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Dilophosaurus
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Dilophosaurus
Temporal range: Early Jurassic, 193 Ma
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Reconstructed cast of holotype specimen UCMP 37302 (cranial crests are not preserved in the original fossil), Royal Ontario Museum
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Dinosauria
Order: Saurischia
Suborder: Theropoda
Family: †Dilophosauridae
Genus: †Dilophosaurus
Welles, 1970
Species: †D. wetherilli
Binomial name
Dilophosaurus wetherilli
(Welles, 1954)
Synonyms
Megalosaurus wetherilli
Welles, 1954
Dilophosaurus (/daɪˌloʊfəˈsɔːrəs, -foʊ-/[1] dy-LOAF-o-SAWR-əs) is a genus of theropod dinosaur. It contains a single known species, D. wetherilli, known from fossil remains found in the Kayenta Formation of Arizona. This rock formation has been dated to the early Jurassic Period (Sinemurian age), about 193 million years ago. Dilophosaurus was among the largest carnivores of its time (about 7 meters long) and had a pair of rounded crests on its skull.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
1.1 Cranial crests
2 History of discovery
3 Classification
4 Paleobiology
4.1 Feeding
4.2 Growth
4.3 Paleopathology
4.4 Paleoichnology
5 Paleoecology
6 Cultural significance
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Description[edit]
Size of two specimens compared to a human
Dilophosaurus measured about 7 metres (23 ft) long and weighed about 400 kilograms (880 lb).[2]
The teeth of Dilophosaurus are long, but have a fairly small base and expand basally.[3] Dilophosaurus had 12 maxillary teeth and as many as 18 dentary teeth; the teeth were smaller in the tip of the upper jaw. The second and third front teeth feature serrations, which are absent in the fourth.[4] Another skull feature was a notch behind the first row of teeth, giving Dilophosaurus an almost crocodile-like appearance, similar to the putatively piscivorous spinosaurid dinosaurs. This "notch" existed by virtue of a weak connection between the premaxillary and maxillary bones of the skull.[5] The braincase is well known in Dilophosaurus, and is significant in that it bears a feature of the top side wall that is absent in ceratosaurians.[4] Compared with ceratosaurians, the distal scapular expansion in D. wetherilli is uniquely rectangular.[4] The upper leg bone (femur) is longer than the lower leg (tibia).[4]
A study by Robert J. Gay (2005) comparing various specimens found no indication that sexual dimorphism was present in Dilophosaurus, so males and females would have been largely the same in terms of skeletal anatomy.[6]
According to Rauhut (2000), Dilophosaurus can be distinguished based on the following features: a lacrimal bone with a thickened dorso-posterior rim; cervical vertebrae that have neural spines with a distinct central "cap" and an anterior and posterior "shoulder"; a scapular blade with a squared distal expansion; the presence of thin, paired nasolacrimal crests extending vertically from skull roof, each with a fingerlike posterior projection (according to Carrano, 2012)[7][4][8]
Cranial crests[edit]
Skull cast, American Museum of Natural History
The most distinctive characteristic of Dilophosaurus is the pair of rounded crests on its skull, made up of extensions of the nasal and lacrimal bones. These are considered to be too delicate for anything but display purposes.[4][9] Dodson (1997) noted that cranial crests first appeared in Dilophosaurus and were later retained, in one form or another, by other theropods.[10]
The function of the crests on the skull of Dilophosaurus have been the subject of speculation among scientists ever since they were discovered. Traditionally, these bizarre cranial structures (and similar structures and post-cranial armor in other dinosaurs) were thought to be variously for attracting mates, intimidating/fighting rivals in the group, and intimidating potential predators of other species. However, Padian, Horner and Dhaliwal (2004) argued that phylogenetic, histological, and functional evidence indicates that these bizarre structures were most likely used for intra-species recognition.[11][12]
History of discovery[edit]
Front part of holotype cast, ROM
