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Dynamo
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Not to be confused with dynamometer.
For other uses, see Dynamo (disambiguation).
"Dynamo Electric Machine" (end view, partly section, U.S. Patent 284,110)
A dynamo is an electrical generator that produces direct current with the use of a commutator. Dynamos were the first electrical generators capable of delivering power for industry, and the foundation upon which many other later electric-power conversion devices were based, including the electric motor, the alternating-current alternator, and the rotary converter. Today, the simpler alternator dominates large scale power generation, for efficiency, reliability and cost reasons. A dynamo has the disadvantages of a mechanical commutator. Also, converting alternating to direct current using power rectification devices (vacuum tube or more recently solid state) is effective and usually economical.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Description
2.1 Commutation
2.2 Excitation
3 History
3.1 Induction with permanent magnets
3.2 The first dynamos
3.3 Dynamo self excitation
3.4 Practical designs
3.5 Rotary converters
4 Historical uses
4.1 Electric power generation
4.2 Transport
5 Modern uses
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Etymology[edit]
The word dynamo (from the Greek word dynamis(δύναμις), meaning force or power) was originally another name for an electrical generator, and still has some regional usage as a replacement for the word generator. The word "dynamo" was coined in 1831 by Michael Faraday, who utilized his invention toward making many discoveries in electricity (Faraday discovered electrical induction) and magnetism (see Williams, L. Pearce, “Michael Faraday,” p. 296-298, Da Capo series, New York, N.Y. (1965). Also, ", "Experimental Researches in Electricity," Vol. 1, Series I (Nov. 1831); footnote for Art. 79, p. 23, 'Ampère's Inductive Results,' Michael Faraday, D.C.L, F.R.S.; Reprinted From The Philosophical Transactions Of 1846-1852, with other Electrical Papers from the Proceedings of the Royal Institution and Philosophical Magazine, Richard Taylor and William Francis, Printers and Publishers to the University of London, Red Lion Court, Fleet Str., London, England (1855).
Electricity Werner von Siemens in 1882.[1] The original "dynamo principle" of W. Siemens meant only the direct current generators which use exclusively the self-excitation (self-induction) principle to generate DC power. The earlier DC generators which used permanent magnets were not considered "dynamo electric machines".[2] The invention of the Dynamo principle (self-induction) was a huge technological leap over the old traditional permanent magnet based DC generators. The discovery of the dynamo principle made industrial scale electric power generation technically and economically feasible. After the invention of the alternator and that alternating current can be used as a power supply, the word dynamo became associated exclusively with the commutated direct current electric generator, while an AC electrical generator using either slip rings or rotor magnets would become known as an alternator.
A small electrical generator built into the hub of a bicycle wheel to power lights is called a hub dynamo, although these are invariably AC devices,[citation needed] and are actually magnetos.
Description[edit]
The electric dynamo uses rotating coils of wire and magnetic fields to convert mechanical rotation into a pulsing direct electric current through Faraday's law of induction. A dynamo machine consists of a stationary structure, called the stator, which provides a constant magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings called the armature which turn within that field. Due to Faraday's law of induction the motion of the wire within the magnetic field creates an electromotive force which pushes on the electrons in the metal, creating an electric current in the wire. On small machines the constant magnetic field may be provided by one or more permanent magnets; larger machines have the constant magnetic field provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called field coils.
Commutation[edit]
Main article: Commutator (electric)
The commutator is needed to produce direct current. When a loop of wire rotates in a magnetic field, the magnetic flux through it, and thus the potential induced in it, reverses with each half turn, generating an alternating current. However, in the early days of electric experimentation, alternating current generally had no known use. The few uses for electricity, such as electroplating, used direct current provided by messy liquid batteries. Dynamos were invented as a replacement for batteries. The commutator is essentially a rotary switch. It consists of a set of contacts mounted on the machine's shaft, combined with graphite-block stationary contacts, called "brushes", because the earliest such fixed contacts were metal brushes. The commutator reverses the connection of the windings to the external circuit when the potential reverses, so instead of alternating current, a pulsing direct current is produced.
Excitation[edit]
Main article: Excitation (magnetic)
The earliest dynamos used permanent magnets to create the magnetic field. These were referred to as "magneto-electric machines" or magnetos.[3] However, researchers found that stronger magnetic fields, and so more power, could be produced by using electromagnets (field coils) on the stator.[4] These were called "dynamo-electric machines" or dynamos.[3] The field coils of the stator were originally separately excited by a separate, smaller, dynamo or magneto. An important development by Wilde and Siemens was the discovery (by 1866) that a dynamo could also bootstrap itself to be self-excited, using current generated by the dynamo itself. This allowed the growth of a much more powerful field, thus far greater output power.
