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Echo chamber (media)
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Situation that reinforces beliefs by repetition inside a closed system
In news media, echo chamber is a metaphorical description of a situation in which beliefs are amplified or reinforced by communication and repetition inside a closed system. By visiting an "echo chamber", people are able to seek out information which reinforces their existing views, potentially as an unconscious exercise of confirmation bias. This may increase political and social polarization and extremism.[1] The term is a metaphor based on the acoustic echo chamber, where sounds reverberate in a hollow enclosure.
Another emerging term for this echoing and homogenizing effect on the Internet within social communities is cultural tribalism.[2]
Contents
1 Overview
2 Alleged examples
3 Countermeasures
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
Overview[edit]
The Internet has expanded the variety and amount of accessible political information. On the positive side, this may create a more pluralistic form of public debate; on the negative side, greater access to information may lead to selective exposure to ideologically supportive channels.[1] In an extreme "echo chamber", one purveyor of information will make a claim, which many like-minded people then repeat, overhear, and repeat again (often in an exaggerated or otherwise distorted form)[3] until most people assume that some extreme variation of the story is true.[4]
It is important to distinguish the difference between echo chambers and filter bubbles. Both concepts relate to the ways individuals are exposed to content devoid of clashing opinions, and colloquially might be used interchangeably. However, echo chamber refers to the overall phenomenon by which individuals are exposed only to information from like-minded individuals, while filter bubbles are a result of algorithms that choose content based on previous online behavior, as with search histories or online shopping activity[5].
The echo chamber effect occurs online due to a harmonious group of people amalgamating and developing tunnel vision. Participants in online discussions may find their opinions constantly echoed back to them, which reinforces their individual belief systems. However, individuals who participate in echo chambers often do so because they feel more confident that their opinions will be more readily accepted by others in the echo chamber.[6] This happens because the Internet has provided access to a wide range of readily available information. People are increasingly receiving their news online through untraditional sources, such as Facebook, Google, and Twitter, that have established personalization algorithms that cater specific information to individuals’ online feeds. This method of curating content has replaced the function of the traditional news editor.[7] The mediated spread of information through online networks causes a risk of an algorithmic filter bubble.
Online social communities become fragmented when like-minded people group together and members hear arguments in one specific direction. In certain online platforms, such as Twitter, echo chambers are more likely to be found when the topic is more political in nature compared to topics that are seen as more neutral.[8] Social networking communities are powerful reinforcers of rumors[9] because people trust evidence supplied by their own social group, more than they do the news media.[10][unreliable source?] This can create significant barriers to critical discourse within an online medium. Social discussion and sharing suffer when people have a narrow information base and don’t reach outside their network. The echo chambers can be detrimental to the well-being of a person. Essentially, the filter bubble can distort our very own realities that we thought could not be altered by outside sources. The Farnam Street academic blog explains that the filter bubble can have a bigger impact on us than we think. It can create echo chambers that leads us to believe that what you are seeing through ads is the only opinion or perspective that is right.[11] This goes back to political ads that were constantly in circulation on the internet making the user think that it is the only correct opinion out there. Put otherwise, “If we don’t like facts, we don’t believe them. If we DO like something presented to us as fact, even if it is false, we tend to believe it.[12] If we see too much of our viewpoint and perspectives everyday, we believe that there are no other opinions and that ours is the correct one in all cases.
Many offline communities are also segregated by political beliefs and cultural views. The echo chamber effect may prevent individuals from noticing changes in language and culture involving groups other than their own. Online echo chambers can sometimes influence an individual’s willingness to participate in similar discussions offline. A 2016 study found that “Twitter users who felt their audience on Twitter agreed with their opinion were more willing to speak out on that issue in the workplace”.[6]
Alleged examples[edit]
Ideological echo chambers have existed in many forms, for centuries. The echo chamber effect has largely been cited as occurring in politics.
The McMartin preschool trial coverage was criticized by David Shaw in his 1990 Pulitzer Prize winning articles, "None of these charges was ultimately proved, but the media largely acted in a pack, as it so often does on big events, and reporters' stories, in print and on the air, fed on one another, creating an echo chamber of horrors."[13] He said this case "exposed basic flaws" in news organizations like "Laziness. Superficiality. Cozy relationships" and "a frantic search to be first with the latest shocking allegation". "Reporters and editors often abandoned" journalistic principles of "fairness and skepticism." And "frequently plunged into hysteria, sensationalism and what one editor calls 'a lynch mob syndrome.'"
Clinton-Lewinsky scandal reporting was chronicled in Time Magazine's 16 February 1998 "Trial by Leaks" cover story[14] "The Press And The Dress: The anatomy of a salacious leak, and how it ricocheted around the walls of the media echo chamber" by Adam Cohen.[15] This case was reviewed in depth by the Project for Excellence in Journalism in "The Clinton/Lewinsky Story: How Accurate? How Fair?"[16]
Starting in the fall of 2014, the Gamergate attacks and journalists' responses have been alleged to be echo chambers.[17][18]
A New Statesman essay argued that echo chambers were linked to the UK Brexit referendum.[19]
The 2016 presidential election in the United States triggered a stream of discourse about the echo chamber in media.[20] Constituents were more likely to absorb information about topics such as gun control and immigration that aligned with their preexisting beliefs, as they were more likely to view information they already agreed with.[21] Facebook is more likely to suggest posts that are congruent with your standpoints; therefore there was mainly repetition of already stable standpoints instead of a diversity of opinions. Journalists argue that diversity of opinion is necessary for true democracy as it facilitates communication, and echo chambers, like those occurring in Facebook, inhibited this.[20] Some believed echo chambers played a big part in the success of Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential elections.[22]
The subreddit /r/incels and other online incel communities have also been described as echo chambers.[23][24][unreliable source?]
