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Progressive Party (United States, 1912)
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Progressive Party
Chairman
Theodore Roosevelt
Founded
1912 (1912)
Split from
Republican Party
Headquarters
Washington, D.C.
Ideology
New Nationalism
Progressivism
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National Progressive Convention, 1912, in the Chicago Coliseum
The Progressive Party of 1912 was an American third party. It was formed by former President Theodore Roosevelt after he lost the presidential nomination of the Republican Party to his former protégé, President William Howard Taft. The new party was known for taking advanced positions on progressive reforms and attracting some leading reformers. After the party's defeat in the 1912 presidential election, it went into rapid decline, disappearing by 1918. The Progressive party was nicknamed the "Bull Moose Party" after journalists quoted Roosevelt saying that he felt "fit as a bull moose" following an assassination attempt on the campaign trail shortly after the new party was formed.[1]
As a member of the Republican Party, Roosevelt had served as president from 1901 to 1909, becoming increasingly progressive in the later years of his presidency. In the 1908 presidential election, Roosevelt helped ensure that he would be succeeded by Secretary of War Taft. After Taft took office, he hewed closer to the conservative wing of the party. This and other actions alienated Roosevelt from his former friend. Progressive Republican leader Robert La Follette had already announced a challenge to Taft for the 1912 Republican nomination, but many of his supporters shifted to Roosevelt after the former president decided to seek a third presidential term, which was permissible under the United States Constitution prior to the ratification of the Twenty-second Amendment. At the 1912 Republican National Convention, Taft narrowly defeated Roosevelt for the party's presidential nomination. After the convention, Roosevelt, Frank Munsey, George Walbridge Perkins, and other progressive Republicans established the Progressive Party and nominated a ticket of Roosevelt and Hiram Johnson of California at the 1912 Progressive National Convention. The new party attracted several Republican officeholders, although nearly all of them remained loyal to the Republican Party; in California, Johnson and the Progressives took control of the Republican party.
The party's platform built on Roosevelt's Square Deal domestic program and called for several progressive reforms. The platform asserted that "to dissolve the unholy alliance between corrupt business and corrupt politics is the first task of the statesmanship of the day." Proposals on the platform included restrictions on campaign finance contributions, a reduction of the tariff, and the establishment of a social insurance system, an eight-hour workday, and women's suffrage. The party was split on the regulation of large corporations, with some party members disappointed that the platform did not contain a stronger call for "trust-busting." Party members also had different outlooks on foreign policy, with pacifists like Jane Addams opposing Roosevelt's call for a naval build-up.
In the 1912 election, Roosevelt won 27.4% of the popular vote compared to Taft's 23.2%, making Roosevelt the only third party presidential nominee to finish with a higher share of the popular vote than a major party's presidential nominee. Both Taft and Roosevelt finished behind Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson, who won 41.8% of the popular vote and the vast majority of the electoral vote. The Progressives elected several Congressional and state legislative candidates, but the election was marked primarily by Democratic gains. The 1916 Progressive National Convention was held in conjunction with the 1916 Republican National Convention in hopes of reunifying the parties with Roosevelt as the presidential nominee of both parties. The Progressive Party collapsed after Roosevelt refused the Progressive nomination and insisted his supporters vote for Charles Evans Hughes, the moderately progressive Republican nominee. Most Progressives joined the Republican Party, but some converted to the Democratic Party, and Progressives like Harold L. Ickes would play a role in President Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration. In 1924, La Follette established another Progressive Party, and a third Progressive Party would be established in 1948 under the leadership of Henry A. Wallace.
Contents
[hide]
1 Birth of a new party
2 The Progressive convention and platform
3 Elections
3.1 1912
3.2 1914
3.3 1916
3.4 1918
3.5 Later years
4 Electoral history
4.1 In congressional elections
4.2 In presidential elections
5 Office holders from the Progressive Party
6 See also
7 Footnotes
8 Further reading
9 External links
Birth of a new party[edit]
Theodore Roosevelt was the founder of the Bull Moose Progressive Party and thus is often associated with the party.
Roosevelt left office in 1909. He had selected Taft, his Secretary of War, to succeed him as presidential candidate, and Taft easily won the 1908 presidential election. Roosevelt became disappointed by Taft's increasingly conservative policies. Taft upset Roosevelt when he used the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to sue U.S. Steel for an action that President Roosevelt had explicitly approved.[2] They became openly hostile, and Roosevelt decided to seek the presidency.
Roosevelt entered the campaign late, as Taft was already being challenged by progressive leader Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin. Most of La Follette's supporters switched to Roosevelt, leaving the Wisconsin Senator embittered.
Nine of the states where progressive elements were strongest had set up preference primaries, which Roosevelt won. But Taft had worked far harder than Roosevelt to control the Republican Party's organizational operations and the mechanism for choosing its presidential nominee, the 1912 Republican National Convention. For example, he bought up the votes of delegates from the southern states, copying the technique Roosevelt himself used in 1904. The Republican national convention rejected Roosevelt's protests. Roosevelt and his supporters walked out, and the convention re-nominated Taft. The next day, Roosevelt supporters met to form a new political party of their own. California governor Hiram Johnson became its chairman, and a new convention was scheduled for August. Most of the funding came from wealthy sponsors, magazine publisher Frank A. Munsey provided $135,000; George W. Perkins, a director of U.S. Steel and chairman of the International Harvester Company, gave $130,000 and became its executive secretary. Roosevelt's family gave $77,500 and others gave $164,000. The total was nearly $600,000, far less than the major parties.[3][4]
The new party had serious structural defects. Since it insisted on running complete tickets against the regular Republican ticket in most states, few Republican politicians were willing to support it. The exception was California, where the progressive element took control of the Republican Party and Taft was not even on the November ballot. Only five of the 15 more progressive Republican Senators declared support for it. Republican Representatives, governors, committeemen, and the publishers and editors of Republican-leaning newspapers showed comparable reluctance. Many of Roosevelt's closest political allies supported Taft, including his son-in-law, Nicholas Longworth (though Roosevelt's daughter Alice stuck with her father, causing a permanent chill in her marriage). For men like Longworth, expecting a future of his own in Republican politics, bolting the party would have seemed tantamount to career suicide.
