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Uganda national football team
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This article is about the men's team. For the women's team, see Uganda women's national football team.
Uganda
Nickname(s)
The Cranes
Association
Federation of Uganda Football Associations
Confederation
CAF (Africa)
Sub-confederation
CECAFA (East & Central Africa)
Head coach
Sébastien Desabre
Home stadium
Mandela National Stadium
FIFA code
UGA
First colours
Second colours
FIFA ranking
Current
79 4 (25 October 2018)
Highest
62 (January 2016)
Lowest
121 (July 2002)
Elo ranking
Current
101 4 (13 October 2018)
Highest
40 (March 1978)
Lowest
129 (June 2005)
First international
Kenya 1–1 Uganda
(Nairobi, Kenya; 1 May 1926)
Biggest win
Uganda 13–1 Kenya
(Uganda; unknown date 1932)
Biggest defeat
Egypt 6–0 Uganda
(Alexandria, Egypt; 30 July 1995)
Tunisia 6–0 Uganda
(Tunis, Tunisia; 28 February 1999)
Africa Cup of Nations
Appearances
6 (first in 1962)
Best result
Runners-up, 1978
The Uganda national football team, nicknamed The Cranes, is the national team of Uganda and is controlled by the Federation of Uganda Football Associations. Their best finish in the Africa Cup of Nations was second in 1978.
Contents
1 Achievements
2 Competitive record
2.1 World Cup record
2.2 Africa Cup of Nations record
2.3 Other tournaments
2.4 African Games
3 Results and fixtures
3.1 2017
3.2 2018
3.3 2019
4 All-time team record
5 Players
5.1 Current squad
5.2 Recent call-ups
6 Managers
7 References
8 External links
Achievements[edit]
CECAFA Cup :
14 Times Champion (1973, 1976, 1977, 1989, 1990, 1992, 1996, 2000, 2003, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2015)
4 Times Runners-up
Competitive record[edit]
World Cup record[edit]
FIFA World Cup record
FIFA World Cup Qualification record
Year
Round
Position
Pld
W
D
L
GF
GA
Pld
W
D
L
GF
GA
1930 to
1974 Did not enter Did not enter
1978 Did not qualify 2 1 0 1 3 4
1982 Withdrew Withdrew
1986 Did not qualify 2 1 0 1 1 3
1990 2 1 0 1 2 3
1994 Withdrew during qualifying Withdrew during qualifying
1998 Did not qualify 2 0 0 2 1 5
2002 2 0 1 1 4 7
2006 12 3 2 7 10 18
2010 6 3 1 2 8 9
2014 6 2 2 2 5 6
2018 8 4 3 1 7 2
2022 To be determined To be determined
2026
Total
0/21
42
15
9
18
42
47
Africa Cup of Nations record[edit]
Host nation(s) / Year
Round
Position
GP
W
D*
L
GS
GA
1957 to
1959 Did not enter
1962 Fourth Place 4th 2 0 0 2 1 5
1963 Withdrew
1965 Did not qualify
1968 Group Stage 8th 3 0 0 3 2 8
1970 to
1972 Did not qualify
1974 Group Stage 6th 3 0 1 2 3 5
1976 Group Stage 8th 3 0 0 3 2 6
1978 Runners-Up 2nd 5 3 0 2 9 7
1980 to
1982 Withdrew
1984 to
1988 Did not qualify
1990 Withdrew
1992 to
2015 Did not qualify
2017 Group Stage 13th 3 0 1 2 1 3
2019 to
2023 To be determined
Total Runners-Up 6/31 19 3 2 14 18 34
Other tournaments[edit]
Year
Round
1989 Peace and Friendship Cup Runners-Up
African Games[edit]
Football at the African Games has been an under-23 tournament since 1991.
See also: Uganda national under-23 football team
African Games Record
Year
Result
GP
W
D
L
GS
GA
1965 - 0 0 0 0 0 0
1973 - 0 0 0 0 0 0
1978 - 0 0 0 0 0 0
1987 - 0 0 0 0 0 0
1991–present See Uganda national under-23 football team
Total 4/4 0 0 0 0 0 0
Results and fixtures[edit]
Win Draw Loss
2017[edit]
South Sudan v Uganda
14 July 2017 2018 CHANQ South Sudan 0–0 Uganda showJuba, South Sudan
16:30 EAT Report Stadium: Juba Stadium
Referee: Idris Mehammed Osman (Eritrea)
Uganda v South Sudan
22 July 2017 2018 CHANQ Uganda 5–1
(5–1 agg.) South Sudan showKampala, Uganda
16:00 EAT
Nsibambi 33'
Mucureezi 43', 49', 53', 57'
Report
Khamis 90'
Stadium: Phillip Omondi Stadium
Referee: Elly Ally Sasii (Tanzania)
Uganda v Rwanda
12 August 2017 2018 CHANQ Uganda 3–0 Rwanda showKampala, Uganda
16:00 EAT
Mutyaba 14' (pen.), 25'
Muwanga 51'
Report Stadium: St Mary's Stadium
Referee: Pacifique Ndabihawenimana (Burundi)
Rwanda v Uganda
19 August 2017 2018 CHANQ Rwanda 2–0
(2–3 agg.) Uganda showKigali, Rwanda
15:30 CAT
Mukunzi 8'
Manzi 15'
Report Stadium: Stade Régional Nyamirambo
Referee: Hafiz Abdelghani Alamen (Sudan)
Uganda v Egypt
31 August 2017 2018 WCQ Uganda 1–0 Egypt showKampala, Uganda
16:00 EAT Okwi 51' Report Stadium: Mandela National Stadium
Referee: Ali Lemghaifry (Mauritania)
Egypt v Uganda
5 September 2017 2018 WCQ Egypt 1–0 Uganda showAlexandria, Egypt
20:00 EET
M. Salah 6'
Report Stadium: Borg El Arab Stadium
Attendance: 70,000
Referee: Victor Gomes (South Africa)
Uganda v Madagascar
4 October 2017 Friendly Uganda 1–2 Madagascar showKampala, Uganda
Muzamir 22'
Andriamatsinoro 49' (pen.)