Countermeasures[edit]
Some companies have also made efforts in combating the effects of an echo chamber on an algorithmic approach. A high profile example of this is the changes Facebook made to its “Trending” page, which is an on-site news source for its users. Facebook modified their “Trending” page by transitioning from displaying a single news source to multiple news sources for a topic or event. The intended purpose of this was to expand the breadth of news sources for any given headline, and therefore expose readers to a variety of viewpoints. Another example is a beta feature on BuzzFeed News, called “Outside Your Bubble"[25]. This experiment adds a module at the bottom of Buzzfeed News articles to show reactions from various platforms, like Twitter, Facebook, and Reddit. This concept aims to bring transparency and prevent biased conversations diversifying the viewpoints their readers are exposed to.[26]
See also[edit]
Journalism portal
Big lie
Circular source
Communal reinforcement
Confirmation bias
Disinformation
Epistemic closure
False consensus effect
Filter bubble
Google's Ideological Echo Chamber
Groupthink
Idola specus
Information silo
Manufacturing Consent
Media circus
Opinion corridor
Party line
Peer review
Positive feedback
Red herring
Reinforcement theory
Safe-space
Selective exposure theory
Spiral of silence
Splinternet
Telephone game
Tribe (Internet)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Barberá, Pablo, et al. "Tweeting from left to right: Is online political communication more than an echo chamber?." Psychological science 26.10 (2015): 1531-1542.
Jump up ^ Dwyer, Paul. "Building Trust with Corporate Blogs" (PDF). Texas A&M University: 7. Retrieved 2008-03-06.
Jump up ^ Parry, Robert (2006-12-28). "The GOP's $3 Bn Propaganda Organ". The Baltimore Chronicle. Retrieved 2008-03-06.
Jump up ^ "SourceWatch entry on media "Echo Chamber" effect". SourceWatch. 2006-10-22. Retrieved 2008-02-03.
Jump up ^ Bakshy, Eytan; Messing, Solomon; Adamic, Lada A. (2015-06-05). "Exposure to ideologically diverse news and opinion on Facebook". Science. 348 (6239): 1130–1132. doi:10.1126/science.aaa1160. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 25953820.
^ Jump up to: a b Hampton, Keith N.; Shin, Inyoung; Lu, Weixu (2017-07-03). "Social media and political discussion: when online presence silences offline conversation". Information, Communication & Society. 20 (7): 1090–1107. doi:10.1080/1369118x.2016.1218526. ISSN 1369-118X.
Jump up ^ Hosanagar, Kartik (2016-11-25). "Blame the Echo Chamber on Facebook. But Blame Yourself, Too". Wired.com. Retrieved 2017-09-24.
Jump up ^ Barberá, Pablo; Jost, John T.; Nagler, Jonathan; Tucker, Joshua A.; Bonneau, Richard (2015-08-21). "Tweeting From Left to Right". Psychological Science. 26 (10): 1531–1542. doi:10.1177/0956797615594620.
Jump up ^ DiFonzo, Nicholas (2008-09-11). The Watercooler Effect: An Indispensable Guide to Understanding and Harnessing the Power of Rumors. Penguin Books. ISBN 9781440638633. Retrieved 2017-09-24.
Jump up ^ DiFonzo, Nicholas (2011-04-21). "The Echo-Chamber Effect". The New York Times. Retrieved 2017-09-24.
Jump up ^ Parrish, Shane. "How Filter Bubbles Distort Reality: Everything You Need to Know". Farnam Street.
Jump up ^ Contributor Quora (28 February 2018). "Are You In A Social Media Echo Chamber? How To Take An Objective Look". Forbes.
Jump up ^ SHAW, DAVID (19 January 1990). "COLUMN ONE : NEWS ANALYSIS : Where Was Skepticism in Media? : Pack journalism and hysteria marked early coverage of the McMartin case. Few journalists stopped to question the believability of the prosecution's charges". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ "TIME Magazine -- U.S. Edition -- February 16, 1998 Vol. 151 No. 6" (Vol. 151 No. 6). February 16, 1998.
Jump up ^ Cohen, Adam (16 February 1998). "The Press And The Dress". Time.
Jump up ^ "The Clinton/Lewinsky Story: How Accurate? How Fair?" (PDF). Retrieved 17 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Escaping the echo chamber: GamerGaters and journalists have more in common than they think". pocketgamer.biz.
Jump up ^ Smith, Ryan (24 September 2014). ""A Weird Insider Culture"". Medium.
Jump up ^ Chater, James. "What the EU referendum result teaches us about the dangers of the echo chamber". NewStatesman.
^ Jump up to: a b El-Bermawy, Mostafa. "Your Filter Bubble is Destroying Democracy". Wired.
Jump up ^ Difonzo, Nicolas (22 April 2011). "The Echo Chamber Effect". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 March 2017.
Jump up ^ Hooton, Christopher (10 November 2016). "Your social media echo chamber is the reason Donald Trump ended up being voted President". The Independent. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
Jump up ^ http://www.collegian.psu.edu/opinion/columnists/article_51140340-c8dc-11e7-9061-6faec77ded6e.html
Jump up ^ https://scallywagandvagabond.com/2017/11/incel-misogynist-mens-ban-sub-reddit/
Jump up ^ "Outside Your Bubble". BuzzFeed. Retrieved 2018-03-05.
Jump up ^ Smith, Ben (February 17, 2017). "Helping You See Outside Your Bubble". BuzzFeed.
Further reading[edit]
Philip McRae, "Forecasting the Future Over Three Horizons of Change ", ATA Magazine, May 21, 2010.
John Scruggs, "The "Echo Chamber" Approach to Advocacy", Philip Morris, Bates No. 2078707451/7452, December 18, 1998.
The Hudson Institute's Bradley Center for Philanthropy and Civic Renewal wonder if they "got it, well, Right".
