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Timon and Pumbaa
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For the television series with these characters, see Timon & Pumbaa (TV series).
"Pumba" redirects here. For Pune University's business management department, see University of Pune.
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Timon
First appearance
The Lion King (1994)
Created by
Jonathan Roberts
Voiced by
Nathan Lane
(films, Timon & Pumbaa, The Lion King Animated Storybook, The Lion King: Simba's Mighty Adventure (cutscenes only), Circle of Life: An Environmental Fable)
Kevin Schon
(Timon & Pumbaa, House of Mouse, The Lion King: Simba's Mighty Adventure, The Lion Guard)
Quinton Flynn
(Timon & Pumbaa)
Bruce Lanoil
(Kingdom Hearts II, Disney Th!nk Fast, Wild about Safety shorts)
Billy Eichner
(The Lion King (2019 film))
Species
Meerkat
Pumbaa
First appearance
The Lion King (1994)
Created by
Jonathan Roberts
Voiced by
Ernie Sabella
Seth Rogen
(The Lion King (2019 film))
Species
Warthog
Timon and Pumbaa are an animated meerkat and warthog duo introduced in Disney's 1994 animated film The Lion King. Timon was portrayed through his many appearances by Nathan Lane (in all three films and early episodes of the show), Max Casella (the original actor in The Lion King Broadway musical), Kevin Schon (in certain episodes of the show), Quinton Flynn (in certain episodes of the show), Bruce Lanoil in the Wild About Safety shorts and Kingdom Hearts II, and while Pumbaa is voiced by Ernie Sabella (in all of his animated speaking appearances), and was portrayed by Tom Alan Robbins in the original cast of the Broadway musical. In the upcoming live-action remake, the characters will be portrayed by Billy Eichner and Seth Rogen respectively.[1] Nathan Lane and Ernie Sabella first came to audition for the roles of the hyenas, but when the producers saw how well they worked together they decided to cast them as Timon and Pumbaa. Lyricist Tim Rice however was pulling for Rik Mayall (for Timon) and Adrian Edmondson (for Pumbaa) to play the roles, as he got the idea for the lyrics to "Hakuna Matata" by watching their show Bottom.
As with many characters in Lion King, Pumbaa's name derives from the East African language Swahili. In Swahili, pumbaa (v.) means "to be foolish, silly, weakminded, careless, negligent".[2] Timon is one of the few characters whose name has no meaning in Swahili; Timon is a historical Greek name, taken to mean "he who respects". Timon's name may also possibly derive from Shakespeare's tragedy Timon of Athens, another Shakespeare reference in a film which derives its plot from Hamlet.
Timon is a wise-cracking and self-absorbed meerkat who is known for claiming Pumbaa's ideas as his own, while Pumbaa has flatulence issues. However, Pumbaa is also a fierce warrior, charging into battle like a battering ram, and taking great offense if anyone who's not his friend calls him a pig, at which point he exclaims "They call me Mister pig!"—a reference to Sidney Poitier's line "They call me Mister Tibbs!" from the 1967 film In the Heat of the Night. Unlike real meerkats, Timon can walk on his hind legs, while in real life, meerkats walk on all four legs and can only stand on their hind ones. In the wild, banded mongoose have a special relationship with warthogs, which is portrayed in the Disney film.
Contents
[hide]
1 Appearances
1.1 The Lion King
1.2 The Lion King II: Simba's Pride
1.3 The Lion King 1½
1.4 The Lion King (2019)
1.5 The Lion King's Timon & Pumbaa
1.6 The Lion Guard
2 Other appearances
2.1 Kingdom Hearts
2.2 Walt Disney Parks and Resorts
2.3 Educational shorts
3 References
Appearances[edit]
The Lion King[edit]
Main article: The Lion King
Based on the characters Rosencrantz and Guildenstern from Hamlet, Timon and Pumbaa are played by Nathan Lane and Ernie Sabella. Timon was animated and created by Michael Surrey. They made their first appearances in the 1994 film when they shooed away the vultures that swarmed around young Simba, who had collapsed from heat exhaustion. Timon and Pumbaa then took the collapsed lion cub back to a small pool, where they splashed water on him to wake him up. After Simba is awakened by the two, they introduce themselves and welcome Simba to stay with them and follow their hakuna matata philosophy. At first, Simba is confused about Timon and Pumbaa's lifestyle, but it is explained to him in the song "Hakuna Matata".
Many years later, while out on a musical walk with Timon, Pumbaa is distracted by a bug, which he follows into the jungle. The bug leads him right to a hungry lioness prowling around, who then tries to hunt down Pumbaa. She chases the warthog until Simba springs into action, and the two lions engage in conflict. When the lioness pins Simba, he recognizes her as Nala, his childhood playmate. They are happy to be together, but Timon is jealous after they leave for a night of romance. He and Pumbaa start singing the song "Can You Feel The Love Tonight?" and are joined by Simba and Nala on their night out. Still, the two help Simba defeat Scar and gain his rightful place as the king of the Pride Lands, most notably when they create a hula distraction to lure away Scar's hyenas. Pumbaa single-handedly drives off Shenzi, Banzai and Ed. They also stand on top of Pride Rock along with Simba and Nala when Rafiki presents Simba and Nala's newborn cub to the animals of the Pride Lands.
