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Peristalsis
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A time-space diagram of a peristaltic wave after a water swallow. High pressure values are red, zero pressure is blue-green. The ridge in the upper part of the picture is the high pressure of the upper esophageal sphincter which only opens for a short time to let water pass.
Peristalsis is a radially symmetrical contraction and relaxation of muscles that propagates in a wave down a tube, in an anterograde direction.
In much of a digestive tract such as the human gastrointestinal tract, smooth muscle tissue contracts in sequence to produce a peristaltic wave, which propels a ball of food (called a bolus while in the esophagus and upper gastrointestinal tract and chyme in the stomach) along the tract. Peristaltic movement comprises relaxation of circular smooth muscles, then their contraction behind the chewed material to keep it from moving backward, then longitudinal contraction to push it forward.
Earthworms use a similar mechanism to drive their locomotion,[1] and some modern machinery imitates this design.
The word comes from New Latin and is derived from the Greek peristellein, "to wrap around," from peri-, "around" + stellein, "draw in, bring together; set in order".[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Human physiology
1.1 Esophagus
1.2 Small intestine
1.3 Large intestine
1.4 Lymph
1.5 Sperm
2 Earthworms
3 Machinery
4 Related terms
5 Notes and references
6 External links
Human physiology[edit]
Esophagus[edit]
After food is chewed into a bolus, it is swallowed and moved through the esophagus. Smooth muscles contract behind the bolus to prevent it from being squeezed back into the mouth. Then rhythmic, unidirectional waves of contractions work to rapidly force the food into the stomach. The migrating motor complex (MMC) helps trigger peristaltic waves. This process works in one direction only and its sole esophageal function is to move food from the mouth into the stomach (the MMC also functions to clear out remaining food in the stomach to the small bowel, and remaining particles in the small bowel into the colon).[3]
A simplified image showing peristalsis
In the esophagus, two types of peristalsis occur:
First, there is a primary peristaltic wave, which occurs when the bolus enters the esophagus during swallowing. The primary peristaltic wave forces the bolus down the esophagus and into the stomach in a wave lasting about 8–9 seconds. The wave travels down to the stomach even if the bolus of food descends at a greater rate than the wave itself, and continues even if for some reason the bolus gets stuck further up the esophagus.
In the event that the bolus gets stuck or moves slower than the primary peristaltic wave (as can happen when it is poorly lubricated), stretch receptors in the esophageal lining are stimulated and a local reflex response causes a secondary peristaltic wave around the bolus, forcing it further down the esophagus, and these secondary waves continue indefinitely until the bolus enters the stomach. The process of peristalsis is controlled by medulla oblongata. Esophageal peristalsis is typically assessed by performing an esophageal motility study.
During vomiting, the propulsion of food up the oesophagus and out the mouth comes from contraction of the abdominal muscles; peristalsis does not reverse in the esophagus.
Small intestine[edit]
Once processed and digested by the stomach, the milky chyme is squeezed through the pyloric sphincter into the small intestine. Once past the stomach, a typical peristaltic wave only lasts for a few seconds, travelling at only a few centimeters per second. Its primary purpose is to mix the chyme in the intestine rather than to move it forward in the intestine. Through this process of mixing and continued digestion and absorption of nutrients, the chyme gradually works its way through the small intestine to the large intestine.[3]
In contrast to peristalsis, segmentation contractions result in that churning and mixing without pushing materials further down the digestive tract.
Large intestine[edit]
Although the large intestine has peristalsis of the type that the small intestine uses, it is not the primary propulsion. Instead, general contractions called mass movements occur one to three times per day in the large intestine, propelling the chyme toward the rectum. Mass movements often tend to be triggered by meals, as the presence of chyme in the stomach and duodenum prompts them.
Lymph[edit]
The human lymphatic system has no central pump. Instead, lymph circulates through peristalsis in the lymph capillaries, as well as valves in the capillaries, compression during contraction of adjacent skeletal muscle, and arterial pulsation.
Sperm[edit]
During ejaculation, the smooth muscle in the walls of the vas deferens contracts reflexively in peristalsis, propelling sperm from the testicles to the urethra.[4]
Earthworms[edit]
A simplified image showing Earthworm movement via peristalsis
The earthworm is a limbless annelid worm with a hydrostatic skeleton that moves by peristalsis. Its hydrostatic skeleton consists of a fluid-filled body cavity surrounded by an extensible body wall. The worm moves by radially constricting the anterior portion of its body, resulting in an increase in length via hydrostatic pressure. This constricted region propagates posteriorly along the worm's body. As a result, each segment is extended forward, then relaxes and re-contacts the substrate, with hair-like setae preventing backwards slipping.[5]
Machinery[edit]
A peristaltic pump is a positive-displacement pump in which a motor pinches advancing portions of a flexible tube to propel a fluid within the tube. The pump isolates the fluid from the machinery, which is important if the fluid is abrasive or must remain sterile.
Robots have been designed that use peristalsis to achieve locomotion, as the earthworm uses it.[6][7]
Related terms[edit]
Catastalsis is a related intestinal muscle process.[3]
Aperistalsis refers to a lack of propulsion. It can result from achalasia of the smooth muscle involved.
Basal electrical rhythm is a slow wave of electrical activity that can initiate a contraction.
Ileus is a disruption of the normal propulsive ability of the gastrointestinal tract caused by the failure of peristalsis.
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ "Earthworm - Muscular System". [self-published source?]
Jump up ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". etymonline.com. Retrieved 2016-06-30.
^ Jump up to: a b c Marieb, Elaine N. & Hoehn, Katja "Human Anatomy & Physiology" 8th Ed., Benjamin Cummings/Pearson, 2010[page needed]
Jump up ^ William O. Reece (21 March 2013). Functional Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Animals. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 451–. ISBN 978-1-118-68589-1.
Jump up ^ Quillin KJ (May 1998). "Ontogenetic scaling of hydrostatic skeletons: geometric, static stress and dynamic stress scaling of the earthworm lumbricus terrestris". The Journal of Experimental Biology. 201 (12): 1871–83. PMID 9600869.
Jump up ^ Sangok Seok, C.D. Onal; et al. (2010-05-07). "Peristaltic locomotion with antagonistic actuators in soft robotics" (PDF). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 2014-11-20.
Jump up ^ Alexander Boxerbaum (2010-05-10). "A New Form of Peristaltic Locomotion in a Robot". YouTube. Retrieved 2014-11-20.
External links[edit]
Interactive 3D display of swallow waves at menne-biomed.de
Peristalsis at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Physiology: 6/6ch3/s6ch3_9 - Essentials of Human Physiology
Overview at colostate.edu
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A.C. Milan in European football
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A.C. Milan in European football
Club
A.C. Milan
First entry
1955–56 European Cup
Latest entry
2018–19 UEFA Europa League
Titles
Champions League
7[show]
1963
1969
1989
1990
1994
2003
2007
Cup Winners' Cup
2[show]
1968
1973
Super Cup
5[show]
1989
1990
1994
2003
2007
Intercontinental Cup
3[show]
1969
1989
1990
FIFA Club World Cup
1[show]
2007
Associazione Calcio Milan is an Italian football club based in Milan, Lombardy. The club was founded in 1899 as Milan Foot-Ball and Cricket Club, and has competed in the Italian football league system since 1900. They were the first Italian club to qualify for the European Cup in 1955. Since then, the club has competed in every UEFA-organised competition, with the exception of the Intertoto Cup.