However, many independent reformers still signed up.
The Progressive convention and platform[edit]
Main article: 1912 Progressive National Convention
Despite these obstacles, the August convention opened with great enthusiasm. Over 2,000 delegates attended, including many women. In 1912, neither Taft nor Wilson endorsed women's suffrage on the national level.[5] The notable suffragist and social worker Jane Addams gave a seconding speech for Roosevelt's nomination. However, Roosevelt insisted on excluding black Republicans from the South (whom he regarded as a corrupt and ineffective element).[6] Yet he alienated white southern supporters on the eve of the election by publicly dining with black people at a Rhode Island hotel.[7][8]
Roosevelt was nominated by acclamation, with Johnson as his running mate.
The main work of the convention was the platform, which set forth the new party's appeal to the voters. It included a broad range of social and political reforms long advocated by progressives. It spoke with near-religious fervor, and the candidate himself promised, "Our cause is based on the eternal principle of righteousness; and even though we, who now lead may for the time fail, in the end the cause itself shall triumph."[9]
16-page campaign booklet with the platform of the new Progressive Party
The platform's main theme was reversing the domination of politics by business interests, which allegedly controlled the Republican and Democratic parties, alike. The platform asserted that:
To destroy this invisible Government, to dissolve the unholy alliance between corrupt business and corrupt politics is the first task of the statesmanship of the day.[10]
To that end, the platform called for:
Strict limits and disclosure requirements on political campaign contributions
Registration of lobbyists
Recording and publication of Congressional committee proceedings
In the social sphere the platform called for:
A National Health Service to include all existing government medical agencies.
Social insurance, to provide for the elderly, the unemployed, and the disabled
Limited the ability of judges to order injunctions to limit labor strikes.
A minimum wage law for women
An eight-hour workday
A federal securities commission
Farm relief
Workers' compensation for work-related injuries
An inheritance tax
The political reforms proposed included:
Women's suffrage
Direct election of Senators
Primary elections for state and federal nominations
The platform also urged states to adopt measures for "direct democracy", including:
The recall election (citizens may remove an elected official before the end of his term)
The referendum (citizens may decide on a law by popular vote)
The initiative (citizens may propose a law by petition and enact it by popular vote)
Judicial recall (when a court declares a law unconstitutional, the citizens may override that ruling by popular vote).[11]
Besides these measures, the platform called for reductions in the tariff, and limitations on naval armaments by international agreement.
The biggest controversy at the convention was over the platform section dealing with trusts and monopolies. The convention approved a strong "trust-busting" plank, but Perkins had it replaced with language that spoke only of "strong National regulation" and "permanent active [Federal] supervision" of major corporations. This retreat shocked reformers like Pinchot, who blamed it on Perkins. The result was a deep split in the new party that was never resolved.[12]
In general the platform expressed Roosevelt's "New Nationalism", an extension of his earlier philosophy of the Square Deal. He called for new restraints on the power of federal and state judges along with a strong executive to regulate industry, protect the working classes, and carry on great national projects. This New Nationalism was paternalistic, in direct contrast to Wilson's individualistic philosophy of "New Freedom". However, once elected, Wilson's actual program resembled Roosevelt's ideas, apart from the notion of reining in judges.[13]
Roosevelt also favored a vigorous foreign policy, including strong military power. Though the platform called for limiting naval armaments, it also recommended the construction of two new battleships per year, much to the distress of outright pacifists such as Jane Addams.[14]
Elections[edit]
1912[edit]
See also: United States presidential election, 1912
Roosevelt mixing spicy ingredients in his speeches in this 1912 editorial cartoon by Karl K. Knecht (1883–1972) in the Evansville Courier
Roosevelt and Johnson after nomination
Roosevelt ran a vigorous campaign, but the campaign was short of money, as the business interests which had supported Roosevelt in 1904 either backed the other candidates or stayed neutral. Roosevelt was also handicapped because he had already served nearly two full terms as president, and thus was challenging the unwritten "no third term" rule.
In the end Roosevelt fell far short of winning. He drew 4.1 million votes—27%, well behind Wilson's 42% but ahead of Taft's 23%. (6% went to Socialist Eugene Debs.) He received 88 electoral votes, compared to 435 for Wilson and 8 for Taft.[15] This was nonetheless the best showing by any third party since the modern two-party system was established in 1864. Roosevelt was the only third-party candidate to outpoll a candidate of an established party.
Pro-Roosevelt cartoon contrasts the Republican Party bosses in back row and Progressive party reformers in front
Many historians have concluded that the Republican split was essential to allow Wilson to win the presidency. Others argue that even without the split, Wilson would have won (as he did in 1916).
In addition to Roosevelt's presidential campaign, hundreds of other candidates sought office as Progressives in 1912.
