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Dust Bowl
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For other uses, see Dust Bowl (disambiguation).
Map of states and counties affected by the Dust Bowl between 1935 and 1938 originally prepared by the Soil Conservation Service. The most severely affected counties are colored .
A farmer and his two sons during a dust storm in Cimarron County, Oklahoma, April 1936. Iconic photo taken by Arthur Rothstein.
The Dust Bowl, also known as the Dirty Thirties, was a period of severe dust storms that greatly damaged the ecology and agriculture of the American and Canadian prairies during the 1930s; severe drought and a failure to apply dryland farming methods to prevent wind erosion (the Aeolian processes) caused the phenomenon. The drought came in three waves, 1934, 1936, and 1939–1940, but some regions of the high plains experienced drought conditions for as many as eight years.[1] With insufficient understanding of the ecology of the plains, farmers had conducted extensive deep plowing of the virgin topsoil of the Great Plains during the previous decade; this had displaced the native, deep-rooted grasses that normally trapped soil and moisture even during periods of drought and high winds. The rapid mechanization of farm equipment, especially small gasoline tractors, and widespread use of the combine harvester contributed to farmers' decisions to convert arid grassland (much of which received no more than 10 inches (~250 mm) of precipitation per year) to cultivated cropland.[2]
During the drought of the 1930s, the unanchored soil turned to dust, which the prevailing winds blew away in huge clouds that sometimes blackened the sky. These choking billows of dust – named "black blizzards" or "black rollers" – traveled cross country, reaching as far as the East Coast and striking such cities as New York City and Washington, D.C. On the plains, they often reduced visibility to 3 feet (1 m) or less. Associated Press reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in Boise City, Oklahoma, to witness the "Black Sunday" black blizzards of April 14, 1935; Edward Stanley, Kansas City news editor of the Associated Press coined the term "Dust Bowl" while rewriting Geiger's news story.[3][4] While the term "the Dust Bowl" was originally a reference to the geographical area affected by the dust, today it usually refers to the event itself.
The drought and erosion of the Dust Bowl affected 100,000,000 acres (400,000 km2) that centered on the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma and touched adjacent sections of New Mexico, Colorado, and Kansas.[5]
The Dust Bowl forced tens of thousands of poverty-stricken families to abandon their farms, unable to pay mortgages or grow crops, and losses reached US$25 million per day by 1936 (equivalent to US$440,000,000 in 2017).[6][7] Many of these families, who were often known as "Okies" because so many of them came from Oklahoma, migrated to California and other states to find that the Great Depression had rendered economic conditions there little better than those they had left.
The Dust Bowl has been the subject of many cultural works, notably the novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939) by John Steinbeck, the folk music of Woody Guthrie, and photographs depicting the conditions of migrants by Dorothea Lange.
Contents
[hide]
1 Geographic characteristics and early history
2 Drought and dust storms
3 Human displacement
3.1 United States
3.2 Characteristics of migrants
4 U.S. government response
5 Long-term economic impact
6 Influence on the arts and culture
7 Aggregate changes in agriculture and population on the Plains
8 See also
8.1 International
8.2 General
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Geographic characteristics and early history
A dust storm approaches Stratford, Texas, in 1935.
The Dust Bowl area lies principally west of the 100th meridian on the High Plains, characterized by plains which vary from rolling in the north to flat in the Llano Estacado. Elevation ranges from 2,500 feet (760 m) in the east to 6,000 feet (1,800 m) at the base of the Rocky Mountains. The area is semiarid, receiving less than 20 inches (510 mm) of rain annually; this rainfall supports the shortgrass prairie biome originally present in the area. The region is also prone to extended drought, alternating with unusual wetness of equivalent duration.[8] During wet years, the rich soil provides bountiful agricultural output, but crops fail during dry years. The region is also subject to high winds.[9] During early European and American exploration of the Great Plains, this region was thought unsuitable for European-style agriculture; explorers called it the Great American Desert. The lack of surface water and timber made the region less attractive than other areas for pioneer settlement and agriculture.
The federal government encouraged settlement and development of the Plains for agriculture via the Homestead Act of 1862, offering settlers 160-acre (65 ha) plots. With the end of the Civil War in 1865 and the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, waves of new migrants and immigrants reached the Great Plains, and they greatly increased the acreage under cultivation.[10][11] An unusually wet period in the Great Plains mistakenly led settlers and the federal government to believe that "rain follows the plow" (a popular phrase among real estate promoters) and that the climate of the region had changed permanently.[12] While initial agricultural endeavors were primarily cattle ranching, the adverse effect of harsh winters on the cattle, beginning in 1886, a short drought in 1890, and general overgrazing, led many landowners to increase the amount of land under cultivation.
Recognizing the challenge of cultivating marginal arid land, the United States government expanded on the 160 acres (65 ha) offered under the Homestead Act – granting 640 acres (260 ha) to homesteaders in western Nebraska under the Kinkaid Act (1904) and 320 acres (130 ha) elsewhere in the Great Plains under the Enlarged Homestead Act (1909). Waves of European settlers arrived in the plains at the beginning of the 20th century. A return of unusually wet weather seemingly confirmed a previously held opinion that the "formerly" semiarid area could support large-scale agriculture. At the same time, technological improvements such as mechanized plowing and mechanized harvesting made it possible to operate larger properties without increasing labor costs.
The combined effects of the disruption of the Russian Revolution, which decreased the supply of wheat and other commodity crops, and World War I increased agricultural prices; this demand encouraged farmers to dramatically increase cultivation. For example, in the Llano Estacado of eastern New Mexico and northwestern Texas, the area of farmland was doubled between 1900 and 1920, then tripled again between 1925 and 1930.[11] The agricultural methods favored by farmers during this period created the conditions for large-scale erosion under certain environmental conditions.[1] The widespread conversion of the land by deep plowing and other soil preparation methods to enable agriculture eliminated the native grasses which held the soil in place and helped retain moisture during dry periods. Furthermore, cotton farmers left fields bare during winter months, when winds in the High Plains are highest, and burned the stubble as a means to control weeds prior to planting, thereby depriving the soil of organic nutrients and surface vegetation.
Drought and dust storms
A dust storm; Spearman, Texas, April 14, 1935
"Heavy black clouds of dust rising over the Texas Panhandle, Texas", c. 1936.
After fairly favourable climatic conditions in the 1920s with good rainfall and relatively moderate winters,[13] which permitted increased settlement and cultivation in the Great Plains, the region entered an unusually dry era in the summer of 1930.[14] During the next decade, the northern plains suffered four of their seven driest calendar years since 1895, Kansas four of its twelve driest,[15] and the entire region south to West Texas[16] lacked any period of above-normal rainfall until record rains hit in 1941.[17] When severe drought struck the Great Plains region in the 1930s, it resulted in erosion and loss of topsoil because of farming practices at the time. The drought dried the topsoil and over time it became friable, reduced to a powdery consistency in some places. Without the indigenous grasses in place, the high winds that occur on the plains picked up the topsoil and created the massive dust storms that marked the Dust Bowl period.[18] The persistent dry weather caused crops to fail, leaving the plowed fields exposed to wind erosion. The fine soil of the Great Plains was easily eroded and carried east by strong continental winds.
