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History of mobile phones
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A man talks on his mobile phone while standing near a conventional telephone box, which stands empty. Enabling technology for mobile phones was first developed in the 1940s but it was not until the mid 1980s that they became widely available. By 2011, it was estimated in the United Kingdom that more calls were made using mobile phones than wired devices.[1]
The history of mobile phones covers mobile communication devices that connect wirelessly to the public switched telephone network.
While the transmission of speech by radio has a long history, the first devices that were wireless, mobile, and also capable of connecting to the standard telephone network are much more recent. The first such devices were barely portable compared to today's compact hand-held devices, and their use was clumsy.
Along with the process of developing a more portable technology, and a better interconnections system, drastic changes have taken place in both the networking of wireless communication and the prevalence of its use, with smartphones becoming common globally and a growing proportion of Internet access now done via mobile broadband.
Contents
[hide]
1 Predecessors
2 Early services
2.1 MTS
2.2 IMTS
2.3 Radio Common Carrier
2.4 Other services
2.5 European mobile radio networks
3 The cellular concept
4 Emergence of automated services
5 Handheld mobile phone
6 The early generations
6.1 1G – Analogue cellular
6.2 2G – Digital cellular
6.3 3G – Mobile broadband
7 4G – Native IP networks
8 Mobile device charger standards
8.1 In China
8.2 OMTP/GSMA Universal Charging Solution
8.3 EU smartphone power supply standard
9 Satellite mobile
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
Predecessors[edit]
Before the devices existed that are now referred to as mobile phones or cell phones, there were some precursors. In 1908, a Professor Albert Jahnke and the Oakland Transcontinental Aerial Telephone and Power Company claimed to have developed a wireless telephone. They were accused of fraud and the charge was then dropped, but they do not seem to have proceeded with production.[2] Beginning in 1918, the German railroad system tested wireless telephony on military trains between Berlin and Zossen.[3] In 1924, public trials started with telephone connection on trains between Berlin and Hamburg. In 1925, the company Zugtelephonie AG was founded to supply train telephony equipment and, in 1926, telephone service in trains of the Deutsche Reichsbahn and the German mail service on the route between Hamburg and Berlin was approved and offered to first-class travelers.[4]
Karl Arnold drawing of public use of mobile telephones
Fiction anticipated the development of real world mobile telephones. In 1906, the English caricaturist Lewis Baumer published a cartoon in Punch magazine entitled "Forecasts for 1907" in which he showed a man and a woman in London's Hyde Park each separately engaged in gambling and dating on wireless telephony equipment.[5] Then, in 1926, the artist Karl Arnold created a visionary cartoon about the use of mobile phones in the street, in the picture "wireless telephony", published in the German satirical magazine Simplicissimus.[6]
The Second World War made military use of radio telephony links. Hand-held radio transceivers have been available since the 1940s. Mobile telephones for automobiles became available from some telephone companies in the 1940s. Early devices were bulky, consumed high power, and the network supported only a few simultaneous conversations. Modern cellular networks allow automatic and pervasive use of mobile phones for voice and data communications.
In the United States, engineers from Bell Labs began work on a system to allow mobile users to place and receive telephone calls from automobiles, leading to the inauguration of mobile service on 17 June 1946 in St. Louis, Missouri. Shortly after, AT&T offered Mobile Telephone Service. A wide range of mostly incompatible mobile telephone services offered limited coverage area and only a few available channels in urban areas. The introduction of cellular technology, which allowed re-use of frequencies many times in small adjacent areas covered by relatively low powered transmitters, made widespread adoption of mobile telephones economically feasible.
In the USSR, Leonid Kupriyanovich, an engineer from Moscow, in 1957-1961 developed and presented a number of experimental pocket-sized communications radio. The weight of one model, presented in 1961, was only 70 g and could fit on a palm.[7][8] However, in the USSR the decision at first to develop the system of the automobile "Altai" phone was made.[9]
In 1965, the Bulgarian company "Radioelektronika" presented a mobile automatic phone combined with a base station at the Inforga-65 international exhibition in Moscow. Solutions of this phone were based on a system developed by Leonid Kupriyanovich. One base station, connected to one telephone wire line, could serve up to 15 customers.[10]
The advances in mobile telephony can be traced in successive generations from the early "0G" services like MTS and its successor Improved Mobile Telephone Service, to first-generation (1G) analog cellular network, second-generation (2G) digital cellular networks, third-generation (3G) broadband data services to the state-of-the-art, fourth-generation (4G) native-IP networks.
Early services[edit]
MTS[edit]
In 1949, AT&T commercialized Mobile Telephone Service. From its start in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1946, AT&T introduced Mobile Telephone Service to one hundred towns and highway corridors by 1948. Mobile Telephone Service was a rarity with only 5,000 customers placing about 30,000 calls each week. Calls were set up manually by an operator and the user had to depress a button on the handset to talk and release the button to listen. The call subscriber equipment weighed about 80 pounds (36 kg)[11]
Subscriber growth and revenue generation were hampered by the constraints of the technology. Because only three radio channels were available, only three customers in any given city could make mobile telephone calls at one time.[12] Mobile Telephone Service was expensive, costing 15 USD per month, plus 0.30 to 0.40 USD per local call, equivalent to about 176 USD per month and 3.50 to 4.75 per call in 2012 USD.[11]
In the UK, there was also a vehicle-based system called "Post Office Radiophone Service,"[13] which was launched around the city of Manchester in 1959, and although it required callers to speak to an operator, it was possible to be put through to any subscriber in Great Britain. The service was extended to London in 1965 and other major cities in 1972.
