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Evolution of birds
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Archaeopteryx
Berlin
München
The evolution of birds began in the Jurassic Period, with the earliest birds derived from a clade of theropoda dinosaurs named Paraves.[1] Birds are categorized as a biological class, Aves. For more than a century, the small theropod dinosaur Archaeopteryx lithographica from the Late Jurassic period was considered to have been the earliest bird. Modern phylogenies place birds in the dinosaur clade Theropoda. According to the current consensus, Aves and a sister group, the order Crocodilia, together are the sole living members of an unranked "reptile" clade, the Archosauria. Four distinct lineages of bird survived the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event 66 million years ago, giving rise to ostriches and relatives (Paleognathae), ducks and relatives (Anseriformes), ground-living fowl (Galliformes), and “modern birds” (Neoaves).
Phylogenetically, Aves is usually defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of a specific modern bird species (such as the house sparrow, Passer domesticus), and either Archaeopteryx,[2] or some prehistoric species closer to Neornithes (to avoid the problems caused by the unclear relationships of Archaeopteryx to other theropods).[3] If the latter classification is used then the larger group is termed Avialae. Currently, the relationship between dinosaurs, Archaeopteryx, and modern birds is still under debate.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Mesozoic birds
3 Adaptive radiation of modern birds
4 Classification of modern species
5 Current evolutionary trends in birds
6 See also
7 Further reading
8 References
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Main article: Origin of birds
See also: Feathered dinosaur, Paraves, and Avemetatarsalia
There is significant evidence that birds emerged within theropod dinosaurs, specifically, that birds are members of Maniraptora, a group of theropods which includes dromaeosaurs and oviraptorids, among others.[4] As more non-avian theropods that are closely related to birds are discovered, the formerly clear distinction between non-birds and birds becomes less so. This was noted already in the 19th century, with Thomas Huxley writing:
We have had to stretch the definition of the class of birds so as to include birds with teeth and birds with paw-like fore limbs and long tails. There is no evidence that Compsognathus possessed feathers; but, if it did, it would be hard indeed to say whether it should be called a reptilian bird or an avian reptile.[5]
The mounted skeleton of a Velociraptor, showing the very bird-like quality of the smaller theropod dinosaurs
Discoveries in northeast China (Liaoning Province) demonstrate that many small theropod dinosaurs did indeed have feathers, among them the compsognathid Sinosauropteryx and the microraptorian dromaeosaurid Sinornithosaurus. This has contributed to this ambiguity of where to draw the line between birds and reptiles.[6] Cryptovolans, a dromaeosaurid found in 2002 (which may be a junior synonym of Microraptor) was capable of powered flight, possessed a sternal keel and had ribs with uncinate processes. Cryptovolans seems to make a better "bird" than Archaeopteryx which lacks some of these modern bird features. Because of this, some paleontologists have suggested that dromaeosaurs are actually basal birds whose larger members are secondarily flightless, i.e. that dromaeosaurs evolved from birds and not the other way around. Evidence for this theory is currently inconclusive, but digs continue to unearth fossils (especially in China) of feathered dromaeosaurs. At any rate, it is fairly certain that flight utilizing feathered wings existed in the mid-Jurassic theropods. The Cretaceous unenlagiine Rahonavis also possesses features suggesting it was at least partially capable of powered flight.
Although ornithischian (bird-hipped) dinosaurs share the same hip structure as birds, birds actually originated from the saurischian (lizard-hipped) dinosaurs if the dinosaurian origin theory is correct. They thus arrived at their hip structure condition independently. In fact, a bird-like hip structure also developed a third time among a peculiar group of theropods, the Therizinosauridae.
An alternate theory to the dinosaurian origin of birds, espoused by a few scientists, notably Larry Martin and Alan Feduccia, states that birds (including maniraptoran "dinosaurs") evolved from early archosaurs like Longisquama.[7] This theory is contested by most other paleontologists and experts in feather development and evolution.[8]
Mesozoic birds[edit]
See also: Avialae and Category:Mesozoic birds
The basal bird Archaeopteryx, from the Jurassic, is well known as one of the first "missing links" to be found in support of evolution in the late 19th century. Though it is not considered a direct ancestor of modern birds, it gives a fair representation of how flight evolved and how the very first bird might have looked. It may be predated by Protoavis texensis, though the fragmentary nature of this fossil leaves it open to considerable doubt whether this was a bird ancestor. The skeleton of all early bird candidates is basically that of a small theropod dinosaur with long, clawed hands, though the exquisite preservation of the Solnhofen Plattenkalk shows Archaeopteryx was covered in feathers and had wings.[5] While Archaeopteryx and its relatives may not have been very good fliers, they would at least have been competent gliders, setting the stage for the evolution of life on the wing.
