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Developing country
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A developing country, also called a less developed country or an underdeveloped country, is a nation with a less developed industrial base and a low Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries.[1] However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreement on which countries fit this category.[2] A nation's GDP per capita compared with other nations can also be a reference point.
The term "developing" describes a currently observed situation and not a changing dynamic or expected direction of progress. Since the late 1990s developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than developed countries.[3]
There is criticism for using the term developing country. The term implies inferiority of a developing country or undeveloped country compared with a developed country, which many countries dislike. It assumes a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of economic development which a few countries, such as Cuba and Bhutan, choose not to follow.[4] Alternative measurements such as gross national happiness have been suggested as important indicators. Developing countries include in decreasing order of economic growth or size of the capital market: Newly industrialized countries, emerging markets, frontier markets, least developed countries. Therefore, the least developed countries are the poorest of the developing countries.
Developing countries tend to have some characteristics in common. For example with regards to health risks, they commonly have: low levels of access to safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene; high levels of pollution (e.g. air pollution, indoor smoke (indoor air pollution), water pollution); high proportion of people with tropical and infectious diseases (neglected tropical diseases); high number of road traffic accidents. Often there is also wide-spread poverty, low education levels, corruption at all government levels and a lack of good governance.
The Sustainable Development Goals were set up to help overcome many of these problems. Effects of global warming (climate change) are expected to impact developing countries more than wealthier countries. Development aid or development cooperation is financial aid given by governments and other agencies to support the economic, environmental, social, and political development of developing countries.
Contents
[hide]
1 Definitions
1.1 Measure and concept of development
1.2 Terms used to classify countries into levels of development
1.3 Previously used terms
1.3.1 Third World
2 Criticism
2.1 Alternative proposals
3 Common challenges
3.1 Urban slums
3.2 Violence against women
3.3 Public health problems
3.4 Low levels of access to water, sanitation, hygiene (WASH)
3.5 Others
4 Factors stimulating growth
5 Country lists
5.1 Developing countries according to International Monetary Fund
5.2 Countries that are graduated developed economies
5.3 BRIC countries
6 See also
7 References
8 Cited sources
Definitions[edit]
Developing economies according to the IMF
Developing economies out of scope of the IMF
Graduated to developed economy
Newly industrialized countries
(As of 2014[update])[citation needed]
Least Developed Countries
Graduated to developing economies
Various terms are used for countries not considered a developed country. Terms used include less developed country or less economically developed country, and for the more extreme, least developed country or least economically developed country.
Kofi Annan, former Secretary General of the United Nations, defined a developed country as "one that allows all its citizens to enjoy a free and healthy life in a safe environment".[5]
According to the United Nations Statistics Division:
There is no established convention for the designation of "developed" and "developing" countries or areas in the United Nations system.[6][2]
And it notes that:
The designations "developed" and "developing" are intended for statistical convenience and do not necessarily express a judgement about the stage reached by a particular country or area in the development process.[7][8]
The UN also notes,
In common practice, Japan in Asia, Canada and the United States in northern America, Australia and New Zealand in Oceania and western Europe are considered "developed" regions or areas. In international trade statistics the Southern African Customs Union is also treated as a developed region and Israel as a developed country. The countries emerging from the former Yugoslavia are generally treated as developing countries and countries of Central Europe and of the Commonwealth of Independent States (code 172) in Europe are not included under either developed.[2]
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) did not (before 2004) classify as either developed or developing the following countries: all countries of Central and Eastern Europe (including Central European countries that still belonged to the "Eastern Europe Group" in the UN institutions); the former Soviet Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia. Instead, they were referred to as "countries in transition".
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers "(1) per capita income level, (2) export diversification—so oil exporters that have high per capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70% of its exports are oil, and (3) degree of integration into the global financial system"[9]
In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators, the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between “developed” and “developing” countries in the presentation of its data. Since then, the World Bank considers the two-category distinction of "developed" and "developing" outdated [10].