IMTS[edit]
AT&T introduced the first major improvement to mobile telephony in 1965, giving the improved service the obvious name of Improved Mobile Telephone Service. IMTS used additional radio channels, allowing more simultaneous calls in a given geographic area, introduced customer dialing, eliminating manual call setup by an operator, and reduced the size and weight of the subscriber equipment.[11]
Despite the capacity improvement offered by IMTS, demand outstripped capacity. In agreement with state regulatory agencies, AT&T limited the service to just 40,000 customers system wide. In New York City, for example, 2,000 customers shared just 12 radio channels and typically had to wait 30 minutes to place a call.[11]
Radio Common Carrier[edit]
A mobile radio telephone
Radio Common Carrier[14] or RCC was a service introduced in the 1960s by independent telephone companies to compete against AT&T's IMTS. RCC systems used paired UHF 454/459 MHz and VHF 152/158 MHz frequencies near those used by IMTS. RCC based services were provided until the 1980s when cellular AMPS systems made RCC equipment obsolete.
Some RCC systems were designed to allow customers of adjacent carriers to use their facilities, but equipment used by RCCs did not allow the equivalent of modern "roaming" because technical standards were not uniform. For example, the phone of an Omaha, Nebraska–based RCC service would not be likely to work in Phoenix, Arizona. Roaming was not encouraged, in part, because there was no centralized industry billing database for RCCs. Signaling formats were not standardized. For example, some systems used two-tone sequential paging to alert a mobile of an incoming call. Other systems used DTMF. Some used Secode 2805, which transmitted an interrupted 2805 Hz tone (similar to IMTS signaling) to alert mobiles of an offered call. Some radio equipment used with RCC systems was half-duplex, push-to-talk LOMO equipment such as Motorola hand-helds or RCA 700-series conventional two-way radios. Other vehicular equipment had telephone handsets and rotary dials or pushbutton pads, and operated full duplex like a conventional wired telephone. A few users had full-duplex briefcase telephones (radically advanced for their day)
At the end of RCC's existence, industry associations were working on a technical standard that would have allowed roaming, and some mobile users had multiple decoders to enable operation with more than one of the common signaling formats (600/1500, 2805, and Reach). Manual operation was often a fallback for RCC roamers.
Other services[edit]
In 1969 Penn Central Railroad equipped commuter trains along the 360 kilometres (220 mi) New York-Washington route with special pay phones that allowed passengers to place telephone calls while the train was moving. The system re-used six frequencies in the 450 MHz band in nine sites.[12]
In the UK, Channel Islands and elsewhere the "Rabbit" phone system was briefly used, being a hybrid of "cell" base stations and handsets. One major limitation was that you had to be less than 300 feet (closer with buildings) from a base due to power limitations on a portable device. [15][better source needed] With modern technology a similar variant is being considered for Apple's new 4G "smart watch" so they can be used in large events in a broadly similar way to a femtocell.
European mobile radio networks[edit]
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In Europe, several mutually incompatible mobile radio services were developed.
In 1966 Norway had a system called OLT which was manually controlled. Finland's ARP, launched in 1971, was also manual as was the Swedish MTD. All were replaced by the automatic NMT, (Nordic Mobile Telephone) system in the early 1980s.
In July 1971 Readycall was introduced in London by Burndept after obtaining a special concession to break the Post Office monopoly to allow selective calling to mobiles of calls from the public telephone system. This system was available to the public for a subscription of £16 month. A year later the service was extended to two other UK towns.[16]
West Germany had a network called A-Netz launched in 1952 as the country's first public commercial mobile phone network. In 1972 this was displaced by B-Netz which connected calls automatically.
The cellular concept[edit]
See also: Cellular network
A multi-directional, cellular network antenna array ("cell tower")
In December 1947, Douglas H. Ring and W. Rae Young, Bell Labs engineers, proposed hexagonal cells for mobile phones in vehicles.[17] At this stage, the technology to implement these ideas did not exist, nor had the frequencies been allocated. Two decades would pass before Richard H. Frenkiel, Joel S. Engel and Philip T. Porter of Bell Labs expanded the early proposals into a much more detailed system plan. It was Porter who first proposed that the cell towers use the now-familiar directional antennas to reduce interference and increase channel reuse (see picture at right)[18] Porter also invented the dial-then-send method used by all cell phones to reduce wasted channel time.
In all these early examples, a mobile phone had to stay within the coverage area serviced by one base station throughout the phone call, i.e. there was no continuity of service as the phones moved through several cell areas. The concepts of frequency reuse and handoff, as well as a number of other concepts that formed the basis of modern cell phone technology, were described in the late 1960s, in papers by Frenkiel and Porter. In 1970 Amos E. Joel, Jr., a Bell Labs engineer,[19] invented a "three-sided trunk circuit" to aid in the "call handoff" process from one cell to another. His patent contained an early description of the Bell Labs cellular concept, but as switching systems became faster, such a circuit became unnecessary and was never implemented in a system.
A cellular telephone switching plan was described by Fluhr and Nussbaum in 1973,[20] and a cellular telephone data signaling system was described in hipatitas by Hachenburg et al.[21]
Emergence of automated services[edit]
The first fully automated mobile phone system for vehicles was launched in Sweden in 1956. Named MTA (Mobiltelefonisystem A), it allowed calls to be made and received in the car using a rotary dial. The car phone could also be paged. Calls from the car were direct dial, whereas incoming calls required an operator to locate the nearest base station to the car. It was developed by Sture Laurén and other engineers at Televerket network operator. Ericsson provided the switchboard while Svenska Radioaktiebolaget (SRA) and Marconi provided the telephones and base station equipment. MTA phones consisted of vacuum tubes and relays, and weighed 40 kilograms (88 lb). In 1962, an upgraded version called Mobile System B (MTB) was introduced. This was a push-button telephone, and used transistors and DTMF signaling to improve its operational reliability. In 1971 the MTD version was launched, opening for several different brands of equipment and gaining commercial success.[22][23] The network remained open until 1983 and still had 600 customers when it closed.