Reconstruction of Iberomesornis romerali, a toothed enantiornithe
The evolutionary trend among birds has been the reduction of anatomical elements to save weight. The first element to disappear was the bony tail, being reduced to a pygostyle and the tail function taken over by feathers. Confuciusornis is an example of their trend. While keeping the clawed fingers, perhaps for climbing, it had a pygostyle tail, though longer than in modern birds. A large group of birds, the Enantiornithes, evolved into ecological niches similar to those of modern birds and flourished throughout the Mesozoic. Though their wings resembled those of many modern bird groups, they retained the clawed wings and a snout with teeth rather than a beak in most forms. The loss of a long tail was followed by a rapid evolution of their legs which evolved to become highly versatile and adaptable tools that opened up new ecological niches.[9]
The Cretaceous saw the rise of more modern birds with a more rigid ribcage with a carina and shoulders able to allow for a powerful upstroke, essential to sustained powered flight. Another improvement was the appearance of an alula, used to achieve better control of landing or flight at low speeds. They also had a more derived pygostyle, with a ploughshare-shaped end. An early example is Yanornis. Many were coastal birds, strikingly resembling modern shorebirds, like Ichthyornis, or ducks, like Gansus. Some evolved as swimming hunters, like the Hesperornithiformes – a group of flightless divers resembling grebes and loons. While modern in most respects, most of these birds retained typical reptilian-like teeth and sharp claws on the manus.
The modern toothless birds evolved from the toothed ancestors in the Cretaceous.[10] While the earlier primitive birds, particularly the Enantiornithes, continued to thrive and diversify alongside the pterosaurs through this geologic period until they became extinct due to the K–T extinction event. All but a few groups of the toothless Neornithes were also cut short. The surviving lineages of birds were the comparatively primitive Paleognathae (ostrich and its allies), the aquatic duck lineage, the terrestrial fowl, and the highly volant Neoaves.
Adaptive radiation of modern birds[edit]
See also: Mesozoic-Cenozoic radiation
Modern birds are classified in Neornithes, which are now known to have evolved into some basic lineages by the end of the Cretaceous (see Vegavis). The Neornithes are split into the paleognaths and neognaths.
The paleognaths include the tinamous (found only in Central and South America) and the ratites, which nowadays are found almost exclusively on the Southern Hemisphere. The ratites are large flightless birds, and include ostriches, rheas, cassowaries, kiwis and emus. A few scientists propose that the ratites represent an artificial grouping of birds which have independently lost the ability to fly in a number of unrelated lineages.[11] In any case, the available data regarding their evolution is still very confusing, partly because there are no uncontroversial fossils from the Mesozoic. Phylogenetic analysis supports the assertion that the ratites are polyphyletic and do not represent a valid grouping of birds.[12]
Haast's eagle and New Zealand moa, the eagle is a Neognath, the moas are Paleognaths.
The basal divergence from the remaining Neognathes was that of the Galloanserae, the superorder containing the Anseriformes (ducks, geese and swans), and the Galliformes (chickens, turkeys, pheasants, and their allies). The presence of basal anseriform fossils in the Mesozoic and likely some galliform fossils implies the presence of paleognaths at the same time, in spite of the absence of fossil evidence.
The dates for the splits are a matter of considerable debate amongst scientists. It is agreed that the Neornithes evolved in the Cretaceous and that the split between the Galloanserae and the other neognaths - the Neoaves - occurred before the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, but there are different opinions about whether the radiation of the remaining neognaths occurred before or after the extinction of the other dinosaurs.[13] This disagreement is in part caused by a divergence in the evidence, with molecular dating suggesting a Cretaceous radiation, a small and equivocal neoavian fossil record from Cretaceous, and most living families turning up during the Paleogene. Attempts made to reconcile the molecular and fossil evidence have proved controversial.[13][14]
On the other hand, two factors must be considered: First, molecular clocks cannot be considered reliable in the absence of robust fossil calibration, whereas the fossil record is naturally incomplete. Second, in reconstructed phylogenetic trees, the time and pattern of lineage separation corresponds to the evolution of the characters (such as DNA sequences, morphological traits etc.) studied, not to the actual evolutionary pattern of the lineages; these ideally should not differ by much, but may well do so in practice.[citation needed]
Considering this, it is easy to see that fossil data, compared to molecular data, tends to be more accurate in general, but also to underestimate divergence times: morphological traits, being the product of entire developmental genetics networks, usually only start to diverge some time after a lineage split would become apparent in DNA sequence comparison - especially if the sequences used contain many silent mutations.[citation needed]
A May 2018 report in Current Biology[15] says that its authors think that the birds that survived the end-of-Cetaceous disaster were Neornithes, Neognathae (Galloanserae + Neoaves), not tree-living, and could not fly far, because of the world-wide destruction of forests and that it took a long time for the world's forests to return properly. Virtually the same conclusions were already reached before, in a 2017 book on avian evolution [16].
Classification of modern species[edit]
The diversity of modern birds
See also: Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy and dinosaur classification
The phylogenetic classification of birds is a contentious issue. Sibley & Ahlquist's Phylogeny and Classification of Birds (1990) is a landmark work on the classification of birds (although frequently debated and constantly revised). A preponderance of evidence suggests that most modern bird orders constitute good clades. However, scientists are not in agreement as to the precise relationships between the main clades. Evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem but no strong consensus has emerged. As of the mid-2000s, new fossil and molecular data provide an increasingly clear picture of the evolution of modern bird orders, and their relationships. For example, the Charadriiformes seem to constitute an ancient and distinct lineage, while the Mirandornithes and Cypselomorphae are supported by a wealth of anatomical and molecular evidence. The understanding of the interrelationships of lower level taxa also continues to increase, particularly in the massively diverse perching bird group Passeriformes.
