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Cam
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For the part of an engine sometimes referred to as a "cam", see camshaft. For the name "Cam" and other uses, see Cam (disambiguation).
Fig. 1 Animation showing rotating cams and cam followers producing reciprocating motion.
A cam is a rotating or sliding piece in a mechanical linkage used especially in transforming rotary motion into linear motion or vice versa.[1][2] It is often a part of a rotating wheel (e.g. an eccentric wheel) or shaft (e.g. a cylinder with an irregular shape) that strikes a lever at one or more points on its circular path. The cam can be a simple tooth, as is used to deliver pulses of power to a steam hammer, for example, or an eccentric disc or other shape that produces a smooth reciprocating (back and forth) motion in the follower, which is a lever making contact with the cam.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Displacement diagram
3 Plate cam
4 Cylindrical cam
5 Face cam
6 Heart shaped cam
7 Snail drop cam
8 Linear cam
9 History
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Overview[edit]
The cam can be seen as a device that rotates from circular to reciprocating (or sometimes oscillating) motion.[3] A common example is the camshaft of an automobile, which takes the rotary motion of the engine and translates it into the reciprocating motion necessary to operate the intake and exhaust valves of the cylinders.
Displacement diagram[edit]
Fig. 2 Basic displacement diagram
Certain cams can be characterized by their displacement diagrams, which reflect the changing position a roller follower (a shaft with a rotating wheel at the end) would make as the cam rotates about an axis. These diagrams relate angular position, usually in degrees, to the radial displacement experienced at that position. Displacement diagrams are traditionally presented as graphs with non-negative values. A simple displacement diagram illustrates the follower motion at a constant velocity rise followed by a similar return with a dwell in between as depicted in figure 2.[4] The rise is the motion of the follower away from the cam center, dwell is the motion where the follower is at rest, and return is the motion of the follower toward the cam center.[5]
However, the most common type is in the valve actuators in internal combustion engines. Here, the cam profile is commonly symmetric and at rotational speeds generally met with, very high acceleration forces develop. Ideally, a convex curve between the onset and maximum position of lift reduces acceleration, but this requires impractically large shaft diameters relative to lift. Thus, in practice, the points at which lift begins and ends mean that a tangent to the base circle appears on the profile. This is continuous with a tangent to the tip circle. In designing the cam, the lift and the dwell angle θ {\displaystyle \theta } are given. If the profile is treated as a large base circle and a small tip circle, joined by a common tangent, giving lift L {\displaystyle L} , the relationship can be calculated, given the angle ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } between one tangent and the axis of symmetry ( ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } being π / 2 − θ / 2 {\displaystyle \pi /2-\theta /2} ), while C {\displaystyle C} is the distance between the centres of the circles (required), and R {\displaystyle R} is the radius of the base (given) and r {\displaystyle r} that of the tip circle (required)
C = L / ( 1 − sin  ϕ ) {\displaystyle C=L/(1-\sin \phi )} and r = R − L sin  ϕ / ( 1 − sin  ϕ ) {\displaystyle r=R-L\sin \phi /(1-\sin \phi )}
Plate cam[edit]
Fig. 3 Cam profile
The most commonly used cam is the cam plate (also known as disc cam or radial cam[6]) which is cut out of a piece of flat metal or plate.[7] Here, the follower moves in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the camshaft.[8] Several key terms are relevant in such a construction of plate cams: base circle, prime circle (with radius equal to the sum of the follower radius and the base circle radius), pitch curve which is the radial curve traced out by applying the radial displacements away from the prime circle across all angles, and the lobe separation angle (LSA - the angle between two adjacent intake and exhaust cam lobes).
The base circle is the smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam profile.
A once common, but now outdated, application of this type of cam was automatic machine tool programming cams. Each tool movement or operation was controlled directly by one or more cams. Instructions for producing programming cams and cam generation data for the most common makes of machine were included in engineering references well into the modern CNC era.[9]
This type of cam is used in many simple electromechanical appliance controllers, such as dishwashers and clothes washing machines, to actuate mechanical switches that control the various parts.
Cylindrical cam[edit]
Motorcycle transmission showing cylindrical cam with three followers. Each follower controls the position of a shift fork.
Constant lead barrel cam in an American Pacemaker lathe. This cam is used to provide a repeatable cross slide setting when threading with a single-point tool.