On November 11, 1933, a very strong dust storm stripped topsoil from desiccated South Dakota farmlands in just one of a series of severe dust storms that year. Beginning on May 9, 1934, a strong, two-day dust storm removed massive amounts of Great Plains topsoil in one of the worst such storms of the Dust Bowl.[19] The dust clouds blew all the way to Chicago, where they deposited 12 million pounds of dust (~ 5500 tonnes).[20] Two days later, the same storm reached cities to the east, such as Cleveland, Buffalo, Boston, New York City, and Washington, D.C.[21] That winter (1934–1935), red snow fell on New England.
On April 14, 1935, known as "Black Sunday", 20 of the worst "black blizzards" occurred across the entire sweep of the Great Plains, from Canada south to Texas. The dust storms caused extensive damage and turned the day to night; witnesses reported that they could not see five feet in front of them at certain points. Denver-based Associated Press reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in Boise City, Oklahoma that day. His story about Black Sunday marked the first appearance of the term Dust Bowl; it was coined by Edward Stanley, Kansas City news editor of the Associated Press, while rewriting Geiger's news story.[3][4]
Spearman and Hansford County have been literaly [sic] in a cloud of dust for the past week. Ever since Friday of last week, there hasn't been a day pass but what the county was beseieged [sic] with a blast of wind and dirt. On rare occasions when the wind did subside for a period of hours, the air has been so filled with dust that the town appeared to be overhung by a fog cloud. Because of this long seige of dust and every building being filled with it, the air has become stifling to breathe and many people have developed sore throats and dust colds as a result."
—  Spearman Reporter, 21 March 1935[22]
Much of the farmland was eroded in the aftermath of the Dust Bowl. In 1941, a Kansas agricultural experiment station released a bulletin that suggested reestablishing native grasses by the "hay method". Developed in 1937 to speed up the process and increase returns from pasture, the "hay method" was originally supposed to occur in Kansas naturally over 25–40 years.[23] After much data analysis, the causal mechanism for the droughts can be linked to ocean temperature anomalies. Specifically, Atlantic Ocean sea surface temperatures appear to have had an indirect effect on the general atmospheric circulation, while Pacific sea surface temperatures seem to have had the most direct influence.[24]
Human displacement
This catastrophe intensified the economic impact of the Great Depression in the region.
United States
Buried machinery in a barn lot; Dallas, South Dakota, May 1936
In 1935, many families were forced to leave their farms and travel to other areas seeking work because of the drought (which at that time had already lasted four years).[25] The abandonment of homesteads and financial ruin resulting from catastrophic topsoil loss led to widespread hunger and poverty.[26] Dust Bowl conditions fomented an exodus of the displaced from Texas, Oklahoma, and the surrounding Great Plains to adjacent regions. More than 500,000 Americans were left homeless. Over 350 houses had to be torn down after one storm alone.[27] The severe drought and dust storms had left many homeless; others had their mortgages foreclosed by banks, or felt they had no choice but to abandon their farms in search of work.[28] Many Americans migrated west looking for work. Parents packed up "jalopies" with their families and a few personal belongings, and headed west in search of work.[29] Some residents of the Plains, especially in Kansas and Oklahoma, fell ill and died of dust pneumonia or malnutrition.[20]
"Broke, baby sick, and car trouble!" – Dorothea Lange's 1937 photo of a Missouri migrant family's jalopy stuck near Tracy, California.
The Dust Bowl exodus was the largest migration in American history within a short period of time. Between 1930 and 1940, approximately 3.5 million people moved out of the Plains states; of those, it is unknown how many moved to California.[30] In just over a year, over 86,000 people migrated to California. This number is more than the number of migrants to that area during the 1849 Gold Rush.[31] Migrants abandoned farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, Colorado, and New Mexico, but were often generally referred to as "Okies", "Arkies", or "Texies".[27] Terms such as "Okies" and "Arkies" came to be known in the 1930s as the standard terms for those who had lost everything and were struggling the most during the Great Depression.[32]
Not all migrants traveled long distances; some simply went to the next town or county. So many families left their farms and were on the move that the proportion between migrants and residents was nearly equal in the Great Plains states.[30]
Characteristics of migrants
A migratory family from Texas living in a trailer in an Arizona cotton field
Historian James N. Gregory examined Census Bureau statistics and other records to learn more about the migrants. Based on a 1939 survey of occupation by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of about 116,000 families who arrived in California in the 1930s, he learned that only 43 percent of southwesterners were doing farm work immediately before they migrated. Nearly one-third of all migrants were professional or white-collar workers.[33] The poor economy displaced more than just farmers as refugees to California; many teachers, lawyers, and small business owners moved west with their families during this time. After the Great Depression ended, some moved back to their original states. Many others remained where they had resettled. About one-eighth of California's population is of Okie heritage.[34]
U.S. government response
The greatly expanded participation of government in land management and soil conservation was an important outcome from the disaster. Different groups took many different approaches to responding to the disaster. To identify areas that needed attention, groups such as the Soil Conservation Service generated detailed soil maps and took photos of the land from the sky. To create shelterbelts to reduce soil erosion, groups such as the United States Forestry Service’s Prairie States Forestry Project planted trees on private lands. Finally, groups like the Resettlement Administration, which later became the Farm Security Administration, encouraged small farm owners to resettle on other lands, if they lived in dryer parts of the Plains.[24]
During President Franklin D. Roosevelt's first 100 days in office in 1933, his administration quickly initiated programs to conserve soil and restore the ecological balance of the nation. Interior Secretary Harold L. Ickes established the Soil Erosion Service in August 1933 under Hugh Hammond Bennett. In 1935, it was transferred and reorganized under the Department of Agriculture and renamed the Soil Conservation Service. It is now known as the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).[35]
As part of New Deal programs, Congress passed the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act in 1936, requiring landowners to share the allocated government subsidies with the laborers who worked on their farms. Under the law, "benefit payments were continued as measures for production control and income support, but they were now financed by direct Congressional appropriations and justified as soil conservation measures. The Act shifted the parity goal from price equality of agricultural commodities and the articles that farmers buy to income equality of farm and non-farm population."[36] Thus, the parity goal was to re-create the ratio between the purchasing power of the net income per person on farms from agriculture and that of the income of persons not on farms that prevailed during 1909–1914.
To stabilize prices, the government paid farmers and ordered more than six million pigs to be slaughtered. It paid to have the meat packed and distributed to the poor and hungry. The Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) was established to regulate crop and other surpluses. FDR in an address on the AAA commented,
Let me make one other point clear for the benefit of the millions in cities who have to buy meats. Last year the Nation suffered a drought of unparalleled intensity. If there had been no Government program, if the old order had obtained in 1933 and 1934, that drought on the cattle ranges of America and in the corn belt would have resulted in the marketing of thin cattle, immature hogs and the death of these animals on the range and on the farm, and if the old order had been in effect those years, we would have had a vastly greater shortage than we face today. Our program – we can prove it – saved the lives of millions of head of livestock. They are still on the range, and other millions of heads are today canned and ready for this country to eat."
