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Eads Bridge
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Eads Bridge
The Eads Bridge from St. Louis, stretching over the Mississippi River toward Illinois
Coordinates
38°37′41″N 90°10′17″W / 38.62806°N 90.17139°W / 38.62806; -90.17139
Carries
4 highway lanes
2 MetroLink tracks
Crosses
Mississippi River
Locale
St. Louis, Missouri and East St. Louis, Illinois
Other name(s)
World's First All Steel Bridge
Characteristics
Design
Arch bridge
Total length
6,442 ft (1,964 m)
Width
46 ft (14 m)
Longest span
520 ft (158 m)
Clearance below
88 ft (27 m)
History
Designer
James B. Eads
Construction start
1867; 151 years ago (1867)[1]
Opened
1874; 144 years ago (1874)[1]
Statistics
Daily traffic
8,100 (2014)[2]
Eads Bridge
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. National Historic Landmark
St. Louis Landmark
Show map of Missouri Show map of the US Show all
Location
St. Louis, Missouri
Coordinates
38°37′41″N 90°10′17″W / 38.62806°N 90.17139°W / 38.62806; -90.17139Coordinates: 38°37′41″N 90°10′17″W / 38.62806°N 90.17139°W / 38.62806; -90.17139
Built
1867-1874
Architect
Eads, Capt. James B.
Architectural style
Other
NRHP reference #
66000946[3]
Significant dates
Added to NRHP
October 15, 1966
Designated NHL
January 29, 1964[4]
The Eads Bridge is a steel combined road and railway bridge over the Mississippi River connecting the cities of St. Louis, Missouri and East St. Louis, Illinois. It was envisioned and financed by a young Andrew Carnegie. Opened in 1874, it was one of the earliest long bridges built across the Mississippi, the world's first all steel construction,[5] and built high enough so steamboats could travel underneath. As such, the St. Louis Landmark is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a National Historic Landmark. As of April 2014, it carries about 8,100 vehicles daily, down 3,000 since the new Stan Musial Veterans Memorial Bridge opened in February 2014.[2]
The bridge is named for its designer and builder, James B. Eads. When completed in 1874, the Eads Bridge was the longest arch bridge in the world, with an overall length of 6,442 feet (1,964 m). The ribbed steel arch spans were considered daring, as was the use of steel as a primary structural material. This was the first such use of true steel in a major bridge.[6] The cost of building the bridge was nearly $10 million ($220 million with inflation[7]).[8]
The Eads Bridge was also the first bridge to be built using cantilever support methods exclusively, and one of the first to make use of pneumatic caissons. The Eads Bridge caissons, still among the deepest ever sunk, were responsible for one of the first major outbreaks of "caisson disease" (also known as "the bends" or decompression sickness).[9] Fifteen workers died, two other workers were permanently disabled, and 77 were severely afflicted.[9][10]
On June 14, 1874, John Robinson led a "test elephant" on a stroll across the new Eads Bridge to prove that it was safe.[11] A big crowd cheered as the elephant from a traveling circus lumbered towards Illinois. It was believed that elephants had instincts that kept them from setting foot on unsafe structures. Two weeks later, Eads sent 14 locomotives back and forth across the bridge at one time.[12] The opening day celebration on July 4, 1874, featured a parade that stretched for 15 miles (24 km) through the streets of St. Louis.[13]
The Eads Bridge, which became an iconic image of the city of St. Louis, from the time of its erection until 1965 when the Gateway Arch was constructed, is still in use. The bridge crosses the St. Louis riverfront between Laclede's Landing, to the north, and the grounds of the Gateway Arch, to the south. Today the road deck has been restored, allowing vehicular and pedestrian traffic to cross the river. The St. Louis MetroLink light rail system has used the rail deck since 1993.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Recognition
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
History[edit]
Poster showing the construction of the bridge in different phases, ca. 1874.
The Eads Bridge under construction, 1870s
Eads Bridge from East Riverfront MetroLink station, Illinois side
Eads Bridge showing MetroLink train running on lower deck. Light posts for upper automobile deck can be seen along the upper rails.
An 1875 drawing of Eads Bridge by Camille N. Dry.