Bird classification and phylogenetic analysis is still under debate and requires more research. A 2008 study published in Science examined DNA sequences from 169 species of birds that represented all of the major extant groups. The findings may necessitate a wholesale restructuring of the avian phylogenetic tree. The findings also supported unestablished relationships between orders and confirmed disputes over particular groupings.[17]
Current evolutionary trends in birds[edit]
See also: Bird conservation
Evolution generally occurs at a scale far too slow to be witnessed by humans. However, bird species are currently going extinct at a far greater rate than any possible speciation or other generation of new species. The disappearance of a population, subspecies, or species represents the permanent loss of a range of genes.
Another concern with evolutionary implications is a suspected increase in hybridization. This may arise from human alteration of habitats enabling related allopatric species to overlap. Forest fragmentation can create extensive open areas, connecting previously isolated patches of open habitat. Populations that were isolated for sufficient time to diverge significantly, but not sufficient to be incapable of producing fertile offspring may now be interbreeding so broadly that the integrity of the original species may be compromised. For example, the many hybrid hummingbirds found in northwest South America may represent a threat to the conservation of the distinct species involved.[18]
Several species of birds have been bred in captivity to create variations on wild species. In some birds this is limited to color variations, while others are bred for larger egg or meat production, for flightlessness or other characteristics.
See also[edit]
Aurornis
Lack's principle
Origin of avian flight
Origin of birds
Survival of the fittest
Genomic evolution of birds
Further reading[edit]
Jarvis, Eric D., et al. "Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds." Science 346. December 12, 2014, pp. 1320-1331.
Xing Xu; Zhonghe Zhou; Robert Dudley; Susan Mackem; Cheng-Ming Chuong; Gregory M. Erickson; David J. Varricchio (12 December 2014). "An integrative approach to understanding bird origins". Science. 346 (6215): 1253293. doi:10.1126/science.1253293. PMID 25504729.
N. Adam Smith, Luis M. Chiappe, Julia A. Clarke, Scott V. Edwards, Sterling J. Nesbitt, Mark A. Norell, Thomas A. Stidham, Alan Turner, Marcel van Tuinen, Jakob Vinther, and Xing Xu (2015). "Rhetoric vs. reality: A commentary on Bird Origins Anew by A. Feduccia". Auk. 132 (2): 467–480. doi:10.1642/AUK-14-203.1. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Wilford, John Noble (28 March 2016). "'Dinosaurs Among Us' Retraces an Evolutionary Path". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Padian, K; Chiappe, LM (1997). "Bird Origins". In Currie, PJ; Padian, K. Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 41–96.
Jump up ^ Gauthier, J (1986). "Saurischian Monophyly and the origin of birds". In Padian K. The Origin of Birds and the Evolution of Flight. Mem. California Acad. Sci 8. pp. 1–55.
Jump up ^ Hou, L; Martin, M; Zhou, Z; Feduccia, A (1996). "Early Adaptive Radiation of Birds: Evidence from Fossils from Northeastern China". Science. 274 (5290): 1164–1167. Bibcode:1996Sci...274.1164H. doi:10.1126/science.274.5290.1164. PMID 8895459.
^ Jump up to: a b Huxley, T.H. (1876): Lectures on Evolution. New York Tribune. Extra. no 36. In Collected Essays IV: pp 46-138 original text w/ figures
Jump up ^ Norell, M & Ellison M (2005) Unearthing the Dragon, The Great Feathered Dinosaur Discovery Pi Press, New York, ISBN 0-13-186266-9
Jump up ^ Feduccia, A; Lingham-Soliar, T; Hinchliffe, JR (2005). "Do feathered dinosaurs exist? Testing the hypothesis on neontological and paleontological evidence". Journal of Morphology. 266 (2): 125–166. doi:10.1002/jmor.10382. PMID 16217748.
Jump up ^ Prum, R (2003). "Are Current Critiques Of The Theropod Origin Of Birds Science? Rebuttal To Feduccia 2002". Auk. 120 (2): 550–561. doi:10.1642/0004-8038(2003)120[0550:ACCOTT]2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Shortening tails gave early birds a leg up
Jump up ^ Hope, Sylvia (2002). "The Mesozoic Radiation of Neornithes". In Chiappe, Luis M.; Witmer, Lawrence M. Mesozoic Birds: Above the Heads of Dinosaurs. pp. 339–388. ISBN 0-520-20094-2.
Jump up ^ Phillips, M. J.; et al. (2010). "Tinamous and Moa Flock Together: Mitochondrial Genome Sequence Analysis Reveals Independent Losses of Flight among Ratites". Systematic Biology. 59 (1): 90–107. doi:10.1093/sysbio/syp079. PMID 20525622.
Jump up ^ Harshman, John; Braun, Edward L.; Braun, Michael J.; Huddleston, Christopher J.; Bowie, Rauri C. K.; Chojnowski, Jena L.; Hackett, Shannon J.; Han, Kin-Lan; Kimball, Rebecca T. (2008-09-09). "Phylogenomic evidence for multiple losses of flight in ratite birds". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (36): 13462–13467. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10513462H. doi:10.1073/pnas.0803242105. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2533212  . PMID 18765814.
