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Main Tera Boyfriend
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"Main Tera Boyfriend"
Song by J Star (Original Version). Arijit Singh , Meet Bros , Neha Kakkar (Revamped version)
from the album Raabta
Genre
Dance music
Composer(s)
Sohrabbudin (Original)
Sourav Roy (Revamped).[1]
Lyricist(s)
Jitendra Raghuvanshi (Original Version)
Kumaar (Revamped version)[1]
Music video
"Main Tera Boyfriend" on YouTube
"Main Tera Boyfriend" is a dance song recorded by Meet Bros, Arijit Singh, and Neha Kakkar. The music video of the song stars Kriti Sanon and Sushant Singh Rajput. The song is from the Indian film Raabta.
The choreography was done by Ahmed Khan. It is a revamped version of J Star's 2015 chartbuster track "Na Na Na Na".[2][3]
Media coverage[edit]
India's leading newspaper and portal, the Daily News and Analysis's Prachita Pandey wrote: "It's so refreshing to hear Arijit Singh crooning something fun and peppy after a series of heartbreaking/slow/soft romantic numbers. He proves yet again that he can sing any song with utmost perfection. Neha Kakkar complements him well, but we felt her vocals to be a bit toned down in terms of energy. Meet brothers too have sung some additional portions in the song."[1]
"CNN-News18, described the song as the "Party Anthem of the Season".[4]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Prachita Pandey (22 May 2017). "Sushant Singh Rajput and Kriti sanon are slaying it with their hot bod and killer moves in main tera boyfriend". Daily News and Analysis. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Dance to Raabtas new song main tera boyfriend". Komoi.com Team. 22 May 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
Jump up ^ RnB Team. "Review: Main tera Boyfriend recreation na na na". Radioandmusic.com. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Raabtas New song Main Tera Boyfriend is the Party Anthem of the season". news18.com. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
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Friends in Low Places
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 1965 British novel, see Friends in Low Places (novel).
"Friends in Low Places"
Single by Garth Brooks
from the album No Fences
B-side
"Nobody Gets Off in This Town"
Released
August 6, 1990
Format
CD
7" vinyl single
Recorded
1989
Genre
Country pop[1]
Length
4:18 (album version)
3:45 (single edit)
Label
Capitol Nashville 44647
Songwriter(s)
Dewayne Blackwell
Earl Bud Lee
Producer(s)
Allen Reynolds
Garth Brooks singles chronology
"The Dance"
(1990) "Friends in Low Places"
(1990) "Unanswered Prayers"
(1990)
"The Dance"
(1990) "Friends in Low Places"
(1990) "Unanswered Prayers"
(1990)
Audio sample
file
help
"Friends in Low Places" is a song performed by American country pop artist Garth Brooks. It was released on August 6, 1990 as the lead single from his album No Fences. The song spent four weeks at number one on the Hot Country Songs, and won both the Academy of Country Music and Country Music Association awards for 1990 Single of the Year.
"Friends in Low Places" was written in 1989 by songwriters Dewayne Blackwell and Earl Bud Lee. The two songwriters had given the song to Brooks to record as a demo soon before the release of his self-titled first album, when he was a relatively unknown singer. Enamored with the song, Brooks recorded the official version the next year.
Contents
[hide]
1 Writing
2 Song structure
3 Brooks's demo
4 Shopping the song to other artists
5 Recording
6 Reception
7 The "third verse"
8 25th anniversary version
9 Track listing
10 Chart positions
10.1 Year-end charts
11 References
12 External links
Writing[edit]
According to Earl Bud Lee, one of the song's co-writers, the idea of the song was born when he and some songwriting friends gathered for lunch one day at Tavern on the Row, a popular Nashville eatery.[2] When the check came, Lee realized he had forgotten his money. He was asked how he was going to pay for the meal, and he replied, "Don't worry. I have friends in low places. I know the cook."[2] Lee and his songwriting partner, Dewayne Blackwell, immediately recognized that the line "friends in low places" had potential, but they didn't act upon it immediately.[2]
Some months later, Lee and Blackwell were at a party, celebrating a recent No. 1 hit by another songwriter. They began to talk about the dormant "friends in low places" idea, and "at that very moment, it all started to come together in a song," Lee said.[3] Because nothing else was available, they wrote the song on paper napkins.[3] When the songwriters polished "Friends in Low Places", they contacted Garth Brooks to see if he would record a demo for them.[3]
Guitarist James Garver would add the name of the bar in the song, "The Oasis", after an establishment in his hometown of Concordia, Kansas.[4]
Song structure[edit]
"Friends in Low Places" is in a moderate tempo and the key of A major. The song begins with arpeggios on the chords A, B♭dim7, Bm7, and Eadd9, a pattern which is repeated throughout the verses. The intro was not originally part of the song, but was improvised by session guitarist Mark Casstevens. The author of the intro has been debated since the arpeggio pattern is seen in many of Blackwell's other songs.[5] The chorus uses A-Bm-E twice before ending on an A chord.[6] An electric guitar solo with pedal steel guitar flourishes is played between the first chorus and second verse.
"Friends in Low Places" requires an unusually wide vocal range spanning over two octaves to be sung properly. The song spans from a low note of E2 to a high of F♯4.
Brooks's demo[edit]
Lee and Blackwell had met Brooks when he was a shoe salesman in a Nashville store, looking for his big break. The two struck up a conversation with the struggling musician, and upon learning his background, they gave him some work making demos of their songs. They were impressed with his voice and talent, but there wasn't much else they could do for him.[3]
When Blackwell contacted Brooks to make the "Friends in Low Places" demo, Brooks explained to Blackwell that he was newly signed to Capitol Records, and that his first single and first album were already scheduled.
The demo of "Friends in Low Places" was recorded at Windwalker Studios, in Goodlettsville, Tennessee. Musicians on the demo were John Beland (of The Flying Burrito Brothers) on acoustic and electric guitars, along with session aces Steve Turner on drums, and bassist Larry Paxton. Frank Green was the recording engineer. The actual master recording of "Friends in Low Places" borrowed quite a lot from the original demo, copying Beland's now famous acoustic guitar intro, as well as his electric guitar solo note for note.