Andriamatsinoro 89'
Stadium: StarTimes stadium Lugogo
Uganda v Ghana
7 October 2017 2018 WCQ Uganda 0–0 Ghana showKampala, Uganda
16:00 EAT Report Stadium: Mandela National Stadium
Referee: Daniel Bennett (South Africa)
Congo v Uganda
12 November 2017 2018 WCQ Congo 1–1 Uganda showBrazzaville, Congo
15:30 WAT
Baudry 10'
Report
Karisa 11'
Stadium: Stade Alphonse Massemba-Débat
Referee: El Fadil Mohamed (Sudan)
Uganda v Burundi
4 December 2017 2017 CECAFA Cup GS Uganda 0–0 Burundi showKakamega, Kenya
16:00 EAT Report Stadium: Bukhungu Stadium
Referee: Peter Waweru (Kenya)
Uganda v South Sudan
8 December 2017 2017 CECAFA Cup GS Uganda 5–1 South Sudan showKakamega, Kenya
14:00 EAT
Karisa 8'
Kaweesa 11'
Nsibambi 31', 58'
Wadada 86'
Report Atak Lual 27' Stadium: Bukhungu Stadium
Referee: Mfaume Ali Nassoro (Zanzibar)
Ethiopia v Uganda
10 December 2017 2017 CECAFA Cup GS Ethiopia 1–1 Uganda showKakamega, Kenya
16:00 EAT Sanni 23' Report Nsibambi 87' Stadium: Bukhungu Stadium
Referee: Peter Waweru (Kenya)
Uganda v Zanzibar
15 December 2017 2017 CECAFA Cup SF Uganda 1–2 Zanzibar showKisumu, Kenya
15:00 EAT Nsibambi 29' Report
Makame 23'
Mohammed Issa 58' (pen.)
Stadium: Moi Stadium
Referee: Peter Waweru (Kenya)
Burundi v Uganda
17 December 2017 2017 CECAFA Cup TP Burundi 1–2 Uganda showMachakos, Kenya
13:30 EAT Kwizera 24' Report Juma 49', 76' Stadium: Kenyatta Stadium
Referee: Peter Waweru (Kenya)
2018[edit]
Zambia v Uganda
14 January 2018 2018 CHAN GS Zambia 3–1 Uganda showMarrakech, Morocco
19:30 WET
Kambole 38'
Mulenga 63'
Kapumbu 71'
Report Nsibambi 40' Stadium: Stade de Marrakech
Referee: Mehdi Abid Charef (Algeria)
Uganda v Namibia
18 January 2018 2018 CHAN GS Uganda 0–1 Namibia showMarrakech, Morocco
19:30 WET Report Nekundi 90+2' Stadium: Stade de Marrakech
Referee: Ibrahim Nour El Din (Egypt)
Uganda v Ivory Coast
22 January 2018 2018 CHAN GS Uganda 0–0 Ivory Coast showMarrakech, Morocco
19:00 WET Report Stadium: Stade de Marrakech
Referee: Hélder Martins de Carvalho (Angola)
Uganda v São Tomé and Príncipe
24 March 2018 Friendly Uganda 3–1 São Tomé and Príncipe showKampala, Uganda
16:30 EAT
Ochaya 21'
Juuko 45+2'
Ndugwa 82'
Report Zé 90+1' Stadium: Mandela National Stadium
Referee: Elly Ally Sasii (Tanzania)
Uganda v Malawi
27 March 2018 Friendly Uganda 0–0 Malawi showKampala, Uganda
17:00 EAT Report Stadium: Mandela National Stadium
Referee: Louis Hakizimana (Rwanda)
Niger v Uganda
2 June 2018 Friendly Niger 2–1 Uganda showNiamey, Niger
21:00 WAT Adje 27', 56' Report Miya 88' Stadium: Stade Général Seyni Kountché
Referee: Yanissou Bebou (Togo)
Uganda v Tanzania
8 September 2018 2019 AFCONQ Uganda 0–0 Tanzania showKira, Uganda
16:00 EAT Report Stadium: Mandela National Stadium
Referee: Eric Otogo-Castane (Gabon)
Uganda v Lesotho
13 October 2018 2019 AFCONQ Uganda 3–0 Lesotho showKira, Uganda
16:00 EAT Okwi 11', 64'
Miya 37' (pen.) Report Stadium: Mandela National Stadium
Referee: Amin Mohamed Omar (Egypt)
Lesotho v Uganda
16 October 2018 2019 AFCONQ Lesotho 0–2 Uganda showMaseru, Lesotho
18:00 SAST Report
Miya 6', 35'
Stadium: Setsoto Stadium
Referee: Ali Adelaïd (Comoros)
Uganda v Cape Verde
16 November 2018 2019 AFCONQ Uganda v Cape Verde showUganda
Report
2019[edit]
Tanzania v Uganda
22 March 2019 2019 AFCONQ Tanzania v Uganda showTanzania
Report
All-time team record[edit]
Completely updated and corrected per the cited source on 4 July 2017 [1]
showAgainst
Played
Won
Drawn
Lost
GF
GA
GD
Algeria 9 2 4 3 8 13 −5
Angola 8 3 2 3 10 10 0
Benin 2 1 0 1 3 5 −2
Bahrain 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
Botswana 5 3 2 0 7 2 +5
Burkina Faso 6 1 3 2 4 6 −2
Burundi 9 5 2 2 16 7 +9