^ Jump up to: a b Ericson, PGP; Anderson, CL; Britton, T; Elzanowski, A; Johansson, US; Kallersjo, M; Ohlson, JI; Parsons, TJ; Zuccon, D; et al. (2006). "Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils". Biology Letters. 2 (4): 543–547. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0523. PMC 1834003  . PMID 17148284. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Brown, JW; Payne, RB; Mindell, DP; et al. (2007). "Nuclear DNA does not reconcile 'rocks' and 'clocks' in Neoaves: a comment on Ericson et al". Biology Letters. 3 (3): 257–259. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0611. PMC 2464679  . PMID 17389215. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(18)30534-7 'Early Evolution of Modern Birds Structured by Global Forest Collapse at the End-Cretaceous Mass Extinction' by Daniel J. Field, Antoine Bercovici, Jacob S. Berv, Regan Dunn, David E. Fastovsky, Tyler R. Lyson, Vivi Vajda, Jacques A. Gauthier, Received: February 27, 2018; Received in revised form: March 19, 2018; Accepted: April 18, 2018; Published: May 24, 2018
Jump up ^ 'Avian Evolution: The Fossil Record of Birds and its Paleobiological Significance' by Gerald Mayr; Published: September 2016, Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester
Jump up ^ Hackett, S. J.; Kimball, R. T.; Reddy, S.; Bowie, R. C. K.; Braun, E. L.; Braun, M. J.; Chojnowski, J. L.; Cox, W. A.; et al. (2008). "A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their Evolutionary History". Science. 320 (5884): 1763–1768. Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1763H. doi:10.1126/science.1157704. PMID 18583609. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Fjeldså, Jon; Niels Krabbe. (1990). Birds of the High Andes: A Manual to the Birds of the Temperate Zone of the Andes and Patagonia, South America. Apollo Books. ISBN 87-88757-16-1.
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Baital Pachisi
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Betaal Pachisi" redirects here. For the tv series, see Betaal Pachisi (TV series).
Ernest Griset's depiction of Vikram and the Baital in Richard Francis Burton's 1870 retelling of the story.
Vetala Panchavimshati (Sanskrit: वेतालपञ्चविंशति, IAST: vetālapañcaviṃśati) or Baital Pachisi ("Twenty-five (tales) of Baital"), is a collection of tales and legends within a frame story, from India. It was originally written in Sanskrit.
One of its oldest recensions is found in the 12th Book of the Kathasaritsagara ("Ocean of the Streams of Story"), a work in Sanskrit compiled in the 11th century by Somadeva, but based on yet older materials, now lost. This recension comprises in fact twenty-four tales, the frame narrative itself being the twenty-fifth. The two other major recensions in Sanskrit are those by Śivadāsa and Jambhaladatta.
The Vetala stories are popular in India and have been translated into many Indian vernaculars.[1] Several English translations exist, based on Sanskrit recensions and on Hindi, Tamil, Bengali and Marathi versions.[2] Probably best-known English version is that of Sir Richard Francis Burton which is, however, not a translation but a very free adaptation.[3]
Contents
1 Plot
1.1 Variation
2 Other media
3 Recensions, editions, and translations
3.1 Sanskrit
3.2 Hindi
4 References
5 External links
Plot[edit]
For a comparison of the content of different versions, see List of Vetala Tales.
The legendary king Vikramāditya (Vikrama) promises a vamachari (a tantric sorcerer) that he will capture a vetala (or Baital), a celestial spirit Pishacha, celestial spirit analogous to a vampire in Western literature who hangs upside-down from a tree and inhabits and animates dead bodies.
King Vikrama faces many difficulties in bringing the vetala to the tantric. Each time Vikram tries to capture the vetala, it tells a story that ends with a riddle. If Vikrama cannot answer the question correctly, the vampire consents to remain in captivity. If the king knows the answer but still keeps quiet, then his head shall burst into thousand pieces. And if King Vikrama answers the question correctly, the vampire would escape and return to his tree. He knows the answer to every question; therefore the cycle of catching and releasing the vampire continues twenty-four times.
Father and son meet mother and daughter, in the Baital's final tale. Illustration by Perham Wilhelm Nahl from Arthur W. Ryder's Twenty-two Goblins.
On the twenty-fifth attempt, the Vetala tells the story of a father and a son in the aftermath of a devastating war. They find the queen and the princess alive in the chaos, and decide to take them home. In due time, the son marries the queen and the father marries the princess. Eventually, the son and the queen have a son, and the father and the princess have a daughter. The vetala asks what the relation between the two newborn children is. The question stumps Vikrama. Satisfied, the vetala allows himself to be taken to the tantric.
Vikram prepares to behead the tantric. Illustration by Ernest Griset from Burton's Vikram and the Vampire.
On their way to the tantric, Vetala tells his story. His parents did not have a son and a tantric blessed them with twin sons on a condition that both be educated under him. Vetala was taught everything in the world but often ill-treated. Whereas his brother was taught just what was needed but always well treated. Vetala came to know that the tantric planned to give his brother back to his parents and Vetala instead would be sacrificed as he was an 'all-knowing kumara' and by sacrificing him the tantric could be immortal and rule the world using his tantric powers. Vetal also reveals that now the tantric's plan is to sacrifice Vikram, beheading him as he bowed in front of the goddess. Then tantric could then gain control over the vetala and sacrifice his soul, thus achieving his evil ambition. The vetala suggests that the king asks the tantric how to perform his obeisance, then take advantage of that moment to behead the sorcerer himself. Vikramāditya does exactly as told by vetala and he is blessed by Lord Indra and Devi Kali. The vetala offers the king a boon, whereupon Vikram requests that the tantric's heart and mind be cleaned of all sins and his life be restored as a good living being and that the vetala would come to the king's aid when needed.