In 1958 development began on a similar system for motorists in the USSR.[24] The "Altay" national civil mobile phone service was based on Soviet MRT-1327 standard. The main developers of the Altay system were the Voronezh Science Research Institute of Communications (VNIIS) and the State Specialized Project Institute (GSPI). In 1963 the service started in Moscow, and by 1970 was deployed in 30 cities across the USSR. Versions of the Altay system are still in use today as a trunking system in some parts of Russia.
In 1959 a private telephone company in Brewster, Kansas, USA, the S&T Telephone Company, (still in business today) with the use of Motorola Radio Telephone equipment and a private tower facility, offered to the public mobile telephone services in that local area of NW Kansas. This system was a direct dial up service through their local switchboard, and was installed in many private vehicles including grain combines, trucks, and automobiles. For some as yet unknown reason, the system, after being placed online and operated for a very brief time period, was shut down. The management of the company was immediately changed, and the fully operable system and related equipment was immediately dismantled in early 1960, not to be seen again.[citation needed]
In 1966, Bulgaria presented the pocket mobile automatic phone RAT-0,5 combined with a base station RATZ-10 (RATC-10) on Interorgtechnika-66 international exhibition. One base station, connected to one telephone wire line, could serve up to six customers ("Radio" magazine, 2, 1967; "Novosti dnya" newsreel, 37, 1966).
One of the first successful public commercial mobile phone networks was the ARP network in Finland, launched in 1971. Posthumously, ARP is sometimes viewed as a zero generation (0G) cellular network, being slightly above previous proprietary and limited coverage networks.[citation needed]
Handheld mobile phone[edit]
Martin Cooper photographed in 2007 with his 1973 handheld mobile phone prototype
Prior to 1973, mobile telephony was limited to phones installed in cars and other vehicles.[19] Motorola was the first company to produce a handheld mobile phone. On April 3, 1973, Martin Cooper, a Motorola researcher and executive, made the first mobile telephone call from handheld subscriber equipment, placing a call to Dr. Joel S. Engel of Bell Labs, his rival.[25][26][27] The prototype handheld phone used by Dr. Cooper weighed 1.1 kilograms (2.4 lb) and measured 23 by 13 by 4.5 centimetres (9.1 by 5.1 by 1.8 in). The prototype offered a talk time of just 30 minutes and took 10 hours to re-charge.[28]
John F. Mitchell,[29][30][31] Motorola's chief of portable communication products and Cooper's boss in 1973, played a key role in advancing the development of handheld mobile telephone equipment. Mitchell failed to push Motorola into developing wireless communication products that would be small enough to use anywhere and participated in the design of the cellular phone.[32][33]
The early generations[edit]
Newer technology has been developed and rolled out in a series of waves or generations. The "generation" terminology only became widely used when 3G was launched, but is now used retroactively when referring to the earlier systems.
1G – Analogue cellular[edit]
Main article: 1G
First automatic analogue cellular systems deployed were NTT's system first used in Tokyo in 1979, later spreading to the whole of Japan, and NMT in the Nordic countries in 1981.
The first analogue cellular system widely deployed in North America was the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS).[34] It was commercially introduced in the Americas in 13 October 1983, Israel in 1986, and Australia in 1987. AMPS was a pioneering technology that helped drive mass market usage of cellular technology, but it had several serious issues by modern standards. It was unencrypted and easily vulnerable to eavesdropping via a scanner; it was susceptible to cell phone "cloning" and it used a Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) scheme and required significant amounts of wireless spectrum to support.
On 6 March 1983, the DynaTAC 8000X mobile phone launched on the first US 1G network by Ameritech. It cost $100m to develop, and took over a decade to reach the market.[35] The phone had a talk time of just thirty-five minutes and took ten hours to charge. Consumer demand was strong despite the battery life, weight, and low talk time, and waiting lists were in the thousands.[36][37]
Many of the iconic early commercial cell phones such as the Motorola DynaTAC Analog AMPS were eventually superseded by Digital AMPS (D-AMPS) in 1990, and AMPS service was shut down by most North American carriers by 2008.
In February 1986 Australia launched its Cellular Telephone System by Telecom Australia. Peter Reedman was the first Telecom Customer to be connected on 6 January 1986 along with five other subscribers as test customers prior to the official launch date of 28 February.
2G – Digital cellular[edit]
Main articles: 2G, 2.5G, and 2.75G
Two 1991 GSM mobile phones with several AC adapters
In the 1990s, the 'second generation' mobile phone systems emerged. Two systems competed for supremacy in the global market: the European developed GSM standard and the U.S. developed CDMA standard. These differed from the previous generation by using digital instead of analog transmission, and also fast out-of-band phone-to-network signaling. The rise in mobile phone usage as a result of 2G was explosive and this era also saw the advent of prepaid mobile phones.
In 1991 the first GSM network (Radiolinja) launched in Finland. In general the frequencies used by 2G systems in Europe were higher than those in America, though with some overlap. For example, the 900 MHz frequency range was used for both 1G and 2G systems in Europe, so the 1G systems were rapidly closed down to make space for the 2G systems. In America the IS-54 standard was deployed in the same band as AMPS and displaced some of the existing analog channels.
In 1993, IBM Simon was introduced. This was possibly the world's first smartphone. It was a mobile phone, pager, fax machine, and PDA all rolled into one. It included a calendar, address book, clock, calculator, notepad, email, and a touchscreen with a QWERTY keyboard.[38] The IBM Simon had a stylus you used to tap the touch screen with. It featured predictive typing that would guess the next characters as you tapped. It had applications, or at least a way to deliver more features by plugging a PCMCIA 1.8 MB memory card into the phone.[39] Coinciding with the introduction of 2G systems was a trend away from the larger "brick" phones toward tiny 100–200 grams (3.5–7.1 oz) hand-held devices. This change was possible not only through technological improvements such as more advanced batteries and more energy-efficient electronics, but also because of the higher density of cell sites to accommodate increasing usage. The latter meant that the average distance transmission from phone to the base station shortened, leading to increased battery life while on the move.