Cameroon 4 1 1 2 5 9 −4
Cape Verde 3 2 0 1 2 1 0
Chad 1 1 0 0 2 0 +2
Comoros 2 2 0 0 2 0 +2
Congo 5 3 0 2 10 6 +4
DR Congo 11 4 1 6 8 22 −14
Djibouti 4 4 0 0 30 2 +28
Ecuador 1 1 0 0 2 1 +1
Egypt 16 1 2 13 12 33 −21
Eritrea 3 2 0 1 7 4 +3
Ethiopia 30 13 8 9 44 36 +8
Gabon 2 0 1 1 0 1 −1
Gambia 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
Ghana 11 3 4 4 8 11 −3
Guinea 6 2 1 3 10 12 −2
Guinea-Bissau 2 2 0 0 3 0 +3
Iran 1 0 1 0 2 2 0
Iraq 2 0 2 0 2 2 0
Ivory Coast 2 0 1 1 3 4 −1
Kenya 52 19 23 11 60 56 +4
Kuwait 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
Lebanon 1 1 0 0 2 0 +2
Lesotho 2 1 1 0 3 0 +3
Liberia 4 2 0 2 2 4 −2
Libya 3 1 1 1 6 6 0
Madagascar 5 3 0 2 9 4 +5
Malawi 26 11 7 8 31 29 +2
Mali 3 0 2 1 4 8 −4
Mauritania 3 3 0 0 6 0 +6
Mauritius 5 3 1 1 13 5 +8
Morocco 3 2 0 1 5 3 +2
Niger 5 2 1 2 5 6 −1
Nigeria 7 4 1 2 6 5 +1
Rwanda 30 12 10 8 38 24 +14
Saudi Arabia 2 0 1 1 1 3 −2
Senegal 4 0 2 2 2 6 −4
Seychelles 3 3 0 0 8 2 +6
Somalia 19 15 3 1 59 7 +52
South Africa 2 0 0 2 1 3 −2
South Sudan 2 1 1 0 6 2 +4
Sudan 24 12 8 4 35 20 +15
Tanzania 51 28 16 7 92 49 +43
Togo 8 2 1 5 5 10 −5
Tunisia 5 0 0 5 1 16 −15
Yemen 1 0 1 0 2 2 0
Zambia 35 11 7 17 38 45 -7
Zimbabwe 15 2 8 5 10 13 −3
Total
468
194
132
142
647
517
+130
Players[edit]
Current squad[edit]
The following players have been selected in the final squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup Qualifier matches vs. Egypt 31 August 2017 and 5 September 2017.[2]
Caps and goals as of 10 June 2017, after the match vs. Cape Verde.[3]
No.
Pos.
Player
Date of birth (age)
Caps
Goals
Club
18 1GK
Denis Onyango (captain)
(1985-05-15) 15 May 1985 (age 33) 57 0 Mamelodi Sundowns
1GK
Robert Odongkara
(1989-09-02) 2 September 1989 (age 29) 29 0 Saint George
1 1GK
Benjamin Ochan
(1989-09-18) 18 September 1989 (age 29) 11 0 KCCA
19 1GK
Ismail Watenga
(1995-05-15) 15 May 1995 (age 23) 7 0 Vipers
2DF
Godfrey Walusimbi
(1989-07-03) 3 July 1989 (age 29) 84 3 Gor Mahia
5 2DF
Isaac Isinde
(1991-04-16) 16 April 1991 (age 27) 55 2 Buildcon
12 2DF
Denis Iguma
(1994-02-10) 10 February 1994 (age 24) 52 1 Al-Ahed
2DF
Nicholas Wadada
(1992-08-15) 15 August 1992 (age 26) 30 0 Vipers
4 2DF
Murushid Juuko
(1994-04-14) 14 April 1994 (age 24) 26 0 Simba
20 2DF
Isaac Muleme
(1992-10-10) 10 October 1992 (age 26) 18 0 Alassiouty Sport
3 2DF
Bernard Muwanga
(1993-08-25) 25 August 1993 (age 25) 14 0 SC Villa
2DF
Timothy Awany
(1996-08-06) 6 August 1996 (age 22) 11 0 KCCA
2DF
Paul Musamali
(1994-10-20) 20 October 1994 (age 24) 0 0 KCCA
16 3MF
Hassan Wasswa
(1988-02-14) 14 February 1988 (age 30) 60 0 El-Geish
2 3MF
Joseph Ochaya
(1993-12-14) 14 December 1993 (age 24) 42 1 Lusaka Dynamos
3MF
Geoffrey Kizito
(1993-02-02) 2 February 1993 (age 25) 40 3 Sài Gòn
8 3MF
Khalid Aucho
(1993-08-08) 8 August 1993 (age 25) 34 2 Churchill Brothers
10 3MF
William Luwagga
(1993-12-23) 23 December 1993 (age 24) 33 1 Politehnica Iași
6 3MF
Ivan Ntege
(1994-09-08) 8 September 1994 (age 24) 21 0 KCCA
22 3MF
Muzamir Mutyaba
(1993-10-10) 10 October 1993 (age 25) 18 0 KCCA
3MF
Moses Waiswa
(1997-04-20) 20 April 1997 (age 21) 2 1 Lusaka Dynamos
21 3MF
Shafiq Kagimu
(1998-05-28) 28 May 1998 (age 20) 1 0 URA
13 3MF
Tom Masiko
1 0 URA
7 4FW
Emmanuel Okwi
(1992-12-25) 25 December 1992 (age 25) 56 18 SC Villa
17 4FW
Farouk Miya
(1995-11-26) 26 November 1995 (age 22) 47 17 Gorica
9 4FW
Geoffrey Sserunkuma
(1983-07-06) 6 July 1983 (age 35) 47 13 KCCA
23 4FW
Milton Karisa
(1995-07-27) 27 July 1995 (age 23) 3 0 Vipers
11 4FW
Derrick Nsibambi
(1994-06-19) 19 June 1994 (age 24) 2 0 KCCA
Recent call-ups[edit]
The following players have been called up for the team within the last 12 months.