The Lion King II: Simba's Pride[edit]
Main article: The Lion King II: Simba's Pride
It is unclear whether Timon and Pumbaa have taken up residence at Pride Rock, or just make frequent visits. They serve as aides to Simba, and are often called upon to keep an eye on his adventurous daughter Kiara so in a way replacing Zazu's role as babysitters. Despite being bumbling, Simba trusts them to look after Kiara, and does not blame them when Kiara runs off as Kiara is known to do just that. When Kiara goes on her first hunt, they are hired to make sure she won't get hurt. Enraged, she escapes from the Pridelands to hunt outside the boundary. Timon and Pumbaa also teach Kovu how to have fun after he forgets due to years of indoctrination in hatred. When Kovu's pride, the Outsiders, turn on Simba and ambush him, Timon is on Simba's side automatically, not even wanting to hear his argument. They later assist in the battle against Kovu's manipulative and vengeful mother Zira, and her pride of exiled lions, but get chased off and cornered by a group, until Timon threatens to use Pumbaa's tail as a gun and use his gas on them causing them to flee in fear. Despite being slightly cowardly, they are willing to fight for what is right. When Simba tries to make peace with Zira after realizing that both prides "were one", he uses the same advice Timon and Pumbaa gave him when he was a cub (put the past behind you) showing how much he had learned from his old friends.
The Lion King 1½[edit]
Main article: The Lion King 1½
Timon and Pumbaa are the main characters in this followup, and are revealed to have passed by and caused some key events in the first film before their first appearance. Timon, his mother Ma and Uncle Max were part of a group of meerkats who lived on the savannah, but he was unable to do any job properly, and almost led to the meerkat being eaten by the hyenas Shenzi, Banzai and Ed (Pumbaa was revealed to have blocked out part of the scene by sitting on the remote). Feeling depressed, he received counsel from Rafiki, who taught him the "Hakuna Matata" philosophy and told him to "look beyond what you see." Timon took this literally, and set off to find the ultimate paradise. Along the way, he first encountered Pumbaa, and the two became friends. On the way to find paradise, they passed by the presentation of Simba (it turns out that Pumbaa accidentally passed some gas and the smell made a few animals collapse, causing the other animals to think they were bowing and later they all bowed) and Mufasa was very puzzled at seeing this and his majordomo Zazu then tells him they are bowing to his son; Simba, Nala, and when the animals are singing "I Just Can't Wait To Be King" (it was Timon who hit an elephant's leg with a stick, causing the tower of animals to collapse); the elephant graveyard where Mufasa was on his way to save Simba and Nala from the hyenas ("I see carnivores"); the hyenas marching to "Be Prepared" ("something tells me this ain't the traveling company of Riverdance"); and the wildebeest stampede ("Shall we run for our lives?" "Oh yes, let's."). Finally, they reach a beautiful oasis and are enjoying life until they find a collapsed Simba. After rescuing Simba, Timon and Pumbaa find themselves with their hands full trying to keep up with the mischievous cub.
The film also shows more of Simba's life with Timon and Pumbaa before Nala came along, stating that Simba had beaten Timon in every bug-eating contest they had done with one another. Timon and Pumbaa, afraid that Nala would take away their friend, attempted to spoil Simba and Nala's date by letting out bees, a spider, and tripping the two (explaining why they fell down the hill in the first film), but all failed. Later on, they see Simba and Nala quarrelling. They also mistake the appearance of Mufasa's ghost as bad weather ("I think the storm is coming to a head"). After they realize Simba has gone back to take his rightful place as king, it is revealed that Pumbaa had set off to help Simba before Timon, who was indifferent and reluctant. Timon eventually came to his senses thanks to Rafiki's continued advice, and quickly followed, after which Rafiki says, "My work here is done." The duo provides their hula distraction (shown in the first film. This apparently was Timon's fault because before he did the dance, he asked Simba what his plan was to get past the hyenas, Simba replies "Live bait." When Timon realizes he and Pumbaa were the live bait, he sarcastically asked Simba "What do you want me to do? Dress in drag and do the hula?".[3] A few seconds later, the hyenas wake up and see Timon in a hula skirt, a flower, and a flower necklace and Pumbaa like a cooked pig), the two run into Ma and Uncle Max, who had been searching for Timon ever since he left the meerkat colony. Later on during the fight, they defeated the hyenas by digging a massive tunnel network, sending the hyenas down Pride Rock where they get to take revenge on Scar who had betrayed them. This scene explains what happened to Timon and Pumbaa while Simba is fighting Scar. After Scar is killed in the first film and this film, Timon and Pumbaa show up alive and unharmed against the hyenas that chased them, suggesting to audiences that they have either outsmarted or beat up the hyenas in the first film. At the end, Timon takes his entire meerkat colony to live in the oasis, free from threats.
Despite the appearance of Timon's mother, Ma (who was also given reference in at least one episode of Timon and Pumbaa) and his Uncle Max (believed to be his great uncle due to his age-which may be premature-and the fact that Ma also calls him 'Uncle' Max), Timon's father is never mentioned. However, in deleted scenes, Timon's father is an active character, though he was apparently replaced by Uncle Max.
The Lion King (2019)[edit]
Main article: The Lion King (2019 film)
In April, Billy Eichner and Seth Rogen were cast to play Timon and Pumbaa respectively.[4]
The Lion King's Timon & Pumbaa[edit]
Main article: Timon & Pumbaa (TV series)
Timon and Pumbaa starred in their own animated television series which focuses on their lives. The duo is seen having misadventures in the jungle and they are also seen visiting different places around the world, such as the United States, Spain, and France. This series also reveals their last names: Timon's is revealed to be Berkowitz while Pumbaa's is revealed to be Smith.
It is revealed in the series that before Timon met Pumbaa, he had a best friend named Fred, who enjoys pulling practical jokes. In the episode "Isle of Manhood", it is shown that Timon attempts to pass the test of manhood in order to become brave and manly instead of the cowardly meerkat he sometimes claims himself to be. In Pumbaa's case, it is revealed that he was once a member of a warthog sounder, but by the time he was fully grown, the warthogs banished him because of his smell, which was appalling even by warthog standards. It is also stated that years before the episode "Madagascar About You", an arranged marriage has been set up for Pumbaa before he was even born.