After recording the demo (the last he would ever make),[7] Brooks thanked Lee and Blackwell for all of their help. He then expressed his liking for the song, wishing aloud that he had heard it several weeks earlier, when he was recording his new album.[3]
Shopping the song to other artists[edit]
Brooks provided the following background information on the song in the CD booklet liner notes from The Hits:
""Friends in Low Places" was the last demo session I ever did as a singer. The demo was for Bud Lee and Dewayne Blackwell. I sang the session out in Hendersonville, and for the next two weeks the chorus to this song kept running through my head. I knew it would be a year and a half before the release of No Fences because Garth Brooks was just getting ready to be released. I asked Bud Lee and Dewayne if I could hold on to it and, without a blink of an eye, they both said yes. Putting that kind of faith into an unknown artist is unheard of. Thanks Dewayne and Bud for believing in me." [8]
While Brooks claimed in the liner notes that "Friends in Low Places" was held for him, Mark Chesnutt also recorded it.[3] His version appears on his 1990 debut album Too Cold at Home (released only a month after No Fences), and was the B-side to his late-1991 single "Broken Promise Land".[9]
Recording[edit]
After the success of Brooks's eponymous debut album, he contacted the writers of "Friends in Low Places" to ask if the song was still available, and they said it was.[3] In keeping with the raucous theme, a large contingent of backing vocalists accompanied Brooks as the chorus was repeated until a fadeout. Among the members of the group were Brooks's then-wife, Sandy, and both songwriters, Blackwell and Lee.[7] At one point near the end of the song, one of the musicians opens a beer can, which is picked up by a microphone. When the album was being mastered, the sound of the beer can was originally mistaken for an audio glitch. Later on, one of the crowd members shouts "Push, Marie!" in reference to Garver, who was in the hospital while his wife was giving birth.[5]
Recognizing the song's potential, producer Allen Reynolds, in consultation with Capitol Nashville president Jimmy Bowen, decided that Brooks's rendition was going to be the first single from his new album, No Fences.[10] In July 1990, Brooks's mother, Colleen Carroll, inadvertently leaked the unreleased song to an Oklahoma radio station, setting off a frenzy and forcing the single and album to be rush-released.[11]
Reception[edit]
"Friends in Low Places" first entered the Hot Country Songs on August 18, 1990. It took only eight weeks to reach No. 1, where it remained there for four weeks until it was knocked off by "You Lie" performed by Reba McEntire. It was also one of the biggest hits of the year.[12]
By then, the song was already causing a stir. Brooks told a reporter from USA Today in October 1990, when the song was still at its chart peak, that he had received letters from high school students saying that they wanted to use "Friends in Low Places" as their "class song," only to have it opposed by their principals because the song is about escaping into drinking. Brooks agreed with the principals, saying, "We've had a lot of fun with that song, but it's nothing to base your values on."[13]
In April 1991, Brooks's recording won the 1990 Academy of Country Music award for Single of the Year, and on October 2, 1991, it won the same honor from the Country Music Association.
It made the top 40 on the UK Singles Chart in 1995 as a double-sided reissue hit with "The Dance". The song also appeared on Brooks's 1994 compilation The Hits. In 2003, the song was listed No. 6 on CMT 100 Greatest Songs of Country Music broadcast.[14] and the No. 1 spot on the network's 40 Greatest Drinking Songs: Morning After.[15]
Starting in 2008, "Friends in Low Places" became the traditional sing-along song during the sixth inning at Kansas City Royals home games at Kauffman Stadium. Garth Brooks has recorded dozens of different introductions to be played on the Jumbotron display before the start of the song.
In a 2009 essay on Brooks, Chuck Klosterman reflected on the song's success. Brooks, he argued, had filled a void in popular culture left by Bruce Springsteen during the 1990s:
...[H]e made songs that satisfied all the same needs as Bruce's did, except with a little less sincerity and a little better understanding of who his audience was. "Friends in Low Places" was as effective as pop music ever gets: It's a depressing song that makes you feel better. Singing along with that song was like drunkenly laughing at a rich person and knowing that you were right ... It's a song that makes me want to get drunk out of spite. Garth told stories about blue-collar people who felt good about what their bad life symbolized ...[16]
The "third verse"[edit]
The original version of "Friends in Low Places" has two verses. In 1991, Brooks added a "third verse" to the song in live performances. His spiel leading to the new verse claimed that he thought the song's original verse didn't reflect how he would really act in that situation. It is basically a rewrite of the second verse, with only the last few lines changed, culminating in "Just wait til I finish this glass / Then sweet little lady, I'll head back to the bar / And you can kiss my ass".[17]
25th anniversary version[edit]
In September 2015, it was announced a new version of "Friends in Low Places" would be released on Brooks's 25th anniversary No Fences album. The song would feature George Strait, Jason Aldean, Florida Georgia Line, and Keith Urban singing along with Brooks. The 25th anniversary edition of the album was scrapped over royalty disputes,[18] but the song appeared on Brooks' 2016 The Ultimate Collection[19] box set.
Track listing[edit]
US promotional 7" single Capitol Nashville, 1990
"Friends in Low Places" (Edit) 3:45 7PRO-79216
"Friends in Low Places" (LP Version) 4:18 7PRO-79239
US promotional CD single Capitol Nashville DPRO-79217, 1990
"Friends in Low Places" (Edit) 3:45
"Friends in Low Places" (LP Version) 4:18
US 7" single Capitol Nashville NR-44647, 1990
"Friends in Low Places" (Edited) 3:45
"Nobody Gets Off in This Town" 2:17
US 7" single (live) Liberty S7-57883, 1992
"Friends in Low Places" (Live Version) 7:00
"Thunder Rolls" (Live Version) 4:45
US promotional CD single (live) Liberty DPRO-79365, 1992
"Friends in Low Places" (Live Version) 7:00
"Thunder Rolls" (Live Version) 4:45
UK 7" single Capitol CL 609, 1991
"Friends in Low Places"
"Not Counting You"
UK CD single Capitol CDCL 609, 1991
"Friends in Low Places"
"Not Counting You"
"Much Too Young (To Feel This Damn Old)"
The Netherlands CD single Capitol, 1995
"Friends in Low Places"
"The Dance"
"The River" (Live acoustic version)
Chart positions[edit]
"Friends in Low Places" entered the charts on August 18, 1990. It reached number one on October 6 and remained there for four consecutive weeks until it was knocked off by You Lie by Reba McEntire.[20]
Chart (1990)
Peak
position
Canada Country Tracks (RPM)[21] 1
Europe (Eurochart Hot 100)[22] 89
Irish Singles Chart[23] 3
Scottish Singles Chart[24] 31
UK Singles Chart[25] 36
US Hot Country Songs (Billboard)[26] 1
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1990)
Position
Canada Country Tracks (RPM)[27] 4
US Country Songs (Billboard)[28] 28
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Erlewine, Stephen Thomas (1990-08-27). "No Fences - Garth Brooks". Allmusic. Retrieved 2016-03-14.
