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History of the steel industry (1850–1970)
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For the history of earlier processes, see History of ferrous metallurgy. For recent history, see History of the steel industry (1970–present).
The history of the modern steel industry began in the late 1850s, but since then, steel has been basic to the world's industrial economy. This article is intended only to address the business, economic and social dimensions of the industry, since the bulk production of steel began as a result of Henry Bessemer's development of the Bessemer converter in 1857. Previously steel was very expensive to produce and only used in small expensive items such as knives, swords and armour.
Contents
1 Technology
2 Britain
2.1 19th century
2.2 20th century
3 Australia
4 Germany
5 France
6 Italy
7 United States
7.1 Alabama
7.2 Carnegie
7.3 US Steel
7.4 Bethlehem Steel
7.5 Republic Steel
7.6 Unions
7.7 Apogee and decline
7.8 Legacy
8 Asia
8.1 Japan
8.2 India
8.3 China
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
11.1 Britain
11.2 United States
11.2.1 U.S. Labor
11.3 Primary sources
Technology[edit]
Steel is an alloy composed of between 0.2% and 2.0% carbon, and the balance of iron. From prehistory through the creation of the blast furnace, iron was produced from iron ore as wrought iron, 99.82% - 100% Fe, and the process of making steel involved adding carbon to the iron, usually via serendipity in the forge or via the cementation process. The introduction of the blast furnace reversed the problem. A blast furnace produces pig iron, which is an alloy of approximately 90% iron and 10% carbon. If the process of steelmaking begins with pig iron instead of wrought iron, the challenge is to remove a sufficient amount of carbon to get it to the 0.2 to 2 percent for steel.
Before about 1860 steel was an expensive product, made in small quantities and used mostly for swords, tools and cutlery; all large metal structures were made of wrought or cast iron. Steelmaking was centered in Sheffield, Britain, which supplied the European and the American markets. The introduction of cheap steel was due to the Bessemer and the open hearth processes, two technological advances made in England. In the Bessemer process, molten pig iron is converted to steel by blowing air through it after it was removed from the furnace. The air blast burned the carbon and silicon out of the pig iron, releasing heat and causing the temperature of the molten metal to rise. Henry Bessemer demonstrated the process in 1856 and had a successful operation going by 1864. By 1870 Bessemer steel was widely used for ship plate. By the 1850s, the speed, weight, and quantity of railway traffic was limited by the strength of the wrought iron rails in use. The solution was to turn to steel rails, which the Bessemer process made competitive in price. Experience quickly proved steel had much greater strength and durability and could handle the increasingly heavy and faster engines and cars.[1]
After 1890 the Bessemer process was gradually supplanted by open-hearth steelmaking and by the middle of the 20th century was no longer in use.[2] The open-hearth process originated in the 1860s in Germany and France. The usual open-hearth process used pig iron, ore, and scrap, and became known as the Siemens-Martin process. Its process allowed closer control over the composition of the steel; also, a substantial quantity of scrap could be included in the charge. The crucible process remained important for making high-quality alloy steel into the 20th century.[3] By 1900 the electric arc furnace was adapted to steelmaking and by the 1920s, the falling cost of electricity allowed it to largely supplant the crucible process for specialty steels.[4]
Britain[edit]
19th century[edit]
Britain led the world's Industrial Revolution with its early commitment to coal mining, steam power, textile mills, machinery, railways, and shipbuilding. Britain's demand for iron and steel, combined with ample capital and energetic entrepreneurs, made it the world leader in the first half of the 19th century.
In 1875, Britain accounted for 47% of world production of pig iron and almost 40% of steel. 40% of British output was exported to the U.S., which was rapidly building its rail and industrial infrastructure. Two decades later in 1896, however, the British share of world production had plunged to 29% for pig iron and 22.5% for steel, and little was sent to the U.S. The U.S. was now the world leader and Germany was catching up to Britain. Britain had lost its American market, and was losing its role elsewhere; indeed American products were now underselling British steel in Britain.[5]
The growth of pig iron output was dramatic. Britain went from 1.3 million tons in 1840 to 6.7 million in 1870 and 10.4 in 1913. The US started from a lower base, but grew faster; from 0.3 million tons in 1840, to 1.7 million in 1870, and 31.5 million in 1913. Germany went from 0.2 million tons in 1859 to 1.6 in 1871 and 19.3 in 1913. France, Belgium, Austria-Hungary, and Russia, combined, went from 2.2 million tons in 1870 to 14.1 million tons in 1913, on the eve of the World War. During the war the demand for artillery shells and other supplies caused a spurt in output and a diversion to military uses.
20th century[edit]
Abé (1996) explores the record of iron and steel firms in Victorian England by analyzing Bolckow Vaughan & Company. It was wedded for too long to obsolescent technology and was a very late adopter of the open hearth furnace method. Abé concludes that the firm—and the British steel industry—suffered from a failure of entrepreneurship and planning.[6]
Blair (1997) explores the history of the British Steel industry since the Second World War to evaluate the impact of government intervention in a market economy. Entrepreneurship was lacking in the 1940s; the government could not persuade the industry to upgrade its plants. For generations the industry had followed a patchwork growth pattern which proved inefficient in the face of world competition. In 1946 the first steel development plan was put into practice with the aim of increasing capacity; the "Iron and Steel Act of 1949" meant nationalization of the industry. However, the reforms were dismantled by the Conservative governments in the 1950s. In 1967, under Labour Party control again, the industry was again nationalized. But by then twenty years of political manipulation had left companies such as British Steel with serious problems: a complacency with existing equipment, plants operating under capacity (low efficiency), poor quality assets, outdated technology, government price controls, higher coal and oil costs, lack of funds for capital improvement, and increasing world market competition. By the 1970s the Labour government had its main goal to keep employment high in the declining industry. Since British Steel was a main employer in depressed regions, it had kept many mills and facilities that were operating at a loss. In the 1980s, Conservative Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher re-privatized BSC as British Steel.
