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Greek Dark Ages
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Greek Dark Ages
Period
Ancient Greece
Dates
c. 1100 – c. 800 BC
Preceded by
Mycenaean Greece
Followed by
Archaic Greece
Sparta
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The Greek Dark Age, also called Greek Dark Ages, Homeric Age (named for the fabled poet, Homer) or Geometric period (so called after the characteristic Geometric art of the time),[1] is the period of Greek history from the end of the Mycenaean palatial civilization around 1100 BC to the first signs of the Greek poleis, city states, in the 9th century BC.
The archaeological evidence shows a widespread collapse of Bronze Age civilization in the Eastern Mediterranean world at the outset of the period, as the great palaces and cities of the Mycenaeans were destroyed or abandoned. Around then, the Hittite civilization suffered serious disruption and cities from Troy to Gaza were destroyed. Following the collapse, fewer and smaller settlements suggest famine and depopulation. In Greece, the Linear B writing of the Greek language used by Mycenaean bureaucrats ceased. The decoration on Greek pottery after about 1100 BC lacks the figurative decoration of Mycenaean ware and is restricted to simpler, generally geometric styles (1000–700 BC).
It was previously thought that all contact was lost between mainland Hellenes and foreign powers during this period, yielding little cultural progress or growth, but artifacts from excavations at Lefkandi on the Lelantine Plain in Euboea show that significant cultural and trade links with the east, particularly the Levant coast, developed from c. 900 BC onwards. Additionally, evidence has emerged of the new presence of Hellenes in sub-Mycenaean Cyprus and on the Syrian coast at Al Mina.
Contents
[hide]
1 Fall of Mycenaeans
2 Mediterranean warfare and Sea Peoples
3 Culture
4 Post-Mycenaean Cyprus
5 Society
6 Lefkandi burial
7 End
8 New writing system
9 Continuity thesis
10 See also
11 References
12 Bibliography
Fall of Mycenaeans[edit]
The Mycenaean civilization started to collapse from 1200 BC. Archaeology suggests that, around 1100 BC, the palace centres and outlying settlements of the Mycenaeans' highly organized culture began to be abandoned or destroyed, and by 1050 BC, the recognizable features of Mycenaean culture had disappeared, and the population had decreased significantly.[2] Many explanations attribute the fall of the Mycenaean civilization and the Bronze Age collapse to climatic or environmental catastrophe, combined with an invasion by Dorians or by the Sea Peoples, or to the widespread availability of edged weapons of iron, but no single explanation fits the available archaeological evidence.
Mediterranean warfare and Sea Peoples[edit]
Around this time large-scale revolts took place in several parts of the eastern Mediterranean, and attempts to overthrow existing kingdoms were made as a result of economic and political instability by surrounding people, who were already plagued with famine and hardship. Part of the Hittite kingdom was invaded and conquered by the so-called Sea Peoples, whose origins, perhaps from different parts of the Mediterranean such as the Black Sea, the Aegean and Anatolian regions, remain obscured. The 13th- and 12th-century inscriptions and carvings at Karnak and Luxor are the only sources for "Sea Peoples", a term invented by the Egyptians themselves and recorded in boastful accounts of Egyptian military successes.[3] For these so-called "Sea Peoples", there is little more evidence than these inscriptions.
The foreign countries... made a conspiracy in their islands. All at once the lands were on the move, scattered in war. No country could stand before their arms…. Their league was Peleset, Tjeker, Shekelesh, Denyen and Weshesh.[4]
A similar assemblage of peoples may have attempted to invade Egypt twice, once during the reign of Merneptah, about 1208 BC, and again during the reign of Ramesses III, about 1178 BC.
Culture[edit]
Geometric-style box in the shape of a barn. On display in the Ancient Agora Museum in Athens, housed in the Stoa of Attalus. From early geometric cremation burial of a pregnant wealthy woman, 850 BC.
With the collapse of the palatial centres, no more monumental stone buildings were built and the practice of wall painting may have ceased; writing in the Linear B script ceased, vital trade links were lost, and towns and villages were abandoned. Writing in the Linear B script ceased particularly because the redistributive economy had crashed, and there was no longer a need to keep records in Linear B script.[5] The population of Greece was reduced,[6] and the world of organized state armies, kings, officials, and redistributive systems disappeared. Most of the information about the period comes from burial sites and the grave goods contained within them.
The fragmented, localized and autonomous cultures of reduced complexity are noted for such diversity of their material cultures in pottery styles (conservative in Athens, eclectic at Knossos), burial practices and settlement structures. The pottery style, Proto- Geometric signaled the loss of previous designs that were more complex. These newer designs were simpler, including only lines and curves, signaling a simplified society.[citation needed] Generalizations about the "Dark Age Society" are generally considered false, because the various cultures throughout Greece cannot be grouped into a large "Dark Age Society" category.[7] Tholos tombs are found in early Iron Age Thessaly and in Crete but not in general elsewhere, and cremation is the dominant rite in Attica but nearby in the Argolid, it was inhumation.[8] Some former sites of Mycenaean palaces, such as Argos or Knossos, continued to be occupied; the fact that other sites experienced an expansive "boom time" of a generation or two before they were abandoned has been associated by James Whitley with the "big-man social organization", which is based on personal charisma and is inherently unstable: he interprets Lefkandi in this light.[9]
Some regions in Greece, such as Attica, Euboea and central Crete, recovered economically from these events faster than others, but life for the poorest Greeks would have remained relatively unchanged as it had done for centuries. There was still farming, weaving, metalworking and pottery but at a lower level of output and for local use in local styles. Some technical innovations were introduced around 1050 BC with the start of the Proto-geometric style (1050–900 BC), such as the superior pottery technology that included a faster potter's wheel for superior vase shapes and the use of a compass to draw perfect circles and semicircles for decoration. Better glazes were achieved by higher temperature firing of clay. However, the overall trend was toward simpler, less intricate pieces and fewer resources being devoted to the creation of beautiful art.
The smelting of iron was learned from Cyprus and the Levant and was exploited and improved upon by using local deposits of iron ore previously ignored by the Mycenaeans: edged weapons were now within reach of less elite warriors. Though the universal use of iron was one shared feature among Dark Age settlements,[10] it is still uncertain when the forged iron weapons and armour achieved superior strength to those that had been previously cast and hammered from bronze. From 1050, many small local iron industries appeared, and by 900, almost all weapons in grave goods were made of iron.
