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Roman art
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Fresco from the Villa of the Mysteries. Pompeii, 80 BC
Iphigenia in Aulis Wall painting from north wall of the House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii
Roman art refers to the visual arts made in Ancient Rome and in the territories of the Roman Empire. Roman art includes architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic work. Luxury objects in metal-work, gem engraving, ivory carvings, and glass are sometimes considered in modern terms to be minor forms of Roman art,[1] although this would not necessarily have been the case for contemporaries. Sculpture was perhaps considered as the highest form of art by Romans, but figure painting was also very highly regarded. The two forms have had very contrasting rates of survival, with a very large body of sculpture surviving from about the 1st century BC on wards, though very little from before, but very little painting at all remains, and probably nothing that a contemporary would have considered to be of the highest quality.
Ancient Roman pottery was not a luxury product, but a vast production of "fine wares" in terra sigillata were decorated with reliefs that reflected the latest taste, and provided a large group in society with stylish objects at what was evidently an affordable price. Roman coins were an important means of propaganda, and have survived in enormous numbers. Other perishable forms of art have not survived at all.
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
2 Painting
2.1 Variety of subjects
2.2 Landscape and vistas
2.3 Still life
2.4 Portraits
2.5 Gold glass
2.6 Genre scenes
2.7 Triumphal paintings
3 Sculpture
3.1 Narrative reliefs
4 Minor arts
5 Coins and medals
6 Architecture
7 See also
8 Notes and references
9 Sources
10 External links
Introduction[edit]
Ancient art history
Middle East
Mesopotamia
Ancient Egypt
Persia
Asia
India
China
Japan
Korea
Cambodia
European prehistory
Cycladic
Nuragic
Etruscan
Celtic
Scythia
Classical art
Ancient Greece
Hellenistic
Rome
v
t
e
Left image: A Roman fresco from Pompeii showing a Maenad in silk dress, 1st century AD
Right image: A fresco of a young man from the Villa di Arianna, Stabiae, 1st century AD.
While the traditional view of the ancient Roman artists is that they often borrowed from, and copied Greek precedents (much of the Greek sculptures known today are in the form of Roman marble copies), more recent analysis has indicated that Roman art is a highly creative pastiche relying heavily on Greek models but also encompassing Etruscan, native Italic, and even Egyptian visual culture. Stylistic eclecticism and practical application are the hallmarks of much Roman art.
Pliny, Ancient Rome’s most important historian concerning the arts, recorded that nearly all the forms of art – sculpture, landscape, portrait painting, even genre painting – were advanced in Greek times, and in some cases, more advanced than in Rome. Though very little remains of Greek wall art and portraiture, certainly Greek sculpture and vase painting bears this out. These forms were not likely surpassed by Roman artists in fineness of design or execution. As another example of the lost "Golden Age", he singled out Peiraikos, "whose artistry is surpassed by only a very few ... He painted barbershops and shoemakers’ stalls, donkeys, vegetables, and such, and for that reason came to be called the 'painter of vulgar subjects'; yet these works are altogether delightful, and they were sold at higher prices than the greatest [paintings] of many other artists.”[2] The adjective "vulgar" is used here in its original meaning, which means "common".
The Greek antecedents of Roman art were legendary. In the mid-5th century BC, the most famous Greek artists were Polygnotos, noted for his wall murals, and Apollodoros, the originator of chiaroscuro. The development of realistic technique is credited to Zeuxis and Parrhasius, who according to ancient Greek legend, are said to have once competed in a bravura display of their talents, history’s earliest descriptions of trompe l’oeil painting.[3] In sculpture, Skopas, Praxiteles, Phidias, and Lysippos were the foremost sculptors. It appears that Roman artists had much Ancient Greek art to copy from, as trade in art was brisk throughout the empire, and much of the Greek artistic heritage found its way into Roman art through books and teaching. Ancient Greek treatises on the arts are known to have existed in Roman times though are now lost.[4] Many Roman artists came from Greek colonies and provinces...[5]
Preparation of an animal sacrifice; marble, fragment of an architectural relief, first quarter of the 2nd century CE; from Rome, Italy
The high number of Roman copies of Greek art also speaks of the esteem Roman artists had for Greek art, and perhaps of its rarer and higher quality.[5] Many of the art forms and methods used by the Romans – such as high and low relief, free-standing sculpture, bronze casting, vase art, mosaic, cameo, coin art, fine jewelry and metalwork, funerary sculpture, perspective drawing, caricature, genre and portrait painting, landscape painting, architectural sculpture, and trompe l’oeil painting – all were developed or refined by Ancient Greek artists.[6] One exception is the Roman bust, which did not include the shoulders. The traditional head-and-shoulders bust may have been an Etruscan or early Roman form.[7] Virtually every artistic technique and method used by Renaissance artists 1,900 year later, had been demonstrated by Ancient Greek artists, with the notable exceptions of oil colors and mathematically accurate perspective.[8] Where Greek artists were highly revered in their society, most Roman artists were anonymous and considered tradesmen. There is no recording, as in Ancient Greece, of the great masters of Roman art, and practically no signed works. Where Greeks worshiped the aesthetic qualities of great art and wrote extensively on artistic theory, Roman art was more decorative and indicative of status and wealth, and apparently not the subject of scholars or philosophers.[9]
Owing in part to the fact that the Roman cities were far larger than the Greek city-states in power and population, and generally less provincial, art in Ancient Rome took on a wider, and sometimes more utilitarian, purpose. Roman culture assimilated many cultures and was for the most part tolerant of the ways of conquered peoples.[5] Roman art was commissioned, displayed, and owned in far greater quantities, and adapted to more uses than in Greek times. Wealthy Romans were more materialistic; they decorated their walls with art, their home with decorative objects, and themselves with fine jewelry.
In the Christian era of the late Empire, from 350 to 500 CE, wall painting, mosaic ceiling and floor work, and funerary sculpture thrived, while full-sized sculpture in the round and panel painting died out, most likely for religious reasons.[10] When Constantine moved the capital of the empire to Byzantium (renamed Constantinople), Roman art incorporated Eastern influences to produce the Byzantine style of the late empire. When Rome was sacked in the 5th century, artisans moved to and found work in the Eastern capital. The Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople employed nearly 10,000 workmen and artisans, in a final burst of Roman art under Emperor Justinian (527–565 CE), who also ordered the creation of the famous mosaics of Ravenna.[11]
Painting[edit]
Main articles: Pompeian Styles and Roman Wall Painting (200 BC-79 AD)
Pompeian painter with painted statue and framed painting Pompeii
Heracles and Omphale, Roman fresco Pompeian Fourth Style (45-79 AD), Naples National Archaeological Museum, Italy
Of the vast body of Roman painting we now have only a very few pockets of survivals, with many documented types not surviving at all, or doing so only from the very end of the period. The best known and most important pocket is the wall paintings from Pompeii, Herculaneum and other sites nearby, which show how residents of a wealthy seaside resort decorated their walls in the century or so before the fatal eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. A succession of dated styles have been defined and analysed by modern art historians beginning with August Mau, showing increasing elaboration and sophistication.
Starting in the 3rd century CE and finishing by about 400 we have a large body of paintings from the Catacombs of Rome, by no means all Christian, showing the later continuation of the domestic decorative tradition in a version adapted - probably not greatly adapted - for use in burial chambers, in what was probably a rather humbler social milieu than the largest houses in Pompeii. Much of Nero's palace in Rome, the Domus Aurea, survived as grottos and gives us examples which we can be sure represent the very finest quality of wall-painting in its style, and which may well have represented significant innovation in style. There are a number of other parts of painted rooms surviving from Rome and elsewhere, which somewhat help to fill in the gaps of our knowledge of wall-painting. From Roman Egypt there are a large number of what are known as Fayum mummy portraits, bust portraits on wood added to the outside of mummies by a Romanized middle-class; despite their very distinct local character they are probably broadly representative of Roman style in painted portraits, which are otherwise entirely lost.
Nothing remains of the Greek paintings imported to Rome during the 4th and 5th centuries, or of the painting on wood done in Italy during that period.[4] In sum, the range of samples is confined to only about 200 years out of the about 900 years of Roman history,[12] and of provincial and decorative painting. Most of this wall painting was done using the secco (“dry”) method, but some fresco paintings also existed in Roman times. There is evidence from mosaics and a few inscriptions that some Roman paintings were adaptations or copies of earlier Greek works.[12] However, adding to the confusion is the fact that inscriptions may be recording the names of immigrant Greek artists from Roman times, not from Ancient Greek originals that were copied.[8] The Romans entirely lacked a tradition of figurative vase-painting comparable to that of the Ancient Greeks, which the Etruscans had emulated.
Variety of subjects[edit]
The Wedding of Zephyrus and Chloris (54–68 AD, Pompeian Fourth Style) within painted architectural panels from the Casa del Naviglio
Roman painting provides a wide variety of themes: animals, still life, scenes from everyday life, portraits, and some mythological subjects. During the Hellenistic period, it evoked the pleasures of the countryside and represented scenes of shepherds, herds, rustic temples, rural mountainous landscapes and country houses.[8] Erotic scenes are also relatively common. In the late empire, after 200AD, early Christian themes mixed with pagan imagery survive on catacomb walls.[13]
Landscape and vistas[edit]
Boscotrecase, Pompeii. Third style
The main innovation of Roman painting compared to Greek art was the development of landscapes, in particular incorporating techniques of perspective, though true mathematical perspective developed 1,500 years later. Surface textures, shading, and coloration are well applied but scale and spatial depth was still not rendered accurately. Some landscapes were pure scenes of nature, particularly gardens with flowers and trees, while others were architectural vistas depicting urban buildings. Other landscapes show episodes from mythology, the most famous demonstrating scenes from the Odyssey.[14]
In the traditional view, the art of the ancient East would have known landscape painting only as the backdrop to civil or military narrative scenes.[15] This theory, defended by Franz Wickhoff, is debatable. It is possible to see evidence of Greek knowledge of landscape portrayal in Plato's Critias (107b–108b):
... and if we look at the portraiture of divine and of human bodies as executed by painters, in respect of the ease or difficulty with which they succeed in imitating their subjects in the opinion of onlookers, we shall notice in the first place that as regards the earth and mountains and rivers and woods and the whole of heaven, with the things that exist and move therein, we are content if a man is able to represent them with even a small degree of likeness ...[16]
Still life[edit]
Roman still life subjects are often placed in illusionist niches or shelves and depict a variety of everyday objects including fruit, live and dead animals, seafood, and shells. Examples of the theme of the glass jar filled with water were skillfully painted and later served as models for the same subject often painted during the Renaissance and Baroque periods.[17]
Portraits[edit]
Further information: Roman portraiture
The Severan Tondo, a panel painting of the imperial family, c. 200 AD; Antikensammlung, Berlin
Fayum mummy portrait of a woman from Roman Egypt with a ringlet hairstyle. Royal Museum of Scotland.