Self-excited direct current dynamos commonly have a combination of series and parallel (shunt) field windings which are directly supplied power by the rotor through the commutator in a regenerative manner. They are started and operated in a manner similar to modern portable alternating current electric generators, which are not used with other generators on an electric grid.
There is a weak residual magnetic field that persists in the metal frame of the device when it is not operating, which has been imprinted onto the metal by the field windings. The dynamo begins rotating while not connected to an external load. The residual magnetic field induces a very small electrical current into the rotor windings as they begin to rotate. Without an external load attached, this small current is then fully supplied to the field windings, which in combination with the residual field, cause the rotor to produce more current. In this manner the self-exciting dynamo builds up its internal magnetic fields until it reaches its normal operating voltage. When it is able to produce sufficient current to sustain both its internal fields and an external load, it is ready to be used.
A self-excited dynamo with insufficient residual magnetic field in the metal frame will not be able to produce any current in the rotor, regardless of what speed the rotor spins. This situation can also occur in modern self-excited portable generators, and is resolved for both types of generators in a similar manner, by applying a brief direct current battery charge to the output terminals of the stopped generator. The battery energizes the windings just enough to imprint the residual field, to enable building up the current. This is referred to as flashing the field.
Both types of self-excited generator, which have been attached to a large external load while it was stationary, will not be able to build up voltage even if the residual field is present. The load acts as an energy sink and continuously drains away the small rotor current produced by the residual field, preventing magnetic field buildup in the field coil.
History[edit]
Induction with permanent magnets[edit]
The Faraday disk was the first electric generator. The horseshoe-shaped magnet (A) created a magnetic field through the disk (D). When the disk was turned, this induced an electric current radially outward from the center toward the rim. The current flowed out through the sliding spring contact m, through the external circuit, and back into the center of the disk through the axle.
The operating principle of electromagnetic generators was discovered in the years 1831–1832 by Michael Faraday. The principle, later called Faraday's law, is that an electromotive force is generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux.
He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk, a type of homopolar generator, using a copper disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. It produced a small DC voltage. This was not a dynamo in the current sense, because it did not use a commutator.
This design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions of the disk that were not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside the influence of the magnetic field. This counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires, and induced waste heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array of magnets arranged around the disc perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow direction.
Another disadvantage was that the output voltage was very low, due to the single current path through the magnetic flux. Faraday and others found that higher, more useful voltages could be produced by winding multiple turns of wire into a coil. Wire windings can conveniently produce any voltage desired by changing the number of turns, so they have been a feature of all subsequent generator designs, requiring the invention of the commutator to produce direct current.
The first dynamos[edit]
Hippolyte Pixii's dynamo. The commutator is located on the shaft below the spinning magnet.
The first dynamo based on Faraday's principles was built in 1832 by Hippolyte Pixii, a French instrument maker. It used a permanent magnet which was rotated by a crank. The spinning magnet was positioned so that its north and south poles passed by a piece of iron wrapped with insulated wire.
Pixii found that the spinning magnet produced a pulse of current in the wire each time a pole passed the coil. However, the north and south poles of the magnet induced currents in opposite directions. To convert the alternating current to DC, Pixii invented a commutator, a split metal cylinder on the shaft, with two springy metal contacts that pressed against it.
Pacinotti dynamo, 1860
This early design had a problem: the electric current it produced consisted of a series of "spikes" or pulses of current separated by none at all, resulting in a low average power output. As with electric motors of the period, the designers did not fully realize the seriously detrimental effects of large air gaps in the magnetic circuit.
Antonio Pacinotti, an Italian physics professor, solved this problem around 1860 by replacing the spinning two-pole axial coil with a multi-pole toroidal one, which he created by wrapping an iron ring with a continuous winding, connected to the commutator at many equally spaced points around the ring; the commutator being divided into many segments. This meant that some part of the coil was continually passing by the magnets, smoothing out the current.[5]
The Woolrich Electrical Generator of 1844, now in Thinktank, Birmingham Science Museum, is the earliest electrical generator used in an industrial process.[6] It was used by the firm of Elkingtons for commercial electroplating.[7][8][9]
The Woolrich Electrical Generator in Thinktank, Birmingham
Dynamo self excitation[edit]
Independently of Faraday, the Hungarian Anyos Jedlik started experimenting in 1827 with the electromagnetic rotating devices which he called electromagnetic self-rotors. In the prototype of the single-pole electric starter, both the stationary and the revolving parts were electromagnetic.