The distribution of the Ionic Greek dialect in historic times indicates early movement from the mainland of Greece to the Anatolian coast to such sites as Miletus, Ephesus, and Colophon, perhaps as early as 1000, but the contemporaneous evidence is scant. In Cyprus, some archaeological sites begin to show identifiably Greek ceramics,[11] a colony of Euboean Greeks was established at Al Mina on the Syrian coast, and a reviving Aegean Greek network of exchange can be detected from 10th-century Attic Proto-geometric pottery found in Crete and at Samos, off the coast of Asia Minor.[12]
Post-Mycenaean Cyprus[edit]
Finds form an early geometric Cremation Burial of a pregnant wealthy woman, from the N.W. of the Areopagus, about 850 BC, Ancient Agora Museum (Athens); exhibit 14-16: broad gold finger rings; exhibit 17-19: gold finger rings; 20: pair of gold earrings with trapezoid endings
Cyprus was inhabited by a mix of "Pelasgians" and Phoenicians, joined during this period by the first Greek settlements. Potters in Cyprus initiated the most elegant new pottery style of the 10th and 9th centuries, the "Cypro-Phoenician" "black on red" style[13] of small flasks and jugs that held precious contents, probably scented oil. Together with distinctively Greek Euboean ceramic wares, it was widely exported and is found in Levantine sites, including Tyre and far inland in the late 11th and 10th centuries. Cypriot metalwork was exchanged in Crete.
Society[edit]
It is likely that Greece during this period was divided into independent regions organized by kinship groups and the oikoi or households, the origins of the later poleis. Excavations of Dark Age communities such as Nichoria in the Peloponnese have shown how a Bronze Age town was abandoned in 1150 BC but then reemerged as a small village cluster by 1075 BC. At this time there were only around forty families living there with plenty of good farming land and grazing for cattle. The remains of a 10th century building, including a megaron, on the top of the ridge have led to speculation that this was the chieftain's house. This was a larger structure than those surrounding it but it was still made from the same materials (mud brick and thatched roof). It was perhaps also a place of religious significance and of communal storage of food. High status individuals did in fact exist in the Dark Age, but their standard of living was not significantly higher than others of their village.[14] Most Greeks did not live in isolated farmsteads but in small settlements. It is likely that, as at the dawn of the historical period two or three hundred years later, the main economic resource for each family was the ancestral plot of land of the oikos, the kleros or allotment; without this a man could not marry.[15]
Lefkandi burial[edit]
The Protogeometric building and the cemetery at Toumba Lefkandi
Lefkandi on the island of Euboea was a prosperous settlement in the Late Bronze Age,[16] possibly to be identified with old Eretria.[17] It recovered quickly from the collapse of Mycenaean culture, and in 1981 excavators of a burial ground found the largest 10th-century building yet known from Greece.[18] Sometimes called "the heroon", this long narrow building, 50 metres by 10 metres, or about 150 feet by 30 feet, contained two burial shafts. In one were placed four horses and the other contained a cremated male buried with his iron weapons and an inhumed woman, heavily adorned with gold jewellery.[19] The man's bones were placed in a bronze jar from Cyprus, with hunting scenes on the cast rim. The woman was clad with gold coils in her hair, rings, gold breast plates, an heirloom necklace (an elaborate Cypriot or Near Eastern necklace made some 200–300 years before her burial) and an ivory-handled dagger at her head. The horses appeared to have been sacrificed, some appearing to have iron bits in their mouths. No evidence survives to show whether the building was erected to house the burial, or whether the "hero" or local chieftain in the grave was cremated and then buried in his grand house; whichever is true, the house was soon demolished and the debris used to form a roughly circular mound over the wall stumps.
Within the next few years and down to about 820 BC, rich members of the community were cremated and buried close to the eastern end of the building, in much the same way as Christians might seek to be buried close to a saint's grave; the presence of imported objects, notable throughout more than eighty further burials, contrast with other nearby cemeteries at Lefkandi and attest to a lasting elite tradition.
End[edit]
Ancient Greek pair of terracotta boots. Early geometric period cremation burial of a woman, 900 BC. Ancient Agora Museum in Athens.
The archaeological record of many sites demonstrates that the economic recovery of Greece was well advanced by the beginning of the 8th century BC. Both cemeteries such as the Kerameikos in Athens or Lefkandi and sanctuaries such as Olympia, recently founded Delphi or the Heraion of Samos, first of the colossal free-standing temples, are richly provided with offerings, including items from the Near East, from Egypt and from Italy made of exotic materials such as amber or ivory. Also, exports of Greek pottery demonstrate contact with the Levant coast at such sites as Al Mina and with the region of the Villanovan culture to the north of Rome. The decoration of pottery becomes more and more elaborate and includes figured scenes that parallel the stories of Homeric Epic. Iron tools and weapons become better in quality, while renewed Mediterranean trade must have brought new supplies of copper and tin to make a wide range of elaborate bronze objects, such as tripod stands like those offered as prizes in the funeral games celebrated by Achilles for Patroclus.[20] Other coastal regions of Greece besides Euboea were once again full participants in the commercial and cultural exchanges of the eastern and central Mediterranean, while communities developed which were governed by an elite group of aristocrats rather than by the single basileus or chieftain of earlier periods.[21]
New writing system[edit]
By the mid- to late-8th century BC, a new alphabet system was adopted from the Phoenicians by a Greek with first-hand experience of it. The Greeks adapted the Phoenician writing system, notably introducing characters for vowel sounds and thereby creating the first truly alphabetic (as opposed to abjad) writing system. The new alphabet quickly spread throughout the Mediterranean and was used to write not only the Greek language, but also Phrygian and other languages in the eastern Mediterranean. As Greece sent out colonies west towards Sicily and Italy (Pithekoussae, Cumae), the influence of their new alphabet extended further. The ceramic Euboean artifact inscribed with a few lines written in the Greek alphabet referring to "Nestor's cup", discovered in a grave at Pithekoussae (Ischia) dates from c. 730 BC; it seems to be the oldest written reference to the Iliad. The Etruscans benefited from the innovation: Old Italic variants spread throughout Italy from the 8th century. Other variants of the alphabet appear on the Lemnos Stele and in the alphabets of Asia Minor. The previous Linear scripts were not completely abandoned: the Cypriot syllabary, descended from Linear A, remained in use on Cyprus in Arcadocypriot Greek and Eteocypriot inscriptions until the Hellenistic era.
Continuity thesis[edit]
Some scholars have argued against the concept of a Greek Dark Age, on grounds that the former lack of archaeological evidence in a period that was mute in its lack of inscriptions (thus "dark") has been shown to be an accident of discovery rather than a fact of history.[22] It is not widely understood that early Greek dating is based on Egyptian chronology. In his work The Lords Of Avaris (2008), David Rohl argues that his New Chronology removes 250-300 years from Egyptyian chronology and thus the Greek Dark Ages simply did not happen.
See also[edit]
Dark Ages in history
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The History of Greece". Hellenicfoundation.com. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
Jump up ^ "Greek Dark Age". Ancient History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2016-12-06.
Jump up ^ Sandars (1978).
