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Maslow's hierarchy of needs
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid with the more basic needs at the bottom[1]
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper “A Theory of Human Motivation” in Psychological Review.[2] Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of human developmental psychology, some of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans. Maslow used the terms "physiological", "safety", "belonging and love", "esteem", "self-actualization", and "self-transcendence" to describe the pattern that human motivations generally move through. The goal of Maslow's Theory is to attain the sixth level or stage: self actualization needs.[3]
Maslow studied what he called the master race of people such as Albert Einstein, Jane Addams, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglass rather than mentally ill or neurotic people, writing that "the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a cripple psychology and a cripple philosophy."[4]:236 Maslow studied the healthiest 1% of the college student population.[5]
Maslow's theory was fully expressed in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality.[4] The hierarchy remains a very popular framework in sociology research, management training[6] and secondary and higher psychology instruction.
Contents
[hide]
1 Hierarchy
1.1 Physiological needs
1.2 Safety needs
1.3 Social belonging
1.4 Esteem
1.5 Self-actualization
1.6 Self-transcendence
2 Application to Nursing
2.1 The Human Dimensions and Basic Human Needs
3 Research
4 Criticism
4.1 Ranking
4.1.1 Global ranking
4.1.2 Ranking of sex
4.1.3 Changes to the hierarchy by circumstance
4.2 Definition of terms
4.2.1 Self-actualization
4.3 Human or non-human needs
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Hierarchy[edit]
Alternative illustration as dynamic hierarchy of needs with overlaps of different needs at same time
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid with the largest, most fundamental needs at the bottom and the need for self-actualization and self-transcendence at the top.[1][7]
The most fundamental and basic four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "d-needs": esteem, friendship and love, security, and physical needs. If these "deficiency needs" are not met – with the exception of the most fundamental (physiological) need – there may not be a physical indication, but the individual will feel anxious and tense. Maslow's theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon) the secondary or higher level needs. Maslow also coined the term "metamotivation" to describe the motivation of people who go beyond the scope of the basic needs and strive for constant betterment.[8]
The human brain is a complex system and has parallel processes running at the same time, thus many different motivations from various levels of Maslow's hierarchy can occur at the same time. Maslow spoke clearly about these levels and their satisfaction in terms such as "relative", "general", and "primarily". Instead of stating that the individual focuses on a certain need at any given time, Maslow stated that a certain need "dominates" the human organism.[4] Thus Maslow acknowledged the likelihood that the different levels of motivation could occur at any time in the human mind, but he focused on identifying the basic types of motivation and the order in which they would tend to be met.
Physiological needs[edit]
Physiological needs are the physical requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met, the human body cannot function properly and will ultimately fail. Physiological needs are thought to be the most important; they should be met first. This is the first and basic need on the hierarchy of needs. Without them, the other needs cannot follow up.
Physiological needs include:
(Breathing)
Water
Food
Sleep
Clothing
Shelter
Sex
Safety needs[edit]
Once a person's physiological needs are relatively satisfied, their safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety – due to war, natural disaster, family violence, childhood abuse, etc. – people may (re-)experience post-traumatic stress disorder or transgenerational trauma. In the absence of economic safety – due to economic crisis and lack of work opportunities – these safety needs manifest themselves in ways such as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, disability accommodations, etc. This level is more likely to predominate in children as they generally have a greater need to feel safe.
Safety and Security needs include:
Personal security
Financial security
Health and well-being
Safety needs against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts
Social belonging[edit]
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of human needs is interpersonal and involves feelings of belongingness. This need is especially strong in childhood and it can override the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. Deficiencies within this level of Maslow's hierarchy – due to hospitalism, neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc. – can adversely affect the individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in general.
Social Belonging needs include:
Friendships
Intimacy
Family
According to Maslow, humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance among social groups, regardless whether these groups are large or small. For example, some large social groups may include clubs, co-workers, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs, and online communities. Some examples of small social connections include family members, intimate partners, mentors, colleagues, and confidants. Humans need to love and be loved – both sexually and non-sexually – by others.[2] Many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression in the absence of this love or belonging element. This need for belonging may overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure.
Esteem[edit]
Esteem needs are ego needs or status needs develop a concern with getting recognition, status, importance, and respect from others. All humans have a need to feel respected; this includes the need to have self-esteem and self-respect. Esteem presents the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People often engage in a profession or hobby to gain recognition. These activities give the person a sense of contribution or value. Low self-esteem or an inferiority complex may result from imbalances during this level in the hierarchy. People with low self-esteem often need respect from others; they may feel the need to seek fame or glory. However, fame or glory will not help the person to build their self-esteem until they accept who they are internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can hinder the person from obtaining a higher level of self-esteem or self-respect.
Most people have a need for stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs: a "lower" version and a "higher" version. The "lower" version of esteem is the need for respect from others. This may include a need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The "higher" version manifests itself as the need for self-respect. For example, the person may have a need for strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence, and freedom. This "higher" version takes guidelines, the "hierarchies are interrelated rather than sharply separated".[4] This means that esteem and the subsequent levels are not strictly separated; instead, the levels are closely related.
Self-actualization[edit]
Main article: Self-actualization
"What a man can be, he must be."[4]:91 This quotation forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need refers to what a person's full potential is and the realization of that potential. Maslow describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be.[4]:92 Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For example, one individual may have the strong desire to become an ideal parent. In another, the desire may be expressed athletically. For others, it may be expressed in paintings, pictures, or inventions.[4]:93 As previously mentioned, Maslow believed that to understand this level of need, the person must not only achieve the previous needs, but master them.
Self-transcendence[edit]
Main article: Self-transcendence
In his later years, Abraham Maslow explored a further dimension of needs, while criticizing his own vision on self-actualization.[9] By this later theory, the self only finds its actualization in giving itself to some higher outside goal, in altruism and spirituality. He equated this with the desire to reach the infinite.[10] "Transcendence refers to the very highest and most inclusive or holistic levels of human consciousness, behaving and relating, as ends rather than means, to oneself, to significant others, to human beings in general, to other species, to nature, and to the cosmos" (Farther Reaches of Human Nature, New York 1971, p. 269).
Application to Nursing[edit]
Nurses can apply Maslow’s hierarchy of basic needs in the assessment, planning, implementation, and evaluation of patient care. It helps the nurse identify unmet needs as they become health care needs, and allows the nurse to locate the patient on the health-illness continuum and to incorporate the human dimensions and health models into meeting needs.
The Human Dimensions and Basic Human Needs[edit]
Physical dimension Physiologic needs Breathing, circulation, temperature, intake of food and fluids, elimination of wastes, movement.
Environmental dimension Safety and security needs Housing, community, climate, family.
Sociocultural dimension Love and belonging needs Relationships with others, communications with others, support systems, being part of community, feeling loved by others.