About 1856 he formulated the concept of the dynamo about six years before Siemens and Wheatstone but did not patent it as he thought he was not the first to realize this. His dynamo used, instead of permanent magnets, two electromagnets placed opposite to each other to induce the magnetic field around the rotor.[10][11] It was also the discovery of the principle of dynamo self-excitation,[12] which replaced permanent magnet designs.
Practical designs[edit]
This large belt-driven high-current dynamo from around 1917 produced 310 amperes at 7 volts DC. The huge complicated commutator (left) was needed to handle the large current. Dynamos are no longer used due to the size and complexity of commutators needed for high power applications.
The dynamo was the first electrical generator capable of delivering power for industry. The modern dynamo, fit for use in industrial applications, was invented independently by Sir Charles Wheatstone, Werner von Siemens and Samuel Alfred Varley. Varley took out a patent on 24 December 1866, while Siemens and Wheatstone both announced their discoveries on 17 January 1867, the latter delivering a paper on his discovery to the Royal Society.
The "dynamo-electric machine" employed self-powering electromagnetic field coils rather than permanent magnets to create the stator field.[13] Wheatstone's design was similar to Siemens', with the difference that in the Siemens design the stator electromagnets were in series with the rotor, but in Wheatstone's design they were in parallel.[14] The use of electromagnets rather than permanent magnets greatly increased the power output of a dynamo and enabled high power generation for the first time. This invention led directly to the first major industrial uses of electricity. For example, in the 1870s Siemens used electromagnetic dynamos to power electric arc furnaces for the production of metals and other materials.
The dynamo machine that was developed consisted of a stationary structure, which provides the magnetic field, and a set of rotating windings which turn within that field. On larger machines the constant magnetic field is provided by one or more electromagnets, which are usually called field coils.
Small Gramme dynamo, around 1878.
Zénobe Gramme reinvented Pacinotti's design in 1871 when designing the first commercial power plants operated in Paris. An advantage of Gramme's design was a better path for the magnetic flux, by filling the space occupied by the magnetic field with heavy iron cores and minimizing the air gaps between the stationary and rotating parts. The Gramme dynamo was one of the first machines to generate commercial quantities of power for industry.[15] Further improvements were made on the Gramme ring, but the basic concept of a spinning endless loop of wire remains at the heart of all modern dynamos.[16]
Charles F. Brush assembled his first dynamo in the summer of 1876 using a horse-drawn treadmill to power it. Brush's design modified the Gramme dynamo by shaping the ring armature like a disc rather than a cylinder shape. The field electromagnets were also positioned on the sides of the armature disc rather than around the circumference.[17][18]
Rotary converters[edit]
After dynamos and motors were found to allow easy conversion back and forth between mechanical or electrical power, they were combined in devices called rotary converters, rotating machines whose purpose was not to provide mechanical power to loads but to convert one type of electric current into another, for example DC into AC. They were multi-field single-rotor devices with two or more sets of rotating contacts (either commutators or sliprings, as required), one to provide power to one set of armature windings to turn the device, and one or more attached to other windings to produce the output current.
The rotary converter can directly convert, internally, any type of electric power into any other. This includes converting between direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC), three phase and single phase power, 25 Hz AC and 60 Hz AC, or many different output voltages at the same time. The size and mass of the rotor was made large so that the rotor would act as a flywheel to help smooth out any sudden surges or dropouts in the applied power.
The technology of rotary converters was replaced in the early 20th century by mercury-vapor rectifiers, which were smaller, did not produce vibration and noise, and required less maintenance. The same conversion tasks are now performed by solid state power semiconductor devices. Rotary converters remained in use in the West Side IRT subway in Manhattan into the late 1960s, and possibly some years later. They were powered by 25 Hz AC, and provided DC at 600 volts for the trains.
Historical uses[edit]
Electric power generation[edit]
Dynamos, usually driven by steam engines, were widely used in power stations to generate electricity for industrial and domestic purposes. They have since been replaced by alternators.
Large industrial dynamos with series and parallel (shunt) windings can be difficult to use together in a power plant, unless either the rotor or field wiring or the mechanical drive systems are coupled together in certain special combinations. It seems theoretically possible to run dynamos in parallel to create induction and self sustaining system for electrical power. [19]
Transport[edit]
Dynamos were used in motor vehicles to generate electricity for battery charging. An early type was the third-brush dynamo. They have, again, been replaced by alternators.