Pliny complained of the declining state of Roman portrait art, "The painting of portraits which used to transmit through the ages the accurate likenesses of people, has entirely gone out ... Indolence has destroyed the arts."[18][19]
In Greece and Rome, wall painting was not considered as high art. The most prestigious form of art besides sculpture was panel painting, i.e. tempera or encaustic painting on wooden panels. Unfortunately, since wood is a perishable material, only a very few examples of such paintings have survived, namely the Severan Tondo from c. 200 AD, a very routine official portrait from some provincial government office, and the well-known Fayum mummy portraits, all from Roman Egypt, and almost certainly not of the highest contemporary quality. The portraits were attached to burial mummies at the face, from which almost all have now been detached. They usually depict a single person, showing the head, or head and upper chest, viewed frontally. The background is always monochrome, sometimes with decorative elements.[20] In terms of artistic tradition, the images clearly derive more from Greco-Roman traditions than Egyptian ones. They are remarkably realistic, though variable in artistic quality, and may indicate that similar art which was widespread elsewhere but did not survive. A few portraits painted on glass and medals from the later empire have survived, as have coin portraits, some of which are considered very realistic as well.[21]
Gold glass[edit]
Detail of the gold glass medallion in Brescia (Museo di Santa Giulia), most likely Alexandrian, 3rd century AD[22]
Main article: Gold glass
Further information: List of gold-glass portraits
Gold glass, or gold sandwich glass, was a technique for fixing a layer of gold leaf with a design between two fused layers of glass, developed in Hellenistic glass and revived in the 3rd century AD. There are a very few large designs, including a very fine group of portraits from the 3rd century with added paint, but the great majority of the around 500 survivals are roundels that are the cut-off bottoms of wine cups or glasses used to mark and decorate graves in the Catacombs of Rome by pressing them into the mortar. They predominantly date from the 4th and 5th centuries. Most are Christian, though there are many pagan and a few Jewish examples. It is likely that they were originally given as gifts on marriage, or festive occasions such as New Year. Their iconography has been much studied, although artistically they are relatively unsophisticated.[23] Their subjects are similar to the catacomb paintings, but with a difference balance including more portraiture. As time went on there was an increase in the depiction of saints.[24] The same technique began to be used for gold tesserae for mosaics in the mid-1st century in Rome, and by the 5th century these had become the standard background for religious mosaics.
The earlier group are "among the most vivid portraits to survive from Early Christian times. They stare out at us with an extraordinary stern and melancholy intensity",[25] and represent the best surviving indications of what high quality Roman portraiture could achieve in paint. The Gennadios medallion in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, is a fine example of an Alexandrian portrait on blue glass, using a rather more complex technique and naturalistic style than most Late Roman examples, including painting onto the gold to create shading, and with the Greek inscription showing local dialect features. He had perhaps been given or commissioned the piece to celebrate victory in a musical competition.[26] One of the most famous Alexandrian-style portrait medallions, with an inscription in Egyptian Greek, was later mounted in an Early Medieval crux gemmata in Brescia, in the mistaken belief that it showed the pious empress and Gothic queen Galla Placida and her children;[27] in fact the knot in the central figure's dress may mark a devotee of Isis.[28] This is one of a group of 14 pieces dating to the 3rd century AD, all individualized secular portraits of high quality.[29] The inscription on the medallion is written in the Alexanrian dialect of Greek and hence most likely depicts a family from Roman Egypt.[30] The medallion has also been compared to other works of contemporaneous Roman-Egyptian artwork, such as the Fayum mummy portraits.[22] It is thought that the tiny detail of pieces such as these can only have been achieved using lenses.[31] The later glasses from the catacombs have a level of portraiture that is rudimentary, with features, hairstyles and clothes all following stereotypical styles.[32]
Genre scenes[edit]
Roman genre scenes generally depict Romans at leisure and include gambling, music and sexual encounters.[citation needed] Some scenes depict gods and goddesses at leisure.[8][12]
Triumphal paintings[edit]
Roman fresco from the Villa Boscoreale, 43–30 BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Roman fresco with a banquet scene from the Casa dei Casti Amanti, Pompeii
From the 3rd century BC, a specific genre known as Triumphal Paintings appeared, as indicated by Pliny (XXXV, 22).[33] These were paintings which showed triumphal entries after military victories, represented episodes from the war, and conquered regions and cities. Summary maps were drawn to highlight key points of the campaign. Josephus describes the painting executed on the occasion of Vespasian and Titus's sack of Jerusalem:
There was also wrought gold and ivory fastened about them all; and many resemblances of the war, and those in several ways, and variety of contrivances, affording a most lively portraiture of itself. For there was to be seen a happy country laid waste, and entire squadrons of enemies slain; while some of them ran away, and some were carried into captivity; with walls of great altitude and magnitude overthrown and ruined by machines; with the strongest fortifications taken, and the walls of most populous cities upon the tops of hills seized on, and an army pouring itself within the walls; as also every place full of slaughter, and supplications of the enemies, when they were no longer able to lift up their hands in way of opposition. Fire also sent upon temples was here represented, and houses overthrown, and falling upon their owners: rivers also, after they came out of a large and melancholy desert, ran down, not into a land cultivated, nor as drink for men, or for cattle, but through a land still on fire upon every side; for the Jews related that such a thing they had undergone during this war. Now the workmanship of these representations was so magnificent and lively in the construction of the things, that it exhibited what had been done to such as did not see it, as if they had been there really present. On the top of every one of these pageants was placed the commander of the city that was taken, and the manner wherein he was taken.[34]
These paintings have disappeared, but they likely influenced the composition of the historical reliefs carved on military sarcophagi, the Arch of Titus, and Trajan's Column. This evidence underscores the significance of landscape painting, which sometimes tended towards being perspective plans.
Ranuccio also describes the oldest painting to be found in Rome, in a tomb on the Esquiline Hill:
It describes a historical scene, on a clear background, painted in four superimposed sections. Several people are identified, such Marcus Fannius and Marcus Fabius. These are larger than the other figures ... In the second zone, to the left, is a city encircled with crenellated walls, in front of which is a large warrior equipped with an oval buckler and a feathered helmet; near him is a man in a short tunic, armed with a spear...Around these two are smaller soldiers in short tunics, armed with spears...In the lower zone a battle is taking place, where a warrior with oval buckler and a feathered helmet is shown larger than the others, whose weapons allow to assume that these are probably Samnites.
This episode is difficult to pinpoint. One of Ranuccio's hypotheses is that it refers to a victory of the consul Fabius Maximus Rullianus during the second war against Samnites in 326 BC. The presentation of the figures with sizes proportional to their importance is typically Roman, and finds itself in plebeian reliefs. This painting is in the infancy of triumphal painting, and would have been accomplished by the beginning of the 3rd century BC to decorate the tomb.
Sculpture[edit]
Main articles: Roman sculpture and Roman portraiture
Section of Trajan's Column, CE 113, with scenes from the Dacian Wars
Early Roman art was influenced by the art of Greece and that of the neighbouring Etruscans, themselves greatly influenced by their Greek trading partners. An Etruscan speciality was near life size tomb effigies in terracotta, usually lying on top of a sarcophagus lid propped up on one elbow in the pose of a diner in that period. As the expanding Roman Republic began to conquer Greek territory, at first in Southern Italy and then the entire Hellenistic world except for the Parthian far east, official and patrician sculpture became largely an extension of the Hellenistic style, from which specifically Roman elements are hard to disentangle, especially as so much Greek sculpture survives only in copies of the Roman period.[35] By the 2nd century BC, "most of the sculptors working in Rome" were Greek,[36] often enslaved in conquests such as that of Corinth (146 BC), and sculptors continued to be mostly Greeks, often slaves, whose names are very rarely recorded. Vast numbers of Greek statues were imported to Rome, whether as booty or the result of extortion or commerce, and temples were often decorated with re-used Greek works.[37]
A native Italian style can be seen in the tomb monuments of prosperous middle-class Romans, which very often featured portrait busts, and portraiture is arguably the main strength of Roman sculpture. There are no survivals from the tradition of masks of ancestors that were worn in processions at the funerals of the great families and otherwise displayed in the home, but many of the busts that survive must represent ancestral figures, perhaps from the large family tombs like the Tomb of the Scipios or the later mausolea outside the city. The famous bronze head supposedly of Lucius Junius Brutus is very variously dated, but taken as a very rare survival of Italic style under the Republic, in the preferred medium of bronze.[38] Similarly stern and forceful heads are seen in the coins of the consuls, and in the Imperial period coins as well as busts sent around the Empire to be placed in the basilicas of provincial cities were the main visual form of imperial propaganda; even Londinium had a near-colossal statue of Nero, though far smaller than the 30 metre high Colossus of Nero in Rome, now lost.[39] The Tomb of Eurysaces the Baker, a successful freedman (c. 50-20 BC) has a frieze that is an unusually large example of the "plebeian" style.[40] Imperial portraiture was initially Hellenized and highly idealized, as in the Blacas Cameo and other portraits of Augustus.
Arch of Constantine, 315: Hadrian lion-hunting (left) and sacrificing (right), above a section of the Constantinian frieze, showing the contrast of styles.
The Romans did not generally attempt to compete with free-standing Greek works of heroic exploits from history or mythology, but from early on produced historical works in relief, culminating in the great Roman triumphal columns with continuous narrative reliefs winding around them, of which those commemorating Trajan (113 CE) and Marcus Aurelius (by 193) survive in Rome, where the Ara Pacis ("Altar of Peace", 13 BC) represents the official Greco-Roman style at its most classical and refined, and the Sperlonga sculptures it at its most baroque. Some late Roman public sculptures developed a massive, simplified style that sometimes anticipates Soviet socialist realism. Among other major examples are the earlier re-used reliefs on the Arch of Constantine and the base of the Column of Antoninus Pius (161),[41] Campana reliefs were cheaper pottery versions of marble reliefs and the taste for relief was from the imperial period expanded to the sarcophagus.