Variation[edit]
A variation of this story replaces the vetal with a minor celestial who, in exchange for his own life, reveals the plot by two tradesmen (replacing the sorcerer) to assassinate Vikrama and advises Vikrama to trick them into positions of vulnerability as described above. Having killed them, Vikrama is offered a reward by the goddess, who grants him two spirits loyal to Her as his servants.
Other media[edit]
The children's Chandamama, featured a serial story titled New Tales of Vikram and Betal for many years. As the title suggests, the original premise of the story is maintained, as new stories are told by Vetala to King Vikrama.
In 1985, the story was developed by Sagar Films (Pvt. Ltd.), as a Television serial[4] titled Vikram aur Betaal, starring Arun Govil as Vikrama and Sajjan Kumar as the Vetala. It was aired on Doordarshan, the public television broadcaster of India.
A remake of that serial by the new generation of Sagar Films (Pvt. Ltd.), titled Kahaniyaan Vikram aur Betaal Ki, was aired on the Indian satellite channel Colors.
Another vampire called Vetaala and his spellbook Paddu were found by a boy called Vikram "Vicky" Sharma in the TV series Vicky & Vetaal.
In the novel, Alif the Unseen (2012), a character named Vikrama the Vampire appears as a jinn. He tells how thousands of years ago, King Vikrama had set off to defeat the Vetala, a vampire jinn terrorizing one of his villages. Vikrama won the Vetala's game of wits, but forfeited his life. The Vetala now inhabits his body.[5]
A web series titled The Vetala was released in 2009, written and directed by Damon Vignale. The series reveals a CGI vetala character in the final episode.
2017 Tamil film Vikram Vedha was a modern-day adaptation of Vikram Betal story with the characterisation of King Vikramadithyan and the celestial spirit Vedhalam derived from that plot. The title of the film was also derived from the two key characters from the folktale.[6]
Currently, &TV is airing a new series Vikram Betaal Ki Rahasya Gatha, where actors Aham Sharma and Makrand Deshpande as playing the role of King Vikramaditya and betaal respectively.
Recensions, editions, and translations[edit]
Sanskrit[edit]
Both the Kṣemendra and Somadeva recensions derive from the unattested "Northwestern" Bṛhatkathā, and include the Vetala Tales as a small part of their huge inventory. The recensions of Śivadāsa and Jambhaladatta contain only the Vetala Tales and have an unknown relationship to each other and to the other Sanskrit recensions.
Kṣemendra's Bṛhatkathāmanjarī (1037 CE)
Anonymous Sanskrit summary of Kṣemendra
Somadeva's Kathāsaritsāgara (1070 CE)
Somadeva (1862), Brockhaus, Hermann, ed., Kathā Sarit Sāgara, Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus — Books VI, VII & VIII; and Books IX–XVIII (1866)
Tawney, C. H. (1884), The Katha Sarit Sagara; or Ocean of the Streams of Story, 2, Calcutta: J. W. Thomas, at the Baptist Mission Press, pp. 232–360
Penzer, N. M. (1926), The Ocean of Story, being C.H. Tawney's Translation of Somadeva's Katha Sarit Sagara, VI, London: Chas. J. Sawyer — Tawney's translation of Brockhaus text, but with corrections and additions based on Durgāprasād (below)
Penzer, N. M. (1927), The Ocean of Story, being C.H. Tawney's Translation of Somadeva's Katha Sarit Sagara, VII, London: Chas. J. Sawyer — Tawney's translation of Brockhaus text, but with corrections and additions based on Durgāprasād (below)
Pandit Durgāprasāda; Kāśīnātha Pāṇḍuraṅga Paraba, eds. (1889), The Kathâsaritsâgara of Somadevabhatta, The Nirnaya-Sâgara Press
Ryder, Arthur W. (1917), Twenty-two Goblins, London: J. M. Dent & Sons
Van Buitenen, J. A. B. (1959), "The King and the Corpse", Tales of Ancient India, University of Chicago Press, pp. 11–64 — English translation of about half of Somadeva's Vetala Tales.
Jambhaladatta (11th–14th century CE)
Emeneau, M. B., ed. (1934), Jambhaladatta's version of the Vetālapañcavinśati, American Oriental Series, 4, New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society
Śivadāsa (11th–14th century CE)
Uhle, Heinrich, ed. (1914), Die Vetālapañcaviṃśatikā des Sivadāsa, Berichte über die Verhandlungen der Königlich-Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig : Philosophisch-historische Klasse, 66, Leipzig: Teubner
Ritschl, E.; Schetelich, M., eds. (1989), Die fünfundzwanzig Erzählungen des Totendämons, Leipzig — Translation of Śivadāsa recension.
Rajan, Chandra (1995), Śivadāsa: The Five-and-Twenty Tales of the Genie, Penguin Books — Translated from Uhle's Sanskrit edition.
Hindi[edit]
Some time between 1719 and 1749, Ṣūrat Kabīshwar translated Śivadāsa's Sanskrit recension into Braj Bhasha; this work was subsequently translated in 1805 under the direction of John Gilchrist into the closely related Hindustani language by Lallu Lal and others.[7] This was a popular work that played an early role in the development of Literary Hindi and was selected as a Hindustani test-book for military service students in the East India Company.[8] Thus it became the basis of several Hindi editions, and Indian vernacular and English translations; many of these frequently reprinted.
