to the Present. Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739176573.
Jump up ^ Marsh, Kate (2013-08-28). Narratives of the French Empire: Fiction, Nostalgia, and Imperial Rivalries, 1784 to the Present. Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739176573.
Jump up ^ Parker, R. H. (1955-10-01). "The French and Portuguese Settlements in India". The Political Quarterly. 26 (4): 389–398. doi:10.1111/j.1467-923X.1955.tb02588.x. ISSN 1467-923X.
Jump up ^ Harrison M. Wright, ed. The "New Imperialism": Analysis of Late Nineteenth Century Expansion (1976).
Jump up ^ Hugh Seton-Watson, The new imperialism (1971)
Jump up ^ Parker Thomas Moon, Imperialism and world politics (1926), online.
Jump up ^ Raymond Leslie Buell, "Do Colonies Pay?" The Saturday Review, August 1, 1936 p 6
Jump up ^ Thomas Pakenham, The scramble for Africa: The White Man's conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912 (2003)
Jump up ^ Holliday, Ian (2012-03-06). Burma Redux: Global Justice and the Quest for Political Reform in Myanmar. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231504249.
Jump up ^ Myint-U, Thant (2008-05-10). "The shared history of Britain and Burma". ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 2017-11-04.
Jump up ^ Vinacke, Harold M. (1933). "Japanese Imperialism". The Journal of Modern History. 5 (3): 366–380. doi:10.2307/1875849. JSTOR 1875849.
Jump up ^ Ki-Jung, Kim (1998-01-01). "The Road to Colonization: Korea Under Imperialism, 1897-1910". Korea Journal. 38 (4): 36–64.
Jump up ^ Raghavan, Srinath (2016-03-31). India's War: The Making of Modern South Asia, 1939-1945. Penguin Books Limited. ISBN 9781846145438.
Jump up ^ "The United Nations and Decolonization". www.un.org. Retrieved 2017-10-27.
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Bibliography[edit]
Ness, Immanuel and Zak Cope, eds. The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Imperialism and Anti-Imperialism (2 vol 2015), 1456pp
Osterhammel, Jürgen: Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Princeton, NJ: M. Wiener, 1997.
Page, Melvin E. et al. eds. Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia (2 vol 2003)
Panikkar, K. M. (1953). Asia and Western dominance, 1498-1945, by K.M. Panikkar. London: G. Allen and Unwin.
Scott, Barbara Gail (1993). Viking Colonialism: Contact and Interaction Between Viking/Medieval Norway and the Northern Isles. University of Minnesota. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
Townsend, Mary Evelyn. European colonial expansion since 1871 (1941).
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Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm
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Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm
Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm in magnetic resonance imaging.
Classification and external resources
ICD-10
D13.6
[edit on Wikidata]
Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN) is a type of tumor that can occur within the cells of the pancreatic duct. IPMN tumors produce mucus,[1] and this mucus can form pancreatic cysts.[2] Although intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms are benign tumors, they can progress to pancreatic cancer.[1] As such IPMN is viewed as a precancerous condition.[3] Once an intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm has been found, the management options include close monitoring and pre-emptive surgery.[medical citation needed]
Contents
1 Treatment
2 History
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Treatment[edit]
The treatment of choice for main-duct IPMNs is resection due to approximately 50% chance of malignancy. Side-branch IPMNs are occasionally monitored with regular CT or MRIs, but most are eventually resected, with a 30% rate of malignancy in these resected tumors. Survival 5 years after resection of an IPMN without malignancy is approximately 80%, 85% with malignancy but no lymph node spread and 0% with malignancy spreading to lymph nodes.[4] Surgery can include the removal of the head of the pancreas (a pancreaticoduodenectomy), removal of the body and tail of the pancreas (a distal pancreatectomy), or rarely removal of the entire pancreas (a total pancreatectomy).[5] In selected cases the surgery can be performed using minimally invasive techniques such as laparoscopy[6] or robotic surgery. A study using Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Result Registry (SEER) data suggested that increased lymph node counts harvested during the surgery were associated with better survival in invasive IPMN patients.[7]
History[edit]
In 1982, IPMN was reported as a "mucin-producing tumor" by Kazuhiko Ohashi of the Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research.