All forms of luxury small sculpture continued to be patronized, and quality could be extremely high, as in the silver Warren Cup, glass Lycurgus Cup, and large cameos like the Gemma Augustea, Gonzaga Cameo and the "Great Cameo of France".[42] For a much wider section of the population, moulded relief decoration of pottery vessels and small figurines were produced in great quantity and often considerable quality.[43]
After moving through a late 2nd century "baroque" phase,[44] in the 3rd century, Roman art largely abandoned, or simply became unable to produce, sculpture in the classical tradition, a change whose causes remain much discussed. Even the most important imperial monuments now showed stumpy, large-eyed figures in a harsh frontal style, in simple compositions emphasizing power at the expense of grace. The contrast is famously illustrated in the Arch of Constantine of 315 in Rome, which combines sections in the new style with roundels in the earlier full Greco-Roman style taken from elsewhere, and the Four Tetrarchs (c. 305) from the new capital of Constantinople, now in Venice. Ernst Kitzinger found in both monuments the same "stubby proportions, angular movements, an ordering of parts through symmetry and repetition and a rendering of features and drapery folds through incisions rather than modelling... The hallmark of the style wherever it appears consists of an emphatic hardness, heaviness and angularity – in short, an almost complete rejection of the classical tradition".[45]
This revolution in style shortly preceded the period in which Christianity was adopted by the Roman state and the great majority of the people, leading to the end of large religious sculpture, with large statues now only used for emperors, as in the famous fragments of a colossal acrolithic statue of Constantine, and the 4th or 5th century Colossus of Barletta. However rich Christians continued to commission reliefs for sarcophagi, as in the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, and very small sculpture, especially in ivory, was continued by Christians, building on the style of the consular diptych.[46]
Etruscan sarcophagus, 3rd century BC
The "Capitoline Brutus", dated to the 4th to 3rd centuries BC
A Roman naval bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste (Palastrina),[47] which was built c. 120 BC;[48] exhibited in the Pius-Clementine Museum (Museo Pio-Clementino) in the Vatican Museums.
The Orator, c. 100 BC, an Etrusco-Roman bronze statue depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an Etruscan man wearing a Roman toga while engaged in rhetoric; the statue features an inscription in the Etruscan alphabet
The Grave relief of Publius Aiedius and Aiedia, 30 BC, Pergamon Museum (Berlin)
Augustus of Prima Porta, statue of the emperor Augustus, 1st century AD, Vatican Museums
Tomb relief of the Decii, 98–117 AD
Bust of Emperor Claudius, c. 50 CE, (reworked from a bust of emperor Caligula), Vatican Museums
Commodus dressed as Hercules, c. 191 CE, in the late imperial "baroque" style; Capitoline Museum, Rome.
The Four Tetrarchs, c. 305, showing the new anti-classical style, in porphyry, now San Marco, Venice
The cameo gem known as the "Great Cameo of France", c. 23 AD, with an allegory of Augustus and his family
Portrait Bust of a Man, Ancient Rome, 60 BC
Roman portraiture is characterized by its "warts and all" realism.
Veristic portrait bust of an old man, head covered (capite velato), either a priest or paterfamilias (marble, mid-1st century BC)
Bust of Antinous, c. 130 AD
Traditional Roman sculpture is divided into five categories: portraiture, historical relief, funerary reliefs, sarcophagi, and copies of ancient Greek works.[49] Contrary to the belief of early archaeologists, many of these sculptures were large polychrome terra-cotta images, such as the Apollo of Veii (Villa Givlia, Rome), but the painted surface of many of them has worn away with time.
Narrative reliefs[edit]
While Greek sculptors traditionally illustrated military exploits through the use of mythological allegory, the Romans used a more documentary style. Roman reliefs of battle scenes, like those on the Column of Trajan, were created for the glorification of Roman might, but also provide first-hand representation of military costumes and military equipment. Trajan's column records the various Dacian wars conducted by Trajan in what is modern day Romania. It is the foremost example of Roman historical relief and one of the great artistic treasures of the ancient world. This unprecedented achievement, over 650 foot of spiraling length, presents not just realistically rendered individuals (over 2,500 of them), but landscapes, animals, ships, and other elements in a continuous visual history – in effect an ancient precursor of a documentary movie. It survived destruction when it was adapted as a base for Christian sculpture.[50] During the Christian era after 300 AD, the decoration of door panels and sarcophagi continued but full-sized sculpture died out and did not appear to be an important element in early churches.[10]
Minor arts[edit]
The Blacas Cameo of Augustus, from his last years or soon after
The Romans inherited a tradition of art in a wide range of the so-called "minor arts" or decorative art. Most of these flourished most impressively at the luxury level, but large numbers of terracotta figurines, both religious and secular, continued to be produced cheaply, as well as some larger Campana reliefs in terracotta.[51] Roman art did not use vase-painting in the way of the ancient Greeks, but vessels in Ancient Roman pottery were often stylishly decorated in moulded relief.[52] Producers of the millions of small oil lamps sold seem to have relied on attractive decoration to beat competitors and every subject of Roman art except landscape and portraiture is found on them in miniature.[53]
Luxury arts included fancy Roman glass in a great range of techniques, many smaller types of which were probably affordable to a good proportion of the Roman public. This was certainly not the case for the most extravagant types of glass, such as the cage cups or diatreta, of which the Lycurgus Cup in the British Museum is a near-unique figurative example in glass that changes colour when seen with light passing through it. The Augustan Portland Vase is the masterpiece of Roman cameo glass,[54] and imitated the style of the large engraved gems (Blacas Cameo, Gemma Augustea, Great Cameo of France) and other hardstone carvings that were also most popular around this time.[55]
Mosaic was a minor art, though often on a very large scale, until the very end of the period, when late-4th-century Christians began to use it for large religious images on walls in their new large churches; in earlier Roman art mosaic was mainly used for floors, curved ceilings, and inside and outside walls that were going to get wet. The famous copy of a Hellenistic painting in the Alexander Mosaic in Naples was originally placed in a floor in Pompeii; this is much higher quality work than most Roman mosaic, though very fine panels, often of still life subjects in small or micromosaic tesserae have also survived. The Romans distinguished between normal opus tessellatum with tesserae mostly over 4 mm across, which was laid down on site, and finer opus vermiculatum for small panels, which is thought to have been produced offsite in a workshop, and brought to the site as a finished panel. The latter was a Hellenistic genre which is found in Italy between about 100 BC and 100 AD. Most signed mosaics have Greek names, suggesting the artists remained mostly Greek, though probably often slaves trained up in workshops. The late 2nd century BC Nile mosaic of Palestrina is a very large example of the popular genre of Nilotic landscape, while the 4th century Gladiator Mosaic in Rome shows several large figures in combat.[56]
Metalwork was highly developed, and clearly an essential part of the homes of the rich, who dined off silver, while often drinking from glass, and had elaborate cast fittings on their furniture, jewellery, and small figurines. A number of important hoards found in the last 200 years, mostly from the more violent edges of the late empire, have given us a much clearer idea of Roman silver plate. The Mildenhall Treasure and Hoxne Hoard are both from East Anglia in England.[57] There are few survivals of upmarket ancient Roman furniture, but these show refined and elegant design and execution.
Coins and medals[edit]
Hadrian, with "RESTITVTORI ACHAIAE" on the reverse, celebrating his spending in Achaia (Greece), and showing the quality of ordinary bronze coins that were used by the mass population, hence the wear on higher areas.
Few Roman coins reach the artistic peaks of the best Greek coins, but they survive in vast numbers and their iconography and inscriptions form a crucial source for the study of Roman history, and the development of imperial iconography, as well as containing many fine examples of portraiture. They penetrated to the rural population of the whole Empire and beyond, with barbarians on the fringes of the Empire making their own copies. In the Empire medallions in precious metals began to be produced in small editions as imperial gifts, which are similar to coins, though larger and usually finer in execution. Images in coins initially followed Greek styles, with gods and symbols, but in the death throes of the Republic first Pompey and then Julius Caesar appeared on coins, and portraits of the emperor or members of his family became standard on imperial coinage. The inscriptions were used for propaganda, and in the later Empire the army joined the emperor as the beneficiary.
Architecture[edit]
Main article: Roman architecture
Aqueduct of Segovia.
Roman theatre in Mérida
It was in the area of architecture that Roman art produced its greatest innovations. Because the Roman Empire extended over so great of an area and included so many urbanized areas, Roman engineers developed methods for city building on a grand scale, including the use of concrete. Massive buildings like the Pantheon and the Colosseum could never have been constructed with previous materials and methods. Though concrete had been invented a thousand years earlier in the Near East, the Romans extended its use from fortifications to their most impressive buildings and monuments, capitalizing on the material’s strength and low cost.[58] The concrete core was covered with a plaster, brick, stone, or marble veneer, and decorative polychrome and gold-gilded sculpture was often added to produce a dazzling effect of power and wealth.[58]
Because of these methods, Roman architecture is legendary for the durability of its construction; with many buildings still standing, and some still in use, mostly buildings converted to churches during the Christian era. Many ruins, however, have been stripped of their marble veneer and are left with their concrete core exposed, thus appearing somewhat reduced in size and grandeur from their original appearance, such as with the Basilica of Constantine.[59]
During the Republican era, Roman architecture combined Greek and Etruscan elements, and produced innovations such as the round temple and the curved arch.[60] As Roman power grew in the early empire, the first emperors inaugurated wholesale leveling of slums to build grand palaces on the Palatine Hill and nearby areas, which required advances in engineering methods and large scale design. Roman buildings were then built in the commercial, political, and social grouping known as a forum, that of Julius Caesar being the first and several added later, with the Forum Romanum being the most famous. The greatest arena in the Roman world, the Colosseum, was completed around 80 AD at the far end of that forum. It held over 50,000 spectators, had retractable fabric coverings for shade, and could stage massive spectacles including huge gladiatorial contests and mock naval battles. This masterpiece of Roman architecture epitomizes Roman engineering efficiency and incorporates all three architectural orders – Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.[61] Less celebrated but just as important if not more so for most Roman citizens, was the five-story insula or city block, the Roman equivalent of an apartment building, which housed tens of thousands of Romans.[62]
It was during the reign of Trajan (98–117 AD.) and Hadrian (117–138 AD) that the Roman Empire reached its greatest extent and that Rome itself was at the peak of its artistic glory – achieved through massive building programs of monuments, meeting houses, gardens, aqueducts, baths, palaces, pavilions, sarcophagi, and temples.[50] The Roman use of the arch, the use of concrete building methods, the use of the dome all permitted construction of vaulted ceilings and enabled the building of these public spaces and complexes, including the palaces, public baths and basilicas of the "Golden Age" of the empire. Outstanding examples of dome construction include the Pantheon, the Baths of Diocletian, and the Baths of Caracalla. The Pantheon (dedicated to all the planetary gods) is the best preserved temple of ancient times with an intact ceiling featuring an open "eye" in the center. The height of the ceiling exactly equals the interior diameter of the building, creating an enclosure that could contain giant sphere.[59] These grand buildings later served as inspirational models for architects of the Italian Renaissance, such as Brunelleschi. By the age of Constantine (306-337 AD), the last great building programs in Rome took place, including the erection of the Arch of Constantine built near the Colosseum, which recycled some stone work from the forum nearby, to produce an eclectic mix of styles.[13]
Roman aqueducts, also based on the arch, were commonplace in the empire and essential transporters of water to large urban areas. Their standing masonry remains are especially impressive, such as the Pont du Gard (featuring three tiers of arches) and the aqueduct of Segovia, serving as mute testimony to their quality of their design and construction.[61]
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Latin literature
Music of ancient Rome
Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum
Bacchic art
Pompeian Styles
Roman graffiti
Byzantine art
Parthian art
Pliny the Elder
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Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Toynbee, J. M. C. (December 1971). "Roman Art". The Classical Review. 21 (3): 439–442. JSTOR 708631. doi:10.1017/S0009840X00221331.