Emotional dimension Self-esteem needs Hope, joy, curiosity, happiness, accepting Self.
Intellectual and spiritual dimensions Self-actualization needs Thinking, learning, decision making, values, beliefs, fulfillment, helping others.
All basic human needs are interrelated and may require nursing actions at more than one level at a given time. For example, in caring for a person coming into the emergency department with a heart attack, the nurse’s immediate concern in the patient’s physiologic needs (e.g., oxygen and pain relief). At the same time, safety needs (e.g., for ensuring that the person does not fall off the examining table) and love and belonging needs (e.g., for having a family member nearby if possible) are still major considerations.[11]
Research[edit]
Recent research appears to validate the existence of universal human needs, although the hierarchy proposed by Maslow is called into question.[12][13]
Following World War II, the unmet needs of homeless and orphaned children presented difficulties that were often addressed with the help of attachment theory, which was initially based on Maslow and others' developmental psychology work by John Bowlby.[14] Originally dealing primarily with maternal deprivation and concordant losses of essential and primal needs, attachment theory has since been extended to provide explanations of nearly all the human needs in Maslow's hierarchy, from sustenance and mating to group membership and justice.[15]
Criticism[edit]
Unlike most scientific theories, Maslow's hierarchy of needs has widespread influence outside academia. As Uriel Abulof argues, "The continued resonance of Maslow’s theory in popular imagination, however unscientific it may seem, is possibly the single most telling evidence of its significance: it explains human nature as something that most humans immediately recognize in themselves and others."[16] Still, academically, Maslow's theory is heavily contested.
Ranking[edit]
Global ranking[edit]
In their extensive review of research based on Maslow's theory, Wahba and Bridwell found little evidence for the ranking of needs that Maslow described or for the existence of a definite hierarchy at all.[17]
The order in which the hierarchy is arranged has been criticized as being ethnocentric by Geert Hofstede.[18] Maslow's hierarchy of needs fails to illustrate and expand upon the difference between the social and intellectual needs of those raised in individualistic societies and those raised in collectivist societies. The needs and drives of those in individualistic societies tend to be more self-centered than those in collectivist societies, focusing on improvement of the self, with self-actualization being the apex of self-improvement. In collectivist societies, the needs of acceptance and community will outweigh the needs for freedom and individuality.[19]
Ranking of sex[edit]
The position and value of sex on the pyramid has also been a source of criticism regarding Maslow's hierarchy. Maslow's hierarchy places sex in the physiological needs category along with food and breathing; it lists sex solely from an individualistic perspective. For example, sex is placed with other physiological needs which must be satisfied before a person considers "higher" levels of motivation. Some critics feel this placement of sex neglects the emotional, familial, and evolutionary implications of sex within the community, although others point out that this is true of all of the basic needs.[20][21]
Changes to the hierarchy by circumstance[edit]
The higher-order (self-esteem and self-actualization) and lower-order (physiological, safety, and love) needs classification of Maslow's hierarchy of needs is not universal and may vary across cultures due to individual differences and availability of resources in the region or geopolitical entity/country.
In one study,[22] exploratory factor analysis (EFA) of a thirteen item scale showed there were two particularly important levels of needs in the US during the peacetime of 1993 to 1994: survival (physiological and safety) and psychological (love, self-esteem, and self-actualization). In 1991, a retrospective peacetime measure was established and collected during the Persian Gulf War and US citizens were asked to recall the importance of needs from the previous year. Once again, only two levels of needs were identified; therefore, people have the ability and competence to recall and estimate the importance of needs. For citizens in the Middle East (Egypt and Saudi Arabia), three levels of needs regarding importance and satisfaction surfaced during the 1990 retrospective peacetime. These three levels were completely different from those of the US citizens.
Changes regarding the importance and satisfaction of needs from the retrospective peacetime to the wartime due to stress varied significantly across cultures (the US vs. the Middle East). For the US citizens, there was only one level of needs since all needs were considered equally important. With regards to satisfaction of needs during the war, in the US there were three levels: physiological needs, safety needs, and psychological needs (social, self-esteem, and self-actualization). During the war, the satisfaction of physiological needs and safety needs were separated into two independent needs while during peacetime, they were combined as one. For the people of the Middle East, the satisfaction of needs changed from three levels to two during wartime.[23][24]
A 1981 study looked at how Maslow's hierarchy might vary across age groups.[25] A survey asked participants of varying ages to rate a set number of statements from most important to least important. The researchers found that children had higher physical need scores than the other groups, the love need emerged from childhood to young adulthood, the esteem need was highest among the adolescent group, young adults had the highest self-actualization level, and old age had the highest level of security, it was needed across all levels comparably. The authors argued that this suggested Maslow's hierarchy may be limited as a theory for developmental sequence since the sequence of the love need and the self-esteem need should be reversed according to age.
Definition of terms[edit]
Self-actualization[edit]
The term "self-actualization" may not universally convey Maslow's observations; this motivation refers to focusing on becoming the best person that one can possibly strive for in the service of both the self and others.[4][non-primary source needed] Maslow's term of self-actualization might not properly portray the full extent of this level; quite often, when a person is at the level of self-actualization, much of what they accomplish in general may benefit others, or "the greater good".[original research?]
Human or non-human needs[edit]
Abulof argues that while Maslow stresses that “motivation theory must be anthropocentric rather than animalcentric,” his theory erects a largely animalistic pyramid, crowned with a human edge: “Man’s higher nature rests upon man’s lower nature, needing it as a foundation and collapsing without this foundation… Our godlike qualities rest upon and need our animal qualities.” Abulof notes that "all animals seek survival and safety, and many animals, especially mammals, also invest efforts to belong and gain esteem... The first four of Maslow’s classical five rungs feature nothing exceptionally human."[26] Even when it comes to "self-actualization," Abulof argues, it is unclear how distinctively human is the actualizing “self.” After all, the latter, according to Maslow, constitutes “an inner, more biological, more instinctoid core of human nature,” thus “the search for one’s own intrinsic, authentic values” checks the human freedom of choice: “A musician must make music," so freedom is limited to merely the choice of instrument.[27]
See also[edit]
ERG theory, which further expands and explains Maslow's theory
Fundamental human needs, Manfred Max-Neef's model
Human givens defines a set of innate physical and emotional needs common to all human beings and a set of natural capabilities for getting these needs met. It suggests that mental illness is impossible when innate human needs are met in a balanced way.
Need theory
Positive disintegration
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs[dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b Maslow, A.H. (1943). "A theory of human motivation". Psychological Review. 50 (4): 370–96. doi:10.1037/h0054346 – via psychclassics.yorku.ca.