The first Dilophosaurus specimens were uncovered by Sam Welles in the summer of 1942 in the Kayenta Formation in Arizona.[13] The site had been found by a Navajo, Jesse Williams, in 1940. Three individuals were present but one of these was too weathered to make an excavation worthwhile. Two specimens were brought back to Berkeley for cleaning and mounting by the team of Wann Langston, the holotype UCMP 37302 (specimen on which a name is based), and a second skeleton, the paratype UCMP 37303. They were given the name Megalosaurus wetherilli in 1954 by Welles.[14] The specific name honoured John Wetherill who had explored the area of the find.[15]
Returning to the same formation in 1964 to determine from which time period the bones dated, Welles found a new specimen, UCMP 77270, not far from the location of the previous discovery. Based on the unique double crests preserved for the first time in the new skeleton, Welles realized that the species was significantly different from Megalosaurus. In 1970, he re-classified it in a new genus, which he named Dilophosaurus,[3][14] from the Greek words di (δι) meaning "two", lophos (λόφος) meaning "crest", and sauros (σαυρος) meaning "lizard"; thus, "two-crested lizard".[15] The available evidence strongly suggests that both the holotype of D. wetherilli and the second skeleton are juveniles.[4]
In 2001, Robert Gay reported the discovery of two, or possibly three, new specimens of Dilophosaurus wetherilli in the collections of the Museum of Northern Arizona. The specimens were found in 1978 in the Kayenta Formation, in the Rock Head Quadrangle. Gay found the specimens to compare favorably with the holotype (UCMP 37302). Gay noted that this material is significant in that it includes parts of the pelvis not preserved in either the holotype or in the "D. breedorum" specimen UCMP 77270.[3]
Gay reported that some elements in the MNA collection were representative of an infant specimen (MNA P1.3181). This included a partial humerus, a partial fibula, and a tooth fragment. The infant specimen is significant for several reasons; first, it lends insight into the growth rates of early dinosaurs, and second, it provides researchers with an opportunity to compare the growth rate of Dilophosaurus wetherilli with that of a related species like Coelophysis bauri which could provide insights into early theropod growth rates. This specimen is also the first known infant of the genus.[3]
Reconstructed skeleton of Sinosaurus sinensis, which was originally described as a species of Dilophosaurus
Hu Shaojin (1993) assigned specimen KMV 8701 to a second species, Dilophosaurus sinensis.[16] This species was recovered from the Yunnan Province of China in 1987, with the prosauropod Yunnanosaurus.[17] Compared to D. wetherilli, this species was larger and more robust. Lamanna et al. (1998b) examined the material ascribed to D. sinensis and found it to be synonymous with Sinosaurus triassicus.[18] This finding was confirmed in 2013.[19]
A proposed third species, D. breedorum, was coined by Samuel Welles through Welles and Pickering (1999) for the specimen UCMP 77270 collected in 1964. Tykoski (2005) performed an ontogenetic analysis in his thesis and concluded that D. breedorum is an adult Dilophosaurus wetherilli.[20] This was the first specimen of the genus to preserve a nearly complete cranial crest.[21] Welles concluded that differences between the original specimens and UCMP 77270 justified the naming of separate species.[4] He was unable to complete a manuscript describing this during his lifetime, and the name eventually came out in a private publication distributed by Pickering.[22] This species has not been accepted as valid in other reviews of the genus, which see it as a nomen nudum and/or a junior subjective synonym.[3][23]
Remains similar to Dilophosaurus were recovered in the Upper Member of the Dharmaram Formation, in Andhra Pradesh, India. The remains were discovered in mudstone that was deposited during the Sinemurian stage of the Early Jurassic, approximately 196-189 million years ago.[24]
Classification[edit]
Restoration with hypothetical filaments.
Dilophosaurus has been examined several times over the years and has been assigned to no less than nine different theropod groups. Welles (1954) and the majority of subsequent phylogenetic analyses during the 1980s and 1990s have classified this genus as a large coelophysoid within the taxon Coelophysoidea.[9][25] However, most 21st century studies to date have found that Dilophosaurus and various other "dilophosaurids" were more closely related to tetanuran theropods than to true coelophysoids.[26][27]
The following family tree illustrates a synthesis of the relationships of the early theropod groups compiled by Hendrickx et al. in 2015, and illustrates the current consensus relationships of Dilophosaurus.[28]
Neotheropoda

