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Immigration to the United States
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Naturalization ceremony at the Oakton High School in Virginia, December 2015.
Immigrants to the United States take the Oath of Allegiance at a naturalization ceremony at the Grand Canyon National Park in Arizona, September 2016.
Immigration to the United States is the international movement of individuals who are not natives or do not possess citizenship in order to settle, reside, study or to take-up employment in the United States. It has been a major source of population growth and cultural change throughout much of the history of the United States.
The United States has a larger immigrant population than any other country, with 47 million immigrants as of 2015.[1] This represents 19.1% of the 244 million international migrants worldwide, and 14.4% of the U.S. population.
The economic, social, and political aspects of immigration have caused controversy regarding ethnicity, economic benefits, jobs for non-immigrants, settlement patterns, impact on upward social mobility, crime, and voting behavior.
Prior to 1965, policies such as the national origins formula limited immigration and naturalization opportunities for people from areas outside Western Europe. Exclusion laws enacted as early as the 1880s generally prohibited or severely restricted immigration from Asia, and quota laws enacted in the 1920s curtailed Eastern European immigration. The Civil Rights Movement led to the replacement[2] of these ethnic quotas with per-country limits.[3] Since then, the number of first-generation immigrants living in the United States has quadrupled.[4][5]
Research suggests that immigration to the United States is beneficial to the US economy. With few exceptions, the evidence suggests that immigration on average has positive economic effects on the native population, but is mixed as to whether low-skilled immigration adversely affects low-skilled natives. Studies also indicate that immigration either has no impact on the crime rate or that it reduces the crime rate in the United States.[6][7] Research shows that the United States excels at assimilating first- and second-generation immigrants relative to many other Western countries.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Contemporary immigration
2.1 Ethnicity
3 Demography
3.1 Extent and destinations
3.2 Origin
4 Effects of immigration
4.1 Demographics
4.2 Economic
4.2.1 Overall economic prosperity
4.2.2 Fiscal effects
4.2.3 Inequality
4.2.4 Impact of undocumented immigrants
4.2.5 Impact of refugees
4.2.6 Innovation and entrepreneurship
4.3 Social
4.3.1 Discrimination
4.3.1.1 Business
4.3.1.2 Criminal justice system
4.3.1.3 Education
4.3.1.4 Housing
4.3.1.5 Labor market
4.3.1.6 Discrimination between minority groups
4.3.2 Assimilation
4.3.3 Religious diversity
4.3.3.1 Labor unions
4.4 Political
4.5 Health
4.6 Crime
4.7 Education
5 Public opinion
6 Legal issues
6.1 Laws concerning immigration and naturalization
6.2 Asylum for refugees
6.3 Miscellaneous documented immigration
6.4 Illegal immigration
6.5 Military immigration
7 Immigration in popular culture
7.1 Immigration in literature
8 Documentary films
9 Legal perspectives
10 Interpretive perspectives
11 See also
12 Footnotes
13 Further reading
13.1 Surveys
13.2 Before 1920
13.3 Recent: post 1965
14 External links
14.1 History
14.2 Immigration policy
14.3 Current immigration
14.4 Films about immigration
14.5 Economic impact
History
Main article: History of immigration to the United States
Immigrants on ocean steamer passing the Statue of Liberty, New York City, 1887
American immigration history can be viewed in four epochs: the colonial period, the mid-19th century, the start of the 20th century, and post-1965. Each period brought distinct national groups, races and ethnicities to the United States. During the 17th century, approximately 400,000 English people migrated to Colonial America.[8] Over half of all European immigrants to Colonial America during the 17th and 18th centuries arrived as indentured servants.[9] The mid-19th century saw mainly an influx from northern Europe; the early 20th-century mainly from Southern and Eastern Europe; post-1965 mostly from Latin America and Asia.
Historians estimate that fewer than 1 million immigrants came to the United States from Europe between 1600 and 1799.[10] The 1790 Act limited naturalization to "free white persons"; it was expanded to include blacks in the 1860s and Asians in the 1950s.[11] In the early years of the United States, immigration was fewer than 8,000 people a year,[12] including French refugees from the slave revolt in Haiti. After 1820, immigration gradually increased. From 1836 to 1914, over 30 million Europeans migrated to the United States.[13] The death rate on these transatlantic voyages was high, during which one in seven travelers died.[14] In 1875, the nation passed its first immigration law, the Page Act of 1875.[15]
Immigrants arriving at Ellis Island, 1902
After an initial wave of immigration from China following the California Gold Rush, Congress passed a series of laws culminating in the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, banning virtually all immigration from China until the law's repeal in 1943. In the late 1800s, immigration from other Asian countries, especially to the West Coast, became more common.
The peak year of European immigration was in 1907, when 1,285,349 persons entered the country.[16] By 1910, 13.5 million immigrants were living in the United States.[17] In 1921, the Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act, followed by the Immigration Act of 1924. The 1924 Act was aimed at further restricting immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, particularly Jews, Italians, and Slavs, who had begun to enter the country in large numbers beginning in the 1890s, and consolidated the prohibition of Asian immigration.[18]
Polish immigrants working on the farm, 1909. The welfare system was practically non-existent before the 1930s and the economic pressures on the poor were giving rise to child labor.
Immigration patterns of the 1930s were dominated by the Great Depression. In the final prosperous year, 1929, there were 279,678 immigrants recorded,[19] but in 1933, only 23,068 came to the U.S.[10] In the early 1930s, more people emigrated from the United States than to it.[20] The U.S. government sponsored a Mexican Repatriation program which was intended to encourage people to voluntarily move to Mexico, but thousands were deported against their will.[21] Altogether about 400,000 Mexicans were repatriated.[22] Most of the Jewish refugees fleeing the Nazis and World War II were barred from coming to the United States.[23] In the post-war era, the Justice Department launched Operation Wetback, under which 1,075,168 Mexicans were deported in 1954.[24]
First, our cities will not be flooded with a million immigrants annually. Under the proposed bill, the present level of immigration remains substantially the same.... Secondly, the ethnic mix of this country will not be upset.... Contrary to the charges in some quarters, [the bill] will not inundate America with immigrants from any one country or area, or the most populated and deprived nations of Africa and Asia.... In the final analysis, the ethnic pattern of immigration under the proposed measure is not expected to change as sharply as the critics seem to think.
—  Ted Kennedy, chief Senate sponsor of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965.[25]
The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, also known as the Hart-Cellar Act, abolished the system of national-origin quotas. By equalizing immigration policies, the act resulted in new immigration from non-European nations, which changed the ethnic make-up of the United States.[26] In 1970, 60% of immigrants were from Europe; this decreased to 15% by 2000.[27] In 1990, George H. W. Bush signed the Immigration Act of 1990,[28] which increased legal immigration to the United States by 40%.[29] In 1991, Bush signed the Armed Forces Immigration Adjustment Act 1991, allowing foreign service members who had serve 12 or more years in the US Armed Forces to qualify for permanent residency and, in some cases, citizenship.
In November 1994, California voters passed Proposition 187 amending the state constitution, denying state financial aid to illegal immigrants. The federal courts voided this change, ruling that it violated the federal constitution.[30]
Appointed by Bill Clinton,[31] the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform recommended reducing legal immigration from about 800,000 people per year to approximately 550,000.[32] While an influx of new residents from different cultures presents some challenges, "the United States has always been energized by its immigrant populations," said President Bill Clinton in 1998. "America has constantly drawn strength and spirit from wave after wave of immigrants [...] They have proved to be the most restless, the most adventurous, the most innovative, the most industrious of people."[33]
Boston Chinatown, Massachusetts, 2008.
In 2001, President George W. Bush discussed an accord with Mexican President Vincente Fox. Possible accord was derailed by the September 11 attacks. From 2005 to 2013, the US Congress discussed various ways of controlling immigration. The Senate and House are unable to reach an agreement. In 2012 and 2014, President Obama initiated policies that were intended to ease the pressure on deporting people who use anchor babies as a means of immigrating to the United States.[30]
Nearly 14 million immigrants entered the United States from 2000 to 2010,[34] and over one million persons were naturalized as U.S. citizens in 2008. The per-country limit[3] applies the same maximum on the number of visas to all countries regardless of their population and has therefore had the effect of significantly restricting immigration of persons born in populous nations such as Mexico, China, India, and the Philippines—the leading countries of origin for legally admitted immigrants to the United States in 2013;[35] nevertheless, China, India, and Mexico were the leading countries of origin for immigrants overall to the United States in 2013, regardless of legal status, according to a U.S. Census Bureau study.[36] As of 2009[update], 66% of legal immigrants were admitted on the basis of family ties, along with 13% admitted for their employment skills and 17% for humanitarian reasons.[37]
Nearly 8 million people immigrated to the United States from 2000 to 2005; 3.7 million of them entered without papers.[38][39] In 1986 president Ronald Reagan signed immigration reform that gave amnesty to 3 million undocumented immigrants in the country.[40] Hispanic immigrants suffered job losses during the late-2000s recession,[41] but since the recession's end in June 2009, immigrants posted a net gain of 656,000 jobs.[42] Over 1 million immigrants were granted legal residence in 2011.[43]
For those who enter the US illegally across the Mexico–United States border and elsewhere, migration is difficult, expensive and dangerous.[44] Virtually all undocumented immigrants have no avenues for legal entry to the United States due to the restrictive legal limits on green cards, and lack of immigrant visas for low-skilled workers.[45] Participants in debates on immigration in the early twenty-first century called for increasing enforcement of existing laws governing illegal immigration to the United States, building a barrier along some or all of the 2,000-mile (3,200 km) Mexico-U.S. border, or creating a new guest worker program. Through much of 2006 the country and Congress was immersed in a debate about these proposals. As of April 2010[update] few of these proposals had become law, though a partial border fence had been approved and subsequently canceled.[46]
In January 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump signed an executive order temporarily suspending entry to the US from Yemen, Sudan, Somalia, Iraq, Iran, and Libya, and a suspension of entry from Syria for an indefinite period.[47][48] The order also limited the number of refugees permitted to enter the United States in 2017 to 50,000 and suspended the United States Refugee Admissions Program for 120 days to allow authorities to review the application and adjudication processes.[49] The order was replaced with a new executive order in March 2017 with various changes including removing Iraq from the list of countries with suspended immigration, clarifying that legal immigrants are exempt from the ban, and reducing the ban on Syrian immigrants to a 120-day suspension.[50] Another executive order called for the immediate construction of a wall across the U.S.–Mexico border, the hiring of 5,000 new border patrol agents and 10,000 new immigration officers, and federal funding penalties for Sanctuary Cities.[51]
On February 3, 2017, a federal judge in Washington State ordered a nationwide halt to the enforcement of Trump's executive action.[52] And on February 4, 2017, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security suspended the rules that flagged travelers under the executive order.[53]
Persons Obtaining Legal Permanent Resident Status Fiscal Years[54]
Year
Year
Year
Year
Year
Year
Year
1930 241,700 1950 249,187 1970 373,326 1990 1,535,872 2006 1,266,129 2010 1,042,625 2014 1,016,518
1935 34,956 1955 237,790 1975 385,378 1995 720,177 2007 1,052,415 2011 1,062,040 2015 1,051,031
1940 70,756 1960 265,398 1980 524,295 2000 841,002 2008 1,107,126 2012 1,031,631
1945 38,119 1965 296,697 1985 568,149 2005 1,122,257 2009 1,130,818 2013 990,553
Decade
Average per year
1930–39 69,900
1940–49 85,700
1950–59 249,900
1960–69 321,400
1970–79 424,800
1980–89 624,400
1990–99 977,500
2000–09 1,030,000
2010–15 1,032,400
Source: US Department of Homeland Security, Persons Obtaining Lawful Permanent Resident Status: Fiscal Years 1820 to 2015[54]
Contemporary immigration
Naturalization ceremony, Salem, Massachusetts, 2007
Until the 1930s most legal immigrants were male. By the 1990s women accounted for just over half of all legal immigrants.[55] Contemporary immigrants tend to be younger than the native population of the United States, with people between the ages of 15 and 34 substantially overrepresented.[56] Immigrants are also more likely to be married and less likely to be divorced than native-born Americans of the same age.[57]
Paterson, New Jersey, within the New York City Metropolitan Area, is becoming an increasingly popular destination for Muslim immigrants.