Toll collection
Metro Link train on the Eads Bridge
The Eads Bridge was built by the Illinois and St. Louis Bridge Company, with the Keystone Bridge Company serving as subcontractor for superstructure erection.[14]
The domination of the river trade was no longer as important as before the American Civil War, and Chicago was fast gaining as the center of commerce in the West. The bridge was conceived as a solution for St. Louis to regain eminence by connecting transportation across the river. Although he had no prior experience in bridge building, James Eads was chosen as chief engineer for the bridge.[15]
In an attempt to secure their future, steamboat interests successfully lobbied to place restrictions on bridge construction, requiring spans and heights previously unheard of. This was ostensibly to maintain sufficient operating room for steamboats beneath the bridge’s base for the then foreseeable future. The unproclaimed purpose was to require a bridge so grand and lofty that it was impossible to erect according to conventional building techniques. The steamboat parties planned to prevent any structure from being built, in order to ensure continued dependence on river traffic to sustain commerce in the region.
Such a bridge required a radical design solution. The Mississippi River's current was almost 12 1⁄2 feet per second (3.8 m/s) and the builders had to battle ice floes in the winter.[15] The ribbed arch had been a known construction technique for centuries. The triple span, tubular metallic arch construction was supported by two shore abutments and two mid-river piers. Four pairs of arches per span (upper and lower) were set eight feet (2.4 m) apart, supporting an upper deck for vehicular traffic and a lower deck for rail traffic.
Construction involved varied and confusing design elements and pressures. State and federal charters precluded suspension or draw bridges, or wood construction. There were constraints on span size and the height above the water line. The location dictated reconciling differences in heights from the low Illinois floodplain of the east bank to the high Missouri cliff on the west bank of the river. The bedrock required deep drilling to reach, as it was 38 m below water level on the Illinois side and 26 m below on the Missouri side.[16][17]
These pressures resulted in a bridge noted as innovative for precision and accuracy of construction and quality control. This was the first use of structural alloy steel in a major building construction, through use of cast chromium steel components. The completed bridge also relied on significant—and unknown—amounts of wrought iron.[6] Eads argued that the great compressive strength of steel was ideal for use in the upright arch design. This decision resulted from a curious combination of chance and necessity, due to the insufficient strength of alternative material choices.
The particular physical difficulties of the site stimulated interesting solutions to construction problems. The deep caissons used for pier and abutment construction signaled a new chapter in civil engineering. Piers were sunk almost 100 feet (30 m) below the river's surface.[15] Unable to construct falsework to erect the arches, because they would obstruct river traffic, Eads's engineers devised a cantilevered rigging system to close the arches.
Masonry piers were built to heights of almost 120 feet (37 m), about the height of a ten-story building. About 78 feet (24 m) of that span was driven through the sandy riverbed until it hit bedrock. Eads implemented a building method that he had observed in Europe, whereby masonry was set atop a metal chamber filled with compressed air. Stone was added to the chamber, which caused the caisson to sink. Workers then dove into the caisson to shovel sand into a pump that shot it out into the air so the masonry could be sunk into the riverbed. Thirteen men died during this process and two were paralyzed, suffering from what we now know as the bends. Still today, the Eads Bridge is built on the deepest pneumatic caisson ever constructed.[15]
Eads Bridge was recognized as an innovative and exciting achievement. Eads' secured 47 patents during his lifetime, many of which were taken out for parts of the bridge's structure and devices for its construction.[15] President Ulysses S. Grant dedicated the bridge on July 4, 1874, and General William T. Sherman drove the gold spike completing construction. After completion, 14 locomotives crossed the bridge to prove its stability.[15]
The Eads Bridge was undercapitalized during construction and burdened with debt. With its focus on the river, St. Louis had a lack of adequate rail terminal facilities, and the bridge was poorly planned to coordinate rail access. An engineering and aesthetic success, the bridge was bankrupt within a year of opening. The railroads boycotted the bridge, resulting in a loss of tolls. The bridge was later sold at auction for 20 cents on the dollar. This sale caused the National Bank of the State of Missouri to fold, which was the largest bank failure in the United States at that time. Eads himself did not suffer financial consequences. Many involved with financing the bridge were indicted, but Eads was not.[15]
Granite for the bridge came from the Iron County, Missouri, quarry of Missouri Governor and U.S. Senator B. Gratz Brown who had helped secure federal financing for the bridge.[18]
In 1949, the bridge's strength was tested with electromagnetic strain gauges. It was determined that Eads' original estimation of an allowable load of 3,000 pounds per foot (4,500 kg/m) could be raised to 5,000 pounds per foot (7,400 kg/m). The Eads Bridge is still considered one of the greatest bridges ever built.[15]
The Merchants Exchange eventually lost ownership to the Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis. The Exchange, fearing a Terminal Railroad rail monopoly on the bridges, then built the Merchants Bridge, which in turn was taken over by the Terminal Railroad. The Terminal Railroad transferred the bridge to the City of St. Louis in 1989 in exchange for the MacArthur Bridge.[19]
Eads Bridge had long hosted only passenger trains on its rail deck. By the 1970s, the Terminal Railroad Association had abandoned its Eads trackage, as the bridge had lost all remaining passenger rail traffic to the MacArthur Bridge during the early years of Amtrak; the dimensions of modern passenger diesels were incompatible with both the bridge and the adjoining tunnel linking the Union Station trackage with Eads.