The competition in which the club has had the most success is the European Cup/UEFA Champions League, which they won seven times, the first in 1963; this win made them the first Italian side to win the European Cup. The other six victories came in 1969, 1989, 1990, 1994, 2003 and 2007. The club has also won the Cup Winners' Cup twice, in 1968 and 1973; the Super Cup five times, in 1989, 1990, 1994, 2003 and 2007; and the Intercontinental Cup three times, in 1969, 1989 and 1990.
After their Champions League win in 2007, Milan also competed as UEFA's representatives at the 2007 FIFA Club World Cup, eventually winning the competition and thus becoming the first Italian and European side to win the trophy. They have also won the 1951 and 1956 Latin Cup and the 1982 Mitropa Cup.
Milan qualified for the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League group stage as the sixth-placed team of the previous season, but were originally banned by UEFA from European competition due to violations of Financial Fair Play regulations for failure to break-even.[1] Milan appealed to the Court of Arbitration for Sport, and the ban was overturned on 20 July 2018.[2][3]
Contents
1 History
1.1 European debut
2 Matches
3 Overall record
3.1 By competition
3.2 By country
4 Honours
5 References
History[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2009)
European debut[edit]
Following their league title win the previous season, Milan first competed in European football competition in the 1955–56 season. They had also competed in the Latin Cup in the previous years. They had previously played in the 1951, 1953 and 1955 editions of the Latin Cup and the 1938 edition of the Mitropa Cup.
The club's first match in European competition was a round-of-16 tie in the first edition of the European Cup against Saarbrücken; Milan lost the home match 3–4. The return leg was played at the Ludwigspark Stadion in Saarbrücken, and the match finished as a 4–1 win for Milan, which made them able to qualify for the next round. After eliminating Rapid Wien in the quarter-finals, Milan faced Real Madrid in the semi-finals. The first leg took Milan to the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, where they were defeated 4–2. Despite winning 2–1 in the second leg back at San Siro, they were eliminated from the competition and the club's first European season came to an end as Real Madrid went on to record the first of their five consecutive European Cup titles.
Matches[edit]
Season
Competition
Round
Opposition
Score
1938 Mitropa Cup First Round Ripensia Timișoara 0–3 (A), 3–1 (H)
1951 Latin Cup Semifinals Atlético Madrid 4–1
Final Lille 5–0
1953 Latin Cup Semifinals Sporting CP 4–3
Final Stade Reims 0–3
1955 Latin Cup Semifinals Stade Reims 2–3
Third Place Match Belenenses 3–1
1955–56 European Cup First Round 1. FC Saarbrücken 3–4 (H), 4–1 (A)
Quarter-final Rapid Wien 1–1 (A), 7–2 (H)
Semi-final Real Madrid 2–4 (A), 2–1 (H)
1956 Latin Cup Semifinals Benfica 4–2
Final Athletic Bilbao 3–1
1957 Latin Cup Semifinals Real Madrid 1–5
Third Place Match Saint-Étienne 4–3
1957–58 European Cup Preliminary Round Rapid Wien 4–1 (H), 2–5 (A), 4–2 (N)
First Round Rangers 4–1 (A), 2–0 (H)
Quarter-final Borussia Dortmund 1–1 (A), 4–1 (H)
Semi-final Manchester United 1–2 (A), 4–0 (H)
Final Real Madrid 2–3 (N)
1959–60 European Cup Preliminary Round Olympiacos 2–2 (A), 3–1 (H)
First Round Barcelona 0–2 (H), 1–5 (A)
1961–62 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup First Round Novi Sad XI 0–0 (H), 0–2 (A)
1962–63 European Cup Preliminary Round Union Luxembourg 8–0 (H), 6–0 (A)
First Round Ipswich Town 3–0 (H), 1–2 (A)
Quarter-final Galatasaray 3–1 (A), 5–0 (H)
Semi-final Dundee 5–1 (H), 0–1 (A)
Final Benfica 2–1 (N)
1963 Intercontinental Cup Final Santos 4–2 (H), 2–4 (A), 0–1 (A)
1963–64 European Cup First Round IFK Norrköping 1–1 (A), 5–2 (H)
Quarter-final Real Madrid 1–4 (A), 2–0 (H)
1964–65 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup First Round Strasbourg 0–2 (A), 1–0 (H)
1965–66 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup First Round Strasbourg 1–0 (H), 1–2 (A), 1–1 (H) [fn 1]
Second Round Fabril 0–2 (A), 2–0 (H), 1–0 (H)
Third Round Chelsea 1–2 (A), 2–1 (H), 1–1 (H) [fn 2]
1966–67 Mitropa Cup First Round Dinamo Zagreb 0–1 (A), 0–0 (H)
1967[4] Cup of the Alps Group tournament[fn 3] Eintracht Frankfurt 0–1
1860 Munich 0–0
Servette 0–0
Basel 3–0
Zürich 0–2
1967–68 European Cup Winners' Cup First Round Levski Sofia 5–1 (H), 1–1 (A)
Second Round Győri ETO 2–2 (A), 1–1 (H) [fn 4]
Quarter-final Standard Liège 1–1 (A), 1–1 (H), 2–0 (H)
Semi-final Bayern Munich 2–0 (H), 0–0 (A)
Final Hamburger SV 2–0 (N)
1968–69 European Cup First Round Malmö FF 1–2 (A), 4–1 (H)
Quarter-final Celtic 0–0 (H), 1–0 (A)
Semi-final Manchester United 2–0 (H), 0–1 (A)
Final Ajax 4–1 (N)
1969 Intercontinental Cup Final Estudiantes La Plata 3–0 (H) 1–2 (A)
1969–70 European Cup First Round Avenir Beggen 5–0 (H), 3–0 (A)
Second Round Feyenoord 1–0 (H), 0–2 (A)
1971–72 UEFA Cup First Round Digenis Morphou 4–0 (H), 3–0 (A)
Second Round Hertha BSC 4–2 (H), 1–2 (A)
Third Round Dundee 3–0 (H), 0–2 (A)
Quarter-final Lierse 2–0 (H), 1–1 (A)
Semi-final Tottenham Hotspur 1–2 (A), 1–1 (H)
1972–73 European Cup Winners' Cup First Round Red Boys Differdange 1–0 (A), 6–1 (H)