Coelophysidae

Liliensternus

Zupaysaurus

Dilophosauridae

Dilophosaurus

Dracovenator

Averostra

Ceratosauria

Tetanurae

Cryolophosaurus

Sinosaurus

Monolophosaurus

Orionides

Paleobiology[edit]
Skull diagrams showing closed and open jaws
Dilophosaurus is considered to have been an obligate biped based on the presence of long hindlimbs oriented vertically under the pelvis, and short forelimbs that did not support quadrupedal locomotion. The hindlimbs suggest a fast and agile runner, as would be expected in a carnivorous theropod.[4]
Welles (1984) proposed that Dilophosaurus traveled in small groups, based on the fact that several individuals were found together.[4] Gay (2001b) noted that there was no direct evidence for this and noted that "flash floods would pick up scattered and isolated material from different individuals and deposit them together in the same area".[3] Cranial display features make sense in social, gregarious animals, where other members of the species are available to observe and interpret messages of sexual status.[10]
Feeding[edit]
The presence and distribution of non-interdigitating sutures in the skull of some reptilian groups, including Dilophosaurus, has been interpreted as indicating the presence of a system of levers, driven by jaw muscles, as an aid to predation.[29] Welles (1984) rejected this hypothesis and interpreted the potential mobility in the skull of Dilophosaurus as a sign of weakness, and argued that the loose connection of the premaxilla precluded the capture and subduing of prey.[4] This led to the early hypothesis that Dilophosaurus scavenged off carrion, because its teeth were too weak to bring down large prey.[5] Recently, some researchers have argued that Dilophosaurus may have been piscivorous, due to the presence of Eubrontes-sized swim tracks at some localities, as well as anatomical similarities with spinosaurids.[30]
Growth[edit]
Tkach (1996) conducted a study of the bone structure of the type species and concluded that Dilophosaurus wetherilli could have attained growth rates of nearly 35 kilograms (77 lb) in early life,[clarification needed] which reflects a rapid growth rate.[31]
Paleopathology[edit]
Main article: Theropod paleopathology
Pathologies in bones of the holotype specimen, plotted onto a life restoration
One Dilophosaurus wetherilli specimen bears a damaged vertebra that may have been injured during life and a potential abscess on the individual's upper arm bone. Another specimen has an unusually small left humerus compared to a very robust right arm, a possible example of fluctuating asymmetry. Fluctuating asymmetry results from developmental disturbances and is more common in populations under stress and can therefore be informative about the quality of conditions a dinosaur lived under.[32] A specimen of Dilophosaurus from the University of California Museum of Paleontology labelled as UCMP 37302 displays eight different pathologies to its pectoral girdle and forelimb bones, including three bone tumors, broken and re-healed bones on both arms, deformed digits and an inability to utilize one forelimb. Though it is not certain, it is believed that most or all of the injuries on this specimen were acquired in a fight or an accident and that the theropod would have been in severe pain as it healed. The pathologies of this specimen were documented in the journal PLOS One.[33]
In a 2001 study conducted by Bruce Rothschild and other paleontologists, 60 foot bones referred to Dilophosaurus were examined for signs of stress fracture, but none were found.[34]
Paleoichnology[edit]
Assigned track in Red Fleet Dinosaur Tracks Park, Utah
In the Kayenta Formation in Arizona, the same formation that yielded the original specimens for this genus, the trackways known as Kayentapus hopii and Dilophosauripus williamsi were attributed to Dilophosaurus by Welles (1971). These ichnotaxa feature a series of three-toed footprints that are consistent with the expected size and shape of the feet of Dilophosaurus.[35] In 1991, trackway specialist Gerard Gierlinski re-examined tracks from the Holy Cross Mountains in Poland and renamed them Kayentapus soltykovensis, concluding that the "dilophosaur" form was the most appropriate candidate for making these ichnotaxa.[36]
Fossilized footprints, discovered in 200-million-year-old sedimentary rock, which were assigned to Dilophosaurus were discovered in the Höganäs Formation in Vallåkra, Sweden, during the 1970s. The footprints appears to show that these dinosaurs lived in herds.[37] Fossilized footprints assigned to Dilophosaurus have also been discovered in Sala, Sweden. Other tracks discovered in the Höganäs Formation have been assigned to the ichnogenus Grallator (Eubrontes) cf. giganteus, which were discovered in Rhaetian strata, and Grallator (Eubrontes) soltykovensis, which were discovered in Hettangian strata.[38] A few of the tracks were taken to museums, but most of them disappeared in natural floodings.[39] In 1994, Gierlinski and Ahlberg assigned these tracks from the Hoganas Formation of Sweden to Dilophosaurus as well.[40]
Eubrontes resting trace assigned to Dilophosaurus, Moenave Formation
Gierlinski (1996) observed unusual traces associated with a track specimen in the collection at the Pratt Museum in Amherst, Massachusetts. Specimen AC 1/7 is a "dinosaur sitting imprint", made when a dinosaur is resting its body on the ground, leaving an impression of its belly between a pair of footprints. Traces associated with AC 1/7 were interpreted by Gierlinski as the imprints of feathers, suggesting that Dilophosaurus was a feathered dinosaur.[40] Further analysis proved, however, that the lines that seemed to be feathers were in reality just cracks in the mud where the animal sat. While this does not rule out the possibility of feathery covering on this species, there is no evidence for it and it currently remains as speculation.[41]
Tracks of Eubrontes and Gigandipus of the Connecticut River Valley, which have been found in both Connecticut and in Massachusetts, have often been attributed to Dilophosaurus,[42][43] however no fossil remains of Dilophosaurus have been directly attributed to either one of the footprint types. The size and shape suggested they were made by a theropod around 20 feet long similar to that of Dilophosaurus, suggesting they were either made by Dilophosaurus or a very close relative. Two similar footprints, Anchisauripus and Grallator, also found in the valley, have often been attributed to Dilophosaur's smaller relatives, Podokesaurus and Coelophysis, and occasionally attributed to Dilophosaurus itself.[42]