Personal Handy-phone System mobiles and modems used in Japan around 1997–2003
The second generation introduced a new variant of communication called SMS or text messaging. It was initially available only on GSM networks but spread eventually on all digital networks. The first machine-generated SMS message was sent in the UK on 3 December 1992 followed in 1993 by the first person-to-person SMS sent in Finland. The advent of prepaid services in the late 1990s soon made SMS the communication method of choice among the young, a trend which spread across all ages.
2G also introduced the ability to access media content on mobile phones. In 1998 the first downloadable content sold to mobile phones was the ring tone, launched by Finland's Radiolinja (now Elisa). Advertising on the mobile phone first appeared in Finland when a free daily SMS news headline service was launched in 2000, sponsored by advertising.
Mobile payments were trialed in 1998 in Finland and Sweden where a mobile phone was used to pay for a Coca-Cola vending machine and car parking. Commercial launches followed in 1999 in Norway. The first commercial payment system to mimic banks and credit cards was launched in the Philippines in 1999 simultaneously by mobile operators Globe and Smart.
The first full internet service on mobile phones was introduced by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in 1999.
3G – Mobile broadband[edit]
Main article: 3G
As the use of 2G phones became more widespread and people began to use mobile phones in their daily lives, it became clear that demand for data (such as access to browse the internet) was growing. Further, experience from fixed broadband services showed there would also be an ever-increasing demand for greater data speeds. The 2G technology was nowhere near up to the job, so the industry began to work on the next generation of technology known as 3G. The main technological difference that distinguishes 3G technology from 2G technology is the use of packet switching rather than circuit switching for data transmission.[40] In addition, the standardization process focused on requirements more than technology (2 Mbit/s maximum data rate indoors, 384 kbit/s outdoors, for example).
Inevitably this led to many competing standards with different contenders pushing their own technologies, and the vision of a single unified worldwide standard looked far from reality. The standard 2G CDMA networks became 3G compliant with the adoption of Revision A to EV-DO, which made several additions to the protocol while retaining backwards compatibility:
Introduction of several new forward link data rates that increase the maximum burst rate from 2.45 Mbit/s to 3.1 Mbit/s
Protocols that would decrease connection establishment time
Ability for more than one mobile to share the same time slot
Introduction of QoS flags
All these were put in place to allow for low latency, low bit rate communications such as VoIP.[41]
The first pre-commercial trial network with 3G was launched by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in the Tokyo region in May 2001. NTT DoCoMo launched the first commercial 3G network on 1 October 2001, using the WCDMA technology. In 2002 the first 3G networks on the rival CDMA2000 1xEV-DO technology were launched by SK Telecom and KTF in South Korea, and Monet in the US. Monet has since gone bankrupt. By the end of 2002, the second WCDMA network was launched in Japan by Vodafone KK (now Softbank). European launches of 3G were in Italy and the UK by Three/Hutchison group, on WCDMA. 2003 saw a further eight commercial launches of 3G, six more on WCDMA and two more on the EV-DO standard.
During the development of 3G systems, 2.5G systems such as CDMA2000 1x and GPRS were developed as extensions to existing 2G networks. These provide some of the features of 3G without fulfilling the promised high data rates or full range of multimedia services. CDMA2000-1X delivers theoretical maximum data speeds of up to 307 kbit/s. Just beyond these is the EDGE system which in theory covers the requirements for 3G system, but is so narrowly above these that any practical system would be sure to fall short.
The high connection speeds of 3G technology enabled a transformation in the industry: for the first time, media streaming of radio (and even television) content to 3G handsets became possible,[42] with companies such as RealNetworks[43] and Disney[44] among the early pioneers in this type of offering.
In the mid-2000s (decade), an evolution of 3G technology began to be implemented, namely High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA). It is an enhanced 3G (third generation) mobile telephony communications protocol in the High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) family, also coined 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G, which allows networks based on Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity. Current HSDPA deployments support down-link speeds of 1.8, 3.6, 7.2 and 14.0 Mbit/s.
By the end of 2007, there were 295 million subscribers on 3G networks worldwide, which reflected 9% of the total worldwide subscriber base. About two thirds of these were on the WCDMA standard and one third on the EV-DO standard. The 3G telecoms services generated over $120 billion of revenues during 2007 and at many markets the majority of new phones activated were 3G phones. In Japan and South Korea the market no longer supplies phones of the second generation.
Although mobile phones had long had the ability to access data networks such as the Internet, it was not until the widespread availability of good quality 3G coverage in the mid-2000s (decade) that specialized devices appeared to access the mobile web. The first such devices, known as "dongles", plugged directly into a computer through the USB port. Another new class of device appeared subsequently, the so-called "compact wireless router" such as the Novatel MiFi, which makes 3G Internet connectivity available to multiple computers simultaneously over Wi-Fi, rather than just to a single computer via a USB plug-in.
Such devices became especially popular for use with laptop computers due to the added portability they bestow. Consequently, some computer manufacturers started to embed the mobile data function directly into the laptop so a dongle or MiFi wasn't needed. Instead, the SIM card could be inserted directly into the device itself to access the mobile data services. Such 3G-capable laptops became commonly known as "netbooks". Other types of data-aware devices followed in the netbook's footsteps. By the beginning of 2010, E-readers, such as the Amazon Kindle and the Nook from Barnes & Noble, had already become available with embedded wireless Internet, and Apple had announced plans for embedded wireless Internet on its iPad tablet devices later that year.
4G – Native IP networks[edit]
Main article: 4G
By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications like streaming media.[45] Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized 4th-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to 10-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard (offered in the U.S. by Sprint) and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.