Immigrants are likely to move to and live in areas populated by people with similar backgrounds. This phenomenon has held true throughout the history of immigration to the United States.[58] Seven out of ten immigrants surveyed by Public Agenda in 2009 said they intended to make the U.S. their permanent home, and 71% said if they could do it over again they would still come to the US. In the same study, 76% of immigrants say the government has become stricter on enforcing immigration laws since the September 11, 2001 attacks ("9/11"), and 24% report that they personally have experienced some or a great deal of discrimination.[59]
Public attitudes about immigration in the U.S. were heavily influenced in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks. After the attacks, 52% of Americans believed that immigration was a good thing overall for the U.S., down from 62% the year before, according to a 2009 Gallup poll.[60] A 2008 Public Agenda survey found that half of Americans said tighter controls on immigration would do "a great deal" to enhance U.S. national security.[61] Harvard political scientist and historian Samuel P. Huntington argued in Who Are We? The Challenges to America's National Identity that a potential future consequence of continuing massive immigration from Latin America, especially Mexico, could lead to the bifurcation of the United States.[62][63]
The population of illegal Mexican immigrants in the US fell from approximately 7 million in 2007 to 6.1 million in 2011[64] Commentators link the reversal of the immigration trend to the economic downturn that started in 2008 and which meant fewer available jobs, and to the introduction of tough immigration laws in many states.[65][66][67][68] According to the Pew Hispanic Center the net immigration of Mexican born persons had stagnated in 2010, and tended toward going into negative figures.[69]
More than 80 cities in the United States,[70] including Washington D.C., New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, San Francisco, San Diego, San Jose, Salt Lake City, Phoenix, Dallas, Fort Worth, Houston, Detroit, Jersey City, Minneapolis, Miami, Denver, Baltimore, Seattle, Portland, Oregon and Portland, Maine, have sanctuary policies, which vary locally.[71]
Ethnicity
Inflow of New Legal Permanent Residents by continent in 2015:[72]
Americas (41.7%)
Asia (39.9%)
Africa (9.6%)
Europe (8.2%)
Australia and Oceania (0.6%)
Inflow of New Legal Permanent Residents by region, in 2013, 2014 and 2015
Region
2013
2014
2015
%
Americas 396,605 398,069 438,435 10.1%
Asia 400,548 430,508 419,297 2.6%
Africa 98,304 98,413 101,415 3.1%
Europe 86,556 83,266 85,803 3.0%
Australia and Oceania 5,277 5,122 5,404 5.5%
Unknown 3,263 1,150 677 41.1%
Total 990,553 1,016,518 1,051,031 3.4%
Source: US Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics[73][74][72]
Top 10 sending countries in 2014 and 2015[75]
Country
2014
2015
1. Mexico 134,052 158,619
2. China 76,089 74,558
3. India 77,908 64,116
4. Philippines 49,996 56,478
5. Cuba 46,679 54,396
6. Dominican Rep. 44,577 50,610
7. Vietnam 30,283 30,832
8. Iraq 19,153 21,107
9. El Salvador 19,273 19,487
10. Pakistan 18,612 18,057
Total 1,016,518 1,051,031
Demography
Extent and destinations
Little Italy in New York, ca.1900
Crowd at the Philippine Independence Day Parade in New York City
Year[76]
Number of foreign-born
Percent
foreign-born
1850 2,244,602 9.7
1860 4,138,697 13.2
1870 5,567,229 14.4
1880 6,679,943 13.3
1890 9,249,547 14.8
1900 10,341,276 13.6
1910 13,515,886 14.7
1920 13,920,692 13.2
1930 14,204,149 11.6
1940 11,594,896 8.8
1950 10,347,395 6.9
1960 9,738,091 5.4
1970 9,619,302 4.7
1980 14,079,906 6.2
1990 19,767,316 7.9
2000 31,107,889 11.1
2010[77] 39,956,000 12.9
2015[78] 43,290,000 13.4
The United States admitted more legal immigrants from 1991 to 2000, between ten and eleven million, than in any previous decade. In the most recent decade, the ten million legal immigrants that settled in the U.S. represent an annual growth of only about 0.3% as the U.S. population grew from 249 million to 281 million. By comparison, the highest previous decade was the 1900s, when 8.8 million people arrived, increasing the total U.S. population by one percent every year. Specifically, "nearly 15% of Americans were foreign-born in 1910, while in 1999, only about 10% were foreign-born."[79]
By 1970, immigrants accounted for 4.7 percent of the US population and rising to 6.2 percent in 1980, with an estimated 12.5 percent in 2009.[80] As of 2010[update], 25% of US residents under age 18 were first- or second-generation immigrants.[81] Eight percent of all babies born in the U.S. in 2008 belonged to illegal immigrant parents, according to a recent analysis of U.S. Census Bureau data by the Pew Hispanic Center.[82]
Legal immigration to the U.S. increased from 250,000 in the 1930s, to 2.5 million in the 1950s, to 4.5 million in the 1970s, and to 7.3 million in the 1980s, before resting at about 10 million in the 1990s.[83] Since 2000, legal immigrants to the United States number approximately 1,000,000 per year, of whom about 600,000 are Change of Status who already are in the U.S. Legal immigrants to the United States now are at their highest level ever, at just over 37,000,000 legal immigrants. Illegal immigration may be as high as 1,500,000 per year with a net of at least 700,000 illegal immigrants arriving every year.[84][85] Immigration led to a 57.4% increase in foreign born population from 1990 to 2000.[86]
While immigration has increased drastically over the last century, the foreign born share of the population is, at 13.4, only somewhat below what it was at its peak in 1910 at 14.7%. A number of factors may be attributed to the decrease in the representation of foreign born residents in the United States. Most significant has been the change in the composition of immigrants; prior to 1890, 82% of immigrants came from North and Western Europe. From 1891 to 1920, that number dropped to 25%, with a rise in immigrants from East, Central, and South Europe, summing up to 64%. Animosity towards these different and foreign immigrants rose in the United States, resulting in much legislation to limit immigration.[citation needed]
Contemporary immigrants settle predominantly in seven states, California, New York, Florida, Texas, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Illinois, comprising about 44% of the U.S. population as a whole. The combined total immigrant population of these seven states was 70% of the total foreign-born population in 2000. If current birth rate and immigration rates were to remain unchanged for another 70 to 80 years, the U.S. population would double to nearly 600 million.[87]
In 1900, when the U.S. population was 76 million, there were an estimated 500,000 Hispanics.[88] The Census Bureau projects that by 2050, one-quarter of the population will be of Hispanic descent.[89] This demographic shift is largely fueled by immigration from Latin America.[90][91]
Origin
500,000 +
200,000–499,999
100,000–199,999
50,000–99,999
Rate of immigration to the United States relative to sending countries' population size, 2006–2010.
Foreign born population of the United States by country of birth in 2013 (U.S. Census Bureau)[92] and number of immigrants between 1986 and 2012 by country of birth[93]
A country is included in the table if it exceeded 50,000 in either category.
Country of birth
Population (2013)
Immigrants (1986–2012)
United States 316,497,531 3,132
Total foreign born 41,347,945 26,147,963
Mexico 11,584,977 5,551,757
China 2,383,831 1,399,667
India 2,034,677 1,323,011
Philippines 1,843,989 1,480,946
Vietnam 1,281,010 955,967
El Salvador 1,252,067 676,776
Cuba 1,144,024 666,657
South Korea 1,070,335 609,321
Dominican Republic 991,046 904,721
Guatemala 902,293 353,122
Canada 840,192 394,790
Jamaica 714,743 507,741
United Kingdom 695,489 383,037
Indonesia 694,600 661,493
Colombia 677,231 498,551
Haiti 593,980 536,657
Germany 584,184 192,676
Honduras 533,598 178,321
Peru 440,292 320,611
Poland 432,601 360,669
Ecuador 427,906 243,217
Russia 390,934 476,306
Iran 363,972 358,586
Italy 354,305 69,111
Ukraine 345,187 306,203
Pakistan 342,603 347,237
Japan 339,970 172,893
Brazil 337,040 214,266
Guyana 259,815 214,995
Nicaragua 240,619 191,701
Nigeria 234,465 227,497
Thailand 233,547 174,168
Trinidad and Tobago 232,026 157,689
Bangladesh 203,179 215,164
Iraq 200,894 153,897
Venezuela 197,724 143,411
Laos 196,154 110,235
Ethiopia 195,805 202,518
Portugal 182,473 53,831
Egypt 176,443 153,755
France 170,394 87,601
Argentina 170,086 98,999
Cambodia 164,746 106,183
Romania 157,302 140,887
Ghana 149,377 130,542
Greece 137,084 37,406
Republic of Ireland 128,350 104,586
Israel 127,079 106,568
Lebanon 124,256 113,727
Burma 116,775 94,792
Bosnia and Herzegovina 112,240 129,481
Kenya 110,678 92,891
Turkey 109,667 85,415
Spain 102,475 41,328
Panama 101,024 57,628
Chile 97,585 54,573
South Africa 95,191 69,992
Saudi Arabia 88,894 n/a
Nepal 87,456 58,841
Netherlands 85,085 35,117
Albania 81,047 84,031
Bolivia 79,924 52,177
Armenia 79,122 62,201
Syria 78,934 68,864
Liberia 78,909 74,632
Australia 78,797 12,926
Costa Rica 78,659 47,648
Hungary 74,213 31,365
Malaysia 68,956 n/a
Bulgaria 67,941 68,768
Afghanistan 67,169 59,480
Jordan 65,618 104,168
Czech Republic 64,354 27,354
Morocco 63,798 76,622
Barbados 52,499 25,444
Sri Lanka 51,268 51,675
Belarus 50,934 58,254
Belize 50,296 n/a
Note: Counts of immigrants since 1986 for Russia includes "Soviet Union (former)", and for Czech Republic includes "Czechoslovakia (former)".
