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Chumash people
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Chumash
Pictographs, Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park
Total population
2,000[1]–5,000[2]
Regions with significant populations
United States
∟ California
Languages
English • Spanish • formerly Chumashan languages
Religion
Traditional tribal religion,
Christianity
Related ethnic groups
Barbareño, Ventureño,
Ynezeño, Purismeño, Obiseño[3]
This article is about the people. For the Jewish religious book, see Chumash (Judaism).
The Chumash are a Native American people who historically inhabited the central and southern coastal regions of California, in portions of what is now San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Ventura and Los Angeles counties, extending from Morro Bay in the north to Malibu in the south. They also occupied three of the Channel Islands: Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, and San Miguel; the smaller island of Anacapa was likely inhabited seasonally due to the lack of a consistent water source.[4][5]
Modern place names with Chumash origins include Cayucos, Malibu, Nipomo, Lompoc, Ojai, Pismo Beach, Point Mugu, Port Hueneme, Piru, Lake Castaic, Saticoy, Simi Valley and Somis.
Archaeological research demonstrates that the Chumash have deep roots in the Santa Barbara Channel area and lived along the southern California coast for millennia.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Chumash environment before European contact (A.D. 1400)
1.2 Chumash diet before 1400 AD
1.3 The beginning of the Chumash tribe
1.4 European contact
2 Chumash bands
3 Population
4 Languages
5 Culture
5.1 Basketry
5.2 Bead manufacture and trading
5.3 Cuisine
5.4 Herbalism
5.5 Rock art
5.6 Scorpion tree
6 History
6.1 Before Spanish contact
6.2 Spanish arrival and the Mission era
6.3 Contemporary times
6.4 Santa Ynez history
6.5 Produce initiative
7 Casino controversy
8 Places of significance
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
History[edit]
Chumash environment before European contact (A.D. 1400)[edit]
The Chumash resided between the Santa Ynez Mountains and the California coasts where rivers and tributaries abound. Inside and around the modern-day Santa Barbara region, the Chumash lived with a bounty of resources. The tribe lived in an area of three environments: the interior, the coast, and the Northern Channel Islands.[6] These provided a diverse array of materials to support the Chumash lifestyle.
The interior is composed of the land outside the coast and spanning the wide plains, rivers, and mountains. The coast covers the cliffs and land close to the ocean and, in reference to resources, the areas of the ocean from which the Chumash harvested. The Northern Channel Islands lie off the coast of the Chumash territory.
All of the California coastal-interior has a Mediterranean climate due to the incoming ocean winds.[7] The mild temperatures, save for winter, made gathering easy; during the cold months, the tribespeople harvested what they could and supplemented their diets with stored foods. What villagers gathered and traded during the seasons changed depending on where they resided.[8]
With coasts populated by masses of species of fish and land densely covered by trees and animals, the Chumash had a diverse array of food. Abundant resources and a winter rarely harsh enough to cause concern meant the tribe lived a sedentary lifestyle in addition to a subsistence existence. Villages in the three aforementioned areas contained remains of sea mammals, indicating that trade networks existed for moving materials throughout the Chumash territory.[9] Such connections spread out the land’s wealth, allowing the Chumash to live comfortably without agriculture.
Chumash diet before 1400 AD[edit]
The closer a village was to the ocean, the greater its reliance on maritime resources.[10] Due to advanced canoe designs, coastal and island people could procure fish and aquatic mammals from farther out. Shellfish were a good source of nutrition: relatively easy to find and abundant. Many of the favored varieties grew in tidal zones.[11] Shellfish grew in abundance during winter to early spring; their proximity to shore made collection easier. Some of the consumed species included mussels, abalone, and a wide array of clams. Haliotis rufescens (red abalone) was harvested this species along the Central California coast in the pre-contact era.[12] The Chumash and other California Indians also used red abalone shells to make a variety of fishhooks, beads, ornaments, and other artifacts.
Ocean animals such as otters and seals were thought to be the primary meal of coastal tribes people, but recent evidence shows the aforementioned trade networks exchanged oceanic animals for terrestrial foods from the interior. Any village could acquire fish, but the coastal and island communities specialized in catching not just smaller fish, but also the massive catches such as swordfish.[13] This feat, difficult even for today’s technology, was made possible by the tomol plank canoe. Its design allowed for the capture of deepwater fish, and it facilitated trade routes between villages.[13]
Before contact with Europeans, coastal Chumash relied less on terrestrial resources than they did on maritime; vice versa for interior Chumash.[14] Regardless, they consumed similar land resources. Like many other tribes, deer were the most important land mammal the Chumash pursued; deer were consumed in varying amounts across all regions, which cannot be said for other terrestrial animals. Interior Chumash placed greater value on the deer, to the extent that they had unique hunting practices for them. They dressed as deer and grazed alongside the animals until the hunters were in range to use their arrows.[14] Even Chumash close to the ocean pursued deer, though in understandably fewer numbers, and what more meat the villages needed they acquired from smaller animals such as rabbits and birds.
Plant foods composed the rest of Chumash diet, especially acorns, which were the staple food despite the work needed to remove their inherent toxins. They could be ground into a paste that was easy to eat and store for years.[15] Coast live oak provided the best acorns; their mush would be served usually unseasoned with meat and/or fish.[16]
The beginning of the Chumash tribe[edit]
Native Americans have lived along the California coast for at least 13,000 years. The first settlement started over 13,000 years ago near the Santa Barbara coast. The name Chumash means “bead maker” or “seashell people” being that they originated near the Santa Barbara coast. The Chumash tribes near the coast benefited most with the “close juxtaposition of a variety or marine and terrestrial habitats, intensive upwelling in coastal waters, and intentional burning of the landscape made the Santa Barbara Channel region one of the most resource abundant places on the planet”.[17] Before the mission period, the Chumash lived in over 150 independent villages, speaking variations of the same language. Much of their culture consisted of basketry, bead manufacturing and trading, cuisine of local abalone and clam, herbalism which consisted of using local herbs to produce teas and medical reliefs, rock art, and the scorpion tree.[18] The scorpion tree was significant to the Chumash as shown in its arborglyph: a carving depicting a six-legged creature with a headdress including a crown and two spheres. The shamans participated in the carving which was used in observations of the stars and in part of the Chumash calendar.
European contact[edit]
Europeans first visited the Chumash in 1542. They were met by sailing vessels under the command of Juan Cabrillo.[clarification needed] With the arrival of the Europeans “came a series of unprecedented blows to the Chumash and their traditional lifeways. Anthropologists, historians, and other scholars have long been interested in documenting the collision of cultures that accompanied the European exploration and settlement of the Americas.”[17] Spain settled on the territory of the Chumash in 1770. They founded colonies, bringing in missionaries to begin Christianizing Native Americans in the region. Due to the large mission and Christian influence, Chumash villages began moving to many missions springing up along the coast.
Much of the Chumash’s population was diminished due to Old World diseases brought over by the Europeans. The settlement of the Spanish also devastated the Chumash culture.
The Chumash reservation, established in 1901, encompasses 127 acres. No native Chumash speak their own language since Inesño, whose last speaker died in 1965. Today, the Chumash are estimated to have a population of 5,000 members. Many current members can trace their ancestors to the five islands of Channel Island National Park.
Chumash bands[edit]
One Chumash band, the Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Mission Indians of the Santa Ynez Reservation is a federally recognized tribe, and other Chumash people are enrolled in the federally-recognized Tejon Indian Tribe of California. There are 14 bands of Chumash Indians.[19]
Barbareno Chumash, affiliated with the Taynayan missions and the Kashwa reservations.
Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation, their historical territory, north of Los Angeles, includes parts of the coastal counties of Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, Kern, and Ventura. The Coastal band of the Chumash Nation applied for recognition in 1981.[20]
Cuyama Chumash, from the Cuyama Valley
Island Chumash, from the Channel Islands
Kagismuwas Chumash, from the southwestern-most region of the ancestral Chumash land. Their historical lands are now part of Vandenberg Air Force Base.
Los Angeles Chumash, formed when members of the traditional Malibu, Tejon, and Ventura bands were relocated in the 19th century.
Malibu Chumash, from the coast of Malibu. Descendants of this band can now be found among the Ventura, Coastal, Tejon, and San Fernando Valley bands.
Monterey Chumash, from the Monterey peninsula.
Samala, or Santa Ynez Chumash. The Santa Ynez Chumash people in 2012 went to federal court to regain more land. The Bureau of Indian Affairs approved the request; the land was to go toward tribal housing and a Chumash Museum and Cultural Center. However, protesters and anti-tribal groups have spent approximately $2 million to disrupt or stop the land acquisition.[21]
San Fernando Valley Chumash, once laborers at the San Fernando Valley Mission. [citation needed] They intermarried other tribes who also worked at the mission.
Yak Tityu Tityu Yak Tilhini Northern Chumash, homelands from coastal Avila Beach to Morro Bay northwestern-most Chumash people located in San Luis Obispo County.
Tecuya Chumash, most of this band of Chumash tribe were probably Kagismuwas. This band was established as an anti-colonial group, who took residence in the Tecuya Canyon along with the Tejon Chumash.
Tejon Chumash, part of the Kern County Chumash Council. Tejon is the Spanish word for "badger," and its name was given to the Tejon Rancheria.
Ventura Chumash, lives in the traditional Chumash domain of the Owl Clan.
Population[edit]
Further information: Population of Native California
Estimates for the precontact populations of most native groups in California have varied substantially. The anthropologist Alfred L. Kroeber thought the 1770 population of the Chumash might have been about 10,000.[22] Alan K. Brown concluded that the population was about 15,000.[23] Sherburne F. Cook, at various times, estimated the aboriginal Chumash as 8,000, 13,650, 20,400, or 18,500.[24]
Some scholars[25] have suggested the Chumash population may have declined substantially during a "protohistoric" period (1542–1769), when intermittent contacts with the crews of Spanish ships, including those of Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo's expedition, who wintered in the Santa Barbara Channel in AD 1542–43, brought disease and death. The Chumash appear to have been thriving in the late 18th century, when Spaniards first began actively colonizing the California coast. Whether the deaths began earlier with the contacts with ships' crews or later with the construction of several Spanish missions at Ventura, Santa Barbara, Lompoc, Santa Ynez, and San Luis Obispo, the Chumash were eventually devastated by Old World diseases such as influenza and smallpox, to which they had no immunological resistance. By 1900, their numbers had declined to just 200, while current estimates of Chumash people today range from 2,000[1] to 5,000.[2]
The demographics of traditional Chumash society are quite complex. One aspect of interest is the 'Aqi gender of the Chumash. 'Aqi was a third Chumash gender defined by biological males that performed work and wore clothing traditionally of women. The 'aqi gender appears to also be closely tied to non-procreative sexual activity, such as homosexuality.[26]
Languages[edit]
Main article: Chumashan languages
Several related languages under the name "Chumash" (from čʰumaš /t͡ʃʰumaʃ/, meaning "Santa Cruz Islander") were spoken. Few, if any, living native speakers remain, although they are well documented in the unpublished fieldnotes of linguist John Peabody Harrington. Especially well documented are the Barbareño, Ineseño, and Ventureño dialects. Several Chumash families are working to revitalize the language.[27] The native name for Chumash in Ineseño/Barbareño is s'amala /sʔamala/.
Culture[edit]
Rafael Solares, a Samala chief, captain of Soxtonoxmu, capital village in the Santa Ynez Valley, photograph by Leon de Cessac, late 19th century
The Chumash were hunter-gatherers and were adept at fishing at the time of Spanish colonization. They are one of the relatively few New World peoples who regularly navigated the ocean (another was the Tongva, a neighboring tribe to the south). Some settlements built a plank boat (tomol), which facilitated the distribution of goods and could be used for whaling.
Basketry[edit]
Basketry tray, Santa Barbara Mission, early 1800s
Anthropologists have long collected Chumash baskets. Two of the finest collections are at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC, and the Musée de l'Homme (Museum of Mankind) in Paris. The Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History is believed to have the largest collection of Chumash baskets.
Bead manufacture and trading[edit]
The Chumash of the Northern Channel Islands were at the center of an intense regional trade network. Beads made from Olivella shells were manufactured on the Channel Islands and used as a form of currency by the Chumash.[28] These shell beads were traded to neighboring groups and have been found throughout Alta California. Over the course of late prehistory, millions of shell beads were manufactured and traded from Santa Cruz Island. It has been suggested that exclusive control over stone quarries used to manufacture the drills needed in bead production could have played a role in the development of social complexity in Chumash society.[28]
Cuisine[edit]
Foods historically consumed by the Chumash include several marine species, such as black abalone,[29] the Pacific littleneck clam,[29] red abalone,[29] the bent-nosed clam,[29] ostrea lurida oysters,[29] Pacific littleneck clams,[29] angular unicorn snails,[29] and the butternut clam.[30] They also made flour from the dried fruits of the laurel sumac.[31]
Herbalism[edit]
Herbs used in traditional Chumash medicine include thick-leaved yerba santa, used to keep airways open for proper breathing;[32] laurel sumac, the root bark of which was used to make a herbal tea for treating dysentery;[31] and black sage, the leaves and stems were made into a strong sun tea. This was rubbed on the painful area or used to soak one's feet. The plant contains diterpenoids, such as aethiopinone and ursolic acid, which are known pain relievers.[33]
The Chumash formerly practiced an initiation rite involving the use of sacred datura (moymoy in their language). When a boy was 8 years old, his mother would give him a preparation of it to drink. This was supposed to be a spiritual challenge to help him develop the spiritual wellbeing required to become a man. Not all of the boys survived the poison.[34]
Rock art[edit]
Further information: Rock art of the Chumash people
Remains of a developed Chumash culture, including rock paintings apparently depicting the Chumash cosmology, such as Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park, can still be seen.