It is notable that a pre-existing storyline of how Timon met Pumbaa appeared in this series. This would make the series and The Lion King 1½ independent continuities. However, this pre-existing storyline was later retconned into being a fictional story that Rafiki was telling Zazu.[citation needed]
The Lion Guard[edit]
Main article: The Lion Guard
Timon and Pumbaa appear with several of the film's other characters in the Disney Junior series The Lion Guard, which centers around Simba's second-born cub, Kion. During the series, which is set within the time gap in The Lion King II: Simba's Pride,[5] Timon and Pumbaa are adoptive uncles of a young honey badger named Bunga, who is one of the members of the Lion Guard. When Bunga was an infant, he encountered Timon and Pumbaa singing "Utamu." Instantly smitten, Bunga had begun following them around. Pumbaa wanted to keep Bunga, but Timon didn't want to raise anymore kids since he and Pumbaa have already done so with Simba, but the two friends see that the honey badger wants to be with them as well. Before he accepted Bunga, Timon instructed the honey badger to climb a tree and fetch them some Utamu grubs. When Bunga had succeeded and given the grubs to Timon, the meerkat had allowed him to stay, and the three have lived together ever since.
Other appearances[edit]
Stencil (Puma AG parody)
Timon and Pumbaa made regular appearances in the animated television series Disney's House of Mouse (2001–2002) as guests and also appeared in Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse. An occasional running gag in the show involved Timon trying to eat Jiminy Cricket, only to be stopped by Pumbaa. The two have made cameos in other Disney films. In Aladdin and the King of Thieves, the Genie turns into Pumbaa in a scene saying, "Hakuna Matata" (he also states that he had an "out-of-movie experience"). Timon appears briefly in the Virtual Magic Carpet Ride game included on disc 2 of the 2004 Aladdin Platinum Edition DVD. In Enchanted, Pip accidentally transforms himself momentarily into Pumbaa in the DVD extra "Pip's Predicament: A Pop-Up Adventure". Pumbaa also makes a cameo appearance in the "Good Neighbor Cruella" episode of 101 Dalmatians: The Series, as well as making a cameo appearance in Tangled.
They also appear on the packaging of the Kellogg's cereal "Chocolate Mud & Bugs".
A toy Pumbaa briefly appears in the music video to Steps's version of Tragedy in the bedroom of band member H.
In The Jungle Book 2, Timon and Pumbaa can briefly be seen dancing during the song "W-I-L-D" until Baloo bounces them off with his backside.
Kingdom Hearts[edit]
They reprise their roles from The Lion King in the 2006 video game Kingdom Hearts II. They charge in to battle the hyenas, and are saved by the game's main protagonists Sora, Donald Duck, and Goofy. After Simba's coronation, they fear that Simba will forget them and let the other lions eat them, though Sora assures them that Simba will never forget them. Pumbaa later shows his bravery by standing between a pregnant Nala and Scar's "ghost". Ernie Sabella reprises his role as Pumbaa, while Timon is voiced by Bruce Lanoil. Coincidentally, Quinton Flynn also had a role in the game, providing the voice for Axel of Organization XIII.
Walt Disney Parks and Resorts[edit]
Timon welcomes guests of Disney's Animal Kingdom at Walt Disney World.
Timon also appears at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts as a meetable character. Pumbaa also appears on certain floats in certain parades or shows. Timon and Pumbaa are also the mascots used at Disney World to help kids and parents understand safety issues in the Disney parks and resorts. They are also featured on the Disney Safety website which was created in conjunction with Animax Entertainment. Timon and Pumbaa were also main characters in Legend of the Lion King, a former Fantasyland attraction in Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom, which retold the story of the film using fully articulated puppets. The two also make cameo appearances in the Hong Kong Disneyland and the Disneyland versions of It's a Small World. They appeared along with Simba in the 1995 film Circle of Life: An Environmental Fable, an edutainment film at Epcot's Land Pavilion. Timon and Pumbaa both feature in Festival of the Lion King at Animal Kingdom.
Educational shorts[edit]
In 2008, 2009, 2012 and 2013, Disney Educational Productions and Underwriters Laboratories coproduced an educational film series called Wild About Safety: Safety Smart with Timon and Pumbaa, where Pumbaa educated Timon on how to stay safe. Ernie Sabella reprised his role as Pumbaa, while Timon was voiced by Bruce Lanoil. Each installment was approximately 11 minutes long. They are all animated in the style of the 1994 TV show. The following titles were produced:
Wild About Safety: Safety Smart At Home!
Wild About Safety: Safety Smart Healthy and Fit!
Wild About Safety: Safety Smart About Fire!
Wild About Safety: Safety Smart Goes Green!
Wild About Safety: Safety Smart In The Water!
Wild About Safety: Safety Smart Online!
Wild About Safety: Safety Smart Honest & Real!
Wild About Safety: Safety Smart On The Go!
References[edit]
Jump up ^ www.comingsoon.net/movies/news/841623-timon-and-pumbaa
Jump up ^ "Pumba" in Swahili-English Dictionary
Jump up ^ Timon: What do you want me to do? Dress in drag and do the hula? Nathan Lane (1994). The Lion King (Animated film). Walt Disney Pictures.
Jump up ^ "Seth Rogen and Billy Eichner to Play Pumbaa and Timon in 'Lion King' (Exclusive)". TheWrap. April 25, 2017. Retrieved April 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ Brett, Susan (February 8, 2016). "EXCLUSIVE INTERVIEW: Disney's The Lion Guard creator Ford Riley talks new Lion King sequel". TVdaily.com. Retrieved November 25, 2016.