Jump up ^ Sybille Ebert-Schifferer, Still Life: A History, Harry N. Abrams, New York, 1998, p. 15, ISBN 0-8109-4190-2
Jump up ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 16
^ Jump up to: a b Piper, p. 252
^ Jump up to: a b c Janson, p. 158
Jump up ^ Piper, p. 248–253
Jump up ^ Piper, p. 255
^ Jump up to: a b c d Piper, p. 253
Jump up ^ Piper, p. 254
^ Jump up to: a b Piper, p. 261
Jump up ^ Piper, p. 266
^ Jump up to: a b c Janson, p. 190
^ Jump up to: a b Piper, p. 260
Jump up ^ Janson, p. 191
Jump up ^ according to Ernst Gombrich.
Jump up ^ Plato. Critias (107b–108b), trans W.R.M. Lamb 1925. at the Perseus Project accessed 27 June 2006
Jump up ^ Janson, p. 192
Jump up ^ John Hope-Hennessy, The Portrait in the Renaissance, Bollingen Foundation, New York, 1966, pp. 71–72
Jump up ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History XXXV:2 trans H. Rackham 1952. Loeb Classical Library
Jump up ^ Janson, p. 194
Jump up ^ Janson, p. 195
^ Jump up to: a b Daniel Thomas Howells (2015). "A Catalogue of the Late Antique Gold Glass in the British Museum (PDF)." London: the British Museum (Arts and Humanities Research Council). Accessed 2 October 2016, p. 7: "Other important contributions to scholarship included the publication of an extensive summary of gold glass scholarship under the entry ‘Fonds de coupes’ in Fernand Cabrol and Henri Leclercq’s comprehensive Dictionnaire d’archéologie chrétienne et de liturgie in 1923. Leclercq updated Vopel’s catalogue, recording 512 gold glasses considered to be genuine, and developed a typological series consisting of eleven iconographic subjects: biblical subjects; Christ and the saints; various legends; inscriptions; pagan deities; secular subjects; male portraits; female portraits; portraits of couples and families; animals; and Jewish symbols. In a 1926 article devoted to the brushed technique gold glass known as the Brescia medallion (Pl. 1), Fernand de Mély challenged the deeply ingrained opinion of Garrucci and Vopel that all examples of brushed technique gold glass were in fact forgeries. The following year, de Mély’s hypothesis was supported and further elaborated upon in two articles by different scholars. A case for the Brescia medallion’s authenticity was argued for, not on the basis of its iconographic and orthographic similarity with pieces from Rome (a key reason for Garrucci’s dismissal), but instead for its close similarity to the Fayoum mummy portraits from Egypt. Indeed, this comparison was given further credence by Walter Crum’s assertion that the Greek inscription on the medallion was written in the Alexandrian dialect of Egypt. De Mély noted that the medallion and its inscription had been reported as early as 1725, far too early for the idiosyncrasies of Graeco-Egyptian word endings to have been understood by forgers." "Comparing the iconography of the Brescia medallion with other more closely dated objects from Egypt, Hayford Peirce then proposed that brushed technique medallions were produced in the early 3rd century, whilst de Mély himself advocated a more general 3rd-century date. With the authenticity of the medallion more firmly established, Joseph Breck was prepared to propose a late 3rd to early 4th century date for all of the brushed technique cobalt blue-backed portrait medallions, some of which also had Greek inscriptions in the Alexandrian dialect. Although considered genuine by the majority of scholars by this point, the unequivocal authenticity of these glasses was not fully established until 1941 when Gerhart Ladner discovered and published a photograph of one such medallion still in situ, where it remains to this day, impressed into the plaster sealing in an individual loculus in the Catacomb of Panfilo in Rome (Pl. 2). Shortly after in 1942, Morey used the phrase ‘brushed technique’ to categorize this gold glass type, the iconography being produced through a series of small incisions undertaken with a gem cutter’s precision and lending themselves to a chiaroscuro-like effect similar to that of a fine steel engraving simulating brush strokes."
Jump up ^ Beckwith, 25-26,
Jump up ^ Grig, throughout
Jump up ^ Honour and Fleming, Pt 2, "The Catacombs" at illustration 7.7
Jump up ^ Weitzmann, no. 264, entry by J.D.B.; see also no. 265; Medallion with a Portrait of Gennadios, Metropolitan Museum of Art, with better image.
Jump up ^ Boardman, 338-340; Beckwith, 25
Jump up ^ Vickers, 611
Jump up ^ Grig, 207
Jump up ^ Jás Elsner (2007). "The Changing Nature of Roman Art and the Art Historical Problem of Style," in Eva R. Hoffman (ed), Late Antique and Medieval Art of the Medieval World, 11-18. Oxford, Malden & Carlton: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-2071-5, p. 17, Figure 1.3 on p. 18.
Jump up ^ Sines and Sakellarakis, 194-195
Jump up ^ Grig, 207; Lutraan, 29-45 goes into considerable detail
Jump up ^ Natural History (Pliny) online at the Perseus Project
Jump up ^ Josephus, The Jewish Wars VII, 143-152 (Ch 6 Para 5). Trans. William Whiston Online accessed 27 June 2006
Jump up ^ Strong, 58–63; Henig, 66-69
Jump up ^ Henig, 24
Jump up ^ Henig, 66–69; Strong, 36–39, 48; At the trial of Verres, former governor of Sicily, Cicero's prosecution details his depredations of art collections at great length.
Jump up ^ Henig, 23–24
Jump up ^ Henig, 66–71
Jump up ^ Henig, 66; Strong, 125
Jump up ^ Henig, 73–82;Strong, 48–52, 80–83, 108–117, 128–132, 141–159, 177–182, 197–211
Jump up ^ Henig, Chapter 6; Strong, 303–315
Jump up ^ Henig, Chapter 8
Jump up ^ Strong, 171–176, 211–214
Jump up ^ Kitzinger, 9 (both quotes), more generally his Ch 1; Strong, 250–257, 264–266, 272–280
Jump up ^ Strong, 287–291, 305–308, 315–318; Henig, 234–240
Jump up ^ D.B. Saddington (2011) [2007]. "the Evolution of the Roman Imperial Fleets," in Paul Erdkamp (ed), A Companion to the Roman Army, 201-217. Malden, Oxford, Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-2153-8. Plate 12.2 on p. 204.
Jump up ^ Coarelli, Filippo (1987), I Santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana. NIS, Rome, pp 35-84.
Jump up ^ Gazda, Elaine K. (1995). "Roman Sculpture and the Ethos of Emulation: Reconsidering Repetition". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. Department of the Classics, Harvard University. 97 (Greece in Rome: Influence, Integration, Resistance): 121–156. JSTOR 311303. doi:10.2307/311303. According to traditional art-historical taxonomy, Roman sculpture is divided into a number of distinct categories--portraiture, historical relief, funerary reliefs, sarcophagi, and copies.
^ Jump up to: a b Piper, p. 256
Jump up ^ Henig, 191-199
Jump up ^ Henig, 179-187
Jump up ^ Henig, 200-204
Jump up ^ Henig, 215-218
Jump up ^ Henig, 152-158
Jump up ^ Henig, 116-138
Jump up ^ Henig, 140-150; jewellery, 158-160
^ Jump up to: a b Janson, p. 160
^ Jump up to: a b Janson, p. 165
Jump up ^ Janson, p. 159
^ Jump up to: a b Janson, p. 162
Jump up ^ Janson, p. 167
Sources[edit]
Beckwith, John, Early Christian and Byzantine Art, Penguin History of Art (now Yale), 2nd edn. 1979, ISBN 0140560335
Boardman, John, ed., The Oxford History of Classical Art, 1993, OUP, ISBN 0198143869
Grig, Lucy, "Portraits, Pontiffs and the Christianization of Fourth-Century Rome", Papers of the British School at Rome, Vol. 72, (2004), pp. 203–230, JSTOR
Henig, Martin (ed), A Handbook of Roman Art, Phaidon, 1983, ISBN 0714822140
Janson, H. W. The History of Art, Harry N. Abrams, New York, 1986, ISBN 0-8109-1094-2
Kitzinger, Ernst, Byzantine art in the making: main lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art, 3rd–7th century, 1977, Faber & Faber, ISBN 0571111548 (US: Cambridge UP, 1977)
Hugh Honour and John Fleming, A World History of Art, 7th edn. 2005, Laurence King Publishing, ISBN 1856694518, 9781856694513, google books
Kleiner, Fred S. A History of Roman Art. Thompson Wadsworth, 2007. Belmont, CA.