^ Jump up to: a b c Collins, Ace (1996). The Stories Behind Country Music's All-Time Greatest 100 Songs. New York: Boulevard. p. 276. ISBN 1-57297-072-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Collins, Ace. The Stories Behind Country Music's All-Time Greatest 100 Songs. p. 277.
Jump up ^ "On the Road with Green River Ordinance" (PDF). Washburn University Center for Kansas Studies. Fall 2010. p. 6. Retrieved 2011-04-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Bale Cox, Patsi. The Garth Factor: The Career Behind Country's Big Boom. Hachette Digital, Inc.
Jump up ^ ""Friends in Low Places" sheet music". Musicnotes.com. Retrieved 2011-11-11.
^ Jump up to: a b The Hits (CD booklet). Garth Brooks. Nashville: Liberty. 1994. CDP 7243 8 29289 2 4.
Jump up ^ Garth Brooks - The Hits: transcription from the CD booklet (bar code 7-2438-29689-2-4)
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2008). Hot Country Songs 1944 to 2008. Record Research, Inc. p. 92. ISBN 0-89820-177-2.
Jump up ^ Collins, Ace. The Stories Behind Country Music's All-Time Greatest 100 Songs. p. 278.
Jump up ^ Harbrect, Gene (1990-12-07). "Charting the peaks of country music / Garth Brooks heads for high places". The Orange County Register. p. P-6. Accessed via ProQuest 2007-06-06.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2005). Top Country Songs 1944-2005. Menomonee Falls, Wis.: Record Research. p. 56. ISBN 0-89820-165-9.
Jump up ^ Zimmerman, David (1990-10-16). "Riding high with Garth Brooks / Country singer vaults 'Fences' to stardom". USA Today. p. D1. Accessed via ProQuest, 2007-06-06.
Jump up ^ "CMT's 100 Greatest Songs of Country Music". Retrieved 2007-06-06.
Jump up ^ "CMT's 40 Greatest Drinkin' Songs: Morning After". Retrieved 2007-06-06.
Jump up ^ Klosterman, Chuck (2009). Eating the Dinosaur. New York, NY: Scribner. p. 107. ISBN 978-1-4165-4421-0.
Jump up ^ Randall, Lee (1992). The Garth Brooks Scrapbook. Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8065-1300-3.
Jump up ^ Newman, Melinda. "Garth Brooks's All-Star 'Friends in Low Places' & Album Reissue on Hold Over Royalty Dispute: Exclusive". Billboard.com. Retrieved 2015-09-06.
Jump up ^ "Garth Brooks to Cover Randy Travis, Skynyrd on New Box Set - Rolling Stone". rollingstone.com. Retrieved 2016-11-09.
Jump up ^ Planet Garth - The Unofficial Internet Site of Garth Brooks. "Garth Brooks / Garth Brooks | Garth info at PlanetGarth.com". web.archive.org. Archived from the original on 1999-02-23. Retrieved 2015-03-09.
Jump up ^ "Top RPM Country Tracks: Issue 1305." RPM. Library and Archives Canada. October 13, 1990. Retrieved 2013-08-23.
Jump up ^ Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. ISSN 0006-2510. Retrieved 2015-03-09.
Jump up ^ Jaclyn Ward - Fireball Media Ltd. - http://www.fireballmedia.ie. "The Irish Charts - All there is to know". irishcharts.ie. Retrieved 2015-03-09.
Jump up ^ "Official Scottish Singles Chart Top 100 | Official Charts Company". officialcharts.com. Retrieved 2016-11-09.
Jump up ^ "Official Charts Company". officialcharts.com. Retrieved 2015-03-09.
Jump up ^ "Garth Brooks – Chart history" Billboard Hot Country Songs for Garth Brooks.
Jump up ^ "RPM Top 100 Country Tracks of 1990". RPM. December 22, 1990. Retrieved 2013-08-23.
Jump up ^ "Best of 1990: Country Songs". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. 1990. Retrieved 2013-08-23.
External links[edit]
"Friends in Low Places" Lyrics (with third verse)
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Preceded by
"Jukebox in My Mind"
by Alabama Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks
number one single
October 6–October 27, 1990 Succeeded by
"You Lie"
by Reba McEntire
Preceded by
"I Meant Every Word He Said"
by Ricky Van Shelton RPM Country Tracks
number-one single
October 13–27, 1990
[hide]
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Garth Brooks singles
Garth Brooks
"Much Too Young (To Feel This Damn Old)"
"If Tomorrow Never Comes"
"Not Counting You"
"The Dance"
No Fences
"Friends in Low Places"
"Unanswered Prayers"
"Two of a Kind, Workin' on a Full House"
"The Thunder Rolls"
"Wild Horses" (released in 2001)
Ropin' the Wind
"Rodeo"
"Shameless"
"What She's Doing Now"
"Papa Loved Mama"
"The River"
The Chase
"We Shall Be Free"
"Somewhere Other Than the Night"
"Learning to Live Again"
"That Summer"
In Pieces
"Ain't Goin' Down ('Til the Sun Comes Up)"
"American Honky-Tonk Bar Association"
"Standing Outside the Fire"
"One Night a Day"
"Callin' Baton Rouge"
"The Red Strokes"
Fresh Horses
"She's Every Woman"
"The Fever"
"The Beaches of Cheyenne"
"The Change"
"It's Midnight Cinderella"
"That Ol' Wind"
Sevens
"Longneck Bottle"
"She's Gonna Make It"
"Two Piña Coladas"
"You Move Me"
"Do What You Gotta Do" (released in 2000)
The Limited Series
"To Make You Feel My Love"
Double Live
"It's Your Song"
Greatest Hits (as Chris Gaines)
"Lost in You"
"It Don't Matter to the Sun"
"That's the Way I Remember It"
Scarecrow
"When You Come Back to Me Again" (released in 2000)
"Wrapped Up in You"
"Squeeze Me In" (with Trisha Yearwood)
"Thicker Than Blood"
"Why Ain't I Running"
The Lost Sessions
"Good Ride Cowboy"
"Love Will Always Win" (with Trisha Yearwood)
"That Girl Is a Cowboy"
The Ultimate Hits
"More Than a Memory"
"Workin' for a Livin'" (with Huey Lewis)
"Midnight Sun"
Man Against Machine
"People Loving People"
"Mom"
Gunslinger
"Baby, Let's Lay Down and Dance"
"Ask Me How I Know"
Guest singles
"Whatcha Gonna Do with a Cowboy (with Chris LeDoux; uncredited)
"In Another's Eyes" (with Trisha Yearwood)
"One Heart at a TIme" (charity single)