In 1998, the Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center investigated the effects of the ramming of the bridge by the barge Anne Holly on April 4 of that year. The ramming resulted in the near breakaway of the SS Admiral, a riverboat casino; several recommended changes reduced the odds of this happening in the future.[20]
Recognition[edit]
In 1898 the bridge appeared on the $2 Trans-Mississippi Issue of postage stamps. One hundred years later the design was reprinted in a commemorative souvenir sheet.
The bridge was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964, recognizing its innovations in design, materials, construction methods, and importance in the history of large-scale engineering projects.[21]
During the bridge's construction, The New York Times called it The World's Eighth Wonder.[22] On its 100th anniversary, the Times' architectural critic, Ada Louise Huxtable, called it "among the most beautiful works of man."[15]
Eads Bridge
See also[edit]
National Register of Historic Places portal
Bridges portal
Trains portal
Illinois portal
Missouri portal
Chain of Rocks Bridge
Martin Luther King Bridge
McKinley Bridge
Merchants Bridge
Poplar Street Bridge
List of crossings of the Upper Mississippi River
List of National Historic Landmarks in Missouri
List of National Historic Landmarks in Illinois
National Register of Historic Places listings in St. Clair County, Illinois
National Register of Historic Places listings in Downtown and Downtown West St. Louis
List of bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
List of bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in Missouri
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Eads Bridge at Structurae
^ Jump up to: a b "IDOT: New bridge carrying less traffic than originally expected". Belleville News Democrat. April 14, 2014. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved July 5, 2014.
Jump up ^ National Park Service (2008-04-15). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.
Jump up ^ "Eads Bridge". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Archived from the original on December 6, 2008. Retrieved July 3, 2008.
Jump up ^ Jackson, Donald C. (1996). Great American Bridges and Dams. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-471-14385-5.
^ Jump up to: a b DeLony, Eric. "Context for World Heritage Bridges". International Council on Monuments and Sites. Archived from the original on February 21, 2005. Retrieved February 6, 2007.
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ St. Louis Up To Date: The Great Industrial Hive of the Mississippi Valley. Richly Endowed by Nature as a Port of Entry, a Manufacturing Centre, and a Place of Residence. A Glance at Her History, a Review of Her Commerce, and a Description of Her Leading Business Enterprises; With Illustrations of Her Public and Commercial Buildings and Places of Interest. St. Louis: Consolidated Illustrating Company. 1895.
^ Jump up to: a b Butler, WP (Winter 2004). "Caisson Disease During the Construction of the Eads and Brooklyn Bridges: A Review". Undersea Hyperbolic Medicine. 31 (4): 445–59. PMID 15686275. Retrieved June 19, 2008.
Jump up ^ "James B. Eads and His Amazing Bridge at St. Louis" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved March 19, 2007.
Jump up ^ "'Test Elephant' Proves Eads Bridge Is Safe". This Day In History. History Channel. June 14, 1874.
Jump up ^ "St. Louis People 365". Archived from the original on July 18, 2011. Retrieved September 17, 2008.
Jump up ^ Jackson, Robert W. (2001). Rails Across the Mississippi: A History of the St. Louis Bridge. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. p. 199.
Jump up ^ Woodward, C. M. (1881). A History of the St. Louis Bridge. St. Louis: G. I. Jones.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Shepley, Carol Ferring (2008). Movers and Shakers, Scalawags and Suffragettes: Tales from Bellefontaine Cemetery. St. Louis: Missouri History Museum.
Jump up ^ Condit, C.W. Technology and Culture. vol. 1. pp. 78–93.
