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Hero's journey
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"The Hero's Journey" redirects here. For other uses, see The Hero's Journey (disambiguation).
In narratology and comparative mythology, the monomyth, or the hero's journey, is the common template of a broad category of tales that involve a hero who goes on an adventure, and in a decisive crisis wins a victory, and then comes home changed or transformed.[1]
The study of hero myth narratives started in 1871 with anthropologist Edward Taylor's observations of common patterns in plots of hero's journeys.[2] Later on, others introduced various theories on hero myth narratives such as Otto Rank and his Freudian psychoanalytic approach to myth,[3] Lord Raglan's unification of myth and rituals,[2] and eventually hero myth pattern studies were popularized by Joseph Campbell, who was influenced by Carl Jung's view of myth. In his 1949 work The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Campbell described the basic narrative pattern as follows:
A hero ventures forth from the world of common day into a region of supernatural wonder: fabulous forces are there encountered and a decisive victory is won: the hero comes back from this mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow man.[4]
Campbell and other scholars, such as Erich Neumann, describe narratives of Gautama Buddha, Moses, and Christ in terms of the monomyth. While others, such as Otto Rank and Lord Raglan, describe hero narrative patterns in terms of Freudian psychoanalysis and ritualistic senses. Critics argue that the concept is too broad or general to be of much usefulness in comparative mythology. Others say that the hero's journey is only a part of the monomyth; the other part is a sort of different form, or color, of the hero's journey.
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology
2 Summary
3 Campbell's seventeen stages
3.1 Departure
3.1.1 The Call to Adventure
3.1.2 Refusal of the Call
3.1.3 Supernatural Aid
3.1.4 Crossing the First Threshold
3.1.5 Belly of the Whale
3.2 Initiation
3.2.1 The Road of Trials
3.2.2 The Meeting with the Goddess
3.2.3 The Woman As Temptress
3.2.4 Atonement with the Father
3.2.5 Apostasis
3.2.6 The Ultimate Boon
3.3 Return
3.3.1 Refusal of the Return
3.3.2 The Magic Flight
3.3.3 Rescue from Without
3.3.4 The Crossing of the Return Threshold
3.3.5 Master of Two Worlds
3.3.6 Freedom to Live
4 In popular culture
5 Criticism
6 Other scholars on hero narrative patterns
7 Self-help movement and therapy
8 See also
8.1 Other mythology
8.2 Narratology and writing instructions
8.3 Genres
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Books based upon interviews with Campbell
10.2 DVD/discography
11 External links
Terminology[edit]
Campbell borrowed the word monomyth from Joyce's Finnegans Wake (1939). Campbell was a notable scholar of James Joyce's work and in A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake (1944) co-authored the seminal analysis of Joyce's final novel.[5][6] Campbell's singular the monomyth implies that the "hero's journey" is the ultimate narrative archetype, but the term monomyth has occasionally been used more generally, as a term for a mythological archetype or a supposed mytheme that re-occurs throughout the world's cultures.[7][8] Omry Ronen referred to Vyacheslav Ivanov's treatment of Dionysus as an "avatar of Christ" (1904) as "Ivanov's monomyth".[9]
The phrase "the hero's journey", used in reference to Campbell's monomyth, first entered into popular discourse through two documentaries. The first, released in 1987, The Hero's Journey: The World of Joseph Campbell, was accompanied by a 1990 companion book, The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work (with Phil Cousineau and Stuart Brown, eds.). The second was Bill Moyers's series of seminal interviews with Campbell, released in 1988 as the documentary (and companion book) The Power of Myth. Cousineau in the introduction to the revised edition of The Hero's Journey wrote "the monomyth is in effect a metamyth, a philosophical reading of the unity of mankind's spiritual history, the Story behind the story".[10]
Summary[edit]
Campbell describes 17 stages of the monomyth. Not all monomyths necessarily contain all 17 stages explicitly; some myths may focus on only one of the stages, while others may deal with the stages in a somewhat different order.[page needed] In the terminology of Claude Lévi-Strauss, the stages are the individual mythemes which are "bundled" or assembled into the structure of the monomyth.[11]
The 17 stages may be organized in a number of ways, including division into three "acts" or sections:
Departure (also Separation),
Initiation (sometimes subdivided into IIA. Descent and IIB. Initiation) and
Return.
In the departure part of the narrative, the hero or protagonist lives in the ordinary world and receives a call to go on an adventure. The hero is reluctant to follow the call, but is helped by a mentor figure.
The initiation section begins with the hero then traversing the threshold to the unknown or "special world", where he faces tasks or trials, either alone or with the assistance of helpers.
The hero eventually reaches "the innermost cave" or the central crisis of his adventure, where he must undergo "the ordeal" where he overcomes the main obstacle or enemy, undergoing "apotheosis" and gaining his reward (a treasure or "elixir").
The hero must then return to the ordinary world with his reward. He may be pursued by the guardians of the special world, or he may be reluctant to return, and may be rescued or forced to return by intervention from the outside.
In the return section, the hero again traverses the threshold between the worlds, returning to the ordinary world with the treasure or elixir he gained, which he may now use for the benefit of his fellow man. The hero himself is transformed by the adventure and gains wisdom or spiritual power over both worlds.