"Burnin the Roadhouse Down" (with Steve Wariner)
"Where Your Road Leads" (with Trisha Yearwood)
"Katie Wants a Fast One" (with Steve Wariner)
"Beer Run (B Double E Double Are You In?)" (with George Jones)
Other songs
"Hard Luck Woman"
"Santa Looked a Lot Like Daddy"
"The Call" (with Trisha Yearwood)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friends_in_Low_Places&oldid=807242676"
Categories:
1989 songs
1990 singles
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Nate Archibald (Gossip Girl)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Nate Archibald
Gossip Girl character
Chace Crawford as Nathaniel Archibald
First appearance
Novel:
Gossip Girl
Television:
"Pilot"
(episode 1.01)
Last appearance
Novel:
I Will Always Love You
Television:
"New York, I Love You XOXO"
(episode 6.10)
Created by
Character
Cecily von Ziegesar
Developed for Television
Josh Schwartz
Stephanie Savage
Portrayed by
Chace Crawford
Information
Full name
Nathaniel Fitzwilliam Archibald
Nickname(s)
Nate
Nathaniel (by his grandfather and Chuck)
Novels:
Natie (by Serena and Blair)
Aliases
N
Golden Boy
Gender
Male
Occupation
Novels:
Sailor and lacrosse captain
High school student
(at St. Jude's; graduated)
College student
(at Yale; later Deep Springs College)
Television:
High school student
(at St. Jude's; graduated)
College student
(at Columbia)
Editor-in-chief
(at The New York Spectator)
Family
Novels:
Captain Archibald
(father)
Mrs. Archibald
(mother)
Television:
Howard Archibald
(father)
Anne Archibald
(mother; née van der Bilt)
William van der Bilt I
(maternal grandfather)
William van der Bilt II
(maternal uncle)
William "Tripp" van der Bilt III
(first cousin)
Nathaniel Fitzwilliam "Nate" Archibald is a character in the best selling Gossip Girl book series. He is portrayed by Chace Crawford in the television series of the same name.[1] In the novels, he is considered the primary male character, always being fought over by the two most prominent females, Blair Waldorf and Serena van der Woodsen.
Contents
[hide]
1 Novel series
2 TV series
2.1 In other media
3 References
Novel series
Nate Archibald is a lacrosse player at the elite St. Jude's School for Boys. His mother, Anne Archibald, is a French socialite, and his father, Captain Archibald, is a former Navy captain and a wealthy banker. His closest friends are Chuck Bass, Serena van der Woodsen and Blair Waldorf.
He has been dating Blair since middle school. However, Nate is shown to have deep, unresolved feelings for Serena. They have sex during the summer at a wedding. He reveals this to Blair in the first novel after Serena returns, and right before they were supposed to lose their virginity to each other, which causes their first breakup. He gets together with freshman Jenny Humphrey, but later dumps her for Blair for being too clingy. He and Blair have an on-again-off-again relationship throughout most of the novels.
Nate's family resides in a stately townhouse off Park Avenue on the exclusive Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City, and his mother's French socialite family owns a summer chateau in Nice. He is a fan of sailing like his father, and wished to do that instead of attending Yale with Blair, although he expressed interest in attending Brown University. At the end of the series he sails around the world with a friend of his father's, Captain Charles "Chips" White to avoid getting in between Blair and Serena again. In I Will Aways Love You, on break from Deep Springs College, Nate chooses Blair in part I and then Serena in part II.
TV series
Nathaniel Archibald was born to Captain Howard Archibald, a successful business magnate, and Anne Vanderbilt Archibald, a member of the Vanderbilt family. On the surface, Nate seems to be the perfect "Golden Boy" of the Upper East Side. He is best friends with Chuck Bass, with whom he attends the elite St. Jude's School for Boys. Nate has been with girlfriend Blair Waldorf "since kindergarten". However, he secretly harbors feelings for Blair's best friend, Serena van der Woodsen. They shared a sordid one night stand before the show began, which caused her departure to boarding school. Nate's feelings for Blair are complicated by his ongoing infatuation with Serena and his parents' determination to keep him on a certain path. He later goes on to attend Columbia University.
In other media
Nate is the subject of the song 'Nate Will Not Return' by British post-punk band The Fall on their 2011 album Ersatz GB.[2]
References
Jump up ^ "Gossip Girl - Cast - Chace Crawford". CWtv.com. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
Jump up ^ "Nate Will Not Return - Reformation!".
[hide]
v
t
e
Gossip Girl
Episodes
Season 1
"Pilot"
"The Wild Brunch"
"Victor, Victrola"
"Hi, Society"
"The Thin Line Between Chuck and Nate"
"Desperately Seeking Serena"
"All About My Brother"
"Much 'I Do' About Nothing"
Season 2
"Summer, Kind of Wonderful"
"Never Been Marcused"
"The Dark Night"
"The Ex Files"
"The Serena Also Rises"
"Seder Anything"
"Valley Girls"
"The Goodbye Gossip Girl"
Season 3
"Reversals of Fortune"
"The Freshman"
"The Lost Boy"
"Enough About Eve"
"They Shoot Humphreys, Don't They?"
"The Last Days of Disco Stick"
"The Debarted"
"The Hurt Locket"
"Last Tango, Then Paris"
Season 4
"Belles de Jour"
"Double Identity"
"The Undergraduates"
"Touch of Eva"
"Easy J"
"Gaslit"
"The Townie"
"Petty in Pink"
"The Princesses and the Frog"
"The Wrong Goodbye"
Season 5
"Yes, Then Zero"
"All the Pretty Sources"
"Rhodes to Perdition"
"Riding in Town Cars with Boys"
"The End of the Affair?"
"Father and the Bride"
"G.G."