Second Round Legia Warsaw 1–1 (A), 2–1 (H)
Quarter-final Spartak Moscow 1–0 (A), 1–1 (H)
Semi-final Sparta Prague 1–0 (H), 1–0 (A)
Final Leeds United 1–0 (N)
1973 Super Cup Final Ajax 1–0 (H), 0–6 (A)
1973–74 European Cup Winners' Cup First Round Dinamo Zagreb 3–1 (H), 1–0 (A)
Second Round Rapid Wien 0–0 (H), 2–0 (A)
Quarter-final PAOK 3–0 (H), 2–2 (A)
Semi-final Borussia Mönchengladbach 2–0 (H), 0–1 (A)
Final 1. FC Magdeburg 0–2 (N)
1975–76 UEFA Cup First Round Everton 0–0 (A), 1–0 (H)
Second Round Athlone Town 0–0 (A), 3–0 (H)
Third Round Spartak Moscow 4–0 (H), 0–2 (A)
Quarter-final Club Brugge 0–2 (A), 2–1 (H)
1976–77 UEFA Cup First Round Dinamo București 0–0 (A), 2–1 (H)
Second Round Akademik Sofia 3–4 (A), 2–0 (H)
Third Round Athletic Bilbao 1–4 (A), 3–1 (H)
1977–78 European Cup Winners' Cup First Round Real Betis 0–2 (A), 2–1 (H)
1978–79 UEFA Cup First Round Lokomotíva Košice 1–0 (H), 0–1 (A) [fn 5]
Second Round Levski Sofia 1–1 (A), 3–1 (H)
Third Round Manchester City 2–2 (H), 0–3 (A)
1979–80 European Cup First Round Porto 0–0 (A), 0–1 (H)
1981–82[5] Mitropa Cup Round-robin tournament TJ Vítkovice 1–2 (A), 3–0 (H)
Haladás 2–0 (H), 1–0 (A)
Osijek 1–1 (A), 2–1 (H)
1985–86 UEFA Cup First Round Auxerre 1–3 (A), 3–0 (H)
Second Round Lokomotive Leipzig 2–0 (H), 1–3 (A) [fn 4]
Third Round Waregem 1–1 (A), 1–2 (H)
1987–88 UEFA Cup First Round Sporting Gijón 0–1 (A), 3–0 (H)
Second Round Espanyol 0–2 (H), 0–0 (A)
1988–89 European Cup First Round Levski Sofia 2–0 (A), 5–2 (H)
Second Round Red Star Belgrade 1–1 (H), 1–1 (A) [fn 6]
Quarter-final Werder Bremen 0–0 (H), 1–0 (A)
Semi-final Real Madrid 1–1 (A), 5–0 (H)
Final Steaua București 4–0 (N)
1989 Super Cup Final Barcelona 1–1 (A), 1–0 (H)
1989 Intercontinental Cup Final Atlético Nacional 1–0 (N)
1989–90 European Cup First Round HJK 4–0 (H), 1–0 (A)
Second Round Real Madrid 2–0 (H), 0–1 (A)
Quarter-final KV Mechelen 0–0 (A), 2–0 (H)
Semi-final Bayern Munich 1–0 (H), 1–2 (A) [fn 4]
Final Benfica 1–0 (N)
1990 Super Cup Final Sampdoria 1–1 (A), 2–0 (H)
1990 Intercontinental Cup Final Olimpia Asunción 3–0 (N)
1990–91 European Cup Second Round Club Brugge 0–0 (H), 1–0 (A)
Quarter-final Marseille 1–1 (H), 0–3 (A)
1992–93 Champions League First Round Olimpija Ljubljana 4–0 (H), 3–0 (A)
Second Round Slovan Bratislava 1–0 (A), 4–0 (H)
Group stage
(Group B) IFK Göteborg 4–0 (H), 1–0 (A)
PSV 2–1 (A), 2–0 (H)
Porto 1–0 (A), 1–0 (H)
Final Marseille 0–1 (N)
1993 Super Cup Final Parma 1–0 (A), 0–2 (H)
1993 Intercontinental Cup Final São Paulo 2–3 (N)
1993–94 Champions League First Round Aarau 1–0 (A), 0–0 (H)
Second Round Copenhagen 6–0 (A), 1–0 (H)
Group stage
(Group B) Anderlecht 0–0 (H), 0–0 (A)
Porto 3–0 (H), 0–0 (A)
Werder Bremen 2–1 (H), 1–1 (A)
Semi-final Monaco 3–0 (H)
Final Barcelona 4–0 N)
1994 Super Cup Final Arsenal 0–0 (A), 2–0 (H)
1994 Intercontinental Cup Final Vélez Sársfield 0–2 (N)
1994–95 Champions League Group stage
(Group D) Ajax 0–2 (A), 0–2 (H)
Casino Salzburg 3–0 (H), 1–0 (A)
AEK Athens 0–0 (A), 2–1 (H)
Quarter-final Benfica 2–0 (H), 0–0 (A)
Semi-final Paris Saint-Germain 1–0 (A), 2–0 (H)
Final Ajax 0–1 (N)
1995–96 UEFA Cup First Round Zagłębie Lubin 4–0 (H), 4–1 (A)
Second Round Strasbourg 1–0 (A), 2–1 (H)
Third Round Sparta Prague 2–0 (H), 0–0 (A)
Quarter-final Bordeaux 2–0 (H), 0–3 (A)
1996–97 Champions League Group stage
(Group D) Porto 2–3 (H), 1–1 (A)
Rosenborg 4–1 (A), 1–2 (H)
IFK Göteborg 1–2 (A), 4–2 (H)
1999–2000 Champions League First group stage
(Group H) Chelsea 0–0 (A), 1–1 (H)
Galatasaray 2–1 (H), 2–3 (A)
Hertha BSC 1–1 (H), 0–1 (A)
2000–01 Champions League Third Qualifying Round Dinamo Zagreb 3–1 (H), 3–0 (A)
First group stage
(Group H) Beşiktaş 4–1 (H), 2–0 (A)
Leeds United 0–1 (A), 1–1 (H)
Barcelona 2–0 (A), 3–3 (H)
Second group stage
(Group B) Galatasaray 2–2 (H), 0–2 (A)
Deportivo La Coruña 1–0 (A), 1–1 (H)
Paris Saint-Germain 1–1 (H), 1–1 (A)
2001–02 UEFA Cup First Round BATE Borisov 2–0 (A), 4–0 (H)
Second Round CSKA Sofia 2–0 (H), 1–0 (A)
Third Round Sporting CP 2–0 (H), 1–1 (A)
fourth Round Roda JC 1–0 (A), 0–1 (H) [fn 7]
Quarter-final Hapoel Tel Aviv 0–1 (A), 2–0 (H)
Semi-final Borussia Dortmund 0–4 (A), 3–1 (H)
2002–03 Champions League Third Qualifying Round Slovan Liberec 1–0 (H), 1–2 (A) [fn 4]
First group stage
(Group G) Lens 2–1 (H), 1–2 (A)
Deportivo La Coruña 4–0 (A), 1–2 (H)
Bayern Munich 2–1 (A), 2–1 (H)
Second group stage
(Group C) Real Madrid 1–0 (H), 1–3 (A)
Borussia Dortmund 1–0 (A), 0–1 (H)
Lokomotiv Moscow 1–0 (H), 1–0 (A)
Quarter-final Ajax 0–0 (A), 3–2 (H)
Semi-final Internazionale 0–0 (H), 1–1 (A) [fn 4]
Final Juventus 0–0 (N) [fn 7]
2003 Super Cup Final Porto 1–0 (N)
2003 Intercontinental Cup Final Boca Juniors 1–1 (N) [fn 8]
2003–04 Champions League Group stage
(Group H) Ajax 1–0 (H), 1–0 (A)
Celta Vigo 0–0 (A), 1–2 (H)
Club Brugge 0–1 (H), 1–0 (A)
Round of 16 Sparta Prague 0–0 (A), 4–1 (H)
Quarter-final Deportivo La Coruña 4–1 (H), 0–4 (A)
2004–05 Champions League Group stage
(Group F) Shakhtar Donetsk 1–0 (A), 4–0 (H)
Celtic 3–1 (H), 0–0 (A)
Barcelona 1–0 (H), 1–2 (A)
Round of 16 Manchester United 1–0 (A), 1–0 (H)
Quarter-final Internazionale 2–0 (H), 3–0 (A)
Semi-final PSV 2–0 (H), 1–3 (A) [fn 4]
Final Liverpool 3–3 (N) [fn 9]
2005–06 Champions League Group stage
(Group E) Fenerbahçe 3–1 (H), 4–0 (A)
Schalke 04 2–2 (A), 3–2 (H)
PSV 0–0 (H), 0–1 (A)