The FSRC diverted agricultural commodities to relief organizations. Apples, beans, canned beef, flour and pork products were distributed through local relief channels. Cotton goods were later included, to clothe the needy.[37]
In 1935, the federal government formed a Drought Relief Service (DRS) to coordinate relief activities. The DRS bought cattle in counties which were designated emergency areas, for $14 to $20 a head. Animals determined unfit for human consumption were killed; at the beginning of the program, more than 50 percent were so designated in emergency areas. The DRS assigned the remaining cattle to the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) to be used in food distribution to families nationwide. Although it was difficult for farmers to give up their herds, the cattle slaughter program helped many of them avoid bankruptcy. "The government cattle buying program was a blessing to many farmers, as they could not afford to keep their cattle, and the government paid a better price than they could obtain in local markets."[38]
President Roosevelt ordered the Civilian Conservation Corps to plant a huge belt of more than 200 million trees from Canada to Abilene, Texas to break the wind, hold water in the soil, and hold the soil itself in place. The administration also began to educate farmers on soil conservation and anti-erosion techniques, including crop rotation, strip farming, contour plowing, terracing, and other improved farming practices.[39][40] In 1937, the federal government began an aggressive campaign to encourage farmers in the Dust Bowl to adopt planting and plowing methods that conserved the soil. The government paid reluctant farmers a dollar an acre to practice the new methods. By 1938, the massive conservation effort had reduced the amount of blowing soil by 65%.[41] The land still failed to yield a decent living. In the fall of 1939, after nearly a decade of dirt and dust, the drought ended when regular rainfall finally returned to the region. The government still encouraged continuing the use of conservation methods to protect the soil and ecology of the Plains.
At the end of the drought, the programs which were implemented during these tough times helped to sustain a positive relationship between America's farmers and the federal government.[42]
The President's Drought Committee issued a report in 1935 covering the government's assistance to agriculture during 1934 through mid-1935: it discussed conditions, measures of relief, organization, finances, operations, and results of the government's assistance.[43] Numerous exhibits are included in this report.
Long-term economic impact
In many regions, more than 75% of the topsoil was blown away by the end of the 1930s. Land degradation varied widely. Aside from the short-term economic consequences caused by erosion, there were severe long-term economic consequences caused by the Dust Bowl.
By 1940, counties that had experienced the most significant levels of erosion had a greater decline in agricultural land values. The per-acre value of farmland declined by 28% in high-erosion counties and 17% in medium-erosion counties, relative to land value changes in low-erosion counties.[23]:3 Even over the long-term, the agricultural value of the land often failed to recover to pre-Dust Bowl levels. In highly eroded areas, less than 25% of the original agricultural losses were recovered. The economy adjusted predominantly through large relative population declines in more-eroded counties, both during the 1930s and through the 1950s.[44]:1500
The economic effects persisted, in part, because of farmers' failure to switch to more appropriate crops for highly eroded areas. Because the amount of topsoil had been reduced, it would have been more productive to shift from crops and wheat to animals and hay. During the Depression and through at least the 1950s, there was limited relative adjustment of farmland away from activities that became less productive in more-eroded counties.
Some of the failure to shift to more productive agricultural products may be related to ignorance about the benefits of changing land use. A second explanation is a lack of availability of credit, caused by the high rate of failure of banks in the Plains states. Because banks failed in the Dust Bowl region at a higher rate than elsewhere, farmers could not get the credit they needed to buy capital to shift crop production.[45] In addition, profit margins in either animals or hay were still minimal, and farmers had little incentive in the beginning to change their crops.
Patrick Allitt recounts how fellow historian Donald Worster responded to his return visit to the Dust Bowl in the mid-1970s when he revisited some of the worst afflicted counties:
Capital-intensive agribusiness had transformed the scene; deep wells into the aquifer, intensive irrigation, the use of artificial pesticides and fertilizers, and giant harvesters were creating immense crops year after year whether it rained or not. According to the farmers he interviewed, technology had provided the perfect answer to old troubles, such of the bad days would not return. In Worster's view, by contrast, the scene demonstrated that America's capitalist high-tech farmers had learned nothing. They were continuing to work in an unsustainable way, devoting far cheaper subsidized energy to growing food than the energy could give back to its ultimate consumers.[46]
In contrast with Worster’s pessimism, historian Mathew Bonnifield argued that the long-term significance of the Dust Bowl was "the triumph of the human spirit in its capacity to endure and overcome hardships and reverses."[47]
Influence on the arts and culture
Florence Owens Thompson seen in the photo Destitute Pea Pickers in California. Mother of Seven Children. by Dorothea Lange
The crisis was documented by photographers, musicians, and authors, many hired during the Great Depression by the federal government. For instance, the Farm Security Administration hired numerous photographers to document the crisis. Artists such as Dorothea Lange were aided by having salaried work during the Depression.[48] She captured what have become classic images of the dust storms and migrant families. Among her most well-known photographs is Destitute Pea Pickers in California. Mother of Seven Children,[48] which depicted a gaunt-looking woman, Florence Owens Thompson, holding three of her children. This picture expressed the struggles of people caught by the Dust Bowl and raised awareness in other parts of the country of its reach and human cost. Decades later, Thompson disliked the boundless circulation of the photo and resented the fact she did not receive any money from its broadcast. Thompson felt it gave her the perception as a Dust Bowl "Okie."[49]
The work of independent artists was also influenced by the crises of the Dust Bowl and the Depression. Author John Steinbeck, borrowing closely from field notes taken by Farm Security Administration worker and author Sanora Babb,[citation needed] wrote The Grapes of Wrath (1939) about migrant workers and farm families displaced by the Dust Bowl. Babb's own novel about the lives of the migrant workers, Whose Names Are Unknown, was written in 1939 but was eclipsed and shelved in response to the success of the Steinbeck's work, and was finally published in 2004.[50][51][52] Many of the songs of folk singer Woody Guthrie, such as those on his 1940 album Dust Bowl Ballads, are about his experiences in the Dust Bowl era during the Great Depression when he traveled with displaced farmers from Oklahoma to California and learned their traditional folk and blues songs, earning him the nickname the "Dust Bowl Troubadour".[53]
Migrants also influenced musical culture wherever they went. Oklahoma migrants, in particular, were rural Southwesterners who carried their traditional country music to California. Today, the "Bakersfield Sound" describes this blend, which developed after the migrants brought country music to the city. Their new music inspired a proliferation of country dance halls as far south as Los Angeles.
The 2014 science fiction film Interstellar features a ravaged 21st-century America which is again scoured by dust storms (caused by a worldwide pathogen affecting all crops). Along with inspiration from the 1930s crisis, director Christopher Nolan features interviews from the 2012 documentary The Dust Bowl to draw further parallels.[54]
In 2017, Americana recording artist Grant Maloy Smith released the album Dust Bowl – American Stories, which was inspired by the history of the Dust Bowl.[55] In a review, the music magazine No Depression wrote that the album’s lyrics and music are “as potent as Woody Guthrie, as intense as John Trudell and dusted with the trials and tribulations of Tom Joad – Steinbeck and The Grapes of Wrath.”[56]
Aggregate changes in agriculture and population on the Plains
The change in the total value of agricultural land and revenue was quite similar over the twentieth century. Agricultural land and revenue boomed during World War I, but fell during the Great Depression and the 1930s. The land and revenue began increasing again in 1940, and has been increasing since then. From 1910 to the 1940s, total farmland increased and remained constant until 1970 when it slightly declined. During this time, total population increased steadily, but there was a slight dip in trend from 1930 to 1960.[44][clarify][verification needed]
See also
1936 North American heat wave
Ogallala Aquifer
The Plow That Broke the Plains – 1936 documentary
U.S. Route 66 – notable Dust Bowl migration route to California
International
Goyder's Line – semiarid area of Australia
Palliser's Triangle – semiarid area of Canada
General
Desertification
Global warming
Monoculture
Semi-arid climate
References
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Jump up ^ See:
Lanzendorfer, Joy, "The forgotten Dust Bowl novel that rivaled "The Grapes of Wrath"," Smithsonian.com, 2016 May 23.