Lāl, Lallū (1805), Buetal Pucheesee; being a collection of twenty-five stories ... translated into Hindoostanee from the Brij Bhakka of Soorut Kubeeshwur, Calcutta
Hollings, Captain W. (1848), The Bytal Pucheesee: translated into English, Calcutta: W. Ridsdale — Reprinted several times between 1848 and 1921 (some later editions as Baital Pachisi). 1884 edition on the Internet Archive
Barker, W. Burckhardt (1855), Eastwick, E. B., ed., The Baitál Pachísí; or, Twenty-five Tales of a Demon, Hertford: Stephen Austin — A new edition of the Hindí text, with each word expressed in the Hindústaní character immediately under the corresponding word in the Nágarí; and with a perfectly literal English interlinear translation, accompanied by a free translation in English at the foot of each page, and explanatory notes.
Forbes, Duncan (1861), The Baitāl Pachīsī; or The Twenty-five Tales of a Demon, London: Wm. H. Allen & Co. — A new and corrected Edition, with a vocabulary of all the words occurring in the text.
Munshi, Ghulam Mohammad (1868), The Baitál-Pachísí; or The Twenty-five Stories of a Demon, Bombay: The Oriental Press — Translated from Dr. Forbes's new and correct edition.
Platts, John (1871), The Baitāl Pachīsī; or The Twenty-five Tales of a Sprite, London: Wm. H. Allen & Co. — Translated from the Hindi text of Dr. Duncan Forbes.
Burton, Richard F. (1893) [1870], Vikram & the Vampire; or Tales of Hindu Devilry (Memorial ed.), London: Longmans, Green, and Co. — Not a translation, but a retelling "more Burtonian than Indian",[9] based on one or more of the Hindustani editions or translations.
Kṛishṇa, Kālī (1834), Bytal Puchisi; or the Twenty-five Tales of Bytal, Calcutta — Translated from the Brujbhakha into English.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Penzer 1924, Vol VI, p 225.
Jump up ^ Penzer 1924, Vol VI, p 226.
Jump up ^ Penzer 1924, Vol VI, p 227. Penzer goes on to observe "What Burton has really done is to use a portion of the Vetāla tales as a peg on which to hang elaborate 'improvements' entirely of his own invention."
Jump up ^ "Sagar Arts". Retrieved 25 February 2014. The legend says that Vikram aur Betaal has been one of the most popular fantasy shows made for children and had won acclaim and huge popularity during its run on Doordarshan National Network in the year 1985.
Jump up ^ http://aliftheunseen.com/
Jump up ^ http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/Vijay-Sethupathi-Madhavans-film-is-based-on-Vikramathithan-Vethalam/articleshow/51009766.cms
Jump up ^ Forbes 1861, pp. vii–viii.
Jump up ^ Barker 1855 p vi.
Jump up ^ Rajan 1995 lxii.
External links[edit]
Vikram and The Vampire translated by Sir Richard Francis Burton (also available at World Wide School Library)
Twenty-Two Goblins at Project Gutenberg: Translation by Arthur W. Ryder
Twenty Two Goblins public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Original Sanskrit text by Somadeva in Harvard-Kyoto transliteration
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Gaitán
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the Colombian town, see Puerto Gaitán.
Gaitán also spelled "Gaytán" and "Gaitan" (From Latin: Caietanus, Arabic: جيتني Geaitani, Ancient Greek: Καίετανος Kaietanos, Modern Greek: Γαϊτάνος/Γαϊτάνης Gaitanos/Gaitanis meaning "who come from the cave/port" or who come from Gaeta, ancient Greek port of the Italian province of Lazio) is a common Spanish surname of Byzantine Greek-Latin Mediterranean origin. Notable people with the surname include:
Alberto Gaitán (born 1974), Panamanian Musical Producer, Songwriter & Singer Gaitanes
Bibi Gaytán
Fernando Gaitán (born 1960), Colombian TV series and telenovelas screenwriter and producer
Jorge Eliécer Gaitán (1898–1948), Colombian politician
Martín Gaitán (born 1978), Argentine rugby union footballer
Nicolás Gaitán (born 1988), Argentine football player
Ricardo Gaitán (born 1971), Panamanian Musical Producer, Songwriter & Singer Gaitanes
Walter Gaitán (born 1977), Argentine football player
Yanina Gaitán (born 1978), Argentine footballer
This page lists people with the surname Gaitán. If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name(s) to the link.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gaitán&oldid=757766368"
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Visa policy of Mexico
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Mexico entry stamp issued at Mexico City International Airport to a national of Singapore
Mexico entry stamp issued at the Quintana Roo land border crossing along the Belize-Mexican border
Mexican visas are documents issued by the National Migration Institute, dependent on the Secretariat of the Interior, with the stated goal of regulating and facilitating migratory flows.