One of the main ways in which 4G differed technologically from 3G was in its elimination of circuit switching, instead employing an all-IP network. Thus, 4G ushered in a treatment of voice calls just like any other type of streaming audio media, utilizing packet switching over Internet, LAN or WAN networks via VoIP.[46]
Mobile device charger standards[edit]
USB power standards for mobile charger
Port
Current
Voltage
Power (max)
Micro-USB 500 mA 5 V 2.5 W
1 A 5 V 5 W
2 A 5 V 10 W
Type-C[47] 100 mA to 3 A 5 V 15 W
1.7 A to 3 A 9 V 27 W
1.8 A to 3 A 15 V 45 W
2.25 A to 5 A 20 V 100 W
Before a universal charger standard was agreed upon in the late 2000s users needed an adaptor which was often the same brand as their phone to recharge the battery.
In China[edit]
The Micro-USB interface is commonly found on chargers for mobile phones.
As of 14 June 2007[update], all new mobile phones applying for a license in China are required to use a USB port as a power port for battery charging.[48][49] This was the first standard to use the convention of shorting D+ and D−.[50]
OMTP/GSMA Universal Charging Solution[edit]
In September 2007, the Open Mobile Terminal Platform group (a forum of mobile network operators and manufacturers such as Nokia, Samsung, Motorola, Sony Ericsson, and LG) announced that its members had agreed on Micro-USB as the future common connector for mobile devices.[51][52]
The GSM Association (GSMA) followed suit on 17 February 2009,[53][53][54][55][56] and on 22 April 2009, this was further endorsed by the CTIA – The Wireless Association,[57] with the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) announcing on 22 October 2009 that it had also embraced the Universal Charging Solution as its "energy-efficient one-charger-fits-all new mobile phone solution," and added: "Based on the Micro-USB interface, UCS chargers will also include a 4-star or higher efficiency rating—up to three times more energy-efficient than an unrated charger."[58]
EU smartphone power supply standard[edit]
Main article: Common external power supply
In June 2009, many of the world's largest mobile phone manufacturers signed an EC-sponsored Memorandum of Understanding (MoU), agreeing to make most data-enabled mobile phones marketed in the European Union compatible with a common External Power Supply (common EPS). The EU's common EPS specification (EN 62684:2010) references the USB Battery Charging Specification and is similar to the GSMA/OMTP and Chinese charging solutions.[59][60] In January 2011, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) released its version of the (EU's) common EPS standard as IEC 62684:2011.[61]
Satellite mobile[edit]
Main article: Satellite phone
As well as the now-common cellular phone, there is also the very different approach of connecting directly from the handset to an Earth-orbiting satellite. Such mobile phones can be used in remote areas out of reach of wired networks or where construction of a cellular network is uneconomic.
The Inmarsat system is the oldest, originally developed in 1979 for safety of life at sea, and uses a series of satellites in geostationary orbits to cover the majority of the globe. Several smaller operators use the same approach with just one or two satellites to provide a regional service. An alternative approach is to use a series of low Earth orbit satellites much closer to Earth. This is the basis of the Iridium and Globalstar satellite phone services.
See also[edit]
The Mobile Revolution
Autopatch
History of the prepaid mobile phone
History of the telephone
List of best-selling mobile phones
Personal Communications Service PCS
Pager
Babylonokia
Subscriber identity module
Smartphone § History
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Jump up ^ Shi, Mingtao (2007). Technology Base of mobile cellular operators in Germany and China. Univerlagtuberlin. pp. 55–. ISBN 978-3-7983-2057-4. Retrieved 30 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Facts about the Mobile. A Journey through Time. mobilen50ar.se
Jump up ^ The first Russian mobile phone. Englishrussia.com (2006-09-18). Retrieved on 2012-12-30.
Jump up ^ Shiels, Maggie (21 April 2003). "BBC interview with Martin Cooper". BBC News.
Jump up ^ Martin Cooper, et al., "Radio Telephone System", US Patent number 3,906,166; Filing date: 17 October 1973; Issue date: September 1975; Assignee Motorola
Jump up ^ "Motorola Demonstrates Portable Telephone" (PDF). Motorola Communications Division press release. April 3, 1979.
Jump up ^ "Martin Cooper-The Inventor of the Cell Phone". Retrieved 23 March 2012.
Jump up ^ John F. Mitchell Biography. Brophy.net (2012-08-07). Retrieved on 2012-12-30.
Jump up ^ The Top Giants in Telephony Archived 17 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine.. Historyofthecellphone.com (2009-06-11). Retrieved on 2012-12-30.
Jump up ^ Who invented the cell phone?. Brophy.net (2012-08-07). Retrieved on 2012-12-30.
Jump up ^ "Motorola Executive Helped spur Cellphone Revolution, Oversaw Ill-fated Iridium Project". The Wall Street Journal, 20–21 June 2009,
Jump up ^ "John F. Mitchell, 1928–2009: Was president of Motorola from 1980 to '95". Chicago Tribune. 17 June 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2009.
Jump up ^ AT&T article. Corp.att.com (1946-06-17). Retrieved on 2012-12-30.
Jump up ^ "First Cell Phone a True 'Brick'". Associated Press. Retrieved 21 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "This Is the Original Mobile Phone Design Icon". Retrieved 21 March 2012.
Jump up ^ A. Kling, Andrew (2010). Cell Phones. 27500 Drake Road, Farmington Hills MI 48331: Lucent Books. pp. 24–26.
Jump up ^ "Cell Phone Generations 1G, 2G, 3G and now 4G – Tech Forums". Forums.techeblog.com. 25 August 2010. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Before IPhone and Android Came Simon, the First Smartphone". Businessweek. 29 June 2012. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
Jump up ^ 3G and Cellular radio Information. Privateline.com (2005-01-23). Retrieved on 2012-12-30.