"The Backup Dan"
Season 6
"Gone Maybe Gone"
"New York, I Love You XOXO"
Characters
Serena van der Woodsen
Blair Waldorf
Dan Humphrey
Nate Archibald
Jenny Humphrey
Chuck Bass
Vanessa Abrams
Eric van der Woodsen
Lily van der Woodsen
Rufus Humphrey
Georgina Sparks
Juliet Sharp
Ivy Dickens
Lola Rhodes
Related
Gossip Girl novel series
The It Girl novel series
OMFGG – Original Music Featured on Gossip Girl No. 1
Gossip Girl: Acapulco
episodes
Gossip Girl: Thailand
The Transcenders
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nate_Archibald_(Gossip_Girl)&oldid=786089755"
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Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Not to be confused with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Ukraine–Central Powers), a similar treaty involving Ukraine and the Central Powers.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
The first two pages of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk,
in (from left to right) German, Hungarian, Bulgarian, Ottoman Turkish and Russian
Signed
3 March 1918 (during the First World War)
Location
Brest-Litovsk, Bialystok-Grodno District
(Ukraine under German occupation)[1]
Condition
Ratification
Signatories
Germany
Austria-Hungary
Bulgaria
Ottoman Empire
Russian SFSR
Languages
Bulgarian
German
Hungarian
Russian
Ottoman Turkish
en:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk at Wikisource
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a peace treaty signed on 3 March 1918 between the new Bolshevik government of Soviet Russia and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire), that ended Russia's participation in World War I. The treaty was signed at Brest-Litovsk (Polish: Brześć Litewski; since 1945 Brest), after two months of negotiations. The treaty was agreed upon by the Bolshevik government to stop further advances by German and Austro-Hungarian forces. According to the treaty, Soviet Russia defaulted on all of Imperial Russia's commitments to the Triple Entente alliance.
In the treaty, Bolshevik Russia ceded the Baltic States to Germany; they were meant to become German vassal states under German princelings.[2] Russia also ceded its province of Kars Oblast in the South Caucasus to the Ottoman Empire and recognized the independence of Ukraine. According to Spencer Tucker, a historian of World War I, "The German General Staff had formulated extraordinarily harsh terms that shocked even the German negotiator."[3] Congress Poland was not mentioned in the treaty, as Germans refused to recognize the existence of any Polish representatives, which in turn led to Polish protests.[4] When Germans later complained that the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 was too harsh on them, the Allied Powers (and historians favorable to the Allied Powers) responded that it was more benign than Brest-Litovsk.[5]
The treaty was effectively terminated in November 1918,[6] when Germany surrendered to the Allies. However, in the meantime it did provide some relief to the Bolsheviks, already fighting the Russian Civil War, by the renunciation of Russia's claims on modern-day Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Ukraine and Lithuania.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Peace negotiations
3 The terms of the Treaty
3.1 Signing
3.2 Territorial cessions in eastern Europe
3.3 Territorial cessions in the Caucasus
3.4 Soviet-German financial agreement of August 1918
4 Lasting effects
5 Portraits
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Background[edit]
Main articles: Eastern Front (World War I) and Russian Revolution
By 1917, Germany and Imperial Russia were stuck in a stalemate on the Eastern Front of World War I and the Russian economy had nearly collapsed under the strain of the war effort. The large numbers of war casualties and persistent food shortages in the major urban centers brought about civil unrest, known as the February Revolution, that forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate. The Russian Provisional Government that replaced the Tsar (initially presided by prince Georgy Lvov, later by Alexander Kerensky), decided to continue the war on the Entente side. Foreign Minister Pavel Milyukov sent the Entente Powers a telegram, known as Milyukov note, affirming to them that the Provisional Government would continue the war with the same war aims that Imperial Russia did.
The pro-war Provisional Government was opposed by the self-proclaimed Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, dominated by leftist parties. Its Order No. 1 called for an overriding mandate to soldier committees rather than army officers. The Soviet started to form its own paramilitary power, the Red Guards, in March 1917.
The continuing war led the German Government to agree to a suggestion that they should favor the opposition Communist Party (Bolsheviks), who were proponents of Russia's withdrawal from the war. Therefore, in April 1917, Germany transported Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin and thirty-one supporters in a sealed train from exile in Switzerland to Finland Station, Petrograd.[7] Upon his arrival in Petrograd, Lenin proclaimed his April Theses, which included a call for turning all political power over to workers' and soldiers' soviets (councils) and an immediate withdrawal of Russia from the war. Throughout 1917, Bolsheviks called for the overthrow of the Provisional Government and an end to the war. Following the disastrous failure of the Kerensky Offensive, discipline in the Russian army deteriorated completely. Soldiers would disobey orders, often under the influence of Bolshevik agitation, and set up soldiers' committees to take control of their units after deposing the officers. Russian and German soldiers occasionally fraternized.
Lev Kamenev arrives at Brest-Litovsk.
The defeat and ongoing hardships of war led to anti-government riots in Petrograd, the "July Days" of 1917. Several months later, on 7 November (25 October old style), Red Guards seized the Winter Palace and arrested the Provisional Government in what is known as the October Revolution.
A top priority of the newly established Soviet government was to end the war. On 8 November 1917 (26 October 1917 O.S) Vladimir Lenin signed the Decree on Peace, which was approved by the Second Congress of the Soviet of Workers', Soldiers', and Peasants' Deputies. The Decree called "upon all the belligerent nations and their governments to start immediate negotiations for peace" and proposed an immediate withdrawal of Russia from World War I. Leon Trotsky was appointed Commissar of Foreign Affairs in the new Bolshevik government. In preparation for peace talks with the representatives of the German government and the representatives of the other Central Powers, Leon Trotsky appointed his good friend, Adolph Joffe, to represent the Bolsheviks at the peace conference.
Peace negotiations[edit]
Trotsky greeted by German officers.
On 15 December 1917, an armistice between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers was concluded. On 22 December, peace negotiations began in Brest-Litovsk.
Arrangements for the conference were the responsibility of General Max Hoffmann, chief of staff of the Central Powers' forces on their Eastern Front (Oberkommando-Ostfront). The delegations that had negotiated the armistice were made stronger. Prominent additions on the Central Powers’ side were the foreign ministers of Germany Richard von Kühlmann and of Austria-Hungary Count Ottokar Czernin, both the Ottoman grand vizier Talat Pasha and Foreign Minister Nassimy Bey. The Bulgarians were headed by Minister of Justice Popoff, who was later joined by Prime Minister Vasil Radoslavov.[8][9]
The Russian delegation was led by Adolph Joffe who had already led their armistice negotiators, but his group was made more cohesive by eliminating most of the representatives of social groups, like peasants and sailors, and the addition of tsarist general Aleksandr Samoilo and the noted Marxist historian Mikhail Pokrovsky. It still included as the representative for women Anastasia Bizenko, who had assassinated a high Imperial official. Again the negotiators met in the fortress in Brest Litovsk, while the delegates were housed in temporary wooden structure in its courtyards, because the city had been burnt to the ground in 1915 by the retreating Russian army. They were cordially welcomed by the commander of the Eastern Front, Prince Leopold of Bavaria, who sat with Joffe on the head table at the opening banquet with one hundred guests.[10] As they had during the armistice negotiations both sides continued to eat dinner and supper together amicably intermingled in the officer's mess.