"Sanora Babb," The Dust Bowl: a film by Ken Burns, PBS.org (2012)
For the role of Tom Collins of the Farm Security Administration in Steinbeck's novel, see: John Steinbeck with Robert Demott, ed., Working Days: The Journals of The Grapes of Wrath, 1938–1941 (New York, New York: Penguin Books, 1990), pp. xxvii–xxviii, 33 (journal entry for 1938 June 24).
Jump up ^ Alarik, Scott. Robert Burns unplugged. The Boston Globe, August 7, 2005. Retrieved on December 5, 2007.
Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Alyssa (November 6, 2014). "How Ken Burns' surprise role in 'Interstellar' explains the movie". The Washington Post. Retrieved November 8, 2014.
Jump up ^ Smith, Hubble (June 1, 2017). "Kingman gets a mention on Dust Bowl album". Kingman Daily Miner. Retrieved June 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Apice, John (May 22, 2017). "Expressive Original Songs Steeped In the Dirt & Reality of the Dust Bowl-Depression Era". No Depression. Retrieved June 11, 2017.
Bibliography
Bonnifield, Mathew Paul. (1979) Dust Bowl: Men, Dirt and Depression
Gregory, James Noble. American exodus: The dust bowl migration and Okie culture in California (Oxford University Press, 1989)
Lassieur, Allison. (2009) The Dust Bowl: An Interactive History Adventure Capstone Press, ISBN 1-4296-3455-3
Reis, Ronald A. (2008) The Dust Bowl Chelsea House ISBN 978-0-7910-9737-3
Sylvester, Kenneth M., and Eric S. A. Rupley, “Revising the Dust Bowl: High above the Kansas Grassland”, Environmental History, 17 (July 2012), 603–33.
Worster, Donald 2004 (1979)Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s (25. anniversary ed) Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517489-5
Woody Guthrie, (1963) The (Nearly) Complete Collection of Woody Guthrie Folk Songs, Ludlow Music, New York.
Alan Lomax, Woody Guthrie, Pete Seeger, (1967) Hard-Hitting Songs for Hard-Hit People, Oak Publications, New York.
Timothy Egan (2006) The Worst Hard Time, Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, hardcover. ISBN 0-618-34697-X.
Katelan Janke, (1935) Survival in the Storm: The Dust Bowl Diary of Grace Edwards, Dalhart, Texas, Scholastic (September 2002). ISBN 0-439-21599-4.
Karen Hesse (paperback January 1999) Out of the Dust, Scholastic Signature. New York First Edition, 1997, hardcover. ISBN 0-590-37125-8.
Sanora Babb (2004) Whose Names Are Unknown, University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 978-0-8061-3579-3.
Sweeney, Kevin Z. (2016). Prelude to the Dust Bowl: Drought in the Nineteenth-Century Southern Plains Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dust Bowl.
NASA Explains "Dust Bowl" Drought
The Dust Bowl photo collection
"The Dust Bowl", a PBS television series by filmmaker Ken Burns
The Dust Bowl (EH.Net Encyclopedia)
Black Sunday, April 14, 1935, Dodge City, KS
The Bibliography of Aeolian Research
Surviving the Dust Bowl, Black Sunday (April 14, 1935)
Voices from the Dust Bowl: The Charles L. Todd and Robert Sonkin Migrant Worker Collection, 1940–1941 Library of Congress, American Folklife Center Online collection of archival sound recordings, photographs, and manuscripts
YouTube Video: "The Great Depression, Displaced Mountaineers in Shenandoah National Park, and the Civilian Conservation Corps (C.C.C.)"
Farming in the 1930s (Wessels Living History Farm)
Out of the Dust (The Modesto Bee)
Africa Data Dissemination Service, part of the Famine Early Warning Systems Network, U.S. Geological Service
Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Dust Bowl
Oklahoma Digital Maps: Digital Collections of Oklahoma and Indian Territory
Dust Bowl Migration Archive at Sonoma State University Library
Dust, Drought, and Dreams Gone Dry: Oklahoma Women in the Dust Bowl Oral History Project, Oklahoma Oral History Research Program
Voices of Oklahoma interview with Frosty Troy. First person interview conducted on November 30, 2011 with Frosty Troy talking about the Oklahoma Dust Bowl. Original audio and transcript archived with Voices of Oklahoma oral history project.
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text:
I'll Take You There
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For the novel by Joyce Carol Oates, see I'll Take You There (novel).
"I'll Take You There"
Single by The Staple Singers
from the album Be Altitude: Respect Yourself
B-side
"I'm Just Another Soldier"
Released
February 1972
Genre
R&B, funk, soul
Length
4:43
3:16 (7" version)
Label
Stax
Songwriter(s)
Al Bell
Producer(s)
Al Bell
The Staple Singers singles chronology
"Respect Yourself"
(1971) "I'll Take You There"
(1972) "This World"
(1972)
"Respect Yourself"
(1971) "I'll Take You There"
(1972) "This World"
(1972)
"I'll Take You There" is a song written by Al Bell (using his real name Alvertis Isbell), and originally performed by soul/gospel family band The Staple Singers. The Staple Singers version, produced by Bell, was released on Stax Records in February 1972, and spent a total of 15 weeks on the charts and reached number-one on the Billboard Hot 100. It is ranked as the 19th biggest American hit of 1972.[1]
The song was also a significant chart hit in two later cover versions. A 1991 cover version by BeBe & CeCe Winans, with Mavis Staples featured as a guest artist, made it to number one on the R&B chart, and also made No. 90 on the Hot 100.[2] In 1994, the British band General Public released a cover of "I'll Take You There" which peaked at No. 22 on Hot 100.[3] As well, female rap trio Salt-N-Pepa sampled "I'll Take You There" in their 1991 hit "Let's Talk About Sex".
Contents
1 Original Staple Singers version
2 In other media
3 General Public version
3.1 Charts
3.1.1 Year-end charts
4 Notable covers
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Original Staple Singers version[edit]
Included on the group's 1972 album Be Altitude: Respect Yourself, "I'll Take You There" features lead singer Mavis Staples inviting her listeners to seek heaven. The song is "almost completely a call-and-response chorus",[1] with the introduction being lifted from "The Liquidator", a 1969 reggae hit by the Harry J Allstars. In fact, the entire song, written in the key of C, contains but two chords, C and F. A large portion of the song is set aside for Mavis' sisters Cleotha and Yvonne and their father "Pops" to seemingly perform solos on their respective instruments. In actuality, these solos (and all music in the song) were recorded by the famed Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section. When Mavis Staples says "Daddy, now, Daddy, Daddy" (referring to "Pop's" guitar solo), it is actually Eddie Hinton who performs the solo on record. Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section bass player David Hood performs the song's famed bass line. Terry Manning added harmonica and lead electric guitar. Roger Hawkins played drums, Barry Beckett was on electric piano, and Jimmy Johnson and Raymond Banks contributed guitar parts. The horn and string parts were arranged by Detroit arranger Johnny Allen. The horns and strings were recorded at Artie Fields Recording Studios in Detroit Michigan.
Quite a few Staples Singers songs reference civil rights and social conditions. Many people interpret this song as describing an imagined world in which the civil rights movement has succeeded: "No more smilin' faces/lyin' to the races."