Australia[edit]
In Australia, the Minister for Public Works, Arthur Hill Griffith, had consistently advocated for the greater industrialization of Newcastle, then, under William Holman, personally negotiated the establishment of a steelworks with G. D. Delprat of the Broken Hill Proprietary Co. Ltd. Griffith was also the architect of the Walsh Island establishment.[7][8]
In 1915, Broken Hill Proprietary Company ventured into steel manufacturing with its operation in Newcastle, which was closed in 1999.[9] The 'long products' side of the steel business was spun off to form OneSteel in 2000.[10] BHP's decision to move from mining ore to open a steelworks at Newcastle was precipitated by the technical limitations in recovering value from mining the 'lower-lying sulphide ores'.[11] The discovery of Iron Knob and Iron Monarch near the western shore of the Spencer Gulf in South Australia combined with the development by the BHP metallurgist, A. D. Carmichael, of a technique for 'separating zinc sulphides from the accompanying earth and rock' led BHP 'to implement the startlingly simple and cheap process for liberating vast amounts of valuable metals out of sulphide ores, including huge heaps of tailings and slimes up to' 40 ft (12 m) high.[12]
Germany[edit]
The Ruhr Valley provided an excellent location for the German iron and steel industry because of the availability of raw materials, coal, transport, a skilled labor force, nearby markets, and an entrepreneurial spirit that led to the creation of many firms, often in close conjunction with coal mines. By 1850 the Ruhr had 50 iron works with 2,813 full-time employees. The first modern furnace was built in 1849. The creation of the German Empire in 1871 gave further impetus to rapid growth, as Germany started to catch up with Britain. From 1880 to World War I, the industry of the Ruhr area consisted of numerous enterprises, each working on a separate level of production. Mixed enterprises could unite all levels of production through vertical integration, thus lowering production costs. Technological progress brought new advantages as well. These developments set the stage for the creation of combined business concerns.[13]
The leading firm was Friedrich Krupp AG run by the Krupp family.[14][15] Many diverse, large-scale family firms such as Krupp's reorganized in order to adapt to the changing conditions and meet the economic depression of the 1870s, which reduced the earnings in the German iron and steel industry. Krupp reformed his accounting system to better manage his growing empire, adding a specialized bureau of calculation as well as a bureau for the control of times and wages. The rival firm GHH quickly followed,[16] as did Thyssen AG, which had been founded by August Thyssen in 1867. Germany became Europe's leading steel-producing nation in the late 19th century, thanks in large part to the protection from American and British competition afforded by tariffs and cartels.[17]
By 1913 American and German exports dominated the world steel market, and Britain slipped to third place.[18] German steel production grew explosively from 1 million metric tons in 1885 to 10 million in 1905 and peaked at 19 million in 1918. In the 1920s Germany produced about 15 million tons, but output plunged to 6 million in 1933. Under the Nazis, steel output peaked at 22 million tons in 1940, then dipped to 18 million in 1944 under Allied bombing.[19] The merger of four major firms into the German Steel Trust (Vereinigte Stahlwerke) in 1926 was modeled on the U.S. Steel corporation in the U.S. The goal was to move beyond the limitations of the old cartel system by incorporating advances simultaneously inside a single corporation. The new company emphasized rationalization of management structures and modernization of the technology; it employed a multi-divisional structure and used return on investment as its measure of success.[20] It represented the "Americanization" of the German steel industry because its internal structure, management methods, use of technology, and emphasis on mass production. The chief difference was that consumer capitalism as an industrial strategy did not seem plausible to German steel industrialists.[21]
In iron and steel and other industries, German firms avoided cut-throat competition and instead relied on trade associations. Germany was a world leader because of its prevailing "corporatist mentality", its strong bureaucratic tradition, and the encouragement of the government. These associations regulated competition and allowed small firms to function in the shadow of much larger companies.[22]
With the need to rebuild the bombed-out infrastructure after the Second World War, Marshall Plan (1948–51) enabled West Germany to rebuild and modernize its mills. It produced 3 million of steel in 1947, 12 million in 1950, 34 million in 1960 and 46 million in 1970. East Germany produced about a 10th as much.[23]
France[edit]
The French iron industry lagged behind the United Kingdom and Belgium in the early 19th century, and after 1850 also lagged behind Germany and Luxembourg. Its industry comprised too many small, inefficient firms.[24] 20th century growth was not robust, due more to traditional social and economic attitudes than to inherent geographic, population, or resource factors. Despite a high national income level, the French steel industry remained laggard.[25] The industry was based on large supplies of coal and iron ore, and was dispersed across the country. The greatest output came in 1929, at 10.4 million metric tons.[26] The industry suffered sharply during the Great Depression and World War II. Prosperity returned by mid-1950s, but profits came largely from strong domestic demand rather than competitive capacity. Late modernization delayed the development of powerful unions and collective bargaining.[27]
Italy[edit]
Stassano furnace exhibited at the Museo della Scienza e della Tecnologia "Leonardo da Vinci", Milan
In Italy a shortage of coal led the steel industry to specialize in the use of hydro-electrical energy, exploiting ideas pioneered by Ernesto Stassano from 1898 (Stassano furnace). Despite periods of innovation (1907–14), growth (1915–18), and consolidation (1918–22), early expectations were only partly realized. Steel output in the 1920s and 1930s averaged about 2.1 million metric tons. Per capita consumption was much lower than the average of Western Europe.[28] Electrical processes were an important substitute, yet did not improve competitiveness or reduce prices. Instead, they reinforced the dualism of the sector and initiated a vicious circle that prevented market expansion.[29] Italy modernized its industry in the 1950s and 1960s and it grew rapidly, becoming second only to West Germany in the 1970s. Strong labour unions kept employment levels high. Troubles multiplied after 1980, however, as foreign competition became stiffer. In 1980 the largest producer Nuova Italsider lost 746 billion lira in its inefficient operations.[30] In the 1990s the Italian steel industry, then mostly state-owned, was largely privatised.[31] Today the country is the world's seventh-largest steel exporter.[32]
United States[edit]
Bethlehem Steel in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania was the #2 American producer but after 1970 ignored new technology and imports; it went bankrupt in 2001.
From 1875 to 1920 American steel production grew from 380,000 tons to 60 million tons annually, making the U.S. the world leader. The annual growth rates in steel 1870–1913 were 7.0% for the US; 1.0% for Britain; 6.0% for Germany; and 4.3% for France, Belgium, and Russia, the other major producers.[33] This explosive American growth rested on solid technological foundations and the continuous rapid expansion of urban infrastructures, office buildings, factories, railroads, bridges and other sectors that increasingly demanded steel. The use of steel in automobiles and household appliances came in the 20th century.
Some key elements in the growth of steel production included the easy availability of iron ore, and coal. Iron ore of fair quality was abundant in the eastern states, but the Lake Superior region contained huge deposits of exceedingly rich ore; the Marquette Iron Range was discovered in 1844; operations began in 1846. Other ranges were opened by 1910, including the Menominee, Gogebic, Vermilion, Cuyuna, and, greatest of all, (in 1892) the Mesabi range in Minnesota. This iron ore was shipped through the Lakes to ports such as Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Erie and Buffalo for shipment by rail to the steel mills.[34] Abundant coal was available in Pennsylvania and Ohio. Manpower was short. Few native Americans wanted to work in the mills, but immigrants from Britain and Germany (and later from Eastern Europe) arrived in great numbers.[35]
In 1869 iron was already a major industry, accounting for 6.6% of manufacturing employment and 7.8% of manufacturing output. By then the central figure was Andrew Carnegie,[36] who made Pittsburgh the center of the industry.[37] Hed sold his operations to US Steel in 1901, which became the world's largest steel corporation for decades.
In the 1880s, the transition from wrought iron puddling to mass-produced Bessemer steel greatly increased worker productivity. Highly skilled workers remained essential, but the average level of skill declined. Nevertheless, steelworkers earned much more than ironworkers despite their fewer skills. Workers in an integrated, synchronized mass production environment wielded greater strategic power, for the greater cost of mistakes bolstered workers' status. The experience demonstrated that the new technology did not decrease worker bargaining leverage by creating an interchangeable, unskilled workforce.[38]
Alabama[edit]
In Alabama, industrialization was generating a ravenous appetite for the state’s coal and iron ore. Production was booming, and unions were attempting to organize unincarcerated miners. Convicts provided an ideal captive work force: cheap, usually docile, unable to organize and available when unincarcerated laborers went on strike."[39]The Southern agrarian economy did not accommodate convict leasing as well as the industrial economy did, whose jobs were often unappealing or dangerous, offering hard-labor and low pay. The competition, expansion, and growth of mining and steel companies also created a high demand for labor, but union labor posed a threat to expanding companies. As unions bargained for higher wages and better conditions, often organizing strikes in order to achieve their goals, the growing companies would be forced to agree to union demands or face abrupt halts in production. The rate companies paid for convict leases, which paid the laborer nothing, was regulated by government and state officials who entered the labor contracts with companies. "The companies built their own prisons, fed and clothed the convicts, and supplied guards as they saw fit." (Blackmon 2001)[39] Alabama's use of convict leasing was commanding; 51 of its 67 counties regularly leased convicts serving for misdemeanors at a rate of about $5-20 per month, equal to about $160-500 in 2015.[40] Although the influence of labor unions forced some states to move away from the profitable convict lease agreements and run traditional prisons, plenty of companies began substituting convict labor in their operations in the twentieth century. "The biggest user of forced labor in Alabama at the turn of the century was Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co., [of] U.S. Steel"[39]
Carnegie[edit]
Main article: Andrew Carnegie
Carnegie's great innovation was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel rails for railroad lines. This could not have happened without the prior invention of Bessemer Steel. Thus Carnegie's "innovation" was scale, not anything technical.