A cylindrical cam or barrel cam is a cam in which the follower rides on the surface of a cylinder. In the most common type, the follower rides in a groove cut into the surface of a cylinder. These cams are principally used to convert rotational motion to linear motion parallel to the rotational axis of the cylinder. A cylinder may have several grooves cut into the surface and drive several followers. Cylindrical cams can provide motions that involve more than a single rotation of the cylinder and generally provide positive positioning, removing the need for a spring or other provision to keep the follower in contact with the control surface.
Applications include machine tool drives, such as reciprocating saws, and shift control barrels in sequential transmissions, such as on most modern motorcycles.
A special case of this cam is constant lead, where the position of the follower is linear with rotation, as in a lead screw. The purpose and detail of implementation influence whether this application is called a cam or a screw thread, but in some cases, the nomenclature may be ambiguous.
Cylindrical cams may also be used to reference an output to two inputs, where one input is rotation of the cylinder, and the second is position of the follower axially along the cam. The output is radial to the cylinder. These were once common for special functions in control systems, such as fire control mechanisms for guns on naval vessels[10] and mechanical analog computers.[11]
An example of a cylindrical cam with two inputs is provided by a duplicating lathe, an example of which is the Klotz axe handle lathe,[12] which cuts an axe handle to a form controlled by a pattern acting as a cam for the lathe mechanism.
Face cam[edit]
A face cam produces motion by using a follower riding on the face of a disk. The most common type has the follower ride in a slot so that the captive follower produces radial motion with positive positioning without the need for a spring or other mechanism to keep the follower in contact with the control surface. A face cam of this type generally has only one slot for a follower on each face. In some applications, a single element, such as a gear, a barrel cam, or other rotating element with a flat face, may do duty as a face cam in addition to other purposes.
Face cams may provide repetitive motion with a groove that forms a closed curve, or may provide function generation with a stopped groove. Cams used for function generation may have grooves that require several revolutions to cover the complete function, and in this case, the function generally needs to be invertible so that the groove does not self intersect, and the function output value must differ enough at corresponding rotations that there is sufficient material separating the adjacent groove segments. A common form is the constant lead cam, where displacement of the follower is linear with rotation, such as the scroll plate in a scroll chuck. Non-invertible functions, which require the groove to self-intersect, can be implemented using special follower designs.
Sash window lock, traditional cam style, for double-hung sash window
A variant of the face cam provides motion parallel to the axis of cam rotation. A common example is the traditional sash window lock, where the cam is mounted to the top of the lower sash, and the follower is the hook on the upper sash. In this application, the cam is used to provide mechanical advantage in forcing the window shut, and also provides a self-locking action, like some worm gears, due to friction.
Face cams may also be used to reference a single output to two inputs, typically where one input is rotation of the cam and the other is radial position of the follower. The output is parallel to the axis of the cam. These were once common is mechanical analog computation and special functions in control systems.[13]
A face cam that implements three outputs for a single rotational input is the stereo phonograph, where a relatively constant lead groove guides the stylus and tone arm unit, acting as either a rocker-type (tone arm) or linear (linear tracking turntable) follower, and the stylus alone acting as the follower for two orthogonal outputs to representing the audio signals. These motions are in a plane radial to the rotation of the record and at angles of 45 degrees to the plane of the disk (normal to the groove faces). The position of the tone arm was used by some turntables as a control input, such as to turn the unit off or to load the next disk in a stack, but was ignored in simple units.
Heart shaped cam[edit]
This type of cam, in the form of a symmetric heart symbol, is used to return a shaft holding the cam to a set position by pressure from a roller. They were used for example on early models of Post Office Master clocks to synchronise the clock time with Greenwich Mean Time when the activating follower was pressed onto the cam automatically via a signal from an accurate time source.[14]
Snail drop cam[edit]
This type of cam was used for example in mechanical time keeping clocking-in clocks to drive the day advance mechanism at precisely midnight and consisted of a follower being raised over 24 hours by the cam in a spiral path which terminated at a sharp cut off at which the follower would drop down and activate the day advance. Where timing accuracy is required as in clocking-in clocks these were typically ingeniously arranged to have a roller cam follower to raise the drop weight for most of its journey to near its full height, and only for the last portion of its travel for the weight to be taken over and supported by a solid follower with a sharp edge. This ensured that the weight dropped at a precise moment, enabling accurate timing.[15] This was achieved by the use of two snail cams mounted coaxially with the roller initially resting on one cam and the final solid follower on the other but not in contact with its cam profile. Thus the roller cam was initially carried the weight, until at the final portion of the run the profile of the non-roller cam rose more than the other causing the solid follower to take the weight.