Rolling Stone editor David Fricke described this song as the "epitome of the Muscle Shoals Sound". It was recorded in Sheffield, AL at the famous Muscle Shoals Sound Studios, and overdubbed and mixed at Ardent Studios in Memphis by Engineer Terry Manning.
Bolstered by a "feel-good" vibe, "I'll Take You There" peaked at number-one on the Billboard R&B Singles chart for four weeks May 1972. In June, "I'll Take You There" reached the top of the Billboard Hot 100 for one week.[4] Billboard ranked it as the No. 19 song for 1972.[5] The song, ranked #276 on the Rolling Stone list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time[6] and inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1999, remains the most successful and recognizable single of the Staples' half-century-long career.
In other media[edit]
The song has been heavily featured in numerous films.
It was used in the 1986 film Children of a Lesser God.[7]
The song was used in the 1994 Spike Lee film Crooklyn
The song can be heard during the end credits for Barbershop (2002) and Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous (2005). The song is also performed in the Australian musical film The Sapphires (2012).
Additionally, the song was also used for the 2010 film Secretariat.
The song was also used from 1997–1999 in commercials for the Chevrolet Malibu.
On October 30, 2010 Mavis Staples performed the song at the closing of comedian/commentators Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert's Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear accompanied by Jeff Tweedy and The Roots, and joined on stage by the other performers in the show.
The song was also featured in the pilot episode of Netflix's Orange Is The New Black.
The song is featured in a Walmart Christmas holiday television TV commercial which started airing in October 2017. This song is also featured in the Netflix original, Seeing Allred (2018)
General Public version[edit]
"I'll Take You There"
Single by General Public
Released
1994
Songwriter(s)
Al Bell
In 1994, the British band General Public released a cover of "I'll Take You There" featured in the film Threesome. It was an American hit, peaking at No. 22 on the weekly Hot 100 chart and No. 94 on its year-end chart.[8] This version features an added toasted verse specific to this version of the song.
Charts[edit]
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1994)
Position
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[9] 38
Notable covers[edit]
In 1972, the Jamaican band The Deltones released a reggae version of the song.
Eruption recorded a disco version of the song for their 1977 debut album, Eruption.
In 1988, Big Daddy Kane remade the song for his Long Live the Kane album.
In 1996, SWV covered "I'll Take You There" on the NBA at 50: A Musical Celebration album.
"I'll Take You There" returned to number one on the R&B chart in 1991 when it was covered by BeBe & CeCe Winans, with Mavis Staples featured as a guest artist on the track. The single also made No. 90 on the Hot 100.[10]
Female rap trio Salt-N-Pepa sampled "I'll Take You There" in their 1991 hit "Let's Talk About Sex".
R&B singer Kelly Price's cover was featured on the soundtrack to Tyler Perry's Meet the Browns.
The American rock band Sammy Hagar and the Waboritas recorded a cover of the song "I'll Take You There" for their 2006 album Livin' It Up!, albeit with modified lyrics and the title, "Let Me Take You There".
In 2010, British rap artist Dizzee Rascal sampled the track on his single "Dirtee Disco".
Robert Randolph & the Family Band released a cover of the song on their Live in Concert album in October 2011. Blues artist Susan Tedeschi guests on vocals.
See also[edit]
List of number-one R&B singles of 1972 (U.S.)
List of Hot 100 number-one singles of 1972 (U.S.)
List of number-one R&B singles of 1991 (U.S.)
List of number-one dance singles of 1994 (U.S.)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Climax - Chart History - The Hot 100, Billboard.com. Accessed April 16, 2018.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942-2004. Record Research. p. 631.
Jump up ^ "Billboard Top 100 - 1994". Archived from the original on 2009-03-01. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942-2004. Record Research. p. 547.
Jump up ^ Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 1972
Jump up ^ "The RS 500 Greatest Songs of All Time". RollingStone.com. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
Jump up ^ "Children of a Lesser God". IMDb.com. Retrieved 2011-07-24.
Jump up ^ "Billboard Top 100 - 1994". Archived from the original on 2009-03-01. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
Jump up ^ "RPM 100 Hit Tracks of 1994". RPM. Retrieved November 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942-2004. Record Research. p. 631.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
show
v
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The Staple Singers
Pops Staples
Cleotha Staples
Pervis Staples
Yvonne Staples
Mavis Staples
Albums
Freedom Highway (1965)
The Staple Swingers (1971)
Be Altitude: Respect Yourself (1972)
Be What You Are (1973)
Let's Do It Again (1975)
Singles
"Respect Yourself"
"I'll Take You There"
"If You're Ready (Come Go with Me)"
"Touch a Hand, Make a Friend"
"Let's Do It Again"
hide
v
t
e
General Public
Dave Wakeling
Ranking Roger
Mickey Billingham
Horace Panter
Andy "Stoker" Growcott
Mick Jones
Kevin White
Gianni Minardi
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=I%27ll_Take_You_There&oldid=854507825"
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text:
Climate of Vancouver
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Vancouver Harbour
Climate chart (explanation)
J F M A M J J A S O N D
179
7
3
184
8
3
156
11
5
118
14
7
87
17
10
70
20
12
53
22
14
51
22
14
73
19
12
148
14
8
239
9
5
231
7
3
Average max. and min. temperatures in °C
Precipitation totals in mm
Source: Environment Canada
[show]Imperial conversion
J F M A M J J A S O N D
7
44
37
7.2
47
38
6.1
51
40
4.6
56
44
3.4
62
49
2.8
67
54
2.1
72
57
2
72
58
2.9
66
53
5.8
57
47
9.4
49
41
9.1
44
37
Average max. and min. temperatures in °F
Precipitation totals in inches
The climate of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada is a moderate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) that borders on a warm-summer Mediterranean climate Csb. With summer months that are typically dry, often resulting in moderate drought conditions, usually in July and August. In contrast, the rest of the year is rainy, especially between October and March.
Like the rest of the British Columbia Coast, the city is tempered by the North Pacific Current, which has its origins in the milder Kuroshio Current and is also to an extent, sheltered by the mountains of Vancouver Island, to the west.
Contents
[hide]
1 General conditions
1.1 Temperatures
1.2 Daylight
2 Statistics
3 Precipitation
3.1 Rain
3.2 Snow
4 Severe weather
4.1 Fall-winter 2006 storms
5 Notes
6 References
General conditions[edit]
The climatology of Vancouver applies to the entire Greater Vancouver region and not just to the City of Vancouver itself. While Vancouver's coastal location serves to moderate its temperatures, sea breezes and mountainous terrain make Greater Vancouver a region of microclimates, with local variations in weather sometimes being more exaggerated than those experienced in other coastal areas.
Predicting precipitation in the Greater Vancouver area is particularly complex. It is a rule of thumb that for every rise of 100 m (330 ft) in elevation, there is an additional 100 mm (3.9 in) (1.2 in (30 mm) per 100 ft (30 m)) of precipitation, so places such as the District of North Vancouver on the North Shore Mountains get more rain. Snow is problematic for meteorologists to predict due to temperatures remaining close to freezing during snow events.