Jump up ^ Edgerton and Wilson (1936), pl 46, p. 53; and J. Wilson, "Egyptian Historical Texts" in Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (3rd ed., 1969).
Jump up ^ The Early Greek Dark Age and Revival in the Near East. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0009%3Achapter%3D3 Retrieved 2016-12-4
Jump up ^ Snodgrass 1971:360-68.
Jump up ^ "The most striking feature of the Dark Ages is its regionalism, its material diversity" (James Whitley, "Social Diversity in Dark Age Greece", The Annual of the British School at Athens 86 [1991:341–365]) p. 342, 344ff.
Jump up ^ Snodgrass 1971:140–212.
Jump up ^ Whitley 1991.
Jump up ^ Whitley 1991:343, notes regional differences in iron-working in A.N. Snodgrass, The Dark Age of Greece (1971:213–95), and I.M. Morris, "Circulation, deposition and the formation of the Greek Iron Age," Man, n.s. 23(1989:502–19)
Jump up ^ V. Karageorghis, Early Cyprus, 2002.
Jump up ^ R.W.V. Catling, "Exports of Attic protogeometric pottery and their identification by non-analytical means", Annual of the British School at Athens 93 (1998:365-78), noted in Robin Lane Fox, Travelling Heroes in the Epic Age of Homer, 2008:48; Fox provides the cultural background to his study of Euboean cultural contacts in the Mediterranean in the 8th century.
Jump up ^ N. Schreiber, The Cypro-Phoenician Pottery of the iron Age, 2003
Jump up ^ Snodgrass (1971).
Jump up ^ Hurwitt (1985).
Jump up ^ "Excavations at Lefkandi: Publications". Lefkandi.classics.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 2016-01-04.
Jump up ^ The candidates and their opponents are noted in Fox 2008:51 note 23.
Jump up ^ M. R. Popham, P. G. Calligas, and L. H. Sackett, (eds.), Lefkandi II: the Protogeometric Building at Toumba, Part 2. The Excavation, Architecture and Finds, BSA Suppl. vol. 23, Oxford 1993.
Jump up ^ Edward Bispham, Thomas Harrisom, Brian A. Sparkes, Ancient Greece and Rome, page 89, The Edinburgh Companion, Ed 2006.
Jump up ^ Homer, Iliad XXIII
Jump up ^ J.N. Coldstream, Geometric Greece: 900–700 BCE 1979
Jump up ^ O.T.P.K. Dickinson: The Aegean from Bronze Age to Iron Age: continuity and change between the twelfth and eighth centuries B.C. (2006)
Bibliography[edit]
Chew, Sing C., World Ecological Degradation: Accumulation, Urbanization and Deforestation 3000 BC ‒ AD 2000, 2001, ISBN 0-7591-0031-4 Chapter 3, The second-millennium Bronze Age: Crete and Mycenaean Greece 1700 BC – 1200 BC.
Desborough, V.R.d'A. (1972). The Greek Dark Ages.
Faucounau, Jean, Les Peuples de la Mer et leur histoire, Paris : L'Harmattan, 2003.
Hurwitt, Jeffrey M., The Art and Culture of Early Greece 1100–480 BC, Cornell University Press, 1985, Chapters 1–3.
Langdon, Susan, Art and Identity in Dark Age Greece, 1100–700 BC, Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Latacz, J. '"Between Troy and Homer : The so-called Dark Ages in Greece", in: Storia, Poesia e Pensiero nel Mondo antico. Studi in Onore di M. Gigante, Rome, 1994.
Rohl, David "The Lords Of Avaris", Arrow Books, 2008
Jan Sammer, New Light on the Dark Age of Greece (Immanuel Velikovsky Archive).
Snodgrass, Anthony M. (c. 2000). The dark age of Greece : an archaeological survey of the eleventh to the eighth centuries BC. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-93635-7.
Sandars, N.K. (c. 1978). The Sea Peoples: Warriors of the ancient Mediterranean 1250–1150 BC. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-02085-X.
Whitley, James, Style and Society in Dark Age Greece: The Changing Face of a Pre-literate Society, 1100–700 BC, Cambridge University Press, 2003, Series : New Studies in Archaeology.
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Mary Slessor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Mary Slessor
Mary Slessor
Born
2 December 1848 (1848-12-02)
Aberdeen, Scotland
Died
13 January 1915(1915-01-13) (aged 66)
Use Ikot Oku, Itu, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria formally known as Calabar province.
Nationality
Scottish
Known for
Christian missionary work in Africa; promoting women's rights and rescuing unwanted children
Mary Mitchell Slessor (2 December 1848 – 13 January 1915) was a Scottish missionary to Nigeria. Her work and strong personality allowed her to be trusted and accepted by the locals while spreading Christianity, protecting native children and promoting women's rights. She is credited with having stopped the killing of twins among the Efik, Ibibio, a particular ethnic group in Nigeria.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Early missionary career
3 Among the Okoyong and Efik
4 Death
5 Honours
6 See also
7 Gallery
8 References
9 Further reading
9.1 Books
9.2 Booklet
10 External links
Early life[edit]
Mary Slessor
Mary Slessor was born on 2 December 1848 in Gilcomston, Aberdeen, Scotland in a poor working-class family. She was the second of seven children of Robert and Mary Slessor. Her father, originally from Buchan, was a shoemaker by trade. In 1859, the family moved to Dundee in search of work. Robert Slessor was an alcoholic and, unable to keep up shoemaking, took a job as a labourer in a mill. Her mother, a skilled weaver, also went to work in the mills.[2] At the age of eleven, Mary began work as a "half-timer" in the Baxter Brothers' Mill, meaning she spent half of her day at a school provided by the mill owners and the other half working for the company.
The Slessors lived in the slums of Dundee. Before long, Mary's father died of pneumonia, and both her brothers also died, leaving behind only Mary, her mother, and two sisters.[2] By age fourteen, Mary had become a skilled jute worker, working from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. with just an hour for breakfast and lunch.[3]
Her mother was a devout Presbyterian who read each issue of the Missionary Record, a monthly magazine published by The United Presbyterian Church (later the United Free Church of Scotland) to inform members of missionary activities and needs.[2] Slessor developed an interest in religion and, when a mission was instituted in Quarry Pend (close by the Wishart Church), she wanted to teach.[3] Slessor was 27 when she heard that David Livingstone, the famous missionary and explorer, had died, and decided she wanted to follow in his footsteps.
Early missionary career[edit]
Eventually, Slessor applied to the United Presbyterian Church's Foreign Mission Board. After training in Edinburgh, she set sail in the SS Ethiopia on 5 August 1876, and arrived at her destination in West Africa just over a month later.