Effects of immigration
Demographics
A U.S. naturalization ceremony at the Kennedy Space Center, 2010.
The Census Bureau estimates the US population will grow from 317 million in 2014 to 417 million in 2060 with immigration, when nearly 20% will be foreign born.[94] A 2015 report from the Pew Research Center projects that by 2065, non-Hispanic whites will account for 46% of the population, down from the 2005 figure of 67%.[95] Non-Hispanic whites made up 85% of the population in 1960.[96] It also foresees the Hispanic population rising from 17% in 2014 to 29% by 2060. The Asian population is expected to nearly double in 2060.[94] Overall, the Pew Report predicts the population of the United States will rise from 296 million in 2005 to 441 million in 2065, but only to 338 million with no immigration.[95]
In 35 of the country's 50 largest cities, non-Hispanic whites were at the last census or are predicted to be in the minority.[97] In California, non-Hispanic whites slipped from 80% of the state's population in 1970 to 42% in 2001[98] and 39% in 2013.[99]
Immigrant segregation declined in the first half of the 20th century, but has been rising over the past few decades. This has caused questioning of the correctness of describing the United States as a melting pot. One explanation is that groups with lower socioeconomic status concentrate in more densely populated area that have access to public transit while groups with higher socioeconomic status move to suburban areas. Another is that some recent immigrant groups are more culturally and linguistically different from earlier groups and prefer to live together due to factors such as communication costs.[100] Another explanation for increased segregation is white flight.[101]
Place of birth for the foreign-born population in the United States
Top ten countries
2015
2010
2000
1990
Mexico 11,643,298 11,711,103 9,177,487 4,298,014
China 2,676,697 2,166,526 1,518,652 921,070
India 2,389,639 1,780,322 1,022,552 450,406
Philippines 1,982,369 1,777,588 1,369,070 912,674
El Salvador 1,352,357 1,214,049 817,336 465,433
Vietnam 1,300,515 1,240,542 988,174 543,262
Cuba 1,210,674 1,104,679 872,716 736,971
Dominican Republic 1,063,239 879,187 687,677 347,858
South Korea 1,060,019 1,100,422 864,125 568,397
Guatemala 927,593 830,824 480,665 225,739
All of Latin America 21,224,087 16,086,974 8,407,837
All Immigrants 43,289,646 39,955,854 31,107,889 19,767,316
Source: 1990, 2000 and 2010 decennial Census and 2015 American Community Survey
Economic
Mexican immigrants march for more rights in Northern California's largest city, San Jose (2006).
A survey of leading economists shows a consensus behind the view that high-skilled immigration makes the average American better off.[102] A survey of the same economists also shows strong support behind the notion that low-skilled immigration makes the average American better off.[103] According to David Card, Christian Dustmann, and Ian Preston, "most existing studies of the economic impacts of immigration suggest these impacts are small, and on average benefit the native population".[104] In a survey of the existing literature, Örn B Bodvarsson and Hendrik Van den Berg write, "a comparison of the evidence from all the studies... makes it clear that, with very few exceptions, there is no strong statistical support for the view held by many members of the public, namely that immigration has an adverse effect on native-born workers in the destination country."[105]
Overall economic prosperity
Whereas the impact on the average native tends to be small and positive, studies show more mixed results for low-skilled natives, but whether the effects are positive or negative, they tend to be small either way.[106]
Immigrants may often do types of work that natives are largely unwilling to do, contributing to greater economic prosperity for the economy as a whole: for instance, Mexican migrant workers taking up manual farm work in the United States has close to zero effect on native employment in that occupation, which means that the effect of Mexican workers on U.S. employment outside farm work was therefore most likely positive, since they raised overall economic productivity.[107] Research indicates that immigrants are more likely to work in risky jobs than U.S.-born workers, partly due to differences in average characteristics, such as immigrants' lower English language ability and educational attainment.[108] Further, some studies indicate that higher ethnic concentration in metropolitan areas is positively related to the probability of self-employment of immigrants.[109]
Research also suggests that diversity has a net positive effect on productivity[110][111] and economic prosperity.[112][112][113][114][115] A study by Harvard economist Nathan Nunn, Yale economist Nancy Qian and LSE economist Sandra Sequeira found that the Age of Mass Migration (1850–1920) has had substantially beneficial long-term effects on U.S. economic prosperity: "locations with more historical immigration today have higher incomes, less poverty, less unemployment, higher rates of urbanization, and greater educational attainment. The long-run effects appear to arise from the persistence of sizeable short-run benefits, including earlier and more intensive industrialization, increased agricultural productivity, and more innovation."[116] The authors also find that the immigration had short-term benefits: "that there is no evidence that these long-run benefits come at short-run costs. In fact, immigration immediately led to economic benefits that took the form of higher incomes, higher productivity, more innovation, and more industrialization."[117]
Research also finds that migration leads to greater trade in goods and services.[118][119][120][121] Using 130 years of data on historical migrations to the United States, one study finds "that a doubling of the number of residents with ancestry from a given foreign country relative to the mean increases by 4.2 percentage points the probability that at least one local firm invests in that country, and increases by 31% the number of employees at domestic recipients of FDI from that country. The size of these effects increases with the ethnic diversity of the local population, the geographic distance to the origin country, and the ethno-linguistic fractionalization of the origin country."[122]
Fiscal effects
A 2011 literature review of the economic impacts of immigration found that the net fiscal impact of migrants varies across studies but that the most credible analyses typically find small and positive fiscal effects on average.[123] According to the authors, "the net social impact of an immigrant over his or her lifetime depends substantially and in predictable ways on the immigrant's age at arrival, education, reason for migration, and similar".[123]
A 2016 report by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine concluded that over a 75-year time horizon, “the fiscal impacts of immigrants are generally positive at the federal level and generally negative at the state and local level.”[124] The reason for the costs to state and local governments is that the cost of educating the immigrants' children falls on state and local governments.[125] According to a 2007 literature review by the Congressional Budget Office, "Over the past two decades, most efforts to estimate the fiscal impact of immigration in the United States have concluded that, in aggregate and over the long term, tax revenues of all types generated by immigrants—both legal and unauthorized—exceed the cost of the services they use."[126]
According to James Smith, a senior economist at Santa Monica-based RAND Corporation and lead author of the United States National Research Council's study "The New Americans: Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration", immigrants contribute as much as $10 billion to the U.S. economy each year.[127] The NRC report found that although immigrants, especially those from Latin America, caused a net loss in terms of taxes paid versus social services received, immigration can provide an overall gain to the domestic economy due to an increase in pay for higher-skilled workers, lower prices for goods and services produced by immigrant labor, and more efficiency and lower wages for some owners of capital. The report also notes that although immigrant workers compete with domestic workers for low-skilled jobs, some immigrants specialize in activities that otherwise would not exist in an area, and thus can be beneficial for all domestic residents.[128]
Immigration and foreign labor documentation fees increased over 80% in 2007, with over 90% of funding for USCIS derived from immigration application fees, creating many USCIS jobs involving immigration to US, such as immigration interview officials, finger print processor, Department of Homeland Security, etc.[129]
Inequality
Overall immigration has not had much effect on native wage inequality[130][131] but low-skill immigration has been linked to greater income inequality in the native population.[132]
Impact of undocumented immigrants
Main article: Economic impact of illegal immigrants in the United States
Research on the economic effects of undocumented immigrants is scant but existing peer-reviewed studies suggest that the effects are positive for the native population[133][134] and public coffers.[126] A 2015 study shows that "increasing deportation rates and tightening border control weakens low-skilled labor markets, increasing unemployment of native low-skilled workers. Legalization, instead, decreases the unemployment rate of low-skilled natives and increases income per native."[135] Studies show that legalization of undocumented immigrants would boost the U.S. economy; a 2013 study found that granting legal status to undocumented immigrants would raise their incomes by a quarter (increasing U.S. GDP by approximately $1.4 trillion over a ten-year period),[136] and 2016 study found that "legalization would increase the economic contribution of the unauthorized population by about 20%, to 3.6% of private-sector GDP."[137]
A 2007 literature by the Congressional Budget Office found that estimating the fiscal effects of undocumented immigrants has proven difficult: "currently available estimates have significant limitations; therefore, using them to determine an aggregate effect across all states would be difficult and prone to considerable error". The impact of undocumented immigrants differs on federal levels than state and local levels,[126] with research suggesting modest fiscal costs at the state and local levels but with substantial fiscal gains at the federal level.[138]
In 2009, a study by the Cato Institute, a free market think tank, found that legalization of low-skilled illegal resident workers in the US would result in a net increase in US GDP of $180 billion over ten years.[139] The Cato Institute study did not examine the impact on per capita income for most Americans. Jason Riley notes that because of progressive income taxation, in which the top 1% of earners pay 37% of federal income taxes (even though they actually pay a lower tax percentage based on their income), 60% of Americans collect more in government services than they pay in, which also reflects on immigrants.[140] In any event, the typical immigrant and his children will pay a net $80,000 more in their lifetime than they collect in government services according to the NAS.[141] Legal immigration policy is set to maximize net taxation. Illegal immigrants even after an amnesty tend to be recipients of more services than they pay in taxes. In 2010, an econometrics study by a Rutgers economist found that immigration helped increase bilateral trade when the incoming people were connected via networks to their country of origin, particularly boosting trade of final goods as opposed to intermediate goods, but that the trade benefit weakened when the immigrants became assimilated into American culture.[142]
According to NPR in 2005, about 3% of illegal immigrants were working in agriculture.[143] The H-2A visa allows U.S. employers to bring foreign nationals to the United States to fill temporary agricultural jobs.[144] The passing of tough immigration laws in several states from around 2009 provides a number of practical case studies. The state of Georgia passed immigration law HB 87 in 2011;[145] this led, according to the coalition of top Kansas businesses, to 50% of its agricultural produce being left to rot in the fields, at a cost to the state of more than $400 million. Overall losses caused by the act were $1 billion; it was estimated that the figure would become over $20 billion if all the estimated 325,000 undocumented workers left Georgia. The cost to Alabama of its crackdown in June 2011 has been estimated at almost $11 billion, with up to 80,000 unauthorized immigrant workers leaving the state.[146]
Impact of refugees
Studies of refugees' impact on native welfare are scant but the existing literature shows a positive fiscal impact and mixed results (negative, positive and no significant effects) on native welfare.[147][148][149][150] A 2017 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found that refugees to the United States pay "$21,000 more in taxes than they receive in benefits over their first 20 years in the U.S."[149] An internal study by the Department of Health and Human Services under the Trump administration, which was suppressed and not shown to the public, found that refugees to the United States brought in $63 billion more in government revenues than they cost the government.[150] According to labor economist Giovanni Peri, the existing literature suggests that there are no economic reasons why the American labor market could not easily absorb 100,000 Syrian refugees in a year.[151] Refugees integrate more slowly into host countries' labor markets than labor migrants, in part due to the loss and depreciation of human capital and credentials during the asylum procedure.[152]
Garment factories in Manhattan's Chinatown
Innovation and entrepreneurship
According to one survey of the existing economic literature, "much of the existing research points towards positive net contributions by immigrant entrepreneurs."[153] Areas where immigrant are more prevalent in the United States have substantially more innovation (as measured by patenting and citations).[154] Immigrants to the United States create businesses at higher rates than natives.[155] Mass migration can also boost innovation and growth, as shown by the examples of German Jewish Émigrés to the US[156] and the Mariel boatlift.[157] Immigrants have been linked to greater invention and innovation in the US.[158] According to one report, "immigrants have started more than half (44 of 87) of America's startup companies valued at $1 billion or more and are key members of management or product development teams in over 70 percent (62 of 87) of these companies."[159] Foreign doctoral students are a major source of innovation in the American economy.[160] In the United States, immigrant workers hold a disproportionate share of jobs in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM): "In 2013, foreign-born workers accounted for 19.2 percent of STEM workers with a bachelor's degree, 40.7 percent of those with a master's degree, and more than half—54.5 percent—of those with a Ph.D."[161]
The Kauffman Foundation's index of entrepreneurial activity is nearly 40% higher for immigrants than for natives.[162] Immigrants were involved in the founding of many prominent American high-tech companies, such as Google, Yahoo, YouTube, Sun Microsystems, and eBay.[163]
Scottish immigrant Andrew Carnegie led the enormous expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th century.