Twenty-one ran for governor. Over 200 ran for U.S. Representative (the exact number is not clear because there were many Republican-Progressive fusion candidacies, and some candidates ran with the labels of ad hoc groups such as "Bull Moose Republicans" or (in Pennsylvania) the "Washington Party".
On October 14, 1912, while Roosevelt was campaigning in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, a saloonkeeper named John Flammang Schrank shot him, but the bullet lodged in his chest only after penetrating both his steel eyeglass case and a 50-page single-folded copy of the speech he was to deliver, carried in his jacket pocket. Schrank was immediately disarmed, captured and might have been lynched had Roosevelt not shouted for Schrank to remain unharmed.[16] Roosevelt, as an experienced hunter and anatomist, correctly concluded that since he was not coughing blood, the bullet had not reached his lung, and he declined suggestions to go to the hospital immediately. In keeping with his he-man image, Roosevelt gave his speech before seeking medical attention.[17][citation needed] When asked if the shooting would affect his election campaign, he said to the reporter "I'm fit as a bull moose", which inspired the party's emblem.[18]

In California, the state Republican party was controlled by governor and Roosevelt ally Hiram Johnson, the Vice-Presidential nominee, so progressives there stayed with the Republican label (with one exception).
Most of the Progressive candidates were in New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Massachusetts. Only a few were in the South.
The lesser Progressive candidates generally got between 10% and 30% of the vote. Nine Progressives were elected to the House; none won governorships.[19]
Some historians speculate that if the Progressive Party had run only the Roosevelt presidential ticket, it might have attracted many more Republicans willing to split their ballot. But the progressive movement was strongest at the state level, and, so the new party had fielded candidates for governor and state legislature. In Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the local Republican boss, at odds with state party leaders, joined Roosevelt's cause.
In spite of this, very few Progressives were elected to local offices: about 250. The Democrats gained many state legislature seats, which gave them 10 additional U.S. Senate seats; they also gained 63 U.S. House seats.
1914[edit]
Despite the failure of 1912, the Progressive Party did not disappear at once. One hundred thirty eight candidates, including women,[20] ran for the U.S. House as Progressives in 1914, and 5 were elected. However, almost half the candidates failed to get more than 10% of the vote.[21]
Gifford Pinchot placed second in the Senate election in Pennsylvania, gathering 24% of the vote.
Hiram Johnson was denied renomination for governor as a Republican; he ran as a Progressive and was re-elected. Seven other Progressives ran for governor; none got more than 16%.[22] Some state parties remained fairly strong. In Washington, Progressives won a third of the seats in the Washington State Legislature.
1916[edit]
Main article: 1916 Progressive National Convention
Louisiana businessman John M. Parker ran for governor as a Progressive early in the year. (The Republican Party was deeply unpopular in Louisiana.) Parker got a respectable 37% of the vote. He was the only Progressive to run for governor that year.[23]
Later that year, the party held its second national convention, in conjunction with the Republican national convention. This was to facilitate a possible reconciliation. Five delegates from each convention met to negotiate. The Progressives wanted reunification with Roosevelt as nominee, which the Republicans adamantly opposed. Meanwhile, Charles Evans Hughes, a moderate progressive, became the front-runner at the Republican convention. He had been on the Supreme Court in 1912 and thus was completely neutral on the bitter debates that year. The Progressives suggested Hughes as a compromise candidate. Then Roosevelt sent a message proposing conservative Senator Henry Cabot Lodge. The shocked Progressives immediately nominated Roosevelt again, with Parker as the Vice Presidential nominee. Roosevelt refused to accept the nomination and endorsed Hughes, who was immediately approved by the Republican convention.[24]
The remnants of the national Progressive party promptly disintegrated. Most Progressives reverted to the Republican Party, including Roosevelt, who stumped for Hughes, and Hiram Johnson, who was elected to the Senate as a Republican. Some leaders, such as Harold Ickes of Chicago, supported Wilson.
1918[edit]
All the remaining "Progressives" in Congress rejoined the Republican Party, except Whitmell Martin, who became a Democrat. No candidates ran as Progressives for governor, senator, or representative.
Later years[edit]
Robert M. La Follette, Sr. broke bitterly with Roosevelt in 1912, and ran for president on his own ticket, the 1924 Progressive Party, during the 1924 presidential election.
From 1916 to 1932 the Taft wing controlled the Republican Party and refused to nominate any prominent 1912 Progressives to the Republican national ticket. Finally, Frank Knox was nominated for vice president in 1936.