See also[edit]
Pancreatic mucinous cystic neoplasm
Pancreatic serous cystadenoma
Solid pseudopapillary neoplasm
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Intraductal Papillary Mucinous Neoplasms of the Pancreas". Johns Hopkins University. Retrieved 7 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Campbell, NM; Katz, SS; Escalon, JG; Do, RK (March 2015). "Imaging patterns of intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms of the pancreas: an illustrated discussion of the International Consensus Guidelines for the Management of IPMN". Abdominal Imaging. 40 (3): 663–77. doi:10.1007/s00261-014-0236-4. PMID 25219664.
Jump up ^ "Precancerous conditions of the pancreas - Canadian Cancer Society". www.cancer.ca. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Sohn, Taylor (June 2004). "Intraductal Papillary Mucinous Neoplasms of the Pancreas". Annals of Surgery. 239 (6): 788–799. doi:10.1097/01.sla.0000128306.90650.aa. PMC 1356287  . PMID 15166958.
Jump up ^ "Pancreatic Surgery". Johns Hopkins University. Retrieved 7 September 2009.
Jump up ^ "Laproscopic Pancreatic Surgery". Johns Hopkins University. Retrieved 7 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Wu, WM (Sep 2014). "An increased total resected lymph node count benefits survival following pancreas invasive intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms resection: an analysis using the surveillance, epidemiology, and end result registry database". PLOS ONE. 9 (9): e107962. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0107962. PMC 4179272  . PMID 25264746.
External links[edit]
The Toronto Video Atlas of Liver, Pancreas and Transplant Surgery – Video of Whipple procedure in IPMN case
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Fundraising
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (May 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Door to door fundraising frequently involves a hand-held collection box
Fundraising or fund raising (also known as "development") is the process of gathering voluntary contributions of money or other resources, by requesting donations from individuals, businesses, charitable foundations, or governmental agencies (see also crowd funding). Although fundraising typically refers to efforts to gather money for non-profit organizations, it is sometimes used to refer to the identification and solicitation of investors or other sources of capital for for-profit enterprises.
Traditionally, fundraising consisted mostly of asking for donations on the street or at people's doors, and this is experiencing very strong growth[1] in the form of face-to-face fundraising, but new forms of fundraising, such as online fundraising, have emerged in recent years, though these are often based on older methods such as grassroots fundraising.
Contents
[hide]
1 Organizations
2 Sources
2.1 Grants from agencies, foundations or corporations
2.2 Individual donors
2.3 Sales and services
3 Purposes
4 Fundraising methods
4.1 Fundraising events
4.2 Donor relationship and cultivation
4.3 Capital and comprehensive campaigns
4.4 Accountable fundraising
4.5 Professional fundraisers
5 Taxation
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Organizations[edit]
Fundraising is a significant way that non-profit organizations may obtain the money for their operations. These operations can involve a very broad array of concerns such as religious or philanthropic groups such as research organizations, public broadcasters, political campaigns and environmental issues.
Some examples of charitable organizations include student scholarship merit awards for athletic or academic achievement, humanitarian and ecological concerns, disaster relief, human rights, research, and other social issues.
Some of the most substantial fundraising efforts in the United States are conducted by colleges and universities. Commonly the fundraising, or "development" / "advancement," program, makes a distinction between annual fund appeals and major campaigns. Most institutions use professional development officers to conduct superior fundraising appeals for both the entire institution or individual colleges and departments. Examples of this include athletics[2] and libraries.[3]
Equally important are fundraising efforts by virtually all recognized religious groups throughout the world. These efforts are organized on a local, national, and global level. Sometimes, such funds will go exclusively toward assisting the basic needs of others, while money may at other times be used only for evangelism or proselytism. Usually, religious organizations mix the two, which can sometimes cause tension.
US President Barack Obama's campaign team organised a record-breaking fundraising effort in 2008 based on grassroots fundraising
Fundraising also plays a major role in political campaigns. This fact, despite numerous campaign finance reform laws, continues to be a highly controversial topic in American politics. Political action committees (PACs) are the best-known organizations that back candidates and political parties, though others such as 527 groups also have an impact. Some advocacy organizations conduct fundraising for-or-against policy issues in an attempt to influence legislation.
While public broadcasters are completely government-funded in much of the world, there are many countries where some funds must come from donations from the public. In the United States less than 15% of local public broadcasting stations' funding comes from the federal government. Pledge drives, a type of annual giving, commonly occur about three times each year, usually lasting one to two weeks each time. Viewership and listenership often decline significantly during funding periods, so special programming may be aired in order to keep regular viewers and listeners interested.