Jump up ^ Gopal, Thawatt (11–15 March 2007). "IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference". IEEE: 3262–7. doi:10.1109/WCNC.2007.601. ISBN 1-4244-0658-7. |contribution= ignored (help)
Jump up ^ "Internet Archive Wayback Machine". Web.archive.org. 20 September 2005. Archived from the original on 28 April 2006. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Gonsalves, Antone (19 September 2005). "RealNetworks Launches Streaming Music on Sprint Phones". Informationweek.com. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Media Week, 20 September 2005, 12:00 am (20 September 2005). "Disney will offer mobile content – Media news". Media Week. Retrieved 16 October 2012. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Fahd Ahmad Saeed. "Capacity Limit Problem in 3G Networks". Purdue School of Engineering. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "VoIP Support in Nokia Devices". Archived from the original on 28 May 2009. Retrieved 16 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "10 Power Rules", Universal Serial Bus Power Delivery Specification revision 3.0, version 1.1, USB Implementers Forum, retrieved 2017-09-05
Jump up ^ Cai Yan (2007-05-31). "China to enforce universal cell phone charger". EE Times. Retrieved 2007-08-25.
Jump up ^ The Chinese FCC's technical standard: "YD/T 1591-2006, Technical Requirements and Test Method of Charger and Interface for Mobile Telecommunication Terminal Equipment" (PDF) (in Chinese). Dian yuan.
Jump up ^ Lam, Crystal; Liu, Harry (22 October 2007). "How to conform to China's new mobile phone interface standards". Wireless Net DesignLine. Retrieved 2010-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Pros seem to outdo cons in new phone charger standard". News. 20 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
Jump up ^ "Broad Manufacturer Agreement Gives Universal Phone Cable Green Light" (Press release). OTMP. 17 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-26.
^ Jump up to: a b "Agreement on Mobile phone Standard Charger" (Press release). GSM World.
Jump up ^ "Common Charging and Local Data Connectivity". Open Mobile Terminal Platform. 11 February 2009. Archived from the original on 29 March 2009. Retrieved 2009-02-11.
Jump up ^ "Universal Charging Solution ~ GSM World". GSM world. Retrieved 2010-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Meeting the challenge of the universal charge standard in mobile phones". Planet Analog. Retrieved 2010-06-22.
Jump up ^ "The Wireless Association Announces One Universal Charger Solution to Celebrate Earth Day" (Press release). CTIA. 2009-04-22. Retrieved 2010-06-22.
Jump up ^ "ITU" (Press release). 2009-10-22. Retrieved 2010-06-22.
Jump up ^ "chargers". EU: EC. 2009-06-29. Retrieved 2010-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Europe gets universal cellphone charger in 2010". Wired. 2009-06-13. Retrieved 2010-06-22.
Jump up ^ "One size-fits-all mobile phone charger: IEC publishes first globally relevant standard". International Electrotechnical Commission. 2011-02-01. Retrieved 2012-02-20.
Further reading[edit]
Agar, Jon (2004). Constant Touch: a Global History of the Mobile Phone. Cambridge: Icon. ISBN 978-1840465419.
Farley, Tom (2007). "The Cell-Phone Revolution". American Heritage of Invention & Technology. New York: American Heritage. 22 (3): 8–19. ISSN 8756-7296. OCLC 108126426. BL Shelfmark 0817.734000.
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OS X El Capitan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
OS X 10.11 El Capitan
A version of the macOS operating system
OS X El Capitan desktop
Developer
Apple Inc.
OS family
Macintosh
Unix[1]
Source model
Closed source (with open source components)
Released to
manufacturing
September 30, 2015; 3 years ago (2015-09-30)
Latest release
10.11.6 (15G22010) / July 9, 2018; 3 months ago (2018-07-09)
Update method
Mac App Store
Platforms
x86-64
Kernel type
Hybrid (XNU)
License
APSL and Apple EULA
Preceded by
OS X 10.10 Yosemite
Succeeded by
macOS 10.12 Sierra
Official website
OS X - Overview - Apple at the Wayback Machine (archived September 2, 2016)
Support status
Unsupported as of August 2018. iTunes support ends next year.
Part of a series on
macOS
Features[show]
History
Transition to Intel processors
Architecture
Technologies
List of applications
List of games
Components
Versions[show]
Rhapsody (Developer Release)
Hera (Server 1.0)
Kodiak (Public Beta)
Cheetah (10.0)
Puma (10.1)
Jaguar (10.2)
Panther (10.3)
Tiger (10.4)
Leopard (10.5)
Snow Leopard (10.6)
Lion (10.7)
Mountain Lion (10.8)
Mavericks (10.9)
Yosemite (10.10)
El Capitan (10.11)
Sierra (10.12)
High Sierra (10.13)
Mojave (10.14)
Applications[show]
App Store
Automator
Calculator
Calendar
Chess
Contacts
Dashboard
Dictionary
DVD Player
FaceTime
Finder
Game Center
Grapher
iTunes (history)
Launchpad
Mail
Messages
Notes
Notification Center
Photo Booth
Photos
Preview
QuickTime
Reminders
Safari (version history)
Stickies
TextEdit
Time Machine
Utilities[show]
Activity Monitor
AirPort Utility
Archive Utility
Audio MIDI Setup
Bluetooth File Exchange
ColorSync
Console
Crash Reporter
DigitalColor Meter
Directory Utility
DiskImageMounter
Disk Utility
Font Book
Grab
Help Viewer
Image Capture
Installer
Keychain Access
Migration Assistant
Network Utility
ODBC Administrator
Remote Install Mac OS X
Screen Sharing
System Preferences
System Information
Terminal
Universal Access
VoiceOver
Related[show]
Classic Mac OS
Copland
NeXTSTEP
Rhapsody
Darwin
v
t
e
OS X El Capitan (/ɛl ˌkæpɪˈtɑːn/ el-KAP-i-TAHN) (version 10.11) is the twelfth major release of OS X (now named macOS), Apple Inc.'s desktop and server operating system for Macintosh computers. It is the successor to OS X Yosemite and focuses mainly on performance, stability and security.[2] Following the Northern California landmark-based naming scheme introduced with OS X Mavericks, El Capitan was named after a rock formation in Yosemite National Park, signifying its goal to be a refined version of Yosemite. El Capitan is the final version to be released under the name OS X; its successor, Sierra, was announced as macOS Sierra. El Capitan received far superior reviews when compared to Yosemite.