Campbell's approach has been very widely received in narratology, mythography and psychotherapy, especially since the 1980s, and a number of variant summaries of the basic structure have been published. The general structure of Campbell's exposition has been noted before and described in similar terms in comparative mythology of the 19th and early 20th century, notably by Russian folklorist Vladimir Propp who divided the structure of Russian folk tales into 31 "functions".[12]
Act
Campbell (1949)
David Adams Leeming (1981)[13]
Phil Cousineau (1990)[14]
Christopher Vogler (2007)[15]
I. Departure
The call to adventure
Refusal of the call
Supernatural aid
Crossing the threshold
Belly of the whale
Miraculous conception and birth
Initiation of the hero-child
Withdrawal from family or community for meditation and preparation
The call to adventure
Ordinary world
Call to adventure
Refusal of the call
Meeting with the mentor
Crossing the first threshold
II. Initiation
The road of trials
The meeting with the goddess
Woman as temptress
Atonement with the father
Apotheosis
The ultimate boon
Trial and quest
Death
Descent into the underworld
The road of trials
The vision quest
The meeting with the goddess
The boon
Tests, allies and enemies
Approach to the inmost cave
The ordeal
Reward
III. Return
Refusal of the return
The magic flight
Rescue from without
The crossing of the return threshold
Master of two worlds
Freedom to live
Resurrection and rebirth
Ascension, apotheosis, and atonement
The magic flight
The return threshold
The master of two worlds
The road back
The resurrection
Return with the elixir
Campbell's seventeen stages[edit]
Main article: The Hero with a Thousand Faces
The following is a more detailed account of Campbell's original 1949 exposition of the monomyth in 17 stages.
Departure[edit]
The Call to Adventure[edit]
The hero begins in a situation of normality from which some information is received that acts as a call to head off into the unknown.
Campbell: "...(the call of adventure is to) a forest, a kingdom underground, beneath the waves, or above the sky, a secret island, lofty mountaintop, or profound dream state; but it is always a place of strangely fluid and polymorphous beings, unimaginable torments, super human deeds, and impossible delight. The hero can go forth of his own volition to accomplish the adventure, as did Theseus when he arrived in his father's city, Athens, and heard the horrible history of the Minotaur; or he may be carried or sent abroad by some benign or malignant agent as was Odysseus, driven about the Mediterranean by the winds of the angered god, Poseidon. The adventure may begin as a mere blunder... or still again, one may be only casually strolling when some passing phenomenon catches the wandering eye and lures one away from the frequented paths of man. Examples might be multiplied, ad infinitum, from every corner of the world."
Refusal of the Call[edit]
Often when the call is given, the future hero first refuses to heed it. This may be from a sense of duty or obligation, fear, insecurity, a sense of inadequacy, or any of a range of reasons that work to hold the person in his or her current circumstances.
Campbell: "Refusal of the summons converts the adventure into its negative. Walled in boredom, hard work, or 'culture,' the subject loses the power of significant affirmative action and becomes a victim to be saved. His flowering world becomes a wasteland of dry stones and his life feels meaningless—even though, like King Minos, he may through titanic effort succeed in building an empire or renown. Whatever house he builds, it will be a house of death: a labyrinth of cyclopean walls to hide from him his minotaur. All he can do is create new problems for himself and await the gradual approach of his disintegration." [//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero%27s_journey#endnote_
]
Supernatural Aid[edit]
Once the hero has committed to the quest, consciously or unconsciously, his guide and magical helper appears or becomes known. More often than not, this supernatural mentor will present the hero with one or more talismans or artifacts that will aid him later in his quest.
Campbell: "For those who have not refused the call, the first encounter of the hero journey is with a protective figure (often a little old crone or old man) who provides the adventurer with amulets against the dragon forces he is about to pass. What such a figure represents is the benign, protecting power of destiny. The fantasy is a reassurance—promise that the peace of Paradise, which was known first within the mother womb, is not to be lost; that it supports the present and stands in the future as well as in the past (is omega as well as alpha); that though omnipotence may seem to be endangered by the threshold passages and life awakenings, protective power is always and ever present within or just behind the unfamiliar features of the world. One has only to know and trust, and the ageless guardians will appear. Having responded to his own call, and continuing to follow courageously as the consequences unfold, the hero finds all the forces of the unconscious at his side. Mother Nature herself supports the mighty task. And in so far as the hero's act coincides with that for which his society is ready, he seems to ride on the great rhythm of the historical process." [2]
Crossing the First Threshold[edit]
This is the point where the person actually crosses into the field of adventure, leaving the known limits of his or her world and venturing into an unknown and dangerous realm where the rules and limits are unknown.
Campbell: "With the personifications of his destiny to guide and aid him, the hero goes forward in his adventure until he comes to the 'threshold guardian' at the entrance to the zone of magnified power. Such custodians bound the world in four directions — also up and down — standing for the limits of the hero's present sphere, or life horizon. Beyond them is darkness, the unknown and danger; just as beyond the parental watch is danger to the infant and beyond the protection of his society danger to the members of the tribe. The usual person is more than content, he is even proud, to remain within the indicated bounds, and popular belief gives him every reason to fear so much as the first step into the unexplored. The adventure is always and everywhere a passage beyond the veil of the known into the unknown; the powers that watch at the boundary are dangerous; to deal with them is risky; yet for anyone with competence and courage the danger fades." [3]
Belly of the Whale[edit]
The belly of the whale represents the final separation from the hero's known world and self. By entering this stage, the person shows willingness to undergo a metamorphosis. When First entering the stage the hero may encounter a minor danger or set back.
Campbell: "The idea that the passage of the magical threshold is a transit into a sphere of rebirth is symbolized in the worldwide womb image of the belly of the whale. The hero, instead of conquering or conciliating the power of the threshold, is swallowed into the unknown and would appear to have died. This popular motif gives emphasis to the lesson that the passage of the threshold is a form of self-annihilation. Instead of passing outward, beyond the confines of the visible world, the hero goes inward, to be born again. The disappearance corresponds to the passing of a worshipper into a temple—where he is to be quickened by the recollection of who and what he is, namely dust and ashes unless immortal. The temple interior, the belly of the whale, and the heavenly land beyond, above, and below the confines of the world, are one and the same. That is why the approaches and entrances to temples are flanked and defended by colossal gargoyles: dragons, lions, devil-slayers with drawn swords, resentful dwarfs, winged bulls. The devotee at the moment of entry into a temple undergoes a metamorphosis. Once inside he may be said to have died to time and returned to the World Womb, the World Navel, the Earthly Paradise. Allegorically, then, the passage into a temple and the hero-dive through the jaws of the whale are identical adventures, both denoting in picture language, the life-centering, life-renewing act." [4]
Initiation[edit]
The Road of Trials[edit]
The road of trials is a series of tests that the person must undergo to begin the transformation. Often the person fails one or more of these tests, which often occur in threes.