Instead, The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups, based on GNI percapita, re-set each year on July 1. In 2016, the four categories in US dollars were:[10]
Low income countries: $1,025 or less.
Lower middle income countries: $1,026 to $4,035.
Upper middle income countries: $4,036 to $12,236.
High income countries: $12,237 and above
Along with the current level of development, countries can also be classified by how much their level of development has changed over a specific period of time.[11]
Measure and concept of development[edit]
Least developed economies according to ECOSOC
Least developed economies out of scope of the ECOSOC
Graduated to developing economy

[when?][citation needed]
Newly industrialized countries as of 2013[update].[citation needed]
The development of a country is measured with statistical indexes such as income per capita (per person), (gross domestic product) per capita, life expectancy, the rate of literacy, freedom index and others. The UN has developed the Human Development Index (HDI), a compound indicator of some above statistics, to gauge the level of human development for countries where data is available. The UN had set Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) from a blueprint developed by all of the world's countries and leading development institutions, in order to evaluate growth.[12] The MDGs ended in 2015 and a follow-on process are the Sustainable Development Goals.
Developing countries are, in general, countries that have not achieved a significant degree of industrialization relative to their populations, and have, in most cases, a medium to low standard of living. There is a strong association between low income and high population growth.
The terms utilized when discussing developing countries refer to the intent and to the constructs of those who utilize these terms. Other terms sometimes used are less developed countries (LDCs), least economically developed countries (LEDCs), "underdeveloped nations" or Third World nations, and "non-industrialized nations". Conversely, developed countries, most economically developed countries (MEDCs), First World nations and "industrialized nations" are the opposite end of the spectrum.
To moderate the euphemistic aspect of the word developing, international organizations have started to use the term less economically developed country (LEDCs) for the poorest nations—which can, in no sense, be regarded as developing. That is, LEDCs are the poorest subset of LDCs. This may moderate against a belief that the standard of living across the entire developing world is the same.
The concept of the developing nation is found, under one term or another, in numerous theoretical systems having diverse orientations — for example, theories of decolonization, liberation theology, Marxism, anti-imperialism, and political economy.
Another important indicator is the sectoral changes that have occurred since the stage of development of the country. On an average, countries with a 50% contribution from the Secondary sector of Manufacturing have grown substantially. Similarly countries with a tertiary Sector stronghold also see greater rate of Economic Development.
Some researchers in development economics, such as Theodore Schultz who won a Nobel Prize in 1979, have found that literate farmers in developing countries are more productive than illiterate farmers. They therefore recommend investing in human capital (education, health, etc.) as an effective tool for economic development. Others, such as Mohammed Tamim, believe that economic development is measurable in educational level from primary school to the university. They noticed that wherever the educational level is raised, the level of development is also raised. They conclude that the percentage of the schooled population is proportional to the economic growth rate and inversely proportional in the demographic growth rate. The Take-Off of Walt Whitman Rostow can start in a country if its population is completely schooled. It is therefore necessary for the organization of a worldwide education program, itself conditioned by another worldwide program of birth control and the establishment of a worldwide organization for the implementation of this development strategy.[13]
Terms used to classify countries into levels of development[edit]
Countries described as Advanced Economies by the IMF in 2016.[14]
There are several terms used to classify countries into rough levels of development. Classification of any given country differs across sources, and sometimes these classifications or the specific terminology used is considered disparaging. Use of the term "market" instead of "country" usually indicates specific focus on the characteristics of the countries' capital markets as opposed to the overall economy.