When the conference convened Kühlmann asked Joffe to present the Russian conditions for peace. He made six points, all variations of the Bolshevik slogan of peace with "no annexations or indemnities". The Central Powers accepted these principles "but only in case all belligerents [including the nations of the Entente] without exception pledge themselves to do the same".[11] They did not intend to annex territories occupied by force. Joffe telegraphed this marvelous news to Petrograd. Thanks to informal chatting in the mess, one of Hoffmann's aides, Colonel Friedrich Brinckmann, realized that the Russians had optimistically misinterpreted the Central Power's meaning.[12] It fell to Hoffmann to set matters straight at dinner on 27 December: Poland, Lithuania and Courland, already occupied by the Central Powers, were determined to separate from Russia, on the principle of self-determination that the Bolsheviks themselves espoused. Joffe "looked as if he had received a blow on the head".[13] Pokrovsky wept as he asked how they could speak of "peace without annexations when Germany was tearing eighteen provinces away from the Russian state".[14] The Germans and Austro-Hungarian planned to annex slices of Polish territory and to set up a rump Polish state with what remained, while the Baltic provinces were to become client states ruled by German princes. Czernin was beside himself with this hitch that was slowing the negotiations; self-determination was anathema to his government and they urgently needed grain from the east because Vienna was on the verge of starvation. He proposed to make a separate peace.[15] Kühlmann warned that if they negotiated separately Germany would immediately withdraw all its divisions from the Austrian front; Czernin dropped that threat. The food crisis in Vienna was eventually eased by "forced drafts of grain from Hungary, Poland, and Romania and by a last moment contribution from Germany of 450 truck-loads of flour",[16] At the Russian request they agreed to recess the talks for twelve days.
Special edition of the Lübeckischen Anzeigen, Headline: “Peace with Ukraine”.
The Russians only hopes were that given time their allies would agree to join the negotiations or that the western European proletariat would revolt, so their best strategy was to prolong the negotiations. As Foreign Minister Leon Trotsky wrote "To delay negotiations, there must be someone to do the delaying".[17] Therefore Trotsky replaced Joffe as the leader.
On the other side there were significant political realignments. On New Year's Day in Berlin the Kaiser insisted that Hoffmann reveal his views on the future German-Polish border. He advocated taking a small slice of Poland; Hindenburg and Ludendorff wanted much more. They were furious with Hoffmann for breaching the chain of command and wanted him dismissed and sent to command a division. The Kaiser refused, but Ludendorff no longer spoke with Hoffmann on the telephone, now communication was through an intermediary.[18] The German Supreme Commanders were also furious at ruling out of annexations, contending that the peace "must increase Germany's material power".[19] They denigrated Kühlmann and pressed for additional territorial acquisitions. When Hindenburg was asked why they needed the Baltic states he replied, "To secure my left flank for when the next war happens."[20] However the most profound transformation was that a delegation from the Ukrainian Rada, which had declared independence from Russia, had arrived at Brest-Litovsk. They would make peace if they were given the Polish city of Cholm and its surroundings, and then would provide desperately needed grain. Czernin no longer was desperate for a prompt settlement with the Russians.
When they reconvened Trotsky declined the invitation to meet Prince Leopold and terminated shared meals and other sociable interactions with the representatives of the Central Powers. Day after day Trotsky "engaged Kühlmann in debate, rising to subtle discussion of first principles that ranged far beyond the concrete territorial issues that divided them".[21] The Central Powers signed a peace treaty with Ukraine during the night of 8–9 February, even though the Russians had retaken Kiev. German and Austro-Hungarian troops entered Ukraine to prop up the Rada. Finally Hoffmann broke the impasse with the Russians by focusing the discussion on maps of the future boundaries. Trotsky summarized their situation "Germany and Austria-Hungary are cutting off from the domains of the former Russian Empire territories more than 150,000 square kilometers in size."[22] He was granted a nine day recess for the Russians to decide whether to sign.
Signing of armistice between Russia and Germany
In Petrograd Trotsky argued passionately against signing, proposing that instead "they should announce the termination of the war and demobilization without signing any peace."[23] Lenin was for signing rather than having an even more ruinous treaty forced on them after a few more weeks of military humiliation. The "Left Communists", led by Nikolai Bukharin and Karl Radek, were sure that Germany, Austria, Turkey, and Bulgaria were all on the verge of revolution. They wanted to continue the war with a newly-raised revolutionary force while awaiting for these upheavals.[24] Consequently Lenin agreed to Trotsky's formula — a position summed up as "no war – no peace" — which was announced when the negotiators reconvened on 10 February 1918. The Russians thought their stalling was succeeding until 16 February when Hoffmann notified them that the war would resume in two days, when fifty-three divisions advanced against the near-empty Russian trenches. On the night of 18 February the Central Committee supported Lenin's resolution that they sign the treaty by a margin of seven to five. Hoffmann kept advancing until 23 February when he presented new terms that included the withdrawal of all Russian troops from Ukraine and Finland. They were give 48 hours to decide. Lenin told the Central Committee that "you must sign this shameful peace in order to save the world revolution".[25] If they did not agree he would resign. He was supported by six Central Committee members, opposed by three, with Trotsky and three others abstaining.[26] Trotsky resigned as foreign minister and was replaced by Grigori Sokolnikov.
When Sokolnikov arrived at Brest-Litovsk he declared "we are going to sign immediately the treaty presented to us as an ultimatum but at the same time refuse to enter into any discussion of its terms".[27] The treaty was signed at 17:50 on 3 March 1918.
The terms of the Treaty[edit]
Signing[edit]
Borders drawn up in Brest-Litovsk.
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed on 3 March 1918. The signatories were Bolshevik Russia signed by Grigori Yakovlovich Sokolnikov on the one side and the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Ottoman Empire on the other.
The treaty marked Russia's final withdrawal from World War I as an enemy of her co-signatories, on severe terms. In all, the treaty took away territory that included a quarter of the population and industry of the former Russian Empire [28] and nine-tenths of its coal mines.[29]
Territorial cessions in eastern Europe[edit]
Russia renounced all territorial claims in Finland (which it had already acknowledged), Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania), Belarus, and Ukraine. The territory of the Kingdom of Poland was not mentioned in the treaty, because Russian Poland had been a personal possession of the Tsar, not part of the Empire.
The treaty stated that "Germany and Austria-Hungary intend to determine the future fate of these territories in agreement with their populations." Most of these territories were in effect ceded to Germany, which intended to have them become economic and political dependencies. The many ethnic German residents (volksdeutsch) would be the ruling elite. New monarchies were created in Lithuania and the United Baltic Duchy (which comprised the modern countries of Latvia and Estonia). The German aristocrats Wilhelm Karl, Duke of Urach (in Lithuania), and Adolf Friedrich, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (in the United Baltic Duchy), were appointed as rulers.