Campbell: "Once having traversed the threshold, the hero moves in a dream landscape of curiously fluid, ambiguous forms, where he must survive a succession of trials. This is a favorite phase of the myth-adventure. It has produced a world literature of miraculous tests and ordeals. The hero is covertly aided by the advice, amulets, and secret agents of the supernatural helper whom he met before his entrance into this region. Or it may be that he here discovers for the first time that there is a benign power everywhere supporting him in his superhuman passage. The original departure into the land of trials represented only the beginning of the long and really perilous path of initiatory conquests and moments of illumination. Dragons have now to be slain and surprising barriers passed — again, again, and again. Meanwhile there will be a multitude of preliminary victories, unretainable ecstasies and momentary glimpses of the wonderful land." [5]
The Meeting with the Goddess[edit]
This is where the hero gains items given to him that will help him in the future.
Campbell: "The ultimate adventure, when all the barriers and ogres have been overcome, is commonly represented as a mystical marriage of the triumphant hero-soul with the Queen Goddess of the World. This is the crisis at the nadir, the zenith, or at the uttermost edge of the earth, at the central point of the cosmos, in the tabernacle of the temple, or within the darkness of the deepest chamber of the heart. The meeting with the goddess (who is incarnate in every woman) is the final test of the talent of the hero to win the boon of love (charity: amor fati), which is life itself enjoyed as the encasement of eternity. And when the adventurer, in this context, is not a youth but a maid, she is the one who, by her qualities, her beauty, or her yearning, is fit to become the consort of an immortal. Then the heavenly husband descends to her and conducts her to his bed—whether she will or not. And if she has shunned him, the scales fall from her eyes; if she has sought him, her desire finds its peace." [6]
The Woman As Temptress[edit]
In this step, the hero faces those temptations, often of a physical or pleasurable nature, that may lead him or her to abandon or stray from his or her quest, which does not necessarily have to be represented by a woman. Woman is a metaphor for the physical or material temptations of life, since the hero-knight was often tempted by lust from his spiritual journey.
Campbell: "The crux of the curious difficulty lies in the fact that our conscious views of what life ought to be seldom correspond to what life really is. Generally we refuse to admit within ourselves, or within our friends, the fullness of that pushing, self-protective, malodorous, carnivorous, lecherous fever which is the very nature of the organic cell. Rather, we tend to perfume, whitewash, and reinterpret; meanwhile imagining that all the flies in the ointment, all the hairs in the soup, are the faults of some unpleasant someone else. But when it suddenly dawns on us, or is forced to our attention that everything we think or do is necessarily tainted with the odor of the flesh, then, not uncommonly, there is experienced a moment of revulsion: life, the acts of life, the organs of life, woman in particular as the great symbol of life, become intolerable to the pure, the pure, pure soul. The seeker of the life beyond life must press beyond (the woman), surpass the temptations of her call, and soar to the immaculate ether beyond." [7]
Atonement with the Father[edit]
In this step the person must confront and be initiated by whatever holds the ultimate power in his or her life. In many myths and stories this is the father, or a father figure who has life and death power. This is the center point of the journey. All the previous steps have been moving into this place, all that follow will move out from it. Although this step is most frequently symbolized by an encounter with a male entity, it does not have to be a male; just someone or thing with incredible power.
Campbell: "Atonement consists in no more than the abandonment of that self-generated double monster—the dragon thought to be God (superego) and the dragon thought to be Sin (repressed id). But this requires an abandonment of the attachment to ego itself, and that is what is difficult. One must have a faith that the father is merciful, and then a reliance on that mercy. Therewith, the center of belief is transferred outside of the bedeviling god's tight scaly ring, and the dreadful ogres dissolve. It is in this ordeal that the hero may derive hope and assurance from the helpful female figure, by whose magic (pollen charms or power of intercession) he is protected through all the frightening experiences of the father's ego-shattering initiation. For if it is impossible to trust the terrifying father-face, then one's faith must be centered elsewhere (Spider Woman, Blessed Mother); and with that reliance for support, one endures the crisis—only to find, in the end, that the father and mother reflect each other, and are in essence the same. The problem of the hero going to meet the father is to open his soul beyond terror to such a degree that he will be ripe to understand how the sickening and insane tragedies of this vast and ruthless cosmos are completely validated in the majesty of Being. The hero transcends life with its peculiar blind spot and for a moment rises to a glimpse of the source. He beholds the face of the father, understands—and the two are atoned." [//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero%27s_journey#endnote_�C�]
Apostasis[edit]
This is the point of realization in which a greater understanding is achieved. Armed with this new knowledge and perception, the hero is resolved and ready for the more difficult part of the adventure
Campbell: "Those who know, not only that the Everlasting lies in them, but that what they, and all things, really are is the Everlasting, dwell in the groves of the wish fulfilling trees, drink the brew of immortality, and listen everywhere to the unheard music of eternal concord." [8]
The Ultimate Boon[edit]
The ultimate boon is the achievement of the goal of the quest. It is what the person went on the journey to get. All the previous steps serve to prepare and purify the person for this step, since in many myths the boon is something transcendent like the elixir of life itself, or a plant that supplies immortality, or the holy grail.