"Buying a Movement: Right-Wing Foundations and American Politics," (Washington, DC: People for the American Way, 1996). Or download a PDF version of the full report.
Dan Morgan, "Think Tanks: Corporations' Quiet Weapon," Washington Post, January 29, 2000, p. A1.
Jeff Gerth and Sheryl Gay Stolberg, "Drug Industry Has Ties to Groups With Many Different Voices", New York Times, October 5, 2000.
Robert Kuttner, "Philanthropy and Movements," The American Prospect, July 2, 2002.
Robert W. Hahn, "The False Promise of 'Full Disclosure'," Policy Review, Hoover Institution, October 2002.
David Brock, Blinded by the Right: The Conscience of an Ex-Conservative (New York, NY: Three Rivers Press, 2002).
Jeff Chester, "A Present for Murdoch", The Nation, December 2003: "From 1999 to 2002, his company spent almost $10 million on its lobbying operations. It has already poured $200,000 in contributions into the 2004 election, having donated nearly $1.8 million during the 2000 and 2002 campaigns."
Jim Lobe for Asia Times: "the structure's most remarkable characteristics are how few people it includes and how adept they have been in creating new institutions and front groups that act as a vast echo chamber for one another and for the media"
Valdis Krebs, "Divided We Stand," Political Echo Chambers
Jonathan S. Landay and Tish Wells, "Iraqi exile group fed false information to news media", Knight Ridder, March 15, 2004.
R.G. Keen: The Technology of Oil Can Delays
Echo chamber at SourceWatch
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Urbanization by country
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The percentage of urbanized population by country.
This is a list of countries by urbanization.
Contents
[hide]
1 Methodology
2 Countries
3 See also
4 References
Methodology[edit]
There are two measures of the degree of urbanization of a population. The first, urban population, describes the percentage of the total population living in urban areas, as defined by the country.
The second measure, rate of urbanization, describes the projected average rate of change of the size of the urban population over the given period of time.
Countries[edit]
The data is taken from the CIA World Factbook with estimates from 2015.[1]
Rank
Nation
Urban Population (%)
Date
Urbanization Rate (%)
Period
1 Monaco 100 2015 0.79 2010–15 est.
1 Nauru 100 2015 0.19 2010–15 est.
1 Singapore 100 2015 2.02 2010–15 est.
1 Vatican City 100 2015 0.03 2010–15 est.
– Anguilla 100 2015 1.19 2010–15 est.
– Bermuda 100 2015 0.19 2010–15 est.
– Cayman Islands 100 2015 1.54 2010–15 est.
– Gibraltar 100 2015 0.07 2010–15 est.
– Hong Kong 100 2015 0.74 2010–15 est.
– Macau 100 2015 1.78 2010–15 est.
– Sint Maarten 100 2015 1.97 2010–15 est.
5 Qatar 99.2 2015 6.02 2010–15 est.
6 Kuwait 98.3 2015 3.63 2010–15 est.
7 Belgium 97.9 2015 0.48 2010–15 est.
8 Malta 95.4 2015 0.46 2010–15 est
– U.S. Virgin Islands 95.3 2015 0.25 2010–15 est.
9 Uruguay 95.3 2015 0.53 2010–15 est.
– Guam 94.5 2015 1.36 2010–15 est.
10 San Marino 94.2 2015 0.62 2010–15 est.
11 Iceland 94.1 2015 1.25 2010–15 est.
– Puerto Rico 93.6 2015 –0.21 2010–15 est.
12 Japan 93.5 2015 0.56 2010–15 est.
– Turks and Caicos Islands 92.2 2015 2.48 2010–15 est.
13 Israel 92.1 2015 1.37 2010–15 est.
14 Argentina 91.8 2015 1.04 2010–15 est.
15 Netherlands 90.5 2015 1.05 2010–15 est.
– Saint Pierre and Miquelon 90.4 2015 0.1 2010–15 est.
16 Luxembourg 90.2 2015 1.71 2010–15 est.
17 Chile 89.5 2015 1.09 2010–15 est.
– Curaçao 89.3 2015 2.04 2010–15 est.
18 Australia 89.4 2015 1.47 2010–15 est.
– Northern Mariana Islands 89.2 2015 0.39 2010–15 est.
19 Venezuela 89.1 2015 1.54 2010–15 est.
20 Bahrain 88.8 2015 1.71 2010–15 est.
21 Lebanon 87.8 2015 3.18 2010–15 est.
22 Denmark 87.7 2015 0.6 2010–15 est.
– American Samoa 87.2 2015 −0.13 2010–15 est.
23 Gabon 87.2 2015 2.7 2010–15 est.
24 Palau 87.1 2015 1.66 2010–15 est.
– Greenland 86.4 2015 0.74 2010–15 est.
25 New Zealand 86.3 2015 1.05 2010–15 est.
26 Sweden 85.8 2015 0.83 2010–15 est.
27 Brazil 85.7 2015 1.17 2010–15 est.
28 United Arab Emirates 85.5 2015 2.87 2010–15 est.
29 Andorra 85.1 2015 0.14 2010–15 est.
30 Finland 84.2 2015 0.8 2010–15 est.
31 Jordan 83.7 2015 3.79 2010–15 est.
32 Saudi Arabia 83.1 2015 2.1 2010–15 est.
33 Bahamas 82.9 2015 1.53 2010–15 est.
34 United Kingdom 82.6 2015 0.88 2010–15 est.
35 South Korea 82.5 2015 0.66 2010–15 est.
36 United States 81.6 2015 1.02 2010–15 est.
37 Canada 81.8 2015 1.22 2010–15 est.
– Western Sahara 80.9 2015 3.27 2010–15 est.