The relative domination of the Republican Party by conservatives left many former Progressives with no real affiliation until the 1930s, when most joined the New Deal Democratic Party coalition of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Electoral history[edit]
In congressional elections[edit]
United States
House of Representatives
Election year
# of
overall seats won
+/–
Presidency
1912
9 / 435
9 Woodrow Wilson
1914
6 / 435
3
1916
3 / 435
3
United States
Senate
Election year
# of
overall seats won
+/–
Presidency
1912/1913
0 / 96
0 Woodrow Wilson
1914/1915
1 / 96
1
1916
0 / 96
1
In presidential elections[edit]
Election
Candidate
Votes
Vote %
Electoral votes
+/-
Outcome of election
1912 Theodore Roosevelt 4,122,721 27.4
88 / 531
88 Democratic Victory
1916 none 33,406 0.2
0 / 531
88 Democratic Victory
Office holders from the Progressive Party[edit]
Position
Name
State
Dates held office
Representative James W. Bryan Washington 1913–1915
Governor Joseph M. Carey Wyoming 1911-1912 as a Republican, 1912-1915 as a Progressive
Representative Walter M. Chandler New York 1913–1919
Representative Ira Clifton Copley Illinois 1915–1917 as a Progressive
Representative John Elston California 1915–1917 as a Progressive, 1917–1921 as a Republican
Lieutenant Governor John Morton Eshleman California 1915–1917
Representative Jacob Falconer Washington 1913–1915
Representative William H. Hinebaugh Illinois 1913–1915
Representative Willis J. Hulings Pennsylvania 1913–1915
Governor Hiram Johnson California 1911–1917
Representative Melville Clyde Kelly Pennsylvania 1917–1919 as a Progressive, 1919–1935 as a Republican
Representative William MacDonald Michigan 1913–1915
Representative Whitmell Martin Louisiana 1915–1919 as a Progressive, 1919–1929 as a Democrat
Senator Miles Poindexter Washington 1913–1915
Representative William Stephens California 1913–1917
Representative Henry Wilson Temple Pennsylvania 1913–1915
Representative Roy Woodruff Michigan 1913–1915
State Treasurer Homer D. Call New York 1914
Mayor Louis Will Syracuse, New York 1914–1916
Representative Parley P. Christensen Utah 1914–1916
See also[edit]
Committee of 48
Lincoln-Roosevelt League, the California Progressive Party in the early 1900s
List of United States Progressive Party presidential tickets
Progressive Party (United States, 1924)
Progressive Party (United States, 1948)
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Morris, Edmund. Colonel Roosevelt. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks. p. 215.
Jump up ^ Jean Strouse (2012). Morgan: American Financier. Random House. p. 1413.
Jump up ^ John A. Garraty, Right Hand Man: The Life of George W. Perkins (1960)
Jump up ^ James Chace (2009). 1912: Wilson, Roosevelt, Taft and Debs -The Election that Changed the Country. Simon and Schuster. p. 250.
Jump up ^ "Bull Moose years of Theodore Roosevelt by Theodore Roosevelt Association". Theodoreroosevelt.org. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
Jump up ^ George E. Mowry, "The South and the Progressive Lily White Party of 1912". Journal of Southern History 6#2 (1940): 237–247. JSTOR 2191208.
Jump up ^ Baum, B.; Harris, D. (2009). Racially Writing the Republic: Racists, Race Rebels, and Transformations of American Identity. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 188. ISBN 9780822344353.
Jump up ^ Paul D. Casdorph, Republicans, Negroes, and Progressives in the South, 1912-1916 (1981).
Jump up ^ Melanie Gustafson (2001). Women and the Republican Party, 1854–1924. p. 117.
Jump up ^ Patricia OToole (2006-06-25). ""The War of 1912," ''Time'' in partnership with CNN, Jun. 25, 2006". Time.com. Retrieved 2012-01-06.
Jump up ^ Gary Murphy, "'Mr. Roosevelt is Guilty': Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for Constitutionalism, 1910–1912". Journal of American Studies 36#3 (2002): 441-457.
Jump up ^ William Kolasky, "The Election of 1912: A Pivotal Moment in Antitrust History". Antitrust 25 (2010): 82+
Jump up ^ Robert Alexander Kraig, "The 1912 Election and the Rhetorical Foundations of the Liberal State". Rhetoric and Public Affairs (2000): 363–395. JSTOR 41940243.
Jump up ^ Gustafson (2001). Women and the Republican Party, 1854-1924. p. 117.
Jump up ^ Congressional Quarterly's Guide to U. S. elections. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc. 1985. pp. 295, 348.
Jump up ^ "The Bull Moose and related media". Archived from the original on March 8, 2010. Retrieved March 8, 2010.
Jump up ^ "It Takes More Than That to Kill a Bull Moose: The Leader and The Cause". Theodore Roosevelt Association. Retrieved October 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ http://www.nashuatelegraph.com/news/880426-196/daily-twip---theodore-roosevelt-delivers-campaign.html
Jump up ^ Congressional Quarterly's Guide to U.S. elections (1985), pp. 489–535, 873–879
Jump up ^ "A Kansas Woman Runs for Congress". The Independent. Jul 13, 1914. Retrieved August 14, 2012.
Jump up ^ Congressional Quarterly's Guide to U. S. elections (1985), pp. 880–885
Jump up ^ Congressional Quarterly's Guide to U. S. elections (1985), pp. 489–535
Jump up ^ Congressional Quarterly's Guide to U. S. elections (1985), p. 503
Jump up ^ Fred L. Israel, "Bainbridge Colby and the Progressive Party, 1914–1916". New York History 40.1 (1959): 33–46. JSTOR 23153527.
Further reading[edit]
Broderick, Francis L. Progressivism at risk: Electing a President in 1912 (Praeger, 1989).
Chace, James. 1912: Wilson, Roosevelt, Taft & Debs—the Election That Changed the Country (2004).
Cowan, Geoffrey. Let the People Rule: Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of the Presidential Primary (2016).
Delahaye, Claire. "The New Nationalism and Progressive Issues: The Break with Taft and the 1912 Campaign," in Serge Ricard, ed., A Companion to Theodore Roosevelt (2011) pp. 452–467. online
DeWitt, Benjamin P. The Progressive Movement: A Non-Partisan, Comprehensive Discussion of Current Tendencies in American Politics (1915).
Flehinger, Brett. The 1912 Election and the Power of Progressivism: A Brief History with Documents (Bedford/St. Martin's, 2003).
Gable, John A. The Bullmoose Years: Theodore Roosevelt and the Progressive Party. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1978.