Campbell: "The gods and goddesses then are to be understood as embodiments and custodians of the elixir of Imperishable Being but not themselves the Ultimate in its primary state. What the hero seeks through his intercourse with them is therefore not finally themselves, but their grace, i.e., the power of their sustaining substance. This miraculous energy-substance and this alone is the Imperishable; the names and forms of the deities who everywhere embody, dispense, and represent it come and go. This is the miraculous energy of the thunderbolts of Zeus, Yahweh, and the Supreme Buddha, the fertility of the rain of Viracocha, the virtue announced by the bell rung in the Mass at the consecration, and the light of the ultimate illumination of the saint and sage. Its guardians dare release it only to the duly proven." [9]
Return[edit]
Refusal of the Return[edit]
Having found bliss and enlightenment in the other world, the hero may not want to return to the ordinary world to bestow the boon onto his fellow man.
Campbell: "When the hero-quest has been accomplished, through penetration to the source, or through the grace of some male or female, human or animal, personification, the adventurer still must return with his life-transmuting trophy. The full round, the norm of the monomyth, requires that the hero shall now begin the labor of bringing the runes of wisdom, the Golden Fleece, or his sleeping princess, back into the kingdom of humanity, where the boon may redound to the renewing of the community, the nation, the planet or the ten thousand worlds. But the responsibility has been frequently refused. Even Gautama Buddha, after his triumph, doubted whether the message of realization could be communicated, and saints are reported to have died while in the supernal ecstasy. Numerous indeed are the heroes fabled to have taken up residence forever in the blessed isle of the unaging Goddess of Immortal Being." [10]
The Magic Flight[edit]
Sometimes the hero must escape with the boon, if it is something that the gods have been jealously guarding. It can be just as adventurous and dangerous returning from the journey as it was to go on it.
Campbell: "If the hero in his triumph wins the blessing of the goddess or the god and is then explicitly commissioned to return to the world with some elixir for the restoration of society, the final stage of his adventure is supported by all the powers of his supernatural patron. On the other hand, if the trophy has been attained against the opposition of its guardian, or if the hero's wish to return to the world has been resented by the gods or demons, then the last stage of the mythological round becomes a lively, often comical, pursuit. This flight may be complicated by marvels of magical obstruction and evasion."[11]
Rescue from Without[edit]
Just as the hero may need guides and assistants to set out on the quest, often he or she must have powerful guides and rescuers to bring them back to everyday life, especially if the person has been wounded or weakened by the experience.
Campbell: "The hero may have to be brought back from his supernatural adventure by assistance from without. That is to say, the world may have to come and get him. For the bliss of the deep abode is not lightly abandoned in favor of the self-scattering of the wakened state. 'Who having cast off the world,' we read, 'would desire to return again? He would be only there.' And yet, in so far as one is alive, life will call. Society is jealous of those who remain away from it, and will come knocking at the door. If the hero. . . is unwilling, the disturber suffers an ugly shock; but on the other hand, if the summoned one is only delayed—sealed in by the beatitude of the state of perfect being (which resembles death)—an apparent rescue is effected, and the adventurer returns."[12]
The Crossing of the Return Threshold[edit]
The trick in returning is to retain the wisdom gained on the quest, to integrate that wisdom into a human life, and then maybe figure out how to share the wisdom with the rest of the world.
Campbell: "The returning hero, to complete his adventure, must survive the impact of the world. Many failures attest to the difficulties of this life-affirmative threshold. The first problem of the returning hero is to accept as real, after an experience of the soul-satisfying vision of fulfillment, the passing joys and sorrows, banalities and noisy obscenities of life. Why re-enter such a world? Why attempt to make plausible, or even interesting, to men and women consumed with passion, the experience of transcendental bliss? As dreams that were momentous by night may seem simply silly in the light of day, so the poet and the prophet can discover themselves playing the idiot before a jury of sober eyes. The easy thing is to commit the whole community to the devil and retire again into the heavenly rock dwelling, close the door, and make it fast. But if some spiritual obstetrician has drawn the shimenawa across the retreat, then the work of representing eternity in time, and perceiving in time eternity, cannot be avoided" The hero returns to the world of common day and must accept it as real.[13]
Master of Two Worlds[edit]
This step is usually represented by a transcendental hero like Jesus or Gautama Buddha. For a human hero, it may mean achieving a balance between the material and spiritual. The person has become comfortable and competent in both the inner and outer worlds.
Campbell: "Freedom to pass back and forth across the world division, from the perspective of the apparitions of time to that of the causal deep and back—not contaminating the principles of the one with those of the other, yet permitting the mind to know the one by virtue of the other—is the talent of the master. The Cosmic Dancer, declares Nietzsche, does not rest heavily in a single spot, but gaily, lightly, turns and leaps from one position to another. It is possible to speak from only one point at a time, but that does not invalidate the insights of the rest. The individual, through prolonged psychological disciplines, gives up completely all attachment to his personal limitations, idiosyncrasies, hopes and fears, no longer resists the self-annihilation that is prerequisite to rebirth in the realization of truth, and so becomes ripe, at last, for the great at-one-ment. His personal ambitions being totally dissolved, he no longer tries to live but willingly relaxes to whatever may come to pass in him; he becomes, that is to say, an anonymity."[16]
Freedom to Live[edit]
Mastery leads to freedom from the fear of death, which in turn is the freedom to live.[citation needed] This is sometimes referred to as living in the moment, neither anticipating the future nor regretting the past.
Campbell: "The hero is the champion of things becoming, not of things become, because he is. "Before Abraham was, I AM." He does not mistake apparent changelessness in time for the permanence of Being, nor is he fearful of the next moment (or of the 'other thing'), as destroying the permanent with its change. 'Nothing retains its own form; but Nature, the greater renewer, ever makes up forms from forms. Be sure there's nothing perishes in the whole universe; it does but vary and renew its form.' Thus the next moment is permitted to come to pass."[citation needed]
In popular culture[edit]
The monomyth concept has been very popular in American literary studies and writing guides since at least the 1970s. Christopher Vogler, a Hollywood film producer and writer, created a 7-page company memo, A Practical Guide to The Hero With a Thousand Faces,[17] based on Campbell's work. Vogler's memo was later developed into the late 1990s book, The Writer's Journey: Mythic Structure For Writers. George Lucas' Star Wars (1977) was notably classified as monomyth almost as soon as it came out.[18] Numerous other works of popular fiction have been forwarded as examples of the monomyth template, including Spenser's The Fairie Queene,[19] Melville's Moby Dick,[20] Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre,[21] works by Charles Dickens, Faulkner, Maugham, J. D. Salinger,[22] Hemingway,[23] Mark Twain,[24] W. B. Yeats,[25] C. S. Lewis,[26] and J. R. R. Tolkien,[27] Seamus Heaney[28] and Stephen King,[29] among numerous others.