Scorpion tree[edit]
A centuries-old oak tree in California is considered to have a Chumash arborglyph, a carving of a six-legged creature with a head-dress including a crown and two spheres. Previously thought to have been carved by cowboys, it was visited in 2007 by paleontologist Rex Saint Onge, who identified the three-foot carving as being of Chumash origin and related to other Chumash cave paintings in California. Further studies have led Saint Onge to believe these are not simply the work of Chumash, shamans who were conscious observations of the stars and part of a Chumash calendar.[35]
History[edit]
Precontact distribution of the Chumash
Before Spanish contact[edit]
Archaeological evidence of Native American presence in what were later the Chumash lands date to at least 11,000 years before present.[36] Sites of the Millingstone Horizon date from 7000 cal BC to 4500 cal BC and show evidence of a subsistence system focused on the processing of seeds with metates and manos.[37] During that time, people used bipointed bone objects and line to catch fish and began making beads from shells of the marine olive snail (Olivella biplicata).[38]
While droughts were not uncommon in the centuries of the first millennium AD, a population explosion occurred with the coming of the medieval warm period. "Marine productivity soared between 950 and 1300 as natural upwelling intensified off the coast."[39]
Some researchers believe that the Chumash may have been visited by Polynesians between AD 400 and 800, nearly 1,000 years before Christopher Columbus reached the Americas.[40] Although the concept is rejected by most archaeologists who work with the Chumash culture (and this contact has left no genetic legacy), others have given the idea greater plausibility.[41][42]
The Chumash advanced sewn-plank canoe design, used throughout the Polynesian Islands but unknown in North America except by those two tribes, is cited as the chief evidence for contact. Comparative linguistics may provide evidence as the Chumash word for "sewn-plank canoe", tomolo'o, may have been derived from kumula'au, the Polynesian word for the redwood logs used in that construction. However, the language comparison is generally considered tentative. Furthermore, the development of the Chumash plank canoe is fairly well represented in the archaeological record and spans several centuries.[43][44]
Spanish arrival and the Mission era[edit]
Chumash musicians at Mission San Buenaventura, 1873
Chumash people first encountered Europeans in the autumn of 1542, when two sailing vessels under Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo arrived on the coast from Mexico. Cabrillo died and was buried on San Miguel Island, but his men brought back a diary that contained the names and population counts for many Chumash villages, such as Mikiw. Spain claimed what is now California from that time forward, but did not return to settle until 1769, when the first Spanish soldiers and missionaries arrived with the double purpose of Christianizing the Native Americans and facilitating Spanish colonization. By the end of 1770, missions and military presidios had been founded at San Diego to the south of Chumash lands and Monterey to their north.[45]
The Chumash people moved from their villages to the Franciscan missions between 1772 and 1817. Mission San Luis Obispo, established in 1772, was the first mission in Chumash-speaking lands, as well as the northernmost of the five missions ever constructed in those lands. Next established, in 1782, was Mission San Buenaventura on the Pacific Coast near the mouth of the Santa Clara River. Mission Santa Barbara, also on the coast, and facing out to the Channel Islands, was established in 1786. Mission La Purisima Concepción was founded along the inland route from Santa Barbara north to San Luis Obispo in 1789. The final Franciscan mission to be constructed in native Chumash territory was Santa Ynez, founded in 1804 on the Santa Ynez River with a seed population of Chumash people from Missions La Purisima and Santa Barbara. To the southeast, Mission San Fernando, founded in 1798 in the land of Takic Shoshonean speakers, also took in large numbers of Chumash speakers from the middle Santa Clara River valley. While most of the Chumash people joined one mission or another between 1772 and 1806, a significant portion of the native inhabitants of the Channel Islands did not move to the mainland missions until 1816.[46]
Contemporary times[edit]
See also the Chumash Revolt of 1824, a Chumash uprising against the presence of the Spanish in The Californias.
The first modern tomol was built and launched in 1976 as a result of a joint venture between Quabajai Chumash of the Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation and the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History. Its name is Helek/Xelex, the Chumash word for falcon. The Brotherhood of the Tomol was revived and her crew paddled and circumnavigated around the Santa Barbara Channel Islands on a 10-day journey, stopping on three of the islands. The second tomol, the Elye'wun ("swordfish"), was launched in 1997.
On September 9, 2001, the first "crossing" in the Chumash tomol, from the mainland to Channel Islands, was sponsored by the Chumash Maritime Association and the Barbareno Chumash Council. Several Chumash bands and descendants gathered on the island of Limuw (the Chumash name for Santa Cruz Island) to witness the Elye'wun being paddled from the mainland to Santa Cruz Island. Their journey was documented in the short film "Return to Limuw" produced by the Ocean Channel for the Chumash Maritime Association, Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary, and the Santa Barbara Maritime Museum. The channel crossings have become a yearly event hosted by the Barbareno Chumash Council.
The Santa Ynez Band of Chumash is a federally recognized Chumash tribe. They have the Santa Ynez Reservation located in Santa Barbara County, near Santa Ynez. Chumash people are also enrolled in the Tejon Indian Tribe of California.
In addition to the Santa Ynez Band, the Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation, and the Barbareño/Ventureño Band of Mission Indians are attempting to gain federal recognition. Other Chumash tribal groups include the Northern Chumash Tribal Council, descendants from the San Luis Obispo area, and the Barbareno Chumash Council, descendants from the greater Santa Barbara area.
The publication of the first Chumash dictionary took place in April 2008. Six hundred pages long and containing 4,000 entries, the Samala-English Dictionary includes more than 2,000 illustrations.[47]
The documentary film 6 Generations: A Chumash Family History features Mary Yee, the last speaker of the Barbareño Chumash language.[48]
A Chumash Indian museum is in Thousand Oaks, California. It has Chumash artifacts, displays illustrating Chumash daily life, and a recreated Chumash village nestled underneath beautiful oak trees by a stream. The museum is surrounded by hiking trails.[49]
Santa Ynez history[edit]
Mexico seized control of the missions in 1834. Tribespeople either fled into the interior, attempted farming for themselves and were driven off the land, or were enslaved by the new administrators. Many found highly exploitative work on large Mexican ranches. After 1849 most Chumash land was lost due to theft by Americans and a declining population, due to the effects of violence and disease. The remaining Chumash began to lose their cohesive identity. In 1855, a small piece of land (120 acres) was set aside for just over 100 remaining Chumash Indians near Santa Ynez mission. This land ultimately became the only Chumash reservation, although Chumash individuals and families also continued to live throughout their former territory in southern California. Today, the Santa Ynez band lives at and near Santa Ynez. The Chumash population was between roughly 10,000 and 18,000 in the late 18th century. In 1990, 213 Indians lived on the Santa Ynez Reservation.[50]
Produce initiative[edit]
In December 2010, the Foodbank of Santa Barbara County was the proud recipient of a $10,000 grant from the Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians Foundation to support expansion of the Produce Initiative. The Produce Initiative puts an emphasis on supplying fruits and vegetables to 264 local nonprofits and food programs. The foodbank distributes produce free of charge to member agencies to encourage healthy eating. Expanding produce accessibility to children is important to the foodbank and the newly operating Kids’ Farmers' Market program, an extension of the Produce Initiative, successfully achieves that goal.
The program trains volunteers to teach kids in after-school programs nutrition education and hands-on cooking instructions. This program currently operates at 12 sites countywide, including in the Santa Ynez Valley. After the children cook and eat a healthy meal, they get to take home a bag full of fresh produce, where they can help feed and cook for the whole family.[51] Obesity in children is a major health problem prevalent among Native Americans.[52]
To promote sustainable agriculture and healthy diets, the Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Environmental Office and Education Departments' after-school program planted a community garden, which provided vegetables to the Elder's Council, beginning in 2013.[53] The Santa Ynez Valley Fruit and Vegetable Rescue, also known as Veggie Rescue, is another effort to improve food sourcing for the Santa Ynez.[54]
Casino controversy[edit]
A lawsuit was filed on April 3, 2015 in federal court against the Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Mission Indians by a group of citizens of Santa Ynez, CA. The lawsuit claimed that the tribe's location for their proposed 12-story high-rise hotel/casino expansion was not exempt from local land use laws and would be illegal. The case was dismissed three months later and not appealed. Save the Valley, LLC v. The Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians, 2015 WL 12552060 (2015).
Places of significance[edit]
Pictographs at Painted Rock in the Carrizo Plain National Monument
Places of significant archaeological and historical value.[55]
Albinger Archaeological Museum in Ventura – Chumash artifacts and history
Burro Flats Painted Cave in Simi Valley – Chumash pictographs
Carpinteria State Beach in Carpinteria – cave paintings depicting Chumash life
Carpinteria Valley Museum of History and Historical Society in Carpinteria – Chumash artifacts and history
Chumash Indian Museum in Thousand Oaks – exhibitions of artifacts and recreation of Chumash houses
Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park in Santa Barbara – cave paintings
Hollister Adobe Museum in San Luis Obispo – Chumash artifacts and exhibits
La Purisima Mission State Historical Park in Lompoc – displays of mission life in reconstructed buildings
Lompoc Museum in Lompoc – Chumash artifacts and history
Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History in Los Angeles – anthropology and guided tours for Chumash natural history
Mission San Luis Obispo Museum – Chumash artifacts and exhibits
Morro Bay Museum of Natural History – docent presentations and Chumash exhibits
Ojai Valley Museum and Historical Society in Ojai. Inland Chumash history.