Sources[edit]
Fundraising can come from a variety of sources using a variety methods. These include grants from government agencies, non-profit foundations or corporations; donations from individuals; and sales and services. Income from endowment is not strictly fundraising but rather the fruits of the investment of previous fundraising.
Grants from agencies, foundations or corporations[edit]
Non-profit organizations also raise funds through competing for grant funding. Grants are offered by governmental units and private foundations/ charitable trusts to non-profit organizations for the benefit of all parties to the transaction.
Charitable giving by corporations is estimated to be $15.29 billion in 2010.[4] This consists of corporate grants as well as matching gift and volunteer grants. 65% of Fortune 500 companies offer employee matching gift programs and 40% offer volunteer grant programs.[5] These are charitable giving programs set up by corporations in which the company matches donations made by employees to eligible nonprofit organizations or provides grants to eligible nonprofit organizations as a way to recognize and promote employee volunteerism.
Individual donors[edit]
The donor base (often called a file) for higher education includes alumni, parents, friends, private foundations, and corporations. Gifts of appreciated property are important components of such efforts because the tax advantage they confer on the donor encourages larger gifts. The process of soliciting appreciated assets is called planned giving.
The classic development program at institutions of higher learning include prospect identification, prospect research and verification of the prospect's viability, cultivation, solicitation, and finally stewardship, the latter being the process of keeping donors informed about how past support has been used.
When goods or professional services are donated to an organization rather than cash, this is called an in-kind gift.
A number of charities and non-profit organizations are increasingly using the internet as a means to raise funds; this practice is referred to as online fundraising. For example, the NSPCC operates a search engine which generates funds via Pay per click links, and Better The World operates tools allowing funds to be raised via members viewing ethical ads on a browser sidebar and/or blog widget.[6] Save the Children's Dave Hartman wrote after the $1 Million Operation Sharecraft online campaign, "We may have reached our mark, but this is just the beginning of a new era of fundraising and using social media and digital technology to better the world."[7]
Sales and services[edit]
While fundraising often involves the donation of money as an outright gift, money may also be generated by selling a product of some kind, also known as product fundraising. Girl Scouts of the USA are well known for selling cookies in order to generate funds. It is also common to see on-line impulse sales links to be accompanied by statements that a proportion of proceeds will be directed to a particular charitable foundation. Tax law may require differentiating between the cost of an item versus its gift value, such as a $100.00 per person dinner, for a $25.00 cost meal. Fundraising often involves recognition to the donor, such as naming rights or adding donors to an honor roll or other general recognition. Charity Ad Books are another form of donation for recognition, sponsorship or selling of ads often in an event related program or group directory.
Purposes[edit]
Organizations raise funds to support capital projects, endowments, or operating expenses of current programs.
Capital fundraising is when fundraising is conducted to raise major sums for a building or endowment, and generally keep such funds separate from operating funds. This is often done over a period of time (in a capital campaign) to encourage donors to give more than they would normally give and tap donors, especially corporations and foundations who would not otherwise give. A capital campaign normally begins with a private phase before launching a public appeal.
Many non-profit organizations solicit funds for a financial endowment, which is a sum of money that is invested to generate an annual return. Although endowments may be created when a sizable gift is received from an individual or family, often as directed in a will upon the death of a family member, they more typically are the result of many gifts over time from a variety of sources.
Fundraising methods[edit]
Fundraising events[edit]
A fundraising event (also called a fundraiser) is an event or campaign whose primary purpose is to raise money for a cause, charity or non-profit organization. Fundraisers often benefit charitable, non-profit, religious, or non-governmental organizations, though there are also fundraisers that benefit for-profit companies and individuals.
Special events are another method of raising funds. These range from formal dinners to benefit concerts to walkathons. Events are used to increase visibility and support for an organization as well as raising funds.[8] Events can feature activities for the group such as speakers, a dance, an outing or entertainment, to encourage group participation and giving. Events can also include fundraising methods such as a raffle or charity auction. Events often feature notable sponsors or honoree. Events often feature a charity "ad book" as a program guide for the event, but more importantly, as another fundraiser providing members, supporters and vendors to show their support of and to the group at the event by way of placing an ad-like page, 1/2 page, 1/4 page, stating or showing support. Events and their associated fundraisers can be a major source of a group's revenue, visibility and donor relations.