[hide]
v
t
e
The Lion King
Films
The Lion King (1994)
The Lion King II: Simba's Pride
The Lion King 1½
The Lion King (2019)
Theater
The Lion King
Television and short films
Timon & Pumbaa
episodes
Wild About Safety
The Lion Guard
episodes
Characters
Simba
Timon and Pumbaa
Nala
Scar
Music
The Lion King
"Circle of Life"
"I Just Can't Wait to Be King"
"Be Prepared"
"Hakuna Matata"
"Can You Feel the Love Tonight"
The Lion King musical
"Endless Night"
"The Madness of King Scar"
"Shadowland"
Other
Return to Pride Rock
"Love Will Find a Way"
Rhythm of the Pride Lands
"He Lives in You"
Video games
The Lion King (1994)
Disney's Animated Storybook: The Lion King (1994)
Timon & Pumbaa's Jungle Games (1996)
The Lion King: Simba's Mighty Adventure (2000)
The Lion King 1½ (2003)
Attractions
Circle of Life: An Environmental Fable
The Legend of the Lion King
Festival of the Lion King
The Lion King Celebration
Disney portal
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Siege of Yorktown
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 31 October 2017.
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This article is about the American Revolutionary War battle. For the American Civil War battle, see Siege of Yorktown (1862).
See also: Battle of the Chesapeake
Siege of Yorktown
Part of the American Revolutionary War

Surrender of Lord Cornwallis by John Trumbull, depicting the British surrendering to Benjamin Lincoln, surrounded by the French (left) and American (right) troops. Oil on canvas, 1820.
Date
September 28 – October 19, 1781
Location
Yorktown, Virginia
37°14′21″N 76°30′38″W / 37.239301°N 76.510692°W / 37.239301; -76.510692Coordinates: 37°14′21″N 76°30′38″W / 37.239301°N 76.510692°W / 37.239301; -76.510692
Result
Decisive American and French victory
End of major land operations in North America
Beginning of peace negotiations
Belligerents
United States
Canadian auxiliaries
France
Great Britain
Loyalists
Hesse-Kassel
Ansbach[1]
Commanders and leaders
George Washington
Benjamin Lincoln
Henry Knox
Alexander Hamilton
Marquis de Lafayette
Baron von Steuben
Thomas Nelson
Moses Hazen
Comte de Rochambeau
Comte d'Aboville
Marquis de Choisy
Comte de Grasse
Lord Cornwallis
Charles O'Hara
Banastre Tarleton
Robert Abercromby
Thomas Dundas
Thomas Symonds
Matthew Fuchs
August Voight
Strength
French: 7,800–8,800 regulars
29 warships[2]
American: 8,000 regulars
3,100 militia[2]
Total: 18,900 9,000 (includes German troops)[3]
Casualties and losses
88 killed
301 wounded[4] 142–309 killed;
326–595 wounded prisoners;
7,416–7,685 captured[5]
[show]
v
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Yorktown campaign
Waters Creek
Cape Henry
Blandford
Spencer's Ordinary
Green Spring
Francisco
Chesapeake
Yorktown
(order of battle)
The Siege of Yorktown, also known as the Battle of Yorktown, the Surrender at Yorktown, German Battle or the Siege of Little York,[a][b] ending on October 19, 1781, at Yorktown, Virginia, was a decisive victory by a combined force of American Continental Army troops led by General George Washington and French Army troops led by the Comte de Rochambeau over a British Army commanded by British peer and Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis. The culmination of the Yorktown campaign, the siege proved to be the last major land battle of the American Revolutionary War in the North American theater, as the surrender by Cornwallis, and the capture of both him and his army, prompted the British government to negotiate an end to the conflict. The battle boosted faltering American morale and revived French enthusiasm for the war, as well as undermining popular support for the conflict in Great Britain.[8]
In 1780, approximately 5,500 French soldiers landed in Rhode Island to assist their American allies in operations against British-controlled New York City. Following the arrival of dispatches from France that included the possibility of support from the French West Indies fleet of the Comte de Grasse, Washington and Rochambeau decided to ask de Grasse for assistance either in besieging New York, or in military operations against a British army operating in Virginia. On the advice of Rochambeau, de Grasse informed them of his intent to sail to the Chesapeake Bay, where Cornwallis had taken command of the army. Cornwallis, at first given confusing orders by his superior officer, Henry Clinton, was eventually ordered to build a defensible deep-water port, which he began to do in Yorktown, Virginia. Cornwallis' movements in Virginia were shadowed by a Continental Army force led by the Marquis de Lafayette.
The French and American armies united north of New York City during the summer of 1781. When word of de Grasse's decision arrived, both armies began moving south toward Virginia, engaging in tactics of deception to lead the British to believe a siege of New York was planned. De Grasse sailed from the West Indies and arrived at the Chesapeake Bay at the end of August, bringing additional troops and creating a naval blockade of Yorktown. He was transporting 500,000 silver pesos collected from the citizens of Havana, Cuba, to fund supplies for the siege and payroll for the Continental Army.[9] While in Santo Domingo, de Grasse met with Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis, an agent of Carlos III of Spain. De Grasse had planned to leave several of his warships in Santo Domingo. Saavedra promised the assistance of the Spanish navy to protect the French merchant fleet, enabling de Grasse to sail north with all of his warships.[10] In the beginning of September, he defeated a British fleet led by Sir Thomas Graves that came to relieve Cornwallis at the Battle of the Chesapeake. As a result of this victory, de Grasse blocked any escape by sea for Cornwallis. By late September Washington and Rochambeau arrived, and the army and naval forces completely surrounded Cornwallis.