Linear cam[edit]
A linear cam is one in which the cam element moves in a straight line rather than rotates. The cam element is often a plate or block, but may be any cross section.[16] The key feature is that the input is a linear motion rather than rotational. The cam profile may be cut into one or more edges of a plate or block, may be one or more slots or grooves in the face of an element, or may even be a surface profile for a cam with more than one input. The development of a linear cam is similar to, but not identical to, that of a rotating cam.[17]
Key duplicating machine. The original key (mounted in the left hand holder) acts as a linear cam to control the cut depth for the duplicate.
A common example of a linear cam is a key for a pin tumbler lock. The pins act as the followers. This behavior is exemplified when the key is duplicated in a key duplication machine, where the original key acts as a control cam for cutting the new key.
History[edit]
An early cam was built into Hellenistic water-driven automata from the 3rd century BC.[18] The cam and camshaft later appeared in mechanisms by Al-Jazari, who used them in his automata, described in 1206.[19] The cam and camshaft appeared in European mechanisms from the 14th century.[20]
See also[edit]
Reciprocating motion
Cam engine
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "cam definition". Merriam Webster. Retrieved 2010-04-05. a rotating or sliding piece (as an eccentric wheel or a cylinder with an irregular shape) in a mechanical linkage used especially in transforming rotary motion into linear motion or vice versa
Jump up ^ G., Shigley, J., & Uicker, J. (2010). Cam Design. Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (4 ed.). Oxford University Press, USA. p. 200. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Jensen, Preben w. (1965). Cam Design and Manufacture. The Industrial Press, New York. p. 1.
Jump up ^ Cam Design and Manufacture. The Industrial Press, New York. p. 8.
Jump up ^ Introduction to Mechanisms - Cams"rise is the motion of the follower away from the cam center, dwell is the motion where the follower is at rest, and return is the motion of the follower toward the cam center"
Jump up ^ "Cams; their profiles and the velocity and acceleration of their associated followers". Retrieved 29 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Jensen, Preben w. (1965). Cam Design and Manufacture. The Industrial Press, New York. p. 1.
Jump up ^ Introduction to Mechanisms - Cams "The follower moves in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the camshaft."
Jump up ^ Oberg, Erik (1996). Machinery's Handbook, 25th Ed. Industrial Press. pp. 1050–1055.
Jump up ^ Bomar, Null, and Wallace (1996). Gunners Mate 1 & C NAVEDTRA 14110. Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center. p. 4-2. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Clymer, A. Ben. "The Mechanical Analog Computers of Hannibal Ford and William Newell". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 15 (2): 19–34. doi:10.1109/85.207741.
Jump up ^ House handles Klotz lathe.
Jump up ^ Bomar, Null, and Wallace (1996). Gunners Mate 1 & C NAVEDTRA 14110. Naval Education and Training Professional Development and Technology Center. p. 4-1. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSnQxblcFmDowNoS4C-voIymQHG6o8sEAlxC9zAqhVivxtq6nsYwA
Jump up ^ https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQ5FMCIxzU8XAbFpEiXgZGi-GgRHVeci71oxiGHc9HTn8mUGEhG
Jump up ^ "Linear cam mechanical interlock".
Jump up ^ "Calculation equations:cams". Retrieved 29 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Andrew (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (16) https://www.jstor.org/stable/3184857
Jump up ^ Georges Ifrah (2001). The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer, p. 171, Trans. E.F. Harding, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (See [1])
Jump up ^ A. Lehr (1981), De Geschiedenis van het Astronomisch Kunstuurwerk, p. 227, Den Haag. (See [2])
External links[edit]
Cam design pages Creates animated cams for specified follower motions.
How round is your circle? Contains various linkages.
Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) - Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes an e-book library of classic texts on mechanical design and engineering.
Introduction to Mechanisms - Cams Classification, nomenclature, motion, and design of cams; information for the course, Introduction to Mechanisms, at Carnegie Mellon University.
Polynomial cam function with excel VBA file to demonstrate its motion
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Bridesmaid
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"Maid of honor" redirects here. For the UK royal court title, see maid of honour. For the Justice League episode, see Maid of Honor (Justice League episode).
"Bridesmaids" redirects here. For the 2011 film, see Bridesmaids (2011 film).