Round of 16 Bayern Munich 1–1 (A), 4–1 (H)
Quarter-final Lyon 0–0 (A), 3–1 (H)
Semi-final Barcelona 0–1 (H), 0–0 (A)
2006–07 Champions League Third Qualifying Round Red Star Belgrade 1–0 (H), 2–1 (A)
Group stage
(Group H) AEK Athens 3–0 (H), 0–1 (A)
Lille 0–0 (A), 0–2 (H)
Anderlecht 1–0 (A), 4–1 (H)
Round of 16 Celtic 0–0 (A), 1–0 (H)
Quarter-final Bayern Munich 2–2 (H), 2–0 (A)
Semi-final Manchester United 2–3 (A), 3–0 (H)
Final Liverpool 2–1 (N)
2007 Super Cup Final Sevilla 3–1 (N)
2007 Club World Cup Semi-final Urawa Red Diamonds 1–0 (N)
Final Boca Juniors 4–2 (N)
2007–08 Champions League Group stage
(Group D) Benfica 2–1 (H), 1–1 (A)
Celtic 1–2 (A), 1–0 (H)
Shakhtar Donetsk 4–1 (A), 3–0 (H)
Round of 16 Arsenal 0–0 (A), 0–2 (H)
2008–09 UEFA Cup First Round Zürich 3–1 (H), 1–0 (A)
Group stage
(Group E) Heerenveen 3–1 (A)
Braga 1–0 (H)
Portsmouth 2–2 (A)
VfL Wolfsburg 2–2 (H)
Round of 32 Werder Bremen 1–1 (A), 2–2 (H) [fn 10]
2009–10 Champions League Group stage
(Group C) Marseille 2–1 (A), 1–1 (H)
Zürich 0–1 (H), 1–1 (A)
Real Madrid 3–2 (A), 1–1 (H)
Round of 16 Manchester United 2–3 (H), 0–4 (A)
2010–11 Champions League Group stage
(Group G) Auxerre 2–0 (H), 2–0 (A)
Ajax 1–1 (A), 0–2 (H)
Real Madrid 0–2 (A), 2–2 (H)
Round of 16 Tottenham Hotspur 0–1 (H), 0–0 (A)
2011–12 Champions League Group stage
(Group H) Barcelona 2–2 (A), 2–3 (H)
Viktoria Plzeň 2–0 (H), 2–2 (A)
BATE Borisov 2–0 (H), 1–1 (A)
Round of 16 Arsenal 4–0 (H), 0–3 (A)
Quarter-final Barcelona 0–0 (H), 1–3 (A)
2012–13 Champions League Group stage
(Group C) Anderlecht 0–0 (H), 3–1 (A)
Zenit Saint Petersburg 3–2 (A), 0–1 (H)
Málaga 0–1 (A), 1–1 (H)
Round of 16 Barcelona 2–0 (H), 0–4 (A)
2013–14 Champions League Play-off round PSV 1–1 (A), 3–0 (H)
Group stage
(Group H) Celtic 2–0 (H), 3–0 (A)
Ajax 1–1 (A), 0–0 (H)
Barcelona 1–1 (H), 1–3 (A)
Round of 16 Atlético Madrid 0–1 (H), 1–4 (A)
2017–18 Europa League Third qualifying round Universitatea Craiova 1–0 (A), 2–0 (H)
Play-off round Shkëndija 6–0 (H), 1–0 (A)
Group stage
(Group D) Austria Wien 5–1 (A), 5–1 (H)
Rijeka 3–2 (H), 0–2 (A)
AEK Athens 0–0 (H), 0–0 (A)
Round of 32 Ludogorets Razgrad 3–0 (A), 1–0 (H)
Round of 16 Arsenal 0–2 (H), 1–3 (A)
2018–19 Europa League Group stage TBD
TBD
TBD
Footnotes
Jump up ^ Won on a coin toss
Jump up ^ Lost on a coin toss
Jump up ^ Not a full round-robin: each of 8 teams played 5 of the other 7.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Won on away goals
Jump up ^ Won 8-7 on penalties
Jump up ^ Won 4-2 on penalties
^ Jump up to: a b Won 3-2 on penalties
Jump up ^ Lost 3–1 on penalties
Jump up ^ Lost 3–2 on penalties
Jump up ^ Lost on away goals
Overall record[edit]
By competition[edit]
Updated 15 March 2018.
Competition
Pld
W
D
L
GF
GA
GD
European Cup / Champions League 250 126 64 60 421 234 +187
Cup Winners' Cup 30 17 10 3 47 20 +27
UEFA Cup / Europa League 81 43 17 21 131 76 +55
Inter-Cities Fairs Cup 13 5 3 5 11 13 −2
Super Cup 12 7 3 2 13 11 +2
Intercontinental Cup 10 4 1 5 17 15 +2
Club World Cup 2 2 0 0 5 2 +3
Total
398
204
98
96
645
371
+274
By country[edit]
Updated 15 March 2018.[6]
Country
Pld
W
D
L
GF
GA
GD
Win%
Argentina
7000500000000000000♠5 7000200000000000000♠2 7000100000000000000♠1 7000200000000000000♠2 7000900000000000000♠9 7000700000000000000♠7 +2 07001400000000000000♠40.00
Austria
7001110000000000000♠11 7000800000000000000♠8 7000200000000000000♠2 7000100000000000000♠1 7001340000000000000♠34 7001130000000000000♠13 +21 07001727300000000000♠72.73
Belarus
7000400000000000000♠4 7000300000000000000♠3 7000100000000000000♠1 5000000000000000000♠0 7000900000000000000♠9 7000100000000000000♠1 +8 07001750000000000000♠75.00
Belgium
7001210000000000000♠21 7000900000000000000♠9 7000900000000000000♠9 7000300000000000000♠3 7001230000000000000♠23 7001120000000000000♠12 +11 07001428600000000000♠42.86
Brazil
7000400000000000000♠4 7000100000000000000♠1 5000000000000000000♠0 7000300000000000000♠3 7000800000000000000♠8 7001100000000000000♠10 −2 07001250000000000000♠25.00
Bulgaria
7001120000000000000♠12 7000900000000000000♠9 7000200000000000000♠2 7000100000000000000♠1 7001290000000000000♠29 7000900000000000000♠9 +20 07001750000000000000♠75.00
Colombia
7000100000000000000♠1 7000100000000000000♠1 5000000000000000000♠0 5000000000000000000♠0 7000100000000000000♠1 5000000000000000000♠0 +1 7002100000000000000♠100.00
Croatia
7000600000000000000♠6 7000500000000000000♠5 5000000000000000000♠0 7000100000000000000♠1 7001130000000000000♠13 7000600000000000000♠6 +7 07001833300000000000♠83.33
Cyprus
7000200000000000000♠2 7000200000000000000♠2 5000000000000000000♠0 5000000000000000000♠0 7000700000000000000♠7 5000000000000000000♠0 +7 7002100000000000000♠100.00
Czech Republic / Czechoslovakia
7001100000000000000♠10 7000600000000000000♠6 7000300000000000000♠3 7000100000000000000♠1 7001140000000000000♠14 7000500000000000000♠5 +9 07001600000000000000♠60.00
Denmark
7000200000000000000♠2 7000200000000000000♠2 5000000000000000000♠0 5000000000000000000♠0 7000700000000000000♠7 5000000000000000000♠0 +7 7002100000000000000♠100.00
East Germany
7000200000000000000♠2 7000100000000000000♠1 5000000000000000000♠0 7000100000000000000♠1 7000300000000000000♠3 7000300000000000000♠3 +0 07001500000000000000♠50.00
England
7001390000000000000♠39 7001120000000000000♠12 7001120000000000000♠12 7001150000000000000♠15 7001460000000000000♠46 7001470000000000000♠47 −1 07001307700000000000♠30.77