Gould, Lewis L. Four hats in the ring: The 1912 election and the birth of modern American politics (Univ Pr of Kansas, 2008).
Jensen, Richard. "Theodore Roosevelt" in Encyclopedia of Third Parties (ME Sharpe, 2000). pp. 702–707.
Kraig, Robert Alexander. "The 1912 Election and the Rhetorical Foundations of the Liberal State". Rhetoric and Public Affairs (2000): 363–395. JSTOR 41940243.
Milkis, Sidney M., and Daniel J. Tichenor. "'Direct Democracy' and Social Justice: The Progressive Party Campaign of 1912". Studies in American Political Development 8#2 (1994): 282–340.
Milkis, Sidney M. Theodore Roosevelt, the Progressive Party, and the Transformation of American Democracy. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2009.
Mowry, George E. The Era of Theodore Roosevelt and the Birth of Modern America. New York: Harper and Row, 1962.
Painter, Carl, "The Progressive Party In Indiana", Indiana Magazine of History, vol. 16, no. 3 (Sept. 1920), pp. 173–283. JSTOR 27785944.
Pinchot, Amos. What's the Matter with America: The Meaning of the Progressive Movement and the Rise of the New Party. n.c.: Amos Pinchot, 1912.
Pinchot, Amos. History of the Progressive Party, 1912–1916. Introduction by Helene Maxwell Hooker. (New York University Press, 1958).
Roosevelt, Theodore. Bull Moose on the Stump: The 1912 Campaign Speeches of Theodore Roosevelt Ed. Lewis L. Gould. (UP of Kansas, 2008).
Selmi, Patrick. "Jane Addams and the Progressive Party Campaign for President in 1912". Journal of Progressive Human Services 22.2 (2011): 160–190.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Progressive Party (United States, 1912).
editorial cartoons
TeddyRoosevelt.com: Bull Moose Information
1912 platform of the Progressive Party
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Gibbon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about a family of apes. For other uses, see Gibbon (disambiguation).
Gibbons[1][2]
Temporal range: 8–0 Ma
PreЄ
Є
O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg
N
Late Miocene–Recent
Lar gibbons (Hylobates lar)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Parvorder: Catarrhini
Superfamily: Hominoidea
Family: Hylobatidae
Gray, 1870
Type genus
Hylobates
Illiger, 1811
Genera
Hylobates
Hoolock
Nomascus
Symphalangus
+Bunopithecus
†Junzi
Distribution in Southeast Asia
Gibbons are apes in the family Hylobatidae. The family historically contained one genus, but now is split into four genera and 18 species. Gibbons occur in tropical and subtropical rainforests from eastern Bangladesh and northeast India to southern China and Indonesia (including the islands of Sumatra, Borneo, and Java).
Also called the smaller apes or lesser apes,[3] gibbons differ from great apes (chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, orangutans, and humans) in being smaller, exhibiting low sexual dimorphism, and not making nests. In certain anatomical details, they superficially more closely resemble monkeys than great apes do, but like all apes, gibbons are tailless. Unlike most of the great apes, gibbons frequently form long-term pair bonds. Their primary mode of locomotion, brachiation, involves swinging from branch to branch for distances up to 15 m (50 ft), at speeds as high as 55 km/h (34 mph). They can also make leaps up to 8 m (26 ft), and walk bipedally with their arms raised for balance. They are the fastest and most agile of all tree-dwelling, nonflying mammals.[4]
Depending on species and sex, gibbons' fur coloration varies from dark to light brown shades, and any shade between black and white, though a completely "white" gibbon is rare.
Gibbon species include the siamang, the white-handed or lar gibbon, and the hoolock gibbons.
Contents
[hide]
1 Evolutionary history
1.1 Taxonomy
1.1.1 Extant species
1.1.2 Fossil genera
1.2 Hybrids
2 Physical description
3 Behavior
4 Diet
5 Conservation status
6 In traditional Chinese culture
7 References
8 External links
Evolutionary history[edit]
Whole genome molecular dating analyses indicate that the gibbon lineage diverged from that of great apes around 16.8 million years ago (Mya) (95% confidence interval: 15.9 – 17.6 Mya; given a divergence of 29 Mya from monkeys).[5] Adaptive divergence associated with chromosomal rearrangements led to rapid radiation of the four genera 5-7 Mya. Each genus comprises a distinct, well-delineated lineage, but the sequence and timing of divergences among these genera has been hard to resolve, even with whole genome data, due to radiative speciations and extensive incomplete lineage sorting.[5][6] A recent coalescent-based species tree analysis of genome-scale datasets suggests a phylogeny for the four genera ordered as (Hylobates, (Nomascus, (Hoolock, Symphalangus))).[7] At the species level, estimates from mitochondrial DNA genome analyses suggest that Hylobates pileatus diverged from H. lar and H. agilis around 3.9 Mya, and H. lar and H. agilis separated around 3.3 Mya.[6] Whole genome analysis suggests divergence of Hylobates pileatus from Hylobates moloch 1.5-3.0 Mya.[5] The extinct Bunopithecus sericus is a gibbon or gibbon-like ape which, until recently, was thought to be closely related to the hoolock gibbons.[2]
Taxonomy[edit]
Family Hylobatidae: gibbons[1][8][9]
Hominoid family tree
