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Terracotta Army
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Terracotta Army
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Coordinates
34°23′06″N 109°16′23″E / 34.385000°N 109.273056°E / 34.385000; 109.273056Coordinates: 34°23′06″N 109°16′23″E / 34.385000°N 109.273056°E / 34.385000; 109.273056
Criteria
i, iii, iv, vi
Reference
441
Inscription
1987 (11th Session)
Website
www.bmy.com.cn/2015new/index.htm
Location of Terracotta Army
[edit on Wikidata]
Terracotta Army
Simplified Chinese
兵马俑
Traditional Chinese
兵馬俑
Literal meaning
"Soldier-and-horse funerary statues"
[show]Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin
Bīngmǎ yǒng
Wade–Giles
Ping1-ma3 yung3
IPA
[píŋmà jʊ̀ŋ]
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization
Bīng-máah yúng
Jyutping
Bing1-maa5 jung2
Southern Min
Tâi-lô
Ping-bé ióng
The Terracotta Army (simplified Chinese: 兵马俑; traditional Chinese: 兵馬俑; literally: "Soldier-and-horse funerary statues") is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE and whose purpose was to protect the emperor in his afterlife.
The figures, dating from approximately the late third century BCE,[1] were discovered in 1974 by local farmers in Lintong District, Xi'an, Shaanxi province. The figures vary in height according to their roles, with the tallest being the generals. The figures include warriors, chariots and horses. Estimates from 2007 were that the three pits containing the Terracotta Army held more than 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses and 150 cavalry horses, the majority of which remained buried in the pits nearby Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum.[2] Other terracotta non-military figures were found in other pits, including officials, acrobats, strongmen and musicians.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Discovery
2 Necropolis
2.1 Tomb
3 Excavation site
3.1 Pits
3.1.1 Pit one
3.1.2 Others
4 Warrior figures
4.1 Types and appearance
4.2 Construction
4.3 Weaponry
5 Scientific research
6 Exhibitions
7 Gallery
8 See also
9 Notes
10 Bibliography
11 External links
History
The mound where the tomb is located
The construction of the tomb was described by historian Sima Qian (145–90 BCE) in his most noted work Shiji, written a century after the mausoleum's completion. Work on the mausoleum began in 246 BCE soon after Emperor Qin (then aged 13) ascended the throne, and the project eventually involved 700,000 workers.[3] Geographer Li Daoyuan, writing six centuries after the First Emperor's death, recorded in Shui Jing Zhu that Mount Li was a favoured location due to its auspicious geology, "famed for its jade mines, its northern side was rich in gold, and its southern side rich in beautiful jade; the First Emperor, covetous of its fine reputation, therefore chose to be buried there".[4][5] Sima Qian wrote that the First Emperor was buried with palaces, towers, officials, valuable artifacts and wondrous objects. According to this account, 100 flowing rivers were simulated using mercury, and above them the ceiling was decorated with heavenly bodies below which were the features of the land. Some translations of this passage refer to "models" or "imitations"; however, those words were not used in the original text, which makes no mention of the terracotta army.[3][6]
High levels of mercury were found in the soil of the tomb mound, giving credence to Sima Qian's account.[7]
Later historical accounts suggested that the tomb had been looted by Xiang Yu, a contender for the throne after the death of the first emperor.[8][9][10] However, there are indications that the tomb may not have been plundered.[11]
Discovery
The Terracotta Army was discovered on 29 March 1974[12] to the east of Xi'an in Shaanxi province by farmers digging a water well approximately 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) east of the Qin Emperor's tomb mound at Mount Li (Lishan),[13][14] a region riddled with underground springs and watercourses. For centuries, occasional reports mentioned pieces of terracotta figures and fragments of the Qin necropolis – roofing tiles, bricks and chunks of masonry.[15] This discovery prompted Chinese archaeologists to investigate, revealing the largest pottery figurine group ever found in China.
A museum complex has since been constructed over the area, with the largest pit enclosed within with a large structure.[16]
Necropolis
View of the Terracotta Army