Finland
7000200000000000000♠2 7000200000000000000♠2 5000000000000000000♠0 5000000000000000000♠0 7000500000000000000♠5 5000000000000000000♠0 +5 7002100000000000000♠100.00
France
7001310000000000000♠31 7001150000000000000♠15 7000700000000000000♠7 7000900000000000000♠9 7001420000000000000♠42 7001300000000000000♠30 +12 07001483900000000000♠48.39
Germany / West Germany
7001390000000000000♠39 7001180000000000000♠18 7001110000000000000♠11 7001100000000000000♠10 7001650000000000000♠65 7001470000000000000♠47 +18 07001461500000000000♠46.15
Greece
7001100000000000000♠10 7000400000000000000♠4 7000500000000000000♠5 7000100000000000000♠1 7001150000000000000♠15 7000700000000000000♠7 +8 07001400000000000000♠40.00
Hungary
7000200000000000000♠2 5000000000000000000♠0 7000200000000000000♠2 5000000000000000000♠0 7000300000000000000♠3 7000300000000000000♠3 +0 005000000000000000000♠0.00
Ireland
7000200000000000000♠2 7000100000000000000♠1 7000100000000000000♠1 5000000000000000000♠0 7000300000000000000♠3 5000000000000000000♠0 +3 07001500000000000000♠50.00
Israel
7000200000000000000♠2 7000100000000000000♠1 5000000000000000000♠0 7000100000000000000♠1 7000200000000000000♠2 7000100000000000000♠1 +1 07001500000000000000♠50.00
Italy
7000900000000000000♠9 7000400000000000000♠4 7000400000000000000♠4 7000100000000000000♠1 7000900000000000000♠9 7000400000000000000♠4 +5 07001444400000000000♠44.44
Japan
7000100000000000000♠1 7000100000000000000♠1 5000000000000000000♠0 5000000000000000000♠0 7000100000000000000♠1 5000000000000000000♠0 +1 7002100000000000000♠100.00
Luxembourg
7000600000000000000♠6 7000600000000000000♠6 5000000000000000000♠0 5000000000000000000♠0 7001290000000000000♠29 7000100000000000000♠1 +28 7002100000000000000♠100.00
Macedonia
7000200000000000000♠2 7000200000000000000♠2 5000000000000000000♠0 5000000000000000000♠0 7000700000000000000♠7 5000000000000000000♠0 +7 7002100000000000000♠100.00
Netherlands
7001270000000000000♠27 7001120000000000000♠12 7000600000000000000♠6 7000900000000000000♠9 7001280000000000000♠28 7001280000000000000♠28 +0 07001444400000000000♠44.44
Norway
7000200000000000000♠2 7000100000000000000♠1 5000000000000000000♠0 7000100000000000000♠1 7000500000000000000♠5 7000300000000000000♠3 +2 07001500000000000000♠50.00
Paraguay
7000100000000000000♠1 7000100000000000000♠1 5000000000000000000♠0 5000000000000000000♠0 7000300000000000000♠3 5000000000000000000♠0 +3 7002100000000000000♠100.00
Poland
7000400000000000000♠4 7000300000000000000♠3 7000100000000000000♠1 5000000000000000000♠0 7001110000000000000♠11 7000300000000000000♠3 +8 07001750000000000000♠75.00
Portugal
7001230000000000000♠23 7001140000000000000♠14 7000600000000000000♠6 7000300000000000000♠3 7001310000000000000♠31 7001150000000000000♠15 +16 07001608700000000000♠60.87
Romania
7000500000000000000♠5 7000400000000000000♠4 7000100000000000000♠1 5000000000000000000♠0 7000900000000000000♠9 7000200000000000000♠2 +7 07001800000000000000♠80.00
Russia
7000800000000000000♠8 7000500000000000000♠5 7000100000000000000♠1 7000200000000000000♠2 7001110000000000000♠11 7000600000000000000♠6 +5 07001625000000000000♠62.50
Scotland
7001160000000000000♠16 7001100000000000000♠10 7000300000000000000♠3 7000300000000000000♠3 7001260000000000000♠26 7000800000000000000♠8 +18 07001625000000000000♠62.50
Serbia
7000600000000000000♠6 7000200000000000000♠2 7000300000000000000♠3 7000100000000000000♠1 7000500000000000000♠5 7000500000000000000♠5 +0 07001333300000000000♠33.33
Slovakia
7000400000000000000♠4 7000300000000000000♠3 5000000000000000000♠0 7000100000000000000♠1 7000600000000000000♠6 7000100000000000000♠1 +5 07001750000000000000♠75.00
Slovenia
7000200000000000000♠2 7000200000000000000♠2 5000000000000000000♠0 5000000000000000000♠0 7000700000000000000♠7 5000000000000000000♠0 +7 7002100000000000000♠100.00
Spain
7001570000000000000♠57 7001190000000000000♠19 7001130000000000000♠13 7001250000000000000♠25 7001790000000000000♠79 7001860000000000000♠86 −7 07001333300000000000♠33.33
Sweden
7000800000000000000♠8 7000500000000000000♠5 7000100000000000000♠1 7000200000000000000♠2 7001210000000000000♠21 7001100000000000000♠10 +11 07001625000000000000♠62.50
Switzerland
7000600000000000000♠6 7000300000000000000♠3 7000200000000000000♠2 7000100000000000000♠1 7000600000000000000♠6 7000300000000000000♠3 +3 07001500000000000000♠50.00
Turkey
7001100000000000000♠10 7000700000000000000♠7 7000100000000000000♠1 7000200000000000000♠2 7001270000000000000♠27 7001110000000000000♠11 +16 07001700000000000000♠70.00
Ukraine
7000400000000000000♠4 7000400000000000000♠4 5000000000000000000♠0 5000000000000000000♠0 7001120000000000000♠12 7000100000000000000♠1 +11 7002100000000000000♠100.00
Honours[edit]
European honours of A.C. Milan
Honour
No.
Years
European Cup / UEFA Champions League
7 1963, 1969, 1989, 1990, 1994, 2003, 2007
UEFA Super Cup
5 1989, 1990, 1994, 2003, 2007
Intercontinental Cup
3 1969, 1989, 1990
UEFA Cup Winners' Cup
2 1968, 1973
FIFA Club World Cup
1 2007
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "CFCB Adjudicatory Chamber renders AC Milan decision". CFCB Adjudicatory Chamber (Press release). UEFA. 27 June 2018. Retrieved 29 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Milan in Europa League: accolto il ricorso al Tas". Corriere dello Sport. 20 July 2018.