Eads Bridge across the Mississippi River, opened in 1874 using Carnegie steel
In the late 1880s, The Carnegie Steel was the largest manufacturer of pig iron, steel rails, and coke in the world, with a capacity to produce approximately 2,000 tons of pig iron per day. In 1888, he bought the rival Homestead Steel Works, which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a 425-mile (685 km) long railway, and a line of lake steamships. A consolidation of Carnegie's assets and those of his associates occurred in 1892 with the launching of the Carnegie Steel Company.
Around that time, he asked his cousin, George Lauder to join him in America from Scotland. Lauder was a leading mechanical engineer who had studied under Lord Kelvin. Lauder devised several new systems for the Carnegie Steel Company including the process for washing and coking dross from coal mines, which resulted in a significant increase in scale, profits, and enterprise value. [41]
Lauder would go on to lead the development of the use of steel in armor and armaments for the Carnegie Steel Company, spending significant time at the Krupp factory in Germany in 1886 before returning to build the massive armor plate mill at the Homestead Steel Works that would revolutionize warfare forever. [42]
By 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of Britain, and Andrew Carnegie owned a large part of it. By 1900, the profits of Carnegie Bros. & Company alone stood at $480,000,000 with $225,000,000 being Carnegie's share. Carnegie's empire grew to include the J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works (named for John Edgar Thomson, Carnegie's former boss and president of the Pennsylvania Railroad), Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the Lucy Furnaces, the Union Iron Mills, the Union Mill (Wilson, Walker & County), the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines. Carnegie, through Keystone, supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark Eads Bridge project across the Mississippi River in St. Louis, Missouri (completed 1874). This project was an important proof-of-concept for steel technology which marked the opening of a new steel market.
The Homestead Strike was a violent labor dispute in 1892 that ended in a battle between strikers and private security guards. The dispute took place at Carnegie's Homestead Steel Works between the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers and the Carnegie Steel Company. The final result was a major defeat for the union and a setback for efforts to unionize steelworkers.[43]
Carnegie sold all his steel holdings in 1901; they were merged into U.S. Steel and it was non-union until the late 1930s.
US Steel[edit]
Main article: US Steel
By 1900 the US was the largest producer and also the lowest cost producer, and demand for steel seemed inexhaustible. Output had tripled since 1890, but customers, not producers, mostly benefitted. Productivity-enhancing technology encouraged faster and faster rates of investment in new plants. However, during recessions, demand fell sharply taking down output, prices, and profits. Charles M. Schwab of Carnegie Steel proposed a solution: consolidation. Financier J. P. Morgan arranged the buyout of Carnegie and most other major forms, and put Elbert Gary in charge.
US Steel combined finishing firms (American Tin Plate (controlled by William Henry "Judge" Moore), American Steel and Wire, and National Tube) with two major integrated companies, Carnegie Steel and Federal Steel. It was capitalized at $1.466 billion, and included 213 manufacturing mills, one thousand miles of railroad, and 41 mines. In 1901, it accounted for 66% of America's steel output, and almost 30% of the world's. During World War I, its annual production exceeded the combined output of all German and Austrian firms.
The Steel Strike of 1919 disrupted the entire industry for months, but the union lost and its membership sharply declined.[44] Rapid growth of cities made the 1920s boom years. President Harding and social reformers forced it to end the 12-hour day in 1923.[45]
Earnings were recorded at $2.650 billion for 2016[46].
Bethlehem Steel[edit]
Bethlehem steel works in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 1881
Main article: Bethlehem Steel
Charles M. Schwab (1862–1939) and Eugene Grace (1876–1960) made Bethlehem Steel the second-largest American steel company by the 1920s. Schwab had been the operating head of Carnegie Steel and US Steel. In 1903 he purchased the small firm Bethlehem Steel, and in 1916 made Grace president. Innovation was the keynote at a time when U.S. Steel under Judge Gary moved slowly. Bethlehem concentrated on government contracts, such as ships and naval armor, and on construction beams, especially for skyscrapers and bridges.[47] Its subsidiary Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation operated 15 shipyards in World War II. It produced 1,121 ships, more than any other builder during the war and nearly one-fifth of the U.S. Navy's fleet. Its peak employment was 180,000 workers, out of a company-wide wartime peak of 300,000. After 1945 Bethlehem doubled its steel capacity, a measure of the widespread optimism in the industry. However the company ignored the new technologies then being developed in Europe and Japan. Seeking labor peace in order to avoid strikes, Bethlehem like the other majors agreed to large wage and benefits increases that kept its costs high. After Grace retired the inbred executives concentrated on short term profits and postponed innovations that led to long-term inefficiency. It went bankrupt in 2001.[48]
Republic Steel[edit]
Cyrus Eaton (1883–1979) in 1925 purchased the small Trumbull Steel Company of Warren, Ohio, for $18 million. In the late 1920s he purchased undervalued steel and rubber companies. In 1930, Eaton consolidated his steel holdings into the Republic Steel, based in Cleveland; it became the third-largest steel producer in the U.S., after US Steel and Bethlehem Steel.[49]
Unions[edit]
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) tried and failed to organize the steelworkers in 1919. Although the strike gained widespread middle-class support because of its demand and the 12-hour day, the strike failed and unionization was postponed until the late 1930s. The Mills ended the 12-hour day in the early 1920s.[50]
The second surge of unionization came under the auspices of the militant CIO in the late 1930s, when it set up the Steel Workers Organizing Committee. The SWOC focused almost exclusively on the achievement of a signed contract, with "Little Steel" (the major producers except for US Steel). At the grassroots however, women of the steel auxiliaries, workers on the picket line, and middle-class liberals from across Chicago sought to transform the strike into something larger than a showdown over union recognition.In Chicago, the Little Steel Strike raised the possibility that steelworkers might embrace the ‘civic unionism’ that animated the left-led unions of the era. The effort failed, and while the strike was won, the resulting powerful United Steelworkers of America union suppressed grassroots opinions.[51]
Apogee and decline[edit]
Integration was the watchword as the various processes were brought together by large corporations, from mining the iron ore to shipping the finished product to wholesalers. The typical steelworks was a giant operation, including blast furnaces, Bessemer converters, open-hearth furnaces, rolling mills, coke ovens and foundries, as well as supported transportation facilities. The largest ones were operated in the region from Chicago to St. Louis to Baltimore, Philadelphia and Buffalo. Smaller operations appeared in Birmingham, Alabama, and in California.[52]
The industry grew slowly but other industries grew even faster, so that by 1967, as the downward spiral began, steel accounted for 4.4% of manufacturing employment and 4.9% of manufacturing output. After 1970 American steel producers could no longer compete effectively with low-wage producers elsewhere. Imports and local mini-mills undercut sales.