Pos.
Player
Date of birth (age)
Caps
Goals
Club
Latest call-up
GK
Jamal Magoola
(1995-05-27) 27 May 1995 (age 23) 5 0 Al-Merrikh v. Tunisia, 4 January 2017
DF
Dennis Okot
(1990-12-01) 1 December 1990 (age 27) 16 0 KCCA v. Cape Verde, 10 June 2017
MF
Robert Kakeeto
(1995-05-19) 19 May 1995 (age 23) 0 0 AaB v. Cape Verde, 10 June 2017
MF
Tony Mawejje
(1986-11-15) 15 November 1986 (age 31) 82 8 Tirana 2017 Africa Cup of Nations
MF
Moses Oloya
(1992-10-22) 22 October 1992 (age 26) 50 1 Hà Nội 2017 Africa Cup of Nations
MF
Micheal Azira
(1987-08-22) 22 August 1987 (age 31) 5 0 Montreal Impact 2017 Africa Cup of Nations
FW
Muhammad Shaban
(1998-01-01) 1 January 1998 (age 20) 8 0 Onduparaka v. Cape Verde, 10 June 2017
FW
Geoffrey Massa[4]RET
(1986-02-19) 19 February 1986 (age 32) 69 21 Baroka 2017 Africa Cup of Nations
FW
Yunus Sentamu
(1994-08-13) 13 August 1994 (age 24) 18 4 Tirana 2017 Africa Cup of Nations
FW
Edrisa Lubega
(1998-04-17) 17 April 1998 (age 20) 4 0 Floridsdorfer 2017 Africa Cup of NationsPRE
Notes
DEC Player refused to join the team after the call-up.
INJ Player withdrew from the squad due to an injury.
PRE Preliminary Squad.
RET Player has retired from international football.
SUS Suspended from the national team.
Managers[edit]
[5][6]
Alan Rogers (1965–1966)
Robert Kiberu (19??–1969)
Burkhard Pape (1969–1972)
David Otti (1973–1974)
Otto Westerhoff (1974–1975)
Peter Okee (1976–1981)
Bidandi Ssali (1982)
Peter Okee (1983)
George Mukasa (1984–1985)
Barnabas Mwesiga (1986–1988)
Robert Kiberu (1988–1989)
Polly Ouma (1989–1995)
Timothy Ayieko (1995–1996)
Asuman Lubowa (1996–1999)
Paul Hasule (1999)
Harrison Okagbue (1999–2001)
Paul Hasule (2001–2003)
Pedro Pasculli (2003)
Leo Adraa (2003–2004)
Mike Mutebi (2004)
Mohammed Abbas (2004–2006)
Csaba László (2006–2008)
Bobby Williamson (2008–2013)
Milutin Sredojević (2013–2017)
Moses Basena (Interim, 2017)
Sébastien Desabre (2017–present)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ FIFA.com. "FIFA Tournaments - Compare Teams - FIFA.com". FIFA.com. Retrieved 2018-05-31.
Jump up ^ "2018 FIFA World Cup Russia qualifiers: Coach Basena releases 27 man squad for Egypt double header - FUFA: Federation of Uganda Football Associations". FUFA: Federation of Uganda Football Associations. 2017-08-23. Retrieved 2018-05-31.
Jump up ^ Strack-Zimmermann, Benjamin. "Uganda (2017)". national-football-teams.com. Retrieved 2018-05-31.
Jump up ^ https://www.kawowo.com/2017/03/29/massa-retires-from-uganda-cranes/
Jump up ^ Zziwa, Hassan Badru (25 May 2009). "Rise and fall of Cranes coaches". The Observer. Uganda. Archived from the original on 23 March 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Rise and fall of Uganda Cranes tacticians". Soccer256 online. Archived from the original on 2 February 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
External links[edit]
Federation Of Uganda Football Associations
Uganda at FIFA.com
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Uganda squad – 2017 Africa Cup of Nations
1 Odongkara
2 Ochaya
3 G. Kizito
4 Juuko
5 Isinde
6 Mawejje
7 Sentamu
8 Aucho
9 Sserunkuma
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22 Batambuze
23 Azira
Coach: Sredojević
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Eating utensil etiquette
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (January 2017)
This article contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to content or by moving it to Wikiversity, Wikibooks or Wikivoyage. (January 2017)
Eating utensil etiquette covers the prescriptive systems of rules, etiquette, in various cultures for using eating utensils.
Contents
[hide]
1 Chopstick etiquette
2 Fork etiquette
2.1 European style
2.2 American style
2.3 Hybrid style
2.4 Southeast Asian style
2.5 Placement of forks
2.6 Resting and finished positions
3 References
4 Further reading
5 See also
Chopstick etiquette[edit]
Main article: Chopsticks § Etiquette
In many Asian cultures, it is impolite to point with chopsticks.