Agile gibbon, Hylobates agilis
Siamang, Symphalangus syndactylus
Northern white-cheeked gibbon, Nomascus leucogenys
Lar gibbon (Hylobates lar)
The family is divided into four genera based on their diploid chromosome number: Hylobates (44), Hoolock (38), Nomascus (52), and Symphalangus (50).[2][8]There is an extinct fifth genus named Bunopithecus which is either a gibbon or gibbon-like ape.[2] An extinct sixth genus, Junzi, was identified in 2018 based on a partial skull found in China.[10]
Extant species[edit]
Genus Hoolock
Western hoolock gibbon, H. hoolock
Eastern hoolock gibbon, H. leuconedys
Skywalker hoolock gibbon, H. tianxing[11]
Genus Hylobates: dwarf gibbons
Lar gibbon or white-handed gibbon, H. lar
Malaysian lar gibbon, H. l. lar
Carpenter's lar gibbon, H. l. carpenteri
Central lar gibbon, H. l. entelloides
Sumatran lar gibbon, H. l. vestitus
Yunnan lar gibbon, H. l. yunnanensis
Bornean white-bearded gibbon, H. albibarbis
Agile gibbon or black-handed gibbon, H. agilis
Müeller's gibbon, H. muelleri
Müeller's grey gibbon, H. m. muelleri
Abbott's grey gibbon, H. m. abbotti
Northern grey gibbon, H. m. funereus
Silvery gibbon, H. moloch
Western silvery gibbon or western Javan gibbon, H. m. moloch
Eastern silvery gibbon or central Javan gibbon, H. m. pongoalsoni
Pileated gibbon or capped gibbon, H. pileatus
Kloss's gibbon, Mentawai gibbon or bilou, H. klossii
Genus Symphalangus
Siamang, S. syndactylus
Genus Nomascus: crested gibbons
Northern buffed-cheeked gibbon, N. annamensis
Concolor or black crested gibbon, N. concolor
Tonkin black crested gibbon, N. c. concolor
Laotian black crested gibbon, N. c. lu
Central Yunnan black crested gibbon, N. c. jingdongensis
West Yunnan black crested gibbon, N. c. furvogaster
Eastern black crested gibbon or Cao Vit black crested gibbon, N. nasutus
Hainan black crested gibbon, N. hainanus
Northern white-cheeked gibbon, N. leucogenys
Southern white-cheeked gibbon, N. siki
Yellow-cheeked gibbon, N. gabriellae
Fossil genera[edit]
Genus Bunopithecus
Bunopithecus sericus
Genus Junzi
Junzi imperialis
Hybrids[edit]
Many gibbons are hard to identify based on fur coloration, so are identified either by song or genetics.[12] These morphological ambiguities have led to hybrids in zoos. Zoos often receive gibbons of unknown origin, so they rely on morphological variation or labels that are impossible to verify to assign species and subspecies names, so separate species of gibbons commonly are misidentified and housed together. Interspecific hybrids, hybrids within a genus, are also suspected to occur in wild gibbons where their ranges overlap.[13] However, no records exist of fertile hybrids between different gibbon genera, either in the wild or in captivity.[5]
Physical description[edit]
One unique aspect of a gibbon's anatomy is the wrist, which functions something like a ball and socket joint, allowing for biaxial movement. This greatly reduces the amount of energy needed in the upper arm and torso, while also reducing stress on the shoulder joint. Gibbons also have long hands and feet, with a deep cleft between the first and second digits of their hands. Their fur is usually black, gray, or brownish, often with white markings on hands, feet, and face. Some species have an enlarged throat sac, which inflates and serves as a resonating chamber when the animals call. This structure can become quite large in some species, sometimes equaling the size of the animal's head. Their voices are much more powerful than that of any human singer, although they are at best half a man's height.[14]
Gibbon skulls and teeth resemble those of the great apes, and their noses are similar to those of all catarrhine primates. The dental formula is 2.1.2.32.1.2.3 [15] The siamang, which is the largest of the 17 species, is distinguished by having two fingers on each foot stuck together, hence the generic and species names Symphalangus and syndactylus.[16]
Behavior[edit]
Genus Hoolock
Like all primates, gibbons are social animals. They are strongly territorial, and defend their boundaries with vigorous visual and vocal displays. The vocal element, which can often be heard for distances up to 1 km (0.6 mi), consists of a duet between a mated pair, with their young sometimes joining in. In most species, males and some females sing solos to attract mates, as well as advertise their territories.[17] The song can be used to identify not only which species of gibbon is singing, but also the area from which it comes.[18]
Gibbons often retain the same mate for life, although they do not always remain sexually monogamous. In addition to extra-pair copulations, pair-bonded gibbons occasionally "divorce."[19][20]
Gibbons are among nature's best brachiators. Their ball-and-socket wrist joints allow them unmatched speed and accuracy when swinging through trees. Nonetheless, their mode of transportation can lead to hazards when a branch breaks or a hand slips, and researchers estimate that the majority of gibbons suffer bone fractures one or more times during their lifetimes.[21] They are the fastest and most agile of all tree-dwelling, nonflying mammals.[21]
Diet[edit]
Gibbons' diets are about 60% fruit-based,[22] but they also consume twigs, leaves, insects, flowers, and occasionally bird eggs.
