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Rights of Englishmen
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The rights of Englishmen are the perceived traditional rights of citizens of England. In the 18th century, some of the colonists who objected to British rule in the British colonies in North America argued that their traditional[1] rights as Englishmen were being violated. The colonists wanted and expected the rights that they (or their forebears) had previously enjoyed in England: a local, representative government, with regards to judicial matters (some colonists were being sent back to England for trials) and particularly with regards to taxation.[2] Belief in these rights subsequently became a widely-accepted justification for the American Revolution.[3][4]
The American colonies had since the 17th century been fertile ground for liberalism within the center of European political discourse.[5] However, as the ratification of the Declaration of Independence approached, the issue among the colonists of which particular rights were significant became divisive. George Mason, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, stated that "We claim nothing but the liberty and privileges of Englishmen in the same degree, as if we had continued among our brethren in Great Britain."[4]
Contents
1 Historical background
1.1 Calvin's Case
2 Legacy in United States law
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 Citations
Historical background[edit]
Further information: Fundamental Laws of England
18th-century English jurist William Blackstone attempted to explain the rights of English citizens.
In the tradition of Whig history, Judge William Blackstone called them "The absolute rights of every Englishman", and explained how they had been established slowly over centuries of English history, in his book on Fundamental Laws of England, which was the first part of his influential Commentaries on the Laws of England.[6] They were certain basic rights that all subjects of the English monarch were understood to be entitled to,[6] such as those expressed in Magna Carta since 1215, the Petition of Right in 1628, the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 and the Bill of Rights 1689.[7]
Some scholars reasoned that the 18th century colonists could "claim all the rights and protections of English citizenship."[8] In fact, the legal apologists for the American Revolution claimed they had "improved on the rights of Englishmen" by creating additional, purely American rights.[8][9]
Calvin's Case[edit]
In a legal case in 1608 that came to be known as Calvin's Case, or the Case of the Postnati, the Law Lords decided in 1608 that Scotsmen born after King James I united Scotland and England (the postnati) had all the rights of Englishmen. This decision would have a subsequent effect on the concept of the "rights of Englishmen" in British America.[10][11] Some scholars believed that the case did not fit British America's situation, and thus reasoned that the 18th century colonists could "claim all the rights and protections of English citizenship."[9]
Legacy in United States law[edit]
Owing to its inclusion in the standard legal treatises of the 19th century,[a] Calvin's Case was well known in the early judicial history of the United States.[11] Consideration of the case by the United States Supreme Court and by state courts transformed it into a rule regarding American citizenship and solidified the concept of jus soli – the right by which nationality or citizenship can be recognised to any individual born in the territory of the related state – as the primary determining factor controlling the acquisition of citizenship by birth.[12]
The Supreme Court Justice Joseph P. Bradley asserted that the "rights of Englishmen" were a foundation of American law in his dissenting opinion on the Slaughter-House Cases, the first Supreme Court interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, in 1873.[b]
See also[edit]
Civil and political rights
Civil liberties in the United Kingdom
First Charter of Virginia
Natural and legal rights
Parliament in the Making
Roman citizenship
English Bill of Rights
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Compiled by Edward Coke, William Blackstone, and James Kent.
Jump up ^ In his dissenting decision, Bradley wrote:
The people of this country brought with them to its shores the rights of Englishmen, the rights which had been wrested from English sovereigns at various periods of the nation's history.... England has no written constitution, it is true, but it has an unwritten one, resting in the acknowledged, and frequently declared, privileges of Parliament and the people, to violate which in any material respect would produce a revolution in an hour. A violation of one of the fundamental principles of that constitution in the Colonies, namely, the principle that recognizes the property of the people as their own, and which, therefore, regards all taxes for the support of government as gifts of the people through their representatives, and regards taxation without representation as subversive of free government, was the origin of our own revolution.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Zuckert (2003).
Jump up ^ Tindall (1984).