This plan was detailed by German Colonel General Erich Ludendorff, who wrote, "German prestige demands that we should hold a strong protecting hand, not only over German citizens, but over all Germans."[30]
"Three bones—a bountiful tip", a political cartoon from 1918 by American cartoonist E. A. Bushnell.
The occupation of Western Russia ultimately proved a costly blunder for Berlin as over one million German troops lay sprawled out from Poland nearly to the Caspian Sea, all idle and depriving Germany of badly needed manpower in France. The hopes of utilizing Ukraine's grain and coal proved abortive and in addition, the local population became increasingly upset at the occupying army. Revolts and guerrilla warfare began breaking out all over the occupied zone, many of them inspired by Bolshevik agents. German troops had to intervene in Finland to put down an attempted Bolshevik coup, and Ludendorff became increasingly paranoid about his troops being affected by propaganda emanating from Moscow; this was one of the reasons he was reluctant to transfer divisions to the Western Front. The attempt at establishing an independent Ukrainian state under German guidance was unsuccessful as well. Despite all this, Ludendorff completely ruled out the idea of marching on Moscow and Petrograd to remove the Bolshevik government from power.
Germany transferred hundreds of thousands of veteran troops to the Western Front for the 1918 Spring Offensive, which shocked the Allied Powers badly, but ultimately failed. Some Germans later blamed the occupation for significantly weakening the Spring Offensive.
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belorus, and Ukraine became independent, while Bessarabia united with Romania.
Territorial cessions in the Caucasus[edit]
At the insistence of Talaat Pasha, the treaty declared that the territory Russia took from the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), specifically Ardahan, Kars, and Batumi, were to be returned. At the time of the treaty, this territory was under the effective control of Armenian and Georgian forces.
Paragraph 3 of Article IV of the treaty states that:
The districts of Erdehan, Kars, and Batum will likewise and without delay be cleared of Russian troops. Russia will not interfere in the reorganization of the national and international relations of these districts, but leave it to the population of these districts to carry out this reorganization in agreement with the neighboring States, especially with the Ottoman Empire.
Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia became independent.
Soviet-German financial agreement of August 1918[edit]
In the wake of Soviet repudiation of Tsarist bonds, nationalisation of foreign-owned property and confiscation of foreign assets, the Soviets and Germany signed an additional agreement on 27 August 1918. The Soviets agreed to pay six billion marks in compensation for German losses.
ARTICLE 2
Russia shall pay Germany six billion marks as compensation for losses sustained by Germans through Russian measures; at the same time corresponding claims on Russia's part are taken into account, and the value of supplies confiscated in Russia by German military forces after the conclusion of peace is taken into account.[31]
Lasting effects[edit]
"Poland & The New Baltic States": a map from a 1920 British atlas, showing borders left undefined between the treaties of Brest-Litovsk, Versailles and Riga.
The Treaty meant that Russia now was helping Germany win the war by freeing up a million German soldiers for the Western Front[32] and by "relinquishing much of Russia's food supply, industrial base, fuel supplies, and communications with Western Europe."[33][34] According to historian Spencer Tucker, the Allied Powers felt, "The treaty was the ultimate betrayal of the Allied cause and sowed the seeds for the Cold War. With Brest-Litovsk the spectre of German domination in Eastern Europe threatened to become reality, and the Allies now began to think seriously about military intervention [in Russia]."[35]
Immediately after the signing of the treaty, Lenin moved the Soviet Russian government from Petrograd to Moscow.[36] Trotsky blamed the peace treaty on the bourgeoisie, the social revolutionaries,[37] Tsarist diplomats, Tsarist bureaucrats, "the Kerenskys, Tseretelis and Chernovs"[38] the Tsarist regime, and the "petty-bourgeois compromisers".[39]
Relations between Russia and the victors did not go smoothly. The Ottoman Empire broke the treaty by invading the newly created First Republic of Armenia in May 1918. Joffe became the Russian ambassador to Germany. His priority was distributing propaganda to trigger the German revolution. On 4 November 1918 "the Soviet courier's packing-case had 'come to pieces'" in a Berlin railway station;[40] it was filled with insurrectionary documents. Joffe and his staff were ejected from Germany in a sealed train on 5 November 1918. In the Armistice of 11 November 1918 that ended World War I, one clause abrogated the Brest-Litovsk treaty. Next the Bolshevik legislature (VTsIK) annulled the treaty on 13 November 1918, and the text of the VTsIK Decision was printed in Pravda newspaper the next day. In the year after the armistice following a timetable set by the victors the German Army withdrew its occupying forces from the lands gained in Brest-Litovsk. The fate of the region, and the location of the eventual western border of the Soviet Union, was settled in violent and chaotic struggles over the course of the next three and a half years. The Polish–Soviet War was particularly bitter; it ended with the Treaty of Riga in 1921. Although most of Ukraine fell under Bolshevik control and eventually became one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union, Poland and the Baltic states emerged as independent countries. In the Treaty of Rapallo, concluded in April 1922, Germany accepted the Treaty's nullification, and the two powers agreed to abandon all war-related territorial and financial claims against each other. This state of affairs lasted until 1939. As a consequence of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union advanced its borders westward by invading Poland in September 1939 and taking a small part of Finland in November 1939 and annexing the Baltic States, Eastern Poland and Bessarabia in 1940. It thus overturned almost all the territorial losses incurred at Brest-Litovsk, except for the main part of Finland, western Congress Poland, and western Armenia.
Russia's western border in 2014. Thereafter the Crimea has come under Russian administration
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk marked a significant contraction of the territory controlled by the Bolsheviks or that they could lay claim to as effective successors of the Russian Empire. While the independence of Finland and Poland was already accepted by them in principle,[citation needed] the loss of Ukraine and the Baltics created, from the Bolshevik perspective, dangerous bases of anti-Bolshevik military activity in the subsequent Russian Civil War (1918–1922). However Bolshevik control of Ukraine and Transcaucasia was at the time fragile or non existent.[41] Many Russian nationalists and some revolutionaries were furious at the Bolsheviks' acceptance of the treaty and joined forces to fight them. Non-Russians who inhabited the lands lost by Bolshevik Russia in the treaty saw the changes as an opportunity to set up independent states.