Lutraan, Katherine L., Late Roman Gold-Glass: Images and Inscriptions, MA thesis, McMaster University, 2006, available online
Piper, David. The Illustrated Library of Art, Portland House, New York, 1986, ISBN 0-517-62336-6
Sines, George, and Sakellarakis, Yannis A., "Lenses in Antiquity", American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 91, No. 2 (Apr., 1987), pp. 191–196, Archaeological Institute of America, JSTOR
Strong, Donald, et al., Roman Art, 1995 (2nd edn.), Yale University Press (Penguin/Yale History of Art), ISBN 0300052936
Syndicus, Eduard, Early Christian Art, Burns & Oates, London, 1962
Turner, Jane. The Dictionary of Art. Volumes 26 and 27. Macmillan, 2002. Hong Kong.
Vickers, Michael, "The Wilshere Collection of Early Christian and Jewish Antiquities in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford," Miscellanea a Emilio Marin Sexagenario Dicata, Kacic, 41-43 (2009-2011), pp. 605–614, PDF
Weitzmann, Kurt, ed., Age of spirituality : late antique and early Christian art, third to seventh century, 1979, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, ISBN 9780870991790; full text available online from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ancient Roman art.
Ancient Rome Art History Resources
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[1]- Article on the conservation of Romano British sculpture
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text:
List of countries by GDP sector composition
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2017)
This is a list of countries by gross domestic product (GDP) sector composition.
Contents
[hide]
1 Methodology
2 By economic sector
2.1 Nominal GDP sector composition
2.2 PPP GDP sector composition
3 GDP from natural resources
4 List by Alphabetical Order
5 References
6 Sources
Methodology[edit]
The figures are based on nominal GDP and GDP (PPP) estimates and sector composition ratios provided by the CIA World Factbook at market or government official exchange rates with figures in trillions of United States dollars.
Agricultural (or primary) sector
Agriculture (a term which encompasses farming) is the process of producing food, feed, fiber and other goods by the systematic raising of plants and animals. Agricultural output is a component of the GDP of a nation.
Industrial (or secondary) sector
Industry is the segment of economy concerned with production of goods (including fuels and fertilisers). Industrial output is a component of the GDP of a nation. It includes mining and extraction sectors.
Service (or tertiary) sector
A service is the non-material equivalent of a good. Service provision is defined as an economic activity that does not result in ownership, and this is what differentiates it from providing physical goods. It is claimed[citation needed] to be a process that creates benefits by facilitating either a change in customers, a change in their physical possessions, or a change in their intangible assets. Service output is a component of the GDP of a nation. The service sector includes (but is not limited to) farm and factory related activities.
By economic sector[edit]
Nominal GDP sector composition[edit]
Nominal GDP sector composition, 2015 (in percentage and in millions of dollars):[1]
№
Country/Economy
nominal GDP
Agri.
Indus.
Serv.
Agri.
Indus.
Serv.
– World 7007752126960000000♠75,212,696 5.9% 30.5% 63.6% 7006443754900000000♠4,437,549 7007229398720000000♠22,939,872 7007478352750000000♠47,835,275
1 United States 7007179469960000000♠17,946,996 1.12% 19.1% 79.7% 7005215364000000000♠215,364 7006342787600000000♠3,427,876 7007143037560000000♠14,303,756
2 China 7007112182810000000♠11,218,281 6.9% 40.1% 52.9% 7005774061000000000♠774,061 7006449853100000000♠4,498,531 7006593447100000000♠5,934,471
3 Japan 7006473030000000000♠4,730,300 1.2% 27.5% 71.4% 7004567640000000000♠56,764 7006130083300000000♠1,300,833 7006337743400000000♠3,377,434
4 Germany 7006349490000000000♠3,494,900 0.8% 28.1% 71.1% 7004279590000000000♠27,959 7005982067000000000♠982,067 7006248487400000000♠2,484,874
5 United Kingdom 7006264989000000000♠2,649,890 0.7% 21% 78.3% 7004185490000000000♠18,549 7005556477000000000♠556,477 7006207486400000000♠2,074,864
6 France 7006248828000000000♠2,488,280 1.9% 18.3% 79.8% 7004472770000000000♠47,277 7005455355000000000♠455,355 7006198564700000000♠1,985,647
7 India 7006225099000000000♠2,250,990 17.4% 25.8% 56.9% 7005391672000000000♠391,672 7005580755000000000♠580,755 7006128081300000000♠1,280,813
8 Italy 7006185250000000000♠1,852,500 2% 24.2% 73.8% 7004370500000000000♠37,050 7005448305000000000♠448,305 7006136714500000000♠1,367,145
9 Brazil 7006176960000000000♠1,769,600 5.4% 27.4% 67.2% 7004955580000000000♠95,558 7005484870000000000♠484,870 7006118917100000000♠1,189,171
10 Canada 7006153234000000000♠1,532,340 1.8% 28.6% 69.6% 7004275820000000000♠27,582 7005438249000000000♠438,249 7006106650900000000♠1,066,509
11 South Korea 7006140438000000000♠1,404,380 2.7% 39.8% 57.5% 7004379180000000000♠37,918 7005558943000000000♠558,943 7005807519000000000♠807,519
12 Russia 7006126775000000000♠1,267,750 3.9% 36% 60.1% 7004494420000000000♠49,442 7005456390000000000♠456,390 7005761918000000000♠761,918
13 Australia 7006125664000000000♠1,256,640 4% 26.6% 69.4% 7004502660000000000♠50,266 7005334266000000000♠334,266 7005872108000000000♠872,108
14 Spain 7006125216000000000♠1,252,160 3.3% 24.2% 72.6% 7004413210000000000♠41,321 7005303023000000000♠303,023 7005909068000000000♠909,068
15 Mexico 7006106361000000000♠1,063,610 3.7% 34.2% 62.1% 7004393540000000000♠39,354 7005363755000000000♠363,755 7005660502000000000♠660,502
16 Indonesia 7005940953000000000♠940,953 14.3% 46.9% 38.8% 7005134556000000000♠134,556 7005441307000000000♠441,307 7005365090000000000♠365,090
17 Netherlands 7005769930000000000♠769,930 2.8% 24.1% 73.2% 7004215580000000000♠21,558 7005185553000000000♠185,553 7005563589000000000♠563,589
18 Turkey 7005755716000000000♠755,716 8.9% 28.1% 63% 7004672590000000000♠67,259 7005212356000000000♠212,356 7005476101000000000♠476,101
19 Switzerland 7005662483000000000♠662,483 1.3% 27.7% 71% 7003861200000000000♠8,612 7005183508000000000♠183,508 7005470363000000000♠470,363
20 Saudi Arabia 7005657785000000000♠657,785 2% 66.9% 31.1% 7004131560000000000♠13,156 7005440058000000000♠440,058 7005204571000000000♠204,571
21 Argentina 7005541784000000000♠541,784 10% 30.7% 59.2% 7004541780000000000♠54,178 7005166328000000000♠166,328 7005320736000000000♠320,736
22 Taiwan 7005519149000000000♠519,149 1.3% 32% 66.9% 7003674900000000000♠6,749 7005166128000000000♠166,128 7005347311000000000♠347,311
23 Sweden 7005517440000000000♠517,440 1.8% 26.9% 71.3% 7003931400000000000♠9,314 7005139191000000000♠139,191 7005368935000000000♠368,935
24 Belgium 7005470179000000000♠470,179 0.7% 21.6% 77.7% 7003329100000000000♠3,291 7005101559000000000♠101,559 7005365329000000000♠365,329
25 Poland 7005467350000000000♠467,350 3.4% 33.6% 63% 7004158900000000000♠15,890 7005157030000000000♠157,030 7005294431000000000♠294,431
26 United Arab Emirates 7005416444000000000♠416,444 0.7% 59.4% 39.8% 7003291500000000000♠2,915 7005247368000000000♠247,368 7005165745000000000♠165,745
27 Nigeria 7005415080000000000♠415,080 17.8% 25.7% 54.6% 7004738840000000000♠73,884 7005106676000000000♠106,676 7005226634000000000♠226,634[2]
28 Iran 7005412340000000000♠412,340 11.2% 40.6% 48.2% 7004461820000000000♠46,182 7005167410000000000♠167,410 7005198748000000000♠198,748
29 Colombia 7005400117000000000♠400,117 8.9% 38% 53.1% 7004356100000000000♠35,610 7005152044000000000♠152,044 7005212462000000000♠212,462
30 Thailand 7005390592000000000♠390,592 13.3% 34% 52.7% 7004519490000000000♠51,949 7005132801000000000♠132,801 7005205842000000000♠205,842
31 Austria 7005387299000000000♠387,299 1.5% 29.5% 69% 7003580900000000000♠5,809 7005114253000000000♠114,253 7005267236000000000♠267,236
32 Norway 7005376268000000000♠376,268 2.7% 38.3% 59% 7004101590000000000♠10,159 7005144111000000000♠144,111 7005221998000000000♠221,998
33 Denmark 7005347196000000000♠347,196 4.5% 19.1% 76.4% 7004156240000000000♠15,624 7004663140000000000♠66,314 7005265258000000000♠265,258
34 South Africa 7005341216000000000♠341,216 2.5% 31.6% 65.9% 7003853000000000000♠8,530 7005107824000000000♠107,824 7005224861000000000♠224,861
35 Greece 7005246397000000000♠246,397 3.3% 17.9% 78.9% 7003813100000000000♠8,131 7004441050000000000♠44,105 7005194407000000000♠194,407
36 Venezuela 7005209226000000000♠209,226 4.7% 34.9% 60.4% 7003983400000000000♠9,834 7004730200000000000♠73,020 7005126373000000000♠126,373
PPP GDP sector composition[edit]
PPP GDP sector composition, 2015 (in percentage and in millions of dollars)[citation needed]
№
Country/Economy
Purchasing Power Parity
Agri.
Indus.
Serv.
Agri.
Indus.
Serv.