Per-capita steel consumption in the U.S. peaked in 1977, then fell by half before staging a modest recovery to levels well below the peak.[53]
Most mills were closed. Bethlehem went bankrupt in 2001. In 1984, Republic merged with Jones and Laughlin Steel Company; the new firm went bankrupt in 2001. US Steel diversified into oil (Marathon Oil was spun off in 2001). Finally US Steel reemerged in 2002 with plants in three American locations (plus one in Europe) that employed fewer than one-tenth the 168,000 workers of 1902. By 2001 steel accounted for only 0.8% of manufacturing employment and 0.8% of manufacturing output.[54]
The world steel industry peaked in 2007. That year, ThyssenKrupp spent $12 billion to build the two most modern mills in the world, in Alabama and Brazil. The worldwide great recession starting in 2008, however, with its heavy cutbacks in construction, sharply lowered demand and prices fell 40%. ThyssenKrupp lost $11 billion on its two new plants, which sold steel below the cost of production. Finally in 2013, ThyssenKrupp offered the plants for sale at under $4 billion.[55]
Legacy[edit]
The President of the United States is authorized to declare each May "Steelmark Month" to recognize the contribution made by the steel industry to the United States.[56]
Asia[edit]
Japan[edit]
Yonekura shows the steel industry was central to the economic development of Japan. The nation's sudden transformation from feudal to modern society in the late nineteenth century, its heavy industrialization and imperialist war ventures in 1900–1945, and the post-World War II high-economic growth, all depended on iron and steel. The other great Japanese industries, such as shipbuilding, automobiles, and industrial machinery are closely linked to steel. From 1850 to 1970, the industry increased its crude steel production from virtually nothing to 93.3 million tons (the third largest in the world).[57]
The government's activist Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) played a major role in coordination. The transfer of technology from the West and the establishment of competitive firms involved far more than buying foreign hardware. MITI located steel mills and organized a domestic market; it sponsored Yawata Steel Company. Japanese engineers and entrepreneurs internally developed the necessary technological and organizational capabilities, planned the transfer and adoption of technology, and gauged demand and sources of raw materials and finances.[58]
India[edit]
The Bengal Iron Works was founded at Kulti in Bengal in 1870 which began its production in 1874 followed by The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) was established by Dorabji Tata in 1907, as part of his father's conglomerate. By 1939 it operated the largest steel plant in the British Empire. The company launched a major modernization and expansion program in 1951.[59]
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, a believer in socialism, decided that the technological revolution in India needed maximization of steel production. He, therefore, formed a government owned company, Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL) and set up three steel plants in the 1950s.[60]
The Indian steel industry began expanding into Europe in the 21st century. In January 2007 India's Tata Steel made a successful $11.3 billion offer to buy European steel maker Corus Group. In 2006 Mittal Steel (based in London but with Indian management) merged with Arcelor after a takeover bid for $34.3 billion to become the world's biggest steel maker, ArcelorMittal (based in Luxembourg City), with 10% of the world's output.[61]
China[edit]
Communist party dictator Mao Zedong disdained the cities and put his faith in the Chinese peasantry for a Great Leap Forward. Mao saw steel production as the key to overnight economic modernization, promising that within 15 years China's steel production would surpass that of Britain. In 1958 he decided that steel production would double within the year, using backyard steel furnaces run by inexperienced peasants. The plan was a fiasco, as the small amounts of steel produced were of very poor quality, and the diversion of resources out of agriculture produced a massive famine in 1959–61 that killed millions.[62]
With economic reforms brought in by Deng Xiaoping, who led China from 1978 to 1992, China began to develop a modern steel industry by building new steel plants and recycling scrap metal from the United States and Europe. As of 2013 China produced 779 million metric tons of steel each year, making it by far the largest steel producing country in the world. This is compared to 165 for the European Union, 110 for Japan, 87 for the United States and 81 for India.[63] China's 2013 steel production was equivalent to an average of 3.14 cubic meters of steel per second.[64]
See also[edit]
American Iron and Steel Institute
British Steel Corporation
Dominion Steel and Coal Corporation, in Canada
Steelmaking
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Jump up ^ Ann Wendy Mill, "French Steel and the Metal-working Industries: a Contribution to the Debate on Economic Development in Nineteenth-century France," Social Science History (1985) 9#3 pp. 307–38. in JSTOR
Jump up ^ see map and statistics in W. S. Woytinsky and E. S. Woytinsky, World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks (1953) pp. 1114–17
Jump up ^ Anthony Daley (1996). Steel, State, and Labor: Mobilization and Adjustment in France. U of Pittsburgh Press. p. 91.
Jump up ^ W. S. Woytinsky and E. S. Woytinsky, World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks (1953) pp. 1121, 1124
Jump up ^ Dario Gaggio, "Prezzi Relativi E Path Dependence: La Siderurgia Elettrica Italiana Dall'inizio Del Secolo All'autarchia" [Relative Prices and Path Dependence: the Italian Electric Iron and Steel Industry from the Start of the Century to Self-sufficiency]. Società e Storia 1992 15(58): 789–823.
Jump up ^ Yves Mény (1987). The Politics of Steel: Western Europe and the Steel Industry in the Crisis Years (1974–1984). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 476–77.
Jump up ^ Kassim, Hussein; Menon, Anand (1996). The European Union and national industrial policy. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415141789.
Jump up ^ "Steel Exports Report: Italy" (PDF). Global Steel Monitor. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (1987) p. 200
Jump up ^ The Encyclopedia Americana. Encyclopedia Americana Corp. 1919. p. 381.
Jump up ^ Brian Greenberg, "What David Brody Wrought: The Impact of Steelworkers in America: The Nonunion Era," Labor History (1993) 34#4 pp. 457–69
Jump up ^ ExplorePaHistory, s.v. Andrew Carnegie
Jump up ^ ExplorePaHistory.com, s.v. Steel City
Jump up ^ David Jardini, "From Iron to Steel: The Recasting of the Jones and Laughlins Workforce between 1885 and 1896," Technology & Culture (1995) 36#2 pp. 271–301
^ Jump up to: a b c "Hard Time: From Alabama's Past, Capitalism and Racism In a Cruel Partnership | Slavery By Another Name". www.slaverybyanothername.com. Retrieved 2017-10-01.
Jump up ^ "$ in 1900 → 2015 | Inflation Calculator". www.in2013dollars.com. Retrieved 2017-10-01.
Jump up ^ Andrew Carnegie
Jump up ^ Quentin R. Skrabek
Jump up ^ Edward W. Bemis, "The Homestead Strike," The Journal of Political Economy, (1894) 2#3 pp. 369–96 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ David Brody, . Labor in crisis: The steel strike of 1919. (1965).
Jump up ^ David R. Roediger and Philip Sheldon Foner (1989). Our Own Time: A History of American Labor and the Working Day. Verso. p. 350.
Jump up ^ Daily, Investor's Business (2017-01-31). "U.S. Steel Eyes 2017 Earnings Surge After Solid Q4". Investor's Business Daily. Retrieved 2017-10-01.