38 Norway 80.5 2015 1.35 2010–15 est.
39 Spain 79.6 2015 0.52 2010–15 est.
40 France 79.5 2015 0.84 2010–15 est.
41 Mexico 79.2 2015 1.57 2010–15 est.
42 Dominican Republic 79 2015 2.6 2010–15 est.
43 Libya 78.6 2015 1.13 2010–15 est.
43 Peru 78.6 2015 1.69 2010–15 est.
45 Greece 78 2015 0.47 2010–15 est.
45 Taiwan 78[citation needed]
47 Oman 77.6 2015 8.54 2010–15 est.
48 Djibouti 77.3 2015 1.6 2010–15 est.
49 Brunei 77.2 2015 0.1 2010–15 est.
50 Cuba 77.1 2015 0.07 2010–15 est.
51 Costa Rica 76.8 2015 2.74 2010–15 est.
52 Belarus 76.7 2015 0.05 2010–15 est.
53 Colombia 76.4 2015 1.66 2010–15 est.
– Falkland Islands 76.2 2015 0.96 2010–15 est.
54 Germany 75.3 2015 0.16 2010–15 est.
55 Palestine 75.3 2015 2.81 2010-15 est.
56 Malaysia 74.7 2015 2.66 2010–15 est.
– Cook Islands 74.5 2015 0.88 2010–15 est.
57 Russia 74 2015 –0.13 2010–15 est.
58 Bulgaria 73.9 2015 –0.31 2010–15 est.
59 Switzerland 73.9 2015 1.88 2010–15 est.
60 Iran 73.4 2015 2.07 2010–15 est.
61 Turkey 73.4 2015 1.97 2010–15 est.
62 Czech Republic 73 2015 0.35 2010–15 est.
63 Marshall Islands 72.7 2011 0.59 2010-15 est.
64 Mongolia 72 2015 2.78 2010–15 est.
65 Hungary 71.2 2015 0.47 2010–15 est.
66 Algeria 70.7 2015 2.77 2010–15 est.
– New Caledonia 70.2 2015 2.17 2010–15 est.
67 Ukraine 69.7 2015 –0.33 2010–15 est.
68 Dominica 69.5 2015 0.84 2010–15 est.
68 Iraq 69.5 2015 3.01 2010–15 est.
70 Italy 69 2015 0.39 2010–15 est.
71 Bolivia 68.5 2011 2.26 2010–15 est.
72 Estonia 67.5 2015 –0.45 2010–15 est.
73 Latvia 67.4 2015 –0.67 2010–15 est.
74 Cyprus 66.9 2015 0.89 2010–15 est.
75 Tunisia 66.8 2015 1.38 2010–15 est.
76 El Salvador 66.7 2015 1.4 2010–15 est.
77 Lithuania 66.5 2015 –0.53 2010–15 est.
78 Panama 66.1 2015 2.07 2010–15 est.
79 Austria 66 2015 0.4 2010–15 est.
79 Suriname 66 2015 0.78 2010–15 est.
81 Cape Verde 65.5 2015 1.99 2010–15 est.
82 Republic of the Congo 65.4 2015 3.22 2010–15 est.
83 Sao Tome and Principe 65.1 2015 3.58 2010–15 est.
84 South Africa 64.8 2015 1.59 2010–15 est.
85 Montenegro 64 2015 0.34 2010–15 est.
86 Ecuador 63.7 2015 1.9 2010–15 est.
87 Portugal 63.5 2015 0.97 2010–15 est.
88 Ireland 63.2 2015 1.58 2010–15 est.
89 Armenia 62.7 2015 –0.11 2010–15 est.
90 North Korea 60.9 2015 0.75 2010–15 est.
91 Poland 60.5 2015 –0.1 2010–15 est.
92 Morocco 60.2 2015 2.26 2010–15 est.
93 Mauritania 59.9 2015 3.54 2010–15 est.
94 Paraguay 59.7 2015 2.1 2010–15 est.
94 Tuvalu 59.7 2015 1.9 2010–15 est.
96 Gambia 59.6 2015 4.33 2010–15 est.
97 Croatia 59 2015 0.11 2010–15 est.
98 Nicaragua 58.8 2015 1.96 2010–15 est.
99 Haiti 58.6 2015 3.78 2010–15 est.
100 Syria 57.7 2015 1.37 2010–15 est.
101 Albania 57.4 2015 2.21 2010–15 est.
101 Botswana 57.4 2015 1.29 2010–15 est.
103 Macedonia 57.1 2015 0.11 2010–15 est.
– French Polynesia 55.9 2015 0.85 2010–15 est.
104 China 55.6 2015 3.05 2010–15 est.
104 Serbia 55.6 2015 –0.34 2010–15 est.
106 Jamaica 54.8 2015 0.9 2010–15 est.
107 Honduras 54.7 2015 3.14 2010–15 est.
108 Azerbaijan 54.6 2015 1.56 2010–15 est.
108 Romania 54.6 2015 0.01 2010–15 est.
110 Cameroon 54.4 2015 3.6 2010–15 est.
111 Cote d'Ivoire 54.2 2015 3.69 2010–15 est.
112 Ghana 54 2015 3.4 2010–15 est.
– World 54 2015 2.05 2010–15 est.
113 Seychelles 53.9 2015 1.14 2010–15 est.
114 Fiji 53.7 2015 1.45 2010–15 est.
114 Indonesia 53.7 2015 2.69 2010–15 est.
116 Georgia 53.6 2015 –0.1 2010–15 est.
116 Slovakia 53.6 2015 –0.31 2010–15 est.
118 Kazakhstan 53.2 2015 0.86 2010–15 est.
– Isle of Man 52.1 2015 0.8 2010–15 est.
119 Guatemala 51.6 2015 3.4 2010–15 est.
120 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 50.6 2015 0.72 2010–15 est.