Slessor, 28 years of age, red haired with bright blue eyes,[3] was first assigned to the Calabar region in the land of Efik people. She was warned that the Efik people there believed in traditional West African religion and had superstitions in relation to women giving birth to twins. Slessor lived in the missionary compound for 3 years, working first in the missions in Old Town and Creek Town. She wanted to go deeper into Calabar, but she contracted malaria and was forced to return to Scotland to recover. She left Calabar for Dundee in 1879.[4] After 16 months in Scotland, Slessor returned to Calabar, but not to the same compound. Her new assignment was three miles farther into Calabar, in Old Town. Since Slessor assigned a large portion of her salary to support her mother and sisters in Scotland, she economised by learning to eat the native food.
Mary Slessor with adopted children Jean, Alice, Maggie and May. Image taken in Scotland
Issues Slessor confronted as a young missionary included the lack of Western education, as well as widespread human sacrifice at the death of a village elder, who, it was believed, required servants and retainers to accompany him into the next world.[5]
The birth of twins was considered a particularly evil curse. Natives feared that the father of one of the infants was an evil spirit, and that the mother had been guilty of a great sin. Unable to determine which twin was fathered by the evil spirit, the natives often abandoned both babies in the bush. Slessor adopted every child she found abandoned, and sent out twins missioners to find, protect and care for them at the Mission House. Some mission compounds were alive with babies.[4] Slessor once saved a pair of twins, a boy and a girl, but the boy did not survive. Mary took the girl as her daughter and called her Janie.
According to WP Livingstone, when two deputies went out to inspect the Mission in 1881–82, they were much impressed. They stated, "…she enjoys the unreserved friendship and confidence of the people, and has much influence over them." This they attributed partly to the singular ease with which Slessor spoke the language.[4]
After only three more years, Slessor returned to Scotland on yet another health furlough. This time, she took Janie with her. During the next 3 years, Slessor looked after her mother and sister (who had also fallen ill), raised Janie, and spoke at many churches, sharing stories from Calabar.
After this hiatus, Slessor returned to Calabar. She saved hundreds of twins out of the bush, where they had been left either to starve to death or be eaten by animals. She helped heal the sick and stopped the practice of determining guilt by making the suspects drink poison. As a missionary, she went to other tribes, spreading the word of Jesus Christ.
During this third mission to Calabar, Slessor received news that her mother and sister had died. She was overcome with loneliness, writing, "There is no one to write and tell my stories and nonsense to." She had also found a sense of independence, writing, "Heaven is now nearer to me than Britain, and no one will worry about me if I go up country."
Slessor was a driving force behind the establishment of the Hope Waddell Training Institute in Calabar, which provided practical vocational training to Efiks. The superstitious threat against twins was not only in Calabar; but also spread to a town Arochukwu on the far west of Calabar. There is a high school named in honor of Mary Slessor. This is located in Arochukwu, a town west of Calabar, about three half hours drive away. The people of Calabar are Efik tribe though the popular Arochukwu town is in Ibo tribe. Both Calabar and Arochukwu share some common cultures and are in southeastern Nigeria, in Cross River State and Abia State respectively.[6]
Among the Okoyong and Efik[edit]
Pots in which twin babies were exposed to die.
In August 1888, Slessor traveled north to Okoyong, an area where previous male missionaries had been killed. She thought that her teachings, and the fact that she was a woman, would be less threatening to unreached tribes. For 15 years, Slessor lived with the Okoyong and Efik people. She learned to speak Efik, the native language, and made close personal friendships wherever she went, becoming known for her pragmatism and humour. Slessor lived a simple life in a traditional house with Efiks. Her insistence on lone stations often led Slessor into conflict with the authorities and gained her a reputation for eccentricity. However, her exploits were heralded in Britain and she became known as the "white queen of Okoyong". Slessor continued her focus on evangelism, settling disputes, encouraging trade, establishing social changes and introducing Western education.[citation needed]
It was the belief in Calabar that if a women had twins one of them had to be a devil so the twins were left in the jungle in clay pots to die. Mary Slessor successfully fought against the practice of killing twins at infancy.
In 1892, Slessor became vice-consul in Okoyong, presiding over the native court. In 1905 she was named vice-president of Ikot Obong native court. In 1913 she was awarded the Order of St. John of Jerusalem. Slessor suffered failing health in her later years but remained in Calabar, where she died in 1915.[7]
Death[edit]
Memorial plaque on Mary Slessor's grave at Calabar, eastern Nigeria, in 1981
For the last four decades of her life, Slessor suffered intermittent fevers from the malaria she contracted during her first station to Calabar. However, she downplayed the personal costs, and never gave up her mission work to return permanently to Scotland. The fevers eventually weakened Slessor to the point where she could no longer walk long distances in the rainforest, but had to be pushed along in a hand-cart. In early January 1915, while at her remote station near Use Ikot Oku, she suffered a particularly severe fever. Slessor died on 13 January 1915.[8]
Her body was transported down the Cross River to Duke Town for the colonial equivalent of a state funeral. A Union Jack covered her coffin. Attendees included the Provincial Commissioner, along with other senior British officials in full uniform. Flags at government buildings were flown at half mast. Nigeria's Governor-General, Sir Frederick Lugard, telegraphed his "deepest regret"' from Lagos and published a warm tribute in the Government Gazette.[9]
Honours[edit]
Mary Slessor was honoured in 2009 by Clydesdale Bank for their World Heritage Series and Famous Scots Series. She was featured on the back of the bank's £10 note, highlighting her work in Calabar (Nigeria). The note also features a map of the area she worked in Calabar, a lithographic vignette depiciting her work with children, and a sailing ship emblem.[10]
Slessor's work in Okoyong earned her the Efik nickname of Obongawan Okoyong (Queen of Okoyong). This name is still used commonly to refer to her in present-day Calabar.
Several memorials in and around the Efik provinces of Calabar and Okoyong testify to the value placed on her work. Some of these include:
Mary Slessor Road in Calabar
Mary Slessor Roundabout
Mary Slessor Church
Statues of her (usually carrying twins) at various locations in Calabar
Main-belt asteroid 4793 Slessor (1988 RR4)[11] named after her to mark the centenary celebrations on 13 January 2015.
A girl's house, "Slessor House", was named after Mary Slessor in Achimota School, Ghana.[12]
A female hostel in the University of Nigeria Nsukka is named Mary Slessor Hall in honour of Mary Slessor.
A bust of Slessor is now in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling.
See also[edit]
List of female adventurers
Gallery[edit]
"Mary Slessor, Ma Eme, Chief Edim and Ekenge People", Calabar, late 19th century
"Mary Slessor Presiding at Okoyong Court, Calabar", late 19th century
"Mary Slessor and her family", Calabar, late 19th century
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Mary Slessor".
^ Jump up to: a b c Hardage, Jeannette, "Slessor, Mary", Dictionary of African Christian Biography .