Modern uses[edit]
Dynamos still have some uses in low power applications, particularly where low voltage DC is required, since an alternator with a semiconductor rectifier can be inefficient in these applications.
Hand cranked dynamos are used in clockwork radios, hand powered flashlights, mobile phone rechargers, and other human powered equipment to recharge batteries.
See also[edit]
Energy portal
Bottle dynamo
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=dynamo
Jump up ^ Volker Leiste: 1867 – Fundamental report on dynamo-electric principle before the Prussian Academy of Sciences [1]
^ Jump up to: a b Lockwood, Thomas D. (1883). Electricity, Magnetism, and Electric Telegraphy. D. Van Nostrand. pp. 76–77.
Jump up ^ Schellen, Heinrich; Nathaniel S. Keith (1884). Magneto-Electric and Dynamo-Electric Machines, Vol. 1. D. Van Nostrand. p. 471. , translated from German by Nathaniel Keith
Jump up ^ Anthology of Italian Physics, entry for Antonio Pacinotti, from the website of the University of Pavia
Jump up ^ Birmingham Museums trust catalogue, accession number: 1889S00044
Jump up ^ Thomas, John Meurig (1991). Michael Faraday and the Royal Institution: The Genius of Man and Place. Bristol: Hilger. p. 51. ISBN 0750301457.
Jump up ^ Beauchamp, K G (1997). Exhibiting Electricity. IET. p. 90. ISBN 9780852968956.
Jump up ^ Hunt, L. B. (March 1973). "The early history of gold plating". Gold Bulletin. 6 (1): 16–27. doi:10.1007/BF03215178.
Jump up ^ Simon, Andrew L. (1998). Made in Hungary: Hungarian contributions to universal culture. Simon Publications. p. 207. ISBN 0-9665734-2-0.
Jump up ^ "Ányos Jedlik biography". Hungarian Patent Office. Retrieved 10 May 2009.
Jump up ^ Augustus Heller (April 2, 1896). "Anianus Jedlik". Nature. Norman Lockyer. 53 (1379): 516. Bibcode:1896Natur..53..516H. doi:10.1038/053516a0.
Jump up ^ Berliner Berichte. January 1867. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Proceedings of the Royal Society. February 14, 1867. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Fink, Donald G. and H. Wayne Beaty (2007), Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Fifteenth Edition. McGraw Hill. Section 8, page 5. ISBN 978-0-07-144146-9.
Jump up ^ Thomspon, Sylvanus P. (1888), Dynamo-electric machinery: a manual for students of electrotechnics. London: E. & F.N. Spon. p. 140.
Jump up ^ Jeffrey La Favre. "The Brush Dynamo".
Jump up ^ "The Brush Electric Light". Scientific American. 2 April 1881. Archived from the original on 11 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Dynamo-Electric Machinery: A Manual for Students of Electrotechnics, by Silvanus P. Thompson, 1901, 8th American Edition, Ch. 31, Management of Dynamos, pp. 765-777, Free digital access from Google Books, Cite search method: "dynamo" "coupling" via Google Scholar
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dynamos.
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Terry's Chocolate Orange
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Terry's Chocolate Orange
Product type
Confection
Owner
Carambar & Co
Country
York, England
Introduced
1932 (1932)
Markets
Worldwide
Previous owners
Terry's
Kraft General Foods
Kraft Foods
Mondelēz International
Terry's Chocolate Orange is a chocolate product created by Terry's in 1932 at the Chocolate Works factory in York, England. It was made by Mondelēz International from 2012–2017. As of spring 2017 it is made by Carambar & Co.
Contents
1 Development
2 Structure
2.1 Spin-offs
3 Advertising
4 Product range
5 Changes to product weight in 2016
6 References
7 External links
Development[edit]
Main article: Terry's
The company opened the Art Deco-style factory The Chocolate Works in 1926, and began launching new products.[1] These included the Dessert Chocolate Apple (1926), Terry's All Gold (1931) and the Chocolate Orange (1932).[2] At the onset of World War II, confectionery production was immediately halted. The factory was taken over by F. Hills and Sons of Manchester as a shadow factory to manufacture and repair aircraft propeller blades. With the factory handed back to the company post-war, production was difficult due to continued rationing in the United Kingdom, and limited imports of raw cocoa. In 1954, production of the chocolate apple was phased out in favour of increased production of the chocolate orange.[1]
In the North American market, where it has had a variety of importers over the years, it was briefly sold as a Tobler (maker of the Toblerone) product.