Conservation status[edit]
Most species are endangered, primarily due to degradation or loss of their forest habitats.[23] On the island of Phuket in Thailand, a volunteer-based Gibbon Rehabilitation Center rescues gibbons that were kept in captivity, and are being released back into the wild.[24] The IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group announced 2015 to be the Year of the Gibbon[25] and initiated events to be held around the world in zoos to promote awareness of the status of gibbons.[26]
In traditional Chinese culture[edit]
Further information: Monkeys in Chinese culture
Two gibbons in an oak tree by the Song dynasty painter Yì Yuánjí
The sinologist Robert van Gulik concluded gibbons were widespread in central and southern China until at least the Song dynasty, and furthermore, based on an analysis of references to primates in Chinese poetry and other literature and their portrayal in Chinese paintings, the Chinese word yuán (猿) referred specifically to gibbons until they were extirpated throughout most of the country due to habitat destruction (circa 14th century). In modern usage, however, yuán is a generic word for ape. Early Chinese writers viewed the "noble" gibbons, gracefully moving high in the treetops, as the "gentlemen" (jūnzǐ, 君子) of the forests, in contrast to the greedy macaques, attracted by human food. The Taoists ascribed occult properties to gibbons, believing them to be able to live for several hundred years and to turn into humans.[27]
Gibbon figurines as old as from the fourth to third centuries BCE (the Zhou dynasty) have been found in China. Later on, gibbons became a popular object for Chinese painters, especially during the Song dynasty and early Yuan dynasty, when Yì Yuánjí and Mùqī Fǎcháng excelled in painting these apes. From Chinese cultural influence, the Zen motif of the "gibbon grasping at the reflection of the moon in the water" became popular in Japanese art, as well, though gibbons have never occurred naturally in Japan.[28]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Groves, C.P. (2005). Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M., eds. Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 178–181. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mootnick, A.; Groves, C. P. (2005). "A new generic name for the hoolock gibbon (Hylobatidae)". International Journal of Primatology. 26 (4): 971–976. doi:10.1007/s10764-005-5332-4.
Jump up ^ "Gibbon Conservation Center Working to Save South Asia's Hoolock Gibbons & Other "Small Apes"". National Geographic =. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
Jump up ^ "Gibbon". a-z animals. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Carbone, Lucia; et al. (2014). "Gibbon genome and the fast karyotype evolution of small apes". Nature. 513 (11 Sept 2014): 195–201. doi:10.1038/nature13679. PMC 4249732  . PMID 25209798.
^ Jump up to: a b Matsudaira K, Ishida T (2010) Phylogenetic relationships and divergence dates of the whole mitochondrial genome sequences among three gibbon genera. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol.
Jump up ^ Shi, Cheng-Min; Yang, Ziheng (January 2018). "Coalescent-Based Analyses of Genomic Sequence Data Provide a Robust Resolution of Phylogenetic Relationships among Major Groups of Gibbons". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 35 (1): 159–179. doi:10.1093/molbev/msx277.
^ Jump up to: a b Geissmann, Thomas (December 1995). "Gibbon systematics and species identification" (PDF). International Zoo News. 42: 467–501. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
Jump up ^ Geissmann, Thomas. "Gibbon Systematics and Species Identification" (web version). Ch.3: "Adopting a Systematic Framework" Retrieved: 2011-04-05.
Jump up ^ Weintraub, Karen. "Extinct gibbon found in tomb of ancient Chinese emperor's grandmother".
Jump up ^ Brown, Georgia (11 January 2017). "New species of gibbon discovered in China". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Tenaza, R. (1984). "Songs of hybrid gibbons (Hylobates lar × H. muelleri)". American Journal of Primatology. 8 (3): 249–253. doi:10.1002/ajp.1350080307.
Jump up ^ Sugawara, K. (1979). "Sociological study of a wild group of hybrid baboons between Papio anubis and P. hamadryas in the Awash Valley, Ethiopia". Primates. 20 (1): 21–56. doi:10.1007/BF02373827.
Jump up ^ Lull, Richard Swann (1921). "Seventy Seven". Organic Evolution. Newyork: The Macmillan Company. pp. 641–677.
Jump up ^ Myers, P. 2000. Family Hylobatidae, Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 05, 2011-04-05.
Jump up ^ Geissmann, T. (2011). "Typical Characteristics". Gibbon Research Lab. Retrieved 17 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Clarke E, Reichard UH, Zuberbühler K (2006). Emery N, ed. "The Syntax and Meaning of Wild Gibbon Songs". PLoS ONE. 1 (1): e73. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000073. PMC 1762393  . PMID 17183705.
Jump up ^ Glover, Hilary. Recognizing gibbons from their regional accents, BioMed Central, EurekAlert.org, 6 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Reichard, U (1995). "Extra-pair copulations in a monogamous gibbon (Hylobates lar)". Ethology. 100 (2): 99–112. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1995.tb00319.x.
Jump up ^ Briggs, Mike; Briggs, Peggy (2005). The Encyclopedia of World Wildlife. Parragon. p. 146. ISBN 1405456809.
^ Jump up to: a b Attenborough, David. Life of Mammals, "Episode 8: Life in the Trees", BBC Warner, 2003.
Jump up ^ Gibbon - Monkey Worlds Retrieved Feb-12-2015
Jump up ^ A-Z Animals: GIbbon Retrieved Feb-12-2015
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Mittermeier, Russell. "Letter of Endorsement - Year of the Gibbon" (PDF). IUCN SSC PSG Section on Small Apes. IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group. Retrieved 30 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Year of the Gibbon - Events". IUCN SSC PSG Section on Small Apes. IUCN SSC PSG Section on Small Apes. Retrieved 30 July 2015.