Bangladeshi immigrant Fazlur Rahman Khan was responsible for the engineering design of Sears Tower (now Willis Tower),[164][165] the tallest building in the world until 1998.[166]
Social
Discrimination
Irish immigration was opposed in the 1850s by the nativist Know Nothing movement, originating in New York in 1843. It was engendered by popular fears that the country was being overwhelmed by Irish Catholic immigrants. On March 14, 1891, a lynch mob stormed a local jail and lynched several Italians following the acquittal of several Sicilian immigrants alleged to be involved in the murder of New Orleans police chief David Hennessy. The Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act in 1921, followed by the Immigration Act of 1924. The Immigration Act of 1924 was aimed at limiting immigration overall, and making sure that the nationalities of new arrivals matched the overall national profile.
Business
A 2014 meta-analysis of racial discrimination in product markets found extensive evidence of minority applicants being quoted higher prices for products.[167] A 1995 study found that car dealers "quoted significantly lower prices to white males than to black or female test buyers using identical, scripted bargaining strategies."[168] A 2013 study found that eBay sellers of iPods received 21 percent more offers if a white hand held the iPod in the photo than a black hand.[169]
Criminal justice system
Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects.[170][171][172][173] Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities.[174][175][176][177][178] A 2012 study found that "(i) juries formed from all-white jury pools convict black defendants significantly (16 percentage points) more often than white defendants, and (ii) this gap in conviction rates is entirely eliminated when the jury pool includes at least one black member."[176] Research has found evidence of in-group bias, where "black (white) juveniles who are randomly assigned to black (white) judges are more likely to get incarcerated (as opposed to being placed on probation), and they receive longer sentences."[178] In-group bias has also been observed when it comes to traffic citations, as black and white cops are more likely to cite out-groups.[172]
Education
A 2015 study using correspondence tests "found that when considering requests from prospective students seeking mentoring in the future, faculty were significantly more responsive to White males than to all other categories of students, collectively, particularly in higher-paying disciplines and private institutions."[179] Through affirmative action, there is reason to believe that elite colleges favor minority applicants.[180]
Housing
A 2014 meta-analysis found extensive evidence of racial discrimination in the American housing market.[167] Minority applicants for housing needed to make many more enquiries to view properties.[167] Geographical steering of African-Americans in US housing remained significant.[167] A 2003 study finds "evidence that agents interpret an initial housing request as an indication of a customer's preferences, but also are more likely to withhold a house from all customers when it is in an integrated suburban neighborhood (redlining). Moreover, agents' marketing efforts increase with asking price for white, but not for black, customers; blacks are more likely than whites to see houses in suburban, integrated areas (steering); and the houses agents show are more likely to deviate from the initial request when the customer is black than when the customer is white. These three findings are consistent with the possibility that agents act upon the belief that some types of transactions are relatively unlikely for black customers (statistical discrimination)."[181]
A report by the federal Department of Housing and Urban Development where the department sent African-Americans and whites to look at apartments found that African-Americans were shown fewer apartments to rent and houses for sale.[182]
Labor market
Several meta-analyses find extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring in the American labor market.[167][183][184] A 2016 meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests—tests where identical CVs for stereotypically black and white names were sent to employers—in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015 finds that there is extensive racial discrimination in hiring decisions in Europe and North-America.[184] These correspondence tests showed that equivalent minority candidates need to send around 50% more applications to be invited for an interview than majority candidates.[184][185] A study that examine the job applications of actual people provided with identical résumés and similar interview training showed that African-American applicants with no criminal record were offered jobs at a rate as low as white applicants who had criminal records.[186]
Discrimination between minority groups
Racist thinking among and between minority groups does occur;[187][188] examples of this are conflicts between blacks and Korean immigrants,[189] notably in the 1992 Los Angeles Riots, and between African Americans and non-white Latino immigrants.[190][191] There has been a long running racial tension between African American and Mexican prison gangs, as well as significant riots in California prisons where they have targeted each other, for ethnic reasons.[192][193] There have been reports of racially motivated attacks against African Americans who have moved into neighborhoods occupied mostly by people of Mexican origin, and vice versa.[194][195] There has also been an increase in violence between non-Hispanic Anglo Americans and Latino immigrants, and between African immigrants and African Americans.[196]
Assimilation
Measuring assimilation can be difficult due to "ethnic attrition", which refers to when ancestors of migrants cease to self-identify with the nationality or ethnicity of their ancestors. This means that successful cases of assimilation will be underestimated. Research shows that ethnic attrition is sizable in Hispanic and Asian immigrant groups in the United States.[197][198] By taking account of ethnic attrition, the assimilation rate of Hispanics in the United States improves significantly.[197][199] A 2016 paper challenges the view that cultural differences are necessarily an obstacle to long-run economic performance of migrants. It finds that "first generation migrants seem to be less likely to success the more culturally distant they are, but this effect vanishes as time spent in the USA increases."[200]
Religious diversity
Immigration from South Asia and elsewhere has contributed to enlarging the religious composition of the United States. Islam in the United States is growing mainly due to immigration. Hinduism in the United States, Buddhism in the United States, and Sikhism in the United States are other examples.[201]
Since 1992, an estimated 1.7 million Muslims, approximately 1 million Hindus, and approximately 1 million Buddhists have immigrated legally to the United States.[202]
Labor unions
Main article: Immigration policies of American labor unions
The American Federation of Labor (AFL), a coalition of labor unions formed in the 1880s, vigorously opposed unrestricted immigration from Europe for moral, cultural, and racial reasons. The issue unified the workers who feared that an influx of new workers would flood the labor market and lower wages.[203] Nativism was not a factor because upwards of half the union members were themselves immigrants or the sons of immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Britain. However, nativism was a factor when the AFL even more strenuously opposed all immigration from Asia because it represented (to its Euro-American members) an alien culture that could not be assimilated into American society. The AFL intensified its opposition after 1906 and was instrumental in passing immigration restriction bills from the 1890s to the 1920s, such as the 1921 Emergency Quota Act and the Immigration Act of 1924, and seeing that they were strictly enforced.[204][205]
Mink (1986) concludes that the link between the AFL and the Democratic Party rested in part on immigration issues, noting the large corporations, which supported the Republicans, wanted more immigration to augment their labor force.[206]
United Farm Workers during Cesar Chavez tenure was committed to restricting immigration. Chavez and Dolores Huerta, cofounder and president of the UFW, fought the Bracero Program that existed from 1942 to 1964. Their opposition stemmed from their belief that the program undermined U.S. workers and exploited the migrant workers. Since the Bracero Program ensured a constant supply of cheap immigrant labor for growers, immigrants could not protest any infringement of their rights, lest they be fired and replaced. Their efforts contributed to Congress ending the Bracero Program in 1964. In 1973, the UFW was one of the first labor unions to oppose proposed employer sanctions that would have prohibited hiring illegal immigrants.
On a few occasions, concerns that illegal immigrant labor would undermine UFW strike campaigns led to a number of controversial events, which the UFW describes as anti-strikebreaking events, but which have also been interpreted as being anti-immigrant. In 1969, Chavez and members of the UFW marched through the Imperial and Coachella Valleys to the border of Mexico to protest growers' use of illegal immigrants as strikebreakers. Joining him on the march were Reverend Ralph Abernathy and U.S. Senator Walter Mondale.[citation needed] In its early years, the UFW and Chavez went so far as to report illegal immigrants who served as strikebreaking replacement workers (as well as those who refused to unionize) to the Immigration and Naturalization Service.[207][208][209][210][211]
In 1973, the United Farm Workers set up a "wet line" along the United States-Mexico border to prevent Mexican immigrants from entering the United States illegally and potentially undermining the UFW's unionization efforts.[212] During one such event, in which Chavez was not involved, some UFW members, under the guidance of Chavez's cousin Manuel, physically attacked the strikebreakers after peaceful attempts to persuade them not to cross the border failed.[213][214][215]
Political
See also: Immigration reform and Nativism (politics)
Immigrant rights march in downtown Los Angeles, California on May Day, 2006.