Painted Rock, Carrizo Plain Natural Heritage Reserve in San Luis Obispo County – cave paintings
Port Hueneme Historical Society Museum in Port Hueneme - Chumash speakers (Distinguished Speaker Series) exhibit on Chumash history and artifacts
San Buenaventura Mission Museum in Ventura – exhibits on Chumash history
San Luis Obispo County Historical Museum – Chumash artifacts and exhibits.
Santa Barbara Historical Society in Santa Barbara. Guided tours.
Santa Barbara Mission in Santa Barbara. Local Chumash history and guided tours.
Santa Barbara Mission Archive-Library. Records of all California mission Indians. < http://www.sbmal.org>
Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History – exhibits on Chumash Indians and natural history of Native Americans
Santa Barbara Presidio – historical exhibits
Santa Cruz Island – cave paintings in Olsen’s Cave:[56] More than 300,000 Chumash objects have been collected in the Channel Islands,[57] which was home to 10 villages and more than 1200 Chumash residents.[58]
San Luis Obispo County Historical Museum – Chumash artifacts and exhibits
Santa Ines Mission in Solvang – site of an early Spanish mission
Santa Maria Valley Historical Society Museum – Chumash artifacts and exhibits
Santa Rosa Island – cave paintings in Jones Cave. Thousands of artifacts of the island, which has been populated by the Chumash for more than 13,000 years, have been found.[59]
Santa Ynez Indian Reservation (Samala) – the only Chumash Indian reservation[60]
Satwiwa – ancient Chumash village and now museum in Newbury Park, CA
Southwest Museum in Highland Park
Ventura County Museum of History and Art in Ventura – exhibits on Chumash history with guided tours available
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chumash.
Burro Flats Painted Cave
Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park, California
Chumash traditional narratives
Polynesian navigation
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact
Shalawa Meadow, California
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "California Indians and Their Reservations: P. SDSU Library and Information Access. (retrieved 17 July 2010)
^ Jump up to: a b Native Inhabitants
Jump up ^ Pritzker, 121
Jump up ^ http://www.nps.gov/chis/historyculture/nativeinhabitants.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.seathos.org/chumash-indians-on-the-channel-islands/
Jump up ^ Gamble 21.
Jump up ^ Timbrook 164.
Jump up ^ Gamble 228.
Jump up ^ Coombs and Plog 313.
Jump up ^ Gamble 6.
Jump up ^ Gamble 26–28.
Jump up ^ Hogan, C. M. Los Osos Back Bay. The Megalithic Portal, editor A. Burnham (2008).
^ Jump up to: a b (Gamble 156).
^ Jump up to: a b (Gamble 164).
Jump up ^ Gamble 23.
Jump up ^ Brittain 5.
^ Jump up to: a b (Newton 416).
Jump up ^ Barry.
Jump up ^ "Chumash Indians" (PDF). Chumash Indian Bands. Chumash Tribe. 19 June 2014. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation". YouTube. Aim Santa Barbara. Retrieved April 3, 2016.
Jump up ^ 2012. Indian Lands: Exploring Resolutions to Disputes Concerning Indian Tribes, State and Local Governments, and Private Landowners over Land Use and Development. N.p.
Jump up ^ A. L. Kroeber, p.883
Jump up ^ Brown, Alan K (1967). "The Aboriginal Population of the Santa Barbara Channel". Reports of the University of California Archeological Survey. University of California (69).
Jump up ^ S. F. Cook, 1976
Jump up ^ Erlandson et al. 2001
Jump up ^ Archaeologies of sexuality. Schmidt, Robert A., 1953-, Voss, Barbara L., 1967-. London: Routledge. 2000. ISBN 9780415223669. OCLC 70746810.
Jump up ^ Mithun 1999:389–392.
^ Jump up to: a b Arnold 2001
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Hogan, C. M. "Los Osos Back Bay". The Megalithic Portal. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
Jump up ^ Intertidal Marine Invertebrates of the South Puget Sound (2008) Archived February 16, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Timbrook, Jan (1990). "Ethnobotany of Chumash Indians, California," based on collections by John P. Harrington". Economic Botany. 44 (2): 236–253. doi:10.1007/BF02860489.
Jump up ^ James D. Adams Jr, Cecilia Garcia (2005). "Palliative Care Among Chumash People". ECAM. 2 (2): 143–147. doi:10.1093/ecam/neh090. PMC 1142202  . PMID 15937554.
Jump up ^ "Palliative Care Among Chumash People". Wild Food Plants. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-10-06. Retrieved 2007-07-14.
Jump up ^ Cecilia Garcia, James D. Adams (2005). Healing with medicinal plants of the west – cultural and scientific basis for their use. Abedus Press. ISBN 0-9763091-0-6.
Jump up ^ Kettman, Max "A Tree Carving in California: Ancient Astronomers?" Time Magazine 9 February 2010 [1]
Jump up ^ Dartt-Newton, Deana and Erlandson, Jon (Summer/Fall 2006), "Little Choice for the Chumash: Colonialism, Cattle, and Coercion in Mission Period California," The American Indian Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 3 & 4, 416
Jump up ^ Glassow et al. 2007:192–196
Jump up ^ King 1990:80–82, 106–107, 231
Jump up ^ Fagan, The Long Summer, 2004, p.222
Jump up ^ Did ancient Polynesians visit California? Maybe so., San Francisco Chronicle
Jump up ^ Jones, Terry L.; Kathryn A. Klar (June 3, 2005). "Diffusionism Reconsidered: Linguistic and Archaeological Evidence for Prehistoric Polynesian Contact with Southern California". American Antiquity. 70 (3): 457–484. doi:10.2307/40035309. JSTOR 40035309. Archived from the original on September 27, 2006. Retrieved 2008-03-06. and Adams, James D.; Cecilia Garcia; Eric J. Lien (January 23, 2008). "A Comparison of Chinese and American Indian (Chumash) Medicine". Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 7 (2): 219–25. doi:10.1093/ecam/nem188. PMC 2862936  . PMID 18955312. Archived from the original on February 14, 2009. Retrieved 2008-03-06. . See also Terry Jones's homepage Archived 2008-05-11 at the Wayback Machine., California Polytechnic State University.
Jump up ^ For the argument against the Polynesian Contact Theory, see 2007 Arnold, J.E. "Credit Where Credit is Due: The History of the Chumash Oceangoing Plank Canoe." American Antiquity 72:196–209
Jump up ^ Arnold, Jeanne E. 1995.
Jump up ^ Gamble, Lynn H. 2002.
Jump up ^ Brown 1967
Jump up ^ McLendon and Johnson 1999
Jump up ^ Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians Publishes Language Dictionary. (https://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS180466+21-Apr-2008+PRN20080421)
Jump up ^ Kettmann, Matt (2011-01-27). "Santa Barbara on Screen". The Santa Barbara Independent. Retrieved 2013-05-08.
Jump up ^ http://chumashindianmuseum.com
Jump up ^ (Pritzker).
Jump up ^ Santa Barbara Independent.
Jump up ^ Blackwell, Amy Hackney (2014). "Childhood obesity." In The American Mosaic: The American Indian Experience. Retrieved February 28, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Chumash Community Garden Update". Santa Ynez Chumash Environmental Office. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Veggie Rescue". Retrieved 26 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Lynne McCall & Perry Rosalind. 1991. The Chumash People: Materials for Teachers and Students. Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History. San Luis Obispo, CA: EZ Nature Books. ISBN 0-945092-23-7. Page 72-73.