Paleoecology[edit]
Cast of the skull and neck, ROM
The remains of the type specimen of Dilophosaurus wetherilli UCMP 37302 and partial skeleton UCMP 37303 were recovered in the Silty Facies Member of the Kayenta Formation, in northeastern Arizona. The remains were discovered in 1942 and 1964 in blue shale and brown/gray siltstone that was deposited during the Sinemurian-Pliensbachian stages of the Early Jurassic, approximately 196-183 million years ago. Two other specimens assigned to this genus were discovered in the same formation; one in 1982 (UCMP 130053) in channel sandstone and the other, a scapula in terrestrial sandstone.[44]
The Kayenta Formation is part of the Glen Canyon Group that includes formations not only in northern Arizona but also parts of southeastern Utah, western Colorado, and northwestern New Mexico. It is composed mostly of two facies, one dominated by silty deposition and the other dominated by sandstone. The siltstone facies is found in much of Arizona, while the sandstone facies is present in areas of northern Arizona, southern Utah, western Colorado, and northwestern New Mexico. The formation was primarily deposited by rivers, with the silty facies as the slower, more sluggish part of the river system. Kayenta Formation deposition was ended by the encroaching dune field that would become the Navajo Sandstone.[45] A definitive radiometric dating of this formation has not yet been made, and the available stratigraphic correlation has been based on a combination of radiometric dates from vertebrate fossils, magnetostratigraphy and pollen evidence.[44] It has been surmised that the Kayenta Formation was deposited during the Sinemurian and Pliensbachian stages of the Early Jurassic Period or approximately 196 to 183 million years ago.[46]
Restoration of Early Jurassic environment preserved at the St. George Dinosaur Discovery Site, with Dilophosaurus in bird-like resting pose
The Kayenta Formation has yielded a small but growing assemblage of organisms. Most fossils are from the silty facies.[47] Most organisms known so far are vertebrates. Non-vertebrates include microbial or "algal" limestone,[48] petrified wood,[49] plant impressions,[50] freshwater bivalves and snails,[45] ostracods,[51] and invertebrate trace fossils.[48]
Vertebrates are known from both body fossils and trace fossils. Vertebrates known from body fossils include (the following after Lucas et al. [2005],[47] except where noted): hybodont sharks, indeterminate bony fish, lungfish,[49] salamanders,[52] the frog Prosalirus, the caecilian Eocaecilia, the turtle Kayentachelys, a sphenodontian reptile, lizards,[53] several early crocodylomorphs including Calsoyasuchus, Eopneumatosuchus, Kayentasuchus, and Protosuchus), the pterosaur Rhamphinion, several theropods including Dilophosaurus, Kayentavenator[54] Coelophysis kayentakatae, and the "Shake N Bake" theropod, the basal sauropodomorph Sarahsaurus,[55] a heterodontosaurid, armored dinosaurs Scelidosaurus and Scutellosaurus, the tritylodontids synapsids Dinnebiton, Kayentatherium, and Oligokyphus, morganucodontids,[53] possible early true mammal Dinnetherium, and a haramyid mammal. The majority of these finds come from the vicinity of Gold Spring, Arizona.[47] Vertebrate trace fossils include coprolites[48] and the tracks of therapsids, lizard-like animals, and several types of dinosaur.[56]
Explorations in the 1970s and 1980s by James M. Clark, Farish Jenkins and David E. Fastovsky and collection and analysis by William R. Downs have produced several vertebrate specimens. The Kayenta Formation has produced several mass burial sites, and the remains of three coelophysoid taxa of different body size, which represents the most diverse ceratosaur fauna yet known.[57]
Cultural significance[edit]
Model nicknamed "Dyzio", Geological Museum, Warsaw
Dilophosaurus is featured in both Michael Crichton's 1990 novel Jurassic Park and its 1993 movie adaptation. It is depicted as venomous, being able to spit venom, aiming for the eyes to blind and paralyze its prey (much like a spitting cobra); in the film, it also has a retractable neck frill around its neck (much like a frill-necked lizard). There is no evidence to either prove or disprove either the frill or the venom spitting,[58] which was acknowledged by Crichton as artistic license.[59] In the film, Steven Spielberg also reduced the size of Dilophosaurus to 3 feet (0.91 m) tall and 5 feet (1.5 m) long in order to avoid confusion with Velociraptor.[60] Dilophosaurus was designated as the state dinosaur of Connecticut.[61]
See also[edit]
Dinosaurs portal
Eubrontes
Kayenta Formation
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Rigby, J. K., Hamblin, W. K., Matheny, R., and Welsh, S. L. 1971. Guidebook to the Colorado river: part 3, Moab to Hite, Utah through Canyonlands National Park. Brigham Young University Research Studies, Geology Series 18(2).
Jump up ^ Lucas, S. G., and Tanner L. H. 2007. Tetrapod biostratigraphy and biochronology of the Triassic-Jurassic transition on the southern Colorado Plateau, USA. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 244(1–4):242–256.
Jump up ^ Curtis, K., and Padian, K. 1999. An Early Jurassic microvertebrate fauna from the Kayenta Formation of northeastern Arizona: microfaunal change across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary. PaleoBios 19(2):19–37.
^ Jump up to: a b Jenkins, F. A., Jr., Crompton, A. W., and Downs, W. R. 1983. Mesozoic mammals from Arizona: new evidence in mammalian evolution. Science 222(4629):1233–1235.
Jump up ^ Gay, R. 2010. Kayentavenator elysiae, a new tetanuran from the early Jurassic of Arizona. Pages 27–43 in Gay, R. Notes on early Mesozoic theropods. Lulu Press (on-demand online press).
Jump up ^ Rowe, T. B., Sues, H.-D., and Reisz, R. R. 2011. Dispersal and diversity in the earliest North American sauropodomorph dinosaurs, with a description of a new taxon. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 278(1708):1044–1053.