The Terracotta Army is part of a much larger necropolis. Ground-penetrating radar and core sampling have measured the area to be approximately 98 square kilometers (38 square miles).[17]
The necropolis was constructed as a microcosm of the emperor's imperial palace or compound, and covers a large area around the tomb mound of the first emperor. The earthen tomb mound is located at the foot of Mount Li and built in a pyramidal shape,[18] and is surrounded by two solidly built rammed earth walls with gateway entrances. The necropolis consists of several offices, halls, stables, other structures as well as an imperial park placed around the tomb mound.
The warriors stand guard to the east of the tomb. Up to 5 metres (16 ft) of reddish, sandy soil had accumulated over the site in the two millennia following its construction, but archaeologists found evidence of earlier disturbances at the site. During the excavations near the Mount Li burial mound, archaeologists found several graves dating from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, where diggers had apparently struck terracotta fragments. These were discarded as worthless and used along with soil to back fill the excavations.[19]
Tomb
Main article: Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor
The tomb appears to be a hermetically-sealed space roughly the size of a football pitch (c. 100 x 75 m).[20][21] The tomb remains unopened, possibly due to concerns over preservation of its artifacts.[20] For example, after the excavation of the Terracotta Army, the painted surface present on some terracotta figures began to flake and fade.[22] The lacquer covering the paint can curl in fifteen seconds once exposed to Xi'an's dry air and can flake off in just four minutes.[23]
Excavation site
The museum complex containing the excavation sites
Pits
View of Pit 1, the largest excavation pit of the Terracotta Army
Four main pits approximately 7 metres (23 ft) deep have been excavated.[24][25] These are located approximately 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) east of the burial mound. The soldiers within were laid out as if to protect the tomb from the east, where all the Qin Emperor's conquered states lay.
Pit one
Pit one, which is 230 metres (750 ft) long and 62 metres (203 ft) wide,[26] contains the main army of more than 6,000 figures.[27] Pit one has 11 corridors, most of which are more than 3 metres (10 ft) wide and paved with small bricks with a wooden ceiling supported by large beams and posts. This design was also used for the tombs of nobles and would have resembled palace hallways when built. The wooden ceilings were covered with reed mats and layers of clay for waterproofing, and then mounded with more soil raising them about 2 to 3 metres (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) above the surrounding ground level when completed.[28]
Others
Pit two has cavalry and infantry units as well as war chariots and is thought to represent a military guard. Pit three is the command post, with high-ranking officers and a war chariot. Pit four is empty, perhaps left unfinished by its builders.
Some of the figures in pit one and two show fire damage, while remains of burnt ceiling rafters have also been found.[29] These, together with the missing weapons, have been taken as evidence of the reported looting by Xiang Yu and the subsequent burning of the site, which is thought to have caused the roof to collapse and crush the army figures below. The terracotta figures currently on display have been restored from the fragments.
Other pits that formed the necropolis also have been excavated.[30] These pits lie within and outside the walls surrounding the tomb mound. They variously contain bronze carriages, terracotta figures of entertainers such as acrobats and strongmen, officials, stone armour suits, burials sites of horses, rare animals and labourers, as well as bronze cranes and ducks set in an underground park.[31]
Warrior figures
A terracotta soldier with his horse
Types and appearance
The terracotta figures are life-sized. They vary in height, uniform, and hairstyle in accordance with rank. Their faces appear to be different for each individual figure, scholars however have identified 10 basic face shapes.[32] The figures are of these general types: armored warriors; unarmored infantrymen; cavalrymen who wear a pillbox hat; helmeted driver of chariots with more armor protection; spear-carrying charioteers; kneeling archers who are armored; standing archers who are not; as well as generals and other lower-ranking officers.[33] There are however many variations in the uniforms within the ranks, for example, some may wear shin pads while others not; they may wear either long or short trousers, some of which may be padded; and their body armors vary depending on rank, function, and position in formation.[34] There are also terracotta horses placed among the warrior figures.