Developed countries and developed markets
Developing countries include in decreasing order of economic growth or size of the capital market:
Newly industrialized countries[15][16][17][18]
Emerging markets
Frontier markets
Least developed countries
Developing countries can also be categorized by geography:
Small Island Developing States
Landlocked Developing Countries
Other classifications include:
Heavily indebted poor countries, a definition by a program of the IMF and World Bank
Transition economy, moving from a centrally planned to market-driven economy
Multi-dimensional clustering system: with the understanding that different countries have different development priorities and levels of access to resources and institutional capacities[19] and to offer a more nuanced understanding of developing countries and their characteristics, scholars have categorised them into five distinct groups based on factors such as levels of poverty and inequality, productivity and innovation, political constraints and dependence on external flows.[20][21]
Previously used terms[edit]
Third World[edit]
Main article: Third World
Over the past few decades since the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, the term Third World has been used interchangeably with developing countries, but the concept has become outdated in recent years as it no longer represents the current political or economic state of the world. The three-world model arose during the Cold War to define countries aligned with NATO (the First World), the Communist Bloc (the Second World, although this term was less used), or neither (the Third World).
Criticism[edit]
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There is some criticism of the use of the term "developing country". The term implies inferiority of a "developing country" or "undeveloped country" compared with a "developed country", which many countries dislike. It is criticized for being too positive and too negative.
It assumes a desire to "develop" along the traditional Western model of economic development, which a few countries, such as Cuba and Bhutan, choose not to follow.[4]
The concept of "development" rests on the assumption that Modernization theory holds. Modernization theory, as the dominant development theory of the late 19th and 20th centuries, has largely contributed to the definition of "development". In short, it argues that there is only one way to achieve "modernity" and "development" - that of "Western" nation-states. Largely challenged today, modernization theory still holds an important role in defining "development".
The term "developing" implies mobility and does not acknowledge that development may be in decline or static in some countries, particularly in southern African states worst affected by HIV/AIDS. In such cases, the term "developing country" may be considered a euphemism. The term implies homogeneity between such countries, which vary widely. The term also implies homogeneity within such countries when wealth (and health) of the most and least affluent groups varies widely. Similarly, the term "developed country" incorrectly implies a lack of continuing economic development/growth in more-developed countries.
In general, development entails a modern infrastructure (both physical and institutional), and a move away from low value added sectors such as agriculture and natural resource extraction. Developed countries, in comparison, usually have economic systems based on continuous, self-sustaining economic growth in the tertiary sector of the economy and quaternary sector of the economy and high material standards of living. However, there are notable exceptions, as some countries considered developed have a significant component of primary industries in their national economies, e.g., Norway, Canada, Australia. The USA and Western Europe have a very important agricultural sector, and are major players in international agricultural markets. Also, natural resource extraction can be a very profitable industry (high value added), e.g., oil extraction.
An alternative measurement that has been suggested is that of gross national happiness, measuring the actual satisfaction of people as opposed to how fiscally wealthy a country is.
During the late 20th century, and with the advance of World-systems theory, the notions of "developed country" and "developing country" have started to slowly be replaced by the less-controversial, trade-based, notions of "core country", "semi-periphery country" and "periphery country".
Other authors such as Walt Whitman Rostow suggest that developing countries are in transition from traditional lifestyles to the modern lifestyles which began in the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Alternative proposals[edit]
The Global South is a term that has been emerging.[22] It can also include poorer "southern" regions of wealthy "northern" countries.[23] The Global South refers to these countries' "interconnected histories of colonialism, neo-imperialism, and differential economic and social change through which large inequalities in living standards, life expectancy, and access to resources are maintained".[24]
Common challenges[edit]
This section is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this section to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (September 2016)
Development economics
Economies by region
Africa
North America
South America
Asia
Europe
Oceania
Economic growth theories
Harrod–Domar model
neoclassical growth model
Endogenous growth theory
Unified growth theory
balanced growth theory
Fields and subfields
Economic inequality
Poverty
Undernutrition
land
labour
Human Capital
Education
Property Rights
Microfinance
Decentralization
Environmental determinism
Lists
Journals
Publications
Categories
Topics
Economists
v
t
e
Most developing countries have these criteria in common:[25][26]
High levels of poverty – measured based on GNI per capita averaged over three years. For example if the GNI per capita is less than US $1,025 (as of 2018) the country is regarded as a least developed country.[26]
Human resource weakness (based on indicators of nutrition, health, education and adult literacy; for example low literacy levels).