In addition to the extensive discussion between Campbell and Bill Moyers broadcast in 1988 on PBS as The Power of Myth (Filmed at "Skywalker Ranch"), on Campbell's influence on the Star Wars films, Lucas himself gave an extensive interview for the biography Joseph Campbell: A Fire in the Mind (Larsen and Larsen, 2002, pages 541-543) on this topic. In this interview, Lucas states that in the early 1970s after completing his early film, American Graffiti, "it came to me that there really was no modern use of mythology...so that's when I started doing more strenuous research on fairy tales, folklore and mythology, and I started reading Joe's books. Before that I hadn't read any of Joe's books... It was very eerie because in reading The Hero with A Thousand Faces I began to realize that my first draft of Star Wars was following classical motifs" (p. 541). Twelve years after the making of The Power of Myth, Moyers and Lucas met again for the 1999 interview, the Mythology of Star Wars with George Lucas & Bill Moyers, to further discuss the impact of Campbell's work on Lucas's films.[30] In addition, the National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution sponsored an exhibit during the late 1990s called Star Wars: The Magic of Myth which discussed the ways in which Campbell's work shaped the Star Wars films.[31] A companion guide of the same name was published in 1997.
The American comedy-drama Northern Exposure featured as its protagonist a physician (Joel Fleischman, played by Rob Morrow) who wished to escape his contractual obligation to serve as town doctor for the town of Cicely, Alaska. In episode 15 of season 6 "The Quest", Dr. Fleishman finally achieves this goal by undertaking a hero's journey based on Campbell's archetype.[32]
Criticism[edit]
Scholars have questioned the validity or usefulness of the monomyth category.
According to Northup (2006), mainstream scholarship of comparative mythology since Campbell has moved away from "highly general and universal" categories in general.[33] This attitude is illustrated by e.g. Consentino (1998), who remarks "It is just as important to stress differences as similarities, to avoid creating a (Joseph) Campbell soup of myths that loses all local flavor."[34] Similarly, Ellwood (1999) stated "A tendency to think in generic terms of people, races ... is undoubtedly the profoundest flaw in mythological thinking."[35]
Others have found the categories Campbell works with so vague as to be meaningless, and lacking the support required of scholarly argument: Crespi (1990), writing in response to Campbell's filmed presentation of his model[36] characterized it as "... unsatisfying from a social science perspective. Campbell's ethnocentrism will raise objections, and his analytic level is so abstract and devoid of ethnographic context that myth loses the very meanings supposed to be embedded in the 'hero.'" In Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth (1984), editor Alan Dundes dismisses Campbell's work, characterizing him as a popularizer: "like most universalists, he is content to merely assert universality rather than bother to document it. […] If Campbell's generalizations about myth are not substantiated, why should students consider his work?"[37]
In a similar vein, American philosopher John Shelton Lawrence and American religious scholar Robert Jewett have discussed an "American Monomyth" in many of their books, The American Monomyth, The Myth of the American Superhero (2002), and Captain America and the Crusade Against Evil: The Dilemma of Zealous Nationalism (2003). They present this as an American reaction to the Campbellian monomyth. The "American Monomyth" storyline is: A community in a harmonious paradise is threatened by evil; normal institutions fail to contend with this threat; a selfless superhero emerges to renounce temptations and carry out the redemptive task; aided by fate, his decisive victory restores the community to its paradisiacal condition; the superhero then recedes into obscurity.[16]
The monomyth has also been criticized for focusing on the masculine journey. The Heroine's Journey (1990) by Maureen Murdock and From Girl to Goddess: The Heroine's Journey through Myth and Legend (2010), by Valerie Estelle Frankel, both set out what they consider the steps of the female hero's journey, which is different from Campbell's monomyth.[38]
According to changingminds.org, "[Campbell's] much admired and much-copied pattern has also been criticized as leading to 'safe' moviemaking, in which writers use his structure as a template, thus leading to 'boring' repeats, albeit in different clothes."[39]
While Frank Herbert's Dune (1965) on the surface appears to follow the monomyth, this was in fact to subvert it and take a critical view, as the author said in 1979, "The bottom line of the Dune trilogy is: beware of heroes. Much better [to] rely on your own judgment, and your own mistakes."[40] He wrote in 1985, "Dune was aimed at this whole idea of the infallible leader because my view of history says that mistakes made by a leader (or made in a leader's name) are amplified by the numbers who follow without question."[41]
Science fiction author David Brin in a 1999 Salon article criticized the monomyth template as supportive of "despotism and tyranny", indicating that he thinks modern popular fiction should strive to depart from it in order to support more progressivist values.[42]
Other scholars on hero narrative patterns[edit]
In narratology and comparative mythology, others have proposed narrative patterns such as psychoanalyst Otto Rank in 1909 and anthropologist Lord Raglan in 1936. Both have lists of different cross-cultural traits often found in the accounts of heroes, including mythical heroes.[43][44] According to Robert Segal, "The theories of Rank, Campbell, and Raglan typify the array of analyses of hero myths."[2]
Self-help movement and therapy[edit]
The Hero's Journey as described by Campbell has served as inspiration to a variety of therapeutic / self-help contexts. Paul Rebillot, Gestalt therapist, leader in the human potential movement and major creative force in international psychotherapy and experiential education, who met Joseph Campbell at the Esalen Institute, developed a ritual therapeutic structure named after the "Hero's Journey". Rebillot's Hero's Journey, a modern rite of passage in the form of a week-long workshop, involves participants enacting their own personal heroine's or hero's journey, embodying the various archetypes detailed in Campbell's Hero's Journey (inner heroic figure, inner demon, spirit guide, etc.). By identifying with these archetypes as parts of the self and transforming the relationship between then, rather than projecting them outwards, participants have the opportunity to internalise the locus of control for the dramaturgy of their own life-story (see The Hero's Journey: A Call to Adventure (2017) by Paul Rebillot and Melissa Kay). Rebillot's workshop enjoys increasing popularity and success, especially in German-speaking countries.