^ Jump up to: a b c Mary Slessor: 'Mother of All the Peoples', New Rochelle, NY: Holy Trinity, archived from the original on 2 December 2012 .
^ Jump up to: a b c Livingstone, WP (1927), Mary Slessor of Calabar, Pioneer Missionary (PDF), London: Hodder & Stoughton .
Jump up ^ Quinn, Frederick, "Mary Slessor, 1848–1915", Dictionary of African Christian Biography .
Jump up ^ Taylor, William H (1996). Mission to educate: a history of the educational work of the Scottish Presbyterian mission in East Nigeria, 1846–1960. Brill. pp. 127–28. ISBN 90-04-10713-4.
Jump up ^ Biographical history, Edinburgh University .
Jump up ^ White, Donna (29 August 2010). "Red-hot designers hail Scots missionary for inspiring African style". The Daily Record. Retrieved 2011-09-06.
Jump up ^ Proctor, JH. Serving God and the Empire: Mary Slessor in South-Eastern Nigeria, 1876–1915. Brill. pp. 45–61.
Jump up ^ "August 5: Mary Slessor". This Day in Presbyterian History. 5 August 2017. Retrieved 5 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Jet propulsion laboratory, NASA .
Jump up ^ "Achimota School. - Timeline - Facebook".
Further reading[edit]
Books[edit]
Benge, Janet & Geoff (c. 1999) Mary Slessor: Forward Into Calabar. YWAM Publishing. 205 pp. ISBN 1-57658-148-9.
Gruffydd, Gan Ceridwen Brenhines Y Diffeithwch (Mary Slessor) Llundain, in Welsh, 1926.
Hardage, Jeanette (2010), Mary Slessor Everybody's Mother, The Lutterworth Press, ISBN 978-0-7188-9185-5 [permanent dead link].
Robertson, Elizabeth (2008), Mary Slessor: The Barefoot Missionary (revised ed.), Edinburgh: NMS Enterprises, ISBN 978-1-90166350-1 .
From Jute to Jungle: The Mary Slessor Story Paperback. by Carol Purves (Author) . ISBN 978-1-291-75378-3.
White Queen of the Cannibals: The Story of Mary Slessor. by A J Bueltmann (Author). Moody Pocket Books, Moody Press Publication, Chicago 160 pp.
Booklet[edit]
Rev. J. Harrison Hudson, Rev. Thomas W. Jarvie, Rev. Jock Stein. "Let the Fire Burn" – A Study of R. M. McCheyne, Robert Annan and Mary Slessor. Out-of-print booklet, 1978, Handsel Publications (formerly of Dundee), now Handsel Press. D.15545, 15546 under ‘Mary Slessor’ in List of Reference Works, Local Studies Department of Dundee Central Library, The Wellgate, Dundee, DD1 1DB.
External links[edit]
Dundee City Library Local Research Biography[dead link]
Ron Schuler's Parlour Tricks: Mary Slessor
Mary Slessor Biographies
"Triumphs of Florence Nightingale, Francis Schaeffer, Mary Slessor and Alexander Solzhenitsyn", Heroes of history .
The Committee of Scottish Bankers "Clydesdale Bank - £10 Famous Scots Series" https://web.archive.org/web/20081003071439/http://www.scotbanks.org.uk/banknotes_current_clydesdale_bank.php
http://www.scotbanks.org.uk/banknoteapp/CLYDE_10.html
[hide]
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See also
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Timeline of Christian missions
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LCCN: n50012565
GND: 1028583931
SUDOC: 178212555
BNF: cb11956015c (data)
IATH: w6w24d8n
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Friday After Next
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
It has been suggested that Friday After Next (soundtrack) be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since April 2017.
This article is missing information about the film's production. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (July 2016)
Friday After Next
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Marcus Raboy
Produced by
Ice Cube
Matt Alvarez
Written by
Ice Cube
Based on
Characters
by Ice Cube
DJ Pooh
Starring
Ice Cube
Mike Epps
John Witherspoon
Don "D.C." Curry
Anna Maria Horsford
Clifton Powell
Katt Williams
K.D. Aubert
Terry Crews
Narrated by
Ice Cube
Music by
John Murphy
Cinematography
Glen MacPherson
Edited by
Suzanne Hines
Production
companies
Cube Vision
Avery Pix
Distributed by
New Line Cinema
Release date
November 22, 2002 (2002-11-22)
Running time
84 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$10 million
Box office
$33.5 million[1]
Friday After Next is a 2002 American stoner comedy film directed by Marcus Raboy and starring Ice Cube (who also wrote the film) and Mike Epps. It is the third installment in the Friday series. The film was theatrically released on November 22, 2002 to minor box office success but generally negative reviews.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Reception
4 Soundtrack
5 References
6 External links
Plot[edit]
The movie begins when a robber (Rickey Smiley), disguised as Santa Claus, breaks into Craig (Ice Cube) and Day-Day's (Mike Epps) house at 3:37 AM on Christmas Eve. Craig fights with the robber, trashing their apartment while making frantic, futile attempts to wake Day-Day. The robber escapes with Craig and Day-Day's Christmas presents and rent money. The same morning, the police come over to get a report.
After the police leave, Ms. Pearly (Bebe Drake) comes in and says that if the two do not pay their rent money by the end of the day, she will evict them. Furthermore, she promises to send her homosexual ex-convict son, Damon (Terry Crews), who just got out of prison after twelve years, after them if they do not pay in a timely manner. The same day, Craig and Day-Day get jobs as "Top Flight Security Guards" from Moly (Maz Jobrani), the property manager and owner of a notoriously squalid doughnut shop and the shopping center that they are assigned to patrol.
Later that day, they meet Donna (K.D. Aubert) and Money Mike (Katt Williams), who run a fledgling shop called 'Pimps and Hoes.' The shopping center is also the home of a BBQ rib restaurant called 'Bros. BBQ', owned by the cousins' fathers, Willie (John Witherspoon) and Elroy (Don "D.C." Curry).
A couple of baseheads try to rob Money Mike's store and Craig and Day-Day catch them both. Mike offers them a cash reward, but Craig denies it and invites him to his party. Willie and Elroy are having trouble with some of the children. When one of them kicks Elroy, he retaliates by taking out a belt and starts a series of beatings on the kids. Then, a gang of thugs, supposedly the grandsons of some carolers that were chased off by Day-Day for loitering in front of the corner store, begin to chase Craig and Day-Day, but, unable to catch them, they proceed to beat Moly for hiding them, resulting in the two quitting after witnessing what happened to Moly, throwing their uniform's in the dumpster and ultimately getting fired from their jobs. As revenge, Willie rats Moly out to the Department of Health.