After initial preparations, the Americans and French built their first parallel and began the bombardment. With the British defense weakened, on October 14, 1781 Washington sent two columns to attack the last major remaining British outer defenses. A French column took Redoubt No. 9 and an American column took Redoubt No. 10. With these defenses taken, the allies were able to finish their second parallel. With the American artillery closer and its bombardment more intense than ever, the British position began to deteriorate rapidly and Cornwallis asked for capitulation terms on October 17. After two days of negotiation, the surrender ceremony occurred on October 19; Lord Cornwallis was absent from the ceremony. With the capture of more than 7,000 British soldiers, negotiations between the United States and Great Britain began, resulting in the Treaty of Paris of 1783.
Contents
[hide]
1 Prelude
1.1 Franco-American cooperation
1.2 March to Virginia
2 The siege
2.1 Initial movements
2.2 Bombardment
2.3 Assault on the redoubts
2.4 British surrender
2.5 Casualties
2.6 Article 10 controversy
2.7 Effect of disease
3 Aftermath
4 Legacy
5 Yorktown Victory Monument
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
8.1 Citations
8.2 Bibliography
9 External links
Prelude[edit]
Main article: Yorktown campaign
A plan of the Battle of Yorktown drawn in 1875
Franco-American cooperation[edit]
Main articles: Franco-American alliance and Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War
On December 20, 1780, Benedict Arnold sailed from New York with 1,500 troops to Portsmouth, Virginia. He first raided Richmond, defeating the defending militia, from January 5–7 before falling back to Portsmouth.[11] Admiral Destouches, who arrived in Newport, Rhode Island in July 1780 with a fleet transporting 5,500 soldiers, was encouraged by Washington and French Lieutenant General Rochambeau to move his fleet south, and launch a joint land-naval attack on Arnold's troops.[11] The Marquis de Lafayette was sent south with 1,200 men to help with the assault.[12] However, Destouches was reluctant to dispatch many ships, and in February sent only three. After they proved ineffective, he took a larger force of 8 ships in March 1781, and fought a tactically inconclusive battle with the British fleet of Marriot Arbuthnot at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. Destouches withdrew due to the damage sustained to his fleet, leaving Arbuthnot and the British fleet in control of the bay's mouth.[12]
On March 26, Arnold was joined by 2,300 troops under command of Major General William Phillips, who took command of the combined forces.[12] Phillips resumed raiding, defeating the militia at Blandford, then burning the tobacco warehouses at Petersburg on April 25. Richmond was about to suffer the same fate, but Lafayette arrived. The British, not wanting to engage in a major battle, withdrew to Petersburg on May 10.[12]
National Park Service map of the W3R Route
On May 20, Charles Cornwallis arrived at Petersburg with 1,500 men after suffering heavy casualties at the Battle of Guilford Courthouse. He immediately assumed command, as Phillips had recently died of a fever.[12][13] Cornwallis had not received permission to abandon the Carolinas from his superior, Henry Clinton, but he believed that Virginia would be easier to capture, feeling that it would approve of an invading British army.[12]
With the arrival of Cornwallis and more reinforcements from New York, the British Army numbered 7,200 men.[3] Cornwallis wanted to push Lafayette, whose force now numbered 3,000 men with the arrival of Virginia militia.[3] On May 24, he set out after Lafayette, who withdrew from Richmond, and linked forces with those under the command of Baron von Steuben and Anthony Wayne.[3] Cornwallis did not pursue Lafayette. Instead, he sent raiders into central Virginia, where they attacked depots and supply convoys, before being recalled on June 20. Cornwallis then headed for Williamsburg, and Lafayette's force of now 4,500 followed him.[14] General Clinton, in a confusing series of orders, ordered Cornwallis first to Portsmouth and then Yorktown, where he was instructed to build fortifications for a deep water port.[15][16]
On July 6, the French and American armies met at White Plains, north of New York City.[17] Although Rochambeau had almost 40 years of warfare experience, he never challenged Washington's authority, telling Washington he had come to serve, not to command.[18]
Washington and Rochambeau discussed where to launch a joint attack.[19] Washington believed an attack on New York was the best option, since the Americans and French now outnumbered the British defenders 3 to 1. Rochambeau disagreed, arguing the fleet in the West Indies under Admiral de Grasse was going to sail to the American coast, where easier options than attacking New York could be attempted.[19]
In early July, Washington suggested an attack be made at the northern part of Manhattan Island, but his officers and Rochambeau all disagreed.[20] Washington continued to probe the New York area until August 14, when he received a letter from de Grasse stating he was headed for Virginia with 29 warships and 3,200 soldiers, but could only remain there until October 14.[20] De Grasse encouraged Washington to move south so they could launch a joint operation. Washington abandoned his plan to take New York, and began to prepare his army for the march south to Virginia.[21]
March to Virginia[edit]
On August 19, the march to Yorktown led by Washington and Rochambeau began, which is known now as the "celebrated march."[21] 4,000 French and 3,000 American soldiers began the march in Newport, Rhode Island, while the rest remained behind to protect the Hudson Valley. Washington wanted to maintain complete secrecy of their destination.[22] To ensure this, he sent out fake dispatches that reached Clinton revealing that the Franco-American army was going to launch an attack on New York, and that Cornwallis was not in danger.[23]
The French and American armies marched through Philadelphia from September 2 to the 4th, where the American soldiers announced they would not leave Maryland until they received one month's pay in coin, rather than in the worthless Continental paper currency. General Rochambeau generously loaned Washington half of his supply of gold Spanish coins. This would be the last time the men would be paid. It significantly strengthened French and American relations[24] On September 5, Washington learned of the arrival of de Grasse's fleet off the Virginia Capes. De Grasse debarked his French troops to join Lafayette, and then sent his empty transports to pick up the American troops.[21] Washington made a visit to his home, Mount Vernon, on his way to Yorktown.[25]
In August, Admiral Sir Thomas Graves led a fleet from New York to attack de Grasse's fleet. Graves did not realize how large the French fleet was, and neither did Cornwallis.[25] The British fleet was defeated by de Grasse's fleet in the Battle of the Chesapeake on September 5, and forced to fall back to New York.[25] On September 14, Washington arrived in Williamsburg, Virginia.[25]
The siege[edit]
See also: Yorktown order of battle
Siège de Yorktown by Auguste Couder, c. 1836.[c] Rochambeau and Washington giving their last orders before the battle.