Recreated figures of an archer and an officer, showing how they would have looked when painted
Originally, the figures were painted with bright pigments, variously coloured pink, red, green, blue, black, brown, white and lilac.[35][36] The coloured lacquer finish and individual facial features would have given the figures a realistic feel. However, much of the colour coating had flaked off or become greatly faded.
Some scholars have speculated a possible Hellenistic link to these sculptures, due to the lack of life-sized and realistic sculptures prior to the Qin dynasty.[37][38] They argued that potential Greek influence is particularly evident in some terracotta figures such as those of acrobats, as well as the technique used for casting bronze sculptures.[39][40]
Construction
The terracotta army figures were manufactured in workshops by government laborers and local craftsmen using local materials. Heads, arms, legs, and torsos were created separately and then assembled by luting the pieces together. When completed, the terracotta figures were placed in the pits in precise military formation according to rank and duty.[41]
The faces were created using molds, and at least ten face molds may have been used.[32] Clay was then added after assembly to provide individual facial features to make each figure appear different.[42] It is believed that the warriors' legs were made in much the same way that terracotta drainage pipes were manufactured at the time. This would classify the process as assembly line production, with specific parts manufactured and assembled after being fired, as opposed to crafting one solid piece and subsequently firing it. In those times of tight imperial control, each workshop was required to inscribe its name on items produced to ensure quality control. This has aided modern historians in verifying which workshops were commandeered to make tiles and other mundane items for the terracotta army.
Weaponry
Bronze jian sword with chrome plating
Most of the figures originally held real weapons such as spears, swords, or crossbows, and the use of actual weapons would have increased the figures' realism. Most of the original weapons, however, were looted shortly after the creation of the army, or have rotted away. Nevertheless, many weapons such as swords, spears, lances, battle-axes, scimitars, shields, crossbows, and arrowheads have been found in the pits.[24][43] Over 40,000 bronze items of weaponry have been recovered from the pits, with most of these arrowheads which are usually found in bundles of 100 units.[44] Studies of these arrowheads suggests that they were produced in small units of self-sufficient, autonomous workshops that produced finished items in a production process referred to as cellular production or Toyotism.[45] There are also hundreds of crossbow triggers, and smaller number of other weapons such as bronze swords, and daggers.[46]
Stone armor suit on display in the National Geographic Museum.
Some of these weapons, such as the swords, are sharp and were coated with a 10–15 micrometre layer of chromium dioxide that kept the swords rust-free for 2,000 years.[47][48] The swords contain an alloy of copper, tin, and other elements including nickel, magnesium, and cobalt.[49] Some carry inscriptions that date their manufacture to between 245 and 228 BCE, indicating that they were used as weapons before their burials.[50]
An important element of the army is the chariot, of which four types have been found. In battle the fighting chariots formed pairs at the head of a unit of infantry. The principal weapon of the charioteers was the ge or dagger-axe, an L-shaped bronze blade mounted on a long shaft and used for sweeping and hooking at the enemy. Infantrymen also carried ge on shorter shafts, ji or halberds and spears and lances. For close fighting and defence, both charioteers and infantrymen carried double-edged straight swords. The archers carried crossbows, which have sophisticated trigger mechanisms and are capable of shooting arrows farther than 800 metres (2,600 ft).[50]
Scientific research