Jump up ^ M.,, Wills, Evelyn. Theoretical basis for nursing. ISBN 9781451190311. OCLC 857664345.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Maslow, A (1954). Motivation and personality. New York, NY: Harper. ISBN 0-06-041987-3.
Jump up ^ Mittelman, W. (1991). "Maslow's study of self-actualization: A reinterpretation". Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 31 (1): 114–135. doi:10.1177/0022167891311010.
Jump up ^ Kremer, William Kremer; Hammond, Claudia (31 August 2013). "Abraham Maslow and the pyramid that beguiled business". BBC news magazine. Retrieved 1 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Steere, B. F. (1988). Becoming an effective classroom manager: A resource for teachers. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. ISBN 0-88706-620-8.
Jump up ^ Goble, F. (1970). The third force: The psychology of Abraham Maslow. Richmond, CA: Maurice Bassett Publishing. pp. 62.
Jump up ^ A.H. Maslow, "Critique of self-actualization theory", in: E. Hoffman (Ed.), Future visions: The unpublished papers of Abraham Maslow (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), pp. 26–32
Jump up ^ Cfr. A.H. Maslow, "The farther reaches of human nature", in: Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 1(1969)1, pp. 1-9; A. Maslow, The farther reaches of human nature (New York: The Viking Press, 1971); Mark E. Koltko-Rivera, "Rediscovering the Later Version of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Self-Transcendence and Opportunities for Theory, Research, and Unification", in: Review of General Psychology 10(2006)4, pp. 302-317 (PDF); Albert Garcia-Romeu, "Self-transcendence as a measurable transpersonal construct", in: Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 42(2010)1, p. 26-47 (PDF)
Jump up ^ Taylor, Carol. Fundamentals of Nursing: The Art and Science of Person-centered Nursing Care. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer, 2015. Print.
Jump up ^ Villarica, H. (August 17, 2011). "Maslow 2.0: A new and improved recipe for happiness". theatlantic.com.
Jump up ^ Tay, L.; Diener, E. (2011). "Needs and subjective well-being around the world". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 101 (2): 354–365. doi:10.1037/a0023779.
Jump up ^ Bretherton, I. (1992). "The Origins of Attachment Theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth". Developmental Psychology. 28 (5): 759–775. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.759.
Jump up ^ Bugental DB (2000). "Acquisition of the Algorithms of Social Life: A Domain-Based Approach". Psychological Bulletin. 126 (2): 178–219. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.187. PMID 10748640.
Jump up ^ Abulof, Uriel (2017-12-01). "Introduction: Why We Need Maslow in the Twenty-First Century". Society. 54 (6): 508. doi:10.1007/s12115-017-0198-6. ISSN 0147-2011.
Jump up ^ Wahba, M. A.; Bridwell, L. G. (1976). "Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory". Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 15 (2): 212–240. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(76)90038-6.
Jump up ^ Hofstede, G. (1984). "The cultural relativity of the quality of life concept" (PDF). Academy of Management Review. 9 (3): 389–398. doi:10.5465/amr.1984.4279653. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-11-12.
Jump up ^ Cianci, R.; Gambrel, P. A. (2003). "Maslow's hierarchy of needs: Does it apply in a collectivist culture". Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship. 8 (2): 143–161.
Jump up ^ Kenrick, D. (May 19, 2010). "Rebuilding Maslow's pyramid on an evolutionary foundation". psychologytoday.com/.
Jump up ^ Kenrick, D. T.; Griskevicius, V.; Neuberg, S. L.; Schaller, M. (2010). "Renovating the pyramid of needs: Contemporary extensions built upon ancient foundations". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 5: 292. doi:10.1177/1745691610369469.
Jump up ^ Tang, T. L.; West, W. B. (1997). "The importance of human needs during peacetime, retrospective peacetime, and the Persian Gulf War". International Journal of Stress Management. 4 (1): 47–62.
Jump up ^ Tang, T. L.; Ibrahim, A. H. (1998). "Importance of human needs during retrospective peacetime and the Persian Gulf War: Mid-eastern employees". International Journal of Stress Management. 5 (1): 25–37.
Jump up ^ Tang, T. L.; Ibrahim, A. H.; West, W. B. (2002). "Effects of war-related stress on the satisfaction of human needs: The United States and the Middle East". International Journal of Management Theory and Practices. 3 (1): 35–53.
Jump up ^ Goebel, B. L.; Brown, D. R. (1981). "Age differences in motivation related to Maslow's need hierarchy". Developmental Psychology. 17: 809–815. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.17.6.809.
Jump up ^ Abulof, Uriel (2017-12-01). "Be Yourself! How Am I Not myself?". Society. 54 (6): 530. doi:10.1007/s12115-017-0183-0. ISSN 0147-2011.
Jump up ^ Abulof, Uriel (2017-12-01). "Be Yourself! How Am I Not myself?". Society. 54 (6): 532. doi:10.1007/s12115-017-0183-0. ISSN 0147-2011.
Further reading[edit]
Heylighen, Francis (1992). "A cognitive-systemic reconstruction of maslow's theory of self-actualization" (PDF). Behavioral Science. 37 (1): 39–58. doi:10.1002/bs.3830370105.
Kress, Oliver (1993). "A new approach to cognitive development: ontogenesis and the process of initiation". Evolution and Cognition. 2 (4): 319–332.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
A Theory of Human Motivation, original 1943 article by Maslow.
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The Night Gwen Stacy Died
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"The Night Gwen Stacy Died"
The Amazing Spider-Man #121 (June 1973). Cover art by John Romita, Sr.
Publisher
Marvel Comics
Publication date
June – July 1973
Genre
Superhero
Title(s)
The Amazing Spider-Man #121-122
Main character(s)
Spider-Man
Gwen Stacy
Green Goblin
Creative team
Writer(s)
Gerry Conway
Penciller(s)
Gil Kane
Inker(s)
John Romita
Tony Mortellaro
Letterer(s)
Artie Simek
Colorist(s)
David Hunt
Editor(s)
Roy Thomas
"The Night Gwen Stacy Died" is a story arc of the Marvel Comics comic book series The Amazing Spider-Man #121–122 (June–July 1973), that became a watershed event in the life of the superhero Spider-Man, one of popular culture's most enduring and recognizable fictional characters. The two-issue story, written by Gerry Conway, with pencil art by Gil Kane and inking by John Romita Sr. and Tony Mortellaro, features Spider-Man's fight against his nemesis, the Green Goblin. The Green Goblin abducts Spider-Man's girlfriend Gwen Stacy, and she is killed during the battle.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Significance
3 Development
3.1 Behind the scenes
3.2 Bridge
3.3 Cause of death
3.4 Replays
3.5 What If?
4 Ultimate Gwen Stacy's death
5 In other media
5.1 Television
5.2 Films
6 See also
7 References
Plot[edit]
The Amazing Spider-Man #122 (June 1973). Cover art by John Romita Sr.