For other uses, see Bridesmaid (disambiguation).
Seven bridesmaids in matching dresses, with the bride
The bridesmaids are members of the bride's party in a wedding. A bridesmaid is typically a young woman, and often a close friend or relative. She attends to the bride on the day of a wedding or marriage ceremony. Traditionally, bridesmaids were chosen from unwed young women of marriageable age.
The principal bridesmaid, if one is so designated, may be called the chief bridesmaid or maid of honor if she is unmarried, or the matron of honor if she is married. A junior bridesmaid is a girl who is clearly too young to be married, but who is included as an honorary bridesmaid. In the United States, typically only the maid/matron of honor and the best man are the official witnesses for the wedding license.
Often there is more than one bridesmaid: in modern times the bride chooses how many to ask. Historically, no person of status went out unattended, and the size of the retinue was closely calculated to be appropriate to the family's social status. A large group of bridesmaids provided an opportunity for showing off the family's social status and wealth. Today, the number of bridesmaids in a wedding party is dependent on many variables, including a bride's preferences, the size of her family, and the number of attendants her partner would like to have as well.
The male equivalent is the groomsman, also known in British English as an usher; in the United States, the role of attending to the groom has diverged from that of escorting guests to their seats, and the two positions are no longer synonymous and are often if not usually filled by different persons.
In some cultures, such as in Norway, the Netherlands and Victorian Britain, it has been customary for bridesmaids to be small girls rather than grown women. They may carry flowers during the wedding procession and pose with the married couple in bridal photos. In modern English-speaking countries, this role is separate from that of the bridesmaid, and the small child performing it is known as a flower girl.
Contents
[hide]
1 Duties
2 Maid of honor
3 Origin and history
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Duties[edit]
Four bridesmaids wearing gagra cholis, the traditional dress of northern India.
Although many exceed the minimum, the bridesmaids' required duties are very limited.[1] They are required to attend the wedding ceremony and to assist the bride on the day of the wedding. Bridesmaids in Europe and North America are often asked to assist the bride with planning the wedding and a wedding reception. In modern times, a bridesmaid often participates in planning wedding-related events, such as a bridal shower or bachelorette party, if there are any. These, however, are optional activities; according to etiquette expert Judith Martin, "Contrary to rumor, bridesmaids are not obliged to entertain in honor of the bride, nor to wear dresses they cannot afford."[2] If it is customary in the bride's area to have a bridesmaids luncheon, then it is hosted, and therefore organized and paid for, by the bride.[3] A junior bridesmaid has no responsibilities beyond attending the wedding.
This junior bridesmaid, in North Carolina, USA, is dressed in white, just like the bride.
The duties and costs of being a bridesmaid are parsed out between a bride and her attendants in a variety of ways. Since modern bridesmaids, unlike their historical counterparts, can no longer rely on having their clothes and travel expenses paid for by the bride's family, and are sometimes even told they must pay for parties that the bride wants to have before the wedding, it has become customary for the bride to present the bridesmaids with gifts as a sign of gratitude for the support and financial commitment that comes with their roles. It has become equally customary for women who are invited to serve as bridesmaids to first ask about the amount of time, energy, and money that the bride expects from them before accepting this position, and to decline or resign if this is more than they will be able to give.[4] In some American weddings, each bridesmaid may be asked to spend US $1,700 or more, with travel to destination weddings and pre-wedding parties usually being the biggest expense.[4]
Maid of honor [edit]
For the court title, see Maid of honour.
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The bride (center) with her maid of honor (third from left) and bridesmaids. The maid of honor can be distinguished by her dress, which differs somewhat from that of the other bridesmaids, as well as by her position in the traditional place of honor at the immediate right of the principal party. From 1929, in Minnesota, USA.
In the United Kingdom, the term "maid of honour" originally referred to the female attendant of a queen. The term bridesmaid is normally used for all bridal attendants in the UK. However, when the attendant is married, or is a mature woman, the term matron of honour is often used. The influence of American English has led to the chief bridesmaid sometimes being called the maid of honour.
In North America, a wedding party might include several bridesmaids, but the maid of honor is the title and position held by the bride's chief attendant, typically her closest friend or sister. In modern-day weddings some brides opt to choose a long-time male friend or brother as their head attendant, using the title best man or man of honor.