Jump up ^ Robert Hessen, "The Transformation of Bethlehem Steel, 1904–1909," Business History Review (1972) 46#3 pp. 339–65 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Kenneth Warren, Bethlehem Steel: Builder and Arsenal of America (2008).
Jump up ^ Marcus Gleisser (2005). The World Of Cyrus Eaton. Kent State University Press. pp. 38–49.
Jump up ^ Colston E. Warne, ed., The Steel Strike of 1919 (1968) contains short excerpts from primary sources and scholarly studies.
Jump up ^ Michael Dennis, "Chicago and the Little Steel strike," Labor History (2012) 53#2 pp. 167–204
Jump up ^ W. S., Woytinsky and E. S. Woytinsky, World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks (1953) pp. 1098–143,
Jump up ^ Smil, Vaclav (2006). Transforming the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations and Their Consequences. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ John P. Hoerr, And the Wolf Finally Came: The Decline of the American Steel Industry (1988)
Jump up ^ John W. Miller and Ike Henning, "Thiessen gets offers for mills: Final bids for steel complexes in Alabama, Brazil will likely fall short of the company's hopes," Wall Street Journal March 1, 2013
Jump up ^ https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-81/pdf/STATUTE-81-Pg1097.pdf
Jump up ^ Seiichiro Yonekura, Japanese Iron & Steel Industry, 1850–1990: Continuity & Discontinuity (1994)
Jump up ^ Chalmers Johnson (1982). MITI and the japanese miracle: growth of industrial policy : 1925–1975. Stanford U.P. p. 87.
Jump up ^ Chikayoshi Nomura, "selling steel in the 1920s: TISCO in a period of transition," Indian Economic & Social History Review (2011) 48: 83–116, doi:10.1177/001946461004800104
Jump up ^ Sankar Ghose (1993). Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography. Allied Publishers. p. 550.
Jump up ^ Isobel Doole; Robin Lowe (2008). International Marketing Strategy: Analysis, Development and Implementation. Cengage Learning EMEA. p. 226.
Jump up ^ Wei Li and Dennis Tao Yang, "The Great Leap Forward: Anatomy of a Central Planning Disaster," Journal of Political Economy (2005) 113#4 pp. 840–77 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ World Steel Association. 23 January 2014. Retrieved 4 February 2014
Jump up ^ Wolfram Alpha
Bibliography[edit]
Ashton, T. S. Iron and Steel in the Industrial Revolution (2nd edn., 1951).
Bernal, John Desmond, Science and Industry in the Nineteenth Century, Indiana University Press, 1970.
D’Costa, Anthony P. The Global Restructuring of the Steel Industry: Innovations, Institutions, and Industrial Change London: Routledge, 1999 online version
Hasegawa, Harukiyu. The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain 1996 online version
Landes, David S., The Unbound Prometheus: Technical Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2003)
Pounds, Norman J. G., and William N. Parker; Coal and Steel in Western Europe; the Influence of Resources and Techniques on Production (Indiana University Press, 1957) online version
Singer, Charles Joseph, ed. A history of technology: vol 4: The Industrial Revolution c 1750–c 1860 (1960) ch 4, and vol 5: The Late Nineteenth Century, c 1850–c 1900, ch 3; online at ACLS e-books
Stoddard, Brooke C. Steel: From Mine to Mill, the Metal that Made America (2015) short, global popular history excerpt
Woytinsky, W. S., and E. S. Woytinsky. World Population and Production Trends and Outlooks (1953) pp 1098–1143, with many tables and maps on the worldwide steel industry
Yonekura, Seiichiro. The Japanese iron and steel industry: Continuity and discontinuity, 1850–1970 (1994) excerpt and text search
Britain[edit]
Birch, Alan. Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry (Routledge, 2013).
Burn, Duncan. The Steel Industry, 1939–1959: A Study in Competition and Planning (1961) online
Burn, Duncan. The Economic History of Steelmaking, 1867–1939: A Study in Competition. Cambridge University Press, 1961 online version
Carr, J. C. and W. Taplin; History of the British Steel Industry Harvard University Press, 1962 online version
Tweedale, Geoffrey. Steel City: Entrepreneurship, Strategy, and Technology in Sheffield, 1743–1993. (Oxford U.P. 1995) online version
Vaizy, John. The history of British steel (1974), well illustrated
Warren, Kenneth. British Iron and Sheet Steel Industry since 1840 (1970) ISBN 0713515481 Economic geography.
United States[edit]
Hoerr, John P. And the Wolf Finally Came: The Decline of the American Steel Industry (1988) excerpt and text search
Hogan, William T. Economic History of the Iron and Steel Industry in the United States (5 vol 1971) monumental detail
Ingham, John N. The Iron Barons: A Social Analysis of an American Urban Elite, 1874-1965 (1978)
Krass, Peter. Carnegie (2002). ISBN 0-471-38630-8.
Livesay, Harold C. Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business, 2nd Edition (1999). ISBN 0-321-43287-8.
Misa, Thomas J. A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America, 1865–1925 (1995) Chapter 1 "The Dominance of Rails"
Nasaw, David. Andrew Carnegie (The Penguin Press, 2006).
Paskoff, Paul F. Iron and Steel in the Nineteenth Century (Encyclopedia of American Business History and Biography) (1989) 385 pp; biographies and brief corporate histories
Rogers, Robert P. An Economic History of the American Steel Industry (2009) excerpt and text search
Scamehorn, H. Lee. Mill & Mine: The Cf&I in the Twentieth Century University of Nebraska Press, 1992 online version
Scheuerman, William. The Steel Crisis: The Economics and Politics of a Declining Industry (1986) online
Seely, Bruce E., ed The Iron and Steel Industry in the 20th Century (1994) (Encyclopedia of American Business History and Biography)
Temin, Peter. Iron and Steel in Nineteenth-Century America, An Economic Inquiry (1964)
Wall, Joseph Frazier. Andrew Carnegie (1989). ISBN 0-8229-5904-6.
Warren, Kenneth, Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 1901–2001. (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001) online review
Warren, Kenneth. Bethlehem Steel: Builder and Arsenal of America (2010) excerpt and text search
Warren, Kenneth. The American Steel Industry, 1850–1970: A Geographical Interpretation (1973) (ISBN 0198232144)
Whaples, Robert. "Andrew Carnegie", EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic and Business History online
U.S. Steel's History of U.S. Steel
Urofsky, Melvin I. Big Steel and the Wilson Administration: A Study in Business-Government Relations (1969) online
U.S. Labor[edit]
Brody, David. Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919 (1965)
Mary Margaret Fonow; Union Women: Forging Feminism in the United Steelworkers of America (University of Minnesota Press, 2003) online version
U.S. Steel's History of U.S. Steel
Urofsky, Melvin I. Big Steel and the Wilson Administration: A Study in Business-Government Relations (1969)
Primary sources[edit]
U.S. Commissioner of Corporations. Report on the Steel Industry (1913).
Warne, Colston E. ed. The Steel Strike of 1919 (1963) primary and secondary documents
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The Last of the Mohicans (1992 film)
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The Last of the Mohicans
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Michael Mann
Produced by
Michael Mann
Hunt Lowry
Screenplay by
Michael Mann
Christopher Crowe
Story by
John L. Balderston
Paul Perez
Daniel Moore
Based on
The Last of the Mohicans
by James Fenimore Cooper
The Last of the Mohicans
by Philip Dunne
Starring
Daniel Day-Lewis
Madeleine Stowe
Jodhi May
Music by
Trevor Jones
Randy Edelman
Cinematography
Dante Spinotti
Edited by
Dov Hoenig
Arthur Schmidt
Production
company
Morgan Creek Productions
Distributed by
20th Century Fox
(North America)
Warner Bros.