A Boston Globe article attributed Barack Obama's win in the 2008 U.S. Presidential election to a marked reduction over the preceding decades in the percentage of whites in the American electorate, attributing this demographic change to the Immigration Act of 1965.[26] The article quoted Simon Rosenberg, president and founder of the New Democrat Network, as having said that the Act is "the most important piece of legislation that no one's ever heard of," and that it "set America on a very different demographic course than the previous 300 years."[26]
Immigrants differ on their political views; however, the Democratic Party is considered to be in a far stronger position among immigrants overall.[216][217] Research shows that religious affiliation can also significantly impact both their social values and voting patterns of immigrants, as well as the broader American population. Hispanic evangelicals, for example, are more strongly conservative than non-Hispanic evangelicals.[218] This trend is often similar for Hispanics or others strongly identifying with the Catholic Church, a religion that strongly opposes abortion and gay marriage.
A rally in Chicago, part of the Great American Boycott and 2006 U.S. immigration reform protests, on May 1, 2006.
The key interests groups that lobby on immigration are religious, ethnic and business groups, together with some liberals and some conservative public policy organizations. Both the pro- and anti- groups affect policy.[219][dead link]
Studies have suggested that some special interest group lobby for less immigration for their own group and more immigration for other groups since they see effects of immigration, such as increased labor competition, as detrimental when affecting their own group but beneficial when affecting other groups.[citation needed]
A 2007 paper found that both pro- and anti-immigration special interest groups play a role in migration policy. "Barriers to migration are lower in sectors in which business lobbies incur larger lobbying expenditures and higher in sectors where labor unions are more important."[220] A 2011 study examining the voting of US representatives on migration policy suggests that "representatives from more skilled labor abundant districts are more likely to support an open immigration policy towards the unskilled, whereas the opposite is true for representatives from more unskilled labor abundant districts."[221]
After the 2010 election, Gary Segura of Latino Decisions stated that Hispanic voters influenced the outcome and "may have saved the Senate for Democrats".[222] Several ethnic lobbies support immigration reforms that would allow illegal immigrants that have succeeded in entering to gain citizenship. They may also lobby for special arrangements for their own group. The Chairman for the Irish Lobby for Immigration Reform has stated that "the Irish Lobby will push for any special arrangement it can get—'as will every other ethnic group in the country.'"[223][224] The irrendentist and ethnic separatist movements for Reconquista and Aztlán see immigration from Mexico as strengthening their cause.[225][226]
The book Ethnic Lobbies and US Foreign Policy (2009) states that several ethnic special interest groups are involved in pro-immigration lobbying. Ethnic lobbies also influence foreign policy. The authors write that "Increasingly, ethnic tensions surface in electoral races, with House, Senate, and gubernatorial contests serving as proxy battlegrounds for antagonistic ethnoracial groups and communities. In addition, ethnic politics affect party politics as well, as groups compete for relative political power within a party". However, the authors argue that currently ethnic interest groups, in general, do not have too much power in foreign policy and can balance other special interest groups.[227]
In a 2012 news story, Reuters reported, "Strong support from Hispanics, the fastest-growing demographic in the United States, helped tip President Barack Obama's fortunes as he secured a second term in the White House, according to Election Day polling."[228]
Lately, there is talk among several Republican leaders, such as governors Bobby Jindal and Susana Martinez, of taking a new, friendlier approach to immigration. Former US Secretary of Commerce Carlos Gutierrez is promoting the creation of Republicans for Immigration Reform.[229][230]
Bernie Sanders opposes guest worker programs[231] and is also skeptical about skilled immigrant (H-1B) visas, saying, "Last year, the top 10 employers of H-1B guest workers were all offshore outsourcing companies. These firms are responsible for shipping large numbers of American information technology jobs to India and other countries."[123][232] In an interview with Vox he stated his opposition to an open borders immigration policy, describing it as:
...a right-wing proposal, which says essentially there is no United States...you're doing away with the concept of a nation-state. What right-wing people in this country would love is an open-border policy. Bring in all kinds of people, work for $2 or $3 an hour, that would be great for them. I don’t believe in that. I think we have to raise wages in this country, I think we have to do everything we can to create millions of jobs.[233][234]
Health
The issue of the health of immigrants and the associated cost to the public has been largely discussed. On average, per capita health care spending is lower for immigrants than it is for native-born Americans.[235] The non-emergency use of emergency rooms ostensibly indicates an incapacity to pay, yet some studies allege disproportionately lower access to unpaid health care by immigrants.[236] For this and other reasons, there have been various disputes about how much immigration is costing the United States public health system.[237] University of Maryland economist and Cato Institute scholar Julian Lincoln Simon concluded in 1995 that while immigrants probably pay more into the health system than they take out, this is not the case for elderly immigrants and refugees, who are more dependent on public services for survival.[238]
Immigration from areas of high incidences of disease is thought to have fueled the resurgence of tuberculosis (TB), chagas, and hepatitis in areas of low incidence.[239] According to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), TB cases among foreign-born individuals remain disproportionately high, at nearly nine times the rate of U.S.-born persons.[240][241] To reduce the risk of diseases in low-incidence areas, the main countermeasure has been the screening of immigrants on arrival.[242] HIV/AIDS entered the United States in around 1969, likely through a single infected immigrant from Haiti.[243][244] Conversely, many new HIV infections in Mexico can be traced back to the United States.[245] People infected with HIV were banned from entering the United States in 1987 by executive order, but the 1993 statute supporting the ban was lifted in 2009. The executive branch is expected to administratively remove HIV from the list of infectious diseases barring immigration, but immigrants generally would need to show that they would not be a burden on public welfare.[246] Researchers have also found what is known as the "healthy immigrant effect", in which immigrants in general tend to be healthier than individuals born in the U.S.[247][248]
Crime
There is no empirical evidence that immigration increases crime in the United States.[6] In fact, a majority of studies in the U.S. have found lower crime rates among immigrants than among non-immigrants, and that higher concentrations of immigrants are associated with lower crime rates.[7]
Some research even suggests that increases in immigration may partly explain the reduction in the U.S. crime rate.[249][250][251][252][253] A 2005 study showed that immigration to large U.S. metropolitan areas does not increase, and in some cases decreases, crime rates there.[254] A 2009 study found that recent immigration was not associated with homicide in Austin, Texas.[255] The low crime rates of immigrants to the United States despite having lower levels of education, lower levels of income and residing in urban areas (factors that should lead to higher crime rates) may be due to lower rates of antisocial behavior among immigrants.[256] A 2015 study found that Mexican immigration to the United States was associated with an increase in aggravated assaults and a decrease in property crimes.[257] A 2016 study finds no link between immigrant populations and violent crime, although there is a small but significant association between undocumented immigrants and drug-related crime.[258]
Research finds that Secure Communities, an immigration enforcement program which led to a quarter of a million of detentions (when the study was published; November 2014), had no observable impact on the crime rate.[259] A 2015 study found that the 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act, which legalized almost 3 million immigrants, led to "decreases in crime of 3–5 percent, primarily due to decline in property crimes, equivalent to 120,000-180,000 fewer violent and property crimes committed each year due to legalization".[260] According to one study, sanctuary cities—which adopt policies designed to not prosecute people solely for being an illegal immigrant—have no statistically meaningful effect on crime.[261]
One of the first political analyses in the U.S. of the relationship between immigration and crime was performed in the beginning of the 20th century by the Dillingham Commission, which found a relationship especially for immigrants from non-Northern European countries, resulting in the sweeping 1920s immigration reduction acts, including the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, which favored immigration from northern and western Europe.[262] Recent research is skeptical of the conclusion drawn by the Dillingham Commission. One study finds that "major government commissions on immigration and crime in the early twentieth century relied on evidence that suffered from aggregation bias and the absence of accurate population data, which led them to present partial and sometimes misleading views of the immigrant-native criminality comparison. With improved data and methods, we find that in 1904, prison commitment rates for more serious crimes were quite similar by nativity for all ages except ages 18 and 19, for which the commitment rate for immigrants was higher than for the native-born. By 1930, immigrants were less likely than natives to be committed to prisons at all ages 20 and older, but this advantage disappears when one looks at commitments for violent offenses."[263]
For the early twentieth century, one study found that immigrants had "quite similar" imprisonment rates for major crimes as natives in 1904 but lower for major crimes (except violent offenses; the rate was similar) in 1930.[263] Contemporary commissions used dubious data and interpreted it in questionable ways.[263]
Research suggests that police practices, such as racial profiling, over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of immigrants among crime suspects.[264][171][265][173] Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for immigrants.[174][175][176][177][178]
Education
Scientific laboratories and startup internet opportunities have been a powerful American magnet. By 2000, 23% of scientists with a PhD in the U.S. were immigrants, including 40% of those in engineering and computers.[266] Roughly a third of the United State's college and universities graduate students in STEM fields are foreign nationals—in some states it is well over half of their graduate students. On Ash Wednesday, March 5, 2014, the presidents of 28 Catholic and Jesuit colleges and universities, joined the "Fast for Families" movement.[267] The "Fast for Families" movement reignited the immigration debate in the fall of 2013 when the movement's leaders, supported by many members of Congress and the President, fasted for twenty-two days on the National Mall in Washington, D.C.[268]
A study on public schools in California found that white enrollment declined in response to increases in the number of Spanish-speaking Limited English Proficient and Hispanic students. This white flight was greater for schools with relatively larger proportions of Spanish-speaking Limited English Proficient.[101]
A North Carolina study found that the presence of Latin American children in schools had no significant negative effects on peers, but that students with limited English skills had slight negative effects on peers.[269]
Public opinion
The ambivalent feeling of Americans toward immigrants is shown by a positive attitude toward groups that have been visible for a century or more, and much more negative attitude toward recent arrivals. For example, a 1982 national poll by the Roper Center at the University of Connecticut showed respondents a card listing a number of groups and asked, "Thinking both of what they have contributed to this country and have gotten from this country, for each one tell me whether you think, on balance, they've been a good or a bad thing for this country," which produced the results shown in the table. "By high margins, Americans are telling pollsters it was a very good thing that Poles, Italians, and Jews immigrated to America. Once again, it's the newcomers who are viewed with suspicion. This time, it's the Mexicans, the Filipinos, and the people from the Caribbean who make Americans nervous."[270][271]
In a 2002 study, which took place soon after the September 11 attacks, 55% of Americans favored decreasing legal immigration, 27% favored keeping it at the same level, and 15% favored increasing it.[272]
In 2006, the immigration-reduction advocacy think tank the Center for Immigration Studies released a poll that found that 68% of Americans think U.S. immigration levels are too high, and just 2% said they are too low. They also found that 70% said they are less likely to vote for candidates that favor increasing legal immigration.[273] In 2004, 55% of Americans believed legal immigration should remain at the current level or increased and 41% said it should be decreased.[274] The less contact a native-born American has with immigrants, the more likely one would have a negative view of immigrants.[274]
One of the most important factors regarding public opinion about immigration is the level of unemployment; anti-immigrant sentiment is where unemployment is highest, and vice versa.[275]
Surveys indicate that the U.S. public consistently makes a sharp distinction between legal and illegal immigrants, and generally views those perceived as "playing by the rules" with more sympathy than immigrants that have entered the country illegally.[276]
Legal issues
Laws concerning immigration and naturalization
A U.S. green card, a document confirming permanent resident status for eligible immigrants, including refugees, political asylum seekers, family-sponsored migrants, employment-based workers and diversity immigrants (DV).