Economic vulnerability (based on instability of agricultural production, instability of exports of goods and services, economic importance of non-traditional activities, merchandise export concentration, handicap of economic smallness, and the percentage of population displaced by natural disasters).
Urban slums[edit]
Main article: Slum
According to UN-Habitat, around 33% of the urban population in the developing world in 2012, or about 863 million people, lived in slums.[27] The proportion of urban population living in slums was highest in Sub-Saharan Africa (61.7%), followed by South Asia (35%), Southeast Asia (31%), East Asia (28.2%), West Asia (24.6%), Oceania (24.1%), Latin America and the Caribbean (23.5%), and North Africa (13.3%).[27]
The UN-Habitat reports that 43% of urban population in developing countries and 78% of those in the least developed countries are slum dwellers.[28]
Slums form and grow in different parts of the world for many different reasons. Causes include rapid rural-to-urban migration, economic stagnation and depression, high unemployment, poverty, informal economy, forced or manipulated ghettoization, poor planning, politics, natural disasters and social conflicts.[29][30][31]
In some cities, especially in countries in Southern Asia and sub-Saharan, slums are not just marginalized neighborhoods holding a small population; slums are widespread, and are home to a large part of urban population. These are sometimes called "slum cities".[32]
Violence against women[edit]
Main article: Violence against women
Several forms of violence against women are more prevalent in developing countries than in other parts of the world. For example, dowry violence and bride burning is associated with India, Bangladesh and Nepal. Acid throwing is also associated with these countries, as well as in Southeast Asia, including Cambodia. Honor killing is associated with the Middle East and South Asia. Marriage by abduction is found in Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. Abuse related to payment of bride price (such as violence, trafficking and forced marriage) is linked to parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania.[33][34]
Female genital mutilation is another form of violence against women which is still occurring in many developing countries. It is found mostly in Africa, and to a lesser extent in the Middle East and some other parts of Asia. Develping countries with the highest rate of women who have been cut are Somalia (with 98 percent of women affected), Guinea (96 percent), Djibouti (93 percent), Egypt (91 percent), Eritrea (89 percent), Mali (89 percent), Sierra Leone (88 percent), Sudan (88 percent), Gambia (76 percent), Burkina Faso (76 percent), and Ethiopia (74 percent).[35] Due to globalization and immigration, FGM is spreading beyond the borders of Africa and Middle East, to countries such as Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, New Zealand, the U.S., and UK.[36]
The Istanbul Convention prohibits female genital mutilation (Article 38).[37] As of 2016, FGM has been legally banned in many African countries.[38]
Public health problems[edit]
People in developing countries usually have lower a life expectancy than people in developed countries. The following list shows the most significant environmentally-related causes or conditions, as well as certain diseases with a strong environmental component:[39]
Illness/Disease (malaria, tuberculosis, AIDS, etc.): Illness imposes high and regressive cost burdens on families in developing countries.[40]
Tropical and infectious diseases (neglected tropical diseases)
Malnutrition in children and stunted growth of children: More than 200 million children under five years of age in developing countries do not reach their developmental potential.[41]
Unsafe drinking water, poor sanitation and hygiene
Pollution (e.g. Air pollution, indoor smoke (indoor air pollution), water pollution)
Road traffic accidents
Unintentional poisoning
Non communicable diseases and weak healthcare systems.
Low levels of access to water, sanitation, hygiene (WASH)[edit]
Main article: WASH
Access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services is at very low levels in many developing countries. In 2015 the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that "1 in 3 people, or 2.4 billion, are still without sanitation facilities" while 663 million people still lack access to safe and clean drinking water.[42][43] The estimate in 2017 by JMP states that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation.[44] The majority of these people live in developing countries.