Craig and Day-Day throw a rent party later that night to recoup their stolen money and stay in their apartment. While Money Mike is in the restroom, Damon attempts to sexually assault him, but fails when Money Mike grabs his testicles with pliers. Damon then proceeds to chase him when he tries to run away. Also Ms. Pearly comes on to Craig's father when he uses her bathroom, causing Craig's mother to attack Ms. Pearly when she catches the two. Craig and Day-Day see the robber and give chase, running into other obstacles and are ultimately unsuccessful. Eventually, the robber gets run over by Pinky's limousine.
The movie then ends when Craig and Day-Day retrieve their Christmas presents and tie and gag the robber up on a chimney. During the credits, it is revealed that Craig and Donna hooked up after Craig returned, Damon is still chasing Money Mike throughout the hood, and that Ms. Pearly tried to stop the party by calling the police, but they left after receiving marijuana as a bribe.
Cast[edit]
Ice Cube — Craig Jones
Mike Epps — Day-Day Jones/Old Man with Shotgun
John Witherspoon — Mr. Willie Jones
Don "D.C." Curry — Uncle Elroy Jones
Anna Maria Horsford — Mrs. Betty Jones
Clifton Powell — Pinky
Terry Crews — Damon Pearly
Katt Williams — Money Mike
K.D. Aubert — Donna
Maz Jobrani — Moly
Reggie Gaskins — Officer Brian Dix
Rickey Smiley — Robber Santa Claus
Sommore — Cookie
Starletta DuPois — Sister Sarah
Bebe Drake — Mrs. Pearly
Joel McKinnon Miller — Officer Alvin Hole
Trina McGee-Davis — Cinnamon
Reception[edit]
Friday After Next received a 25% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 71 reviews, with an average rating of 4.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "This Friday installment is more shapeless and stale than its predecessors."[2]
Soundtrack[edit]
Main article: Friday After Next (soundtrack)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Friday After Next". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved July 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Friday After Next (2002)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 11 July 2014.
External links[edit]
Friday After Next on IMDb
Friday After Next at AllMovie
Friday After Next at Rotten Tomatoes
Friday After Next at Box Office Mojo
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Constitution of Texas
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Texas Constitution of 1876.
The Constitution of the State of Texas is the document that describes the structure and function of the government of the U.S. state of Texas.
The current document took effect on February 15, 1876, and is the seventh (including the Mexican constitution) constitution in Texas history. The previous six were adopted in 1827 (while Texas was still part of Mexico), 1836 (as the Republic of Texas), 1845, 1861, 1866 and 1869.
The current constitution is among the longest of state constitutions in the United States. From 1876 to 2015 the legislature proposed 673 constitutional amendments, of which 491 were approved by the electorate and 179 defeated.[1]
Most of the amendments are due to the document's highly restrictive nature: the State of Texas has only those powers explicitly granted to it by the Constitution. However, despite its length, it is not nearly as long as the Alabama Constitution (which has been amended over 800 times despite having been adopted 25 years after Texas' current constitution) nor the California Constitution (which, due to provisions allowing amendments via initiative, is subject to frequent revision).
As with many state constitutions, it explicitly provides for the separation of powers and incorporates its bill of rights directly into the text of the constitution (as Article I). The bill of rights is considerably lengthier and more detailed than the federal Bill of Rights, and includes some provisions unique to Texas.
Contents
[hide]
1 Articles of the Texas Constitution of 1876
1.1 Article 1: "Bill of Rights"
1.2 Article 2: "The Powers of Government"
1.3 Article 3: "Legislative Department"
1.4 Article 4: "Executive Department"
1.5 Article 5: "Judicial Department"
1.6 Article 6: "Suffrage"
1.7 Article 7: "Education"
1.8 Article 8: "Taxation and Revenue"
1.9 Article 9: "Counties"
1.10 Article 10: "Railroads"
1.11 Article 11: "Municipal Corporations"
1.12 Article 12: "Private Corporations"
1.13 Article 13: "Spanish and Mexican Land Titles"
1.14 Article 14: "Public Lands and Land Office"
1.15 Article 15: "Impeachment"
1.16 Article 16: "General Provisions"
1.17 Article 17: "Mode of amending the Constitution of this State"
2 Attempts at revision
3 History
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Articles of the Texas Constitution of 1876[edit]
Article 1: "Bill of Rights"[edit]
Article 1 is the Texas Constitution's bill of rights. The article originally contained 29 sections; four sections have since been added. Some of the article's provisions concern specific fundamental limitations on the power of the state.
The provisions of the Texas Constitution apply only against the government of Texas. However, a number of the provisions of the U.S. Constitution are held to apply to the states as well, under the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
Section 4 purports to prohibit office holders from the requirements of any religious test, provided they "acknowledge the existence of a Supreme Being". This conflicts with the U.S. Constitution's No Religious Test Clause, and would almost certainly be held unenforceable if challenged,[citation needed] as was a similar South Carolina requirement in Silverman v. Campbell, and a broader Maryland restriction in Torcaso v. Watkins.
Section 32 denies state recognition to same-sex unions, a practice which was invalidated as a consequence of Obergefell v. Hodges.
Article 2: "The Powers of Government"[edit]
Article 2 provides for the separation of powers of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the state government, prohibiting each branch from encroaching on the powers of the others.
Article 3: "Legislative Department"[edit]
Article 3 vests the legislative power of the state in the "Legislature of the State of Texas", consisting of the state's Senate and House of Representatives. It also lists the qualifications required of senators and representatives, and regulates many details of the legislative process.
As with the United States Constitution, either house may originate bills (Section 31), but bills to raise revenue must originate in the House of Representatives (Section 33).
Section 39 allows a bill to take effect immediately upon the Governor's signature if the bill passes both chambers by a two-thirds vote, unless otherwise specified in the bill. If the bill does not pass by this majority it takes effect on the first day of the next fiscal year (September 1).
Section 66 created the state's "Rainy Day Fund".
The article contains many substantive limitations on the power of the legislature and a large number of exceptions to those limitations. This is especially true within Section 49. The Section limits the power of the Legislature to incur debt to only specific purposes as stated in the Constitution; this has necessitated numerous amendments to this section in order to permit the Legislature (including two sections, both added in 2003 and both curiously numbered as "49-n"). In addition, Section 49a requires the Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts to certify the amount of available cash on hand and anticipated revenues for the next biennium; no appropriation may exceed this amount (except in cases of emergency, and then only with a four-fifths vote of both chambers), and the Comptroller is required to reject and return to the Legislature any appropriation in violation of this requirement.
Article 4: "Executive Department"[edit]
Article 4 describes the powers and duties of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Comptroller, Commissioner of the General Land Office, and Attorney General. With the exception of the Secretary of State the above officials are directly elected in what is known as a "plural executive" system. (Although the Texas Agriculture Commissioner is also directly elected, that is the result of Legislative action, not a Constitutional requirement.)