Jump up ^ Hamblin, A. H., and Foster, J. R. 2000. Ancient animal footprints and traces in the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument, south-central Utah. Pages 557–568 in Sprinkel, D. A., Chidsey, T. C., Jr., and Anderson, P. B. editors. Geology of Utah's parks and monuments. Utah Geological Association, Salt Lake City, UT. Publication 28.
Jump up ^ Tykoski, R. S., 1998, The Osteology of Syntarsus kayentakatae and its Implications for Ceratosaurid Phylogeny: Theses, The University of Texas, December 1998.
Jump up ^ Bennington, J Bret (1996). "Errors in the Movie "Jurassic Park"". American Paleontologist. 4 (2): 4–7.
Jump up ^ Crichton, Michael (1990). Jurassic Park. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-58816-9.
Jump up ^ The Making of Jurassic Park by Don Shay & Jody Duncan, Boxtree Ltd; 1st Edition. edition (30 Jun 1993), ISBN 1-85283-774-8
Jump up ^ Altimari, Daniela. "Bill Naming State Dinosaur Signed by the Governor". Hartford Courant. Retrieved 21 July 2017.
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Dead Marshes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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‹ The template Infobox fictional location is being considered for merging. ›
Dead Marshes
J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium location
Type
Bogs to the northwest of Mordor
Geographical Feature
Location
Gondor
later disputed
The Dead Marshes is a fictional place from J. R. R. Tolkien's universe, Middle-earth.
Contents
[hide]
1 Literature
2 Inspiration
3 Portrayal in Adaptations
4 References
5 External links
Literature[edit]
Once a part of the ancient battlefield of Dagorlad, the Dead Marshes lie north-west of the Morannon, the principal entrance to Mordor. The Battle of Dagorlad was fought there, at the end of the Second Age, when the Last Alliance met the forces of Mordor with many casualties on both sides amongst Elves, Men, and Orcs. Through the years, the marshland began to encroach upon parts of the battlefield, and engulfed the dead that lay there.
The Marshes are also known as 'The Mere of Dead Faces'; they are described in The Passage of the Marshes in The Two Towers as "dreary and wearisome. Cold, clammy winter still held sway in this forsaken country. The only green was the scum of livid weed on the dark greasy milky surfaces of the sullen waters. Dead grasses and rotting reeds loomed up in the mists like ragged shadows of long forgotten summers." [1]
On their way to Mordor to destroy the One Ring, Frodo Baggins and Samwise Gamgee are led through the marshes by Gollum. They see the aforementioned dead, Gollum stating, "Only shapes to see, perhaps, not to touch."[1] Frodo is mesmerized by the candle-like lights that appear to float over the Marshes (called by Gollum "candles of corpses"[1]); those who are hypnotised by these lights, and who therefore try to touch the bodies, are likely to drown in the waters and join the dead. In the book, Gollum reveals the dangers to Sam, who calls to the stiff and lifeless Frodo and breaks his trance before he can touch the waters.
Inspiration[edit]
In a 1960 letter Tolkien said that "the Dead Marshes and the approaches to the Morannon owe something to Northern France after the Battle of the Somme. They owe more to William Morris and his Huns and Romans, as in The House of the Wolfings or The Roots of the Mountains."[2]
Portrayal in Adaptations[edit]
Peter Jackson's flying Nazgûl background shots were filmed above the Kepler Mire, a massive string bog between the towns of Manapouri and Te Anau in the Southland Region of New Zealand. It can be viewed on the Mt York Road some 2 km east of the Highway 95 turn off.
The close-up shots were filmed on the Weta Digital Wet-Set at Lower Hutt, NZ.
References[edit]
Middle-earth portal
^ Jump up to: a b c All quotes are taken from J.R.R. Tolkien's The Two Towers.
Jump up ^ Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (1981), The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Letter 226, ISBN 0-395-31555-7
External links[edit]
"Dead Marshes". Tolkien Gateway.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dead_Marshes&oldid=760370739"
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Second Spanish Republic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Spanish Republic
República Española
1931–1939
Flag
Coat of arms
Motto
Plus Ultra
Further Beyond
Anthem
Himno de Riego
Anthem of Riego
Territories and colonies of the Spanish Republic:
Spain, Sahara and Guinea
Protectorate of Morocco
International Zone of Tangier
Capital Madrid (1931–1936)
Valencia (1936–1937)
Barcelona (1937–1939)
Languages Spanishb
Government Multi-party semi-presidential federal republic[1]
President
• 1931–1936 Niceto Alcalá-Zamora
• 1936–1939 Manuel Azaña
Prime Minister
• 1931 Niceto Alcalá-Zamora
• 1937–1939 Juan Negrín López
Legislature Congress of Deputies
Historical era Interwar period
• Pronunciamiento 14 April 1931
• Constitution adopted 9 December 1931
• Spanish Civil War 17 July 1936
• Fall of the Republic 1 April 1939
Currency Spanish peseta
Preceded by Succeeded by
Restoration (Spain)
Francoist Spain
Spanish Republican government in exile
a. Espainiako Errepublika in Basque, República Espanyola in Catalan and República Espanhola or "República Española" in Galician.
b. Catalan, Basque and Galician would gain formal officiality with the approval of the Statute of Autonomy.
The Spanish Republic (officially in Spanish: República Española) and commonly known as the Second Spanish Republic (in Spanish: Segunda República Española) to distinguish it from the previous and short-lived First Spanish Republic (1873-1874), was the democratic republican administration that existed in Spain from 1931 to 1939 (preceded by the Restoration and followed by Fascist Francoist Spain after the Spanish Civil War).
Following the Provisional Government between April and December 1931, the 1931 Constitution established the Republic. The Spanish Republic can be divided in three eras: the First Biennium, the Dark Biennium, and the Popular Front government.
The Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed when King Alfonso XIII left the country following municipal elections where anti-monarchist candidates won the majority of votes. Its government went into exile on 1 April 1939, when the last of the Republican forces surrendered to the rebel nacionales (led in part by Francisco Franco), ending the Spanish Civil War.
The government in exile of the Second Spanish Republic had an embassy in Mexico City until 1976. After the restoration of democracy in Spain, the government formally dissolved the following year.[2]