Initial movements[edit]
On September 26, transports with artillery, siege tools, and some French infantry and shock troops from Head of Elk, the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay, arrived, giving Washington command of an army of 7,800 Frenchmen, 3,100 militia, and 8,000 Continentals.[2] Early on September 28, Washington led the army out of Williamsburg to surround Yorktown.[26] The French took the positions on the left while the Americans took the position of honor on the right.[2] Cornwallis had a chain of seven redoubts and batteries linked by earthworks along with batteries that covered the narrows of the York River at Gloucester Point.[2] That day, Washington reconnoitered the British defenses and decided that they could be bombarded into submission.[27] The Americans and the French spent the night of the 28th sleeping out in the open, while work parties built bridges over the marsh. Some of the American soldiers hunted down wild hogs to eat.[28]
On September 29, Washington moved the army closer to Yorktown and British gunners opened fire on the infantry.[29] Throughout the day several British cannon fired on the Americans but there were few casualties. Fire was also exchanged between American riflemen and Hessian Jägers.[29]
Cornwallis pulled back from all of his outer defenses, except for the Fusilier's redoubt on the west side of the town and redoubts 9 and 10 in the east.[2] Cornwallis had his forces occupy the earthworks immediately surrounding the town because he had received a letter from Clinton that promised relief force of 5,000 men within a week and he wished to tighten his lines.[2][30] The Americans and the French occupied the abandoned defenses and began to establish their own batteries there.[31] With the British outer defenses in their hands, allied engineers began to lay out positions for the artillery. The men improved their works and deepened their trenches.[32] The British also worked on improving their defenses.[32]
On September 30, the French attacked the British Fusiliers redoubt.[33] The skirmish lasted two hours, in which the French were repulsed suffering several casualties. On October 1, the allies learned from British deserters that, to preserve their food, the British had slaughtered hundreds of horses and thrown them on the beach.[33] In the American camp, thousands of trees were cut down to provide wood for earthworks. Preparations for the parallel also began.[34]
As the allies began to put their artillery into place, the British kept up a steady fire to disrupt them.[35] British fire increased on the 2nd and the allies suffered moderate casualties. General Washington continued to make visits to the front, despite concern shown by several of his officers over the increasing enemy fire.[36] On the night of October 2, the British opened a storm of fire to cover up the movement of the British cavalry to Gloucester where they were to escort infantrymen on a foraging party.[36] On the 3rd, the foraging party, led by Banastre Tarleton, went out but collided with Lauzun's Legion, and John Mercer's Virginia militia, led by the Marquis de Choisy. The British cavalry quickly retreated back behind their defensive lines, losing 50 men.[37]
By October 5, Washington was almost ready to open the first parallel.[38] That night the sappers and miners worked, putting strips of pine on the wet sand to mark the path of the trenches.[38]
Bombardment[edit]
After nightfall on October 6, troops moved out in stormy weather to dig the first parallel: the heavily overcast sky negated the waning full moon and shielded the massive digging operation from the eyes of British sentries.[d] Washington ceremoniously struck several blows with his pick axe to begin the trench. The trench was to be 2,000 yards (1,800 m) long, running from the head of Yorktown to the York River.[40] Half of the trench was to be commanded by the French, the other half by the Americans. On the northernmost end of the French line, a support trench was dug so that they could bombard the British ships in the river.[40] The French were ordered to distract the British with a false attack, but the British were told of the plan by a French deserter and the British artillery fire turned on the French from the Fusiliers redoubt.[41]
Washington firing the first gun
On October 7, the British saw the new allied trench just out of musket-range.[41] Over the next two days the allies completed the gun placements and dragged the artillery into line. The British fire began to weaken when they saw the large number of guns the allies had.[42]
By October 9, all of the French and American guns were in place.[42] Among the American guns there were three twenty-four pounders, three eighteen pounders, two eight-inch (203 mm) howitzers and six mortars, totaling fourteen guns. At 3:00 pm, the French guns opened the barrage and drove the British frigate, HMS Guadeloupe across the York River, where she was scuttled to prevent capture. At 5:00 pm the Americans opened fire.[42] Washington fired the first gun; legend has it that this shot smashed into a table where British officers were eating. The Franco-American guns began to tear apart the British defenses.[43] Washington ordered that the guns fire all night so that the British could not make repairs.[43] All of the British guns on the left were soon silenced. The British soldiers began to pitch their tents in their trenches and soldiers began to desert in large numbers.[44] Some British ships were also damaged by cannonballs that flew across the town into the harbor.[44]
On October 10, the Americans spotted a large house in Yorktown.[45] Believing that Cornwallis might be stationed there, they aimed at it and quickly destroyed it. Cornwallis sank more than a dozen of his ships in the harbor. The French began to fire at the British ships and scored a hit on the British HMS Charon, which caught fire, and in turn set two or three other ships on fire.[46] Cornwallis received word from Clinton that the British fleet was to depart on October 12, however Cornwallis responded by saying that he would not be able to hold out for long.[47]
On the night of October 11, Washington ordered that the Americans dig a second parallel.[47] It was 400 yards (370 m) closer to the British lines, but could not be extended to the river because the British number 9 and 10 redoubts were in the way. During the night, the British fire continued to land in the old line; Cornwallis did not suspect that a new parallel was being dug.[47] By morning of the 12th, the allied troops were in position on the new line.[47]