– World 7007742648730000000♠74,264,873 6% 30.9% 63.2% 7006423309800000000♠4,233,098 7007227993160000000♠22,799,316 7007472324590000000♠47,232,459
1 United States 7007146578000000000♠14,657,800 1.1% 22.1% 76.8% 7005161236000000000♠161,236 7006323937400000000♠3,239,374 7007112571900000000♠11,257,190
2 China 7007100857080000000♠10,085,708 10.2% 46.9% 43% 7006102874200000000♠1,028,742 7006473019700000000♠4,730,197 7006433685400000000♠4,336,854
3 Japan 7006430953200000000♠4,309,532 1.4% 24.9% 73.8% 7004603330000000000♠60,333 7006107307300000000♠1,073,073 7006318043500000000♠3,180,435
4 India 7006406039200000000♠4,060,392 18.5% 26.3% 55.2% 7005751173000000000♠751,173 7006106788300000000♠1,067,883 7006224133600000000♠2,241,336
5 Germany 7006294043400000000♠2,940,434 0.9% 27.8% 71.3% 7004264640000000000♠26,464 7005817441000000000♠817,441 7006209652900000000♠2,096,529
6 Russia 7006222295700000000♠2,222,957 4% 36.8% 59.1% 7004889180000000000♠88,918 7005818048000000000♠818,048 7006131376800000000♠1,313,768
7 United Kingdom 7006217276800000000♠2,172,768 0.7% 21.8% 77.5% 7004152090000000000♠15,209 7005473663000000000♠473,663 7006168389500000000♠1,683,895
8 Brazil 7006217205800000000♠2,172,058 5.8% 26.8% 67.4% 7005147700000000000♠147,700 7005582112000000000♠582,112 7006146396700000000♠1,463,967
9 France 7006214548700000000♠2,145,487 2% 18.5% 79.5% 7004429100000000000♠42,910 7005396915000000000♠396,915 7006170566200000000♠1,705,662
10 Italy 7006177354700000000♠1,773,547 1.9% 25.3% 72.8% 7004336970000000000♠33,697 7005448707000000000♠448,707 7006129114200000000♠1,291,142
11 Mexico 7006156747000000000♠1,567,470 3.9% 32.6% 63.5% 7004611310000000000♠61,131 7005510995000000000♠510,995 7005995343000000000♠995,343
12 South Korea 7006145924600000000♠1,459,246 2.6% 39.3% 58.2% 7004379400000000000♠37,940 7005573484000000000♠573,484 7005849281000000000♠849,281
13 Spain 7006136864200000000♠1,368,642 3.3% 26% 70.7% 7004451650000000000♠45,165 7005355847000000000♠355,847 7005967630000000000♠967,630
14 Canada 7006133027200000000♠1,330,272 2.2% 26.3% 71.5% 7004292660000000000♠29,266 7005349862000000000♠349,862 7005951144000000000♠951,144
15 Nigeria 7006110988400000000♠1,109,884 22% 21.2% 56.8% 7005244174000000000♠244,174 7005235295000000000♠235,295 7005630414000000000♠630,414
16 Indonesia 7006102988400000000♠1,029,884 15.3% 47% 37.6% 7005157572000000000♠157,572 7005484045000000000♠484,045 7005387236000000000♠387,236
17 Turkey 7005960511000000000♠960,511 9.6% 26.6% 63.8% 7004922090000000000♠92,209 7005255496000000000♠255,496 7005612806000000000♠612,806
18 Australia 7005882362000000000♠882,362 3.9% 25.6% 70.5% 7004344120000000000♠34,412 7005225885000000000♠225,885 7005623830000000000♠623,830
19 Taiwan 7005821781000000000♠821,781 1.4% 31.1% 67.5% 7004115050000000000♠11,505 7005255574000000000♠255,574 7005554702000000000♠554,702
20 Iran 7005818653000000000♠818,653 11% 41.7% 47.3% 7004900520000000000♠90,052 7005341378000000000♠341,378 7005387223000000000♠387,223
21 Poland 7005721319000000000♠721,319 3.4% 33% 63.5% 7004245250000000000♠24,525 7005238035000000000♠238,035 7005458038000000000♠458,038
22 Netherlands 7005676895000000000♠676,895 2.6% 24.9% 72.5% 7004175990000000000♠17,599 7005168547000000000♠168,547 7005490749000000000♠490,749
23 Argentina 7005632223000000000♠632,223 8.5% 31.6% 59.8% 7004506600000000000♠50,660 7005188336000000000♠188,336 7005356408000000000♠356,408
24 Saudi Arabia 7005621993000000000♠621,993 2.6% 61.8% 35.7% 7004161720000000000♠16,172 7005384392000000000♠384,392 7005222052000000000♠222,052
25 Thailand 7005586877000000000♠586,877 12.4% 44.7% 42.9% 7004727730000000000♠72,773 7005262334000000000♠262,334 7005251770000000000♠251,770
26 South Africa 7005524341000000000♠524,341 3% 31.2% 65.8% 7004158250000000000♠15,825 7005164580000000000♠164,580 7005347095000000000♠347,095
27 Egypt 7005498176000000000♠498,176 13.5% 37.9% 48.6% 7004676220000000000♠67,622 7005189841000000000♠189,841 7005243437000000000♠243,437
28 Pakistan 7005464711000000000♠464,711 21.8% 23.6% 54.6% 7004983620000000000♠98,362 7005106483000000000♠106,483 7005246355000000000♠246,355
29 Colombia 7005429866000000000♠429,866 9.3% 38% 52.7% 7004401670000000000♠40,167 7005164122000000000♠164,122 7005227611000000000♠227,611
30 Malaysia 7005412302000000000♠412,302 9.1% 41.6% 49.3% 7004379200000000000♠37,920 7005173347000000000♠173,347 7005205433000000000♠205,433
31 Belgium 7005394346000000000♠394,346 0.7% 21.9% 77.4% 7003276000000000000♠2,760 7004863620000000000♠86,362 7005305224000000000♠305,224
32 Nigeria 7005374323000000000♠374,323 31.9% 32.9% 35.2% 7005117966000000000♠117,966 7005121664000000000♠121,664 7005130170000000000♠130,170
33 Sweden 7005354716000000000♠354,716 1.9% 26.6% 71.6% 7003674000000000000♠6,740 7004943540000000000♠94,354 7005253977000000000♠253,977
34 Philippines 7005350279000000000♠350,279 13.9% 31.3% 54.8% 7004490950000000000♠49,095 7005110552000000000♠110,552 7005193554000000000♠193,554
35 Venezuela 7005346973000000000♠346,973 4.1% 34.9% 61.1% 7004141120000000000♠14,112 7005120126000000000♠120,126 7005210306000000000♠210,306
36 Austria 7005330496000000000♠330,496 1.5% 29.4% 69.1% 7003498900000000000♠4,989 7004977840000000000♠97,784 7005229827000000000♠229,827
GDP from natural resources[edit]
Source: World Development Indicators: Contribution of natural resources to gross domestic product (2011)
Total natural resources rents (% of GDP) by country, 2013
Oil rents (% of GDP) by country, 2013
Country/Economy
Total natural resources
(% of GDP)
Oil
(% of GDP)
Natural gas
(% of GDP)
Coal
(% of GDP)
Mineral
(% of GDP)
Forest
(% of GDP)
Afghanistan 2.1 .. .. 0 0 2.1
Albania 5.1 4.6 0 0 0.5 0.1
Algeria 26.3 19 7 0 0.3 0.1
Angola 46.6 46.3 0.1 .. 0 0.2
Antigua and Barbuda 0 .. .. .. 0 ..
Argentina 6.1 4.1 1.2 0 0.8 0.1
Armenia 2.7 .. .. .. 2.7 0
Australia 10.7 0.8 0.7 1.9 7.2 0.1
Austria 0.4 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.1
Azerbaijan 45.1 41.9 3.1 .. 0.1 0
Bahamas, The 0 .. .. .. 0 0
Bangladesh 3.4 .. 2.8 0.1 0 0.5
Barbados 0 .. .. .. 0 ..
Belarus 2.4 1.8 0 .. 0 0.5
Belgium 0 .. .. 0 0 0
Belize 0.3 .. .. .. 0 0.3
Benin 1.7 .. .. .. 0 1.6
Bhutan 8.4 .. .. 0 0 8.4
Bolivia 20.6 5.4 8.6 .. 6.3 0.3
Bosnia and Herzegovina 4.5 .. .. 3.1 0.8 0.6
Botswana 4.7 .. .. 0.4 4.2 0.1
Brazil 5.7 2.6 0.1 0 2.8 0.3
Brunei Darussalam 41 28.5 12.5 .. 0 0.1
Bulgaria 3.9 0 0.1 1.6 2 0.3
Burkina Faso 11.8 .. .. .. 9.1 2.7
Burundi 10.3 .. .. .. 1.2 9
Cambodia 1.3 .. .. .. 0 1.3
Cameroon 9.8 8 0.2 0 0.2 1.5
Canada 5.1 3.2 0.2 0.2 1 0.5
Cape Verde 0.1 .. .. .. 0 0.1
Central African Republic 5.1 .. .. .. 0.1 5
Chad 38.4 36.8 .. .. 0 1.6
Chile 19.2 0.1 0.1 0 18.6 0.4
China 9.1 1.6 0.1 4.4 2.8 0.2
Hong Kong 0 .. .. .. 0 0
Macao 0 .. .. .. 0 ..
Colombia 12.1 8.8 0.4 1.8 1 0.1
Comoros 1.1 .. .. .. 0 1.1
Democratic Republic of Congo 35.2 4.4 0 0.1 22 8.8
Republic of Congo 73.7 71.5 0 .. 0 2.1
Costa Rica 0.3 .. .. .. 0 0.3
Cote d'Ivoire 7.7 4.4 1 .. 1.2 1.1
Croatia 1.2 0.6 0.4 0 0 0.2
Cyprus 0 .. .. .. 0 0
Czech Republic 1.1 0 0 0.8 0 0.2
Denmark 2.4 2.1 0.3 0 0 0
Dominica 0 .. .. .. 0 0
Dominican Republic 0.7 .. .. .. 0.6 0
Ecuador 26 25.6 0.1 .. 0 0.3
Egypt 12.7 8.2 4 0 0.4 0.1
El Salvador 0.5 .. .. .. 0 0.5
Equatorial Guinea 41.4 41.1 .. .. 0 0.3
Eritrea 0.6 .. .. .. 0 0.5
Estonia 3.1 .. .. 2.2 0 0.9
Ethiopia 6 .. .. .. 1.1 4.8
Fiji 1.7 .. .. .. 0.7 0.9
Finland 0.9 .. .. .. 0.2 0.7
France 0.1 0 0 0 0 0.1
Gabon 50.6 47.9 0.2 .. 0.1 2.4
Gambia, The 2.3 .. .. .. 0 2.3
Georgia 0.8 0.2 0 0 0.5 0.1
Germany 0.3 0 0 0.1 0 0.1
Ghana 14.3 3.2 .. .. 9.6 1.4
Greece 0.6 0 0 0.4 0.1 0
Grenada 0 .. .. .. 0 ..