Jump up ^ Swindler (1976).
^ Jump up to: a b Miller (1959).
Jump up ^ Heale (1986).
^ Jump up to: a b Blackstone, Fundamental Laws of England, the first part of Commentaries on the Laws of England, pp. 123–24. Scanned in text available at Yale Law School Libraries online. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Billias, George Athan (2011). American constitutionalism heard round the world, 1776–1989: a global perspective. New York: New York University Press. p. 54. ISBN 9780814725177.
^ Jump up to: a b Ellen Holmes Pearson. "Revising Custom, Embracing Choice: Early American Legal Scholars and the Republicanization of Common Law". In Eliga H. Gould, Peter S. Onuf. Empire And Nation: The American Revolution In The Atlantic World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 102, n. 33. ISBN 0-8018-7912-4. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Pearson (2005).
Jump up ^ Price (1997).
^ Jump up to: a b Hulsebosch (2003).
Jump up ^ Price (1997), pp. 138–39.
Citations[edit]
Aptheker, Herbert (1960). The American Revolution, 1763–1783: a history of the American people: an interpretation. International Publishers. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-7178-0005-6. Retrieved 2 August 2010. It is true that the colonists had insisted that they were seeking "the rights of Englishmen", but insisting upon this in the face of rulers who declare that colonists do not have such rights is revolutionary, though the rights themselves might not be new.
Heale, M. J. (1986). The American Revolution. Taylor & Francis. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-416-38910-4. Retrieved 2 August 2010.
Hulsebosch, Daniel J. (2003). "The Ancient Constitution and the Expanding Empire: Sir Edward Coke's British Jurisprudence". Law and History Review (21.3). Archived from the original on 29 August 2012. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
Miller, John Chester (1959). Origins of the American Revolution (2nd ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-8047-0593-6. Retrieved 2 August 2010. As long as the rights of Englishmen remained the goal, most Americans warmly supported the patriot leaders; when the rights of Americans and independence Great Britain were put forward, the colonists began to divide into hostile camps.
Pearson, Ellen Holmes (2005). "Revising Custom, Embracing Choice: Early American Legal Scholars and the Republicanization of Common Law". In Gould, Eliga H.; Onuf, Peter S. Empire And Nation: The American Revolution In The Atlantic World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 102. ISBN 0-8018-7912-4. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
Price, Polly J. (1997). "Natural Law and Birthright Citizenship in Calvin's Case (1608)". Yale Journal of Law & the Humanities. 9: 73.
Slavin, Arthur J. "Craw v. Ramsey: New Light on an Old Debate". In Baxter, Stephen Bartow. England's Rise to Greatness, 1660–1763. University of California Press. pp. 31–32. Retrieved 21 May 2012.
Swindler, William F. (May 1976). ""Rights of Englishmen" Since 1776: Some Anglo-American Notes". 124 (5). University of Pennsylvania Law Review: 1083–103. JSTOR 3311594. (subscription required)
Zuckert, Michael (2003). Greene, Jack P.; Pole, J. R., eds. A Companion to the American Revolution. Chapter 88, "Rights": Wiley–Blackwell. p. 691. ISBN 978-1-4051-1674-9. Retrieved 2 August 2010. [The American colonists' position depended] not on natural law, but on traditional notions of the rights of Englishmen, the royal charters of the separate colonies and especially on 'long standing constitutional custom'.
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Mid-ocean ridge
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Mid-oceanic ridge, including a black smoker
A mid-ocean ridge is an underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonics. It consists of various mountains linked in chains, typically having a valley known as a rift running along its spine. This type of oceanic mountain ridge is characteristic of what is known as an oceanic spreading center, which is responsible for seafloor spreading. The production of new seafloor results from mantle upwelling in response to plate spreading; this isentropic upwelling solid mantle material eventually exceeds the solidus and melts. The buoyant melt rises as magma at a linear weakness in the oceanic crust, and emerges as lava, creating new crust upon cooling. A mid-ocean ridge demarcates the boundary between two tectonic plates, and consequently is termed a divergent plate boundary.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Formation processes
3 Global system
4 History
4.1 Discovery
4.2 Impact
5 List of oceanic ridges
5.1 List of ancient oceanic ridges
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Description[edit]
Graphic shows a mid-ocean ridge, with magma rising from a chamber below, forming new ocean plate that spreads away from the ridge.