A foreign national wishing to enter Mexico must obtain a visa unless they are a citizen of one of the 65 eligible visa-exempt countries or one of the three Electronic Authorization System eligible countries.[1]
All visitors entering by land and traveling farther than 20 kilometres (12 miles) into Mexico or staying longer than 72 hours should obtain a document Forma Migratoria Multiple to present at checkpoints within the country.[2] In 2016 Mexico has introduced the electronic version of the form (Forma Migratoria Múltiple Electrónica, or FMME) which can be obtained online at a price of 390 Mexican pesos.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Visa policy map
2 Visa exemption
3 Electronic Authorization System
4 Transit without a visa
5 Non-ordinary passports
6 APEC Business Travel Card
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Visa policy map[edit]
Mexico
Countries with visa-free access to Mexico
Electronic Visa Authorization
Visa required for entry to Mexico
Visa exemption[edit]
Nationals of the following 65 countries and jurisdictions holding normal passports do not require a visa to enter Mexico as tourists, visitors in transit or business visitors. Tourists and business visitors can stay in Mexico for up to 180 days. Visitors in transit can stay for up to 30 days.[1][4]
All European Union citizens 1 2 3
Andorra
Argentina
Australia4
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Brazil
Canada5
Chile6
Colombia7
Costa Rica
Hong Kong
Iceland3
Israel
Jamaica
Japan8
Liechtenstein3
Macau
Marshall Islands
Malaysia
Micronesia
Monaco
New Zealand4
Norway3
Palau
Panama
Paraguay
Peru9
San Marino
Singapore
South Korea
Switzerland3
Trinidad and Tobago
United States10
Uruguay
Vatican City
Venezuela
Notes:
^ Including residents of French overseas departments and territories, Danish territories and Dutch Caribbean territories.
^ For British nationals, only holders of British citizen, British National (Overseas) and British subject passports are eligible for visa-free entry.
^ Including permanent residents or valid visa holders of the United Kingdom or countries that comprise the Schengen area.
^ Including citizens of Australia and New Zealand residing in Australian territories and New Zealand territories.
^ Including holders of Permanent Resident Cards or valid visas issued by Canada.
^ Including holders of permanent residence permits issued by Chile.
^ Including holders of permanent residence permits issued by Colombia.
^ Including holders of Permanent Residence Card, Permanent Re-entry Permit or valid visas issued by Japan.
^ Including holders of permanent residence permits issued by Peru.
^ Including holders of valid US visas or Green Cards.
[show]Date of visa changes
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
1959: France[5]
Electronic Authorization System[edit]
The Electronic Authorization System (Sistema de Autorización Electrónica, SAE) is an online system, which allows citizens of the eligible countries travelling by air to obtain an electronic authorization to travel to Mexico for transit, tourism or business purposes without a consular visa. It is valid for 30 days and a single entry. Upon arrival, visitors are authorized to stay in Mexico as tourists for up to 180 days. SAE does not apply to travelers entering Mexico by land or sea, or those who are travelling on a non-participating airline, and they must hold a valid Mexican visa or an applicable visa issued by a third country.[6][7]
Eligible countries are:[1]
Russia
Turkey[8]
Ukraine
Transit without a visa[edit]
Passengers requiring a visa who are transiting in Mexico City can do so without a visa if their connection time does not exceed 24 hours and if their flight is nonstop, without intermediate stops within Mexican territory. They are escorted to the transit hall of the Mexico City International Airport in the custody of an agent of the National Immigration Service who holds passports and/or travel documents until the passenger boards the connecting flight.[9]
Non-ordinary passports[edit]
Mexico
Visa free access for diplomatic and service category passports
Visa free access for diplomatic passports
Holders of diplomatic or service category passports issued by Algeria, Antigua and Barbuda, Armenia, Barbados, Bolivia, China, Cuba, Guatemala, Guyana, India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Laos, Malaysia, Mongolia, Morocco, Pakistan, Philippines, Russia, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Serbia, Thailand, Tunisia and United Arab Emirates and of diplomatic passports of issued by Azerbaijan, Benin, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Honduras, Kuwait, South Africa, Turkey and Ukraine do not require a visa.[1]
Holders of diplomatic passports only issued by Andorra, Austria, Czech Republic, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Hungary, Lithuania, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Netherlands, Norway, Palau, Portugal, Slovakia do not require a visa.
Holders of diplomatic or service category passports of Australia, Bahamas, Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco and San Marino require a visa.
APEC Business Travel Card[edit]
Holders of passports issued by the following countries who possess an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) containing the "MEX" code on the reverse that it is valid for travel to Mexico can enter visa-free for business trips for up to 90 days.[1]
ABTCs are issued to nationals of:[10]
Australia
Brunei
Chile
China
Hong Kong
Indonesia
Japan
South Korea
Malaysia
New Zealand
Papua New Guinea
Peru
Philippines
Russia
Singapore
Taiwan
Thailand
Vietnam
See also[edit]
Mexico portal
Visa requirements for Mexican citizens
Foreign relations of Mexico
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Country information (visa section)". Timatic. International Air Transport Association (IATA) through Olympic Air. Retrieved 1 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mexico". travel.state.gov. Retrieved September 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ Forma Migratoria Múltiple (FMM)
Jump up ^ Países y regiones que No requieren visa para viajar a México
Jump up ^ Under Visa exemption agreement on 1959 until 1984 [1]
From 15 June 1984 under Visa exemption agreement on 1984 [2]
Jump up ^ Electronic Visa Authorization
Jump up ^ Sistema de Autorización Electrónica (SAE)
Jump up ^ E-visa for Turkish nationals
Jump up ^ "Traveling Through Mexico Without a Visa". Aeromexico. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "ABTC Summary - APEC Business Travel Card". apec.org. Retrieved 14 September 2016.