(International)
Release date
August 26, 1992 (1992-08-26) (France)
September 25, 1992 (1992-09-25) (United States)
Running time
112 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
French
Mohawk
Huron
Budget
$40 million[2]
Box office
$75.5 million (North America)[2]
The Last of the Mohicans is a 1992 American epic historical drama film set in 1757 during the French and Indian War. It was written and directed by Michael Mann and was based on James Fenimore Cooper's 1826 novel The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757 and George B. Seitz's 1936 film adaptation, owing more to the film than the novel. The film stars Daniel Day-Lewis, Madeleine Stowe, and Jodhi May, with Russell Means, Wes Studi, Eric Schweig, and Steven Waddington in supporting roles.
The soundtrack features music by Trevor Jones and Randy Edelman, and the song "I Will Find You" by Clannad. The main theme of the film is taken from the tune "The Gael" by Scottish singer-songwriter Dougie MacLean.
Released on September 25, 1992 in the United States, The Last of the Mohicans was met with nearly universal praise from critics and commercial success during its box-office run.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Development
3.2 Locations
3.3 Soundtrack
3.4 Alternate versions
4 Reception
4.1 Critical response
4.2 Awards
4.3 Box office
5 References
6 External links
Plot[edit]
The story takes place in 1757, during the French and Indian War in the Adirondack Mountains, in the British colony of New York. British Army Major Duncan Heyward arrives in Albany. He has been sent to serve under Colonel Edmund Munro, the commander of Fort William Henry. Heyward is given the task of escorting the colonel’s two daughters, Cora and Alice, to their father. He is a family friend and in love with Cora, to whom he proposes before they leave, but she does not give him an answer.
Major Heyward, the two women, and a troop of British soldiers march through the rugged countryside, guided by Magua, a Huron warrior. Magua leads the party into an ambush. All of the soldiers are killed or wounded, but Heyward and the women are rescued by the timely intervention of the Mohican chief Chingachgook, his son Uncas, and his white, adopted son "Hawkeye", who kill all of the ambushers except Magua, who escapes. The rescuers agree to take the women and Heyward to the fort. During the fight, Hawkeye noticed that Magua attempted to kill Cora and asks Duncan if he knows why. During the trek, Cora and Hawkeye are attracted to each other, as are Uncas and Alice.
When the party nears the fort, they find it under siege by the French and their Huron allies. The party manages to sneak in and are greeted by Colonel Munro, who asks Major Heyward about the requested, desperately needed reinforcements. While there, Cora and Hawkeye share a passionate kiss, and Heyward becomes jealous. In response, Cora finally tells him that she will not marry him.
When Munro refuses to allow the militiamen to sneak away to defend their own families and homes, as he had earlier promised, Hawkeye arranges it anyway. He stays, however, and is condemned to be hanged, accused of sedition. Before that happens, during a parlay, French general Louis-Joseph de Montcalm shows Munro an intercepted message which states that no reinforcements have been sent. Montcalm offers to allow the British to evacuate the fort with honor, keeping their weapons. Munro has little choice but to accept. However, Magua, a French ally, is furious at this arrangement. He harbors great hatred for Munro, blaming him for past wrongs done to him and his family.
The following day, Colonel Munro, his soldiers, and their women and children leave the fort. Magua and his Huron warriors ambush them. Magua personally kills Munro. Hawkeye and the Mohicans fight their way out, leading Cora, Alice, and Heyward to temporary safety. Later, however, Magua captures the major and the women. Magua takes his prisoners to a Huron settlement and addresses its sachem. He is interrupted by Hawkeye, who comes in alone to plead for their lives.
The sachem rules that Heyward be returned to the British, Alice given to Magua, and Cora burned alive. Hawkeye, for his great bravery, may leave unharmed. Hawkeye tells Heyward, who is serving as translator, to beg the sachem to let Hawkeye take Cora's place. Instead, Heyward trades his own life for Cora’s.
Once Cora and Hawkeye are far enough away, Hawkeye shoots Heyward to end his suffering. Chingachgook, Uncas, and Hawkeye then set out after Magua's party to free Alice. Uncas races ahead and engages Magua in personal combat, but is killed. Alice chooses to step off the cliff to her death rather than go to the beckoning Magua. While Hawkeye holds Magua's remaining men at bay, Chingachgook duels Magua and avenges his son. Chingachgook prays to the Great Spirit to receive Uncas, calling himself "the last of the Mohicans."
Cast[edit]
Daniel Day-Lewis as Hawkeye/Nathaniel Poe
Madeleine Stowe as Cora Munro
Russell Means as Chingachgook
Eric Schweig as Uncas
Jodhi May as Alice Munro
Steven Waddington as Maj. Duncan Heyward
Wes Studi as Magua
Maurice Roëves as Col. Edmund Munro
Patrice Chéreau as Gen. Louis-Joseph de Montcalm
Edward Blatchford as Jack Winthrop
Tracey Ellis as Alexandra Cameron
Terry Kinney as John Cameron
Sebastian Roché as Martin
Justin M. Rice as James Cameron
Dennis Banks as Ongewasgone
Pete Postlethwaite as Capt. Beams
Colm Meaney as Maj. Ambrose
Mac Andrews as Gen. Daniel Webb
Benton Jennings as Scottish Officer
Jared Harris as British Lieutenant
Production[edit]
Development[edit]
Much care was taken with recreating accurate costumes and props. American Bladesmith Society master bladesmith Daniel Winkler made the tomahawks used in the film and knifemaker Randall King made the knives.[3] Wayne Watson is the maker of Hawkeye's "Killdeer" rifle used in the film. The gunstock war club made for Chingachgook was created by Jim Yellow Eagle. Magua's tomahawk was made by Fred A. Mitchell of Odin Forge & Fabrication.
Costumes were originally designed by multiple Academy Award winner James Acheson, but he left the film and had his name removed because of artistic differences with Mann. Designer Elsa Zamparelli was brought in to finish.
Locations[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Despite the film taking place in upstate New York, according to the film credits, it was filmed mostly in the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina. Locations used include Lake James, Chimney Rock Park and The Biltmore Estate. Some of the waterfalls that were used in the movie include Hooker Falls, Triple Falls, Bridal Veil Falls, and High Falls, all located in the DuPont State Recreational Forest. Another of these falls was Linville Falls, in the mountains of North Carolina. Scenes of Albany were shot in Asheville, NC at The Manor on Charlotte St.