Jump up ^ From material recorded by Kevin Murphy, Historian HAER, April 1984 in the public domain.[full citation needed]
Jump up ^ Past & Repast = The History and Hospitality of the Missouri Governor's Mansion - Missouri Mansion Preservation, Inc. -1983[full citation needed]
Jump up ^ "TRRA History". Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis. Archived from the original on October 12, 2008. Retrieved April 9, 2008.
Jump up ^ National Transportation Safety Board (September 8, 2000). Marine Accident Report: Ramming of the Eads Bridge by Barges in Tow on the M/V Anne Holly with Subsequent Ramming and Near Breakaway of the President Casino on the Admiral, St. Louis Harbor, Missouri, April 4, 1998. Washington, DC: National Transportation Safety Board – via docstock.com.
Jump up ^ "NHL Nomination for Eads Bridge" (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved January 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The St. Louis Bridge – Description of the Great Roadway Across the Father of Waters The World's Eighth Wonder". New York Times. May 17, 1873. p. 4. Retrieved 31 January 2018.
Further reading[edit]
Cook, Richard J. (1987). The Beauty of Railroad Bridges in North America: Then and Now. San Marino, CA: Golden West Books. ISBN 0-87095-097-5.
Kouwenhoven, John A. (1982). "The Designing of the Eads Bridge" (PDF). Technology and Culture. 23 (4): 535–568.
Miller, Howard S. & Scott, Quinta (1979). The Eads Bridge. Columbia: University of Missouri Press.
"National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form" (PDF). Missouri Department of Natural Resources. Retrieved May 30, 2008.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Eads Bridge.
National Historic Landmark Designation - Statement of Significance
Eads Bridge - the History and Heritage of Civil Engineering webpage (American Society of Civil Engineers)
Eads Bridge at Structurae
Bridge Pros: Eads Bridge
Bridge info at Historic Bridges of the United States.
maps.google.com zoomed in, hybrid mode
High resolution panoramic image of an Eads Bridge span
Picture, circa 1980
Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) No. MO-1190, "Eads Bridge, Spanning Mississippi River at Washington Street, Saint Louis, Independent City, MO"
Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) No. MO-12, "Eads Bridge, Spanning Mississippi River at Washington Street, Saint Louis, Independent City, MO"
"Eads Bridge photographs". University of Missouri–St. Louis.
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Population density
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Population density (people per km2) by country, 2015
Population density (people per km2) by country, 2006
Population density (people per km2) map of the world in 1994. In relation to the equator it is seen that the vast majority of the human population lives in the Northern Hemisphere.
Population density (people per km2) map of the world in 1994
Deserts around the world. Compare with maps above. See also this image for location of densely populated areas (cities) in various vegetation zones.
Population density (in agriculture: standing stock and standing crop) is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume; it is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and most of the time to humans. It is a key geographical term.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Biological population densities
1.1 By political boundaries
1.2 Other methods of measurement
2 See also
2.1 Lists of entities by population density
3 References
4 External links
Biological population densities[edit]
Population density is population divided by total land area or water volume, as appropriate.[1]
Low densities may cause an extinction vortex and lead to further reduced fertility. This is called the Allee effect after the scientist who identified it. Examples of the causes in low population densities include:[2]
Increased problems with locating sexual mates
Increased inbreeding
Monaco in Southern Europe, currently holds the record for being the most densely populated nation in the world.
Mongolia is the least densely populated country in the world.
This population cartogram of the European Union (2007-2012) uses areas and colors to represent population.
Main article: List of countries and territories by population density
For humans, population density is the number of people per unit of area, usually quoted per square kilometer or square mile (which may include or exclude, for example, areas of water or glaciers). Commonly this may be calculated for a county, city, country, another territory or the entire world.
The world's population is around 7,500,000,000[3] and Earth's total area (including land and water) is 510,000,000 square kilometers (197,000,000 sq. mi.).[4] Therefore, the worldwide human population density is around 7,500,000,000 ÷ 510,000,000 = 14.7 per km2 (38 per sq. mi). If only the Earth's land area of 150,000,000 km2 (58,000,000 sq. mi.) is taken into account, then human population density increases to 50 per km2 (129 per sq. mile). This includes all continental and island land area, including Antarctica. If Antarctica is also excluded, then population density rises to over 55 people per km2 (over 142 per sq. mile).[1] However, over half[citation needed] of the Earth's land mass consists of areas inhospitable to human habitation, such as deserts and high mountains, and population tends to cluster around seaports and fresh-water sources. Thus, this number by itself does not give any helpful measurement of human population density.