The activities of the principal bridesmaid may be as many or as varied as she allows the bride to impose upon her. Her only required duty is to participate in the wedding ceremony. Typically, however, she is asked for help with the logistics of the wedding as an event, such as addressing invitations, and for her help as a friend, such as attending the bride as she shops for her wedding dress.
On the day of the wedding, her principal duty is to provide practical and emotional support. She might assist the bride with dressing and, if needed, help the bride manage her veil, a bouquet, a prayer book, or the train of her wedding dress during the day. In a double-ring wedding, the chief bridesmaid is often entrusted with the groom's wedding ring until it is needed during the ceremony. Many brides ask bridesmaids, if they are adults, to be legal witnesses who sign the marriage license after the ceremony. If there is a reception after the wedding, the maid of honor may be asked to offer a toast to the newlywed.
Origin and history[edit]
The origin of the Western bridesmaid tradition likely arose from a combination of many factors. The most-likely factors include, but aren't limited to, socioeconomic class and status, family size, socialization standards of the day, and religion.
Those that religion often cite the Biblical story of Jacob, and his two wives Leah and Rachel, who both literally came with their own maids as detailed in the Book of Genesis (29:24, 46:18) as the origin of bridesmaids. These women were handmaidens (servants or slaves) instead of social peers.[citation needed]
In China during the feudal era, the female womb was seen as precious for the production of an heir. Brides were susceptible to kidnapping at weddings by rival clans and hooligans. Shouldering the responsibility to protect the bride, bridesmaids were dressed up like the bride to lower the risk that she might be identified and robbed. As legal protections for marriage were established, this was no longer necessary, and the role of bridesmaid took a more symbolic turn. [5]
In the Victorian era, white was the official color for both male groomsmen and female bridesmaids. This trend originated with Queen Victoria when she married Prince Albert wearing a long white wedding dress, and her bridesmaids matched the color of her gown.
See also[edit]
Bridesman
Groomsman
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Martin, Judith (2005). Miss Manners' Guide to Excruciatingly Correct Behavior, Freshly Updated. Kamen, Gloria. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 383. ISBN 0-393-05874-3. [I]n polite society...the bridesmaids' only duties are to make a special fuss over the bride by gathering around her at the wedding and, in the weeks before, by pretending to be interested in all the wedding details. It is also nice, but not obligatory, for them to plan a girlishly informal gathering—a luncheon or shower—for her beforehand.
Jump up ^ Martin, Judith (1999). Miss Manners on weddings. New York: Crown Publishers. pp. 136–137. ISBN 0-609-60431-7.
Jump up ^ Post, Emily (1922). Etiquette in Society, in Business, in Politics and at Home'. Funk & Wagnalls Company. pp. 335–337.
^ Jump up to: a b Steinberg, Stephanie (28 June 2011). "How much does it cost to be a bridesmaid?". CNN.
Jump up ^ http://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/it%e2%80%99s-so-dangerous-being-a-bridesmaid-in-china-that-some-brides-are-hiring-professionals-instead/ar-AAjoU6y?li=BBnb7Kz
External links[edit]
A Salute to Bridesmaids - slideshow by Life magazine

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Branches of science
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Further information: Outline of science § Branches of science
The scale of the universe mapped to the branches of science, with formal sciences as the foundation
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The branches of science (also referred to as "sciences", "scientific fields", or "scientific disciplines") are commonly divided into three major groups:
Natural sciences: the study of natural phenomena (including cosmological, geological, chemical, and biological factors of the universe)
Formal sciences: the study of mathematics and logic, which use an a priori, as opposed to factual, methodology.
Social sciences: the study of human behavior and societies.[citation needed]
Natural and social sciences are empirical sciences, meaning that the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and must be capable of being verified by other researchers working under the same conditions. [1]
Natural, social, and formal science make up the fundamental sciences, which form the basis of interdisciplinary and applied sciences such as engineering and medicine. Specialized scientific disciplines that exist in multiple categories may include parts of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminologies and expertises.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Natural/Pure Science
1.1 Physical science
1.1.1 Physics
1.1.2 Chemistry
1.1.3 Earth science
1.1.3.1 Ecology
1.1.3.2 Oceanography
1.1.3.3 Geology
1.1.3.4 Meteorology
1.1.4 Space Science or Astronomy
1.2 Life science
1.2.1 Biology
1.2.1.1 Zoology
1.2.1.2 Human biology
1.2.1.3 Botany
2 Social sciences
3 Formal sciences
3.1 Decision theory
3.2 Logic
3.3 Mathematics
3.4 Statistics
3.5 Systems theory
3.6 Theoretical computer science
4 Applied sciences
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
Natural/Pure Science[edit]
Main articles: Natural science and Outline of natural science
Natural science is a branch of science that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world by applying an empirical and scientific method to the study of the universe. The term natural sciences is used to distinguish it from the social sciences, which apply the scientific method to study human behavior and social patterns; the humanities, which use a critical, or analytical approach to the study of the human condition; and the formal sciences.