Temperatures[edit]
The annual average temperature in Vancouver is 11.0 °C (51.8 °F) downtown and 10.4 °C (50.7 °F) at the airport, in Richmond, amongst the warmest in Canada. It is located in a USDA plant hardiness zone of 8,[1] similar to other coastal or near-coastal cities such as Seattle, Portland, Amsterdam and London, as well as places such as Atlanta, Georgia and Raleigh, North Carolina, far to the south. The mild climate allows plants such as the Windmill Palm to sustain. Vancouver's growing season averages 221 days, from March 29 until November 5. This is 72 days longer than Toronto's, and longer than any other major centre in Canada.[2]
Despite normally mild winters resulting from the onshore flow over the North Pacific Current, occasional arrivals of cold arctic outflows (sinking cold continental air that flows down through the Fraser Valley coastward) in winter can sometimes last a week or more. These arctic outbreaks occur on average about one to three times per winter. In an extreme case, the coldest month on record at Vancouver International Airport was in January 1950 when an arctic air inflow moved in from the Fraser Valley and remained locked over the city, with an average low of −9.7 °C (15 °F) and an average high of only −2.9 °C (27 °F), making for a daily average of −6.3 °C (20.7 °F), 10 °C (18 °F) colder than normal. The coldest temperature ever recorded in the city was −17.8 °C (0 °F) on January 14, 1950 and again on December 29, 1968. The coldest temperature across Metro Vancouver, however, is −23.3 °C (−10 °F) recorded on January 23, 1969.[3]
With snow being an infrequent occurrence over a typically mild winter, many cold hardy flowers remain in bloom and are common in gardens and office exteriors throughout the winter. The arrival of spring is often first noticed in February with slightly milder temperatures and the return of flowering perennials. It's also not uncommon for cherry blossoms to begin blooming later in the month, as was seen prominently during the 2010 Winter Olympics.
The Greater Vancouver region is also subject to significant variations in summer temperatures, which can differ by as much as 5–10 °C (9–18 °F) between inland areas of the Fraser Valley and the ocean-tempered coastal regions when localized on-shore breezes are in effect. Conversely, winter temperatures tend to be cooler inland by a couple of degrees.
Daylight[edit]
The relatively high latitude of 49° 15′ 0″ N (e.g. like Paris, France) means sunsets as early as 4:15 pm and sunrises as late as 8:10 am. From November to February, at the sunshine measuring station at the airport in Richmond, on average more than 70% of the already short daytime is completely cloudy. The percentage of cloudiness is higher in Vancouver and especially the North Shore because upslope winds going up the mountainsides lead to the development of clouds.
Summers, in contrast, are characterized by a nearly opposite weather pattern, with consistent high pressure and sunshine. July and August are the sunniest months. For several nights near the summer solstice, there are less than 7.5 hours between sunset and sunrise, with twilight lasting past 10 pm.
Statistics[edit]
[show]Climate data for Vancouver International Airport (Richmond), 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1898–present[a]
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high humidex
17.2 18.0 20.3 23.9 33.7 33.9 38.3 35.9 33.0 27.2 21.1 16.1 38.3
Record high °C (°F)
15.3
(59.5) 18.4
(65.1) 20.0
(68) 26.1
(79) 30.4
(86.7) 33.3
(91.9) 34.4
(93.9) 33.3
(91.9) 30.0
(86) 25.0
(77) 20.1
(68.2) 15.0
(59) 34.4
(93.9)
Average high °C (°F)
6.9
(44.4) 8.2
(46.8) 10.3
(50.5) 13.2
(55.8) 16.7
(62.1) 19.6
(67.3) 22.2
(72) 22.2
(72) 18.9
(66) 13.5
(56.3) 9.2
(48.6) 6.3
(43.3) 13.9
(57)
Daily mean °C (°F)
4.1
(39.4) 4.9
(40.8) 6.9
(44.4) 9.4
(48.9) 12.8
(55) 15.7
(60.3) 18.0
(64.4) 18.0
(64.4) 14.9
(58.8) 10.3
(50.5) 6.3
(43.3) 3.6
(38.5) 10.4
(50.7)
Average low °C (°F)
1.4
(34.5) 1.6
(34.9) 3.4
(38.1) 5.6
(42.1) 8.8
(47.8) 11.7
(53.1) 13.7
(56.7) 13.8
(56.8) 10.8
(51.4) 7.0
(44.6) 3.5
(38.3) 0.8
(33.4) 6.8
(44.2)
Record low °C (°F)
−17.8
(0) −16.1
(3) −9.4
(15.1) −3.3
(26.1) 0.6
(33.1) 2.2
(36) 6.1
(43) 3.9
(39) −1.1
(30) −6.1
(21) −14.3
(6.3) −17.8
(0) −17.8
(0)
Record low wind chill
−22.6 −21.2 −14.5 −5.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 −11.4 −21.3 −27.8 −27.8
Average precipitation mm (inches)
168.4
(6.63) 104.6
(4.118) 113.9
(4.484) 88.5
(3.484) 65.0
(2.559) 53.8
(2.118) 35.6
(1.402) 36.7
(1.445) 50.9
(2.004) 120.8
(4.756) 188.9
(7.437) 161.9
(6.374) 1,189
(46.811)
Average rainfall mm (inches)
157.5
(6.201) 98.9
(3.894) 111.8
(4.402) 88.1
(3.469) 65.0
(2.559) 53.8
(2.118) 35.6
(1.402) 36.7
(1.445) 50.9
(2.004) 120.7
(4.752) 185.8
(7.315) 148.3
(5.839) 1,153.1
(45.4)
Average snowfall cm (inches)
11.1
(4.37) 6.3
(2.48) 2.3
(0.91) 0.3
(0.12) 0.0
(0) 0.0
(0) 0.0
(0) 0.0
(0) 0.0
(0) 0.1
(0.04) 3.2
(1.26) 14.8
(5.83) 38.1
(15)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.2 mm)
19.5 15.4 17.7 14.8 13.2 11.5 6.3 6.7 8.3 15.4 20.4 19.7 168.9
Average rainy days (≥ 0.2 mm)
18.4 14.7 17.5 14.8 13.2 11.5 6.3 6.8 8.3 15.4 19.9 18.4 165.2
Average snowy days (≥ 0.2 cm)
2.6 1.4 0.9 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.03 0.8 2.8 8.73
Average relative humidity (%) (at 1500 LST)
81.2 74.5 70.1 65.4 63.5 62.2 61.4 61.8 67.2 75.6 79.5 80.9 70.3
Mean monthly sunshine hours
60.2 91.0 134.8 185.0 222.5 226.9 289.8 277.1 212.8 120.7 60.4 56.5 1,937.5
Percent possible sunshine
22.3 31.8 36.6 45.0 46.9 46.8 59.3 62.1 56.1 36.0 21.9 22.0 40.6
Source: Environment Canada[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]
[show]Climate data for Vancouver Harbour CS (1971-2000)
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °C (°F)
15.6
(60.1) 16.4
(61.5) 19.1
(66.4) 23.9
(75) 32.7
(90.9) 30.0
(86) 31.7
(89.1) 31.7
(89.1) 28.5
(83.3) 24.2
(75.6) 17.0
(62.6) 15.0
(59) 32.7
(90.9)
Average high °C (°F)
6.8
(44.2) 8.4