Under Section 16 of this article, the Lieutenant Governor automatically assumes the power of Governor if and when the Governor travels outside of the state.
Article 5: "Judicial Department"[edit]
Main article: Judiciary of Texas
Article 5 describes the composition, powers, and jurisdiction of the state's Supreme Court, Court of Criminal Appeals, and District, County, and Commissioners Courts, as well as the Justice of the Peace Courts.
Article 6: "Suffrage"[edit]
Article 6 denies voting rights to minors, felons, and people who are deemed mentally incompetent by a court (though the Legislature may make exceptions in the latter two cases). It also describes rules for elections.
Article 7: "Education"[edit]
Article 7 establishes provisions for public schools, asylums, and universities. Section 1 states, "it shall be the duty of the Legislature of the State to establish and make suitable provision for the support and maintenance of an efficient system of public free schools". This issue has surfaced repeatedly in lawsuits involving the State's funding of education and the various restrictions it has placed on local school districts.
This Article also discusses the creation and maintenance of the Permanent University Fund (Sections 11, 11a, and 11b) and mandates the establishment of "a University of the first class" (Section 10) to be called The University of Texas, as well as "an Agricultural, and Mechanical department" (Section 13, today's Texas A&M University, which opened seven years prior to UT); it also establishes Prairie View A&M University in Section 14.
Article 8: "Taxation and Revenue"[edit]
Article 8 places various restrictions on the ability of the Legislature and local governments to impose taxes. Most of these restrictions concern local property taxes.
Section 1-e prohibits statewide property taxes. This Section has been the subject of numerous school district financing lawsuits claiming that other Legislative restrictions on local property taxes have created a de facto statewide property tax; the Texas Supreme Court has at times ruled that the restrictions did in fact do so (and thus were unconstitutional) and at other times ruled that they did not.
Texas does not have a personal income tax. Section 24 of the article, added by an amendment adopted in 1993, restricts the ability of the Legislature to impose such a tax. Under the section, a law imposing a personal income tax must be ratified in a statewide referendum to take effect; any further change in the tax must also be ratified to take effect, if it would increase the "collective liability" of all persons subject to the tax. The proceeds from the tax must first be used to reduce local school property taxes, with any remainder being used for the support of education.
No such restriction exists on imposition of a corporate income tax or similar tax; in May 2006 the Legislature replaced the existing franchise tax with a gross receipts tax.
Article 9: "Counties"[edit]
Article 9 provides rules for the creation of counties (now numbering 254) and for determining the location of county seats. It also includes several provisions regarding the creation of county-wide hospital districts in specified counties, as well as other miscellaneous provisions regarding airports and mental health.
Article 10: "Railroads"[edit]
Main article: Article X of the Texas Constitution
Article 10 contains a single section declaring that railroads are considered "public highways" and railroad carriers "common carriers". Eight other sections were repealed in 1969.
Article 11: "Municipal Corporations"[edit]
Article 11 recognizes counties as legal political subunits of the State, grants certain powers to cities and counties, empowers the legislature to form school districts.
Texas operates under Dillon's Rule: counties and special districts are not granted home rule privileges, while cities and school districts have those privileges only in the limited instances specified below.
Sections 4 and 5 discuss the operation of cities based on population. Section 4 states that a city with a population of 5,000 or fewer has only those powers granted to it by general law; Section 5 permits a city, once its population exceeds 5,000, to adopt a charter under home rule provided the charter is not inconsistent with limits placed by the Texas Constitution or general law (the city may amend to maintain home rule status even if its population subsequently falls to 5,000 or fewer).
School districts may adopt home rule,[2] but none have chosen to do so.[3]
Article 12: "Private Corporations"[edit]
Article 12 contains two sections directing the Legislature to enact general laws for the creation of private corporations and prohibiting the creation of private corporations by special law. Four other sections were repealed in 1969, and a fifth section in 1993.
Article 13: "Spanish and Mexican Land Titles"[edit]
Article 13 established provisions for Spanish and Mexican land titles from the Mexican War Era to please the Mexican government.[citation needed] This article was repealed in its entirety in 1969.
Article 14: "Public Lands and Land Office"[edit]
Article 14 contains a single section establishing the General Land Office and the office of commissioner of the General Land Office. Seven other sections were repealed in 1969.
Article 15: "Impeachment"[edit]
Article 15 describes the process of impeachment and lists grounds on which to impeach judges. The House of Representatives is granted the power of impeachment.
Article 16: "General Provisions"[edit]
Article 16 contains miscellaneous provisions, including limits on interest rates, civil penalties for murder, and the punishment for bribery.
Section 28 prohibits garnishment of wages, except for spousal maintenance and child support payments (however, this does not limit Federal garnishment for items such as student loan payments or income taxes).
Section 37 provides for the constitutional protection of the mechanic's lien.
Section 50 provides for protection of a homestead against forced sale to pay debts, except for foreclosure on debts related to the homestead (mortgage, taxes, mechanic's liens, and home equity loans including home equity lines of credit). This section also places specific restrictions on home equity loans and lines of credit (Texas being the last state to allow them), the section:
limits the amount of a home equity loan, when combined with all other loans against a home, to no more than 80 percent of the home's fair market value at the time of the loan,
requires that the advance on a home equity line of credit be at least $4,000 (even if the borrower wants to borrow less than that amount, though nothing prohibits a borrower from immediately repaying the credit line with a portion of said advance),
requires a 14-day waiting period before any loan or line of credit is effective (at the initial borrowing; later borrowings against a line of credit can still be made in less time), and
places restrictions on where closing can take place.
Although Texas is a right-to-work state, such protections are governed by law; the state does not have a constitutional provision related to right-to-work.
Article 17: "Mode of amending the Constitution of this State"[edit]
Notwithstanding the large number of amendments (and proposed amendments) that the Texas Constitution has had since its inception, the only method of amending the Constitution prescribed by Article 17 is via the Legislature, subject to voter approval. The Constitution does not provide for amendment by initiative, constitutional convention, or any other means. A 1974 constitutional convention required the voters to amend the Constitution to add a separate section to this Article; the section was later repealed in 1999.
The section also prescribes specific details for notifying the public of elections to approve amendments. It requires that the legislature publish a notice in officially approved newspapers that briefly summarizes each amendment and shows how each amendment will be described on the ballot. It also requires that the full text of each amendment be posted at each county courthouse at least 50 days (but no sooner than 60 days) before the election date.
Once an amendment passes it is compiled into the existing framework (i.e., text is either added or deleted), unlike the United States Constitution.