Assault on the redoubts[edit]
Storming of Redoubt #10
The storming of Redoubt No. 10, by Eugene Lami
By October 14, the trenches were within 150 yards (140 m) of redoubts No. 9 and No. 10.[48] Washington ordered that all guns within range begin blasting the redoubts to weaken them for an assault that evening.[49] Washington planned to use the cover of a moonless night to gain the element of surprise.[e] To reinforce the darkness, he added silence, ordering that no soldier should load his musket until reaching the fortifications- the advance would be made with only "cold steel." Redoubt 10 was near the river and held only 70 men, while redoubt 9 was a quarter of a mile inland, and was held by 120 British and Germans.[49] Both redoubts were heavily fortified with rows of abatis surrounding them, along with muddy ditches that surrounded the redoubts at about 25 yards (23 m).[48] Washington devised a plan in which the French would launch a diversionary attack on the Fusiliers redoubt, and then a half an hour later, the French would assault redoubt 9 and the Americans redoubt 10.[49][51] Redoubt 9 would be assaulted by 400 French regular soldiers under the command of the German Lieutenant Colonel Wilhelm von Zweibrücken and redoubt 10 would be assaulted by 400 light infantry troops under the command of Alexander Hamilton.[51] There was briefly a dispute as to who should lead the attack on Redoubt No. 10. Lafayette named his aide, Jean-Joseph Sourbader de Gimat, who commanded a battalion of Continental light infantry. However, Hamilton protested, saying that he was the senior officer. Washington concurred with Hamilton and gave him command of the attack.[52][f]
Storming of Redoubt #9
At 6:30 pm, gunfire announced the diversionary attack on the Fusiliers redoubt.[53] At other places in the line, movements were made as if preparing for an assault on Yorktown itself, which caused the British to panic.[53] With bayonets fixed, the Americans marched towards Redoubt No. 10. Hamilton sent Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens around to the rear of the redoubt to prevent the British from escaping.[54] The Americans reached the redoubt and began chopping through the British wooden defenses with their axes. A British sentry called a challenge, and then fired at the Americans.[54] The Americans responded by charging with their bayonets towards the redoubt. They hacked through the abatis, crossed a ditch and climbed the parapet into the redoubt.[55] The Americans forced their way into the redoubt falling into giant shell holes from the bombardment of the redoubts. The British fire was heavy, but the Americans overwhelmed them.[55] Someone in the front shouted, "Rush on boys! The fort's ours!" The British threw hand grenades at the Americans with little effect.[55] Men in the trench stood on the shoulders of their comrades to climb into the redoubt. The bayonet fight cleared the British out of the redoubt and almost the entire garrison was captured, including the commander of the redoubt, Major Campbell.[56] In the assault, the Americans lost 9 dead and 25 wounded.[56]
The French assault began at the same time, but they were halted by the abatis, which was undamaged by the artillery fire.[56] The French began to hack at the abatis and a Hessian sentry came out and asked who was there. When there was no response, the sentry opened fire as did other Hessians on the parapet.[57] The French soldiers fired back, and then charged the redoubt. The Germans charged the Frenchmen climbing over the walls but the French fired a volley, driving them back.[57] The Hessians then took a defensive position behind some barrels but threw down their arms and surrendered when the French prepared a bayonet charge.[57]
With the capture of redoubts 9 and 10, Washington was able to have his artillery shell the town from three directions and the allies moved some of their artillery into the redoubts.[58][59] On October 15, Cornwallis turned all of his guns onto the nearest allied position. He then ordered a storming party of 350 British troops under the command of Colonel Robert Abercromby to attack the allied lines and spike the American and French cannon (i.e., plug the touch hole with an iron spike).[60] The allies were sleeping and unprepared. As the British charged Abercromby shouted "Push on my brave boys, and skin the bastards!"[59] The British party spiked several cannon in the parallel and then spiked the guns on an unfinished redoubt.[61] A French party came and drove them out of the allied lines and back to Yorktown. The British had been able to spike six guns, but by the morning they were all repaired.[61] The bombardment resumed with the American and French troops engaged in competition to see who could do the most damage to the enemy defenses.[59]
On the morning of October 16, more allied guns were in line and the fire intensified.[61] In desperation, Cornwallis attempted to evacuate his troops across the York River to Gloucester Point.[59] At Gloucester Point the troops might be able to break through the allied lines and escape into Virginia and then march to New York.[62] One wave of boats made it across but a squall hit when they returned to take more soldiers across, making the evacuation impossible.[63]
British surrender[edit]
Overview of the capitulation of the British army at Yorktown, with the blockade of the French squadron
The fire on Yorktown from the allies was heavier than ever as new artillery pieces joined the line.[64] Cornwallis talked with his officers that day and they agreed that their situation was hopeless.[65]
On the morning of October 17, a drummer appeared followed by an officer waving a white handkerchief.[66] The bombardment ceased, and the officer was blindfolded and led behind the French and American lines. Negotiations began at the Moore House on October 18 between Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Dundas and Major Alexander Ross (who represented the British) and Lieutenant Colonel Laurens (who represented the Americans) and the Marquis de Noailles (who represented the French).[66] To make sure that nothing fell apart between the French and Americans at the last minute, Washington ordered that the French be given an equal share in every step of the surrender process.[66]