Prior to this arc, Norman Osborn had been the Green Goblin, but due to amnesia, he had suspended his identity as the supervillain and forgotten that Spider-Man is Peter Parker. Also, Harry Osborn, Parker's best friend and Norman's son, became addicted to drugs and was sequestered in the Osborn home for detoxification. Norman's parental grief, combined with financial pressure, triggered a breakdown resulting in Norman Osborn remembering his Goblin identity and again targeting Spider-Man and his loved ones for misery.
The Green Goblin abducts Peter's girlfriend, Gwen Stacy, and lures Spider-Man to a tower of either the Brooklyn Bridge (as depicted in the art) or the George Washington Bridge (as given in the text).[1][2] The Goblin and Spider-Man clash, and the Goblin hurls Stacy off the bridge. Spider-Man shoots a web strand at her legs and catches her. As he pulls her up, he thinks he has saved her. However, he quickly realizes she is dead. Unsure whether her neck was broken by the whiplash from her sudden stop or had been already broken by the Goblin prior to her fall, he blames himself for her death. A note on the letters page of The Amazing Spider-Man #125 states: "It saddens us to say that the whiplash effect she underwent when Spidey's webbing stopped her so suddenly was, in fact, what killed her."[1]
The Green Goblin escapes, and Spider-Man cries over Stacy's corpse and swears revenge. The following issue, Spider-Man tracks the Green Goblin to a warehouse and beats him but cannot bring himself to kill him. The Goblin uses the opportunity to send his glider to impale Spider-Man from behind. Warned by his spider-sense, Spider-Man dodges, and the glider instead impales the Green Goblin, seemingly killing him. Later, a devastated Parker, back at home, encounters an equally shocked and saddened Mary Jane Watson, who has lost her close friend Stacy, and the two attempt to comfort each other in the wake of their loss.
Significance[edit]
The death of Gwen Stacy shocked the American comic book community. Previously, it had been unthinkable to kill off such an important character—the girlfriend of a protagonist with a large fanbase. Generally, a superhero did not fail this disastrously unless it was part of his or her origin story. This story arc has been proposed as a marker of the end of the Silver Age of Comic Books, and the beginning of the darker, grittier Bronze Age.[3]
The frequent tendency for the wives and girlfriends of male superheroes to meet grim fates was referred to as "The Gwen Stacy Syndrome" by the Comics Buyer's Guide.[4]
A fan poll conducted by Marvel Comics for their series The 100 Greatest Marvels of All Time voted The Amazing Spider-Man (vol. 1) #121 and 122 to be the 6th and 19th greatest issues of all time, respectively.[5]
Development[edit]
Behind the scenes[edit]
Stan Lee, co-creator of both Spider-Man and Gwen Stacy, recounted that Amazing Spider-Man writer Gerry Conway, editor Roy Thomas, and inker John Romita, Sr. came up with the idea of killing Gwen Stacy, and consulted Lee about it: "... I was just getting ready to go to Europe on some sort of a business trip... to meet somebody to discuss something about Marvel. And I think I wasn't thinking too clearly, because when they said, 'We'd like to kill Gwen Stacy,' I said, 'Well, if that's what you want to do, okay.' All I wanted to do was get them out of the office so I could finish packing and get out of there. ... and when I came back and found out that Gwen had been killed, I thought 'Why would they do that? Why would Gerry write anything like that?' And I had to be reminded later on that I had perhaps reluctantly or perhaps carelessly said 'Okay' when they asked me."[6]
In the comic book collection The 100 Greatest Marvels of All Time: #9-6 (Amazing Spider-Man #121 was the #6 comic), Conway explained that Gwen and Peter were a "perfect couple", but taking that relationship to the next level (i.e. marriage or at least Peter revealing his secret identity to her) would "betray everything that Spider-Man was about", i.e. personal tragedy and anguish as root of Peter's life as Spider-Man. Killing Gwen Stacy was a perfect opportunity to kill two birds with one stone: breaking up the "unfitting" relationship and reinforcing the element of personal tragedy which was, in his opinion, the essence of Spider-Man.[citation needed]
Bridge[edit]
The bridge in the original issue of Amazing Spider-Man #121 was stated in the text to be the George Washington Bridge. The Pulse #4 (Sept. 2004) also states the bridge to be the George Washington Bridge.
The art of The Amazing Spider-Man #121, however, depicts the Brooklyn Bridge. Some reprints of the issue have had the text amended and now state the bridge to be the Brooklyn Bridge rather than the George Washington Bridge. Titles supporting the Brooklyn Bridge include The Amazing Spider-Man #147-148 (1975), The Amazing Spider-Man Annual #21 (1987), and Daredevil v. 2 #8 (2000). In a television interview for the Travel Channel's Marvel Superheroes Guide to New York City (2004), Stan Lee said that the artist for the issue had drawn the Brooklyn Bridge, but that he (as editor) mistakenly labeled it the George Washington Bridge. This was corrected in newer prints of the issue.
Different bridges are depicted in subsequent adaptations of the storyline. Mary Jane Watson was thrown off the Queensboro Bridge in both Ultimate Spider-Man number 25 and the 2002 Spider-Man movie, while in Spider-Man: The Animated Series, Mary Jane is thrown off the George Washington Bridge.
Cause of death[edit]
Gwen Stacy's death in The Amazing Spider-Man #121.
The comic features a "snap" sound effect next to Gwen Stacy's head in the panel in which Spider-Man's webbing catches her. In The Amazing Spider-Man #125 (Oct. 1973), Marvel Comics editor Roy Thomas wrote in the letters column that "it saddens us to have to say that the whiplash effect she underwent when Spidey's webbing stopped her so suddenly was, in fact, what killed her. In short, it was impossible for Peter to save her. He couldn't have swung down in time; the action he did take resulted in her death; if he had done nothing, she still would certainly have perished. There was no way out."
In the History Channel special Spider-Man Tech, Stan Lee states that her neck was indeed snapped.
Physicist and comic collector James Kakalios, in his book The Physics of Superheroes, states that in the real world, the whiplash effect would have killed her.[7][8][9] The comic book Civil War: Casualties of War: Captain America/Iron Man (2007) concurred that the proximate cause of death was the sudden stop during a high-speed fall. An issue of Peter Parker: Spider-Man revisits the issue, and further confirms Gwen died of a broken neck due to the use of the webbing.
For some time, however, fans speculated that the shock of the fall itself caused Gwen Stacy's death, due to the Green Goblin telling Spider-Man in The Amazing Spider-Man #121, "Romantic idiot! She was dead before your webbing reached her! A fall from that height would kill anyone — before they struck the ground!" In the 1987 edition of The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe, Gwen's death is attributed to the fall, not to Spider-Man's webbing. In the fourth issue of Marvels, it was reported that she died from the shock of the fall, however Phil, a photographer and witness, is unsure about exactly what kills her.