The history of the Second Spanish Republic, and the way to the Spanish Civil War is even today a part of European history to which no agreement among the historical expertise has been found.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Reformist Biennium
1.1 1931 Constitution
2 1934-1935 period and miners' uprising
3 1936 elections
4 Assassinations of political leaders and beginning of the war
5 Civil war
5.1 Causes
5.2 War
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Reformist Biennium[edit]
Main article: Spanish Constitution of 1931
See also: Background of the Spanish Civil War
On 28 January 1930 the military dictatorship of General Miguel Primo de Rivera (who had been in power since September 1923) was overthrown.[4] This led various republican factions from a wide variety of backgrounds (including old conservatives, socialists and Catalan nationalists) to join forces.[5] The Pact of San Sebastián was the key to the transition from monarchy to republic. Republicans of all tendencies were committed to the Pact of San Sebastian in overthrowing the monarchy and establishing a republic. The restoration of the royal Bourbons was rejected by large sectors of the populace who vehemently opposed the King. The pact, signed by representatives of the main Republican forces, allowed a joint anti-monarchy political campaign.[6] The 12 April 1931 municipal elections led to a landslide victory for republicans.[7] Two days later, the Second Republic was proclaimed, and King Alfonso XIII went into exile.[8] The king's departure led to a provisional government of the young republic under Niceto Alcalá-Zamora. Catholic churches and establishments in cities like Madrid and Sevilla were set ablaze on 11 May.[9] In June 1931 a Constituent Cortes was elected to draft a new constitution, which came into force in December.[10]
1931 Constitution[edit]
The new constitution established freedom of speech and freedom of association, extended suffrage to women in 1933, allowed divorce, and stripped the Spanish nobility of any special legal status. It also effectively disestablished the Roman Catholic Church, but the disestablishment was somewhat reversed by the Cortes that same year. Its controversial articles 26 and 27 imposed stringent controls on Church property and barred religious orders from the ranks of educators.[11] Scholars have described the constitution as hostile to religion, with one scholar characterising it as one of the most hostile of the 20th century.[12] José Ortega y Gasset stated, "the article in which the Constitution legislates the actions of the Church seems highly improper to me."[13] Pope Pius XI condemned the Spanish government's deprivation of the civil liberties of Catholics in the encyclical Dilectissima Nobis.[14]
Allegory of the Spanish Republic, displaying republican paraphernalia such as the Phrygian cap and symbols of modernity
The legislative branch was changed to a single chamber called the Congress of Deputies. The constitution established legal procedures for the nationalisation of public services and land, banks, and railways. The constitution provided generally accorded civil liberties and representation.[15]
Catholic churches in major cities were again subject to arson in 1932, and a revolutionary strike action was seen in Málaga the same year.[9] A Catholic church in Zaragoza was burnt down in 1933, and the cathedral in Oviedo was destroyed by flames in 1934.[9] The church of San Lorenzo in Gijon was also set ablaze in the same year. The church of San Juan in Albacete was torched three months prior to the onset of the civil war, in March 1936.[9]
The 1931 Constitution was formally effective from 1931 until 1939. In the summer of 1936, after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, it became largely irrelevant after the authority of the Republic was superseded in many places by revolutionary socialists and anarchists on one side, and fascists on the other.[16]
The Republican Constitution also changed the country's national symbols. The Himno de Riego was established as the national anthem, and the Tricolor, with three horizontal red-yellow-purple fields, became the new flag of Spain. Under the new Constitution, all of Spain's regions had the right to autonomy. Catalonia (1932), the Basque Country (1936) and Galicia (although the Galician Statute of Autonomy couldn't come into effect due to the war) exercised this right, with Aragon, Andalusia and Valencia, engaged in negotiations with the government before the outbreak of the Civil War. The Constitution guaranteed a wide range of civil liberties, but it opposed key beliefs of the conservative right, which was very rooted in rural areas, and desires of the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church, which was stripped of schools and public subsidies.
1934-1935 period and miners' uprising[edit]
Main article: Asturian miners' strike of 1934
See also: Background of the Spanish Civil War § The "two black years"
The majority vote in the 1933 elections was won by the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (CEDA). José María Gil Robles, their leader, led a coalition of centre-right and far-right parties: CEDA set up a coalition with the Radical Republican Party led by Alejandro Lerroux, which had come second in the elections. The Socialists came third. With Lerroux as head of Government, the new coalition suspended most of the reforms carried out by the last government.
The inclusion of three CEDA ministers in the government that took office on October 1, 1934 led to a general strike and a rebellion by socialists and anarchists in Asturias on October 6. Miners in Asturias occupied the capital, Oviedo, killing officials and clergymen, and burning theatres and the university. This rebellion lasted for two weeks until it was crushed by the army, led by General Francisco Franco, who, in the process, destroyed large parts of the city. This operation earned Franco the nickname "Butcher of Asturias". Another rebellion by the autonomous government of Catalonia, led by its president Lluís Companys, was also suppressed, and was followed by mass arrests and trials.