Physical science[edit]
Main articles: Physical science and Outline of physical science
Physical science is an encompassing term for the branches of natural science and science that study non-living systems, in contrast to the life sciences. However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena. There is a difference between physical science and physics.
Physics[edit]
Main articles: Physics and Outline of physics
Physics(from Ancient Greek: φύσις physis "nature") is a natural science that involves the study of matter[3] and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force.[4] More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.[5][6][7]
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy.[8] Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right.[9] Certain research areas are interdisciplinary, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, which means that the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries physicalism emerged as a major unifying feature of the philosophy of science as physics provides fundamental explanations for every observed natural phenomenon. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening to new research areas in mathematics and philosophy.
Chemistry[edit]
Main articles: Chemistry and Outline of chemistry
Chemistry (the etymology of the word has been much disputed)[10] is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by physics, but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned by the composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.[11] It is a physical science which studies various substances, atoms, molecules, and matter (especially carbon based); biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system (see subdisciplines).
Earth science[edit]
Main articles: Earth science and Outline of earth science
Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth sciences) is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth.[12] It is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. The formal discipline of Earth sciences may include the study of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, oceans and biosphere, as well as the solid earth. Typically Earth scientists will use tools from physics, chemistry, biology, geography, chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth system works, and how it evolved to its current state.
Ecology[edit]
Main articles: Ecology and Outline of ecology
Ecology (from Greek: οἶκος, "house"; -λογία, "study of") is the scientific study of the relationships that living organisms have with each other and with their abiotic environment. Topics of interest to ecologists include the composition, distribution, amount (biomass), number, and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems.
Oceanography[edit]
Main article: Oceanography
Oceanography, or marine science, is the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries. These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it: biology, chemistry, geology, meteorology, and physics as well as geography.
Geology[edit]
Main articles: Geology and Outline of geology
Geology (from the Greek γῆ, gê, "earth" and λόγος, logos, "study") is the science comprising the study of solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change. Geology can also refer generally to the study of the solid features of any celestial body (such as the geology of the Moon or geology of Mars).
Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates. In modern times, geology is commercially important for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation and for evaluating water resources. It is publicly important for the prediction and understanding of natural hazards, the remediation of environmental problems, and for providing insights into past climate change. Geology plays a role in geotechnical engineering and is a major academic discipline.
Meteorology[edit]
Main articles: Meteorology and Outline of meteorology
Meteorology is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere<especially>. Studies in the field stretch back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 17th century. The 19th century saw breakthroughs occur after observing networks developed across several countries. After the development of the computer in the latter half of the 20th century, breakthroughs in weather forecasting were achieved.
Space Science or Astronomy[edit]
Main articles: Space Science and Outline of space science
Space science or Astronomy is the study of everything in outer space.[13] This has sometimes been called astronomy, but recently astronomy has come to be regarded as a division of broader space science, which has grown to include other related fields,[14] such as studying issues related to space travel and space exploration (including space medicine), space archaeology[15] and science performed in outer space (see space research).
Life science[edit]
Main articles: Life science and Outline of life sciences
Life science comprises the branches of science[16] that involve the scientific study of living organisms, like plants, animals, and human beings. However, the study of behavior of organisms, such as practiced in ethology and psychology, is only included in as much as it involves a clearly biological aspect. While biology remains the centerpiece of life science, technological advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to a burgeoning of specializations and new, often interdisciplinary, fields.
Biology[edit]
Main articles: Biology and Outline of biology
Biology is the branch of natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.[17] Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines.
Zoology[edit]
Main articles: Zoology and Outline of zoology
Zoology /zoʊˈɒlədʒi/, occasionally spelled zoölogy, is the branch of science that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct. The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον (zōon, "animal") + λόγος (logos, "knowledge").