Poet Robert Bly, Michael J. Meade, and others involved in the men's movement have also applied and expanded the concepts of the hero's journey and the monomyth as a metaphor for personal spiritual and psychological growth, particularly in the mythopoetic men's movement.[45][46]
Characteristic of the mythopoetic men's movement is a tendency to retell fairy tales and engage in their exegesis as a tool for personal insight. Using frequent references to archetypes as drawn from Jungian analytical psychology, the movement focuses on issues of gender role, gender identity and wellness for modern men.[46] Advocates would often engage in storytelling with music, these acts being seen as a modern extension to a form of "new age shamanism" popularized by Michael Harner at approximately the same time.
Among its most famous advocates were the poet Robert Bly, whose book Iron John: A Book About Men was a best-seller, being an exegesis of the fairy tale "Iron John" by the Brothers Grimm.[45]
The mythopoetic men's movement spawned a variety of groups and workshops, led by authors such as Bly and Robert L. Moore.[46] Some serious academic work came out of this movement, including the creation of various magazines and non-profit organizations.[45]

See also[edit]
Near-death experience[47]
Other mythology[edit]
Death-rebirth deity
Ego death (Jungian psychology)
How to Kill a Dragon (1995)
The Hero, A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama (1936)
The Myth of the Birth of the Hero (1909)
Vladimir Propp (Russian folklorist)
Narratology and writing instructions[edit]
Dramatic structure
Save The Cat! The Last Book on Screenwriting You'll Ever Need
Something Startling Happens: The 120 Story Beats Every Writer Needs To Know
The Seven Basic Plots
Three-act structure
Dan Harmon's story circle
Genres[edit]
Bildungsroman
Chivalric romance
Heroic fantasy
Road movie
Mythology portal
Literature portal
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Office of Resources for International and Area Studies. "Monomyth Home". History Through Literature Project. University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original on 18 January 2010. Retrieved 2009-11-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c Segal, Robert; Raglan, Lord; Rank, Otto (1990). "Introduction: In Quest of the Hero". In Quest of the Hero. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691020620.
Jump up ^ Green, Thomas A. (1997). Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art. ABC-CLIO. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-87436-986-1.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Joseph (1949). The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 23.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Joseph; Robinson, Henry Morton (1944). A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake.
Jump up ^ Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1949. p. 30, n35. "At the carryfour with awlus plawshus, their happyass cloudious! And then and too the trivials! And their bivouac! And his monomyth! Ah ho! Say no more about it! I'm sorry!" James Joyce, Finnegans Wake. NY: Viking (1939) p. 581
Jump up ^ Luhan, Mabel Dodge (1987) [1937]. "Foreword". Edge of Taos Desert: An Escape to Reality. Foreword by John Collier. p. viii. The myth is obviously related to what one might call the monomyth of paradise regained that has been articulated and transformed in a variety of ways since the early European explorations.
Jump up ^ Ashe, Steven (2008). Qabalah of 50 Gates. p. 21. those aspects of legend that are symbolically equivalent within the folk lore of different cultures
Jump up ^ Clayton, J. Douglas, ed. (1989). Issues in Russian Literature Before 1917. p. 212. Dionysus, Ivanov's 'monomyth,' as Omry Ronen has put it, is the symbol of the symbol. One could also name Dionysus, the myth of the myth, the metamyth which signifies the very principle of mediation, [...]
Jump up ^ Campbell, Joseph (2003) [1990]. Cousineau, Phil, ed. The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work. The Collected Works of Joseph Campbell. Introduction by Phil Cousineau, Foreword by Stuart L. Brown. Novato, CA: New World Library. p. xxi. ISBN 978-1-60868-189-1. OCLC 52133247.
Jump up ^ Lévi-Strauss gave the term "mytheme" wide circulation from the 1960s, in 1955 he used "gross constituent unit", in Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1955). "The Structural study of myth". Journal of American Folklore. 68 (270): 428–444. doi:10.2307/536768. ISSN 0021-8715. JSTOR 536768. OCLC 1782260. reprinted as "The structural study of myth", Structural Anthropology, 1963:206-31; "the true constituent units of a myth are not the isolated relations but bundles of such relations" (Lévi-Strauss 1963:211). The term mytheme first appears in Lévi-Strauss' 1958 French version of the work.
Jump up ^ Propp, Vladimir (1928). Морфология сказки [The morphology of folk-tales] (in Russian). Leningrad.
Jump up ^ Leeming, David Adams (1981). Mythology: The Voyage of the Hero. New York: Harper & Row.
Jump up ^ Cousineau, Phil, ed. (1990). The hero's journey: Joseph Campbell on his life and work. Forward by Stuart L. Brown. New York: Harper and Row.
Jump up ^ Vogel, Christopher (2007). The Writer's Journey: Mythic Structure For Writers.
^ Jump up to: a b Jewett, Robert and John Shelton Lawrence (1977) The American Monomyth. New York: Doubleday.
Jump up ^ The Writer's Journey accessed 2011-03-26
Jump up ^ Andrew Gordon, 'Star Wars: A Myth for Our Time', Literature/Film Quarterly 6.4 (Fall 1978): 314–26. Matthew Kapell, John Shelton Lawrence, Finding the Force of the Star Wars Franchise: Fans, Merchandise, & Critics, Peter Lang (2006), p. 5.