Jump up ^ "AC Milan v. UEFA: CAS annuls the sanction and refers the case back to UEFA to issue a proportionate disciplinary measure" (PDF). Court of Arbitration for Sport. 20 July 2018.
Jump up ^ "Cup of the Alps 1967". Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 31 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mitropa Cup 1981/82". Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 31 July 2017.
Jump up ^ http://www.worldfootball.net/teams/ac-milan/11/. Missing or empty |title= (help)
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Tintype of two young women in Lowell, Massachusetts
The Lowell Girls were young female workers who came to work in industrial corporations in Lowell, Massachusetts during the Industrial Revolution in the United States. The workers initially recruited by the corporations were daughters of propertied New England farmers, typically between the ages of 15 and 30, but sometimes as young as 7 years old.[citation needed] By 1840, at the height of the Industrial Revolution, the textile mills had recruited over 8,000 women, who came to make up nearly seventy-five percent of the mill workforce.
During the early period, women came to the mills of their own accord, for various reasons: to help a brother pay for college, for the educational opportunities offered in Lowell, or to earn a supplementary income for themselves. While their wages were only half of what men were paid, many were able to attain economic independence for the first time, free from controlling fathers and husbands. As a result, while factory life would soon come to be experienced as oppressive, it enabled these women to challenge assumptions of female inferiority and dependence.
As the nature of the new "factory system" became clear, however, many women joined the broader American labor movement, to protest the dramatic social changes being brought by the Industrial Revolution. While they decried the deteriorating factory conditions, worker unrest in the 1840s was directed mainly against the loss of control over economic life. This loss of control, which came with the dependence on the corporations for a wage, was experienced as an attack on their dignity and independence. In 1845, after a number of protests and strikes, many operatives came together to form the first union of working women in the United States, the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association. The Association adopted a newspaper called the Voice of Industry, in which workers published sharp critiques of the new industrialism. The Voice stood in sharp contrast to other literary magazines published by female operatives, such as the Lowell Offering, which painted a sanguine picture of life in the mills.
Contents
[hide]
1 Industrialization of Lowell
2 Work and living environment
2.1 Factory conditions
2.2 Living quarters
2.3 Working Class Intellectual Culture
3 The Lowell Offering
4 Strikes of 1834 and 1836
5 Lowell Female Labor Reform Association
6 Political character of labor activity
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
9.1 Primary sources
10 External links
Industrialization of Lowell[edit]
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Main article: History of Lowell, Massachusetts
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In 1813, businessman Francis Cabot Lowell formed a company, the Boston Manufacturing Company and built a textile mill next to the Charles River in Waltham, Massachusetts. Differing from the earlier Rhode Island System, where only carding and spinning were done in a factory while the weaving was often put out to neighboring farms to be done by hand, the Waltham mill was the first integrated mill in the United States, transforming raw cotton into cotton cloth in one mill building.
In 1821, Francis C. Lowell's business associates, looking to expand the Waltham textile operations, purchased land around the Pawtucket Falls on the Merrimack River in East Chelmsford. Incorporated as the Town of Lowell in 1826, by 1840, the textile mills employed almost 8,000 workers — mostly women between the ages of 16 and 35.[1][2]
The "City of Spindles", as Lowell came to be known, quickly became the center of the Industrial Revolution in America. New, large scale machinery, which had come to dominate the production of cloth by 1840, was being rapidly developed in lockstep with the equally new ways of organizing workers for mass production. Together, these mutually reinforcing technological and social changes produced staggering increases: between 1840 and 1860, the number of spindles in use went from 2¼ million to almost 5¼ million; bales of cotton used from 300,000 to nearly 1 million, and the number of workers from 72,000 to nearly 122,000.
This tremendous growth translated directly into large profits for the textile corporations: between 1846 and 1850, for instance, the dividends of the Boston-based investors, the group of textile companies that founded Lowell, averaged 14 percent per year. Most corporations recorded similarly high profits during this period.
Work and living environment[edit]
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The social position of the factory girls had been degraded considerably in France and England. In her autobiography, Harriet Hanson Robinson (who worked in the Lowell mills from 1834–1848) suggests that "It was to overcome this prejudice that such high wages had been offered to women that they might be induced to become mill girls, in spite of the opprobrium that still clung to this degrading occupation.…"
Factory conditions[edit]
The Lowell System combined large-scale mechanization with an attempt to improve the stature of its female workforce and workers. A few girls who came with their mothers or older sisters were as young as ten years old, some were middle-aged, but the average age was about 24.[2] Usually hired for contracts of one year (the average stay was about four years), new employees were given assorted tasks as spare hands and paid a fixed daily wage while more experienced loom operators would be paid by the piece. They were paired with more experienced women, who trained them in the ways of the factory.[1]
Conditions in the Lowell mills were severe by modern American standards. Employees worked from 5:00 am until 7:00 pm, for an average 73 hours per week.[1][2] Each room usually had 80 women working at machines, with two male overseers managing the operation. The noise of the machines was described by one worker as "something frightful and infernal", and although the rooms were hot, windows were often kept closed during the summer so that conditions for thread work remained optimal. The air, meanwhile, was filled with particles of thread and cloth.[3]
Charles Dickens, who visited in 1842, remarked favorably on the conditions:[4] "I cannot recall or separate one young face that gave me a painful impression; not one young girl whom, assuming it to be matter of necessity that she should gain her daily bread by the labour of her hands, I would have removed from those works if I had had the power"" However, there was concern among many workers that foreign visitors were being presented with a sanitized view of the mills, by textile corporations who were trading on the image of the ‘literary operative’ to mask the grim realities of factory life. “Very pretty picture,” wrote an operative in the Voice of Industry, responding to a rosy account of life and learning in the mills, “but we who work in the factory know the sober reality to be quite another thing altogether”. The “sober reality” was twelve to fourteen hours of dreary, exhausting work, which many workers experienced as hostile to intellectual development.
Living quarters[edit]
The investors or factory owners built hundreds of boarding houses near the mills, where textile workers lived year-round. A curfew of 10:00 pm was common, and men were generally not allowed inside. About 26 women lived in each boarding house, with up to six sharing a bedroom.[1] One worker described her quarters as "a small, comfortless, half-ventilated apartment containing some half a dozen occupants".[5]
Trips away from the boarding house were uncommon; the Lowell girls worked and ate together. However, half-days and short paid vacations were possible due to the nature of the piece-work; one girl would work the machines of another in addition to her own such that no wages would be lost. These close quarters fostered community as well as resentment. Newcomers were mentored by older women in areas such as dress, speech, behavior, and the general ways of the community.