In 2007, scientists at Stanford University and the Advanced Light Source facility in Berkeley, California reported that powder diffraction experiments combined with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and micro-X-ray fluorescence analysis showed that the process of producing Terracotta figures colored with Chinese purple dye consisting of barium copper silicate was derived from the knowledge gained by Taoist alchemists in their attempts to synthesize jade ornaments.[51][52]
Since 2006, an international team of researchers at the UCL Institute of Archaeology have been using analytical chemistry techniques to uncover more details about the production techniques employed in the creation of the Terracotta Army. Using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry of 40,000 bronze arrowheads bundled in groups of 100, the researchers reported that the arrowheads within a single bundle formed a relatively tight cluster that was different from other bundles. In addition, the presence or absence of metal impurities was consistent within bundles. Based on the arrows’ chemical compositions, the researchers concluded that a cellular manufacturing system similar to the one used in a modern Toyota factory, as opposed to a continuous assembly line in the early days of automobile industry, was employed.[53][54]
Grinding and polishing marks visible under a scanning electron microscope provide evidence for the earliest industrial use of lathes for polishing.[53]
Exhibitions
Terracotta Warriors exhibition in San Francisco, U.S.
A collection of 120 objects from the mausoleum and 12 terracotta warriors were displayed at the British Museum in London as its special exhibition "The First Emperor: China's Terracotta Army" from 13 September 2007 to April 2008.[55] This exhibition made 2008 the British Museum's most successful year and made the British Museum the United Kingdom's top cultural attraction between 2007 and 2008.[56][57] The exhibition brought the most visitors to the museum since the King Tutankhamun exhibition in 1972.[56] It was reported that the 400,000 advance tickets sold out so fast that the museum extended its opening hours until midnight.[58] According to The Times, many people had to be turned away, despite the extended hours.[59] During the day of events to mark the Chinese New Year, the crush was so intense that the gates to the museum had to be shut.[59] The Terracotta Army has been described as the only other set of historic artifacts (along with the remnants of wreck of the RMS Titanic) that can draw a crowd by the name alone.[58]
Warriors and other artifacts were exhibited to the public at the Forum de Barcelona in Barcelona between 9 May and 26 September 2004. It was their most successful exhibition ever.[60] The same exhibition was presented at the Fundación Canal de Isabel II in Madrid between October 2004 and January 2005, their most successful ever.[61] From December 2009 to May 2010, the exhibition was shown in the Centro Cultural La Moneda in Santiago de Chile.[62]
The exhibition traveled to North America and visited museums such as the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, Bowers Museum in Santa Ana, California, Houston Museum of Natural Science, High Museum of Art in Atlanta,[63] National Geographic Society Museum in Washington, D.C. and the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto.[64] Subsequently, the exhibition traveled to Sweden and was hosted in the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities between 28 August 2010 and 20 January 2011.[65][66] An exhibition entitled 'The First Emperor – China's Entombed Warriors', presenting 120 artifacts was hosted at the Art Gallery of New South Wales, between 2 December 2010 and 13 March 2011.[67] An exhibition entitled "L'Empereur guerrier de Chine et son armée de terre cuite" ("The Warrior-Emperor of China and his terracotta army"), featuring artifacts including statues from the mausoleum, was hosted by the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts from 11 February 2011 to 26 June 2011.[68] In Italy, from July 2008 to November 16, 2008, five of the warriors of the terracotta army were exposed in Turin at the Museum of Antiquities,[69] and from 16 April 2010 to 5 September 2010 were exposed nine warriors in Milan, at the Royal Palace, at the exhibition entitled "The Two Empires".[70] The group consisted of a horse, a counselor, an archer and 6 Lancers. The "Treasures of Ancient China" exhibition, showcasing two terracotta soldiers and other artifacts, including the Longmen Grottoes Buddhist statues, was held between 19 February 2011 and 7 November 2011 in four locations in India: National Museum of New Delhi, Prince of Wales Museum in Mumbai, Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad and National Library of India in Kolkata.[citation needed]