121 Thailand 50.4 2015 2.97 2010–15 est.
122 Turkmenistan 50 2015 1.94 2010–15 est.
123 Liberia 49.7 2015 3.36 2010–15 est.
124 Slovenia 49.6 2015 0.08 2010–15 est.
125 Guinea-Bissau 49.3 2015 4.13 2005–10 est.
126 Nigeria 47.8 2015 4.66 2010–15 est.
127 Namibia 46.7 2015 4.16 2010–15 est.
– British Virgin Islands 46.2 2015 1.8 2010–15 est.
128 Maldives 45.5 2015 4.49 2010–15 est.
129 Moldova 45 2015 –0.73 2010–15 est.
130 Philippines 44.4 2015 1.32 2010–15 est.
131 Kiribati 44.3 2015 1.78 2010–15 est.
132 Angola 44 2015 4.97 2010–15 est.
132 Belize 44 2015 1.93 2010–15 est.
132 Benin 44 2015 3.67 2010–15 est.
135 Senegal 43.7 2015 3.59 2010–15 est.
136 Egypt 43.1 2015 1.68 2010–15 est.
137 Democratic Republic of the Congo 42.5 2015 3.96 2010–15 est.
– Niue 42.5 2015 –0.94 2010–15 est.
– Faroe Islands 42 2015 0.47 2010–15 est.
– Aruba 41.5 2015 –0.28 2010–15 est.
138 Zambia 40.9 2015 4.32 2010–15 est.
139 Central African Republic 40 2015 2.59 2010–15 est.
139 Togo 40 2015 3.83 2010–15 est.
141 Equatorial Guinea 39.9 2015 3.12 2010–15 est.
141 Mali 39.9 2015 5.08 2010–15 est.
141 Sierra Leone 39.9 2015 2.75 2010–15 est.
144 Bosnia and Herzegovina 39.8 2015 0.14 2010–15 est.
145 Mauritius 39.7 2015 –0.08 2010–15 est.
146 Somalia 39.6 2015 4.06 2010–15 est.
– Saint Helena 39.4 2015 –0.59 2010–15 est.
147 Pakistan 38.8 2015 2.81 2010–15 est.
148 Bhutan 38.6 2015 3.69 2010–15 est.
148 Laos 38.6 2015 4.93 2010–15 est.
150 Guinea 37.2 2015 3.82 2010–15 est.
151 Uzbekistan 36.4 2015 1.45 2010–15 est.
152 Kyrgyzstan 35.7 2015 1.58 2010–15 est.
153 Grenada 35.6 2015 0.33 2010–15 est.
154 Madagascar 35.1 2015 4.59 2010–15 est.
155 Yemen 34.6 2015 4.03 2010–15 est.
156 Bangladesh 34.3 2015 3.55 2010–15 est.
157 Myanmar 34.1 2015 2.49 2010–15 est.
158 Sudan 33.8 2015 2.54 2010–15 est.
159 Vietnam 33.6 2015 2.95 2010–15 est.
160 Timor-Leste 32.8 2015 3.75 2010–15 est.
161 India 32.7 2015 2.38 2010–15 est.
162 Zimbabwe 32.4 2015 2.3 2010–15 est.
163 Mozambique 32.2 2015 3.27 2010–15 est.
164 Saint Kitts and Nevis 32 2015 1.27 2010–15 est.
165 Tanzania 31.6 2015 5.36 2010–15 est
166 Barbados 31.5 2015 0.13 2010–15 est.
– Guernsey 31.4 2014 0.76 2010–15 est.
– Jersey 31.4 2014 0.76 2010–15 est.
167 Burkina Faso 29.9 2015 5.87 2010–15 est
168 Rwanda 28.8 2015 6.43 2010–15 est.
169 Guyana 28.6 2015 0.76 2010–15 est.
170 Comoros 28.3 2015 2.67 2010–15 est
171 Lesotho 27.3 2015 3.05 2010–15 est.
172 Tajikistan 26.8 2015 2.62 2010–15 est
173 Afghanistan 26.7 2015 3.96 2010–15 est.
174 Vanuatu 26.1 2015 3.42 2010–15 est
175 Kenya 25.6 2015 4.34 2010–15 est
176 Antigua and Barbuda 23.8 2015 –0.95 2010–15 est.
177 Tonga 23.7 2015 0.71 2010–15 est.
178 Eritrea 22.6 2015 5.1 2010–15 est.
179 Chad 22.5 2015 2.42 2010–15 est.
180 Federated States of Micronesia 22.4 2015 0.27 2010–15 est.
181 Solomon Islands 22.3 2015 4.25 2010–15 est.
182 Swaziland 21.3 2015 1.32 2010–15 est.
183 Cambodia 20.7 2015 2.65 2010–15 est.
184 Ethiopia 19.5 2015 4.89 2010–15 est.
185 Samoa 19.1 2015 –0.24 2010–15 est.
186 South Sudan 18.8 2015 5.05 2010–15 est.
187 Niger 18.7 2015 5.14 2010–15 est.
188 Nepal 18.6 2015 3.18 2010–15 est.
189 Saint Lucia 18.5 2015 0.89 2010–15 est.
190 Sri Lanka 18.4 2015 0.72 2010–15 est.
191 Malawi 16.3 2015 3.77 2010–15 est.
192 Uganda 16.1 2015 5.43 2010–15 est.
193 Liechtenstein 14.3 2015 0.48 2010–15 est.
194 Papua New Guinea 13 2015 2.12 2010–15 est.
195 Burundi 12.1 2015 5.66 2010–15 est.
– Montserrat 9 2015 0.65 2010–15 est.
196 Trinidad and Tobago 8.4 2015 –1.2 2010–15 est.
— Wallis and Futuna 0 2015 0 2010–15 est.
— Tokelau 0 2015 0 2010–15 est.
— Pitcairn Islands 0 2011 N/A 2010–15 est.