About 892 million people, or 12 percent of the global population, practiced open defecation instead of using toilets in 2016.[44] Seventy-six percent (678 million) of the 892 million people practicing open defecation in the world live in just seven countries. India is the country with the highest number of people practicing open defecation, around 525 million people.[44] Further countries with a high number of people openly defecating are Nigeria (47 million), followed by Indonesia (31 million), Ethiopia (27 million), Pakistan (23 million),[45] Niger (14 million) and Sudan (11 million).[44][46]
Sustainable Development Goal 6 is one of 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the UN in 2015. It calls for clean water and sanitation for all people. This is particularly relevant for people in developing countries.
Others[edit]
Over the last few decades, global population growth has largely been focused in developing countries (which often have higher birth rates (higher fertility rate) than developed countries). As populations expand in poorer countries, rural people are moving to cities in an extensive urban migration that is resulting in the creation of slums.[47]
Migration related to climate change is likely to be predominantly from rural areas in developing countries to towns and cities.[48]:407[49] In the short term climate stress is likely to add incrementally to existing migration patterns rather than generating entirely new flows of people.[49]:110
Increased and intensified industrial and agricultural production and emission of toxic chemicals directly into the soil, air, and water.
Unsustainable use of energy resources.
Climate change and global warming-related health impacts leading to the loss of biodiversity and affecting the ecosystem.
High dependency on natural resources for livelihood, leading to unsustainable exploitation or depletion of those resources
Child Marriage
Political instability [50]
Political corruption[51]
Factors stimulating growth[edit]
Human Capital [52][50][further explanation needed]
Trade Policy: Countries with more restrictive policies have not grown as fast as countries with open and less distorted trade policies.[50][53]
Investment: Investment has a positive effect on growth.[50]
Education [54]

Country lists[edit]
Developing countries according to International Monetary Fund[edit]
The following are considered developing economies according to the International Monetary Fund's World Economic Outlook Report, April 2015.[55][56]
Afghanistan
Albania
Algeria
Angola
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belize
Benin
Bhutan
Bolivia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana
Brazil
Brunei
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cambodia
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
China
Colombia
Comoros
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Republic of the Congo
Djibouti
Dominica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Fiji
Gabon
The Gambia
Georgia
Ghana
Grenada
Guatemala
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Ivory Coast
Jamaica
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati
Kosovo
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Macedonia
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Marshall Islands
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mexico
Federated States of Micronesia
Moldova
Mongolia
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia
Nepal
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Oman
Pakistan
Palau
Panama
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Rwanda
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Samoa
São Tomé and Príncipe
Senegal
Serbia
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Solomon Islands
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Sri Lanka
Sudan
Suriname
Swaziland
Syria
Tajikistan
Tanzania
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Togo
Tonga
Trinidad and Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Tuvalu
Uganda
Ukraine
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Venezuela
Vietnam
Yemen
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Countries not listed by IMF
Cuba
Nauru
North Korea
Countries that are graduated developed economies[edit]
The following, including the Four Asian Tigers and new Eurozone European countries, were considered developing countries until the '90s, and are now listed as advanced economies (developed countries) by the IMF. Time in brackets is the time to be listed as advanced economies.
Hong Kong (since 1997)[57]
Israel (since 1997)[57]
Singapore (since 1997)[57]
South Korea (since 1997)[57]
Taiwan (since 1997)[57]
Cyprus (since 2001)[58]
Slovenia (since 2007)[59]
Malta (since 2008)[60]
Czech Republic (since 2009,[61] since 2006 by World Bank)[62]
Slovakia (since 2009)[61]
Estonia (since 2011)[63]
Latvia (since 2014)[64]
Lithuania (since 2015)[65]
Three economies lack data before being listed as advanced economies. Because of the lack of data, it is difficult to judge whether they are advanced economies or developing economies before being listed as advanced economies.