Jump up ^ http://www.pcas.org/Vol36N2/11Meighan.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.nps.gov/chis/historyculture/collections.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.nps.gov/chis/planyourvisit/santa-cruz-island.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.nps.gov/chis/planyourvisit/santa-rosa-island.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.santaynezchumash.org/reservation.html
References[edit]
Arnold, Jeanne E. (ed.) 2001. The Origins of a Pacific Coast Chiefdom: The Chumash of the Channel Islands. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.
Arnold, Jeanne E. (1995). "Transportation Innovation and Social Complexity among Maritime Hunter-Gatherer Societies". American Anthropologist. 97 (4): 733–747. doi:10.1525/aa.1995.97.4.02a00150.
Brittain, A.; Evans, S.; Giroux, A.; Hammargren, B.; Treece, B.; Willis, A. (2011). "Climate action on tribal lands: A community based approach (resilience and risk assessment)". Native Communities and Climate Change. 5: 555.
Brown, Alan K. (1967). "The Aboriginal Population of the Santa Barbara Channel". University of California Archaeological Survey Reports. 69: 1–99.
Cook, Sherburne F. 1976. The Conflict between the California Indian and White Civilization. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Cook, Sherburne F. 1976. The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Coombs, G.; Plog, F. (1977). "The conversion of the chumash Indians: An ecological interpretation". Human Ecology. 5 (4): 309–328. doi:10.1007/bf00889174. JSTOR 4602423.
Cordero R. The Ancestors Are Dreaming Us. News From Native California [serial online]. Spring2012 2012;25(3):4–27. Available from: Academic Search Premier, Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 22, 2014.
Dartt-Newton, D.; Erlandson, J. M. (2006). "Little Choice for the Chumash: Colonialism, Cattle, and Coercion in Mission Period California". American Indian Quarterly. 30 (3/4): 416–430. doi:10.1353/aiq.2006.0020.
Erlandson, Jon M.; Rick, Torben C.; Kennett, Douglas J.; Walker, Philip L. (2001). "Dates, demography, and disease: Cultural contacts and possible evidence for Old World epidemics among the Island Chumash". Pacific Coast Archaeological Society Quarterly. 37 (3): 11–26.
Gamble, Lynn H. (2002). "Archaeological Evidence for the Origin of the Plank Canoe in North America". American Antiquity. 67 (2): 301–315. doi:10.2307/2694568. JSTOR 2694568.
Gamble, L. H., & Enki Library eBook. (2008). The chumash world at European contact (1st ed.). Us: University of California Press. Retrieved from http://sjpl.enkilibrary.org/EcontentRecord/11197
Glassow, Michael A., Lynn H. Gamble, Jennifer E. Perry, and Glenn S. Russell. 2007. Prehistory of the Northern California Bight and the Adjacent Transverse Ranges. In California Prehistory: Colonization, Culture, and Complexity. Terry L. Jones and Kathryn A. Klar, editors. New York and Plymouth UK: Altamira Press.
Hogan, C. Michael. 2008. Morro Creek. Ed. A. Burnham.
Jones, Terry L.; Klar, Kathryn A. (2005). "Diffusionism Reconsidered: Linguistic and Archaeological Evidence for Prehistoric Polynesian Contact with Southern California". American Antiquity. 70 (3): 457–484. doi:10.2307/40035309. JSTOR 40035309.
King, Chester D. 1991. Evolution of Chumash Society: A Comparative Study of Artifacts Used for Social System Maintenance in the Santa Barbara Channel Region before A.D. 1804. New York and London, Garland Press.
Kroeber, A. L. 1925. Handbook of the Indians of California. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 78. Washington, D.C.
McLendon, Sally and John R. Johnson. 1999. Cultural Affiliation and Lineal Descent of Chumash Peoples in the Channel Islands and the Santa Monica Mountains. 2 volumes. Prepared for the Archeology and Ethnography Program, National Park Service by Hunter College, City University of New York and the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History.
Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-513877-1.
Pritzker, Barry M. (2014). Chumash. In The American Mosaic: The American Indian Experience. Retrieved February 25, 2014, from http://americanindian2.abc-clio.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/
Sandos J. Christianization among the Chumash: an ethnohistoric perspective. American Indian Quarterly [serial online]. Winter91 1991;15:65–89. Available from: OmniFile Full Text Mega (H.W. Wilson), Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 22, 2014.
Santa Barbara Independent. (2010, December 15). Chumash foundation $10,000 grant helps food bank serve healthy meals. * Timbrook, J.; Johnson, J. R.; Earle, D. D. (1982). "Vegetation burning by the chumash". Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology. 4 (2): 163–186. JSTOR 27825120.
Chumash Tribe sued over casino expansion
Further reading[edit]
Black Gold Library System, 1997, Native Americans of the Central Coast (historic photographs). Ventura, CA, Black Gold Libraries
Hudson, D. Travis and Thomas C. Blackburn. 1982-7. The Material Culture of the Chumash Interaction Sphere Volumes I–V. Anthropological Papers No. 25-31. Menlo Park, CA: Ballena Press.
Hudson, D. Travis, Thomas Blackburn, Rosario Curletti and Janice Timbrook. 1977. The Eye of the Flute: Chumash Traditional History and Ritual as told by Fernando Librado Kitsepawit to John P. Harrington. Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History.
Hudson, D. Travis, Janice Timbrook, and Melissa Rempe. 1977. Tomol: Chumash Watercraft as Described in the Ethnographic Notes of John P. Harrington. Anthropological Papers No. 9, edited by Lowell J. Bean and Thomas C. Blackburn. Socorro, NM: Ballena Press.
External links[edit]
Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Indians
Inezeño Chumash Language Tutorial
Coastal Band of the Chumash Nation
Antelope Valley Indian Museum at California Department of Parks and Recreation
Native Cultures and the Maritime Heritage Program, NOAA
Barbareno Chumash Council
Northern Chumash Tribal Council
Chumash Painted Cave State Historic Park
Chumash Singer and Storyteller Julie Tumamait-Stenslie
Chumash Indian Museum, Thousand Oaks, CA
Map of Chumash towns at the time of European Settlement
"Wishtoyo Foundation's Chumash Discovery Village, Malibu, CA". Archived from the original on 2012-12-22.
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Constituent Assembly of India
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Constituent Assembly of India
Seal of the Constituent Assembly.
Type
Type
Unicameral
History
Founded
6 December 1946 (1946-12-06)
Disbanded
24 January 1950 (1950-01-24)
Preceded by
Imperial Legislative Council
Succeeded by
Parliament of India
Leadership
Temporary Chairman
Sachchidananda Sinha, INC
President
Dr. Rajendra Prasad, INC
Chairman of the drafting committee
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, SCF
Vice Presidents
Harendra Coomar Mookerjee
V. T. Krishnamachari
Structure
Seats
389 (Dec. 1946-June 1947)
299 (June 1947-Jan. 1950)
Political groups
INC: 208 seats
AIML: 73 seats
Others: 15 seats
Princely States: 93 seats
Elections
Voting system
First past the post
Meeting place
House of Parliament, New Delhi
The Constituent Assembly of India was elected to write the Constitution of India. Following India's independence from Great Britain in 1947, its members served as the nation's first Parliament.
An idea for a Constituent Assembly was proposed in 1934 by M. N. Roy, a pioneer of the Communist movement in India and an advocate of radical democracy. It became an official demand of the Indian National Congress in 1935, C. Rajagopalachari voiced the demand for a Constituent Assembly on 15 November 1939 based on adult franchise, and was accepted by the British in August 1940. On 8 August 1940, a statement was made by Viceroy Lord Linlithgow about the expansion of the Governor-General's Executive Council and the establishment of a War Advisory Council. This offer, known as the August Offer, included giving full weight to minority opinions and allowing Indians to draft their own constitution. Under the Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946, elections were held for the first time for the Constituent Assembly. The Constitution of India was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, and it was implemented under the Cabinet Mission Plan on 16 May 1946. The members of the Constituent Assembly were elected by the provincial assemblies by a single, transferable-vote system of proportional representation. The total membership of the Constituent Assembly was 389: 292 were representatives of the states, 93 represented the princely states and four were from the chief commissioner provinces of Delhi, Ajmer-Merwara, Coorg (Near Madikeri) and British Baluchistan.