The suspension of the land reforms that had been attempted by the previous government, and the failure of the Asturias miners' uprising, led to a more radical turn by the parties of the left, especially in the PSOE (Socialist Party), where the moderate Indalecio Prieto lost ground to Francisco Largo Caballero, who advocated a socialist revolution. At the same time the involvement of the Centrist government party in the Straperlo scandal deeply weakened it, further polarising political differences between right and left. These differences became evident in the 1936 elections.
1936 elections[edit]
On 7 January 1936, new elections were called. Despite significant rivalries and disagreements, the socialists, Communists, and the Catalan-and-Madrid-based left-wing Republicans decided to work together under the name Popular Front. The Popular Front won the election on 16 February with 263 MPs against 156 right-wing MPs, grouped within a coalition of the National Front with CEDA, Carlists, and Monarchists. The moderate centre parties virtually disappeared; between the elections, Lerroux's group fell from the 104 representatives it had in 1934 to just 9.
In the following months there was increasing violence between left and right. This helped the development of the fascist-inspired Falange Española, a National party led by José Antonio Primo de Rivera, the son of the former dictator, Miguel Primo de Rivera. Although it only received 0.7 percent of the votes in the election, by July 1936 the Falange had 40,000 members.
Assassinations of political leaders and beginning of the war[edit]
On 12 July 1936, Lieutenant José Castillo, an important member of the anti-fascist military organisation Unión Militar Republicana Antifascista (UMRA), was shot by Falangist gunmen. In retaliation the following day, 13 July, UMRA members assassinated José Calvo Sotelo, leader of the right-wing opposition and the most prominent Spanish monarchist who, describing the government's actions as Bolshevist and anarchist, had been exhorting the army to intervene, declaring that Spanish soldiers would save the country from communism if "there are no politicians capable of doing so".[17]
The Right blamed the government for Calvo Sotelo's assassination. Although this event is sometimes considered the catalyst for the further political polarisation that ensued, the Falange and other right-wing individuals, including Juan de la Cierva, had already been conspiring to launch a military coup d'état against the government, to be led by senior army officers.[18] When the antifascist Castillo and the anti-socialist Calvo Sotelo were buried on the same day in the same Madrid cemetery, fighting between the Police Assault Guard and fascist militias broke out in the surrounding streets, resulting in four more deaths.
Three days later (17 July), the coup d'état began more or less as it had been planned, with an army uprising in Spanish Morocco, which then spread to several regions of the country. Franco's move was intended to seize power immediately, but his army uprising met with serious resistance, and great swathes of Spain, including most of the main cities, remained loyal to the Republic of Spain. The leaders of the treason (Franco was not commander-in-chief yet) did not lose heart with the stalemate and apparent failure of the coup. Instead, they initiated a slow and determined war of attrition against the Republican government in Madrid.[19] As a result, an estimated total of half a million people would lose their lives in the war that followed; the number of casualties is actually disputed as some have suggested as many as a million people died. Over the years, historians kept lowering the death figures and modern research concluded that 500,000 deaths was the correct figure.[20]
Civil war[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: Spanish Civil War
"Los Cuatro Generales" and "Viva La Quince Brigada"
Two folk songs from the Spanish Civil War sung by Leon Lishner.
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Causes[edit]
Main article: Background of the Spanish Civil War
The Second Republic was proclaimed during a period of worldwide economic depression. In spite of the high hopes, the Republican authorities had to struggle with rising unemployment and poverty. In the ensuing civil unrest, violence in the form of assassination, revolutionary general strikes, and mob actions increased to dangerous levels in the eyes of the traditional centres of power, such as the landowners, the Church, and the nobility. Thus, it was easy for them to whip up dissatisfaction with the republican government.
Poster displayed in Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya.
Poster from the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya
The murders of the leftist military leader José Castillo and the rightist politician José Calvo Sotelo opened the way to a rapidly increasing flood of violence between the political left and right.
The right in Spain justified their military coup against the Republic claiming that it was ungovernable and failed to respond adequately to the threats of communism, anarchism, anti-clericalism, and acts of random violence.[21] As well as this growth in extreme-left violence, the attitude of the Republican elite was perceived as permissive to secessionist politics, of the wealthy industrial regions of Catalonia and the Basque Country, was felt by Spanish nationalists to pose a threat to the very existence of Spain as a nation-state.
War[edit]
Twenty-six republicans that were assassinated by fascists who belonged to Franco's Nationalists side at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, between August and September 1936. This mass grave is placed at the small town named Estépar, in Burgos, northern Spain. The excavation occurred in July–August 2014.
International Brigadiers volunteered on the side of the Republic. The photo shows members of the XI International Brigade on a tank during the Battle of Belchite (August–September 1937)