Several of the most densely populated territories in the world are city-states, microstates and dependencies.[5][6] These territories have a relatively small area and a high urbanization level, with an economically specialized city population drawing also on rural resources outside the area, illustrating the difference between high population density and overpopulation.
Cities with high population densities are, by some, considered to be overpopulated, though this will depend on factors like quality of housing and infrastructure and access to resources.[7] Most of the most densely populated cities are in Southeast Asia, though Cairo and Lagos in Africa also fall into this category.[8]
City population and especially area are, however, heavily dependent on the definition of "urban area" used: densities are almost invariably higher for the central city area than when suburban settlements and the intervening rural areas are included, as in the areas of agglomeration or metropolitan area, the latter sometimes including neighboring cities. For instance, Milwaukee has a greater population density when just the inner city is measured, and the surrounding suburbs excluded.[9]
In comparison, based on a world population of seven billion, the world's inhabitants, as a loose crowd taking up ten square feet (one square metre) per person (Jacobs Method), would occupy a space a little larger than Delaware's land area.[citation needed]
By political boundaries[edit]
With population above 1,000,000
Rank
Country/Region
Population
Area (km2)
Density
(Pop. per km2)
1 Singapore 5,535,000 719 7698
2 Hong Kong 7,234,800 1,104 6553
3 Gaza Strip 1,816,379 360 5045
4 Bahrain 1,404,900 750 1873
5 Bangladesh 161,609,000 147,570 1095
6 Taiwan 23,361,147 36,190 646
7 Mauritius 1,288,000 2,040 631
8 Lebanon 6,237,738 10,452 597
9 South Korea 51,529,338 99,720 517
10 Rwanda 11,262,564 26,338 428
With population above 10,000,000
Rank
Country/Region
Population
Area (km2)
Density
(Pop. per km2)
1 Bangladesh 161,609,000 147,570 1095
2 Taiwan (R.O.C) 23,361,147 36,190 646
3 South Korea 51,529,338 99,720 517
4 Rwanda 11,262,564 26,338 428
5 Netherlands 17,071,100 41,526 411
6 India 1,326,801,576 3,287,263 404
7 Haiti 10,413,211 27,750 375
8 Belgium 11,239,755 30,528 368
9 Burundi 10,114,505 27,834 363
10 Philippines 102,078,300 300,076 340
Other methods of measurement[edit]
Although arithmetic density is the most common way of measuring population density, several other methods have been developed to provide a more accurate measure of population density over a specific area.
Arithmetic density: The total number of people / area of land (measured in square miles or square kilometers)
Physiological density: The total population / area of arable land
Agricultural density: The total rural population / area of arable land
Residential density: The number of people living in an urban area / area of residential land
Urban density: The number of people inhabiting an urban area / total area of urban land
Ecological optimum: The density of population that can be supported by the natural resources
See also[edit]
Demography
Human geography
Idealized population
Optimum population
Population genetics
Population health
Population momentum
Population pyramid
Rural transport problem
Small population size
Distance sampling
List of population concern organizations
Lists of entities by population density[edit]
List of cities by population density
List of city districts by population density
List of European cities proper by population density
List of United States cities by population density
List of islands by population density
List of countries by population density
List of U.S. states by population density
List of Australian suburbs by population density
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Matt Rosenberg Population Density. Geography.about.com. March 2, 2011. Retrieved on December 10, 2011.
Jump up ^ Minimum viable population size. Eoearth.org (March 6, 2010). Retrieved on December 10, 2011.
Jump up ^ U.S. & World Population Clocks. Census.gov. Retrieved on December 10, 2011.
Jump up ^ World. CIA World Handbook
Jump up ^ Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division (2009). "World Population Prospects, Table A.1" (PDF). 2008 revision. United Nations. Retrieved March 12, 2009.
Jump up ^ The Monaco government uses a smaller surface area figure resulting in a population density of 18,078 per km2
Jump up ^ Human Population. Global Issues. Retrieved on December 10, 2011.
Jump up ^ The largest cities in the world by land area, population and density. Citymayors.com. Retrieved on December 10, 2011.
Jump up ^ The Population of Milwaukee County. Wisconline.com. Retrieved on December 10, 2011.
External links[edit]
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