(47.1) 10.6
(51.1) 13.5
(56.3) 16.8
(62.2) 19.6
(67.3) 22.0
(71.6) 22.3
(72.1) 19.0
(66.2) 13.9
(57) 9.3
(48.7) 6.8
(44.2) 14.1
(57.4)
Daily mean °C (°F)
4.8
(40.6) 5.9
(42.6) 7.6
(45.7) 10.0
(50) 13.2
(55.8) 15.9
(60.6) 18.1
(64.6) 18.3
(64.9) 15.4
(59.7) 11.1
(52) 7.1
(44.8) 4.8
(40.6) 11.0
(51.8)
Average low °C (°F)
2.7
(36.9) 3.4
(38.1) 4.6
(40.3) 6.5
(43.7) 9.5
(49.1) 12.2
(54) 14.1
(57.4) 14.4
(57.9) 11.6
(52.9) 8.2
(46.8) 4.8
(40.6) 2.8
(37) 7.9
(46.2)
Record low °C (°F)
−13.3
(8.1) −6.7
(19.9) −5
(23) −1.1
(30) 1.1
(34) 2.8
(37) 2.8
(37) 5.0
(41) 1.7
(35.1) −3.2
(26.2) −9.9
(14.2) −15.6
(3.9) −15.6
(3.9)
Average precipitation mm (inches)
178.8
(7.039) 183.8
(7.236) 155.8
(6.134) 117.9
(4.642) 86.7
(3.413) 69.9
(2.752) 53.4
(2.102) 50.8
(2) 73.3
(2.886) 147.8
(5.819) 239.2
(9.417) 231.3
(9.106) 1,588.6
(62.543)
Average rainfall mm (inches)
143.6
(5.654) 173.5
(6.831) 153.1
(6.028) 117.0
(4.606) 86.7
(3.413) 69.9
(2.752) 49.1
(1.933) 48.3
(1.902) 71.0
(2.795) 131.9
(5.193) 219.5
(8.642) 211.5
(8.327) 1,474.9
(58.067)
Average snowfall cm (inches)
15.3
(6.02) 10.2
(4.02) 2.7
(1.06) 0.9
(0.35) 0.0
(0) 0.0
(0) 0.0
(0) 0.0
(0) 0.0
(0) 0.0
(0) 2.7
(1.06) 11.8
(4.65) 43.6
(17.17)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.2 mm)
18.3 16.4 16.6 14.9 12.9 11.6 7.6 7.7 9.4 14.9 19.8 19.1 169.1
Average rainy days (≥ 0.2 mm)
14.8 16.3 15.9 14.2 13.2 10.7 6.7 7.8 9.8 12.0 16.8 16.2 154.5
Average snowy days (≥ 0.2 cm)
2.8 1.9 0.89 0.24 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.05 0.88 2.9 9.6
Mean monthly sunshine hours
51.1 79.6 124.7 161.3 222.8 223.5 276.8 256.6 178.3 127.3 66.9 49.6 1,818.4
Source #1: Environment Canada[20]
Source #2: Environment Canada (sun, 1961-1990)[21]
[show]Climate data for Oakridge, Vancouver (1981-2010)
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Average precipitation mm (inches)
222.7
(8.768) 111.4
(4.386) 125.0
(4.921) 101.7
(4.004) 75.3
(2.965) 67.8
(2.669) 42.6
(1.677) 48.4
(1.906) 59.1
(2.327) 156.8
(6.173) 238.5
(9.39) 207.3
(8.161) 1,456.6
(57.346)
Average rainfall mm (inches)
207.0
(8.15) 106.8
(4.205) 122.5
(4.823) 101.7
(4.004) 75.1
(2.957) 67.8
(2.669) 42.6
(1.677) 48.4
(1.906) 59.1
(2.327) 156.7
(6.169) 233.5
(9.193) 190.9
(7.516) 1,412
(55.591)
Average snowfall cm (inches)
15.7
(6.18) 4.5
(1.77) 2.6
(1.02) 0.0
(0) 0.2
(0.08) 0.0
(0) 0.0
(0) 0.0
(0) 0.0
(0) 0.1
(0.04) 5.0
(1.97) 16.4
(6.46) 44.6
(17.56)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.2 mm)
19.9 14.5 17.3 15.8 12.7 10.9 7.0 7.1 7.6 15.6 19.6 20.2 168.2
Average rainy days (≥ 0.2 mm)
18.4 13.9 16.9 15.8 12.7 10.9 7.0 7.1 7.6 15.6 19.1 18.8 163.7
Average snowy days (≥ 0.2 cm)
3.1 0.9 0.6 0.0 0.07 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.06 0.8 3.1 8.6
Source: Environment Canada[22]
Precipitation[edit]
Rain[edit]
Vancouver on a rainy day
Vancouver is Canada's third most rainy city, with over 161 rainy days per year. As measured at Vancouver Airport in Richmond, Vancouver receives 1,153.1 mm (45.40 in) of rain per year. In North Vancouver, about 20 km (12 mi) away from the Vancouver airport, the amount of rain received doubles to 2,477 mm (97.5 in) per year as measured at the base of Grouse Mountain.[23]
Thunderstorms are rare, with an average of 6.1 thunderstorm days per year.[24] The weather in spring and autumn is usually showery and cool.
Grass-cutting season often begins in March and continues through October. Summers can be quite dry, and, as such, grass that has not been watered may not need to be cut for a month or even longer. Some summers may have no rain for five weeks or more, while others might have several very wet days in a row. In addition, Vancouver is one of the driest cities in Canada during the summer season, but the rest of the year the high pressure that locks in during the summer moves out and is replaced by the usual low pressure systems (rainy weather) by fall through to mid spring.
July is historically the driest month in Vancouver and, in fact, Vancouver International Airport recorded no rainfall at all during the whole month of July 2013;[25] the first time ever in recorded history. Many other Julys have recorded less than 1 mm (0.04 in) of rain in Vancouver.
Snow[edit]
A snowy day in Gastown in January 2004.
Snow falls in the higher-lying areas of Greater Vancouver, such as Burnaby Mountain, Coquitlam, and North and West Vancouver, every winter. It is also common in places close to or at sea level, however in lesser amounts. There is a general misconception among visitors and residents of other parts of Canada that Vancouver does not receive any snow at all, but in fact there has never been a year in which traceable snow has not been observed at Vancouver International Airport. The year 2015 marked an entire year of no measurable snow; only a trace was recorded on December 17, 2015. Environment Canada has ranked Vancouver in 3rd place under the category of "Lowest Snowfall" among 100 major Canadian cities as the annual average of days with snowfall above 0.2 cm is only at 8.7 days.[26] Vancouver's coastal climate has nonetheless allowed it to be ranked in 59th place under the category of "Most huge snowfall days (25 cm or more)", placing it above cities like Calgary and Toronto as Vancouver averages 0.13 days annually with snowfall accumulations above 25 cm (within a calendar day).[27][24][dead link]
Snow in Vancouver tends to be quite wet, which, combined with typical winter temperatures rising above and falling below 0 °C (32 °F) throughout the course of the day, can make for icy road conditions.
Years or months with snowfall surpassing 100 cm (39 in) are not completely exceptional. Snowfall exceeding 100 cm (39 in) occurred twice during the 1990s, and, in January 1971 alone, there was more than 120 cm (47 in) of snow. The snowiest year on record at Vancouver International Airport was 1971, which received a total of 242.6 cm (95.5 in), and the greatest snow depth reported was 61 cm (24 in) on January 15 of that year.