See also: Illegal immigration to the United States and Guest Worker Program
Laws concerning immigration and naturalization include:
the Immigration Act of 1990 (IMMACT), which limits the annual number of immigrants to 700,000. It emphasizes that family reunification is the main immigration criterion, in addition to employment-related immigration.
the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act (AEDPA)
the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA)
AEDPA and IIRARA exemplify many categories of criminal activity for which immigrants, including green card holders, can be deported and have imposed mandatory detention for certain types of cases.
Asylum for refugees
Main article: Asylum in the United States
The U.S. offered to resettle 60,000 Bhutanese refugees of ethnic Nepalese descent.[277]
In contrast to economic migrants, who generally do not gain legal admission, refugees, as defined by international law, can gain legal status through a process of seeking and receiving asylum, either by being designated a refugee while abroad, or by physically entering the United States and requesting asylum status thereafter. A specified number of legally defined refugees, who either apply for asylum overseas or after arriving in the U.S., are admitted annually.[quantify] Refugees compose about one-tenth of the total annual immigration to the United States, though some large refugee populations are very prominent.[citation needed] In the year 2014, the number of asylum seekers accepted into the U.S. was about 120,000. This compared with about 31,000 in the UK and 13,500 in Canada.[278] Japan accepted just 41 refugees for resettlement in 2007.[279]
Since 1975, more than 1.3 million refugees from Asia have been resettled in the United States.[280] Since 2000 the main refugee-sending regions have been Somalia, Liberia, Sudan, and Ethiopia.[281] The ceiling for refugee resettlement for fiscal year 2008 was 80,000 refugees. The United States expected to admit a minimum of 17,000 Iraqi refugees during fiscal year 2009.[282] The U.S. has resettled more than 42,000 Bhutanese refugees from Nepal since 2008.[283]
In fiscal year 2008, the Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR) appropriated over $655 million for long-term services provided to refugees after their arrival in the US.[284] The Obama administration has kept to about the same level.[285]
Miscellaneous documented immigration
In removal proceedings in front of an immigration judge, cancellation of removal is a form of relief that is available for certain long-time residents of the United States.[286] It allows a person being faced with the threat of removal to obtain permanent residence if that person has been physically present in the U.S. for at least ten years, has had good moral character during that period, has not been convicted of certain crimes, and can show that removal would result in exceptional and extremely unusual hardship to his or her U.S. citizen or permanent resident spouse, children, or parent. This form of relief is only available when a person is served with a Notice to Appear to appear in the proceedings in the court.[287][288]
Members of Congress may submit private bills granting residency to specific named individuals. A special committee[which?] vets the requests, which require extensive documentation. The Central Intelligence Agency has the statutory authority to admit up to one hundred people a year outside of normal immigration procedures, and to provide for their settlement and support. The program is called "PL110", named after the legislation that created the agency, Public Law 110, the Central Intelligence Agency Act.
Illegal immigration
Main articles: Illegal immigration to the United States and Illegal immigrant population of the United States
The illegal immigrant population of the United States is estimated to be between 11 and 12 million.[289] The population of unauthorized immigrants peaked in 2007 and has declined since that time.[289] The majority of the U.S. unauthorized immigrants are from Mexico, but "their numbers (and share of the total) have been declining" and as of 2016 Mexicans no longer make up a clear majority of unauthorized immigrants, as they did in the past.[290] Unauthorized immigrants made up about 5% of the total U.S. civilian labor force in 2014.[290] By the 2010s, an increasing share of U.S. unauthorized immigrants were long-term residents; in 2015, 66% of adult unauthorized residents had lived in the country for at least ten years, while only 14% had lived in the U.S. for less than five years.[290]
In June 2012, President Obama issued a memorandum instructing officers of the federal government to defer deporting young undocumented immigrants who were brought to the U.S. as children as part of the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program. Under the program, eligible recipients who applied and were granted DACA status were granted a two-year deferral from deportation and temporary eligibility to work legally in the country.[291] Among other criteria, in order to be eligible a youth applicant must (1) be between age 15 and 31; (2) have come to the United States before the age of 16; (3) have lived in the U.S. continuously for at least five years; (4) be a current student, or have earned a high school diploma or equivalent, or have received an honorable discharge from the U.S. armed services; and (4) must not "have not been convicted of a felony, significant misdemeanor, or three or more misdemeanors, and do not otherwise pose a threat to public safety or national security."[292] The Migration Policy Institution estimated that as of 2016, about 1.3 million unauthorized young adults ages 15 and older were "immediately eligible for DACA"; of this eligible population, 63% had applied as of March 2016.[291]
In 2014, President Obama announced a set of executive actions, the Deferred Action for Parents of Americans and Lawful Permanent Residents. Under this program, "unauthorized immigrants who are parents of U.S. citizens or lawful permanent residents (LPRs) would qualify for deferred action for three years if they meet certain other requirements."[293] A February 2016 Migration Policy Institute/Urban Institute report found that (about 3.6 million people were potentially eligible for DAPA and "more than 10 million people live in households with at least one potentially DAPA-eligible adult, including some 4.3 million children under age 18 - an estimated 85 percent of whom are U.S. citizens."[293] The report also found that "the potentially DAPA eligible are well settled with strong U.S. roots, with 69 percent having lived in the United States ten years or more, and 25 percent at least 20 years."[293]
Although not without precedent under prior presidents,[294] President Obama's authority to create DAPA and expand DACA were challenged in the federal courts by Texas and 25 other states.[293] In November 2015, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, in a 2-1 decision in United States v. Texas, upheld a preliminary injunction blocking the programs from going forward.[295][296] The case was heard by the U.S. Supreme Court, which in June 2016 deadlocked 4-4, thus affirming the ruling of the Fifth Circuit but setting no nationally binding precedent.[297][298]
Military immigration
On November 15, 2013 the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services announced that they would be issuing a new policy memorandum called "parole in place.[299]" Parole in place would offer green cards to immigrant parents, spouses and children of active military duty personnel. Prior to this law relatives of military personnel – excluding husbands and wives – were forced to leave the United States and apply for green cards in their home countries. The law allows for family members to avoid the possible ten-year bar from the United States and remain in the United States while applying for lawful permanent residence.[300] The parole status, given in one year terms, will be subject to the family member being "absent a criminal conviction or other serious adverse factors."[300]
Immigration in popular culture
A cartoon in Puck from 1888 attacked businessmen for welcoming large numbers of low paid immigrants, leaving the American men unemployed.[301]
The history of immigration to the United States is the history of the country itself, and the journey from beyond the sea is an element found in American folklore, appearing over and over again in everything from The Godfather to Gangs of New York to "The Song of Myself" to Neil Diamond's "America" to the animated feature An American Tail.[302]
From the 1880s to the 1910s, vaudeville dominated the popular image of immigrants, with very popular caricature portrayals of ethnic groups. The specific features of these caricatures became widely accepted as accurate portrayals.[303]
In The Melting Pot (1908), playwright Israel Zangwill (1864–1926) explored issues that dominated Progressive Era debates about immigration policies. Zangwill's theme of the positive benefits of the American melting pot resonated widely in popular culture and literary and academic circles in the 20th century; his cultural symbolism – in which he situated immigration issues – likewise informed American cultural imagining of immigrants for decades, as exemplified by Hollywood films.[304][305] The popular culture's image of ethnic celebrities often includes stereotypes about immigrant groups. For example, Frank Sinatra's public image as a superstar contained important elements of the American Dream while simultaneously incorporating stereotypes about Italian Americans that were based in nativist and Progressive responses to immigration.[306]
The process of assimilation has been a common theme of popular culture. For example, "lace-curtain Irish" refers to middle-class Irish Americans desiring assimilation into mainstream society in counterpoint to the older, more raffish "shanty Irish". The occasional malapropisms and left-footed social blunders of these upward mobiles were gleefully lampooned in vaudeville, popular song, and the comic strips of the day such as Bringing Up Father, starring Maggie and Jiggs, which ran in daily newspapers for 87 years (1913 to 2000).[307][308] In The Departed (2006), Staff Sergeant Dignam regularly points out the dichotomy between the lace curtain Irish lifestyle Billy Costigan enjoyed with his mother, and the shanty Irish lifestyle of Costigan's father. In recent years the popular culture has paid special attention to Mexican immigration[309] and the film Spanglish (2004) tells of a friendship of a Mexican housemaid (Paz Vega) and her boss played by Adam Sandler.
Immigration in literature
Maggie and Jiggs from Bringing Up Father (January 7, 1940).