Fork etiquette[edit]
Dinner fork
When used in conjunction with a knife to cut and consume food in Western social settings, two forms of fork etiquette are common. In the European style, the diner keeps the fork in his or her left hand, while in the American style the fork is shifted between the left and right hands. The American style is most common in the United States,[1] but the European style is considered proper in other countries.[2][3]
Originally, the traditional European method, once the fork was adopted as a utensil, was to transfer the fork to the right hand after cutting food, as it had been considered proper for all utensils to be used with the right hand only. This tradition was brought to America by British colonists and is still in use in the United States. Europe adopted the more rapid style of eating in relatively modern times. [4]
European style[edit]
The European style is to hold the fork in the left hand and the knife in the right. Once a bite-sized piece of food has been cut, it is conducted straight to the mouth by the left hand. For other items, such as potatoes, vegetables or rice, the blade of the knife is used to assist or guide placement of the food on the back of the fork.[5] The tines remain pointing down.
The knife and fork are both held with the handle running along the palm and extending out to be held by thumb and forefinger. This style is sometimes called "hidden handle" because the palm conceals the handle.
American style[edit]
In the American style, also called the zig-zag method or fork switching, the knife is initially held in the right hand and the fork in the left. Holding food to the plate with the fork tines-down, a single bite-sized piece is cut with the knife. The knife is then set down on the plate, the fork transferred from the left hand to the right hand, and the food is brought to the mouth for consumption. The fork is then transferred back to the left hand and the knife is picked up with the right.[1][6] In contrast to the European hidden handle grip, in the American style the fork is held much like a spoon or pen once it is transferred to the right hand to convey food to the mouth. Though called "American style", this style originated in Europe. [5]
Hybrid style[edit]
Etiquette experts have noted that the American style of fork-handling is in flux, often being replaced by a hybrid of the traditional American and European styles. In this new style, the fork is not switched between hands between cutting and eating, but may be deployed "tines-up" as a scoop when convenient.[5]
Southeast Asian style[edit]
The South East Asian style is similar to the European style, wherein the spoon is held in the right hand throughout consumption (except with certain dishes when a fork is more suitable). The difference is that a spoon is often used in the right hand and knives are rarely used. Rice and soups are a staple of the diet in South East Asian countries, so using a spoon would be practical in such dishes. The spoon is the main utensil in bringing food into the mouth, in tandem with using a fork. The spoon could also be used for manipulating food in the plate and as an alternative for a knife. Often dishes require slicing before serving or sliced into small portions before cooking to relinquish the use of a knife.
Placement of forks[edit]
Tables are often set with two or more forks, meant to be used for different courses; for example, a salad fork, a meat fork, and a dessert fork. Some institutions wishing to give an impression of high formality set places with many different forks for meals of several courses, although many etiquette authorities regard this as vulgar and prefer that the appropriate cutlery be brought in with each course.[7]
It should not be necessary for the diner to distinguish between types of forks; forks are used in order from outside to inside, with the exception of oyster forks, which are placed on the right side, the tines nested in the bowl of a spoon.[citation needed]
Resting and finished positions[edit]
Setting the knife and fork handles in a 5 and 7 o'clock position with the fork tines turned downwards on the plate is used to indicate to the server or host that the diner has not yet finished with the meal, while placing them together, with the fork tines turned up and the blade of the knife facing inwards, is used to indicate that the diner has finished.[8]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "How to Use a Knife, Fork, and Spoon". CuisineNet Diner's Digest. CuisineNet.com. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
Jump up ^ "we are the only country in the world whose inhabitants shift the fork, after cutting, from the left hand to the right" Letitia Baldrige's new manners for new times: a complete guide to etiquette, New York: Simon and Schuster, 2003, p. 195.
Jump up ^ "...eating the European way, with fork in left hand and knife in right, is considered the correct way. Most Europeans have had enough contact with Americans to know that they have a different way of wielding a knife and fork. Still, some older Swedes may interpret a fork in the right hand as less-than-perfect manners." Christina Johansson Robinowitz & Lisa Werner Carr, Modern-day Vikings: a practical guide to interacting with the Swedes, Intercultural Press, 2001, p. 147.
Jump up ^ http://www.buffalonews.com/life/columns-advice/miss-manners/article561067.ece
^ Jump up to: a b c Vanhoenacker, Mark. "Put a Fork in It". Slate Magazine. The Slate Group. Retrieved 26 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Martin, Judith (1997). Miss Manners' basic training : eating. New York: Crown. ISBN 9780517701867.
Jump up ^ http://www.cuisinenet.com/glossary/setting.html
Jump up ^ Martin, Judith (2005). Miss Manners' guide to excruciatingly correct behavior. New York: Norton.
Further reading[edit]
From Hand to Mouth, Or, How We Invented Knives, Forks, Spoons and Chopsticks, and the Manners to Go with Them by James Cross Giblin. New York: Crowell, 1987.
The Evolution of Useful Things by Henry Petroski. New York: Vintage Books, 1994.
The History of Manners by Norbert Elias. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978.
See also[edit]
Table manners
Table setting
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eating_utensil_etiquette&oldid=831411687"
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Muscle relaxant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about skeletal muscle relaxants. For information on smooth muscle relaxants, see Antispasmodic.