The elections for the 296 seats assigned to the British Indian provinces were completed by August 1946. Congress won 208 seats, and the Muslim League 73. After this election, the Muslim League refused to cooperate with the Congress,[citation needed] and the political situation deteriorated. Hindu-Muslim riots began, and the Muslim League demanded a separate constituent assembly for Muslims in India. On 3 June 1947 Lord Mountbatten, the last British Governor-General of India, announced his intention to scrap the Cabinet Mission Plan; this culminated in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and the separate nations of India and Pakistan. The Indian Independence Act was passed on 18 July 1947 and, although it was earlier declared that India would become independent in June 1948, this event led to independence on 15 August 1947. The Constituent Assembly (elected for an undivided India) met for the first time on 9 December 1946, reassembling on 14 August 1947 as a sovereign body and successor to the British parliament's authority in India. As a result of the partition, under the Mountbatten plan a separate constituent assembly was established in Pakistan on 3 June 1947. The representatives of the areas incorporated into Pakistan ceased to be members of the Constituent Assembly of India. New elections were held for the West Punjab and East Bengal (which became part of Pakistan, although East Bengal later seceded to become Bangladesh); the membership of the Constituent Assembly was 299 after the reorganization, and it met on 31 December 1947.
Contents
1 Description
2 Background and election
3 Constitution and elections
4 Organization
4.1 Timeline
5 Committees of the Constituent Assembly
6 Prominent members
7 Members (by province/state)
7.1 Members who later withdrew after partition
8 Gallery
9 References
10 Further reading
Description [edit]
The Constituent Assembly, consisting of indirectly elected representatives, was established to draft a constitution for India (including the now-separate countries of Pakistan and Bangladesh). It existed for approximately three years, the first parliament of India after independence in 1947. The Assembly was not elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage, and Muslims and Sikhs received special representation as minorities. The Muslim League boycotted the Assembly after failing to prevent its creation. Although a large part of the Constituent Assembly was drawn from the Congress Party in a one-party environment, the Congress Party included a wide diversity of opinions—from conservative industrialists to radical Marxists, to Hindu revivalists.
The Assembly met for the first time in New Delhi on 9 December 1946, and its last session was held on 24 January 1950.[1] The hope of the Assembly was expressed by Jawaharlal Nehru:
The first task of this Assembly is to free India through a new constitution, to feed the starving people, and to clothe the naked masses, and to give every Indian the fullest opportunity to develop himself according to his capacity. This is certainly a great task. Look at India today. We, are sitting here and there in despair in many places, and unrest in many cities. The atmosphere is surcharged with these quarrels and feuds which are called communal disturbances, and unfortunately we sometimes cannot avoid them. But at present the greatest and most important question in India is how to solve the problem of the poor and the starving. Wherever we turn, we are confronted with this problem. If we cannot solve this problem soon, all our paper constitutions will become useless and purposeless. Keeping this aspect in view, who could suggest to us to postpone and wait?
—  Jawaharlal Nehru, Constituent Assembly Debates (Proceedings), Vol. II
Background and election[edit]
India was still under British rule when the Constituent Assembly was established following negotiations between Indian leaders and members of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India from the United Kingdom. Provincial assembly elections were held early in 1946. Constituent Assembly members were elected indirectly by members of the newly elected provincial assemblies, and initially included representatives for those provinces that formed part of Pakistan (some of which are now in Bangladesh). The Constituent Assembly had 299 representatives, including nine women.
The Interim Government of India was formed on 2 September 1946 from the newly elected Constituent Assembly. The Congress Party held a large majority in the Assembly (69 percent of the seats), and the Muslim League held nearly all the seats reserved in the Assembly for Muslims. There were also members of smaller parties, such as the Scheduled Caste Federation, the Communist Party of India and the Unionist Party.
In June 1947 delegations from Sindh, East Bengal, Baluchistan, West Punjab and the North West Frontier Province withdrew to form the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, meeting in Karachi. On 15 August 1947 the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan became independent nations, and members of the Constituent Assembly who had not withdrawn to Karachi became India's Parliament. Twenty-eight members of the Muslim League joined the Indian Assembly, and 93 members were later nominated from the princely states; the Congress Party secured a majority of 82 percent.
Constitution and elections[edit]
See also: Constitution of India
At 11 am on 9 December 1946 the Assembly began its first session, with 208 members attending. By early 1947, representatives of the Muslim League and princely states joined, and the Assembly approved the draft constitution on 26 November 1949. On 26 January 1950 the constitution took effect (commemorated as Republic Day), and the Constituent Assembly became the Provisional Parliament of India (continuing until after the first elections under the new constitution in 1952).
Organization[edit]
Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was the first chairman (temporary) of Constituent Assembly. Later Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the president and Its vice-president was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a Christian from Bengal and former vice-chancellor of Calcutta University. Also chairing the assembly's Minorities Committee, Mookerjee was appointed governor of West Bengal after India became a republic. Jurist B. N. Rau was appointed constitutional adviser to the assembly; Rau prepared the original draft of the constitution, and was later appointed a judge in the Permanent Court of International Justice in The Hague.
The assembly's work had five stages:
Committees presented reports on issues.
B.N. Rau prepared an initial draft based on the reports and his research into the constitutions of other nations.
The drafting committee, chaired by B. R. Ambedkar, presented a detailed draft constitution which was published for public discussion.
The draft constitution was discussed, and amendments proposed and enacted.
The constitution was adopted, with a committee of experts led by the Congress Party (known as the Congress Assembly Party) played a pivotal role.[2]
Timeline[edit]
9 December 1946: The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held in the constitution hall (now the Central Hall of Parliament House). Demanding a separate state, the Muslim League boycotted the meeting. Sachchidananda Sinha was elected temporary president of the assembly, in accordance with French practice.
11 December 1946: Rajendra Prasad was elected as president and H. C. Mukherjee was elected as vice-president of the constituent assembly. B. N. Rau was appointed as its constitutional adviser.
13 December 1946: An 'Objective Resolution' was moved by Jawaharlal Nehru in the assembly, laying down the underlying principles of the constitution. It finally became the Preamble of the constitution.
22 January 1947: Objective resolution unanimously adopted.
22 July 1947: National flag adopted.
15 August 1947: Indian independence achieved as the Dominion of India.
29 August 1947: Drafting Committee appointed with Dr. B. R. Ambedkar as the Chairman.
16 July 1948: Along with Harendra Coomar Mookerjee V. T. Krishnamachari was also elected as second vice-president of Constituent Assembly.
26 November 1949: Constitution passed and accepted by the assembly.
24 January 1950: "Jana Gana Mana" adopted as the national anthem, with the first two verses of "Vande Mataram" the national song. Rajendra Prasad elected the first president of India.
The assembly was chaired by Dr. Rajendra Prasad when it met as a constituent body, and by G. V. Mavlankar when it met as a legislative body. It completed the task of drafting a constitution in two years, eleven months and eighteen days, at a total expenditure of ₹6.4 million.
Committees of the Constituent Assembly[edit]
The Constituent Assembly appointed a total of 22 committees to deal with different tasks of constitution-making. Out of these, eight were major committees and the others were minor committees.