Replays[edit]
Several subsequent issues have echoed Gwen's death when others fell from great heights during Spider-Man's battles. On most occasions, he saves them by jumping after them and working with their momentum, rather than trying to stop them with his webbing (as he did in the What If? where he saves Gwen), most notably when he jumped off the same bridge to save Gwen's daughter, Sarah Stacy, around seven years after her death; due to accelerated aging caused by her Goblin-enhanced mutated body chemistry- Sarah's father being Norman Osborn after a brief affair between Gwen and Osborn- Sarah looks exactly like her mother.
In another storyline, the Green Goblin once again replays the scenario, this time with Spider-Man's wife Mary Jane Watson-Parker. As with Gwen, Mary Jane plummets toward her death (this time from the recoil from her gun when she shoots at the Green Goblin). Learning from his previous error, Spider-Man uses multiple weblines and catches every major joint, saving Mary Jane from suffering the same whiplash effect that killed Gwen.[10] A similar event occurs when Spider-Man saves Anna Maria—the girlfriend of Otto Octavius during a time when he was in Spider-Man's body—when Green Goblin uses her as a hostage and throws her off a building after learning that his true enemy has returned, Peter reflecting as he catches Anna Maria that he has learned over time to catch every joint in moments like this to limit potential whiplash.[11]
During the Civil War,[12] both Iron Man and Captain America cited Gwen as argument for their opinions on the Superhuman Registration Act. Iron Man argued that if Spider-Man had received proper training as registered heroes were given, he would have saved her, while Captain America argued that Gwen was only in danger because the Goblin knew Spider-Man's identity, the Act requiring heroes to register their identities with the government.
What If?[edit]
In a non-canonical parallel universe story in What If? #24, Spider-Man saves Gwen by jumping after her rather than catching her with a web-line (in the same way he saved Mary Jane in the film), allowing him to cushion her from the impact as they hit the water and subsequently give her CPR. In the aftermath of this rescue, he proposed to Gwen after revealing his secret identity to her, and, in a subsequent confrontation with the Green Goblin, Norman Osborn finally fought off his evil side when Harry moved to protect him regardless of what he'd become. However, their life was not destined to be a happy one; to ensure his victory, the Goblin had sent J. Jonah Jameson proof of Spider-Man's real identity, which Jonah had subsequently published and used to acquire a warrant for Peter's arrest, thus forcing Peter to escape from the police mere moments after his wedding to Gwen. As the issue ended, Gwen departed with Joe "Robbie" Robertson, who promised Gwen that they would do whatever they could to help Peter.
Ultimate Gwen Stacy's death[edit]
In Ultimate Spider-Man, Gwen Stacy dies in a completely different way a few issues after she found out Spider-Man's secret identity. Walking home after a talk with Mary Jane Watson, she realized she had forgotten her key so she tried to open the door to the cellar (Peter's lab) but that was locked too. She heard rustling in the bushes so she turned around and was grabbed by small tentacles coming from Carnage, who killed her the way it killed its other victims: by absorbing the life out of her. The last thing Gwen saw before being turned into a mummy-like corpse was Carnage taking the form of a more solid form of Peter's father due to Dr. Connors mixing his and Peter's DNA with elements of the Venom suit, which was used with Richard Parker's DNA.
In Ultimate Spider-Man #128, Gwen was reintroduced to the series. Carnage had recreated her body and her memories as essentially a clone. After a battle with Venom, Carnage left Gwen to join with Eddie Brock. Since this battle, Gwen has been completely rid of the Carnage symbiote and is now living with May Parker.
In other media[edit]
Television[edit]
"The Night Gwen Stacy Died" was seen in Spider-Man: The Animated Series. In the episode "Turning Point", the Green Goblin hurtled Mary Jane Watson off the bridge, but instead of dying, she falls through a portal, unseen to Peter Parker believing she has fallen and perished in the water below. The episode's name is the same name of the first issue in "The Night Gwen Stacy Died" arc.
"The Night Gwen Stacy Died" is somewhat reenacted in the Ultimate Spider-Man cartoon series. Instead of Gwen Stacy, other female characters that have a connection to Spider-Man are the Green Goblin's would-be victims: White Tiger (Ava Ayala) in the episode "Ultimate", and Spider-Girl (Petra Parker) in the episode "The Spider-Verse (Part 1)".
Films[edit]
"The Night Gwen Stacy Died" was adapted into the end of the 2002 Spider-Man film, with Mary Jane Watson again taking the role, although she did not die; Spider-Man managed to save her by jumping after her and catching her in person, subsequently battling the Green Goblin after lowering Mary Jane to safety, although Green Goblin dies similarly to how he did in the comics.
"The Night Gwen Stacy Died" was loosely adapted in the 2014 film The Amazing Spider-Man 2. The Green Goblin drops Gwen Stacy through the top of a clock tower. Spider-Man saves her and knocks Green Goblin off of his glider. The glider hits into the clock tower gears that Gwen is standing on, and she falls. Spider-Man catches her again and she dangles below until the turning gears cut the web Gwen is hanging by. Spider-Man dives, shooting a web to catch her. She dies in a similar way to the comics. When the web catches her, she is literally just above the ground and a cracking sound is heard, leaving the exact cause of death ambiguous as there is an equal chance that she was killed by the sudden stop or because she slightly struck the ground. The clock stops at 1:21, a reference to the issue of the comic book in which Gwen died.
See also[edit]
1970s portal
comics portal
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Saffel, Steve. Spider-Man the Icon: The Life and Times of a Pop Culture Phenomenon (Titan Books, 2007) ISBN 978-1-84576-324-4, p. 65, states, "In the battle that followed atop the Brooklyn Bridge (or was it the George Washington Bridge?)...." On page 66, Saffel reprints the panel of The Amazing Spider-Man #121, page 18, in which Spider-Man exclaims, "The George Washington Bridge! It figures Osborn would pick something named after his favorite president. He's got the same sort of hangup for dollar bills!" Saffel states "The span portrayed...is the GW's more famous cousin, the Brooklyn Bridge. ... To address the contradiction in future reprints of the tale, though, Spider-Man's dialogue was altered so that he's referring to the Brooklyn Bridge. But the original snafu remains as one of the more visible errors in the history of comics."
Jump up ^ Sanderson, Peter. Marvel Universe: The Complete Encyclopedia of Marvel's Greatest Characters (Harry N. Abrams, New York, 1998) ISBN 0-8109-8171-8, p. 84, notes, "[W]hile the script described the site of Gwen's demise as the George Washington Bridge, the art depicted the Brooklyn Bridge, and there is still no agreement as to where it actually took place."