A muscle relaxant is a drug that affects skeletal muscle function and decreases the muscle tone. It may be used to alleviate symptoms such as muscle spasms, pain, and hyperreflexia. The term "muscle relaxant" is used to refer to two major therapeutic groups: neuromuscular blockers and spasmolytics. Neuromuscular blockers act by interfering with transmission at the neuromuscular end plate and have no central nervous system (CNS) activity. They are often used during surgical procedures and in intensive care and emergency medicine to cause temporary paralysis. Spasmolytics, also known as "centrally acting" muscle relaxants, are used to alleviate musculoskeletal pain and spasms and to reduce spasticity in a variety of neurological conditions. While both neuromuscular blockers and spasmolytics are often grouped together as muscle relaxants,[1][2] the term is commonly used to refer to spasmolytics only.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Neuromuscular blockers
3 Spasmolytics
3.1 Terminology
3.2 Clinical use
3.3 Mechanism
4 Side effects
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
The earliest known use of muscle relaxant drugs was by natives of the Amazon Basin in South America who used poison-tipped arrows that produced death by skeletal muscle paralysis. This was first documented in the 16th century, when European explorers encountered it. This poison, known today as curare, led to some of the earliest scientific studies in pharmacology. Its active ingredient, tubocurarine, as well as many synthetic derivatives, played a significant role in scientific experiments to determine the function of acetylcholine in neuromuscular transmission.[5] By 1943, neuromuscular blocking drugs became established as muscle relaxants in the practice of anesthesia and surgery.[6]
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of carisoprodol in 1959, metaxalone in August 1962, and cyclobenzaprine in August 1977.[7]
Other skeletal muscle relaxants of that type used around the world come from a number of drug categories and other drugs used primarily for this indication include orphenadrine (anticholinergic), chlorzoxazone, tizanidine (clonidine relative), diazepam, tetrazepam and other benzodiazepines, mephenoxalone, methocarbamol, dantrolene, baclofen, [8] Drugs once but no longer or very rarely used to relax skeletal muscles include meprobamate, barbiturates, methaqualone, glutethimide and the like; some subcategories of opioids have muscle relaxant properties, and some are marketed in combination drugs with skeletal and/or smooth muscle relaxants such as whole opium products, some ketobemidone, piritramide and fentanyl preparations and Equagesic.
Neuromuscular blockers[edit]
Detailed view of a neuromuscular junction:
1. Presynaptic terminal
2. Sarcolemma
3. Synaptic vesicle
4. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor
5. Mitochondrion
Main article: Neuromuscular-blocking drug
Muscle relaxation and paralysis can theoretically occur by interrupting function at several sites, including the central nervous system, myelinated somatic nerves, unmyelinated motor nerve terminals, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, the motor end plate, and the muscle membrane or contractile apparatus. Most neuromuscular blockers function by blocking transmission at the end plate of the neuromuscular junction. Normally, a nerve impulse arrives at the motor nerve terminal, initiating an influx of calcium ions, which causes the exocytosis of synaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine. Acetylcholine then diffuses across the synaptic cleft. It may be hydrolysed by acetylcholine esterase (AchE) or bind to the nicotinic receptors located on the motor end plate. The binding of two acetylcholine molecules results in a conformational change in the receptor that opens the sodium-potassium channel of the nicotinic receptor. This allows Na+
and Ca2+
ions to enter the cell and K+
ions to leave the cell, causing a depolarization of the end plate, resulting in muscle contraction.[9] Following depolarization, the acetylcholine molecules are then removed from the end plate region and enzymatically hydrolysed by acetylcholinesterase.[5]
Normal end plate function can be blocked by two mechanisms. Nondepolarizing agents, such as tubocurarine, block the agonist, acetylcholine, from binding to nicotinic receptors and activating them, thereby preventing depolarization. Alternatively, depolarizing agents, such as succinylcholine, are nicotinic receptor agonists which mimic Ach, block muscle contraction by depolarizing to such an extent that it desensitizes the receptor and it can no longer initiate an action potential and cause muscle contraction.[5] Both of these classes of neuromuscular blocking drugs are structurally similar to acetylcholine, the endogenous ligand, in many cases containing two acetylcholine molecules linked end-to-end by a rigid carbon ring system, as in pancuronium (a nondepolarizing agent).[5]
Chemical diagram of pancuronium, with red lines indicating the two acetylcholine "molecules" in the structure
Spasmolytics[edit]
Main article: antispasmodic
A view of the spinal cord and skeletal muscle showing the action of various muscle relaxants – black lines ending in arrow heads represent chemicals or actions that enhance the target of the lines, blue lines ending in squares represent chemicals or actions that inhibition the target of the line
The generation of the neuronal signals in motor neurons that cause muscle contractions are dependent on the balance of synaptic excitation and inhibition the motor neuron receives. Spasmolytic agents generally work by either enhancing the level of inhibition, or reducing the level of excitation. Inhibition is enhanced by mimicking or enhancing the actions of endogenous inhibitory substances, such as GABA.
Terminology[edit]
Because they may act at the level of the cortex, brain stem or spinal cord, or all three areas, they have traditionally been referred to as "centrally acting" muscle relaxants. However, it is now known not every agent in this class has CNS activity (e.g. dantrolene), so this name is inaccurate.[5]
Most sources still use the term "centrally acting muscle relaxant". According to MeSH, dantrolene is usually classified as a centrally acting muscle relaxant.[10] The World Health Organization, in its ATC, uses the term "centrally acting agents",[11] but adds a distinct category of "directly acting agents", for dantrolene.[12] Use of this terminology dates back to at least 1973.[13]
The term "spasmolytic" is also considered a synonym for antispasmodic.[14]
Clinical use[edit]
Spasmolytics such as carisoprodol, cyclobenzaprine, metaxalone, and methocarbamol are commonly prescribed for low back pain or neck pain, fibromyalgia, tension headaches and myofascial pain syndrome.[15] However, they are not recommended as first-line agents; in acute low back pain, they are not more effective than paracetamol or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs),[16][17] and in fibromyalgia they are not more effective than antidepressants.[15] Nevertheless, some (low-quality) evidence suggests muscle relaxants can add benefit to treatment with NSAIDs.[18] In general, no high-quality evidence supports their use.[15] No drug has been shown to be better than another, and all of them have adverse effects, particularly dizziness and drowsiness.[15][17] Concerns about possible abuse and interaction with other drugs, especially if increased sedation is a risk, further limit their use.[15] A muscle relaxant is chosen based on its adverse-effect profile, tolerability, and cost.[19]
Muscle relaxants (according to one study) were not advised for orthopedic conditions, but rather for neurological conditions such as spasticity in cerebral palsy and multiple sclerosis.[15] Dantrolene, although thought of primarily as a peripherally acting agent, is associated with CNS effects, whereas baclofen activity is strictly associated with the CNS.