Workers often recruited their friends or relatives to the factories, creating a familial atmosphere among many of the rank and file.[1] The Lowell girls were expected to attend church and demonstrate morals befitting proper society. The 1848 Handbook to Lowell proclaimed that "The company will not employ anyone who is habitually absent from public worship on the Sabbath, or known to be guilty of immorality."[6]
Working Class Intellectual Culture[edit]
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For many young women, the allure of Lowell was in the opportunities afforded for further study and learning. Most had already completed some measure of formal education and were resolutely bent on self-improvement. Upon their arrival, they found a vibrant, lively working class intellectual culture: workers read voraciously in Lowell's city library and Reading Rooms, and subscribed to the large, informal “circulating libraries” which trafficked in novels. Many even pursued literary composition. Defying factory rules, operatives would affix verses to their spinning frames, “to train their memories,” and pin up mathematical problems in the rooms where they worked. In the evenings, many enrolled in courses offered by the mills and attended public lectures at the Lyceum, a theatre built at company expense (offering 25 lectures per season for 25 cents). The Voice of Industry is alive with notices for upcoming lectures, courses, and meetings on topics ranging from astronomy to music. ("Lectures and Learning", Voice of Industry)
The corporations happily publicized the efforts of these “literary mill girls”, boasting that they were the “most superior class of factory operative,” which greatly impressed foreign visitors to Lowell. But this masked the bitter opposition of many workers to the twelve to fourteen hours of monotonous, exhausting work, which they saw was corrosive to their desire to learn and educate themselves. “Who,” asked an operative writing in the Voice, “after thirteen hours of steady application to monotonous work, can sit down and apply her mind to deep and long continued thought? …Where is the opportunity for mental improvement?”
A former Lowell operative, looking back on her experience in the mills, expressed a similar view: “After one has worked from ten to fourteen hours at manual labor, it is impossible to study History, Philosophy, or Science,” she wrote, “I well remember the chagrin I often felt when attending lectures, to find myself unable to keep awake…I am sure few possessed a more ardent desire for knowledge than I did, but such was the effect of the long hour system, that my chief delight was, after the evening meal, to place my aching feet in an easy position, and read a novel.”
The Lowell Offering[edit]
Cover of The Lowell Offering, Series 1, Number 1 (1840)
Main article: Lowell Offering
In October 1840, the Reverend Abel Charles Thomas of the First Universalist Church organized a monthly publication by and for the Lowell girls. As the magazine grew in popularity, women contributed poems, ballads, essays and fiction – often using their characters to report on conditions and situations in their lives.[1]
The Offering's contents were by turns serious and farcical. In a letter in the first issue, "A Letter about Old Maids", the author suggested that "sisters, spinsters, lay-nuns, & c" were an essential component of God's "wise design".[7] Later issues – particularly in the wake of labor unrest in the factories – included an article about the value of organizing and an essay about suicide among the Lowell girls.[8]
Strikes of 1834 and 1836[edit]
The initial effort of the investors and managers to recruit female textile workers brought generous wages for the time (three to five dollars per week), but with the economic depression of the early 1830s, the Board of Directors proposed a reduction in wages. This, in turn, led to organized "turn-outs" or strikes.
In February 1834, the Board of Directors of Lowell's textile mills requested the managers or agents to impose a 15% reduction in wages, to go into effect on March 1. After a series of meetings, the female textile workers organized a "turn-out" or strike. The women involved in "turn-out" immediately withdrew their savings causing "a run" on two local banks.[9]
The strike failed and within days the protesters had all returned to work at reduced pay or left town, but the "turn-out" or strike was an indication of the determination among the Lowell female textile workers to take labor action. This dismayed the agents of the factories, who portrayed the turnout as a betrayal of femininity. William Austin, agent of the Lawrence Manufacturing Company, wrote to his Board of Directors, "notwithstanding the friendly and disinterested advice which has been on all proper occassions [sic] communicated to the girls of the Lawrence mills a spirit of evil omen … has prevailed, and overcome the judgment and discretion of too many".[1]
Again, in response to a severe economic depression and the high costs of living, in January 1836, the Board of Directors of Lowell's textile mills absorbed an increase in the textile workers' rent to help in the crisis faced by the company boarding house keepers. As the economic calamity continued in October 1836, the Directors proposed an additional rent hike to be paid by the textile workers living in the company boarding houses.[10] The female textile workers responded immediately in protest by forming the Factory Girls' Association and organizing a "turn-out" or strike. Harriet Hanson Robinson, an eleven-year-old doffer at the time of the strike, recalled in her memoirs: "One of the girls stood on a pump and gave vent to the feelings of her companions in a neat speech, declaring that it was their duty to resist all attempts at cutting down the wages. This was the first time a woman had spoken in public in Lowell, and the event caused surprise and consternation among her audience."[2]
This "turn-out" or strike attracted over 1,500 workers – nearly twice the number two years previously - causing Lowell's textile mills to run far below capacity.[1] Unlike the "turn-out" or strike in 1834, in 1836 there was enormous community support for the striking female textile workers. The proposed rent hike was seen as a violation of the written contract between the employers and the employees. The "turn-out" persisted for weeks and eventually the Board of Directors of Lowell's textile mills rescinded the rent hike. Although the "turn-out" was a success, the weakness of the system was evident, and worsened further in the Panic of 1837.
Lowell Female Labor Reform Association[edit]
1836 Constitution of the Lowell Factory Girls Association
See also: Sarah Bagley
The sense of community that arose from working and living together contributed directly to the energy and growth of the first union of women workers, the Lowell Female Labor Reform Association. Started by twelve operatives in January 1845, its membership grew to 500 within six months, and continued to expand rapidly. The Association was run completely by the women themselves: they elected their own officers and held their own meetings; they helped organize the city’s female workers, and set up branches in other mill towns. They organized fairs, parties, and social gatherings. Unlike many middle-class women activists, the operatives found considerable support from working-class men who welcomed them into their reform organizations and advocated for their treatment as equals.
One of its first actions was to send petitions signed by thousands of textile workers to the Massachusetts General Court demanding a ten-hour work day. In response, the Massachusetts Legislature established a committee chaired by William Schouler, Representative from Lowell, to investigate and hold public hearings, during which workers testified about conditions in the factories and the physical demands of their twelve-hour days. These were the first investigations into labor conditions by a governmental body in the United States.[11] The 1845 Legislative Committee determined that it was not state legislature's responsibility to control the hours of work. The LFLRA called its chairman, William Schouler, a "tool"[1] and worked to defeat him in his next campaign for the State Legislature.[1] A complex election[12] Schouler lost to another Whig candidate over the issue of railroads. The impact of working men [Democrats] and working women [non-voting] was very limited. The next year Schouler was re-elected to the State Legislature.[13]
The Lowell female textile workers continued to petition the Massachusetts Legislature and legislative committee hearings became an annual event. Although the initial push for a ten-hour workday was unsuccessful, the LFLRA continued to grow, affiliating with the New England Workingmen's Association and publishing articles in that organization's Voice of Industry, a pro-labor newspaper.[1] This direct pressure forced the Board of Directors of Lowell's textile mills to reduce the workday by 30 minutes in 1847. The FLRA's organizing efforts spilled over into other nearby towns.[1] In 1847, New Hampshire became the first state to pass a law for a ten-hour workday, although there was no enforcement and workers were often requested to work longer days. By 1848, the LFLRA dissolved as a labor reform organization. Lowell textile workers continued to petition and pressure for improved working conditions,[1] and in 1853, the Lowell corporations reduced the workday to eleven hours.