Soundtrack[edit]
Main article: The Last of the Mohicans (soundtrack)
Alternate versions[edit]
The film was released theatrically in 1992 at a length of 112 minutes. It was released at this length on VHS in the U.S. It was re-edited to a length of 117 minutes[4] for its U.S. DVD release on November 23, 1999,[5] which was billed as the "Director's Expanded Edition". It was again re-edited for its U.S. Blu-ray release on October 5, 2010,[6] this time billed as the "Director's Definitive Cut", with a length of 114 mins.[7]
Reception[edit]
Critical response[edit]
The Last of the Mohicans opened to general acclaim, with critics praising the film for its cinematography and music. Critic Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars and called it "quite an improvement on Cooper's all but unreadable book, and a worthy successor to the Randolph Scott version," going on to say that "The Last of the Mohicans is not as authentic and uncompromised as it claims to be — more of a matinee fantasy than it wants to admit — but it is probably more entertaining as a result."[8]
Desson Howe of The Washington Post classified the film as "glam-opera" and "the MTV version of gothic romance".[9] Rita Kempley of the Post recognized the "heavy drama," writing that the film "sets new standards when it comes to pent-up passion", but commented positively on the "spectacular scenery".[10]
At review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 95% based on reviews from 37 critics, with an average rating of 7.9/10. The site's consensus states: "The Last of the Mohicans is a breathless romantic adventure that plays loose with history -- and comes out with a richer action movie for it."[11]
Awards[edit]
The film won the Academy Award for Best Sound (Chris Jenkins, Doug Hemphill, Mark Smith, Simon Kaye).[12]
American Film Institute recognition:
AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains:
Hawkeye - Nominated Hero[13]
Box office[edit]
The film opened in the United States on September 25, 1992, in 1,856 theaters. It was the number 1 movie on its opening weekend.[14][15] By the end of its first weekend, The Last of the Mohicans had generated $10,976,661, and by the end of its domestic run, the film had made $75,505,856.[2] It was ranked the 17th highest-grossing film of 1992 in the United States.[16]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Last of the Mohicans". British Board of Film Classification. Retrieved July 21, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Last of the Mohicans (1992)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved March 18, 2007.
Jump up ^ Haskew, Mike (2006-09-01). "Star-Spangled Hawks Take Wing". 33 (9). Blade Magazine. pp. 30–37. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Gerald Wurm (2010-04-07). "Last Of The Mohicans, The (Comparison: Theatrical Version - Director's Expanded Edition)". Movie-Censorship.com. Retrieved 2016-12-18.
Jump up ^ "Last of the Mohicans (Director's Expanded Edition): Daniel Day-Lewis, Madeleine Stowe, Russell Means, Eric Schweig, Jodhi May, Steven Waddington, Wes Studi, Maurice RoÃ«ves, Patrice ChÃ©reau, Edward Blatchford, Terry Kinney, Tracey Ellis, Michael Mann, Christopher Crowe, Daniel Moore, James Fenimore Cooper, John L. Balderston, Paul Perez, Philip Dunne: Movies & TV". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2016-12-18.
Jump up ^ "The Last of the Mohicans Blu-ray: Director's Definitive Cut". Blu-ray.com. Retrieved 2016-12-18.
Jump up ^ Gerald Wurm (2010-10-29). "Last of the Mohicans, The (Comparison: Theatrical Version - Director's Definitive Cut)". Movie-Censorship.com. Retrieved 2016-12-18.
Jump up ^ Roger Ebert (September 25, 1992). "The Last of The Mohicans". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
Jump up ^ Desson Howe (September 25, 1992). "The Last of The Mohicans". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
Jump up ^ Rita Kempley (September 25, 1992). "The Last of The Mohicans". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
Jump up ^ Rotten Tomatoes (March 18, 2007). "Freshness count". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
Jump up ^ "The 65th Academy Awards (1993) Nominees and Winners". oscars.org. Retrieved 2011-10-22.
Jump up ^ AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains Nominees
Jump up ^ "Weekend Box Office". The Los Angeles Times. 1992-10-06. Retrieved 2011-05-30.
Jump up ^ Fox, David J. (1992-10-06). "Box Office Hasn't Seen the Last of 'Mohicans". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2011-05-30.
Jump up ^ "1992 Yearly Box Office Results". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2012-02-14.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Last of the Mohicans (1992 film)
Kristopher Tapley: Michael Mann looks back on 'The Last of the Mohicans' 20 years later at hitfix.com
The Last of the Mohicans on IMDb
The Last of the Mohicans at the TCM Movie Database
The Last of the Mohicans at AllMovie
The Last of the Mohicans at Box Office Mojo
[show]
v
t
e
Films directed by Michael Mann
The Jericho Mile (1979)
Thief (1981)
The Keep (1983)
Manhunter (1986)
L.A. Takedown (1989)
The Last of the Mohicans (1992)
Heat (1995)
The Insider (1999)
Ali (2001)
Collateral (2004)
Miami Vice (2006)
Public Enemies (2009)
Blackhat (2015)
[show]
v
t
e
James Fenimore Cooper's The Last of the Mohicans
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Beethoven's musical style
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Ludwig van Beethoven is universally viewed as one of the most influential figures in the history of classical music. Since his lifetime, when he was "universally accepted as the greatest living composer", Beethoven's music has remained among the most performed, discussed and reviewed.[1] Scholarly journals are devoted to analysis of his life and work. He has been the subject of numerous biographies and monographs, and his music was the driving force behind the development of Schenkerian analysis. He is widely considered as among the most important composers, and along with Bach and Mozart, his music is the most frequently recorded.[2]
Beethoven's stylistic innovations bridge the Classical and Romantic periods. The works of his early period brought the Classical form to its highest expressive level, expanding in formal, structural, and harmonic terms the musical idiom developed by predecessors such as Mozart and Haydn. The works of his middle period were more forward-looking, contributing to the musical language and thinking of the Romantic era, inspiring composers such as Franz Schubert, Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann, Franz Liszt, Richard Wagner, and Johannes Brahms. His late period works were characterized by formal, harmonic, and structural experimentation at the highest level, often pointing toward contrapuntal tendencies and microscopic textures, as well as an increasingly introverted compositional outlook. Though rightly credited as a major harbinger of the Romantic era in music that followed, Beethoven never fully abandoned the fundamental formal paradigms and generally objective artistic philosophy characterizing musical Classicism to the same extent that later composers such as Berlioz or even Schubert did.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Early period
2.1 Bonn period
3 Middle period
3.1 Style
4 References
Overview[edit]
Beethoven's musical output has traditionally been divided into three periods, a classification that dates to the first years after the composer's death in 1827 and was formalised with the publication of Wilhelm von Lenz's influential work Beethoven et ses trois styles (Beethoven and his Three Styles). Lenz proposed that Beethoven's creative output be marked by three periods of distinct stylistic personality and he identified specific compositions as milestones for each period. In Lenz's work, the first period opens with Beethoven's Trio set, Opus 1 and culminates with the performances in 1800 of his first symphony and Septet. The second period spans the period from the publication of his Moonlight Sonata to the Piano Sonata in E minor, Op. 90 in 1814. The last period covers Beethoven's mature works to his death in 1827.
Although later scholars have called into question such a simplistic categorisation, the periodisation is still widely used. Extensive subsequent analytical consideration of Lenz's thesis has resulted in a slight revision of his original dates and broad consensus regarding Beethoven's three periods is as follows:
a formative period that extends to 1802
a middle period from 1803 to 1814
a mature period from 1814 to 1827
Generally, each period demonstrates characteristic stylistic evolutions in Beethoven's musical language and preoccupations as well as important developments in the composer's personal life.[3]
Early period[edit]
The compositions that Beethoven wrote in his formative period can be generally characterized by the composer's efforts to master the predominant classical language of the period. His works from this period can be subdivided into two, based on the composer's residence. First, various juvenalia, written when the adolescent Beethoven was in residence in Bonn and heavily indebted to the works of contemporaries, especially Mozart and his teacher, Christian Gottlob Neefe. These early efforts can be seen in a set of three piano sonatas and piano quartets (WoO 36) that Beethoven wrote before 1792. The Quartets, for instance, are each specifically modelled after three Violin sonatas Mozart published in 1781 – K 296, 379 and 380 – and Beethoven would later draw upon this familiarity in the composition of several of his own Violin Sonatas.[4]
Second, a number of more substantial and original works written after Beethoven moved to Vienna and commenced studies with the famed Austrian composer and leading musical figure of the period, Joseph Haydn.