Muscle relaxants are thought to be useful in painful disorders based on the theory that pain induces spasm and spasm causes pain. However, considerable evidence contradicts this theory.[18]
In general, muscle relaxants are not approved by FDA for long-term use. However, rheumatologists often prescribe cyclobenzaprine nightly on a daily basis to increase stage 4 sleep. By increasing this sleep stage, patients feel more refreshed in the morning. Improving sleep is also beneficial for patients who have fibromyalgia.[20]
Muscle relaxants such as tizanidine are prescribed in the treatment of tension headaches.[21]
Diazepam and carisoprodol are not recommended for older adults, pregnant women, or people who suffer depression or for those with a history of drug or alcohol addiction.[22]
Mechanism[edit]
Because of the enhancement of inhibition in the CNS, most spasmolytic agents have the side effects of sedation, drowsiness and may cause dependence with long-term use. Several of these agents also have abuse potential, and their prescription is strictly controlled.[23][24][25]
The benzodiazepines, such as diazepam, interact with the GABAA receptor in the central nervous system. While it can be used in patients with muscle spasm of almost any origin, it produces sedation in most individuals at the doses required to reduce muscle tone.[5]
Baclofen is considered to be at least as effective as diazepam in reducing spasticity, and causes much less sedation. It acts as a GABA agonist at GABAB receptors in the brain and spinal cord, resulting in hyperpolarization of neurons expressing this receptor, most likely due to increased potassium ion conductance. Baclofen also inhibits neural function presynaptically, by reducing calcium ion influx, and thereby reducing the release of excitatory neurotransmitters in both the brain and spinal cord. It may also reduce pain in patients by inhibiting the release of substance P in the spinal cord, as well.[5][26]
Clonidine and other imidazoline compounds have also been shown to reduce muscle spasms by their central nervous system activity. Tizanidine is perhaps the most thoroughly studied clonidine analog, and is an agonist at α2-adrenergic receptors, but reduces spasticity at doses that result in significantly less hypotension than clonidine.[27] Neurophysiologic studies show that it depresses excitatory feedback from muscles that would normally increase muscle tone, therefore minimizing spasticity.[28][29] Furthermore, several clinical trials indicate that tizanidine has a similar efficacy to other spasmolytic agents, such as diazepam and baclofen, with a different spectrum of adverse effects.[30]
The hydantoin derivative dantrolene is a spasmolytic agent with a unique mechanism of action outside of the CNS. It reduces skeletal muscle strength by inhibiting the excitation-contraction coupling in the muscle fiber. In normal muscle contraction, calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum through the ryanodine receptor channel, which causes the tension-generating interaction of actin and myosin. Dantrolene interferes with the release of calcium by binding to the ryanodine receptor and blocking the endogenous ligand ryanodine by competitive inhibition. Muscle that contracts more rapidly is more sensitive to dantrolene than muscle that contracts slowly, although cardiac muscle and smooth muscle are depressed only slightly, most likely because the release of calcium by their sarcoplasmic reticulum involves a slightly different process. Major adverse effects of dantrolene include general muscle weakness, sedation, and occasionally hepatitis.[5]
Other common spasmolytic agents include: methocarbamol, carisoprodol, chlorzoxazone, cyclobenzaprine, gabapentin, metaxalone, and orphenadrine.
Side effects[edit]
Muscle relaxants are very powerful drugs which may produce negative effects, including heart failure and paralysis.[31] Patients most commonly report sedation as the main adverse effect of muscle relaxants. Usually, people become less alert when they are under the effects of muscle relaxant drugs. People are normally advised not to drive vehicles or operate heavy machinery while under muscle relaxants' effects.
Cyclobenzaprine produces confusion and lethargy, as well as anticholinergic side effects. When taken in excess or in combination with other substances, it may also be toxic. While the body adjusts to this medication, it is possible for patients to experience dry mouth, fatigue, lightheadedness, constipation or blurred vision. Some serious but unlikely side effects may be experienced, including mental or mood changes, possible confusion and hallucinations, and difficulty urinating. In a very few cases, very serious but rare side effects may be experienced: irregular heartbeat, yellowing of eyes or skin, fainting, abdominal pain including stomachache, nausea or vomiting, lack of appetite, seizures, dark urine, or loss of coordination.[32]
Patients taking carisoprodol for a prolonged time have reported dependence, withdrawal and abuse, although most of these cases were reported by patients who had had a history of addiction. These effects were also reported by patients who took it in combination with other drugs with abuse potential, and in fewer cases, there were reports of carisoprodol-associated abuse when used without other drugs with abuse potential.[33]
Common side effects eventually caused by metaxalone include dizziness, headache, drowsiness, nausea, irritability, nervousness, upset stomach and vomiting. Severe side effects may be experienced when consuming metaxalone, such as severe allergic reactions (rash, hives, itching, difficulty breathing, tightness in the chest, swelling of the mouth, face, lips, or tongue), chills, fever, and sore throat, may require medical attention. Other severe side effects include unusual or severe tiredness or weakness, as well as yellowing of the skin or the eyes.[34] When baclofen is administered intrathecally, it may cause CNS depression accompanied with cardiovascular collapse and respiratory failure. Tizanidine may lower blood pressure. This effect can be controlled by administering a low dose at the beginning and increasing it gradually.[35]
See also[edit]
Paralysis
Quaternary ammonium muscle relaxants
Caroverine
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Definition of Muscle relaxant." MedicineNet.com. (c) 1996–2007. Retrieved on September 19, 2007.