See also[edit]
United Nations World Urbanization Prospects, the 2014 Revision, Web Site of the United Nations Population Division
List of countries by urban population
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "World Factbook Urbanization". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
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Fire class
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Fire class is a term used to denote the type of fire, in relation to the combustion materials which have (or could be) ignited. This has onward impacts on the type of suppression or extinguishing materials which can be used.[1] Class letters are often assigned to the different types of fire, but these differ between territories. There are separate standards in the United States, Europe, and Australia.
Contents
[hide]
1 Fire types
2 Ordinary combustibles
3 Flammable liquid
4 Electrical
5 Metal
6 Cooking oils and fats (kitchen fires)
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Fire types[edit]
Image
Description
Europe (European Standard EN 2)
United States
Asia
Suitable suppression
Combustible materials (wood, paper, fabric, refuse) Class A Class A Class A Most suppression techniques
Flammable liquids Class B Class B Class B Inhibiting chemical chain reaction, such as water mist dry chemical or Halon
Flammable gases Class C Class B Class C Inhibiting chemical chain reaction, such as dry chemical or Halon
Flammable metals Class D Class D Class D Specialist suppression required
Electrical fire not classified (formerly Class E) Class C Class E As ordinary combustibles, but conductive agents like water not to be used
Cooking oils and fats Class F Class K Class F Suppression by removal of oxygen or water mist
Ordinary combustibles[edit]
Class A fires consist of ordinary combustibles such as wood, paper, fabric, and most kinds of trash.[2]
Flammable liquid[edit]
A carbon dioxide fire extinguisher rated for flammable liquids and gasses
These are fires whose fuel is flammable or combustible liquid or gas. The US system designates all such fires "Class B". In the European/Australian system, flammable liquids are designated "Class B" having flash point less than 100 °F, while burning gases are separately designated "Class C". These fires follow the same basic fire tetrahedron (heat, fuel, oxygen, chemical reaction) as ordinary combustible fires, except that the fuel in question is a flammable liquid such as gasoline, or gas such as natural gas. A solid stream of water should never be used to extinguish this type because it can cause the fuel to scatter, spreading the flames. The most effective way to extinguish a liquid or gas fueled fire is by inhibiting the chemical chain reaction of the fire, which is done by dry chemical and Halon extinguishing agents, although smothering with CO2 or, for liquids, foam is also effective. Halon has fallen out of favor in recent times because it is an ozone-depleting material; the Montreal Protocol declares that Halon should no longer be used. Chemicals such as FM-200 are now the recommended halogenated suppressant.
Electrical[edit]
Electrical fires are fires involving potentially energized electrical equipment. The US system designates these "Class C"; the Australian system designates them "Class E". This sort of fire may be caused by short-circuiting machinery or overloaded electrical cables. These fires can be a severe hazard to firefighters using water or other conductive agents, as electricity may be conducted from the fire, through water, to the firefighter's body, and then earth. Electrical shocks have caused many firefighter deaths.
Electrical fire may be fought in the same way as an ordinary combustible fire, but water, foam, and other conductive agents are not to be used. While the fire is or possibly could be electrically energized, it can be fought with any extinguishing agent rated for electrical fire. Carbon dioxide CO2, NOVEC 1230, FM-200 and dry chemical powder extinguishers such as PKP and even baking soda are especially suited to extinguishing this sort of fire. PKP should be a last resort solution to extinguishing the fire due to its corrosive tendencies. Once electricity is shut off to the equipment involved, it will generally become an ordinary combustible fire.
In Europe, "electrical fires" are no longer recognized as a separate class of fire as electricity itself cannot burn. The items around the electrical sources may burn. By turning the electrical source off, the fire can be fought by one of the other class of fire extinguishers[citation needed].
Metal[edit]
Class D fires involve combustible metals - especially alkali metals like lithium and potassium, alkaline earth metals such as magnesium, and group 4 elements such as titanium and zirconium.[2]
Metal fires represent a unique hazard because people are often not aware of the characteristics of these fires and are not properly prepared to fight them. Therefore, even a small metal fire can spread and become a larger fire in the surrounding ordinary combustible materials. Certain metals burn in contact with air or water (for example, sodium), which exaggerate this risk. Generally speaking, masses of combustible metals do not represent great fire risks because heat is conducted away from hot spots so efficiently that the heat of combustion cannot be maintained. In consequence, significant heat energy is required to ignite a contiguous mass of combustible metal. Generally, metal fires are a hazard when the metal is in the form of sawdust, machine shavings or other metal "fines", which combust more rapidly than larger blocks. Metal fires can be ignited by the same ignition sources that would start other common fires.
Care must be taken when extinguishing metal fires. Water and other common firefighting agents can excite metal fires and make them worse. The National Fire Protection Association recommends that metal fires be fought with dry powder extinguishing agents that work by smothering and heat absorption. The most common agents are sodium chloride granules and graphite powder. In recent years, powdered copper has also come into use. These dry powder extinguishers should not be confused with those that contain dry chemical agents. The two are not the same, and only dry powder should be used to extinguish a metal fire. Using a dry chemical extinguisher in error, in place of dry powder, can be ineffective or actually increase the intensity of a metal fire.
Cooking oils and fats (kitchen fires)[edit]
Laboratory simulation of a chip pan fire: a beaker containing wax is heated until it catches fire. A small amount of water is then poured into the beaker. The water sinks to the bottom and vaporizes instantly, ejecting a plume of burning liquid wax into the air.
Class K fires involve unsaturated cooking oils in well-insulated cooking appliances located in commercial kitchens.[2]
Fires that involve cooking oils or fats are designated "Class K" under the American system, and "Class F" under the European/Australian systems. Though such fires are technically a subclass of the flammable liquid/gas class, the special characteristics of these types of fires, namely the higher flash point, are considered important enough to recognize separately. Water mist can be used to extinguish such fires. Appropriate fire extinguishers may also have hoods over them that help extinguish the fire. Sometimes fire blankets are used to stop a fire in a kitchen or on a stove.