Attempts at revision[edit]
Because of the unwieldiness of the state constitution, there have been attempts to draft a new constitution or to significantly revise the existing one:
The most successful of the attempts took place in 1969, when 56 separate obsolete provisions (including the entirety of Article 13, and 22 entire sections from Articles 10, 12, and 14) were successfully repealed.[4]
In 1971 the Texas Legislature placed on the November 1972 ballot an Amendment which called for the Legislature to meet in January 1974 for 90 days as a constitutional convention, for purposes of drafting a new state Constitution. The measure passed (thus adding Section 2 to Article 17; the section was later repealed in November 1999) and the Legislature met. However, even with an additional 60 days added to the session, the convention failed by a mere three votes to propose a new constitution.[4]
In 1975, the Legislature, meeting in regular session, revived much of the work of the 1974 convention and proposed it as a set of eight amendments to the existing constitution. All eight of the amendments were overwhelmingly rejected by the voters (in 250 the state's 254 counties, all eight amendments were defeated; only in Duval and Webb counties did all eight amendments pass).[4]
In 1979 the Legislature placed on the ballot four amendments which had their origins in the 1974 convention; of which three were approved by the voters:[5]
One amendment created a single property tax "appraisal district" in each county for purposes of providing a uniform appraised value for all property in a county applicable to all taxing authorities (previously, each taxing authority assessed property individually and frequently did so at dissimilar values between the authorities)
Another amendment gave to the Texas Court of Appeals criminal appellate jurisdiction (previously, the Courts had jurisdiction over civil matters only; though death penalty cases still bypass this level)
The last amendment gave the Governor of Texas limited authority to remove appointed statewide officials
In 1995, Senator John Montford drafted a streamlined constitution similar to the 1974 version. However, Montford resigned his seat to become chancellor of the Texas Tech University System, and his initiative subsequently died.[5] Later that year, though, voters approved an amendment abolishing the office of State Treasurer and moving its duties to the Texas Comptroller of Public Accounts office.
In 1998, a bipartisan effort (led by Republican Senator Bill Ratliff and Democratic Representative Rob Junell) produced a rewritten constitution, with the help of students from Angelo State University (Junell's district included the San Angelo area). The second draft was submitted to the 76th Legislature, but failed to gain support in committee.[5]
History[edit]
On March 1, 1845, the US enacted a congressional joint resolution proposing the annexation of Texas to the United States (Joint Resolution for annexing Texas to the United States, J.Res. 8, enacted March 1, 1845, 5 Stat. 797). On June 23, 1845, the Texan Congress accepted the US Congress's joint resolution, and consented to President Jones' calling of a convention to be held on July 4, 1845.[6][7] A Texas convention debated the annexation offer and almost unanimously passed an ordinance assenting to it on July 4, 1845.[8] The convention debated through August 28th, and adopted the Constitution of the State of Texas on August 27, 1845.[9] The citizens of Texas approved an annexation ordinance and new constitution on October 13, 1845.[citation needed] On December 29, 1845, the United States admitted the State of Texas to the Union (Joint Resolution for the admission of the state of Texas into the Union, J.Res. 1, enacted December 29, 1845, 9 Stat. 108).
On June 17, 1865, President Andrew Johnson appointed Andrew Jackson Hamilton as the provisional civilian governor of the state and directed him to convene a constitutional convention restricted to loyal Americans.[10] A referendum was held on June 25, 1866, pursuant to the laws then in force on March 29, for the ratification of the amendments proposed by the convention.[11]
Texas adopted yet a new constitution document in 1866 once the United States accepted Texas back into the Union. Then, delegates met in 1869 and drafted a new constitution once again. This time, the newly modified law of the land aimed to protect rights for former slaves, and placed more power on centralized state power (p. 57, Practicing Texas Politics, 2015).
See also[edit]
Texas portal
Texas Declaration of Independence
Constitution of the Republic of Texas
Law of Texas
References[edit]
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (November 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Braden, George (1972). Citizens' guide to the Texas Constitution. Austin: Texas Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations. ISBN 0-88408-070-6.
Hill, John L., ed. (1976). Constitution of the State of Texas. Austin: [Office of the Attorney General of Texas].
Includes the text of the constitution as of November 2, 1976, along with a brief informational introduction.
Jump up ^ Library, Texas Legislative Reference. "Legislative Reference Library | Legislation | Constitutional amendments". www.lrl.state.tx.us. Retrieved 2017-10-16.
Jump up ^ http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/Docs/ED/htm/ED.12.htm#B Texas Education Code, Chapter 12, Subchapter B.
Jump up ^ http://www.texaspolicy.com/sites/default/files/documents/2012-06-RR04-ImprovingEfficiencyLocalControlTexasEducationHomeRuleDistricts-CEP-JamesGolsanBillPeacock.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b c "Constitutional Revision, 1971–1975". Texas Politics. University of Texas College of Liberal Arts. 2009. Archived from the original on 2013-11-23. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Recent Attempts at Constitutional Revision". Texas Politics. University of Texas College of Liberal Arts. 2009. Archived from the original on 2013-11-23. Retrieved 2015-12-23.
Jump up ^ Gammel, H.P.N. (1898). The Laws of Texas, 1822–1897. 2. pp. 1225–1227.
Jump up ^ Weeks 1846.
Jump up ^ Gammel 1898, pp. 1228–1230.
Jump up ^ Weeks, Wm. F. (1846). Debates of the Texas Convention.
Jump up ^ Presidential Proclamation No. 42, 17 June 1865, 13 Stat. 765
Jump up ^ Gammel, H.P.N., ed. (1898). The Laws of Texas, 1822–1897. 5. University of North Texas. pp. 888–895.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Texas Constitution
"Texas Constitution and Statutes". Texas Legislature. November 2011. Retrieved 2013-07-31. Text of Constitution current as of cited date; includes additional (searchable) resources about amendments.
"The Constitution". Texas Politics. Liberal Arts Instructional Technology Services, College of Liberal Arts, University of Texas at Austin. 31 July 2013. Retrieved 2013-07-31. Part of a larger website about Texas government and politics.
Braden, George D.; et al. (August 1977). "The Constitution of the State of Texas: An Annotated and Comparative Analysis" (PDFs). Texas State Law Library. Retrieved 2013-07-31. Constitution text as of April 22, 1975, including "information regarding the origins, historical development, and contemporary meaning of each section" along with "interpretive comments" (annotations completed 1973–1976).
"Texas Constitutions 1824–1876" (searchable text and JPEG images). Tarlton Law Library, Jamail Center for Legal Research. 2013. Retrieved 2013-07-31. Historic constitutions and constitutional convention materials, 1824–1876, including the original, unamended text of the 1876 constitution.
Gammel, H. P. N. (1898–1939). "Gammel's Laws of Texas" (JPEG images only). Portal to Texas History. University of North Texas Libraries. Retrieved 2013-07-31. 32-volume "compilation of the laws and political documents of Texas" covering 1822–1939; includes the 1836 Constitution of the Republic of Texas, as well as the state constitutions of 1861 and 1866.
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