One specific type of event is the "ad book" fundraiser, where those who wish to give funds to a fundraising group do so through the sponsorship or statement within a book of advertisements.
Online fundraising pages have become very popular for people taking part in activities such as a charity. Those pages facilitate online payments in support of the charity.
Popular charity fundraisers in major American cities include lavish black-tie gala benefit dinners that honor celebrities, philanthropists, and business leaders who help to fundraise for the event's goals through solicitations of their social and business connections.[9]
Donor relationship and cultivation[edit]
Often called donor cultivation, relationship building is the foundation on which most fundraising takes place.[10] Most development strategies divide donors into categories based on annual gifts. For instance, major donors are those that give at the highest level of the organization's fundraising scale and mid-level donors are in the middle.
More sophisticated strategies use tools to overlay demographic and other market segmentation data against their database of donors in order to more precisely customize communication and more effectively target resources.[11] Research by Peter Maple in the UK[12] shows that charities generally underinvest in good marketing research spending around a quarter of what an equivalent sized for profit company might spend.
Donor relations and stewardship[13] professionals support fundraisers by recognizing and thanking donors, and demonstrating the impact of their donations in a fashion that will cultivate future giving to nonprofit organizations.
Recent research by Adrian Sargeant and the Association of Fundraising Professionals' Fundraising Effectiveness Project suggests the sector has a long way to go in improving the quality of donor relations. The sector generally loses 50–60% of its newly acquired donors between their first and second donations and one in three, year on year thereafter. The economics of regular or sustained giving are rather different, but even then organizations routinely lose 30% of their donors from one year to the next.[14]
Capital and comprehensive campaigns[edit]
A capital campaign is "an intensive fundraising effort designed to raise a specified sum of money within a defined time period to meet the varied asset-building needs of an organization". Asset-building activities include the construction, renovation or expansion of facilities (for example, a new building), the acquisition or improvement of land, equipment, or other items, and additions to a financial endowment. Two characteristics set capital campaigns apart from other forms of fund-raising activities. First, "the gifts solicited are much larger than those generally sought during an annual fund". Second, "pledges are emphasized as commitments payable over a number of years convenient to the donor or through the transfer of appreciated real or personal property".[15]
Various types of capital campaigns have been identified. The traditional "brick and mortar" campaign, focused on building construction or improvements, was considered a "once in a lifetime" campaign in the past because of the ambitious goals of the campaign. Today, however, organizations frequently schedule capital campaigns every five to ten years, and "the megagoals announced by large institutions often are the result of 'counting everything' during a five-to seven-year campaign period".[15]
A second type of campaign is the comprehensive, integrated, or total development campaign, which aims for a longer fund-raising program based on a long-term analysis of the organization's needs and direction. This form of campaign can wrap together capital projects, endowment and operating expenses as its purpose, and use a variety of fund-raising activities, such as annual gift drives, which are "slower-paced and lack the intensity of the traditional capital campaign".[15]
Accountable fundraising[edit]
Some non-profit organizations demonstrate greater accountability by showing donors the direct impact of their fundraising efforts. This accountability usually comes in the form of a vote, where the members select a specific program or charity that they would like their money to go to. A specific example of accountable fundraising is the organization Better The World which allows members to select the charity which receives the money they have raised; members can constantly keep track of the amount raised on the browser sidebar tool.[16]
Professional fundraisers[edit]
Many non-profit organizations take advantage of the services of professional fundraisers. These fundraisers may be paid for their services either through fees unrelated to the amounts of money to be raised, or by retaining a percentage of raised funds (percentage-based compensation). The latter approach is expressly forbidden under the Code of Ethics of the Association of Fundraising Professionals (AFP), a professional membership body.[17] However, by far the most common practice of American non-profits is to employ a staff person whose main responsibility is fund raising. This person is paid a salary like any other employee, and is usually a part of the top management staff of the organization.
Some non-profit organizations nonetheless engage fundraisers who are paid a percentage of the funds they raise. In the United States, this ratio of funds retained to funds passed on to the non-profit is subject to reporting to a number of state's Attorneys General or Secretaries of state.[18] This ratio is highly variable and subject to change over time and place, and it is a point of contention between a segment of the general public and the non-profit organizations.