For the Western Allied Powers, the terms that Germany imposed on Russia were interpreted as a warning of what to expect if Germany and the other Central Powers won the war. Between Brest-Litovsk and the point when the German military situation in the west became dire, some officials in the German government and high command began to favor offering more lenient terms to the Allied Powers in exchange for their recognition of German gains in the east.[citation needed]
The maps show that Russia's post-1991 western border bears a marked similarity to that imposed by the Brest-Litovsk treaty.[citation needed]
Portraits[edit]
Emil Orlik, the Viennese Secessionist artist, attended the conference, at the invitation of Richard von Kühlmann. He drew portraits of all the participants, along with a series of smaller caricatures. These were gathered together into a book, Brest-Litovsk, a copy of which was given to each of the participants.[42]
See also[edit]
World War I portal
History of Belarus
Mitteleuropa
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (9 February 1918), signed by Ukraine
Treaty of Bucharest (1918)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ (in Ukrainian) To whom did Brest belong in 1918? Argument among Ukraine, Belarus, and Germany. Ukrayinska Pravda, 25 March 2011.
Jump up ^ A History of the Habsburg Empire, 1526-1918 By Robert A. Kann page 479-480
Jump up ^ Spencer C. Tucker (2005). World War One. ABC-CLIO. p. 225.
Jump up ^ Mapping Europe's Borderlands: Russian Cartography in the Age of Empire Steven Seegel - 2012 At Brest-Litovsk in March 1918, no Polish delegation was invited to the negotiations, and in the Polish press, journalists condemned it as yet another partition of the lands east of the Bug River by great powers
Jump up ^ Zara S. Steiner (2005). The Lights that Failed: European International History, 1919–1933. Oxford U.P. p. 68.
Jump up ^ Fry, Michael Graham; Goldstein, Erik; Langhorne, Richard (2002). Guide to International Relations and Diplomacy. Continuum. p. 188.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett, John W. (1938). Brest-Litovsk : The forgotten peace. London: Macmillan. pp. 36–41.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett, John W. (1938). Brest-Litovsk : the forgotten peace, March 1918. London: Macmillan. pp. 111–112.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, W. B. (1986). Passage through Armageddon. The Russians in war & revolution 1914-1918. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 489–491.
Jump up ^ Czernin, Count Ottokar (1919). In the world war. London: Cassall. p. 228.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, 1986, p. 490.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett, 1938, p. 124.
Jump up ^ Hoffmann, Major General Max (1929). War Diaries and other papers. 1. London: Martin Secker. p. 209.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, 1989, p. 401.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, 1989, p. 491.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett, 1938, p. 170.
Jump up ^ Trotsky, Leon (1930). "My Life" (PDF). Marxists. Charles Schribner’s Sons. p. 286.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett 1938, pp. 130-136.
Jump up ^ Ludendorff, General (1920). The General Staff and its problems The history of the relations between the high command and the German Imperial Government as revealed in official documents. 2. London: Hutchinson. p. 209.
Jump up ^ David Stevenson (2009). Cataclysm: The First World War as Political Tragedy. Basic Books. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-7867-3885-4.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, 1989, p. 494.
Jump up ^ Lincoln, 1989, p. 496.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett, John W. (1938). Brest-Litovsk : the forgotten peace, March 1918. London: Macmillan. pp. 185–186.
Jump up ^ Fisher, Ruth (1982). Stalin and German communism: A study ion the origins of the state party. New Brunswick NJ: Transition Books. p. 39.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett, 1938, p. 260.
Jump up ^ Fischer, 1982, pp. 32-36.
Jump up ^ Wheeler-Bennett, 1938, pp. 268-269.
Jump up ^ John Keegan, The First World War (New York: Vintage Books, 2000), p. 342.
Jump up ^ Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, 1960, p. 57
Jump up ^ Ludendorff, Erich von (1920). The General Staff and its Problems. London. p. 562.
Jump up ^ Russian-German Financial Agreement, August 27, 1918. (Izvestia, September 4, 1918.)
Jump up ^ Jerald A Combs (2015). The History of American Foreign Policy from 1895. Routledge. p. 97.
Jump up ^ Todd Chretien (2017). Eyewitnesses to the Russian Revolution. p. 129.
Jump up ^ Michael Senior (2016). Victory on the Western Front: The Development of the British Army 1914-1918. p. 176.
Jump up ^ Spencer C. Tucker (2013). The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia. p. 608.
Jump up ^ "LENINE’S MIGRATION A QUEER SCENE", The New York Times, March 16, 1918
Jump up ^ [1] The Military Writings of Leon Trotsky Volume 1, 1918 TWO ROADS "We have not forgotten, in the first place, that the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk meant the noose that was flung about our neck by the bourgeoisie and the SRs who were responsible for the offensive of June 18."
Jump up ^ [2] The Military Writings of Leon Trotsky Volume 1, 1918 THE INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL TASKS OF THE SOVIET POWER "Those who bear the guilt of the Brest-Litovsk peace are the Tsarist bureaucrats and diplomats who involved us in the dreadful war, squandering what the people had accumulated, robbing the people – they who kept the working masses in ignorance and slavery. On the other hand, no less guilt rests with the compromisers, the Kerenskys, Tseretelis and Chernovs."
Jump up ^ [3] The Military Writings of Leon Trotsky Volume 1, 1918 WE NEED AN ARMY "the entire burden of recent events, above all, the Brest peace, has fallen tragically upon us only through the previous management of affairs by the Tsarist regime and, following it, by the regime of the petty-bourgeois compromisers".
Jump up ^ Wheeller-Bennett, 1938, p. 359.
Jump up ^ Keegan, John (1999) [1998]. The First World War. London: Pimlico. p. 410. ISBN 0-7126-6645-1.
Jump up ^ Jewish Museum in Prague (2013-2015). Emil Orlik (1870–1932) - Portraits of Friends and Contemporaries [description of exhibition in 2004]. Retrieved 2015-04-03.
Further reading[edit]
Dornik, Wolfram, and Peter Lieb. "Misconceived realpolitik in a failing state: the political and economical fiasco of the Central Powers in the Ukraine, 1918." First World War Studies 4.1 (2013): 111-124.
Kennan, George. Soviet Foreign Policy 1917–1941, Kreiger Publishing Company, 1960.
Kettle, Michael. Allies and the Russian Collapse (1981), 287p.
Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John. Brest-Litovsk the Forgotten Peace, March 1918, W. W. Norton & Company, 1969.
External links[edit]
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Yale University Avalon Project), including links to appendices.
Resolution of the Fourth All-Russian (Extraordinary) Soviet Congress Ratifying the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Map of Europe after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, at omniatlas.com.
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