Human biology[edit]
Main articles: Human biology and Outline of human biology
Human biology is an interdisciplinary academic field of biology, biological anthropology, nutrition and medicine which focuses on humans; it is closely related to primate biology, and a number of other fields.
Some branches of biology include: microbiology, anatomy, neurology and neuroscience, immunology, genetics, physiology, pathology, biophysics, biolinguistics, and ophthalmology.
Botany[edit]
Main articles: Botany and Outline of botany
Botany, plant science, or plant biology is a branch of biology that involves the scientific study of plant life. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines including structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, chemical properties, and evolutionary relationships among taxonomic groups. Botany began with early human efforts to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making it one of the oldest sciences. Today botanists study over 550,000 species of living organisms. The term "botany" comes from Greek βοτάνη, meaning "pasture, grass, fodder", perhaps via the idea of a livestock keeper needing to know which plants are safe for livestock to eat.
Social sciences[edit]
Main articles: Social sciences and Outline of social science
The social sciences are the fields of scholarship that study society. "Social science" is commonly used as an umbrella term to refer to a plurality of fields outside of the natural sciences. These include: anthropology, archaeology, business administration, communication, criminology, economics, education, government, linguistics, international relations, political science, psychology (especially social psychology), theology, sociology and, in some contexts, geography, history and law.[18][19]
Formal sciences[edit]
Main articles: Formal sciences and Outline of formal science
The formal sciences are the branches of science that are concerned with formal systems, such as logic, mathematics, theoretical computer science, information theory, systems theory, decision theory, statistics, and theoretical linguistics.
Unlike other sciences, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the real world (empirical knowledge), but rather with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules. Methods of the formal sciences are, however, essential to the construction and testing of scientific models dealing with observable reality,[20] and major advances in formal sciences have often enabled major advances in the empirical sciences.
Decision theory[edit]
Main article: Decision theory
Decision theory in economics, psychology, philosophy, mathematics, and statistics is concerned with identifying the values, uncertainties and other issues relevant in a given decision, its rationality, and the resulting optimal decision. It is very closely related to the field of game law.
Logic[edit]
Main articles: Logic and Outline of logic
Logic (from the Greek λογική logikē)[21] is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science. Logic examines general forms which arguments may take, which forms are valid, and which are fallacies. In philosophy, the study of logic figures in most major areas: epistemology, ethics, metaphysics. In mathematics and computer science, it is the study of valid inferences within some formal language.[22] Logic is also studied in argumentation theory.[23]
Mathematics[edit]
Main articles: Mathematics and Outline of mathematics
Mathematics, first of all known as The Science of numbers which is classified in Arithmetic and Algebra, is classified as a formal science,[24][25] has both similarities and differences with the empirical sciences (the natural and social sciences). It is similar to empirical sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using a priori rather than empirical methods.[26]
Statistics[edit]
Main articles: Statistics and Outline of statistics
Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, and interpretation of data.[27][28] It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of surveys and experiments.[27]
A statistician is someone who is particularly well versed in the ways of thinking necessary for the successful application of statistical analysis. Such people have often gained this experience through working in any of a wide number of fields. There is also a discipline called mathematical statistics, which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject.
The word statistics, when referring to the scientific discipline, is singular, as in "Statistics is an art."[29] This should not be confused with the word statistic, referring to a quantity (such as mean or median) calculated from a set of data,[30] whose plural is statistics ("this statistic seems wrong" or "these statistics are misleading").
Systems theory[edit]
Main article: Systems theory
Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems in general, with the goal of elucidating principles that can be applied to all types of systems in all fields of research. The term does not yet have a well-established, precise meaning, but systems theory can reasonably be considered a specialization of systems thinking and a generalization of systems science. The term originates from Bertalanffy's General System Theory (GST) and is used in later efforts in other fields, such as the action theory of Talcott Parsons and the system-theory of Niklas Luhmann.
In this context the word systems is used to refer specifically to self-regulating systems, i.e. that are self-correcting through feedback. Self-regulating systems are found in nature, including the physiological systems of our body, in local and global ecosystems, and in climate.
Theoretical computer science[edit]
Main article: Theoretical computer science
Theoretical computer science (TCS) is a division or subset of general computer science and focuses on more abstract or mathematical aspects of computing.
These divisions and subsets include analysis of algorithms and formal semantics of programming languages. Technically, there are hundreds of divisions and subsets besides these two. Each of the multiple parts have their own individual personal leaders (of popularity) and there are many associations and professional social groups and publications of distinction.