Jump up ^ Blumberg, Arnold T. (Fall 2003). "'The Night Gwen Stacy Died:' The End of Innocence and the Birth of the Bronze Age". Reconstruction. 3 (4). Retrieved 2008-11-14.
Jump up ^ "How NOT to end a relationship!". Comics Buyer's Guide. 16 February 2001. Archived from the original on 3 June 2008. Retrieved 14 November 2008.
Jump up ^ Spider-Man In The 100 Greatest Marvels Of All Time
Jump up ^ Thomas, Roy (August 2011). "Stan Lee's Amazing Marvel Interview!". Alter Ego. TwoMorrows Publishing (104): 32.
Jump up ^ Kakalios, James (2005). The Physics of Superheroes Gotham Books: New York. ISBN 1-59240-146-5.
Jump up ^ Kakalios, James. "The Physics of Superheroes - Death of Gwen Stacy" (Video). Retrieved 2006-10-31.
Jump up ^ Feder, Toni. "Teaching Physics with Superheroes". Physics Today. Archived from the original on 2006-10-06. Retrieved 2006-10-31.
Jump up ^ Marvel Knights Spider-Man #12
Jump up ^ Superior Spider-Man #31
Jump up ^ Iron Man Captain America: Casualties of War
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text:
Epidemiology of snakebites
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Map showing the approximate world distribution of snakes.
Map showing the global distribution of snakebite morbidity.
Most snakebites are caused by non-venomous snakes. Of the roughly 3,000 known species of snake found worldwide, only 15% are considered dangerous to humans.[1][2][3] Snakes are found on every continent except Antarctica.[1] There are two major families of venomous snakes, Elapidae and Viperidae. Three hundred twenty five species in 61 genera are recognized in the family Elapidae [4] and 224 species in 22 genera are recognized in the family Viperidae,[5] In addition, the most diverse and widely distributed snake family, the colubrids, has approximately 700 venomous species,[6] but only five genera—boomslangs, twig snakes, keelback snakes, green snakes, and slender snakes—have caused human fatalities.[6]
Since reporting is not mandatory in many regions of the world,[1] snakebites often go unreported. Consequently, no accurate study has ever been conducted to determine the frequency of snakebites on the international level. However, some estimates put the number at 1.2 to 5.5 million snakebites, 421,000 envenomings, resulting in perhaps 20,000 deaths, but the actual number of deaths may be as high as 94,000.[7] Many people who survive bites nevertheless suffer from permanent tissue damage caused by venom, leading to disability.[8] Most snake envenomings and fatalities occur in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa, with India reporting the most snakebite deaths of any country.[1]
Worldwide, snakebites occur most frequently in the summer season when snakes are active and humans are outdoors.[1][9] Agricultural and tropical regions report more snakebites than anywhere else.[1][10] In North America, the victims are typically male and between 17 and 27 years of age.[2][9][11] Children and the elderly are the most likely to die.[2][12]
Contents
[hide]
1 Africa
2 Asia
3 Australasia
4 Europe
5 North America
6 South America
7 Oceans
8 Gallery
9 References
Africa[edit]
Number of Snakebite Envenomings per Year
Region
Low Estimate
High Estimate
Asia 237,379 1,184,550
Australasia 1,099 1,260
Caribbean 1,098 8,039
Europe 3,961 9,902
Latin America 80,329 129,084
North Africa / Middle East 3,017 80,191
North America 2,683 3,858
Oceania 361 4,635
Sub-Saharan Africa 90,622 419,639
Total:
420,549
1,841,158
Number of Deaths from Envenoming per Year
Region
Low Estimate
High Estimate
Asia 15,385 57,636
Australasia 2 4
Caribbean 107 1,161
Europe 48 128
Latin America 540 2,298
North Africa / Middle East 43 78
North America 5 7
Oceania 227 516
Sub-Saharan Africa 3,529 32,117
Total:
19,886
93,945
Although Africa is home to four venomous snake families—Atractaspididae, Colubridae, Elapidae, and Viperidae—approximately 60% of all bites are caused by vipers alone. In drier regions of the continent, such as sahels and savannas, the saw-scaled vipers inflict up to 90% of all bites.[13] The puff adder is responsible for the most fatalities overall,[14] although saw-scaled vipers inflict more bites in North African countries, where the puff adder is typically not found.[10] The black mamba, although responsible for far fewer snakebite incidents, is the species which has the highest mortality rate in Africa and in the world.[15]
Most bites occur in industrial plantations, which attract many types of snake prey. Banana plantations are associated with vipers such as night adders, while rubber and palm tree plantations attract elapids, including cobras and black mambas.[16] Important cobra species include the forest cobra and the black-necked spitting cobra.[17] In forested areas of Guinea, cobras may inflict more than 30% of all venomous bites.[18]
Mambas, cobras, and some larger puff adder species may claim territories of up to 1 to 2 square kilometres (0.4 to 0.8 sq mi), which are used by the snakes for hunting and reproduction. These snakes are large enough to defend their territory from intruders, including humans.[13] The black mamba, in particular, is among the most venomous snakes in the world and one of the most aggressive. It is the longest snake on the continent and is able to move at 11 kilometres per hour (6.8 mph), making it unusually dangerous.[19] Although black mambas cause only 0.5-1% of snakebites in South Africa, they produce the highest mortality rate and the species is responsible for many snake bite fatalities. The black mamba is the species with the highest mortality rate in every single nation in which it occurs, despite not being responsible for the most numerous number of snakebites. It is also the species which has the highest mortality rate worldwide.[15]
There are also venomous colubrids in Africa, although of these only two arboreal genera, the boomslang and the twig snakes, are likely to inflict life-threatening bites. Of the Atractaspididae, Atractaspis is the species involved in the majority of bites. Since these snakes are nocturnal and fossorial, living in burrows underground, bites remain rare, peaking at 1 to 3% in certain areas of the Sudanian savanna. However, there is no antivenom or other effective therapy for Atractaspis envenomation, and the case fatality rate remains approximately 10%, with death typically occurring quickly.[20]
Snakebites in Africa are most common in the sub-Saharan countries (scorpion stings are more common in Northern Africa), and typically occur during the rainy season when snakes are more active.[21] Agricultural plantations and pastoral areas are involved in approximately 50 to 60% of reported snakebites,[18] while outdoor activities such as collecting firewood and water account for another 20% of bites.[13] Approximately 1 million snakebites occur in sub-Saharan Africa each year,[22] resulting in up to 500,000 envenomations, 25,000 deaths and another 25,000 permanent disabilities.[23]
Because there is no reliable reporting system in place and because most victims never report their injury to health care facilities, these numbers are uncertain.[22] One comprehensive study estimates that 91,000 to 420,000 snake envenomings occur in sub-Saharan Africa annually, resulting in anywhere from 4,000 to 30,000 deaths.[1] The same study estimates that 3,000 to 80,000 envenomations occur in North Africa, although far fewer people, less than 100, die each year.[1] The variability of these estimates is indicative of the difficulty in accurately assessing snakebite morbidity and mortality.