Jump up ^ Edmund Spenser's Faerie Queene and the Monomyth of Joseph Campbell: Essays in Interpretation, E. Mellen Press, 2000.
Jump up ^ Khalid Mohamed Abdullah, Ishmael's Sea Journey and the Monomyth Archetypal Theory in Melville's "Moby-Dick", California State University, Dominguez Hills, 2008.
Jump up ^ Justin Edward Erickson, A Heroine's Journey: The Feminine Monomyth in Jane Eyre (2012).
Jump up ^ Leslie Ross, Manifestations of the Monomyth in Fiction: Dickens, Faulkner, Maugham, and Salinger, University of South Dakota, 1992.
Jump up ^ John James Bajger, The Hemingway Hero and the Monomyth: An Examination of the Hero Quest Myth in the Nick Adams Stories, Florida Atlantic University, 2003.
Jump up ^ Brian Claude McKinney, The Monomyth and Mark Twain's Novels, San Francisco State College, 1967.
Jump up ^ illiam Edward McMillan, The Monomyth in W.B. Yeats' Cuchulain Play Cycle, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, 1979.
Jump up ^ Stephanie L. Phillips, Ransom's Journey as a Monomyth Hero in C.S. Lewis' Out of the Silent Planet, Perelandra, and That Hideous Strength, Hardin-Simmons University, 2006.
Jump up ^ Paul McCord, The Monomyth Hero in Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, 1977.
Jump up ^ Henry Hart, Seamus Heaney, Poet of Contrary Progressions, Syracuse University Press (1993), p. 165.
Jump up ^ [1], Stephen King's "The Dark Tower": a modern myth University essay from Luleå tekniska universitet/Språk och kultur Author: Henrik Fåhraeus; [2008].
Jump up ^ Films.com
Jump up ^ "Star Wars @ NASM, Unit 1, Introduction". National Air and Space Museum. Smithsonian Institution. 22 November 1997.
Jump up ^ "Northern Exposure: The Quest". TV.com. CBS Interactive Inc. Retrieved 19 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Northup 2006, p. 8.
Jump up ^ "African Oral Narrative Traditions" in Foley, John Miles, ed., "Teaching Oral Traditions." NY: Modern Language Association, 1998, p. 183
Jump up ^ Ellwood, Robert, "The Politics of Myth: A Study of C.G. Jung, Mircea Eliade, and Joseph Campbell", SUNY Press, September 1999. Cf. p.x
Jump up ^ American Anthropologist, 92:4 (December 1990), p. 1104
Jump up ^ Web.archive.org
Jump up ^ Valerie Estelle Frankel (19 October 2010). From Girl to Goddess: The Heroine's Journey through Myth and Legend. McFarland. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-7864-5789-2.
Jump up ^ "Campbell's 'Hero's Journey' Monomyth". changingminds.org. Retrieved 2015-12-15.
Jump up ^ Clareson, Thomas (1992). Understanding Contemporary American Science Fiction: the Formative Period. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. pp. 169–172. ISBN 0-87249-870-0.
Jump up ^ Herbert, Frank (1985). "Introduction". Eye. ISBN 0-425-08398-5.
Jump up ^ Brin, David (16 June 1999). ""Star Wars" despots vs. "Star Trek" populists". Salon. By offering valuable insights into this revered storytelling tradition, Joseph Campbell did indeed shed light on common spiritual traits that seem shared by all human beings. And I’ll be the first to admit it’s a superb formula — one that I’ve used at times in my own stories and novels. [...] It is essential to understand the radical departure taken by genuine science fiction, which comes from a diametrically opposite literary tradition — a new kind of storytelling that often rebels against those very same archetypes Campbell venerated. An upstart belief in progress, egalitarianism, positive-sum games — and the slim but real possibility of decent human institutions.
Jump up ^ Lord Raglan. The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama by Lord Raglan, Dover Publications, 1936
Jump up ^ Segal, Robert; Dundes, Alan; Raglan, Lord; Rank, Otto (1990). In Quest of the Hero. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691020620.
^ Jump up to: a b c Boston Globe accessed 2009-11-03
^ Jump up to: a b c Use by Bly of Campbell's monomyth work accessed 2009-11-03
Jump up ^ Lichfield, Gideon (April 2015). "The Science of Near-Death Experiences". The Atlantic.
References[edit]
Campbell, Joseph (1949). The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1st ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (2nd ed. 1968, 3rd ed. 2008).
MacKey-Kallis, Susan (2001). The Hero and the Perennial Journey Home in American Film. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1768-3.
Northup, Lesley (2006). "Myth-Placed Priorities: Religion and the Study of Myth". Religious Studies Review. 32 (1): 5–10.
Rebillot, Paul (2017). The Hero's Journey: A Call to Adventure. Eagle Books, Germany. ISBN 978-3-946136-00-2.
Vogler, Christopher (1998). The Writer's Journey: Mythic Structure For Writers. Studio City, CA: Michael Wiese Productions.
Voytilla, Stuart; Vogler, Christopher (1999). Myth & the Movies: Discovering the Myth Structure of 50 Unforgettable Films. Studio City, CA: Michael Wiese Productions. ISBN 0-941188-66-3.
Laureline, Amanieux (2011). Ce héros qui est en chacun de nous (in French). Albin Michel,.
Books based upon interviews with Campbell[edit]
Cousineau, Phil, ed. (1990). The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on his Life and Work. Forward by Stuart L. Brown. New York: Harper and Row.
Moyers, Bill; Flowers, Betty Sue, eds. (1988). The Power of Myth.
DVD/discography[edit]
Campbell, Joseph & Moyers, Bill (1988). Joseph Campbell and the power of myth (Documentary series). PBS.
Balnicke, Janelle & Kennard, David (directors) (1987). The Hero's Journey: A Biographical Portrait (Biography).