The first beta of OS X El Capitan was released to developers shortly following the 2015 WWDC keynote on June 8, 2015.[3] The first public beta was made available on July 9, 2015.[4] There were multiple betas released after the keynote. OS X El Capitan was released to end users on September 30, 2015, as a free upgrade through the Mac App Store.[5]
Contents
1 System requirements
2 Features
2.1 Window management
2.2 Applications
2.2.1 Messages and Mail
2.2.2 Maps
2.2.3 Notes
2.2.4 Safari
2.2.5 Spotlight
2.2.6 Photos
2.3 System Integrity Protection
3 Release history
4 Reception
4.1 Issues
5 References
6 External links
System requirements[edit]
All Macintosh computers that can run Mountain Lion, Mavericks, or Yosemite can run El Capitan,[6] although not all of its features will work on older computers.[7] For example, Apple notes that the newly available Metal API is available on "all Macs since 2012".[8]
These computers can run El Capitan, provided they have at least 2GB of RAM:[9]
MacBook: Late 2008 or newer
MacBook Air: Late 2008 or newer
MacBook Pro: Mid 2007 or newer
Mac Mini: Early 2009 or newer
iMac: Mid 2007 or newer
Mac Pro: Early 2008 or newer
Xserve: Early 2009
Of these computers, the following models were equipped with 1GB RAM as the standard option on the base model when they were shipped originally. They can only run OS X El Capitan if they have at least 2GB of RAM.
iMac: Mid 2007
iMac: Early 2008
Mac Mini: Early 2009
The following computers support features such as Handoff, Instant Hotspot, AirDrop between Mac computers and iOS devices, as well as the new Metal API:[10]
iMac: Late 2012 or newer
MacBook: Early 2015 or newer
MacBook Air: Mid 2012 or newer
MacBook Pro: Mid 2012 or newer
Mac Mini: Late 2012 or newer
Mac Pro: Late 2013
The upgrade varies in size depending upon which Apple Mac computer it is being installed on, in most scenarios it will require about 6 GB of disk space.[11]
Features[edit]
OS X El Capitan includes features to improve the security, performance, design and usability of OS X. Compared to OS X Yosemite, Apple says that opening PDFs is four times faster, app switching and viewing messages in Mail is twice as fast and launching apps is 40% faster.[12][13] The maximum amount of memory that could be allocated to the graphics processor has been increased from 1024 MB to 1536 MB on Macs with an Intel HD 4000 GPU.[14] OS X El Capitan supports Metal, Apple's graphics API introduced in iOS 8 to speed up performance in games and professional applications.[15] Apple's typeface San Francisco replaces Helvetica Neue as the system typeface.[16] OS X El Capitan also adopts LibreSSL in replacement of OpenSSL used in previous versions.[17]
Window management[edit]
An example of the split screen view in OS X El Capitan
OS X El Capitan introduces new window management features such as creating a full-screen split view by pressing the green button on left upper corner of the window or Control+Cmd+F keyboard shortcut, then snapping any supported other window to that full screen application. This feature is slightly similar to, although less extensive than, the snap-assist feature in Windows 7 (and later) and several Linux desktop environments, such as GNOME.[18] OS X El Capitan improves Mission Control to incorporate this feature across multiple spaces. It also enables users to spot the pointer more easily by enlarging it by shaking the mouse or swiping a finger back and forth on the trackpad.[19]
Applications[edit]
Messages and Mail[edit]
OS X El Capitan adds multi-touch gestures to applications like Mail and Messages that allow a user to delete or mark emails or conversations by swiping a finger on a multi-touch device, such as a trackpad. OS X also analyzes the contents of individual emails in Mail and uses the gathered information in other applications, such as Calendar. For example, an invitation in Mail can automatically be added as a Calendar event.
Maps[edit]
Apple Maps in El Capitan shows public transit information similar to Maps in iOS 9.[12] This feature was limited to a handful of cities upon launch: Baltimore, Berlin, Chicago, London, Los Angeles, Mexico City, New York City, Paris, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Shanghai, Toronto and Washington D.C.
Notes[edit]
The Notes application receives an overhaul, similar to Notes in iOS 9. Both applications have more powerful text-processing capabilities, such as to-do lists (like in the Reminders application), inline webpage previews, photos and videos, digital sketches, map locations and other documents and media types. Notes replaces traditional IMAP-based syncing with iCloud, which offers better end-to-end encryption and faster syncing.[20]
Safari[edit]
Safari in El Capitan lets users pin tabs for frequently accessed websites to the tab bar, similar to Firefox and Google Chrome. Users are able to quickly identify and mute tabs that play audio without having to search for individual tabs. Safari supports AirPlay video streaming to an Apple TV without the need to broadcast the entire webpage. Safari extensions are now hosted and signed by Apple as part of the updated Apple Developer program and they received native support for content blocking, allowing developers to block website components (such as advertisements) without JavaScript injection.[21] The app also allows the user to customize the font and background of the Reader mode.[22]
Spotlight[edit]
Spotlight is improved with more contextual information such as the weather, stocks, news and sports scores. It is also able to process queries in natural language. For example, users can type "Show me pictures that I took in Yosemite National Park in July 2014" and Spotlight will use that request to bring up the corresponding info.[23] The app can now be resized and moved across the screen.[24]
Photos[edit]
Photos introduced editing extensions which allows Photos to use editing tools from other apps.[25]
System Integrity Protection[edit]
Main article: System Integrity Protection
OS X El Capitan has a new security feature called System Integrity Protection (SIP,[26] sometimes referred to as "rootless"[27][28]) that protects certain system processes, files and folders from being modified or tampered with by other processes even when executed by the root user or by a user with root privileges (sudo). Apple says that the root user can be a significant risk factor to the system's security, especially on systems with a single user account on which that user is also the administrator. System Integrity Protection is enabled by default, but can be disabled.[29][30]