Soldiers and related items were on display from March 15, 2013, to November 17, 2013, at the Historical Museum of Bern.[71]
Several Terracotta Army figures are on display, along with many other objects, in an exhibit entitled "Age of Empires: Chinese Art of the Qin and Han Dynasties" at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City from April 3, 2017, to July 16, 2017.[72][73][74] Ten Terracotta Army figures and other artifacts are on display at the Pacific Science Center in Seattle, Washington, from April 8, 2017, to September 4, 2017.[75][76]
Gallery
A rank of soldiers.
Close-up on the head of an archer.
The face of each soldier differs and is constructed to be unique.
A cavalryman and his mount.
Ranks of terracotta infantrymen.
The Terracotta Warriors were once painted. Today only a handful of statues contain small amounts of paint. Also notice the detail put into the soles of the warrior's shoes.
Bronze chariot for the emperor.
Terracotta horse and two soldiers.
Close-up of an archer's head showing hair details and accessories.
Pigments used on the Terracotta Warriors.
Original coloring on the warriors.
Original coloring on the warriors.
See also
List of World Heritage Sites in China
Qin bronze chariot
Notes
Jump up ^ Lu Yanchou, Zhang Jingzhao, Xie Jun; Jingzhao; Jun; Xueli (1988). "TL dating of pottery sherds and baked soil from the Xian Terracotta Army Site, Shaanxi Province, China". International Journal of Radiation Applications and Instrumentation. Part D. Nuclear Tracks and Radiation Measurements. 14 (1–2): 283–286. doi:10.1016/1359-0189(88)90077-5. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Portal 2007, p. 167.
^ Jump up to: a b Sima Qian – Shiji Volume 6 《史记·秦始皇本纪》 Original text: 始皇初即位，穿治郦山，及并天下，天下徒送诣七十余万人，穿三泉，下铜而致椁，宫观百官奇器珍怪徙臧满之。令匠作机驽矢，有所穿近者辄射之。以水银为百川江河大海，机相灌输，上具天文，下具地理。以人鱼膏为烛，度不灭者久之。二世曰："先帝后宫非有子者，出焉不宜。" 皆令从死，死者甚众。葬既已下，或言工匠为机，臧皆知之，臧重即泄。大事毕，已臧，闭中羡，下外羡门，尽闭工匠臧者，无复出者。树草木以象山。 Translation: When the First Emperor ascended the throne, the digging and preparation at Mount Li began. After he unified his empire, 700,000 men were sent there from all over his empire. They dug down deep to underground springs, pouring copper to place the outer casing of the coffin. Palaces and viewing towers housing a hundred officials were built and filled with treasures and rare artifacts. Workmen were instructed to make automatic crossbows primed to shoot at intruders. Mercury was used to simulate the hundred rivers, the Yangtze and Yellow River, and the great sea, and set to flow mechanically. Above, the heaven is depicted, below, the geographical features of the land. Candles were made of "mermaid"'s fat which is calculated to burn and not extinguish for a long time. The Second Emperor said: "It is inappropriate for the wives of the late emperor who have no sons to be free", ordered that they should accompany the dead, and a great many died. After the burial, it was suggested that it would be a serious breach if the craftsmen who constructed the tomb and knew of its treasure were to divulge those secrets. Therefore, after the funeral ceremonies had completed, the inner passages and doorways were blocked, and the exit sealed, immediately trapping the workers and craftsmen inside. None could escape. Trees and vegetation were then planted on the tomb mound such that it resembled a hill.
Jump up ^ Clements 2007, p. 158.
Jump up ^ Shui Jing Zhu Chapter 19 《水经注·渭水》Original text: 秦始皇大兴厚葬，营建冢圹于骊戎之山，一名蓝田，其阴多金，其阳多美玉，始皇贪其美名，因而葬焉。
Jump up ^ Portal 2007, p. 17.
Jump up ^ Portal 2007, p. 202.
Jump up ^ Shui Jing Zhu Chapter 19 《水经注·渭水》 Original text: 项羽入关，发之，以三十万人，三十日运物不能穷。关东盗贼，销椁取铜。牧人寻羊，烧之，火延九十日，不能灭。Translation: Xiang Yu entered the gate, sent forth 300,000 men, but they could not finish carrying away his loot in 30 days. Thieves from northeast melted the coffin and took its copper. A shepherd looking for his lost sheep burned the place, the fire lasted 90 days and could not be extinguished.
Jump up ^ Sima Qian – Shiji Volume 8 《史记·高祖本纪》 Original text: 项羽烧秦宫室，掘始皇帝冢，私收其财物 Translation: Xiang Yu burned the Qin palaces, dug up the First Emperor's tomb, and expropriated his possessions.
Jump up ^ Han Shu《汉书·楚元王传》：Original text: "项籍焚其宫室营宇，往者咸见发掘，其后牧儿亡羊，羊入其凿，牧者持火照球羊，失火烧其藏椁。" Translation: Xiang burned the palaces and buildings. Later observers witnessed the excavated site. Afterward a shepherd lost his sheep which went into the dug tunnel; the shepherd held a torch to look for his sheep, and accidentally set fire to the place and burned the coffin.