Novelists and writers have captured much of the color and challenge in their immigrant lives through their writings.[310]
Regarding Irish women in the 19th century, there were numerous novels and short stories by Harvey O'Higgins, Peter McCorry, Bernard O'Reilly and Sarah Orne Jewett that emphasize emancipation from Old World controls, new opportunities and expansiveness of the immigrant experience.[311]
On the other hand, Hladnik studies three popular novels of the late 19th century that warned Slovenes not to immigrate to the dangerous new world of the United States.[312]
Jewish American writer Anzia Yezierska wrote her novel Bread Givers (1925) to explore such themes as Russian-Jewish immigration in the early 20th century, the tension between Old and New World Yiddish culture, and women's experience of immigration. A well established author Yezierska focused on the Jewish struggle to escape the ghetto and enter middle- and upper-class America. In the novel, the heroine, Sara Smolinsky, escape from New York City's "down-town ghetto" by breaking tradition. She quits her job at the family store and soon becomes engaged to a rich real-estate magnate. She graduates college and takes a high-prestige job teaching public school. Finally Sara restores her broken links to family and religion.[313]
The Swedish author Vilhelm Moberg in the mid-20th century wrote a series of four novels describing one Swedish family's migration from Småland to Minnesota in the late 19th century, a destiny shared by almost one million people. The author emphasizes the authenticity of the experiences as depicted (although he did change names).[314] These novels have been translated into English (The Emigrants, 1951, Unto a Good Land, 1954, The Settlers, 1961, The Last Letter Home, 1961). The musical Kristina från Duvemåla by ex-ABBA members Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson is based on this story.[315][316]
The Immigrant is a musical by Steven Alper, Sarah Knapp, and Mark Harelik. The show is based on the story of Harelik's grandparents, Matleh and Haskell Harelik, who traveled to Galveston, Texas in 1909.[317]
Documentary films
Play media
Film about historical immigration to America from ca. 1970
In their documentary How Democracy Works Now: Twelve Stories, filmmakers Shari Robertson and Michael Camerini examine the American political system through the lens of immigration reform from 2001 to 2007. Since the debut of the first five films, the series has become an important resource for advocates, policy-makers and educators.[318]
That film series premiered nearly a decade after the filmmakers' landmark documentary film Well-Founded Fear which provided a behind-the-scenes look at the process for seeking asylum in the United States. That film still marks the only time that a film-crew was privy to the private proceedings at the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), where individual asylum officers ponder the often life-or-death fate of immigrants seeking asylum.
Legal perspectives
University of North Carolina law professor Hiroshi Motomura has identified three approaches the United States has taken to the legal status of immigrants in his book Americans in Waiting: The Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States. The first, dominant in the 19th century, treated immigrants as in transition; in other words, as prospective citizens. As soon as people declared their intention to become citizens, they received multiple low-cost benefits, including the eligibility for free homesteads in the Homestead Act of 1869, and in many states, the right to vote. The goal was to make the country more attractive, so large numbers of farmers and skilled craftsmen would settle new lands. By the 1880s, a second approach took over, treating newcomers as "immigrants by contract". An implicit deal existed where immigrants who were literate and could earn their own living were permitted in restricted numbers. Once in the United States, they would have limited legal rights, but were not allowed to vote until they became citizens, and would not be eligible for the New Deal government benefits available in the 1930s. The third and more recent policy[when?] is "immigration by affiliation", which Motomura argues is the treatment which depends on how deeply rooted people have become in the country. An immigrant who applies for citizenship as soon as permitted, has a long history of working in the United States, and has significant family ties, is more deeply affiliated and can expect better treatment.[319]
It has been suggested that the US should adopt policies similar to those in Canada and Australia and select for desired qualities such as education and work experience. Another suggestion is to reduce legal immigration because of being a relative, except for nuclear family members, since such immigrations of extended relatives, who in turn bring in their own extended relatives, may cause a perpetual cycle of "chain immigration".[320]
Interpretive perspectives
The Statue of Liberty was a common sight to many immigrants who entered the United States through Ellis Island
The American Dream is the belief that through hard work and determination, any United States immigrant can achieve a better life, usually in terms of financial prosperity and enhanced personal freedom of choice.[321] According to historians, the rapid economic and industrial expansion of the U.S. is not simply a function of being a resource rich, hard working, and inventive country, but the belief that anybody could get a share of the country's wealth if he or she was willing to work hard.[322] This dream has been a major factor in attracting immigrants to the United States.[323]
See also
Demographics of the United States
Emigration from the United States
European colonization of the Americas
History of laws concerning immigration and naturalization in the United States
How Democracy Works Now: Twelve Stories
Illegal immigration to the United States
Inequality within immigrant families (United States)
Nativism (politics), opposition to immigration
Opposition to immigration
United States immigration statistics
Immigrant benefits urban legend, a hoax regarding benefits comparison
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Jump up ^ Farmworker Collective Bargaining, 1979: Hearings Before the Committee on Labor Human Resources Hearings held in Salinas, Calif., April 26, 27, and Washington, D.C., May 24, 1979
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Jump up ^ in fact, Simon, Juliana (1995) "Immigration: The Demographic and Economic Facts". Washington, D.C.: The Cato Institute and National Immigration Forum (available here "Archived copy". Archived from the original on July 1, 2010. Retrieved July 1, 2010. ) finds that estimates of the cost of public health care provided to undocumented immigrants that have been used by the press have been extremely inflated
Jump up ^ Simon (1995)
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Jump up ^ Stansfield, Richard (August 2014). "Safer Cities: A Macro-level analysis of Recent Immigration, Hispanic-owned Businesses, and Crime Rates in the United States". Journal of Urban Affairs. 36 (3): 503–18. doi:10.1111/juaf.12051.
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Jump up ^ Green, David (May 1, 2016). "The Trump Hypothesis: Testing Immigrant Populations as a Determinant of Violent and Drug-Related Crime in the United States". Social Science Quarterly: n/a–n/a. ISSN 1540-6237. doi:10.1111/ssqu.12300. Archived from the original on June 4, 2016.
Jump up ^ Miles, Thomas J.; Cox, Adam B. (October 21, 2015). "Does Immigration Enforcement Reduce Crime? Evidence from Secure Communities". The Journal of Law and Economics. 57 (4): 937–973. doi:10.1086/680935.
Jump up ^ Baker, Scott R. "Effects of Immigrant Legalization on Crime †". American Economic Review. 105 (5): 210–13. doi:10.1257/aer.p20151041.
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^ Jump up to: a b c Moehling, Carolyn; Piehl, Anne Morrison (November 1, 2009). "Immigration, crime, and incarceration in early twentieth-century america". Demography. 46 (4): 739–63. ISSN 0070-3370. doi:10.1353/dem.0.0076.
Jump up ^ Warren, Patricia Y.; Tomaskovic-Devey, Donald (May 1, 2009). "Racial profiling and searches: Did the politics of racial profiling change police behavior?*". Criminology & Public Policy. 8 (2): 343–69. ISSN 1745-9133. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00556.x. Archived from the original on January 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ West, Jeremy. "Racial Bias in Police Investigations" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 7, 2016.
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Jump up ^ Rymer, Nataliya (March 17, 2014). "Leaders in Higher Education Call for Immigration Reform". The National Law Review. Greenberg Traurig, LLP. ISSN 2161-3362. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved June 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ Foley, Elise (February 3, 2014). "The Man Who Kept Immigration Reform Alive". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on September 11, 2014. Retrieved June 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Gender and Racial Differences in Peer Effects of Limited English Students: A Story of Language or Ethnicity?". www.iza.org. Archived from the original on January 28, 2016. Retrieved January 21, 2016.
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Jump up ^ Rita James Simon and Mohamed Alaa Abdel-Moneim, Public opinion in the United States: studies of race, religion, gender, and issues that matter (2010) pp. 61–62
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Jump up ^ "Legal vs. Illegal Immigration". Public Agenda. December 2007.
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Jump up ^ Immigration and Nationality Act, Section 240A online Archived November 24, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
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^ Jump up to: a b Amy Sherman (July 28, 2015). "Donald Trump wrongly says the number of illegal immigrants is 30 million or higher". PolitiFact. Archived from the original on November 17, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jens Manuel Krogstaf, Jeffrey S. PAssel & D'Vera Cohn, 5 facts about illegal immigration in the U.S. Archived April 28, 2017, at the Wayback Machine., Pew Research Center (April 27, 2017).
^ Jump up to: a b Faye Hipsman, Bárbara Gómez-Aguiñaga, & Randy Capps, Policy Brief: DACA at Four: Participation in the Deferred Action Program and Impacts on Recipients Archived May 25, 2017, at the Wayback Machine., Migration Policy Institute (August 2016).
Jump up ^ Jeanne Batalova, Sarah Hooker & Randy Capps, DACA at the Two-Year Mark: A National and State Profile of Youth Eligible and Applying for Deferred Action Archived May 25, 2017, at the Wayback Machine., Migration Policy Institute (August 2014), p. 3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Randy Capps, Heather Koball, James D. Bachmeier, Ariel G. Ruiz Soto, Jie Zong & Julia Gelatt, Deferred Action for Unauthorized Immigrant Parents: Analysis of DAPA's Potential Effects on Families and Children Archived April 28, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. (February 2016), Migration Policy Institute.
Jump up ^ Julie Hirschfeld Davis, "Obama's Immigration Decision Has Precedents, but May Set a New One Archived January 20, 2017, at the Wayback Machine., New York Times (November 20, 2014).
Jump up ^ State of Texas v. United States , 809 F.3d 134 (5th Cir. 2015).
Jump up ^ Matt Ford, A Ruling Against the Obama Administration on Immigration Archived November 12, 2015, at the Wayback Machine., The Atlantic (November 10, 2015).
Jump up ^ Adam Liptak & Michael D. Shear, Supreme Court Tie Blocks Obama Immigration Plan Archived June 25, 2016, at the Wayback Machine., New York Times (June 23, 2016).
Jump up ^ United States v. Texas , 136 S. Ct. 906 (U.S. 2016 (per curiam)).