See also[edit]
Fire extinguisher
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Fire Detection and Suppression Systems (Third ed.). Stillwater, OK: International Fire Service Training Association. 2005. p. 9. ISBN 0-87939-267-3. OCLC 62785313.
^ Jump up to: a b c Fire Detection and Suppression Systems (Third ed.). Stillwater, OK: International Fire Service Training Association. 2005. p. 10. ISBN 0-87939-267-3. OCLC 62785313.
External links[edit]
Classification of Portable Fire Extinguishers, Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Evacuation Plans and Procedures eTool, Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Information on Fire Extinguishers, The Fire Safety Advice Centre
For Fire Extinguishers, Wollongong Extinguisher Service-Australia
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Levin (surname)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Levin (original Russian: Левин) is a surname with several word origins. In most cases it is Jewish (a variant of Levy) and rarely Russian,[1] derived from the Jewish biblical tribe of Levi, whose descendants the Levites had distinctive duties in the Temple period. In some cases the surname Levin is derived from the German personal name Liebwin. In other cases the surname represents a form of the Yiddish word for "lion". In some cases, the surname Levin represents a patronymic form of Lëva. It is also often an anglicisation of the Quebecer name Lavigne, especially in the northeast US.
Other variations include Lavin, Lavine, Le Neve, Levene, Levi, Levina, Levine, Levitt, Levy, Lewin, Lieven, Levins and Levinson.
People with the name "Levin" (and feminine variant Levina) include:
Contents
1 People
1.1 In arts and media
1.1.1 In literature and journalism
1.1.2 In music
1.1.3 In other media
1.2 In business
1.3 In government, law, and politics
1.4 In science and academia
1.5 In sport and games
1.6 In other fields
2 See also
3 Fictional characters
4 References
People[edit]
In arts and media[edit]
In literature and journalism[edit]
Adam Levin, fiction author
Alan Levin (filmmaker) (1926–2006), American filmmaker and journalist
Arnold Levin, New Yorker cartoonist
Bernard Levin, (1928–2004), British writer and broadcaster
Daniel Levin (writer) (born c. 1980), American attorney and novelist
David P. Levin, American filmmaker
Diane Levin, American author and educator
Hanoch Levin (1943–1999), Israeli writer and theater director
Harry Levin (1912–1994), U.S. literary critic
Ira Levin (1929–2007), U.S. novelist, playwright and songwriter
Mark Levin (born 1957), American conservative radio host, lawyer, author, and political commentator who served in the Reagan administration
Meyer Levin (1905–1981), U.S. novelist
Robert Levin (writer) (born 1939), American fiction writer
In music[edit]
Beth Levin (musician), American pianist
David Levin (singer), American singer-songwriter
Harold Levin, American violist, composer, and conductor
Ira Levin (1929–2007), U.S. novelist, playwright and songwriter
Josef Lhévinne (1874–1944), Russian pianist
Robert Levin (Norwegian pianist) (1912–1996), Norwegian pianist and composer
Robert D. Levin (born 1947), U.S. composer and musicologist
Tony Levin (born 1946), U.S. bass player
Walter Levin (1924–2017), German-born violinist, founder member of the LaSalle Quartet
Zara Levina (1906–1976), Ukrainian composer
In other media[edit]
Alan Levin (filmmaker) (1926–2006), American filmmaker and journalist
David P. Levin (born 1958), American producer, director, writer and editor
Hanoch Levin (1943–1999), Israeli writer and theater director
Harvey Levin, TV and movie producer
Ira Levin (1929–2007), U.S. novelist, playwright and songwriter
Marc Levin, Jewish American filmmaker
Mark Levin (director) (born 1966), American director and screenwriter
Roland Levin (born 1957), Latvian photographer
In business[edit]
Adam K. Levin, former director of the New Jersey Division of Consumer Affairs and businessman in consumer credit-related businesses
Alan Levin (business), American businessmen, CFO of drug maker Pfizer
David Levin (businessman) (born 1962), British businessman
Gerald M. Levin (born 1939), U.S. businessman with Time Warner
Nathaniel Levin (1818–1903), New Zealand businessman and politician
Neil Levin, former Executive Director of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey
Philip J. Levin (c. 1909 – 1971), American real estate developer and investor
William Levin (1845–1893), New Zealand businessman and politician
Myles Levin (born 1951), American CEO
Slava Levin (Broadcast Executive), Canadian Businessman, CEO of Canada's Largest Television Broadcaster
In government, law, and politics[edit]
Adam K. Levin, former director of the New Jersey Division of Consumer Affairs and businessman in consumer credit-related businesses
Burton Levin, American diplomat, former Ambassador to Burma
Carl Levin (born 1934), US Democratic Senator from Michigan; brother of Sander Levin, cousin of Charles Levin
Charles Levin (judge) (born 1926), Michigan jurist; cousin of Carl and Sander Levin
Daniel Levin (attorney) (active 2004-2005), Acting Assistant Attorney General for the Office of Legal Counsel of the U.S. Justice Department
David L. Levin (born 1949), American politician from Missouri
Ezra G. Levin, American lawyer
Fred Levin (born 1937), US plaintiffs' attorney in the state of Florida
Joe Levin, American lawyer
Lewis Charles Levin (1808–1860), first Jewish Representative to the U.S. Congress
Mark Levin (born 1957), American conservative radio host, lawyer, author, and political commentator who served in the Reagan administration
Mike Levin, California Democratic politcian
Nathaniel Levin (1818–1903), New Zealand businessman and politician
Sander M. Levin (born 1931), US Democratic Representative from Michigan; brother of Carl, cousin of Charles
Susan Bass Levin, New Jersey, US politician
Theodore Levin (1897–1970), U.S. federal jurist
William Levin (1845–1893), New Zealand businessman and politician
Yariv Levin Israeli MK and Minister of Tourism
Yuval Levin, member of White House domestic policy staff
In science and academia[edit]