Bonn period[edit]
With the exception of an abortive attempt to move to Vienna in 1787, Beethoven lived in Bonn until 1792, where he worked in the court chapel of the Elector of Cologne. Some forty compositions from this period are extant, including ten early works written by the young adolescent Beethoven when he was being promoted as a child prodigy performer and published as a result of the efforts of his teacher. It has been suggested that Beethoven largely abandoned composition between 1785 and 1790, possibly as a result of negative critical reaction to his first published works.[5] A 1784 review in Johann Nikolaus Forkel's influential Musikalischer Almanack compared Beethoven's efforts to those of rank beginners.[5] Whatever the case, most of Beethoven's earliest works were written after he turned twenty, between 1790 and 1792. Some of this music was later published by Beethoven, or incorporated into later works. As such, they provide an important foundation for judging the later evolution of his style.
In general, Beethoven's earliest compositions show his struggles to master the prevailing classical style, both in structural and idiomatic terms. Several works, including two he later published, show the incipient signs of his later individual style: twelve Lieder, several of which he published in 1805 as Opus 52, his Wind Octet, later published as Opus 103, and several sets of Variations, including one (WoO 40) for violin and piano on Mozart's aria Se vuol ballare (later reworked in Vienna). Although these works largely conform to the formal conventions of the classical style, including a strict observance of form and, in the variations, the decorative filigree associated with the genre, they also show early signs of Beethoven's later tendency to more substantive treatment of thematic material.
In 1790, Beethoven was commissioned to write a funeral cantata (WoO 87) on the death of the Austro-Hungarian Emperor, Joseph II, the first of his extant compositions written in C minor. A number of concert arias also date to this period including "Prüfung des Küssens" (WoO 89) and "Mit Mädeln sich vertragen" (WoO 90).
Beethoven also produced numerous fragments of larger-scale works, including a symphonic movement (also written in C minor), a violin concerto, an oboe concerto, an early draft of his B-flat Piano concerto (both now vanished), and a concertante for piano, flute and bassoon. Scholars generally regard these early efforts as bland and uninspired and have concluded that his first efforts at writing in the classical sonata style (with the exception of his Wind Octet) were poorly conceived. Gustav Nottebohm, for example, wrote of Beethoven's Dressler Variations (WoO 63), "they show not a trace of contrapuntal independent part-writing. They are figural variations of the simplest kind".[6] Téodor de Wyzewa considered his early "Kurfürsten Sonatas" written in 1783 (WoO 47) as merely "correct imitations of Haydn.".[7] Considered as a whole, Beethoven's compositional efforts in Bonn demonstrate the importance of his move to Vienna in terms of the development of his musical style and the sophistication of his grasp of classical form and idiom.
Middle period[edit]
Style[edit]
He also continued another trend—towards larger orchestras—that moved the centre of the sound downwards in the orchestra, to the violas and the lower register of the violins and cellos, giving his music a heavier and darker feel than Haydn or Mozart. Gustav Mahler modified the orchestration of some of Beethoven's music—most notably the 3rd and 9th symphonies—with the idea of more accurately expressing Beethoven's intent in an orchestra that had grown so much larger than the one Beethoven used: for example, doubling woodwind parts to compensate for the fact that a modern orchestra has so many more strings than Beethoven's orchestra did. Needless to say, these efforts remain controversial.
Above all, his works distinguish themselves from those of any prior composer through his creation of large, extended architectonic structures characterised by the extensive development of musical material, themes, and motifs, usually by means of "modulation", that is, a change in the feeling of the home key, through a variety of keys or harmonic regions. Although Haydn's later works often showed a greater fluidity between distant keys, Beethoven's innovation was the ability to rapidly establish a solidity in juxtaposing different keys and unexpected notes to join them. This expanded harmonic realm creates a sense of a vast musical and experiential space through which the music moves and the development of musical material creates a sense of unfolding drama in this space.
Beethoven helped to further unify the different movements in multi-movement works with the invention of the 'germ motive'. The germ motive, or 'germinal motif', as it is sometimes called, is a motive that is used to create motives and themes throughout a whole work, without making it obvious that such a thing is being done. Thus, all the themes in a piece can be tied back to a single motive in the work. An early and famous example of this is his sonata 'Pathetique', where all of the subjects used in the first movement originate from a germinal idea derived from its opening bar. Similarly, the opening bars of his Eighth Symphony is used to derive motives to be used throughout the whole symphony. This device lends unity to a work or even a group of works (as some motives Beethoven used not only in one work but in many works) without repeating material exactly or turning to canonic devices.
In his Fifth Symphony Beethoven used the four-note motif (drawn from a late Haydn symphony) throughout the whole movement in different juxtapositions, marking the first important occurrence of cyclic form and giving a sense of a totally internal conflict to the piece.[8]
In his book The Joy of Music, Leonard Bernstein, who, in his television documentary Bernstein on Beethoven admitted that he considered Beethoven the greatest composer who ever lived, nevertheless criticized his orchestration as sometimes being "downright bad", with "unimportant" orchestral parts being given too much prominence. Bernstein attributed this to Beethoven's ever-increasing deafness, which presumably rendered him incapable of judging how much louder than another a given instrument might be playing at certain moments.[9] He repeated some of this criticism in the 1982 miniseries Bernstein/ Beethoven, a PBS miniseries containing performances of all nine symphonies, several overtures, one of the string quartets, and the Missa Solemnis.[10] But at the same time, Bernstein added that what makes Beethoven great is his perfect sense of form – his ability to realize what the next note always had to be.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Rosen, Charles (1971). The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven. London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-393-31712-9.
Jump up ^ "Most Popular Composers". ArkivMusic. Archived from the original on 25 May 2009. Retrieved 9 July 2009.
Jump up ^ Kerman, Joseph; Alan Tyson. "Beethoven, Ludwig van". Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. p. §11 The 'three periods'.
Jump up ^ Drabkin, William (2004). "The introduction to Beethoven's Kreutzer sonata: a historical perspective". In Lockwood, Lewis; Kroll, Mark. The Beethoven Violin Sonatas: History, Criticism, Performance. Champaign: University of Illinois Press. p. 88. ISBN 0-252-02932-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Solomon, Maynard (1972). "Beethoven's Productivity at Bonn". Music and Letters. Oxford: Oxford University Press. LIII (2): 165–172 (169). doi:10.1093/ml/LIII.2.165.
Jump up ^ Nottebohm, Gustav (1873) Beethovens Studien. Leipzig & Winterthur. p. 10
Jump up ^ Wyzewa, Téodor de (1914) Beethoven et Wagner. Paris. p. 44
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 16 September 2012. Retrieved 25 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Bernstein, Leonard (2004). "The Joy of Music". ISBN 978-1-57467-104-9.
Jump up ^ YouTube. YouTube. Retrieved on 2018-02-08.
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u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Beethoven_s_musical_style rootpage-Beethoven_s_musical_style skin-vector action-view