Jump up ^ "muscle relaxant." mediLexicon. (c) 2007. Retrieved on September 19, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Muscle relaxants." WebMD. Last Updated: February 15, 2006. Retrieved on September 19, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Skeletal Muscle Relaxant (Oral Route, Parenteral Route)." Mayo Clinic. Last Updated: April 1, 2007. Retrieved on September 19, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Miller, R.D. (1998). "Skeletal Muscle Relaxants". In Katzung, B.G. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology (7th ed.). Appleton & Lange. pp. 434–449. ISBN 0-8385-0565-1.
Jump up ^ Bowman WC (January 2006). "Neuromuscular block". Br. J. Pharmacol. 147 Suppl 1: S277–86. PMC 1760749  . PMID 16402115. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0706404.
Jump up ^ "Brief History". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ "Brief History". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ Craig, C.R.; Stitzel, R.E. (2003). Modern Pharmacology with clinical applications. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 339. ISBN 0-7817-3762-1.
Jump up ^ Dantrolene at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Jump up ^ "M03B Muscle Relaxants, Centrally acting agents". ATC/DDD Index. WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology.
Jump up ^ "M03CA01 Dantrolene". ATC/DDD Index. WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology.
Jump up ^ Ellis KO, Castellion AW, Honkomp LJ, Wessels FL, Carpenter JE, Halliday RP (June 1973). "Dantrolene, a direct acting skeletal muscle relaxant". J Pharm Sci. 62 (6): 948–51. PMID 4712630. doi:10.1002/jps.2600620619.
Jump up ^ "Dorlands Medical Dictionary:antispasmodic".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f See S, Ginzburg R (2008). "Choosing a skeletal muscle relaxant". Am Fam Physician. 78 (3): 365–370. ISSN 0002-838X. PMID 18711953.
Jump up ^ Chou R, Qaseem A, Snow V, et al. (October 2007). "Diagnosis and treatment of low back pain: a joint clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians and the American Pain Society". Ann. Intern. Med. 147 (7): 478–91. PMID 17909209. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-147-7-200710020-00006.
^ Jump up to: a b van Tulder MW, Touray T, Furlan AD, Solway S, Bouter LM (2003). Van Tulder, Maurits W, ed. "Muscle relaxants for non-specific low back pain". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2): CD004252. PMID 12804507. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004252. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Beebe FA, Barkin RL, Barkin S (2005). "A clinical and pharmacologic review of skeletal muscle relaxants for musculoskeletal conditions". Am J Ther. 12 (2): 151–71. PMID 15767833. doi:10.1097/01.mjt.0000134786.50087.d8.
Jump up ^ See, S.; Ginzburg, R. (Feb 2008). "Skeletal muscle relaxants". Pharmacotherapy. 28 (2): 207–13. PMID 18225966. doi:10.1592/phco.28.2.207.
Jump up ^ "When Are Muscle Relaxers Prescribed For Arthritis Patients?". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ MedlinePlus Encyclopedia Tension Headache
Jump up ^ "Muscle Relaxants". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Jump up ^ Rang, H.P.; Dale, M.M. (1991). "Drugs Used in Treating Motor Disorders". Pharmacology (2nd ed.). Churchill Livingston. pp. 684–705. ISBN 044304483X.
Jump up ^ Standaert, D.G.; Young, A.B. (2001). "Treatment Of Central Nervous System Degerative Disorders". In Goodman, L.S.; Hardman, J.G.; Limbird, L.E.; Gilman, A.G. Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (10th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 550–568. ISBN 0071124322.
Jump up ^ Charney, D.S.; Mihic, J.; Harris, R.A. (2001). "Hypnotics and Sedatives". Goodman & Gilman's. pp. 399–427.
Jump up ^ Cazalets JR, Bertrand S, Sqalli-Houssaini Y, Clarac F (1998). "GABAergic control of spinal locomotor networks in the neonatal rat". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 860: 168–80. PMID 9928310. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09047.x.
Jump up ^ Young, R.R., ed. (1994). "Symposium: Role of tizanidine in the treatment of spasticity". Neurology. 44 (Suppl 9): 1. PMID 7970005.
Jump up ^ Bras H, Jankowska E, Noga B, Skoog B (1990). "Comparison of Effects of Various Types of NA and 5-HT Agonists on Transmission from Group II Muscle Afferents in the Cat". The European Journal of Neuroscience. 2 (12): 1029–39. PMID 12106064. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.1990.tb00015.x.
Jump up ^ Jankowska E, Hammar I, Chojnicka B, Hedén CH (2000). "Effects of monoamines on interneurons in four spinal reflex pathways from group I and/or group II muscle afferents". Eur. J. Neurosci. 12 (2): 701–14. PMID 10712650. doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2000.00955.x.
Jump up ^ Young RR, Wiegner AW (1987). "Spasticity". Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 219: 50–62. PMID 3581584.
Jump up ^ "The Effects of Muscle Relaxant Drugs Are Powerful". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
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Jump up ^ "Carisoprodolx". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
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Jump up ^ "Precautions". Retrieved 2010-07-09.
External links[edit]
Skeletal Muscle Relaxants at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
[show]
v
t
e
Skeletal muscle relaxants (M03)
Peripherally acting
(primarily antinicotinic,
NMJ block)
Non-depolarizing
Curare alkaloids
Alcuronium
Dimethyltubocurarine
Tubocurarine
4° ammonium agents
ultra-short duration: Gantacurium
short duration: Mivacurium
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long duration: Doxacurium
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unsorted: Hexafluronium (Hexafluorenium)
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[show]
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