The New England textile industry was rapidly expanding in the 1850s and 1860s. Unable to recruit enough Yankee women to fill all the new jobs, to supplement the workforce textile managers turned to survivors of the Great Irish Famine who had recently immigrated to the United States in large numbers. During the Civil War, many of Lowell's cotton mills closed, unable to acquire bales of raw cotton from the South. After the war, the textile mills reopened, recruiting French Canadian men and women. Although large numbers of Irish and French Canadian immigrants moved to Lowell to work in the textile mills, Yankee women still dominated the workforce until the mid-1880s.[14]
Political character of labor activity[edit]
The Lowell girls' organizing efforts were notable not only for the "unfeminine" participation of women, but also for the political framework used to appeal to the public. Framing their struggle for shorter work days and better pay as a matter of rights and personal dignity, they sought to place themselves in the larger context of the American Revolution. During the 1834 "turn-out" or strike – they warned that "the oppressing hand of avarice would enslave us,"[1] the women included a poem which read:
Let oppression shrug her shoulders,
And a haughty tyrant frown,
And little upstart Ignorance,
In mockery look down.
Yet I value not the feeble threats
Of Tories in disguise,
While the flag of Independence
O'er our noble nation flies.[15]
In the 1836 strike, this theme returned in a protest song:
Oh! isn't it a pity, such a pretty girl as I
Should be sent to the factory to pine away and die?
Oh! I cannot be a slave, I will not be a slave,
For I'm so fond of liberty,
That I cannot be a slave.[15]
The most striking example of this political overtone can be found in a series of tracts published by the Female Labor Reform Association entitled Factory Tracts. In the first of these, subtitled "Factory Life As It Is", the author proclaims "that our rights cannot be trampled upon with impunity; that we WILL not longer submit to that arbitrary power which has for the last ten years been so abundantly exercised over us."[5]
This conceptualization of labor activity as philosophically linked with the American project in democracy has been instrumental for other labor organizing campaigns, as noted frequently by MIT professor and social critic Noam Chomsky,[16] who has cited this extended quote from the Lowell Mill Girls on the topic of wage slavery:
"When you sell your product, you retain your person. But when you sell your labour, you sell yourself, losing the rights of free men and becoming vassals of mammoth establishments of a monied aristocracy that threatens annihilation to anyone who questions their right to enslave and oppress.
"Those who work in the mills ought to own them, not have the status of machines ruled by private despots who are entrenching monarchic principles on democratic soil as they drive downwards freedom and rights, civilization, health, morals and intellectuality in the new commercial feudalism."[17]
See also[edit]
Mill towns
Gender pay gap
List of mill towns in Massachusetts
Lowell Mills
Adelia Sarah Gates
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Dublin, Thomas (1975). "Women, Work, and Protest in the Early Lowell Mills: 'The Oppressing Hand of Avarice Would Enslave Us'" Archived 2009-02-27 at the Wayback Machine.. Labor History. Online at Whole Cloth: Discovering Science and Technology through American History Archived 2009-03-05 at the Wayback Machine.. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on August 27, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Robinson, Harriet (1883). "Early Factory Labor in New England", Internet History Sourcebooks Project; retrieved on August 27, 2007.
Jump up ^ "A Description of Factory Life by an Associationist in 1846" Archived 2009-04-16 at the Wayback Machine.. Online at the Illinois Labor History Society Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine.. Retrieved on August 27, 2007.
Jump up ^ Dickens, Charles (1842). American Notes. New York: The Modern Library. ISBN 0-679-60185-6.
^ Jump up to: a b "An Operative" (1845). "Some of the Beauties of our Factory System – Otherwise, Lowell Slavery". In Factory Tracts. Factory Life As It Is, Number One. Lowell. Online at the Center for History and New Media; retrieved August 27, 2007.
Jump up ^ Hamilton Manufacturing Company (1848). "Factory Rules" in The Handbook to Lowell. Online at the Illinois Labor History Society Archived 2009-04-16 at the Wayback Machine.; retrieved March 12, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Betsy" (1840). "A Letter about Old Maids". Lowell Offering. Series 1, No. 1. Online at the On-Line Digital Archive of Documents on Weaving and Related Topics. Retrieved on August 27, 2007.
Jump up ^ Farley, Harriet (1844). "Editorial: Two Suicides". Lowell Offering. Series 4, No. 9. Online at Primary Sources: Workshops in American History. Retrieved on August 27, 2007.
Jump up ^ Boston Transcript (1834). Online at "'Liberty Rhetoric' and Nineteenth-Century American Women". Retrieved on August 27, 2007
Jump up ^ Faragher, John Mack, et al. Out Of Many. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Pearson Hall, 2006. Pg 346
Jump up ^ Zinn, Howard (1980). A People's History of the United States, p. 225. New York: HarperPerennial. ISBN 0-06-092643-0.
Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=Se3CBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq=%22complex+election%22&source=bl&ots=HJ1WAEeMgE&sig=DkVgrGXqQkLckoVKC4RdcdZS3as&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CFIQ6AEwCGoVChMI_Jbdp675xwIVBy6ICh1pYwCu#v=onepage&q=%22complex%20election%22&f=false
Jump up ^ Charles Cowley, Illustrated History of Lowell. Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1868
Jump up ^ Robert G. Layer, Earnings of Cotton Mill Operatives, 1825-1914. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1955.
^ Jump up to: a b Quoted in "'Liberty Rhetoric' and Nineteenth-Century American Women". Retrieved on August 27, 2007.
Jump up ^ See, for example, Activism, Anarchy, and Power. Interview by Harry Kreisler. 22 March 2002.
Jump up ^ Chomsky quoting Lowell Mill Girls from p. 29, "Chomsky on Democracy and Education, edited by C.P. Otero
Further reading[edit]
Cook, Sylvia Jenkins. "'Oh Dear! How the Factory Girls Do Rig Up!': Lowell's Self-Fashioning Workingwomen," New England Quarterly (2010) 83#2 pp. 219–249 in JSTOR
Dublin, Thomas. "Lowell Millhands" in Transforming Women's Work: New England Lives in the Industrial Revolution (1994) pp 77–118.
Dublin, Thomas. "Women, Work, and Protest in the Early Lowell Mills: 'The Oppressing Hand of Avarice Would Enslave Us.'" from Labor Hynext
istory 16 (1975): 99-116. Available online through Lemelson Center, Smithsonian.
Mrozowski, Stephen A. et al. eds. Living on the Boott: Historical Archeology at the Boott Mills Boardinghouses, Lowell, Massachusetts (University of Massachusetts Press, 1996)
Ranta, Judith A. Women and Children of the Mills: An Annotated Guide to Nineteenth-Century American Textile Factory Literature (Greenwood Press, 1999),
Zonderman, David A. Aspirations and Anxieties: New England Workers and the Mechanized Factory System, 1815-1850 (Oxford University Press, 1992)
Primary sources[edit]
Eisler, Benita, ed. The Lowell Offering: Writings by New England Mill Women (1840-1945) (1997) excerpt and text search
External links[edit]
Bringing History Home: Lowell Mill Girl Game University of Massachusetts Lowell, Center for Lowell History
Documents from Lowell, 1845-1848 Illinois Labor History Society
Lowell Mill Girl Letters University of Massachusetts Lowell, Center for Lowell History
Mill Life in Lowell Website University of Massachusetts Lowell, Center for Lowell History
The Lowell Offering University of Massachusetts Lowell, Center for Lowell History
The Voice of Industry
Lowell National Historical Park Lowell, Massachusetts
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