San Marino (since 2012)[66]
Puerto Rico (since 2016)[67]
Macau (since 2016)[67]
BRIC countries[edit]
Four countries belong to the "emerging markets" groups and are together called the BRIC countries: Brazil, Russia, India and China.
See also[edit]
Colonialism
Dependency Theory
Financial deepening
Fourth world
List of countries by wealth per adult
Globalization
Imperialism
Multinational corporation
National wealth
Neo Colonialism
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Jump up ^ "WHO | Lack of sanitation for 2.4 billion people is undermining health improvements". www.who.int. Retrieved 2017-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b c d WHO and UNICEF (2017) Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 2017
Jump up ^ "UNICEF: Without toilets, childhood is even riskier due to malnutrition". UNICEF. Retrieved 22 August 2017. The fact remains that in Pakistan, 25 million people (or 13 percent of the population) practice open defecation.
Jump up ^ "Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene - 2017". www.washdata.org. World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Retrieved 26 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Westra, Richard (2011). "Renewing Socialist Development in the Third World", Journal of Contemporary Asia, 41(4): 519-543.
Jump up ^ Scott; et al., "Chapter 12: Human settlements in a changing climate: impacts and adaptation", Sec. 12.3.1 Population Migration Missing or empty |title= (help), pp. 406–407, in IPCC SAR WG2 1996.
^ Jump up to: a b The World Bank, "Part One: Chapter 2: Reducing Human Vulnerability: Helping People Help Themselves" (PDF), Managing social risks: Empower communities to protect themselves , p. 109, WDR 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Edwards, S. "Trade Orientation, Distortions and Growth In Developing Countries." (n.d.): n. pag. 1-37
Jump up ^ Political factors that affect development | Make Wealth History
Jump up ^ Schultz, Theodore W. 1961. "Investment in human capital." American Economic Review 51, no. 1 (March): 1-17.
Jump up ^ Harrison, Ann. "Openness and Growth: A Time-series, Cross-country Analysis for Developing Countries." Journal of Development Economics 48.2 (1996): 419-47. Web.
Jump up ^ Verspoor, Adriaan. "Pathways to Change: Improving the Quality of Education in Developing Countries. World Bank Discussion Papers 53." (n.d.):
Jump up ^ "World Economic Outlook, April 2015, pp.150-153" (PDF). Retrieved 2015-06-26.
Jump up ^ "World Economic Outlook, Database—WEO Groups and Aggregates Information, April 2015". Retrieved 2015-06-26.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "IMF Advanced Economies List. World Economic Outlook, May 1998, p. 134" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-01-15.
Jump up ^ "World Economic Outlook, April 2001, p.157" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-01-15.
Jump up ^ "World Economic Outlook, April 2007, p.204" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-01-15.
Jump up ^ "World Economic Outlook, April 2008, p.236" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-01-15.
^ Jump up to: a b "World Economic Outlook, April 2009, p.184" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-01-15.
Jump up ^ Velinger, Jan (28 February 2006). "World Bank Marks Czech Republic's Graduation to 'Developed' Status". Radio Prague. Retrieved 22 January 2007.
Jump up ^ "World Economic Outlook, April 2011, p.172" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-01-15.
Jump up ^ "World Economic Outlook, April 2014, p.160" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-05-21.
Jump up ^ "World Economic Outlook, April 2015, p.48" (PDF). Retrieved 2015-04-11.
Jump up ^ "World Economic Outlook, October 2012, p.180" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-08-04.
^ Jump up to: a b "World Economic Outlook, April 2016, p.148" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-06-25.
Cited sources[edit]
IPCC SAR WG2 (1996), Watson, R.T.; Zinyowera, M.C.; Moss, R.H., eds., Climate Change 1995: Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change: Scientific-Technical Analyses, Contribution of Working Group II to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-56431-X, archived from the original on 2015-09-24 (pb: 0-521-56437-9) pdf.
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