Jump up ^ "Policy Memorandum" (PDF). November 15, 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 19, 2015. Retrieved June 2, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b York, Harlan (November 15, 2013). ""Parole in Place" for Immigrant Relatives of Military-What To Know". Archived from the original on June 14, 2015. Retrieved June 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ James H. Dormon, "Ethnic Stereotyping in American Popular Culture: The Depiction of American Ethnics in the Cartoon Periodicals of the Gilded Age," Amerikastudien, 1985, Vol. 30 Issue 4, pp. 489–507
'Jump up ^ Rachel Rupin and Jeffrey Melnick, Immigration and American Popular Culture: An Introduction (2006)
Jump up ^ James H. Dorman, "American Popular Culture and the New Immigration Ethnics: The Vaudeville Stage and the Process of Ethnic Ascription," Amerikastudien, 1991, Vol. 36#2 pp. 179–93
Jump up ^ Yasmeen Abu-Laban and Victoria Lamont, "Crossing borders: Interdisciplinary, immigration and the melting pot in the American cultural imaginary," Canadian Review of American Studies, 1997, Vol. 27#2, pp. 23–43
Jump up ^ Michael Rogin, Blackface White Noise: Jewish Immigrants in the Hollywood Melting Pot (1996)
Jump up ^ Michael Frontani, "'From the Bottom to the Top': Frank Sinatra, the American Myth of Success, and the Italian-American Image," Journal of American Culture, June 2005, Vol. 28 Issue 2, pp. 216–30
Jump up ^ William H. A. Williams, "Green Again: Irish-American Lace-Curtain Satire," New Hibernia Review, Winter 2002, Vol. 6 Issue 2, pp. 9–24
Jump up ^ Kerry Soper, "Performing 'Jiggs': Irish Caricature and Comedic Ambivalence Toward Assimilation and the American Dream in George Mcmanus's 'Bringing Up Father'", Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, April 2005, Vol. 4#2, pp. 173–213,
Jump up ^ David R. Maciel and María Herrera-Sobek, Culture across Borders: Mexican Immigration and Popular Culture (1998)
Jump up ^ Thomas J. Ferraro, Ethnic Passages: Literary Immigrants in Twentieth-Century America (1993)
Jump up ^ Eva Roa White, "Emigration as Emancipation: Portrayals of the Immigrant Irish Girl in Nineteenth-Century Fiction," New Hibernia Review, Spring 2005, Vol. 9 Issue 1, pp. 95–108
Jump up ^ Miran Hladnik, "Slovene Popular Novels about Emigration in the Nineteenth Century," Slovene Studies, 1985, Vol. 7 Issue 1/2, pp. 57–62
Jump up ^ Thomas J. Ferraro, "'Working ourselves up' in America: Anzia Yezierska's Bread Givers", South Atlantic Quarterly, Summer 19 90, Vol. 89 Issue 3, pp. 547–91. reprinted in Ferraro, Ethnic Passages, pp. 53–86
Jump up ^ Helmer Lång, and Michael Brook, "Moberg, the Emigrant Saga and Reality," Swedish Pioneer Historical Quarterly, 1972, Vol. 23 Issue 1, pp. 3–24
Jump up ^ Philip J. Anderson, "Introduction to Vilhelm Moberg's 'Why I Wrote the Novel about Swedish Emigrants'", Swedish-American Historical Quarterly, July 2008, Vol. 59#3 pp. 137–44
Jump up ^ Roger McKnight, "Vilhelm Moberg, the Emigrant Novels, and their Changing Readers," Swedish-American Historical Quarterly, July 1998, Vol. 49 Issue 3, pp. 245–56
Jump up ^ "A Note From the Bookwriter" Archived July 16, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.. The Immigrant
Jump up ^ in Current Affairs, Film (May 3, 2010). "Immigrationprof Blog: Acclaimed Political Documentary Series 'How Democracy Works Now' Announces Washington D.C. Screenings". Lawprofessors.typepad.com. Archived from the original on September 29, 2011. Retrieved September 22, 2011.
Jump up ^ Hiroshi Motomura. Americans in Waiting: The Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States (2006)
Jump up ^ The Congealing Pot – Today's Immigrants Are Different from Waves Past, Jason Richwine, National Review, August 24, 2009. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on March 26, 2011. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
Jump up ^ Gabor S. Boritt, Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream (1994) p. 1
Jump up ^ Elizabeth Baigent, "Swedish immigrants in McKeesport, Pennsylvania: Did the Great American Dream come true?" Journal of Historical Geography, April 2000, Vol. 26 Issue 2, pp. 239–72
Jump up ^ Jim Cullen, The American Dream : A Short History of an Idea that Shaped a Nation. 2004. ISBN 0-19-517325-2.
Further reading
Surveys
Anbinder, Tyler. City of Dreams: The 400-Year Epic History of Immigrant New York (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016). 766 pp.
Archdeacon, Thomas J. Becoming American: An Ethnic History (1984)
Bankston, Carl L. III and Danielle Antoinette Hidalgo, eds. Immigration in U.S. History Salem Press, (2006)
Barkan, Elliott Robert, ed. (2001). Making it in America: A Sourcebook on Eminent Ethnic Americans. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781576070987. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link) short scholarly biographies With bibliographies; 448 pp.
Bodnar, John. The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America Indiana University Press, (1985)
Daniels, Roger. Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850 University of Washington Press, (1988)
Daniels, Roger. Coming to America 2nd ed. (2005)
Daniels, Roger. Guarding the Golden Door : American Immigration Policy and Immigrants since 1882 (2005)
Diner, Hasia. The Jews of the United States, 1654 to 2000 (2004)
Gerber, David A. American Immigration: A Very Short Introduction (2011).
Gjerde, Jon, ed. Major Problems in American Immigration and Ethnic History (1998).
Glazier, Michael, ed. The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America (1999).
Parker, Kunal M. Making Foreigners: Immigration and Citizenship Law in America, 1600–2000. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Sowell, Thomas. Ethnic America: A History (1981).
Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (1980).
Before 1920
Alexander, June Granatir. Daily Life in Immigrant America, 1870–1920: How the Second Great Wave of Immigrants Made Their Way in America (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2007. xvi, 332 pp.)
Berthoff, Rowland Tappan. British Immigrants in Industrial America, 1790–1950 (1953).
Briggs, John. An Italian Passage: Immigrants to Three American Cities, 1890–1930 Yale University Press, (1978)
Diner, Hasia. Hungering for America: Italian, Irish, and Jewish Foodways in the Age of Migration (2003)
Eltis, David; Coerced and Free Migration: Global Perspectives (2002) emphasis on migration to Americas before 1800
Greene, Victor R. A Singing Ambivalence: American Immigrants Between Old World and New, 1830–1930 (2004), coving musical traditions
Isaac Aaronovich Hourwich. Immigration and Labor: The Economic Aspects of European Immigration to the United States (1912) (full text online)
Joseph, Samuel; Jewish Immigration to the United States from 1881 to 1910 Columbia University Press, (1914)
Kulikoff, Allan; From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers (2000), details on colonial immigration
Meagher, Timothy J. The Columbia Guide to Irish American History. (2005)
Miller, Kerby M. Emigrants and Exiles (1985), influential scholarly interpretation of Irish immigration
Motomura, Hiroshi. Americans in Waiting: The Lost Story of Immigration and Citizenship in the United States (2006), legal history
Pochmann, Henry A. and Arthur R. Schultz; German Culture in America, 1600–1900: Philosophical and Literary Influences (1957)
Waters, Tony. Crime and Immigrant Youth Sage Publications (1999), a sociological analysis.
U.S. Immigration Commission, Abstracts of Reports, 2 vols. (1911); the full 42-volume report is summarized (with additional information) in Jeremiah W. Jenks and W. Jett Lauck, The Immigrant Problem (1912; 6th ed. 1926)
Wittke, Carl. We Who Built America: The Saga of the Immigrant (1939), covers all major groups
Yans-McLaughlin, Virginia ed. Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics Oxford University Press. (1990)
Recent: post 1965
Beasley, Vanessa B. ed. Who Belongs in America?: Presidents, Rhetoric, And Immigration (2006)
Bogen, Elizabeth. Immigration in New York (1987)
Bommes, Michael and Andrew Geddes. Immigration and Welfare: Challenging the Borders of the Welfare State (2000)
Borjas, George J. ed. Issues in the Economics of Immigration (National Bureau of Economic Research Conference Report) (2000).
Borjas, George. Friends or Strangers (1990)
Borjas, George J. "Welfare Reform and Immigrant Participation in Welfare Programs" International Migration Review 2002 36(4): 1093–1123.
Briggs, Vernon M., Jr. Immigration Policy and the America Labor Force. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984.
Briggs, Vernon M., Jr. Mass Immigration and the National Interest (1992)
Cooper, Mark A. Moving to the United States of America and Immigration. 2008.
Fawcett, James T., and Benjamin V. Carino. Pacific Bridges: The New Immigration from Asia and the Pacific Islands . New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1987.
Foner, Nancy. In A New Land: A Comparative View Of Immigration (2005)
Garland, Libby. After They Closed the Gate: Jewish Illegal Immigration to the United States, 1921–1965. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014.
Levinson, David and Melvin Ember, eds. American Immigrant Cultures 2 vol (1997).
Lowe, Lisa. Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics (1996)
Meier, Matt S. and Gutierrez, Margo, eds. The Mexican American Experience : An Encyclopedia (2003) (ISBN 0-313-31643-0)
Mohl, Raymond A. "Latinization in the Heart of Dixie: Hispanics in Late-twentieth-century Alabama" Alabama Review 2002 55(4): 243–74. ISSN 0002-4341
Portes, Alejandro, and Robert L. Bach. Latin Journey: Cuban and Mexican Immigrants in the United States. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1985.
Portes, Alejandro, and József Böröcz. "Contemporary Immigration: Theoretical Perspectives on Its Determinants and Modes of Incorporation." International Migration Review 23 (1989): 606–30.
Portes, Alejandro, and Rubén Rumbaut. Immigrant America. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990.
Reimers, David. Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America. New York: Columbia University Press, (1985).
Smith, James P, and Barry Edmonston, eds. The Immigration Debate: Studies on the Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration (1998), online version
Waters, Tony Crime and Immigrant Youth Thousand Oaks: Sage 1999.
Zhou, Min and Carl L. Bankston III. Growing Up American: How Vietnamese Children Adapt to Life in the United States Russell Sage Foundation. (1998)
Borjas, George J. Heaven's Door: Immigration Policy and the American Economy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999. xvii, 263 pp. ISBN 0-691-05966-7
Lamm, Richard D., and Gary Imhoff. The Immigration Time Bomb: the Fragmenting of America, in series, Truman Talley Books. First ed. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1985. xiii, 271 pp. ISBN 0-525-24337-2
External links
History
Immigrant Servants Database
Asian-Nation: Early Asian Immigration to the U.S.
Irish Catholic Immigration to America
Scotch-Irish Immigration to Colonial America
Immigration Archives of Historical Documents, Articles, and Immigrants
Immigration policy
Brookings Institution: Immigration Policy
Urban Institute: Immigration Studies
The Real Political Purpose of the ICE Raids from Dollars & Sense
Federation for American Immigration Reform
Current immigration
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
Cornell University's Legal Information Institute: Immigration
Yearbook of Immigration Statistics – United States Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics 2004, 2005 editions available.
"Estimates of the Unauthorized Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2005" M. Hoefer, N. Rytina, C. Campbell (2006) "Population Estimates (August). U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics.
Films about immigration
How Democracy Works Now: Twelve Stories (2010)
Well-Founded Fear (1999)
Economic impact
Immigration in American Economic History by Ran Abramitzky and Leah Platt Boustan, NBER Working Paper No. 21882, January 2016
The New Political Economy of Immigration by Tom Barry in Dollars & Sense magazine, January/February 2009
Immigrants and the Labor Market from Dollars & Sense magazine, May/June 2006
Immigrants in Black & White: A Review of "Communities Without Borders", The Indypendent, Susan Chenelle
Immigration, Numbers, NumbersUSA: For Lower Immigration Levels
Immigration, World Poverty and Gumballs - Updated 2010 - YouTube (6:07)
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Immigration to the United States and related topics
Relevant colonial era,
United States and
international laws
Colonial era
Nationality law in the American Colonies
Plantation Act 1740
18th century
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