Mid-ocean ridge in Þingvellir National Park, Iceland.
Mid-ocean ridges are geologically active, with new magma constantly emerging onto the ocean floor and into the crust at and near rifts along the ridge axes. The crystallized magma forms new crust of basalt (known as MORB for mid-ocean ridge basalt) and below it, gabbro.[1] They are formed by two oceanic plates moving away from each other. Hydrothermal vents are a common feature at oceanic spreading centers.[2]
The rocks making up the crust below the seafloor are youngest along the axis of the ridge and age with increasing distance from that axis. New magma of basalt composition emerges at and near the axis because of decompression melting in the underlying Earth's mantle.[3]
The oceanic crust is made up of rocks much younger than the Earth itself. Most oceanic crust in the ocean basins is less than 200 million years old. The crust is in a constant state of "renewal" at the ocean ridges. Moving away from the mid-ocean ridge, ocean depth progressively increases; the greatest depths are in ocean trenches. As the oceanic crust moves away from the ridge axis, the peridotite in the underlying mantle cools and becomes more rigid. The crust and the relatively rigid peridotite below it make up the oceanic lithosphere.
Slow spreading ridges like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) generally have large, wide rift valleys, sometimes as wide as 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi), and very rugged terrain at the ridge crest that can have relief of up to a 1,000 m (3,300 ft). By contrast, fast spreading ridges like the East Pacific Rise (EPR) are narrow, sharp incisions surrounded by generally flat topography that slopes away from the ridge over many hundreds of miles.
The overall shape of ridges results from Pratt isostacy: close to the ridge axis there is hot, low-density mantle supporting the oceanic crust. As the oceanic plates cool, away from the ridge axes, the oceanic mantle lithosphere (the colder, denser part of the mantle that, together with the crust, comprises the oceanic plates) thickens and the density increases. Thus older seafloor is underlain by denser material and 'sits' lower. The width of the ridge is hence a function of spreading rate – slow ridges like the MAR have spread much less far than faster ridges like the EPR for the same amount of cooling and consequent bathymetric drop-off.
Formation processes[edit]
Further information: Plate tectonics
Oceanic crust is formed at an oceanic ridge, while the lithosphere is subducted back into the asthenosphere at trenches.
There are two processes, ridge-push and slab pull, thought to be responsible for the spreading seen at mid-ocean ridges, and there is some uncertainty as to which is dominant. Ridge-push occurs when the growing bulk of the ridge pushes the rest of the tectonic plate away from the ridge, often towards a subduction zone. At the subduction zone, "slab-pull" comes into effect. This is simply the weight of the tectonic plate being subducted (pulled) below the overlying plate dragging the rest of the plate along behind it. The slab pull mechanism is considered to be contributing more than the ridge push.[4]
The other process proposed to contribute to the formation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges is the "mantle conveyor" (see image). However, there have been some studies which have shown that the upper mantle (asthenosphere) is too plastic (flexible) to generate enough friction to pull the tectonic plate along. Moreover, unlike in the image above, mantle upwelling that causes magma to form beneath the ocean ridges appears to involve only its upper 400 km (250 mi), as deduced from seismic tomography and from studies of the seismic discontinuity at about 400 km (250 mi). The relatively shallow depths from which the upwelling mantle rises below ridges are more consistent with the "slab-pull" process. On the other hand, some of the world's largest tectonic plates such as the North American Plate are in motion, yet are nowhere being subducted.