External links[edit]
Countries and territories that do not require a visa for Mexico
Electronic Visa Authorization
List of countries that require a visa for Mexico
Forma Migratoria Múltiple (FMM)
[show]
v
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Visa policy by country
Visa
Passport
Travel document
Africa
Central
Angola
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Chad
DR Congo
R Congo
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
São Tomé and Príncipe
Eastern
Burundi
Comoros
Djibouti
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Kenya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mauritius
Mozambique
Rwanda
Seychelles
Somalia (Somaliland)
South Sudan
Tanzania
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Northern
Algeria
Egypt8
Libya
Morocco
Sudan
Tunisia
Southern
Botswana
Lesotho
Namibia
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha1
South Africa
Swaziland
Western
Benin
Burkina Faso
Cape Verde
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Ivory Coast
Liberia
Mali
Mauritania
Niger
Nigeria
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Togo
Americas
Caribbean
Dutch Caribbean (Aruba, Caribbean Netherlands, Curaçao, Sint Maarten)
Anguilla1
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
British Virgin Islands1
Cayman Islands1
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Grenada
Haiti
Jamaica
Montserrat1
Puerto Rico11
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
Turks and Caicos Islands1
United States Virgin Islands11
Central
Belize
Costa Rica
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Nicaragua
Panama
North
Bermuda1
Canada
Mexico
United States
South
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Falkland Islands1
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands1
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Asia
Central & North
Afghanistan
Kazakhstan6
Kyrgyzstan
Russia3
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Uzbekistan
East
China
Hong Kong
Macau
Japan
North Korea
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Mongolia
Taiwan (Republic of China)10
South
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India
Maldives
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Southeast (ASEAN)
Brunei
Cambodia
East Timor
Indonesia
Laos
Malaysia
Myanmar
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Vietnam
Western
Abkhazia510
Akrotiri and Dhekelia1 7
Armenia7
Artsakh7 10
Azerbaijan5
Bahrain
Cyprus7
Egypt8
Georgia5
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Jordan
Kuwait
Lebanon
Northern Cyprus7 10
Oman
Palestine
Qatar
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South Ossetia5
Syria
Turkey4
United Arab Emirates
Yemen
Europe
European Union/EFTA
Austria
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Denmark
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Svalbard12
Poland
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Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
United Kingdom
Overseas
Other Europe
Abkhazia5 10
Akrotiri and Dhekelia1 7
Albania
Andorra
Armenia7
Artsakh7 10
Azerbaijan5
Belarus
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Georgia5
Kazakhstan6
Kosovo10
Macedonia
Moldova
Monaco 2
Montenegro
Northern Cyprus7 10
Russia3
San Marino 2
Serbia
South Ossetia5 10
Transnistria10
Turkey4
Ukraine
Vatican City 2
Oceania
American Samoa11
Australia
Cook Islands9
Fiji
Guam11
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
New Zealand
Niue9
Northern Mariana Islands11
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Pitcairn Islands1
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tokelau9
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
1 British Overseas Territories. 2 Open border with Schengen Area. 3 Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80%) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. 4 Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3%) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. 5 Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. 6 Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. 7 Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio-political connections with Europe. 8 Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. 9 Part of the Realm of New Zealand. 10 Partially recognized. 11 Unincorporated territory of the United States. 12 Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open-border status under Svalbard Treaty
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v
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Visa requirements
Visa
Passport
Travel document
Africa
Central
Angolan
Cameroonian
Central African Republic
Chadian
DR Congo
R Congo
Equatorial Guinean
Gabonese
Santomean
Eastern
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Comorian
Djiboutian
Eritrean
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Caymanian1
Cuban
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Dominican Republic
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Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucian
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
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Central
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Russian3
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Southeast
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Malaysian
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Philippine
Singaporean
Thai
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Western
Abkhaz5 9
Armenian7
Artsakh7 9
Azerbaijani5
Bahraini
Cypriot7
Egyptian8
Georgian5
Emirati
Iranian
Iraqi
Israeli
Jordanian
Kuwaiti
Lebanese
Northern Cypriot7 9
Omani
Palestinian5
Qatari
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Syrian
Turkish4
Yemeni
Europe
European Union
Austrian
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British (BOTC · BN(O) · BOC)
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Czech
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Greek
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Lithuanian
Luxembourg
Maltese
Polish
Portuguese
Romanian
Slovak
Slovenian
Spanish
Swedish
Other Europe
Abkhaz5 9
Albanian
Andorran2
Armenian7
Artsakh7 9
Azerbaijani5
Belarusian
Bosnian and Herzegovinian
Georgian5
Gibraltar1
Icelandic2
Kazakhstani6
Kosovan9
Liechtenstein2
Macedonia
Moldovan
Monégasque2
Montenegrin
Northern Cypriot7 9
Norwegian2
Russian3
San Marino2
Serbian
South Ossetian5 9
Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Swiss
Transnistrian9
Turkish4
Ukrainian
Vatican City2
Oceania
Australian
Fijian
Kiribati
Marshallese
Micronesian
Nauruan
New Zealand
Palauan
Papua New Guinean
Pitcairn Islands1
Samoan
Solomon Islands
Tongan
Tuvaluan
Vanuatuan
1 British Overseas Territories. 2 Open border with Schengen Area. 3 Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80%) lives in European Russia. 4 Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3%) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. 5 Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. 6 Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. 7 Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio-political connections with Europe. 8 Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. 9 Partially recognized.
Immigration law
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Visa_policy_of_Mexico&oldid=815689065"
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