Guatemala 2.8 0.8 .. .. 1.2 0.8
Guinea 20.1 .. .. .. 16 4.1
Guinea-Bissau 4.6 .. .. .. 0 4.6
Guyana 16.2 .. .. .. 14.9 1.3
Haiti 0.7 .. .. .. 0 0.7
Honduras 2 .. .. .. 0.9 1.1
Hungary 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.2 0 0.1
Iceland 0 .. .. .. 0 0
India 7.4 1.3 0.3 3.1 2 0.6
Indonesia 10 3 0.8 4 1.6 0.6
Iran 27.9 22 5 0 0.9 0
Iraq 78.5 77.7 0.8 .. 0 0
Ireland 0.2 .. 0 0 0.1 0
Israel 0.4 0 0.3 0 0.2 0
Italy 0.2 0.1 0 0 0 0
Jamaica 1.7 .. .. .. 1.6 0.1
Japan 0 0 0 0 0 0
Jordan 2.8 0 0.1 .. 2.7 0
Kazakhstan 38.2 27.5 2.5 5.8 2.5 0
Kenya 1.4 .. .. .. 0.1 1.3
Kiribati 0 .. .. .. 0 ..
South Korea 0.1 0 0 0 0 0
Kosovo 2.9 .. .. .. 2.9 ..
Kuwait 51.3 49.9 1.4 .. 0 0
Kyrgyz Republic 12.8 0.6 0 0.5 11.7 0
Laos 16.8 .. .. 0 15.2 1.5
Latvia 1.4 .. .. .. 0 1.4
Lebanon 0 .. .. .. 0 0
Lesotho 1.3 .. .. .. 0 1.3
Liberia 11 .. .. .. 2.3 8.7
Lithuania 1.9 0.2 .. .. 0 1.7
Luxembourg 0.1 .. .. .. 0.1 0
Macedonia 6 .. .. 1.5 4.5 0.1
Madagascar 5.7 .. .. .. 3.9 1.8
Malawi 3.9 .. .. .. 0 3.9
Malaysia 10.3 6.4 3.1 0.1 0.2 0.6
Maldives 0 .. .. .. 0 0
Mali 14.2 .. .. .. 13.2 1
Malta 0 .. .. .. 0 ..
Marshall Islands 0 .. .. .. 0 ..
Mauritania 58.5 .. .. .. 58 0.5
Mauritius 0 .. .. .. 0 0
Mexico 9 7.2 0.6 0.1 1.1 0.1
Micronesia, Fed. Sts. 0 .. .. .. 0 ..
Moldova 0.2 0.1 .. .. 0 0.1
Mongolia 46 2.1 .. 26.5 17.2 0.2
Montenegro 0 .. .. .. 0 ..
Morocco 4.1 0 0 0 4 0.1
Mozambique 7.2 .. 4.2 0 0.2 2.7
Namibia 1.4 .. .. .. 1.3 0.1
Nepal 3 .. .. 0 0 3
Netherlands 1.1 0.1 1 0 0 0
New Zealand 3 0.9 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.9
Nicaragua 2.3 .. .. .. 0.9 1.4
Niger 2.4 .. .. 0 0.5 1.9
Nigeria[3] 15.2 12.3 2.1 0 0 0.7
Norway 13.6 10.8 2.7 0 0 0.1
Oman 45.3 40.2 5.1 .. 0 0
Pakistan 3.8 1 2 0.1 0.1 0.6
Palau 0 .. .. .. 0 ..
Panama 0.8 .. .. .. 0.7 0.1
Papua New Guinea 36.1 .. .. .. 32.5 3.5
Paraguay 1.1 .. .. .. 0 1.1
Peru 13.6 1.9 1 0 10.6 0.1
Philippines 3.6 0.1 0.3 0.4 2.6 0.2
Poland 2.6 0.1 0.1 1.5 0.7 0.2
Portugal 0.4 .. .. 0 0.2 0.1
Qatar 28.6 14.4 14.2 .. 0 ..
Romania 2.6 1.3 0.7 0.4 0 0.2
Russian Federation 22 15.4 3.2 1.4 1.7 0.3
Rwanda 3.3 .. .. .. 0.2 3
Samoa 0.3 .. .. .. 0 0.3
Sao Tome and Principe 0.9 .. .. .. 0 0.9
Saudi Arabia 58.7 55.5 3.1 .. 0 0
Senegal 3.4 .. 0 .. 2.3 1.1
Serbia 3.8 1.1 0.1 2.3 0.4 ..
Seychelles 0 .. .. .. 0 0
Sierra Leone 3.6 .. .. .. 1 2.6
Singapore 0 .. .. .. 0 0
Slovak Republic 0.4 0 0 0.1 0 0.3
Slovenia 0.4 .. 0 0.2 0 0.2
Solomon Islands 14.1 .. .. .. 0 14.1
South Africa 10.6 .. 0 5.7 4.2 0.7
Spain 0.1 0 0 0 0 0
Sri Lanka 0.4 .. .. .. 0 0.4
St. Kitts and Nevis 0 .. .. .. 0 ..
St. Lucia 0 .. .. .. 0 ..
St. Vincent and the Grenadines 0 .. .. .. 0 0
Sudan 15.1 14.2 .. .. 0.2 0.7
Suriname 11.7 .. .. .. 11.5 0.2
Swaziland 1.6 .. .. 0 0 1.6
Sweden 1.2 .. .. 0 0.7 0.5
Switzerland 0 .. .. .. 0 0
Tajikistan 1.6 0.2 0.1 0.3 1 0
Tanzania 8.4 .. 0.5 0 5.6 2.2
Thailand 4 2.2 1.3 0.2 0.1 0.3
Timor-Leste 0.2 .. .. .. 0 0.2
Togo 4.8 .. .. 0 2.9 1.9
Tonga 0 .. .. .. 0 0
Trinidad and Tobago 37.6 13.2 24.5 .. 0 0
Tunisia 6.8 4.3 0.9 .. 1.4 0.1
Turkey 0.8 0.2 0 0.2 0.3 0.1
Turkmenistan 43.9 21.3 22.6 .. 0 ..
Tuvalu 0 .. .. .. 0 ..
Uganda 5.4 .. .. .. 0 5.4
Ukraine 6.1 0.9 1.3 3.6 0 0.2
United Arab Emirates 24.2 21.9 2.3 .. 0 ..
United Kingdom 1.5 1.2 0.2 0.1 0 0
United States 1.7 0.9 0 0.5 0.2 0.1
Uruguay 0.9 .. .. .. 0.1 0.7
Uzbekistan 27.9 3.3 15.1 0.2 9.3 0
Vanuatu 0.5 .. .. .. 0 0.5
Venezuela 32.5 30 1.5 0.1 1 0
Vietnam 13.6 7.8 1.1 3.4 0.6 0.7
Yemen 23.1 18.7 4.4 .. 0 0
Zambia 27 .. .. 0 25.6 1.3
Zimbabwe 6.9 .. .. 2.8 2.4 1.6
World
5.7
3.1
0.5
1
1
0.2
List by Alphabetical Order[edit]
Country/Economy
Agriculture
Industry
Services
Year[4]
Afghanistan 24 21 55 2014 est.
Albania 21.6 14.9 63.5 2016 est.
Algeria 13.1 38.7 48.2 2016 est.
American Samoa 27.4 12.4 60.2 2012 est.
Andorra 14 79 6 2011 est.
Angola 10.2 61.4 28.4 2011 est.
Anguilla 2.3 21 76.6 2016 est.
Antigua and Barbuda 2.2 17.8 80 2016 est.
Argentina 11.4 30.2 58.4 2016 est.
Armenia 19.6 29.1 51.3 2016 est.
Aruba 0.4 33.3 66.3 2002 est.
Australia 3.6 28.2 68.2 2016 est.
Austria 1.5 29.4 69.1 2011 est.
Azerbaijan 5.5 62.1 32.4 2011 est.
Bahamas, The 2.2 6.5 91.3 2011 est.
Bahrain 0.4 63.6 36.0 2011 est.
Bangladesh 18.4 28.6 53.0 2011 est.
Barbados 3.2 13.9 82.9 2011 est.
Belarus 9.4 45.9 44.7 2011 est.
Belgium 0.7 21.7 77.6 2011 est.
Belize 9.7 19.8 70.5 2011 est.
Benin 36.0 6.4 57.6 2011 est.
Bermuda 0.7 7.0 92.2 2011 est.
Bhutan 16.7 45.4 37.9 2011 est.
Bolivia 10.0 40.0 50.0 2011 est.
Bosnia and Herzegovina 8.3 26.3 65.4 2011 est.
Botswana 2.1 45.0 52.9 2011 est.
Brazil 5.5 27.5 67.0 2011 est.
British Virgin Islands 1.0 11.9 87.2 2011 est.
Brunei 0.8 66.7 32.5 2011 est.
Bulgaria 5.2 30.6 64.2 2011 est.
Burkina Faso 34.7 23.3 42.0 2011 est.
Burma 38.2 18.2 43.6 2011 est.
Burundi 31.0 21.4 47.7 2011 est.
Cambodia 30.0 30.0 40.0 2011 est.
Cameroon 19.5 31.0 49.5 2011 est.
Canada 1.9 27.1 71.0 2011 est.
Cape Verde 8.4 15.7 75.9 2011 est.
Cayman Islands 0.5 50.4 49.1 2011 est.
Central African Republic 53.1 14.5 32.4 2011 est.
Chad 52.7 6.7 40.6 2011 est.
Chile 5.1 41.8 53.1 2010 est.
China 10.1 46.8 43.1 2011 est.
Colombia 7.0 37.6 55.5 2011 est.
Comoros 51.6 13.6 47.0 2011 est.
Congo, Democratic Republic of the 37.5 27.6 35.0 2011 est.
Congo, Republic of the 4.2 70.7 25.1 2011 est.
Cook Islands 11.7 9.9 78.5 2008 est.
Costa Rica 6.3 21.7 72.0 2011 est.
Cote d'Ivoire 30.0 21.0 49.0 2011 est.
Croatia 5.4 25.5 69.1 2011 est.
Cuba 4.0 20.8 75.2 2011 est.
Curacao 0.7 15.5 83.8 2010 est.
Cyprus 2.4 16.5 81.1 2011 est.