The rate at which the mid-ocean ridge creates new material is known as the spreading rate, and is generally measured in mm/yr. The common subdivisions of spreading rate are fast, medium, and slow with values generally being >100 mm/yr, 100–55 mm/yr, and 55–20 mm/yr, respectively. The spreading rate of the North Atlantic Ocean is ~ 25 mm/yr, while in the Pacific region, it is 80–120 mm/yr. Ridges that spread at rates <20 mm/yr are referred to as ultraslow spreading ridges (e.g., the Gakkel Ridge in the Arctic Ocean and the Southwest Indian Ridge) and they provide a much different perspective on crustal formation than their faster spreading brethren.
The mid-ocean ridge systems form new oceanic crust. As crystallized basalt extruded at a ridge axis cools below Curie points of appropriate iron-titanium oxides, magnetic field directions parallel to the Earth's magnetic field are recorded in those oxides. The orientations of the field in the oceanic crust preserve a record of directions of the Earth's magnetic field with time. Because the field has reversed directions at irregular intervals throughout its history, the pattern of geomagnetic reversals in the ocean crust can be used as an indicator of age.[5] Likewise, the pattern of reversals together with age measurements of the crust is used to help establish the history of the Earth's magnetic field.
Global system[edit]
World Distribution of Mid-Oceanic Ridges; USGS
The mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form the Ocean Ridge, a single global mid-oceanic ridge system that is part of every ocean, making it the longest mountain range in the world. The continuous mountain range is 65,000 km (40,400 mi) long (several times longer than the Andes, the longest continental mountain range), and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km (49,700 mi) long.[6]
History[edit]
Discovery[edit]
Main article: Plate tectonics § Historical context
Mid-ocean ridges are generally submerged deep in the ocean. It was not until the 1950s, when the ocean floor was surveyed in detail, that their full extent became known.
The Vema, a ship of the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, traversed the Atlantic Ocean, recording data about the ocean floor from the ocean surface. A team led by Marie Tharp and Bruce Heezen analyzed the data and concluded that there was an enormous mountain chain running up the middle. Scientists named it the "Mid-Atlantic Ridge".
At first, the ridge was thought to be a phenomenon specific to the Atlantic Ocean. However, as surveys of the ocean floor continued around the world, it was discovered that every ocean contains parts of the mid-ocean ridge system. Although the ridge system runs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, the ridge is located away from the center of other oceans.
Impact[edit]
Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift in 1912. He stated: "the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the floor of the Atlantic, as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open and making space for fresh, relatively fluid and hot sima [rising] from depth."[7] However, Wegener did not pursue this observation in his later works and his theory was dismissed by geologists because there was no mechanism to explain how continents could plow through ocean crust, and the theory became largely forgotten.
Following the discovery of the worldwide extent of the mid-ocean ridge in the 1950s, geologists faced a new task: explaining how such an enormous geological structure could have formed. In the 1960s, geologists discovered and began to propose mechanisms for seafloor spreading. The discovery of Mid-ocean ridges and the process of seafloor spreading allowed for Wegner's theory to be expanded so that it included the movement of oceanic crust as well as the continents.[8] Plate tectonics was a suitable explanation for seafloor spreading, and the acceptance of plate tectonics by the majority of geologists resulted in a major paradigm shift in geological thinking.
It is estimated that 20 volcanic eruptions occur each year along earth's mid-ocean ridges and that every year 2.5 km2 (0.97 sq mi) of new seafloor is formed by this process. With a crustal thickness of 1 to 2 km (0.62 to 1.24 mi), this amounts to about 4 km3 (0.96 cu mi) of new ocean crust formed every year.[citation needed]
Oceanic ridge and deep sea vent chemistry
Age of oceanic crust. The red is most recent, and blue is the oldest.
Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the plate tectonics theory
Seafloor magnetic striping
A demonstration of magnetic striping
List of oceanic ridges[edit]
Main category: Oceanic ridges
Aden Ridge
Cocos Ridge
Explorer Ridge
Gorda Ridge
Juan de Fuca Ridge
American-Antarctic Ridge
Chile Rise
East Pacific Rise
East Scotia Ridge
Gakkel Ridge (Mid-Arctic Ridge)
Nazca Ridge
Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
Central Indian Ridge
Carlsberg Ridge
Southeast Indian Ridge
Southwest Indian Ridge
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Kolbeinsey Ridge (North of Iceland)
Mohns Ridge
Knipovich Ridge (between Greenland and Spitsbergen)
Reykjanes Ridge (South of Iceland)
List of ancient oceanic ridges[edit]
Aegir Ridge
Alpha Ridge
Kula-Farallon Ridge
Pacific-Farallon Ridge
Pacific-Kula Ridge
Phoenix Ridge
See also[edit]
Afar Triangle
Geography of Iceland
List of Oceanic Landforms
Petrological Database of the Ocean Floor
Slab window
Submarine volcano
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Michael, Peter; Cheadle, Michael (February 20, 2009). "Making a Crust". Science. 323: 1017–18. doi:10.1126/science.1169556.
Jump up ^ Martin, William; Baross, John; Kelley, Deborah; Russell, Michael J. (2008-11-01). "Hydrothermal vents and the origin of life". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 6 (11): 805–814. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1991. ISSN 1740-1526.
Jump up ^ Marjorie Wilson (1993). Igneous petrogenesis. London: Chapman & Hall. ISBN 978-0-412-53310-5.
Jump up ^ Harff, Jan; Meschede, Martin; Petersen, Sven; Thiede, Jörn. Driving Forces: Slab Pull, Ridge Push (2014 ed.). Springer Netherlands. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0_105-1. ISBN 978-94-007-6644-0.
Jump up ^ Puetz, Stephen; et al. (January 2017). "Quantifying the evolution of the continental and oceanic crust". Earth-Science Reviews. 164: 63–83. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.10.011.
Jump up ^ "What is the longest mountain range on earth?". Ocean Facts. NOAA. Retrieved 17 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Jacoby, W. R. (January 1981). "Modern concepts of earth dynamics anticipated by Alfred Wegener in 1912". Geology. 9: 25–27. Bibcode:1981Geo.....9...25J. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<25:MCOEDA>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Society, National Geographic (2015-06-08). "seafloor spreading". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
External links[edit]
An explanation of relevant tectonic forces
Mid-Ocenic ridge, like baseball seam (The Dynamic Earth, USGS)
Ridge2000, Studying Mid-Ocean Ridges from Mantle to Microbe
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text:
Estimation of signal parameters via rotational invariance techniques
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject. Please help improve the article with a good introductory style. (October 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In estimation theory, estimation of signal parameters via rotational invariant techniques (ESPRIT) is a technique to determine parameters of a mixture of sinusoids in a background noise.
See also[edit]
Independent component analysis
References[edit]
Paulraj, A.; Roy, R.; Kailath, T. (1985), "Estimation Of Signal Parameters Via Rotational Invariance Techniques - Esprit", Nineteenth Asilomar Conference on Circuits, Systems and Computers, pp. 83–89, ISBN 978-0-8186-0729-5 .
Roy, R.; Kailath, T. (1989). "Esprit - Estimation Of Signal Parameters Via Rotational Invariance Techniques" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing. 37 (7): 984–995. .
Ibrahim, A. M.; Marei, M. I.; Mekhamer, S. F.; Mansour, M. M. (2011). "An Artificial Neural Network Based Protection Approach Using Total Least Square Estimation of Signal Parameters via the Rotational Invariance Technique for Flexible AC Transmission System Compensated Transmission Lines". Electric Power Components and Systems. 39 (1): 64–79. doi:10.1080/15325008.2010.513363.

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