In sub-Saharan Africa, over 50% of snakebite injuries are not appropriately treated.[22] Between 40 and 80% of victims, depending on the country, exclusively rely on traditional medicine for treatment.[22] Most victims who receive treatment by health care professionals have nevertheless delayed seeking medical attention for over 24 hours, and often up to 1 to 2 weeks.[22] In many sub-Saharan countries, poor availability of expensive antivenom contributes to morbidity, and snakebites continue to remain a neglected health problem.[22]
Asia[edit]
In Bangladesh, incidence of snakebites is very high like other tropical countries of Southeast Asia. Here most snakebite victims dwelling in rural areas are farmers, fishermen, and hunters and also there are a high number of snakebite occurrences that happened at their homes as most of the snakes are nocturnal animals and poor people have the practice of sleeping on the floor. An epidemiological study estimated about 8000 snakebites per year with 22% mortality which has been identified to be one of the highest in the world. Nonetheless, there are approximately 80 species of snakes found in Bangladesh; among them only few are venomous.These are cobra, krait, Russell’s viper, sawscaled viper, green snakes, and sea snakes. However, most of the bites are reported by nonvenomous snakes and even as many as 40% bites inflicted by venomous snakes do not produce signs of envenoming.[24]
On the Indian subcontinent, almost all snakebite deaths have traditionally been attributed to the Big Four, consisting of the Russell's viper, Indian cobra, saw-scaled viper, and the common krait. However, studies have shown that the hump-nosed viper, previously considered essentially harmless and misidentified as the saw-scaled viper, is capable of delivering a fatal bite.[25][26] In regions of Kerala, India, it may be responsible for nearly 10% of venomous bites.[26] Commonly used antivenoms in India do not appear to be effective against hump-nosed viper bites.[25][26] According to the most conservative estimates, at least 81,000 snake envenomings and 11,000 fatalities occur in India each year, making it the most heavily affected country in the world.[1] The Malayan pit viper and banded krait are two other species involved in a significant number of venomous bites.
In Myanmar (Burma), approximately 70 to 80% of bites are inflicted by the Russell's viper, which is frequently found in rice fields.[27] In Japan, the majority of venomous bites are inflicted by the Asian pit vipers.[27] In Sri Lanka, approximately 40% of bites are caused by the Russell's viper, while 35% are caused by the Indian cobra.[27] In Thailand, the monocled cobra is responsible for the majority of snakebite fatalities.[28] Tea plantations are sometimes associated with elapids such as the common cobras and the king cobra.
Reports of large man-eating pythons are common in Southeast Asia, although the threat is typically exaggerated. However, in the Philippines, more than a quarter of Aeta men (a modern forest-dwelling hunter-gatherer group) have reported surviving a reticulated python attack.[29] Pythons are nonvenomous ambush predators, and both the Aeta and pythons hunt deer, wild pigs, and monkeys, making them competitors and prey.[29]
Throughout Western Asia, the species responsible for the majority of bites tend to be more venomous than European snakes, but deaths are infrequent. Studies estimate that perhaps 100 fatal bites occur each year.[1][16] The Palestine viper and Lebetine viper are the most important species.[16] While larger and more venomous elapids, such as the Egyptian cobra, are also found throughout the Middle East, these species inflict fewer bites.
Australasia[edit]
The yellow-lipped sea krait is a timid but highly venomous sea snake common throughout tropical Indo-Pacific waters.
See also: List of fatal snake bites in Australia
The vast majority of venomous snakebites in Australasia occur in the Australasian ecozone. At least 300 evenomations occur each year in Papua New Guinea, 30 in the Solomon Islands, and 10 Vanuatu.[1] The majority of bites in New Guinea are caused by the death adders, and a smaller number by the endemic small-eyed snake and other local species.[30] Most of the Pacific Islands are free of terrestrial snakes, although sea snakes are common in coral reefs. In the Oceania ecozone, only Micronesia and Tonga, where at least 10 envenomations occur annually, face an appreciable burden of snakebite.
In Australia, there are many more annual cases of spiderbite and jellyfish envenomation than snakebite; however, when considering the number of fatal cases, snakebite is the most serious type of envenoming.[31] Australia is unique in that it is the only continent where venomous snakes constitute the majority of species.[32] Nearly all venomous species in Australia are elapids, as vipers are absent from the continent.[31]
The brown snakes, death adders, mulga snakes, taipans, and tiger snakes are the five groups that inflict virtually all reported snakebites, although copperheads, rough-scaled snakes, and members of the genus Hoplocephalus are also occasionally involved in bites. Of the five dangerous groups, the highly venomous eastern brown snake, which is widespread and common in both rural and urban environments, is the most important—it is estimated to be responsible for up to 60% of all deaths caused by snakebite.[32]
In Northern Australia, sea snakes are common and occasionally inflict bites, although far less frequently than terrestrial snakes.[31] Several venomous colubrids exist in Australia as well, such as the brown tree snake, although they have geographically limited distributions and only very rarely deliver a medically significant bite.[33] In Tasmania and Kangaroo Island, which have a cooler, moister habitat than mainland Australia, the tiger snakes and copperhead snakes inflict the majority of bites. The brown snakes are not present on these islands.[34]
Despite the fact that many Australian snakes have unusually potent venom, wide access to antivenom, which is available for all dangerous species,[31] has made deaths exceedingly rare. It is believed that up to 1,500 definite or suspected snakebites occur in Australia each year, of which about 200 are serious enough to warrant antivenom therapy.[1][31] Approximately 2 to 4 fatalities occur annually.[31]
Europe[edit]
In Europe, nearly all of the snakes responsible for venomous bites belong to the viper family, and of these, the coastal viper, nose-horned viper, asp viper, and Lataste's viper inflict the majority of bites.[16] Although Europe has a population of some 731 million people, snake bites are only responsible for about 30 fatalities each year, largely due to wide access to health care services and antivenom, as well as the relatively mild potency of many native species' venom.[16]
North America[edit]
See also: List of fatal snake bites in the United States
Of the 120 known indigenous snake species in North America, only 20 are venomous to human beings, all belonging to the families Viperidae and Elapidae.[2] However, in the United States, every state except Maine, Alaska, and Hawaii is home to at least one of 20 venomous snake species.[2] Up to 95% of all snakebite-related deaths in the United States are attributed to the western and eastern diamondback rattlesnakes.[2][35] Further, the majority of bites in the United States occur in the southwestern part of the country, in part because rattlesnake populations in the eastern states are much lower.[36]
The national average incidence of venomous snake bites in the United States is roughly 4 bites per 100,000 persons,[37] and about 5 deaths per year total (1 death per 65 million people).[38] The state of North Carolina has the highest frequency of reported snakebites, averaging approximately 19 bites per 100,000 persons.[37] Fewer than 1% of venomous snakebites in the United States are caused by coral snakes,[39] the rest being caused by the pit vipers (rattlesnakes, copperheads, and cottonmouths).