Although the 30–60 cm (12–24 in) which fell across Greater Vancouver and the Lower Mainland in a 24‑hour period in November 2006 was out of the ordinary, snow has in fact accumulated at sea level in all months except for June, July, and August. However, even small amounts of snow in the Vancouver area can cause school closures, as well as produce traffic problems. The low frequency of snowfall makes it hard to justify the public works infrastructure necessary for more effective snow removal, as the city is usually in a thaw situation long before plowing of streets are completed. The City budgets $400,000 per year for the maintenance of snow removal equipment, for the purchasing of deicing salt, and for the training of staff, but the costs of actual snow removal are funded separately from contingency reserve funds, and vary widely from season to season. For example, $1.1 million was spent in 1998, compared to $0 in 2001.[28] Blizzards are extremely rare, but heavy snowfall events are more common. One such event in 1996 resulted in over 60 cm (24 in) of snow in Vancouver and was responsible for millions of dollars in damage.
According to Environment Canada (2011), Vancouver now has a 20% chance of a White Christmas (up from 11%).[29] Vancouver experienced a White Christmas in 2008 after weeks of record breaking cold temperatures and four consecutive snow storms, leaving over 60 cm (24 in) of snow on the ground across Metro Vancouver. New snow also accumulated on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day giving it the title for Canada's whitest Christmas in 2008 with 41 cm (16 in) on ground (48 cm (19 in) at one point on Christmas Eve). Snow was also present for Christmas 2007, when 1 cm (0.39 in) was measured at the Vancouver International Airport. The previous official White Christmas occurred in 1998 when 20 cm (7.9 in) of snow was on the ground on Christmas Day following 31 cm (12 in) of snow and 20 mm (0.79 in) of rain. Despite higher frequency of snow during certain periods of the season (pattern unknown), generally, annual winter snowfall has decreased over the last 20 years.[30]
Severe weather[edit]
Photograph of damage caused by the 1934 storm published in the February 8, 1935 edition of Vancouver Daily Province.
Gales are unlikely during the autumn months in Greater Vancouver. Three wind storms in the city's history have knocked down large swathes of trees in the forest of Stanley Park, the first having occurred in October 1934, with a blizzard the following January compounding its impact.[31] The second wind storm to hit Stanley Park was the remnant of Typhoon Freda in 1962 that levelled a 6-acre (24,000 m2) tract of forest. This is now site of the park's miniature railroad.[32]
Tree uprooted by the Hanukkah Eve Wind Storm of 2006 on December 15, 2006.
Fall-winter 2006 storms[edit]
Main article: 2006 storms in Vancouver, Canada
In November 2006, the Greater Vancouver region experienced above-average levels of rainfall and snowfall, breaking the previously established record of 18.1 cm (7.1 in) when 25.5 cm (10.0 in) of rain fell within the first 16 days of the month.[33] The heavy rain washed sediment into the city's reservoirs, and, as result, many businesses were advised to stop serving beverages prepared from tap water due to water contamination.
At Vancouver International Airport 28 cm (11 in) of snow was recorded from the night of November 25 to the morning of November 27. The temperature dropped to −12 °C (10 °F) on November 28, 1.8 °C (3 °F) higher than the record low for the day, which was set in November 1985. On November 29, 10 cm (3.9 in) more snow fell on the city. The snowfall resulted in the closure of a number of public institutions and caused power outages throughout Surrey and Langley.
The Hanukkah Eve Wind Storm of 2006 swept through Greater Vancouver on December 15, 2006 with winds reaching from 70 to 125 km/h (43 to 78 mph). In Stanley Park, it damaged or uprooted over 5,000 trees, and caused mudslides, one of which destroyed a section of the seawall.[34][35] Insured damages throughout the province were expected to reach CA$40 million and repairs to Stanley Park were expected to cost $9 million.[36][37]
The view from the Burrard Bridge of the mouth of False Creek on a dry summer day.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ 1981–2010 normals are for Vancouver International Airport, while extreme high and low temperatures are from Vancouver PMO (October 1898 to May 1945),[4] and Vancouver International Airport (January 1937 to present).[5]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Plant Hardiness Zone Map for North America".
Jump up ^ "Frost Chart for Canada". The Old Farmers Almanac. Retrieved 2012-10-01.
Jump up ^ "Weather Data – PITT POLDER". Environment Canada. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "Daily Data Report for October 1898". Environment Canada. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Monthly Data Report for 1937". Environment Canada. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "1981 to 2010 Canadian Climate Normals". Environment Canada. 2015-09-22. Climate ID: 1108447. Retrieved 2016-05-09.
Jump up ^ "Daily Data Report for March 1941". Canadian Climate Data. Environment Canada. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Daily Data Report for April 1934". Canadian Climate Data. Environment Canada. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Daily Data Report for June 1925". Canadian Climate Data. Environment Canada. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Daily Data Report for September 1944". Canadian Climate Data. Environment Canada. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Daily Data Report for October 1934". Canadian Climate Data. Environment Canada. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Daily Data Report for December 1939". Canadian Climate Data. Environment Canada. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Daily Data Report for June 1901". Canadian Climate Data. Environment Canada. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Daily Data Report for July 1909". Canadian Climate Data. Environment Canada. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Daily Data Report for August 1910". Canadian Climate Data. Environment Canada. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Daily Data Report for September 1908". Canadian Climate Data. Environment Canada. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Daily Data Report for October 1935". Canadian Climate Data. Environment Canada. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Calculation Information". Environment Canada. Retrieved 2016-05-12.
Jump up ^ "Daily Data Report for November 2016". Canadian Climate Data. Environment Canada. Retrieved 9 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "Vancouver Harbour CS, British Columbia". Canadian Climate Normals 1971–2000. Environment Canada. Retrieved 2016-11-04.
Jump up ^ "Vancouver BCHPA, British Columbia". Canadian Climate Normals 1961–1990. Environment Canada. Retrieved 2013-02-20.
Jump up ^ "Vancouver Oakridge, British Columbia". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010. Environment Canada. Retrieved 2016-04-19.
Jump up ^ Osborn, Liz. "Canada's Rainiest Cities". CurrentResults.com. Retrieved 2013-12-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Weather Winners WebSites
Jump up ^ Driest July ever in Vancouver, record rain in Toronto
Jump up ^ Canadian Climate Normals 1981-2010 Station Data - Climate - Environment Canada
Jump up ^ Canadian Climate Normals 1981-2010 Station Data - Climate - Environment Canada
Jump up ^ Engineering Services, Streets
Jump up ^ "Environment Canada – Weather and Meteorology – Chance of White Christmas". Environment Canada. 2013-12-17. Archived from the original on 2013-03-01. Retrieved 2013-12-26.
Jump up ^ Climate Normals & Averages | Canada's National Climate Archive Archived June 27, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.. Climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca. Retrieved on 2013-12-15.
Jump up ^ "The Damage in the Park". Vancouver Daily Province. February 9, 1935.
Jump up ^ Hazlitt, Tom (May 22, 1964). "It's for real – this railroad". Vancouver Daily Province.
Jump up ^ Vancouver, The (2006-11-30). "Our wettest month ever". Canada.com. Archived from the original on 2014-04-11. Retrieved 2013-12-26.
Jump up ^ Rook, Katie (2006-12-19). "Stanley Park 'looks like a war zone'". National Post. Archived from the original on 2007-03-13. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
Jump up ^ Kieltyka, Matt (2006-12-18). "'Look around, it's just devastation'". 24 Hours. Archived from the original on 2012-07-16. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
Jump up ^ "Insurance claims could hit $80m" by The Province Archived 2013-10-20 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Stanley Park restoration cost rises to $9 million" by CanWest News Service Archived 2013-09-21 at the Wayback Machine.
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