Major Committees
Drafting Committee – Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
Union Powers Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru
Union Constitution Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru
Provincial Constitution Committee – Sardar Patel
Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Tribal and Excluded Areas – Sardar Patel. This committee had the following subcommittees:
Fundamental Rights Sub-Committee – J.B. Kripalani
Minorities Sub-Committee – Harendra Coomar Mookerjee,
North-East Frontier Tribal Areas and Assam Excluded & Partially Excluded Areas Sub-Committee – Gopinath Bardoloi
Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas (Other than those in Assam) Sub-Committee – A V Thakkar
Rules of Procedure Committee – Dr. Rajendra Prasad
States Committee (Committee for Negotiating with States) – Jawaharlal Nehru
Steering Committee – Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Prominent members[edit]
B. R. Ambedkar, Minister for Law; Chairman of Drafting Committee.
B. N. Rau, Constitutional Advisor
Jawaharlal Nehru, first Prime Minister of India
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, first Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Minister for Education
Rajendra Prasad, President of Constituent Assembly
C. Rajagopalachari, Governor-General of India
Sarat Chandra Bose, Barrister and Indian independence activist
Krishna Sinha, first Chief Minister, Bihar
Binodanand Jha, Minister, Bihar
Shyam Nandan Prasad Mishra
Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Deputy Chief Minister and Finance Minister, Bihar
Rafi Ahmed Kidwai
Asaf Ali
Syama Prasad Mookerjee, Industries Minister, President, Hindu Mahasabha
Moturi Satyanarayana, Freedom Fighter
Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Health Minister
Hansa Mehta, President, All India Women's Conference
N. G. Ranga
Deep Narayan Singh, Minister, Bihar
Gopinath Bordoloi, Prime Minister of Assam[3]
Sir Syed Muhammad Saadulla, Assam
P. Subbarayan
Kailashnath Katju
N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar
T. T. Krishnamachari
Rameshwar Prasad Sinha
Durgabai Deshmukh
K. M. Munshi
Krishana Ballabh Sahay
Frank Anthony, Anglo-Indian representative
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
John Mathai,first railway minister of India
Pratap Singh Kairon
L. Krishnaswamy Bharati - Madras Province
Chidambaram Subramaniam
Jaipal Singh Munda, Former Indian Hockey captain, and Tribal leader
Members (by province/state)[edit]
Madras: Annie Mascarene, O. V. Alagesan, Mrs. Ammu Swaminathan, M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar, Moturi Satyanarayana, Mrs. Dakshayani Velayudhan, Mrs. G. Durgabai, Kala Venkatarao, N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar, D. Govinda Das, Revd. Jerome D'Souza, P. Kakkan, T.M. Kaliyannan Gounder, K. Kamaraj, V. C. Kesava Rao, T. T. Krishnamachari, Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer L. Krishnaswami Bharathi, P. Kunhiraman, Mosalikanti Thirumala Rao, V. I. Munuswamy Pillai, M. A. Muthiah Chettiar, V. Nadimuthu Pillai, S. Nagappa, P. L. Narasimha Raju, B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya, C. Perumalswamy Reddy, T. Prakasam, S. H. Prater, Raja Swetachalapati Ramakrishna Renga Roa of Bobbili, R. K. Shanmukham Chetty, T. A. Ramalingam Chettiar, Ramnath Goenka, O. P. Ramaswamy Reddiar, N. G. Ranga, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy, Sheik Galib Sahib, K. Santhanam, B. Shiva Rao, Kallur Subba Rao, U. Srinivasa Mallya, P. Subbarayan, C. Subramaniam, V Subramaniam, M. C. Veerabahu Pillai, P. M. Velayudapani, A. K. Menon, T. J. M. Wilson, Mohamed Ismail Sahib, K. T. M. Ahmed Ibrahim, Mahboob Ali Baig Sahib Bahadur, B. Pocker Sahib Bahadur, pattam Tanupillai
Bombay: Balchandra Maheshwar Gupte, Hansa Mehta, Hari Vinayak Pataskar, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Joseph Alban D'Souza, Kanayalal Nanabhai Desai, Keshavrao Marutirao Jedhe, Khandubhai Kasanji Desai, Bal Gangadhar Kher, M.R. Masani, K.M. Munshi, Narahar Vishnu Gadgil, S. Nijalingappa, S. K. Patil, Ramchandra Manohar Nalavade, R. R. Diwakar, Shankarrao Deo, G. V. Mavalankar, Vallabhbhai Patel, Abdul Kadar Mohammad Shaikh, A. A. Khan
West Bengal: Monomohan Das, Arun Chandra Guha, Lakshmi Kanta Maitra, Mihir Lal Chattopadhyay, Satis Chandra Samanta, Suresh Chandra Majumdar, Upendranath Barman, Prabhudayal Himatsingka, Basanta Kumar Das, Renuka Ray, H. C. Mukherjee, Surendra Mohan Ghose, Syama Prasad Mookerjee, Ari Bahadur Gurung, R. E. Platel, K. C. Neogy, Raghib Ahsan, Somnath Lahiri, Jasimuddin Ahmad, Naziruddin Ahmad, Abdul Hamid, Abdul Halim Ghuznavi
United Provinces: Ajit Prasad Jain, Algu Rai Shastri, Balkrishna Sharma, Banshi Dhar Misra, Bhagwan Din, Damodar Swarup Seth, Dayal Das Bhagat, Dharam Prakash, A. Dharam Dass, R. V. Dhulekar, Feroz Gandhi, Gopal Narain, Krishna Chandra Sharma, Govind Ballabh Pant, Govind Malviya, Har Govind Pant, Harihar Nath Shastri, Hriday Nath Kunzru, Jaspat Roy Kapoor, Jagannath Baksh Singh, Jawaharlal Nehru, Jogendra Singh, Jugal Kishore, Jwala Prasad Srivastava, B. V. Keskar, Kamala Chaudhry, Kamalapati Tripathi, J. B. Kripalani, Mahavir Tyagi, Khurshed Lal, Masurya Din, Mohan Lal Saksena, Padampat Singhania, Phool Singh, Paragi Lal, Purnima Banerjee, Purushottam Das Tandon, Hira Vallabha Tripathi, Ram Chandra Gupta, Shibban Lal Saxena, Satish Chandra, John Matthai, Sucheta Kripalani, Sunder Lall, Venkatesh Narayan Tiwari, Mohanlal Gautam, Vishwambhar Dayal Tripathi, Vishnu Sharan Dublish, Begum Aizaz Rasul, Hyder Hussain, Hasrat Mohani, Abul Kalam Azad, Muhammad Ismail Khan, Rafi Ahmad Kidwai, Mohd. Hifzur Rahman, Z H Lari
East Punjab: Bakshi Tek Chand, Jairamdas Daulatram, Thakurdas Bhargava, Bikramlal Sondhi, Yashwant Rai, Ranbir Singh Hooda, Lala Achint Ram, Nand Lal, Baldev Singh, Giani Gurmukh Singh Musafir, Sardar Hukam Singh, Sardar Bhopinder Singh Mann, Sardar Rattan Singh Lohgarh Chaudhry Suraj Mal