External links[edit]
The Romantic Appeal of Joseph Campbell
[hide]
v
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e
Joseph Campbell
Books
Where the Two Came to Their Father: A Navaho War Ceremonial (1943), with Jeff King and Maud Oakes
A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake (1944), with Henry Morton Robinson
The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949).
The Masks of God
(1959–1968)
Volume 1, Primitive Mythology (1959)
Volume 2, Oriental Mythology (1962)
Volume 3, Occidental Mythology (1964)
Volume 4, Creative Mythology (1968))
The Flight of the Wild Gander:Explorations in the Mythological Dimension (1968)
Myths to Live By (1972)
Erotic irony and mythic forms in the art of Thomas Mann (1973)
The Mythic Image (1974)
The Inner Reaches of Outer Space: Metaphor As Myth and As Religion (1986)
Historical Atlas
of World Mythology
(1983–1989)
Volume I: The Way of the Animal Powers (1983) (reprint in two parts: Part 1: Mythologies of the Primitive Hunters and Gatherers (1988);
Part 2: Mythologies of the Great Hunt (1988))
Volume II: The Way of the Seeded Earth (Part 1: The Sacrifice (1988); Part 2: Mythologies of the Primitive Planters: The North Americas (1989);
Part 3: Mythologies of the Primitive Planters: The Middle and Southern Americas (1989)), editor Robert Walter
Transformations of Myth Through Time (1990)
A Joseph Campbell Companion: Reflections on the Art of Living (1991), editor Robert Walter
Mythic Worlds, Modern Words: On the Art of James Joyce (1993), editor Edmund L. Epstein
The Mythic Dimension: Selected Essays (1959–1987) (1993), editor Anthony Van Couvering
Baksheesh & Brahman: Indian Journals (1954–1955) (1995), editors Robin/Stephen Larsen & Anthony Van Couvering
Thou Art That: Transforming Religious Metaphor (2001), editor Eugene Kennedy
Sake & Satori: Asian Journals - Japan (2002), editor David Kudler
Myths of Light: Eastern Metaphors of the Eternal (2003), editor David Kudler
Pathways to Bliss: Mythology and Personal Transformation (2004), editor David Kudler
The Mythic Imagination: Collected Short Fiction (2012), editors David Kudler and Robert Walter
Goddesses: Mysteries of the Feminine Divine (2013), editor Safron Rossi
Romance of the Grail: The Magic and Mystery of Arthurian Myth (2015), editor Evans Lansing Smith
Asian Journals: India and Japan (2017), editors Antony Van Couvering, Stephen/Robin Larsen, & David Kudler
The Ecstasy of Being: Mythology and Dance (2017), editor Nancy Allison
Books based
upon interviews
The Power of Myth (1988), with Bill Moyers and editor Betty Sue Flowers
An Open Life: Joseph Campbell in Conversation with Michael Toms (1989), editors John Maher and Dennie Briggs, forward by Jean Erdman Campbell
This business of the gods: Interview with Fraser Boa (1989)
The Hero's Journey: Joseph Campbell on His Life and Work (1990), editor Phil Cousineau
Audio recordings
The Power of Myth (With Bill Moyers) (1987)
Transformation of Myth through Time Volume 1-3 (1989)
The Hero with a Thousand Faces: The Cosmogonic Cycle (Read by Ralph Blum) (1990)
The Way of Art (1990—unlicensed)
The Lost Teachings of Joseph Campbell Volume 1-9 (With Michael Toms) (1993)
On the Wings of Art: Joseph Campbell; Joseph Campbell on the Art of James Joyce (1995)
The Wisdom of Joseph Campbell (With Michael Toms) (1997)
Joseph Campbell
Audio Collection
(1997-)
Volume I.1: Mythology and the Individual (1997)
Volume I.2: The Inward Journey (1997)
Volume I.3: The Eastern Way (1997)
Volume I.4: Man and Myth (1997)
Volume I.5: The Myths and Masks of God (1997)
Volume I.6: The Western Quest (1997)
Volume II.1: A Brief History of World Mythology (2009–2011)
Volume II.2: Perspectives on Creative Mythology (2012–2013)
Volume II.3: Christian Symbols & Ideas (2014)
Volume II.4: Psychology and Asian Philosophies (2015)
Volume II.5: Your Myth Today (2016)
Volume II.6: Mythic Ideas and Modern Culture (2017)
Myth and Metaphor in Society (With Jamake Highwater) (abridged)(2002)
Video/DVDs
Mask, Myth, & Dream (1963–1964)
Psyche & Symbol (1976)
Transformations of Myth Through Time (1989)
Mythos (1997/1998/2011)
Joseph Campbell and the Power of Myth (1988)
The Hero's Journey: The World of Joseph Campbell (1987)
Myth and Metaphor in Society (With Jamake Highwater) (1993)
Sukhavati: Place of Peace (1998)
Books edited
Gupta, Mahendranath. The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna (1942) (translation from Bengali by Swami Nikhilananda; Joseph Campbell and Margaret Woodrow Wilson, translation assistants -
see preface; foreword by Aldous Huxley)
Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Heinrich Zimmer (1946)
The King and the Corpse: Tales of the Soul's Conquest of Evil. Heinrich Zimmer (1948)
Philosophies of India. Heinrich Zimmer (1951)
The Portable Arabian Nights (1951)
The Art of Indian Asia. Heinrich Zimmer (1955)
Man and Time: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks. Various authors (1954–1969)
Man and Transformation: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks. Various authors (1954–1969)
The Mysteries: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks. Various authors (1954–1969)
The Mystic Vision: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks. Various authors (1954–1969)
Spirit and Nature: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks. Various authors (1954–1969)
Spiritual Disciplines: Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks. Various authors (1954–1969)
Myths, Dreams, Religion. Various authors (1970)
The Portable Jung. Carl Jung (1971)
See also
Monomyth
Mythos
Joseph Campbell Foundation
Jean Erdman
Wikiquote
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