Release history[edit]
Previous release Current release Beta
Version
Build
Date
Darwin
Notes
Standalone download
10.11
15A284 September 30, 2015 15.0.0 Original Mac App Store release N/A
10.11.1
15B42 October 21, 2015 About the OS X El Capitan v10.11.1 Update OS X El Capitan 10.11.1 Update
10.11.2
15C50 December 8, 2015 15.2.0 About the OS X El Capitan v10.11.2 Update
OS X El Capitan 10.11.2 Update]OS X El Capitan 10.11.2 Combo Update
10.11.3
15D21 January 19, 2016 15.3.0 About the OS X El Capitan v10.11.3 Update
OS X El Capitan 10.11.3 Update
OS X El Capitan 10.11.3 Combo Update
10.11.4
15E65 March 21, 2016 15.4.0 About the OS X El Capitan v10.11.4 Update
OS X El Capitan 10.11.4 Update
OS X El Capitan 10.11.4 Combo Update
10.11.5
15F34 May 16, 2016 15.5.0 About the OS X El Capitan v10.11.5 Update
OS X El Capitan 10.11.5 Update
OS X El Capitan 10.11.5 Combo Update
10.11.6
15G31 July 18, 2016 15.6.0 About the OS X El Capitan v10.11.6 Update
OS X El Capitan 10.11.6 Update
OS X El Capitan 10.11.6 Combo Update
15G1004 September 1, 2016 About the security content of Security Update 2016-001 El Capitan Security Update 2016-001 El Capitan
15G1011
15G1108 October 24, 2016 About the security content of Security Update 2016-002 El Capitan Security Update 2016-002 El Capitan
15G1212 December 13, 2016 About the security content of Security Update 2016-003 El Capitan Security Update 2016-003 El Capitan
15G1217 January 17, 2017 About the security content of Security Update 2016-003 El Capitan
Security Update 2016-003 El Capitan
Security Update 2016-003 Supplemental (10.11.6)
15G1421 March 27, 2017 About the security content of Security Update 2017-001 El Capitan Security Update 2017-001 El Capitan
15G1510 May 15, 2017 About the security content of Security Update 2017-002 El Capitan Security Update 2017-002 El Capitan
15G1611 July 19, 2017 About the security content of Security Update 2017-003 El Capitan Security Update 2017-003 El Capitan
15G17023 October 31, 2017 About the security content of Security Update 2017-004 El Capitan Security Update 2017-004 El Capitan
15G18013 December 6, 2017 About the security content of Security Update 2017-005 El Capitan Security Update 2017-005 El Capitan
15G19009 January 23, 2018 About the security content of Security Update 2018-001 El Capitan Security Update 2018-001 El Capitan
15G20015 March 29, 2018 About the security content of Security Update 2018-002 El Capitan Security Update 2018-002 El Capitan
15G21013 June 1, 2018 About the security content of Security Update 2018-003 El Capitan Security Update 2018-003 El Capitan
15G22010 July 9, 2018 About the security content of Security Update 2018-004 El Capitan Security Update 2018-004 El Capitan
Reception[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2015)
Upon release, OS X El Capitan was met with positive reception from both users and critics, with praise mostly going towards the overall functionality of the new features and improved stability. Dieter Bohn of The Verge awarded the operating system a score of 8.5 out of 10;[31] while Jason Snell of Macworld was also positive, rating it 4.5 out of 5.[32]
Issues[edit]
After the 10.11.4 update, many users started reporting that their MacBooks were freezing, requiring a hard reboot.[33] This issue mostly affects Early 2015 MacBook Pro computers, although many others have reported freezes in other models.[34] Several users created videos in YouTube which showed the freezes.[35][36][37] Soon after this, Apple released the 10.11.5 update, which contained stability improvements. Apple later acknowledged these problems, recommending their users to update to the last point release.[38]
After the December 13, 2016 release of Security Update 2016-003, users reported problems with the WindowServer process becoming unresponsive, causing the GUI to freeze and sometimes necessitating a hard reboot to fix.[39] In response, on January 17, 2017, Apple released Security Update 2016-003 Supplemental (10.11.6) to fix "a kernel issue that may cause your Mac to occasionally become unresponsive" and at the same time released an updated version of Security Update 2016-003 which includes the fix released in the supplemental.[40] Users who have not previously installed Security Update 2016-003 are advised to install the updated version to reach build 15G1217, while users who have already installed the December 13, 2016 Security Update 2016-003 only need to install the supplemental update.
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Williams, Rhiannon (September 30, 2015). "How to download OS X El Capitan". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on November 15, 2015. Retrieved November 2, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Apple - Press Info - Apple Announces OS X El Capitan with Refined Experience & Improved Performance" (Press release). Apple Inc. Archived from the original on June 8, 2015.
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Jump up ^ "El Capitan: Adjust Safari's Reader Settings - The Mac Observer". The Mac Observer. Archived from the original on April 15, 2017. Retrieved April 14, 2017.
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Jump up ^ Cunningham, Andrew (June 17, 2015). "First look: OS X El Capitan brings a little Snow Leopard to Yosemite". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on June 19, 2015. Retrieved June 18, 2015.
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Jump up ^ Snell, Jason (September 29, 2015). "OS X El Capitan review: Mac upgrade that's as solid as a rock". Macworld. Archived from the original on October 1, 2015. Retrieved October 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Hardwick, Tim. "Mac Users Reporting Widespread System Freezes With OS X El Capitan 10.11.4 Update". Archived from the original on May 16, 2016. Retrieved May 14, 2016.
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Jump up ^ WannaKnowMyName (2016-04-21), 10.11.4 freeze, retrieved 2016-05-14
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Jump up ^ "Apple fixes El Capitan kernel issue in supplemental security update". AppleInsider. Archived from the original on March 30, 2017. Retrieved March 30, 2017.
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interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-OS_X_El_Capitan rootpage-OS_X_El_Capitan skin-vector action-view