The term "professional fundraiser" is in many cases a legislated term referring to third-party firms whose services are contracted for, whereas "fundraising professionals" or development officers are often individuals or staff at charitable non-profits. Although potentially confusing, the distinction is an important one to note.
Fundraising professionals, who have been employed with not-for-profit organizations as fundraisers or as fundraising consultants, for at least sixty (60) months, can become certified as a Certified Fund Raising Executive (CFRE). The CFRE credential is administered by CFRE International, an independent 501(c)6 whose sole mission is dedicated to setting standards in philanthropy through a valid and reliable certification process.[19]
A specialty within the fundraising profession is the "grant professional." Grant professionals with at least three years experience, and other requirements, can become certified as Grant Professional Certified (GPC). The GPC credential is administered by Grant Professionals Certification Institute, whose mission is to strengthen the nonprofit sector's ability to pursue and maintain public sector and private sector funding by promoting competency and ethical practices within the field of grantsmanship. The certification process is designed to measure minimum knowledge and skills related to all aspects of grant development and management, including but not limited to such areas as grant research or pre-production, grant construction, grant reporting, public sector funding, private sector funding, ethics and grant accountability.[20]
Taxation[edit]
Organizations in the United States established for charitable purposes are allowed to raise funds from many sources. They are given a specific designation by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), commonly noted as 501(c)(3) organizations. Other nonprofits such as fraternal associations have different IRS designations, and may or may not be eligible to raise funds. Financial information on many nonprofits, including all nonprofits that file annual IRS 990 forms is available from GuideStar.
See also[edit]
American Institute of Philanthropy
Charity dating
Comparison of online charity donation services in the United Kingdom
Crowd funding
Direct mail fundraising
Friendraising
Grassroots fundraising
Matching gift
Moneybomb
Serious Request
Street fundraising (including face-to-face and door-to-door fundraising)
Volunteer grant
Student Initiative Rahel
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Very Strong Growth". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2016-10-08.
Jump up ^ Barnes, C., H. Rice, and I. Sturrock, "On the Offense: Three Athletic Fund-Raisers Tell How They Score." CASE Currents, December 1981, 12-18.
Jump up ^ Lorenzen, Michael. (2009). Academic Library Development Officers in Fund Raising: How They Perceive Their Work, VDM Verlag Dr. Müller, ISBN 3-639-19373-3
Jump up ^ Giving USA 2011 - The Annual Report on Philanthropy for the Year 2010
Jump up ^ "The Most Important Matching Gift Statistics". Doublethedonation.com. Retrieved 2013-12-13.
Jump up ^ "Alabama Charity Blog". Retrieved April 22, 2010.
Jump up ^ "World Famous Professional Gamer raises 1 Million for Charity online through FundRazr". Techvibes. Retrieved November 13, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Events - How to organise an event to raise money/awareness for your organisation". KnowHow NonProfit. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
Jump up ^ "Bruce Kovner's $5 Million Can't Get Lobster on Menu at Met Gala". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 23 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Yonker, Larry; McGinty, Chuck; Donaldson, Devlin (June 2002). "The Kingdom Currency" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Useful Past Tips: Marketing". Nonprofit Times. Retrieved 2007-06-22.
Jump up ^ Maple P,(2003) Marketing Strategy for Effective Fundraising, DSC
Jump up ^ "Entrepreneur - Start, run and grow your business". Entrepreneur. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Sargeant A. and Jay E. (2004) Building Donor Loyalty, Jossey Bass, San Francisco.
^ Jump up to: a b c Robert Pierpont, "Capital Campaigns" (2002). Center on Philanthropy, Indiana University – Purdue University Indianapolis.
Jump up ^ ABC News. "Young Professionals Giving Back". ABC News. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "Code of Ethics". Association of Fundraising Professionals. Archived from the original on 2006-12-06. Retrieved 2007-01-23.
Jump up ^ For example, "Commercial Fundraiser Activity Reports (State of WA)". Retrieved 2012-01-26.
Jump up ^ "CFRE International – Certified Fund Raising Executive". Cfre.org. Retrieved 2013-12-13.
Jump up ^ "GPCI". Grantcredential.org. Retrieved 2013-12-13.
References[edit]
Scott Cutlip (1965). Fundraising in the United States, its role in America's philanthropy. Rutgers University Press.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Fundraising
The dictionary definition of fundraising at Wiktionary
Media related to Fundraising at Wikimedia Commons
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