Applied sciences[edit]
Main articles: Applied science and Outline of applied sciences
Applied science is the application of scientific knowledge transferred into a physical environment. Examples include testing a theoretical model through the use of formal science or solving a practical problem through the use of natural science.
Applied science differs from fundamental science, which seeks to describe the most basic objects and forces, having less emphasis on practical applications. Applied science can be like biological science and physical science.
Example fields of applied science include
Engineering
Applied mathematics
Applied physics
Medicine
Computer science
Fields of engineering are closely related to applied sciences. Applied science is important for technology development. Its use in industrial settings is usually referred to as research and development (R&D).
See also[edit]
Index of branches of science
Outline of science
Exact science
Fundamental science
Hard and soft science
Branches of philosophy
Philosophy of science
Engineering Science
Moral Science
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Popper 2002, p. 20.
Jump up ^ see: Editorial Staff (March 7, 2008). "Scientific Method: Relationships among Scientific Paradigms". Seed magazine. Retrieved 2007-09-12.
Jump up ^ Richard Feynman begins his Lectures with the atomic hypothesis, as his most compact statement of all scientific knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations ..., what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is ... that all things are made up of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another. ..." R.P. Feynman; R.B. Leighton; Matthew Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. 1. p. I-2. ISBN 0-201-02116-1.
Jump up ^ J.C. Maxwell (1878). Matter and Motion. D. Van Nostrand. p. 9. ISBN 0-486-66895-9. Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events.
Jump up ^ H.D. Young; R.A. Freedman (2004). University Physics with Modern Physics (11th ed.). Addison Wesley. p. 2. Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns and principles that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and of broad use, physical laws or principles.
Jump up ^ S. Holzner (2006). Physics for Dummies. Wiley. p. 7. ISBN 0-470-61841-8. Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you.
Jump up ^ Note: The term 'universe' is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe' may also be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical world.
Jump up ^ Evidence exists that the earliest civilizations dating back to beyond 3000 BCE, such as the Sumerians, Ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley Civilization, all had a predictive knowledge and a very basic understanding of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars.
Jump up ^ Francis Bacon's 1620 Novum Organum was critical in the development of scientific method.
Jump up ^ See: Chemistry (etymology) for possible origins of this word.
Jump up ^ Chemistry. (n.d.). Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary. Retrieved August 19, 2007.
Jump up ^ Wordnet Search: Earth science
Jump up ^ space science – definition of space science by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia
Jump up ^ National Space Science Data Center (NSSDC) – NASA Science
Jump up ^ Space science | Define Space science at Dictionary.com
Jump up ^ Branches of Science
Jump up ^ Based on definition from Aquarena Wetlands Project glossary of terms. Archived June 8, 2004, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Verheggen; et al. (1999). "From shared representations to consensually coordinated actions". In Morrs, John; et al. Theoretical Issues in Psychology. International Society for Theoretical Psychology.
Jump up ^ Garai, L.; Kocski, M. (1995). "Another crisis in the psychology: A possible motive for the Vygotsky-boom". Journal of Russian and East-European Psychology. 33 (1): 82–94. doi:10.2753/RPO1061-0405330182.
Jump up ^ Popper 2002, pp. 79–82.
Jump up ^ "possessed of reason, intellectual, dialectical, argumentative", also related to λόγος (logos), "word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason, or principle" (Liddell & Scott 1999; Online Etymology Dictionary 2001).
Jump up ^ Hofweber, T. (2004). "Logic and Ontology". In Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Jump up ^ Cox, J. Robert; Willard, Charles Arthur, eds. (1983). Advances in Argumentation Theory and Research. Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 978-0-8093-1050-0.
Jump up ^ Marcus Tomalin (2006) Linguistics and the Formal Sciences
Jump up ^ Benedikt Löwe (2002) "The Formal Sciences: Their Scope, Their Foundations, and Their Unity"
Jump up ^ Popper 2002, pp. 10–11.
^ Jump up to: a b Dodge, Y. (2003) The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms, OUP. ISBN 0-19-920613-9
Jump up ^ The Free Online Dictionary
Jump up ^ "Statistics". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.
Jump up ^ "Statistic". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.
References[edit]
Popper, Karl R. (2002) [1959]. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. New York, NY: Routledge Classics. ISBN 0-415-27844-9. OCLC 59377149.
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