Jump up ^ van Gulik, Robert. "The gibbon in China. An essay in Chinese animal lore." E. J. Brill, Leiden, Holland. (1967). Brief summary
Jump up ^ Geissmann, Thomas. "Gibbon paintings in China, Japan, and Korea: Historical distribution, production rate and context" Archived 2008-12-17 at the Wayback Machine., Gibbon Journal, No. 4, May 2008. (includes color reproductions of a large number of gibbon paintings by many artists)
Mammals portal
External links[edit]
IUCN SSC PSG Section on Small Apes
Gibbon Conservation Center
Gibbon Network and Research Lab
Gibbon Conservation Alliance
Gibbon Rehabilitation Project
View the nomLeu3 genome assembly in the UCSC Genome Browser.
show
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Extant primate families
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Infraclass Eutheria
Superorder Euarchontoglires
Strepsirrhini
Lorisoidea
Lorisidae
Galagidae
Lemuroidea
Daubentoniidae
Cheirogaleidae
Lemuridae
Lepilemuridae
Indriidae
Haplorhini
Tarsiidae
Simian
Platyrrhini
Cebidae
Callitrichidae
Aotidae
Pitheciidae
Atelidae
Catharrhini
Cercopithecidae
Hominoidea
Hylobatidae
Hominidae
show
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Extant species of family Hylobatidae (Gibbons)
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorrhini
Hylobates
Lar gibbon (H. lar)
Agile gibbon (H. agilis)
Bornean white-bearded gibbon (H. albibarbis)
Müeller's gibbon (H. muelleri)
Silvery gibbon (H. moloch)
Pileated gibbon (H. pileatus)
Kloss's gibbon (H. klossii)
Hoolock
Western hoolock gibbon (H. hoolock)
Eastern hoolock gibbon (H. leuconedys)
Skywalker hoolock gibbon (H. tianxing)
Symphalangus
Siamang (S. syndactylus)
Nomascus
Northern buffed-cheeked gibbon (N. annamensis)
Black crested gibbon (N. concolor)
Eastern black brested gibbon (N. nasutus)
Northern white-cheeked gibbon (N. leucogenys)
Yellow-cheeked gibbon (N. gabriellae)
Southern white-cheeked gibbon (N. siki)
Category
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Ape-related articles
Extant ape species
Human (Homo sapiens)
Chimpanzee (Pan spp.)
Bonobo (Pan paniscus)
Common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)
Gorilla (Gorilla spp.)
Western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla)
Eastern gorilla (Gorilla beringei)
Orangutan (Pongo spp.)
Bornean orangutan (Pongo abelii)
Sumatran orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Tapanuli orangutan (Pongo tapanuliensis)
Gibbon (family: Hylobatidae)
Study of apes
Ape language
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See also
List of individual apes (non-human)
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Great apes
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Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q185939
Wikispecies: Hylobatidae
ADW: Hylobatidae
BioLib: 32328
EoL: 1652
EPPO: 1HYLBF
Fossilworks: 40889
GBIF: 5484
IRMNG: 111447
ITIS: 572775
MSW: 12100752
NCBI: 9577
uBio: 109066
Authority control
NDL: 00576698
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gibbon&oldid=849447976"
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Gibbons
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text:
List of Chronicles of Narnia cast members
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The following is a list of cast members who have portrayed characters appearing in The Chronicles of Narnia film series, based upon the novels of the same name by C. S. Lewis.
Contents
[hide]
1 Characters
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
Characters[edit]
Key
(voice) indicates a vocal/voice performance.
A dark grey cell indicates the character is not in the film.
Character
Film
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe
Prince Caspian
The Voyage of the Dawn Treader
The Silver Chair
2005[1]
2008[2]
2010[3]
TBA
Lucy Pevensie
Georgie Henley
Rachel Henley (older) Georgie Henley TBA
Edmund Pevensie
Skandar Keynes
Mark Wells (older) Skandar Keynes
Peter Pevensie
William Moseley
Noah Huntley (older) William Moseley
Susan Pevensie
Anna Popplewell
Sophie Winkleman (older) Anna Popplewell
Aslan
Liam Neeson (voice)
Jadis the White Witch
Tilda Swinton
Mr. Tumnus
James McAvoy
Mr. Beaver
Ray Winstone (voice)
Mrs. Beaver
Dawn French (voice)
Digory Kirke
Jim Broadbent
Ginarrbrik
Kiran Shah
Father Christmas
James Cosmo
Oreius
Patrick Kake
Maugrim
Michael Madsen (voice)
General Otmin
Shane Rangi
King Caspian X
Ben Barnes
Reepicheep
Eddie Izzard (voice) Simon Pegg (voice)
Trumpkin
Peter Dinklage
Trufflehunter
Ken Stott (voice)
Glenstorm
Cornell S John
Bulgy Bear
David Walliams (voice)
Nikabrik
Warwick Davis
Miraz
Sergio Castellitto
Doctor Cornelius
Vincent Grass
Glozelle
Pierfrancesco Favino
Prunaprismia
Alicia Borrachero
Sopespian
Damián Alcázar
Scythley
Simon Andreu
Donnon
Predrag Bjelac
Eustace Scrubb
Will Poulter
Tavros
Shane Rangi
Jemain
Tamati
Caprius
Ryan Ettridge
Randy
Morgan Evans
Nausus
Steven Rooke
Drinian
Gary Sweet
Queen Lilliandil
Laura Brent
Lady of the Green Kirtle
See also[edit]
List of actors who have played Narnia characters
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe cast". Yahoo!. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
Jump up ^ "The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian cast". Yahoo!. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
Jump up ^ "The Voyage of the Dawn Treader Cast Listing". NarniaWeb. Retrieved 2010-06-17.
External links[edit]
Cast and crew at NarniaWeb
[hide]
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and the Wardrobe Prince
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