Alan Levin (internet governance), South African computer scientist and internet activist
Beth Levin (linguist), American linguist
Diane Levin, American author and educator
Janna Levin, theoretical cosmologist
Jack Levin, professor at Northeastern University
Jon Levin, physicist
Kenneth Levin (born 1944), American psychiatrist and author
Leonid Levin (born 1948), Russian-born computer scientist
Michael Levin, professor of philosophy at the City University of New York
Nora Levin (1916–1989), Holocaust historian
Rick Levin (born 1947), American economist, president of Yale University
Simon A. Levin, theoretical ecologist, professor of biology at Princeton University
Vladimir Levin, Russian mathematician and alleged criminal hacker
In sport and games[edit]
Aleksandr Mitrofanovich Levin (1871–1929), Russian chess player
Aleksandr Romanovich Levin (born 1991), Russian footballer
Bobby Levin, American bridge player
Corey Levin (born 1994), American football player
David Levin (born 1999), Israeli ice hockey player
David N. Levin (1948–2017), American balloonist
Eyal Levin, Israeli Olympic sailor
Jill Levin, American bridge player
Tatyana Levina (born 1977), Russian sprinter
In other fields[edit]
Gilbert Levin, American engineer
Janice H. Levin (1913–2001), American philanthropist and art collector from New York City
Jennifer Levin (1968–1986), murder victim in New York City's Central Park
Jonathan Levin (teacher) (1966–1997), American murder victim
Rob Levin (1955–2006), founder of the freenode IRC network
Vladimir Levin, Russian mathematician and alleged criminal hacker
See also[edit]
Lavine
Levene
Levi
Levina
Levine
Lewin
Lieven
Lewinsky
All pages beginning with "Levin"
All pages with a title containing Levin
Fictional characters[edit]
Kevin Levin, protagonist/antagonist from the television series "Ben 10"
Konstantin Levin, a protagonist in Tolstoy's novel "Anna Karenina"
Patti Levin, character in "The Leftovers"
Savannah Levine, character in Kelley Armstrong's Women of the Otherworld series
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Perl, L. (1990). The Great Ancestor Hunt: The Fun of Finding Out Who You Are. Clarion Books. p. 29. ISBN 9780395547908. Retrieved 2015-04-13.
Surname list
This page lists people with the surname Levin. If an internal link intending to refer to a specific person led you to this page, you may wish to change that link by adding the person's given name(s) to the link.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Levin_(surname)&oldid=855925359"
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Persian Empire
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (November 2016)
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Persian Empire in Achaemenid era, 6th century BC
Tomb of Cyrus the Great, founder of Persian Empire in the 6th century BC
Taq Kasra (Arch of Ctesiphon), symbol of Persian Empire in Sasanian era, 3rd century AD
The Persian Empire (Persian: شاهنشاهی ایران, translit. Šâhanšâhiye Irân, lit. 'Imperial Iran') is a series of imperial dynasties centered in Persia/Iran since the 6th century BC in Achaemenid era, to the 20th century AD in Qajar era.
Contents
[hide]
1 Achaemenids
2 Parthians and Sasanians
3 Safavids
4 List of the dynasties described as a Persian Empire
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Achaemenids
The first dynasty of the Persian Empire was created by Achaemenids, established by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC with the conquest of Median, Lydian and Babylonian empires.[1] It covered much of the Ancient world when it was conquered by Alexander the Great. Persepolis is the most famous historical site related to Persian Empire in Achaemenid era and it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1979.
Parthians and Sasanians
From 247 BC to 224 AD, Persia was ruled by the Parthian Empire, which supplanted the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire, and then by the Sassanian Empire, which ruled up until the mid-7th century.[2]
The Persian Empire in Sasanian era was interrupted by the Arab conquest of Persia in 651 AD, establishing the even larger Islamic caliphate, and later by the Mongol invasion. The main religion of ancient Persia was the native Zoroastrianism, but after the seventh century, it was replaced by Islam.
Safavids
Shah Abbas I, the most powerful king of Persia in Safavid era
The Safavid Empire was the first great Persian Empire established after Arab conquest of Persia by Shah Ismail I. From their base in Ardabil, the Safavid Persians established control over parts of Greater Persia/Iran and reasserted the Persian identity of the region, thus becoming the first native Persian dynasty since the Sasanian Empire to establish a unified Persian state.
Literature, art and architecture were flourished in Safavid era once again and it is often cited as the "rebirth of the Persian Empire". Safavids also announced Shia Islam as the official religion in the empire versus the Sunni Islam in the neighbouring Ottoman Empire.
List of the dynasties described as a Persian Empire
Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)
Sasanian Empire (224–651)
Safavid dynasty (1501–1736)
Afsharid dynasty (1736–1796)
Qajar dynasty (1785–1925)
Extent of the first Persian Empire, the Achaemenid Empire
Extent of the Sasanian Empire in 621
The maximum extent of the Safavid Empire under Shah Abbas I
Extent of the Afsharid Empire under Nader Shah
See also
Look up persian empire in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
List of monarchs of Persia
Iranian monarchy
List of Iranian dynasties and countries
Persia
Iranian peoples
Persian people
List of tombs of Iranian people
References
Jump up ^ Herodotus. "Halicarnassus". The Histories. pp. (page needed). ISBN 978-0143107545.
Jump up ^ History of the World in 1,000 Objects (DK Publishing, 2014). p. 71.
External links
Persian Empire travel guide from Wikivoyage
"Persia". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Persian Empire.

This Iran-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Ancient Persia
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