Chocolate oranges appeared on the South Korean market in the GS25 chain of convenience stores in 2017.
Korean packaging
Since 2005 and the closure of the Terry factory in York, Chocolate Orange products have been manufactured near Jankowice, Poland.[3]
In 1979, Terry's launched the Chocolate Lemon, but it was withdrawn three years later.[2]
Structure[edit]
Terry's Chocolate Orange Bar, a chocolate bar version of the Chocolate Orange
The Terry's Chocolate Orange comprises an orange-shaped ball of chocolate mixed with orange oil, divided into 20 segments, similar to a real orange, and wrapped in orange-skin patterned foil. When packaged, the segments are stuck together firmly in the centre; therefore, prior to unwrapping, the ball is traditionally tapped severely on a hard surface to cause the segments to separate from each other (dubbed "Tap and Unwrap" or "Whack and Unwrap").
Spin-offs[edit]
There have been a number of spin-off products, currently including:
Chocolate Orange bar: a bar of six segments, initially produced with smooth vertical segments (similar to a Toblerone bar), then, later, with textured segments that mimic the traditional orange shape.
Chocolate Orange minis: a bag of small segments
Chocolate Orange White Eggs: egg-shaped white-chocolate versions of Chocolate Orange that were available for one Easter
Segsations: individual segments of chocolate in different flavours, including: milk chocolate, puffed rice, honeycomb, cornflake, white chocolate and a "double seg" of layered milk and dark chocolate, all flavoured with orange oil.
Segsations Mini Eggs: individual foil-wrapped eggs of chocolate in same flavours as Segsations, for Easter
Chocolate Orange – Egg & Spoon: a milk chocolate egg filled with an orange fondant filling (similar to Cadbury's Creme Egg)
Advertising[edit]
The Chocolate Orange product is known for its unusual marketing, which is usually at its heaviest around Christmas. At one time it was estimated that the Chocolate Orange was found in a tenth of British Christmas stockings.[4] Actress Dawn French has fronted numerous campaigns for the brand, often in a posed scene of defending and hiding "her" Chocolate Orange from others. Famous marketing phrases include:
Tap it and unwrap it (since replaced with "whack and unwrap")
It's not Terry's, it's mine
Don't tap it... Whack it!
More recent advertisements (after the rebranding) do not feature French and contain the new slogan "Round but not round for long" (some include the Countdown theme tune). The newest advertising campaign in the United Kingdom features various situations in which people are trying to break the segments of their Terry's Chocolate Orange apart with the slogan "Smash it to pieces, love it to bits".
Product range[edit]
A "tapped and unwrapped" Terry's Chocolate Orange
Terry's Dessert Chocolate Apple (1926–1954 precursor to the Orange)[2]
Terry's Chocolate Lemon (short-lived 1979-1980s variant)[2]
Terry's Chocolate Orange Dark (formerly 'Plain')
Terry's Chocolate Orange Snowball (white chocolate)
Terry's Chocolate Orange Mint (Discontinued 2012)
Terry's Chocolate Orange Toffee
Terry's Chocolate Orange Bars (chocolate bars)
Terry's Chocolate Orange Mini segments/Segsations (individually wrapped segments)
Terry's Chocolate Orange White Egg
Terry's Chocolate Orange Flavour Carte D'Or ice cream (no longer in production)
Terry's Chocolate Orange Tangy
Terry's Chocolate Orange Cookies
Terry's Chocolate Orange Exploding Candy
Terry's Chocolate Orange Siesta
Terry's Chocolate Orange Hazelnut
Terry's Chocolate Orange Raspberry
Terry's Chocolate Orange White Chocolate Smasher
Terry's Chocolate Orange Toffee Crunch
Terry's Chocolate Orange Birthday Cake
Terry's Chocolate Orange Orange
Terry's Chocolate Orange Ice-Creams (currently sold as limited edition)
Changes to product weight in 2016[edit]
On 29 May 2016, the UK product size was reduced from 175g to 157g by changing the moulded shape of each segment to leave an air gap between each piece.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "The Chocolate Works". NeolithicSea.co.uk. Retrieved 27 June 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Terry's Confections (Courtesy of Kraft Foods Archives)". docslide.us. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
Jump up ^ Delgado, Martin. "How long before Cadbury's chocolate is made in this Polish factory?". Daily Mail. London. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Chocolate history". VisitYork.org. Retrieved 27 June 2012.
External links[edit]
Media related to Terry's Chocolate Orange at Wikimedia Commons
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1In the United States, these products are manufactured and marketed by The Hershey Company under a prior licensing agreement.
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