Jump up ^ "Royal Chinese treasure discovered". BBC News. 2005-10-20. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
Jump up ^ Agnew, Neville (2010-08-03). Conservation of Ancient Sites on the Silk Road. Getty Publications. p. 214. ISBN 9781606060131. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
Jump up ^ O. Louis Mazzatenta. "Emperor Qin's Terracotta Army". National Geographic.
Jump up ^ The precise coordinates are 34°23′5.71″N 109°16′23.19″E / 34.3849194°N 109.2731083°E / 34.3849194; 109.2731083)
Jump up ^ Clements 2007, pp. 155, 157, 158, 160–161, 166.
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^ Jump up to: a b "The First Emperor". Channel4.com. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
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Jump up ^ Larmer, Brook. "Terra-Cotta Warriors in Color." National Geographic June 2012: 86. Print
^ Jump up to: a b "The Necropolis of First Emperor of Qin". History.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
Jump up ^ A Magic Army for the Emperor Lothar Ledderose
Jump up ^ Ledderose 1998, pp. 51–73 A Magic Army for the Emperor
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^ Jump up to: a b The Terra Cotta Warriors. National Geographic Museum. p. 27.
Jump up ^ Cotterell, Maurice (June 2004). The Terracotta Warriors: The Secret Codes of the Emperor's Army. Inner Traditions Bear and Company. pp. 105–112. ISBN 978-1591430339.
Jump up ^ Cotterell, Maurice (June 2004). The Terracotta Warriors: The Secret Codes of the Emperor's Army. Inner Traditions Bear and Company. pp. 103–105. ISBN 978-1591430339.
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Jump up ^ Early links with West likely inspiration for Terracotta Warriors, argues SOAS scholar, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London
Jump up ^ Lukas Nickel, The First Emperor and sculpture in China, SOAS, University of London, Cambridge University Press, 2013
Jump up ^ "Western contact with China began long before Marco Polo, experts say". BBC. 12 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Johnston, Ian (13 October 2016). "Ancient Greeks may have built China's famous Terracotta Army – 1,500 years before Marco Polo". Independent.co.uk. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
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Jump up ^ Marcos Martinón-Torres, Xiuzhen Janice Li, Andrew Bevan, Yin Xia, Zhao Kun, Thilo Rehren (2011). "Making Weapons for the Terracotta Army". Archaeology International. 13: 65–75. doi:10.5334/ai.1316. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Pinkowski, Jennifer (November 26, 2012). "Chinese terra cotta warriors had real, and very carefully made, weapons". The Washington Post.
Jump up ^ Cotterell, Maurice (June 2004). The Terracotta Warriors: The Secret Codes of the Emperor's Army. Inner Traditions Bear and Company. pp. 99–102. ISBN 978-1591430339.
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Jump up ^ Zhewen Luo (1993). China's imperial tombs and mausoleums. Foreign Languages Press. p. 102. ISBN 7-119-01619-9. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
Jump up ^ "Terracotta Warriors" (PDF). National Geographic. 2009. Retrieved 2011-07-28.
^ Jump up to: a b "The First Emperor - China's Terracotta Army - Teacher's Resource Pack" (PDF). British Museum.
Jump up ^ Bertrand, Loïc; Robinet, Laurianne; Thoury, Mathieu; Janssens, Koen; Cohen, Serge X.; Schöder, Sebastian (26 November 2011). "Cultural heritage and archaeology materials studied by synchrotron spectroscopy and imaging". Applied Physics A. 106 (2): 377–396. doi:10.1007/s00339-011-6686-4.
Jump up ^ Liu, Z.; Mehta, A.; Tamura, N.; Pickard, D.; Rong, B.; Zhou, T.; Pianetta, P. (November 2007). "Influence of Taoism on the invention of the purple pigment used on the Qin terracotta warriors". Journal of Archaeological Science. 34 (11): 1878–1883. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.01.005.
^ Jump up to: a b Rees, Simon (6 March 2014). "Chemistry unearths the secrets of the Terracotta Army". Royal Society of Chemistry. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Martinón-Torres, Marcos; Li, Xiuzhen Janice; Bevan, Andrew; Xia, Yin; Zhao, Kun; Rehren, Thilo (20 October 2012). "Forty Thousand Arms for a Single Emperor: From Chemical Data to the Labor Organization Behind the Bronze Arrows of the Terracotta Army". Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory. 21 (3): 534. doi:10.1007/s10816-012-9158-z.