On July 17, 1936, General Franco led the Spanish Army of Africa from Morocco to attack the mainland, while another force from the north under General Emilio Mola moved south from Navarre. Military units were also mobilised elsewhere to take over government institutions. Before long the professional Army of Africa had much of the south and west under the control of the rebels. Bloody purges followed in each piece of captured "Nationalist" territory in order to consolidate Franco's future regime.[19] Although both sides received foreign military aid, the help that Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany (as part of German involvement in the Spanish Civil War), and neighbouring Portugal gave the rebels was much greater and more effective than the assistance that the Republicans received from the USSR, Mexico, and volunteers of the International Brigades. While the Axis powers wholeheartedly assisted General Franco's military campaign, the governments of France, Britain, and other European powers looked the other way and let the Republican forces die, as the actions of the Non-Intervention Committee would show.[22] Imposed in the name of neutrality, the international isolation of the Spanish Republic ended up favouring the interests of the future Axis Powers.[23]
The Siege of the Alcázar at Toledo early in the war was a turning point, with the rebels winning after a long siege. The Republicans managed to hold out in Madrid, despite a National assault in November 1936, and frustrated subsequent offensives against the capital at Jarama and Guadalajara in 1937. Soon, though, the rebels began to erode their territory, starving Madrid and making inroads into the east. The north, including the Basque country, fell in late 1937, and the Aragon front collapsed shortly afterwards. The bombing of Guernica was probably the most infamous event of the war and inspired Picasso's painting. It was used as a testing ground for the German Luftwaffe's Condor Legion. The Battle of the Ebro in July–November 1938 was the final desperate attempt by the Republicans to turn the tide. When this failed and Barcelona fell to the rebels in early 1939, it was clear the war was over. The remaining Republican fronts collapsed, and Madrid fell in March 1939.
See also[edit]
Spain portal
Anarchism portal
Liberalism portal
Socialism portal
Spanish Republican Armed Forces
Spanish Republican government in exile
Flag of the Second Spanish Republic
Coat of Arms of the Second Spanish Republic
Order of the Spanish Republic
LAPE (Líneas Aéreas Postales Españolas), the Spanish Republican Airline
Catholicism in the Second Spanish Republic
Battle of the Ebro
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Payne, Stanley G. (1993) Spain's First Democracy: The Second Republic, 1931-1936, pp. 62-3. Univ of Wisconsin Press. Google Books. Retrieved 2 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Javier Rubio, Los reconocimientos diplomáticos del Gobierno de la República española en el exilio
Jump up ^ Anthony Beevor 2006, in a Swedish historical magazine [1] , the fifth line (from "Det verkar råda större oenighet om spanska...") in English means "It seems to exist a greater disagreement about the Spanish civil war than about almost any aspect of World War II, not only in Spain but everywhere."
Jump up ^ Casanova 2010, p. 10
Jump up ^ Casanova 2010, p. 1
Jump up ^ Mariano Ospina Peña, La II República Española, caballerosandantes.net/videoteca.php?action=verdet&vid=89
Jump up ^ Casanova 2010, p. 18
Jump up ^ Casanova 2010, p. vii
^ Jump up to: a b c d abc.es: "La quema de iglesias durante la Segunda República" 10 May 2012
Jump up ^ Casanova 2010, p. 28
Jump up ^ Smith, Angel, Historical Dictionary of Spain, p. 195, Rowman & Littlefield 2008
Jump up ^ Stepan, Alfred, Arguing Comparative Politics, p. 221, Oxford University Press
Jump up ^ Paz, Jose Antonio Souto Perspectives on religious freedom in Spain Brigham Young University Law Review Jan. 1, 2001
Jump up ^ Dilectissima Nobis, 2 (On Oppression Of The Church Of Spain)
Jump up ^ Payne, Stanley G. (1973). "A History of Spain and Portugal (Print Edition)". University of Wisconsin Press. Library of Iberian resources online. 2, Ch. 25: 632. Retrieved 30 May 2007.
Jump up ^ Payne, Stanley G. (1973). "A History of Spain and Portugal (Print Edition)". University of Wisconsin Press. Library of Iberian resources online. 2, Ch. 26: 646–47. Retrieved 15 May 2007.
Jump up ^ "Uneasy path". Evening Post, Volume CXXI, Issue 85, 9 April 1936. National Library of New Zealand. Retrieved 24 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Beevor 2006, p. 51
^ Jump up to: a b Imperial War Museum (2002). "The Spanish Civil War exhibition: Mainline text" (PDF). Retrieved 27 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Thomas Barria-Norton, The Spanish Civil War (2001), pp. xviii & 899–901, inclusive.
Jump up ^ Helen Graham, among others.
Jump up ^ La Pasionaria's Farewell Message to the International Brigade fighters
Jump up ^ Ángel Viñas, La Soledad de la República
References[edit]
Beevor, Antony (2006). The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939. New York: Penguin Books.
Casanova, Julián (2010). The Spanish Republic and Civil War. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-49388-9. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511763137.
Further reading[edit]
Gerald Brenan, The Spanish Labyrinth: An Account of the Social and Political Background of the Spanish Civil War (1943)
Henry Buckley, The Life and Death of the Spanish Republic: a Witness to the Spanish Civil War, IB Tauris, (1940, rep 2013). First Edition almost entirely destroyed and not reprinted until 2013.
Raymond Carr, ed. The Republic and the Civil War in Spain (1971)
Raymond Carr, Spain 1808–1975 (2nd ed. 1982) online
Julián Casanova. The Spanish Republic and Civil War (Cambridge University Press, 2010)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Second Spanish Republic.
Constitución de la República Española (1931)
Second Spanish Republic National Anthem on YouTube
(in Spanish) Pro-Republic, 75th Anniversary Manifiesto
Original article from the beginning of the Spanish Civil War in The Guardian's archives.
History of the republic and the victory of the Popular Front in elections
(in Spanish) Video La II República Española
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King of Spain

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Guernica (painting)

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Payne, Stanley G.

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Anthony Beevor

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Index of Spain-related articles

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List of banks in Spain

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Autonomous Community

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