Mexico is estimated to have at least 28,000 snake envenomings annually, although only a small number of these lead to death.[1] Central America is home to 23 species of pit vipers, and they inflict the vast majority of reported bites. Of these, Bothrops asper is the most important species, partly because it is abundant in lowland areas and partly because it is frequently found in agricultural and pastoral areas where humans work. Of the elapids, the yellow-bellied sea snake has, very rarely, caused venomous bites, while the coral snakes, although common, inflict only 1 to 2% of all reported snake bites.[40] Of the coral snakes, Micrurus nigrocinctus is responsible for the most bites.[41]
Colubrid species found in Central America only cause mild to moderate envenomation in healthy adults, and most of these bites have occurred in humans handling the snakes.[41] Panama may have the greatest incidence of snakebites in Latin America, while El Salvador has the lowest (mostly because B. asper is not found in this country).[42] The total number of snakebites in Central America is estimated to be 4,000 to 5,000, although as in other regions of the world, snakebites are probably underreported.[42]
South America[edit]
In the Neotropics, the lance-headed vipers inflict the majority of fatal bites, although of the many known species, only two, the common lancehead and terciopelo, are responsible for most fatalities.[8][10] The tropical rattlesnake is another important species.
Oceans[edit]
Most of the Pacific Islands are free of terrestrial snakes;[16] however, sea snakes are common in the Indian Ocean and tropical Pacific Ocean, but are not found in the Atlantic Ocean or the Caribbean, Mediterranean or Red Seas.[43] While the majority of species live close to shorelines or coral reefs, the fully pelagic yellow-bellied sea snake can be found in the open ocean.[43] Over 50% of bites inflicted by sea snakes, which are generally not aggressive, occur when fishermen attempt to remove snakes which have become tangled in fishing nets.[43][44]
Symptoms may appear in as little as 5 minutes or take 8 hours to develop, depending on the species and region of the body bitten.[43] Although sea snakes are known for extremely potent venom, about 80% of reported bites end up being dry.[43][45] It is estimated that each year 15,000 to 75,000 fisherman are bitten by sea snakes.[46] The advent of antivenom and advances in emergency medicine have reduced fatalities to about 3% of snakebite cases.[43] The highly venomous beaked sea snake is responsible for more than 50% of all sea snake bites, as well as the majority of envenomings and fatalities.[46]
Gallery[edit]
The black mamba is one of sub-Saharan Africa's most feared snakes. A territorial species that may become unusually aggressive if provoked. Without antivenom treatment, the mortality rate is 100%,[15][47] though bites recorded from this species are relatively rare in the continent.[48]
A juvenile Indian cobra, perhaps India's most recognized snake. This species is a member of the Big Four, a group of snakes traditionally held responsible for the majority of fatalities on the Indian subcontinent.
The widespread and common eastern brown snake is one of Australia's most venomous elapids. Fast moving and aggressive if threatened, it is responsible for more than half of the country's fatal bites.[32][49]
Although not a particularly aggressive species, the horned viper possesses the most potent venom of all European snakes.[50][51] It is typically regarded as the continent's most dangerous snake.[52]
The highly venomous eastern diamondback rattlesnake is the largest rattlesnake species in the world.[53] A large, heavy-bodied, and powerful pit viper, it is the leading cause of fatal snakebites in North America.[2][35]
The two-striped forest pit viper is an arboreal snake from the Amazon Basin. An important cause of bites in its habitat, it may be the second most dangerous snake in the Amazon after the common lancehead.[54]
Southeast Asia's reticulated python, the world's largest snake, is a potentially dangerous species. More than a quarter of Aeta men (a Filipino hunter-gatherer group) have survived python predation attempts.[29]
References[edit]
Footnotes
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Gold, Barry S.; Richard C. Dart; Robert A. Barish (1 April 2002). "Bites of venomous snakes". The New England Journal of Medicine. 347 (5): 347–56. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 12151473. doi:10.1056/NEJMra013477. Retrieved 2009-06-25.
Jump up ^ Russell, F. E. (1990). "When a snake strikes". Emerg Med. 22 (12): 33–4, 37–40, 43.
Jump up ^ "Elapidae". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 27 November 2006.
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^ Jump up to: a b Mackessy, Stephen P. (2002). "Biochemistry and pharmacology of colubrid snake venoms" (PDF). Journal of Toxicology: Toxin Reviews. 21 (1–2): 43–83. doi:10.1081/TXR-120004741. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-02. Retrieved 2009-09-26. Estimates of the number of venomous colubrids approach 700 species. Most may not produce a venom capable of causing serious damage to humans, but at least five species (Dispholidus typus, Thelotornis capensis, Rhabdophis tigrinus, Philodryas olfersii and Tachymenis peruviana) have caused human fatalities
Jump up ^ Kasturiratne, A; Wickremasinghe, AR; de Silva, N; Gunawardena, NK; Pathmeswaran, A; Premaratna, R; Savioli, L; Lalloo, DG; de Silva, HJ (4 November 2008). "The global burden of snakebite: a literature analysis and modelling based on regional estimates of envenoming and deaths.". PLoS medicine. 5 (11): e218. PMID 18986210.
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Jump up ^ O'Shea 2008, p. 78
Jump up ^ O'Shea, Mark (2008). Venomous Snakes of the World. London: New Holland Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84773-086-2.
Jump up ^ O'Shea 2008, p. 115
Jump up ^ Halassy, Beata; Brgles, Marija; Habjanec, Lidija; Balija, Maja Lang; Kurtović, Tihana; Marchetti-Deschmann, Martina; Križaj, Günter; Allmaier, Igor (2010). "Intraspecies variability in Vipera ammodytes ammodytes venom related to its toxicity and immunogenic potential". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology C. Elsevier. 153 (2): 223–230. doi:10.1016/j.cbpc.2010.10.007. Retrieved 21 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Valenta 2010, p. 186
Jump up ^ O'Shea 2008, p. 57
Jump up ^ O'Shea 2008, p. 46
Jump up ^ O'Shea 2008, p. 40
Bibliography
Greene, Harry W. (1997). Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20014-2.
Stephen P., Mackessy, ed. (2010). Handbook of Venoms and Toxins of Reptiles (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-9165-1.
O'Shea, Mark (2008). Venomous Snakes of the World. London: New Holland Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84773-086-2.
Valenta, Jiri (2010). Venomous Snakes: Envenoming, Therapy (2nd ed.). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60876-618-5.
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