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^ Jump up to: a b Higgins, Charlotte (2008-07-02). "Terracotta army makes British Museum favourite attraction". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 2010-05-25.
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^ Jump up to: a b "British Museum ponders 24-hour opening for terracotta warriors". CBC News. November 22, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Whitworth, Damian (2008-07-09). "Is the British Museum the greatest museum on earth?". The Times. London. Retrieved 2010-05-25.
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Jump up ^ "World Famous Terracotta Army Arrives in Stockholm for Exhibition at Ostasiatiska Museum". Retrieved 20 January 2010.
Jump up ^ "Terracotta warriors, Picassos heading to Sydney". ABC News. 14 October 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Empereur Guerrier De Chine Et Son Armee De Terre Cuite". Mbam.qc.ca. Retrieved 2011-12-03.
Jump up ^ "Il Celeste Impero. Guerrieri di terracotta a Torino - Il Sole 24 ORE".
Jump up ^ "Esercito di Terracotta: dalla Cina a Palazzo Reale di Milano - NanoPress Viaggi".
Jump up ^ "Die Terrakotta-Krieger sind da". Der Bund. 22 February 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Age of Empires: Chinese Art of the Qin and Han Dynasties Metropolitan Museum of Art
Jump up ^ Age of Empires: Chinese Art of the Qin and Han Dynasties Epoch Times
Jump up ^ ‘Age of Empires: Chinese Art of the Qin and Han Dynasties (221 B.C-A.D. 220)’ Review: Treasures of Nation-Building Wall Street Journal
Jump up ^ Upchurch, Michael (April 7, 2017). "‘Terracotta Warriors’ exhibit makes grand entrance at Pacific Science Center". Seattle Times. Retrieved 10 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Terracotta Warriors of the First Emperor". Pacific Science Center. Retrieved 10 July 2017.
Bibliography
Clements, Jonathan (18 January 2007). The First Emperor of China. Sutton. ISBN 978-0-7509-3960-7.
Debaine-Francfort, Corinne (1999). The Search for Ancient China. New Horizons series. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-30095-4.
Dillon, Michael (1998). China: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. Durham East Asia series. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon. ISBN 978-0-7007-0439-2.
Portal, Jane (2007). The First Emperor: China's Terracotta Army. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02697-1.
Ledderose, Lothar (2000). "A Magic Army for the Emperor". Ten Thousand Things: Module and Mass Production in Chinese Art. The A.W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-00957-5.
Perkins, Dorothy (2000). Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture. Facts On File. ISBN 978-0-8160-4374-3.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Terracotta Army.
UNESCO description of the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor
Emperor Qinshihuang's Mausoleum Site Museum (official website)
People's Daily article on the Terracotta Army
Microsoft Photosynth Experience of the Terra Cotta Warriors
OSGFilms Video Article : Terracotta Warriors at Discovery Times Square
The Necropolis of the First Emperor of Qin Excerpt from lecture
China's Terracotta Warriors Documentary produced by the PBS Series Secrets of the Dead
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values: ضريح الإمبراطور الأول كين – Arabic

values: Терракотанан яһалған армия – Bashkir

values: Тэракотавая армія – Belarusian

values: Теракотена армия – Bulgarian

values: Exèrcit de guerrers de terracota – Catalan

values: Терракота çарĕ – Chuvash

values: Στρατός από τερακότα – Greek

values: لشکر سفالین – Persian

values: Տերակոտե բանակ – Armenian

values: टेराकोटा सेना – Hindi

values: צבא הטרקוטה – Hebrew

values: ტერაკოტის არმია – Georgian

values: Терракоттан жасалған әскер – Kazakh

values: Теракотна војска – Macedonian

values: കളിമൺ യോദ്ധാക്കൾ – Malayalam

values: မြေရုပ်စစ်တပ် – Burmese

values: टेराकोटा सेना – Nepali

values: Терракотовая армия – Russian

values: ටෙරාකොටා හමුදාව – Sinhala

values: Ратници од теракоте – Serbian

values: interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle

values: சுடுமட்சிலைப் படை – Tamil

values: Терракота гаскәре – Tatar

values: สุสานจักรพรรดิฉินที่ 1 – Thai

values: Лашкари Сафолин – Tajik

values: Теракотова армія – Ukrainian

values: 秦始皇兵马俑 – Chinese

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