Bihar: Nasif Arafat, Amiyo Kumar Ghosh, Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Banarsi Prasad Jhunjhunwala, Bhagwat Prasad, Boniface Lakra, Brajeshwar Prasad, Chandika Ram, K. T. Shah, Devendra Nath Samanta, Dip Narain Sinha, Guptanath Singh, Jadubans Sahay, Jagat Narain Lal, Jagjivan Ram, Jaipal Singh Munda, Kameshwar Singh of Darbhanga, Kamaleshwari Prasad Yadav, Mahesh Prasad Sinha, Krishna Ballabh Sahay, Raghunandan Prasad, Rajendra Prasad, Rameshwar Prasad Sinha, Ramnarayan Singh, Sachchidananda Sinha, Sarangdhar Sinha, Satyanarayan Sinha, Binodanand Jha, P. K. Sen, Sri Krishna Sinha, Sri Narayan Mahtha, Syamanandan Mishra, Hussain Imam, Syed Jafar Imam, Latifur Rahman, Mohammad Tahir, Tajamul Hussain, Choudhry Abid Hussain. Hargovind Mishra
Central Provinces and Berar: Ambica Charan Shukla, Raghu Vira, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, B.A. Mandloi, Brijlal Nandlal Biyani, Thakur Cheedilal, Seth Govind Das, Hari Singh Gour, Hari Vishnu Kamath, Hemchandra Jagobaji Khandekar, Ghanshyam Singh Gupta, Lakshman Shrawan Bhatkar, Panjabrao Shamrao Deshmukh, Ravi Shankar Shukla, R. K. Sidhva, Shankar Trimbak Dharmadhikari, Frank Anthony, Kazi Syed Karimuddin, Ganpatrao Dani
Assam: Nibaran Chandra Laskar, Dharanidhar Basu-Matari, Gopinath Bardoloi, J. J. M. Nichols-Roy, Kuladhar Chaliha, Rohini Kumar Chaudhury, Muhammad Saadulla, Abdur Rouf
Orissa: Biswanath Das, Krishna Chandra Gajapati Narayana Dev, Harekrushna Mahatab, Laxminarayan Sahu Lokanath Mishra, Nandkishore Das, Rajkrishna Bose, Santanu Kumar Das, Yudhishir Mishra
Delhi: Deshbhandhu Gupta
Ajmer-Merwara: Mukut Bihari Lal Bhargava
Coorg: C. M. Poonacha
Mysore: K.C. Reddy, T. Siddalingaiya, H. R. Guruv Reddy, S. V. Krishnamurthy Rao, K. Hanumanthaiya, H. Siddaveerappa, T. Channiah
Jammu and Kashmir: Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah, Motiram Baigra, Mirza Mohammad Afzal Beg, Maulana Mohammad Sayeed Masoodi
Travancore-Cochin: Pattom A. Thanu Pillai, R. Sankar, P. T. Chacko, Panampilly Govinda Menon, Annie Mascarene, P.S.Nataraja Pillai, K.A. Mohamed
Madhya Bharat: Vinayak Sitaram Sarwate, Brijraj Narain, Gopikrishna Vijayavargiya, Ram Sahai, Kusum Kant Jain, Radhavallabh Vijayavargiya, Sitaram S. Jajoo
Saurashtra: Balwant Rai Gopalji Mehta, Jaisukhlal Hathi, Amritlal Vithaldas Thakkar, Chimanlal Chakubhai Shah, Samaldas Laxmidas Gandhi
Rajasthan: V. T. Krishnamachari, Hiralal Shastri, Sardar Singhjhi of Khetri, Jaswant Singhji, Raj Bhadur, Manikya Lal Varma, Gokul Lal Asava, Ramchandra Upadhyaya, Balwant Sinha Mehta, Dalel Singh, Jainarain Vyas
Patiala and East Punjab States Union: Ranjit Singh, Sochet Singh, Bhagwant Roy
Bombay States: Vinayakrao Balshankar Vaidya, B. N. Munavalli, Gokulbhai Daulatram Bhatt, Jivraj Narayan Mehta, Gopaldas A. Desai, Paranlal Thakurlal Munshi, B. H. Khardekar, Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar
Orissa States: Lal Mohan Pati, N. Madhava Rau, Raj Kunwar, Sarangadhar Das, Yudhishthir Mishra
Central Provinces States: R. L. Malaviya, Kishorimohan Tripathi, Ramprasad Potai
United Provinces States: B. H. Zaidi, Krishna Singh
Madras States: V. Ramaiah, Ramakrishna Ranga Rao
Vindhya Pradesh: Avdesh Pratap Singh, Shambu Nath Shukla, Ram Sahai Tiwari, Mannulalji Dwidedi
Cooch Behar: Himmat Singh K. Maheshwari
Tripura and Manipur: Girja Shankar Guha
Bhopal: Lal Singh
Kutch: Bhawani Arjun Khimji
Himachal Pradesh: Yashwant Singh Parmar
Members who later withdrew after partition[edit]
East Bengal: Abdullah al Mahmood, Maulana Mohd Abdullah el Baqui, Abdul Hamid, Abdul Kasem Khan, Mohammad Akram Khan, A. Hamid, Azizuddin Ahmad, Muhammad Habibullah Bahar, Prem Hari Barma, Raj Kumar Chakraverty, Sris Chandra Chattopadhyaya, Abdul Matin Chaudhary, Murtaza Raza Choudhry, Hamidul Haq Chowdhury, Akhay Kumar Das, Dhirendra Nath Datta, Bhupendra Kumar Datta, Ebrahim Khan, Fazlul Huq, Fazlur Rahman, Ghayasuddin Pathan, Begum Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah, Liaquat Ali Khan, Mafizuddin Ahmad, Mahmud Hussain, Jnanendra Chandra Majumdar, A. M. Malik, Birat Chandra Mandal, Jogendra Nath Mandal, Mohammed Ali, Khwaja Nazimuddin, M.A.B.L. Nur Ahmed, Nurul Amin, Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi, Sri Dhananjoy M.A. B.L. Roy, Maudi Bhakesh Chanda, B.L. Serajul Islam, Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Osmani, Shahabudin Khwaja, H.S. Suhrawardy, Harendra Kumar Sur, Tamizuddin Khan, Kawivi Kerwar Datta, Ghulam Mohammed
West Punjab: Mian Mumtaz Mohammad Khan Daultana, Ganga Saran, Zafarullah Khan, Iftikhar Hussain Khan, Mian Muhammad Iftikharuddin, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Sheikh Karamat Ali, Nazir Ahmad Khan, Sardar Abdur Rab Nistar, Feroz Khan Noon, Omar Hayat Malik, Shah Nawaz Begum Jahan Ara, Sardar Shaukat Hyat Khan,
Northwest Frontier Province: Khan Abdul Ghafar Khan, Khan Sardar Bahadur Khan, Sardar Asad Ullah Jan Khan
Sindh: Abdus Sattar Abdur Rahman, Alhajj Muhammad Hashim Gazder, M.A. Khuhro
Balochistan: S. B. Nawab Mohammad Khan Jogezai
Gallery[edit]
Jawaharlal Nehru and other members taking pledge during the midnight session of the Constituent Assembly of India held on 14 and 15 August 1947.
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Chairman, Drafting Committee of the Indian Constitution with other members on Aug. 29, 1947.
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, chairman of the Drafting Committee, presenting the final draft of the Indian Constitution to Dr. Rajendra Prasad on 25 November, 1949.
B. R. Ambedkar in Constituent Assembly of India.
Jawaharlal Nehru addressing the constituent assembly in 1946.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ M. Lakshmikanth, Indian Polity for Civil Services Examinations, 3rd ed., (New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, 2011), p. 2.3
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 2014-05-12.
Jump up ^ Baruah, L.M. (1992). Lokopriya Gopinath Bordoloi, an Architect of Modern India. Gyan Publishing House. ISBN 81-212-0404-6. Retrieved 2013-11-17.
Further reading[edit]
Austin, Granville. The Indian Constitution, Cornerstone of a Nation. New Delhi: OUP India, 1999. ISBN 0-19-564959-1.
Bipan Chandra, Mridula Mukherjee and Aditya Mukherjee. India Since Independence: Revised Edition. New Delhi: Penguin Books India, 2008.
An Indian 10-episode TV series made by Rajya sabha TV called "SAMVIDHAN" described in detail how the Indian Constitution was made.
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