Czech Republic 1.6 38.1 60.3 2011 est.
Denmark 4.5 19.1 76.4 2011 est.
Djibouti 3.0 17.0 79.9 2011 est.
Dominica 21.4 22.4 56.3 2011 est.
Dominican Republic 6.7 26.1 67.2 2011 est.
Ecuador 6.5 34.6 58.9 2011 est.
Egypt 14.5 37.6 47.6 2011 est.
El Salvador 10.6 30.0 59.3 2011 est.
Equatorial Guinea 3.6 89.7 4.3 2011 est.
Eritrea 11.0 34.0 55.0 2011 est.
Estonia 3.5 28.5 61.0 2011 est.
Ethiopia 41.0 13.0 46.0 2011 est.
European Union 1.8 24.9 73.2 2011 est.
Falkland Islands 95.0 N/A N/A 1996
Faroe Islands 16.0 29.0 55.0 2007 est.
Fiji 12.0 20.2 67.7 2011 est.
Finland 3.0 29.2 67.8 2011 est.
France 1.8 18.8 79.4 2011 est.
French Polynesia 3.5 20.4 76.1 2005
Gabon 5.2 54.4 40.4 2011 est.
Gambia, The 26.7 17.4 55.9 2011 est.
Georgia 8.8 22.7 68.5 2011 est.
Germany 0.8 28.6 70.6 2011 est.
Ghana 28.3 21.0 50.7 2011 est.
Gibraltar 0.0 0.0 100.0 2008 est.
Greece 3.3 17.9 78.9 2011 est.
Greenland 4.0 29.0 67.0 2009 est.
Grenada 5.3 14.2 80.5 2011 est.
Guatemala 13.3 24.0 62.7 2011 est.
Guernsey 3.0 10.0 87.0 2000
Guinea 16.9 53.6 29.5 2011 est.
Guinea-Bissau 55.8 13.0 31.2 2011 est.
Guyana 18.5 30.6 50.9 2011 est.
Haiti 25.0 16.0 59.0 2010 est.
Honduras 12.6 26.3 61.1 2011 est.
Hong Kong 0.1 6.8 93.2 2011 est.
Hungary 3.7 31.3 65.0 2011 est.
Iceland 5.4 24.7 69.9 2011 est.
India 17.2 26.4 56.4 2011 est.
Indonesia 14.7 47.2 38.1 2011 est.
Iran 10.4 37.7 51.8 2011 est.
Iraq 9.7 60.5 29.8 2011 est.
Ireland 2.0 29.0 69.0 2010 est.
Isle of Man 1.0 11.0 88.0 FY08/09 est.
Israel 2.5 31.1 64.9 2011 est.
Italy 2.0 24.7 73.4 2011 est.
Jamaica 5.8 29.5 64.7 2011 est.
Japan 1.2 27.3 71.6 2011 est.
Jersey 1.0 2.0 97.0 2005
Jordan 4.5 30.8 64.7 2011 est.
Kazakhstan 5.2 37.9 56.9 2011 est.
Kenya 19.0 16.4 64.6 2011 est.
Kiribati 8.9 24.2 66.8 2004
Korea, North 23.0 43.4 33.6 2011 est.
Korea, South 2.6 39.2 58.2 2008 est.
Kosovo 12.9 22.6 64.5 2009 est.
Kuwait 0.3 47.4 52.3 2011 est.
Kyrgyzstan 20.1 28.8 51.1 2011 est.
Laos 27.8 34.8 37.4 2011 est.
Latvia 4.0 21.7 74.3 2011 est.
Lebanon 4.6 19.7 75.7 2011 est.
Lesotho 7.5 33.1 59.4 2011 est.
Liberia 76.9 5.4 17.7 2002 est.
Libya 3.2 49.5 47.3 2011 est.
Liechtenstein 8.0 37.0 55.0 2009
Lithuania 3.3 28.2 68.6 2011 est.
Luxembourg 0.4 13.6 86.0 2007 est.
Macau 0.1 9.4 90.6 2011 est.
Macedonia 9.5 27.1 63.4 2011 est.
Madagascar 28.3 16.4 55.2 2011 est.
Malawi 30.3 16.7 53.0 2011 est.
Malaysia 12.0 40.0 48.0 2011 est.
Maldives 5.6 16.9 77.5 2009 est.
Mali 38.8 21.9 39.3 2011 est.
Malta 1.9 17.2 80.9 2010 est.
Marshall Islands 31.7 14.9 53.4 2004 est.
Mauritania 17.8 37.6 44.7 2011 est.
Mauritius 4.5 24.0 71.4 2011 est.
Mexico 3.8 34.2 62.0 2011 est.
Micronesia, Federated States of 28.9 15.2 55.9 2004 est.
Moldova 16.2 20.3 63.5 2011 est.
Monaco 0.0 4.9 95.1 2005
Mongolia 15.8 32.6 51.6 2011 est.
Montenegro 0.8 11.3 87.9 2011
Montserrat 1.6 23.0 75.3 2011 est.
Morocco 16.6 32.2 51.2 2011 est.
Mozambique 31.5 23.8 44.7 2011 est.
Namibia 7.2 33.3 59.5 2011 est.
Nepal 34.9 15.0 50.1 2010 est.
Netherlands 2.7 24.2 73.1 2011 est.
New Caledonia 2.0 27.1 70.9 2011 est.
New Zealand 4.8 24.5 70.7 2011 est.
Nicaragua 17.4 25.7 56.8 2011 est.
Niger 39.0 16.0 45.0 2011 est.
Nigeria[5] 17.8 25.7 54.6 2015 est.
Niue 23.5 26.9 49.5 2003
Norway 2.6 39.7 57.7 2011 est.
Oman 1.5 49.5 48.9 2011 est.
Pakistan 20.9 25.8 53.3 2011 est.
Palau 6.2 12.0 81.8 2003
Panama 4.1 16.7 79.2 2011 est.
Papua New Guinea 29.9 37.6 32.4 2011 est.
Paraguay 23.1 18.6 58.3 2011 est.
Peru 8.0 38.0 54.0 2011 est.
Philippines 12.8 31.5 55.7 2011 est.
Poland 3.4 33.6 63.0 2011 est.
Portugal 2.5 22.8 74.7 2011 est.
Puerto Rico 1.0 45.0 54.0 2005 est.
Qatar 0.1 73.0 26.9 2011 est.
Romania 7.9 32.9 59.2 2011 est.
Russia 4.5 36.9 58.6 2011 est.
Rwanda 33.0 13.9 53.1 2011 est.
Saint Kitts and Nevis 2.4 22.8 74.7 2011 est.
Saint Lucia 4.1 18.4 77.5 2011 est.
Saint Martin 1.0 15.0 84.0 2000
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 7.8 25.9 66.3 2011 est.
Samoa 9.9 28.8 61.4 2011 est.
San Marino 0.1 39.2 60.7 2009
Sao Tome and Principe 15.0 24.4 60.6 2011 est.
Saudi Arabia 2.0 69.1 28.9 2011 est.
Senegal 15.0 22.8 62.2 2011 est.
Serbia 11.2 18.7 70.0 2011 est.
Seychelles 2.0 18.5 79.5 2011 est.
Sierra Leone 51.5 22.0 26.5 2011 est.
Singapore 0.0 26.6 73.4 2010 est.
Sint Maarten 0.4 18.3 81.3 2008 est.
Slovakia 3.8 35.5 60.7 2011 est.
Slovenia 2.5 6.9 90.5 2011 est.
Solomon Islands 37.7 6.4 55.9 2011 est.
Somalia 60.2 7.4 32.5 2008 est.
South Africa 2.5 31.6 65.9 2011 est.
Spain 3.2 25.8 71.0 2011 est.
Sri Lanka 13.0 29.6 57.4 2011 est.
Sudan 25.0 29.3 45.7 2011 est.
Suriname 10.8 24.4 64.8 2005 est.
Swaziland 8.2 46.9 44.9 2011 est.
Sweden 1.8 27.3 70.9 2011 est.
Switzerland 1.3 27.5 71.3 2011 est.
Syria 16.9 27.4 55.7 2011 est.
Taiwan 1.3 32.0 66.9 2011 est.
Tajikistan 21.4 21.7 56.8 2011 est.
Tanzania 27.8 24.2 48.0 2011 est.
Thailand 13.3 34.0 52.7 2011 est.
Timor-Leste 26.5 17.8 55.6 2011 est.
Togo 46.0 23.0 31.0 2011 est.
Tonga 20.8 18.1 61.1 2011 est.
Trinidad and Tobago 0.3 58.4 41.3 2011 est.
Tunisia 10.6 34.6 54.8 2010 est.
Turkey 9.3 28.1 62.6 2011 est.
Turkmenistan 7.9 24.5 67.6 2011 est.
Turks and Caicos Islands 1.0 24.2 74.8 2011 est.
Tuvalu 16.6 27.2 56.2 2002
Uganda 22.0 25.4 52.6 2011 est.
Ukraine 9.4 34.4 56.2 2011 est.
United Arab Emirates 0.8 53.9 45.3 2011 est.
United Kingdom 0.7 21.4 77.8 2011 est.
United States 1.2 19.2 79.6 2011 est.
Uruguay 9.4 21.7 68.9 2011 est.
Uzbekistan 21.9 37.7 40.3 2011 est.
Vanuatu 21.2 10.4 68.4 2011 est.
Venezuela 3.8 35.8 60.4 2011 est.
Vietnam 22.0 40.3 37.7 2011 est.
U.S. Virgin Islands 1.0 19.0 80.0 2003 est.
West Bank and Gaza 3.7 13.6 82.7 2011 est.
Yemen 7.9 42.2 49.9 2011 est.
Zambia 21.4 35.1 43.5 2011 est.
Zimbabwe 20.4 24.6 54.9 2011 est.
World 6.1 31.1 62.9 2011 est.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 20 September 2017.
Jump up ^ "Nigerian Gross Domestic Product Report Q2 2015". National Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "A closer look at Nigeria's GDP rebasing". cnbc Africa. 12 February 2015. Retrieved 22 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "GDP - COMPOSITION BY SECTOR". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Nigerian Gross Domestic Product Report Q2 2015". National Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 22 September 2015.
Sources[edit]
GDP (nominal): International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, April 2012: Nominal GDP list of countries. Data for the year 2012. - IMF
GDP Sector composition: Field Listing - GDP composition by sector. - CIA World Factbook
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