The surrender of Lord Cornwallis, October 19, 1781 at Yorktown
The articles of capitulation were signed on October 19, 1781.[66] Signatories included Washington, Rochambeau, the Comte de Barras (on behalf of the French Navy), Cornwallis, and Captain Thomas Symonds (the senior Royal Navy officer present).[67] Cornwallis' British men were declared prisoners of war, promised good treatment in American camps, and officers were permitted to return home after taking their parole. At 2:00 pm the allied army entered the British positions, with the French on the left and the Americans on the right.[66]
The British had asked for the traditional honors of war, which would allow the army to march out with flags flying, bayonets fixed, and the band playing an American or French tune as a tribute to the victors. However, Washington firmly refused to grant the British the honors that they had denied the defeated American army the year before at the Siege of Charleston.[68] Consequently, the British and Hessian troops marched with flags furled and muskets shouldered, while the band was forced to play "a British or German march."[g] American history books recount the legend that the British band played "The World Turn'd Upside Down", but the story is apocryphal.[70][71]
Cornwallis refused to attend the surrender ceremony, citing illness. Instead, Brigadier General Charles O'Hara led the British army onto the field. O'Hara first attempted to surrender to Rochambeau, who shook his head and pointed to Washington. O'Hara then offered his sword to Washington, who also refused and motioned to Benjamin Lincoln. The surrender finally took place when Washington's second-in-command accepted the sword of Cornwallis' deputy.[72][73][74]
The British soldiers marched out and laid down their arms in between the French and American armies, while many civilians watched.[75] At this time, the troops on the other side of the river in Gloucester also surrendered.[76] The British soldiers had been issued new uniforms hours before the surrender and until prevented by General O'Hara some threw down their muskets with the apparent intention of smashing them. Others wept or appeared to be drunk.[77] In all, 8,000 troops, 214 artillery pieces, thousands of muskets, 24 transport ships, wagons and horses were captured.[73]
Casualties[edit]
The French casualties were 60 killed and 194 wounded and the American casualties were 28 killed and 107 wounded: a grand total of 88 killed and 301 wounded.[4]
The British official casualty return for the siege listed 156 killed, 326 wounded and 70 missing. Cornwallis surrendered 7,087 officers and enlisted men in Yorktown when he capitulated and a further 840 sailors from the British fleet in the York River. Another 84 prisoners had been taken during the assault on the redoubts on October 16.[5] Since only 70 men were reported as missing, this would suggest that 14 of the men officially marked down as ‘killed’ had in fact been captured. This gives a grand total of 142 killed, 326 wounded prisoners and 7,685 other prisoners. Jerome A. Greene mentions a German account that gives much higher figures: 309 killed and 595 wounded.[4]
Article 10 controversy[edit]
George Washington refused to accept the Tenth Article of the Yorktown Articles of Capitulation, which granted immunity to American Loyalists, and Cornwallis failed to make any effort to press the matter. "The outcry against the Tenth Article was vociferous and immediate, as Americans on both sides of the Atlantic proclaimed their sense of betrayal."[78]
Effect of disease[edit]
Malaria was endemic in the marshlands of eastern Virginia during the time, and Cornwallis's army suffered greatly from the disease; he estimated during the surrender that half of his army was unable to fight as a result. The Continental Army enjoyed an advantage, in that most of their members had grown up with malaria, and hence had acquired resistance to the disease. As malaria has a month-long incubation period, most of the French soldiers had not begun to exhibit symptoms before the surrender.[79][80]
Aftermath[edit]
The victory at Yorktown was honored in a 1783 medallion minted in Paris and designed there by US Ambassador Benjamin Franklin.
Five days after the battle ended, on October 24, 1781, the British fleet sent by Clinton to rescue the British army arrived. The fleet picked up several Loyalists who had escaped on October 18, and they informed Admiral Thomas Graves that they believed Cornwallis had surrendered.[81] Graves picked up several more Loyalists along the coast, and they confirmed this fact. Graves sighted the French Fleet, but chose to leave because he was outnumbered by nine ships, and thus he sent the fleet back to New York.[82]
After the British surrender, Washington sent Tench Tilghman to report the victory to Congress.[83] After a difficult journey, he arrived in Philadelphia, which celebrated for several days. The British Prime Minister, Lord North, is reported to have exclaimed "Oh God, it's all over" when told of the defeat.[84] Washington moved his army to New Windsor, New York[85] where they remained stationed until the Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3, 1783, formally ending the war.[86]
Legacy[edit]
US Postage Stamp, 1931 issue, depicting Rochambeau, George Washington and De Grasse, commemorating 150th anniversary of the victory at Yorktown, 1781
On October 19, 1881, an elaborate ceremony took place to honor the battle's centennial. U.S. naval vessels floated on Chesapeake Bay, and special markers highlighted where Washington and Lafayette's siege guns were placed. President Chester Arthur, sworn in only thirty days before, following James Garfield's death, made his first public speech as president. Also present were descendants of Lafayette, Rochambeau, de Grasse, and Steuben. To close the ceremony, Arthur gave an order to salute the British flag.[87]
There is a belief that General Cornwallis's sword, surrendered by Charles O'Hara after the battle, is to this day on display at the White House. However, U.S. National Park Service historian Jerome Green, in his 2005 history of the siege, The Guns of Independence, concurs with the 1881 centennial account by Johnston, noting simply that when Brigadier General O'Hara presented the sword to Major General Lincoln, "he held it for a moment and immediately returned it to O'Hara."[88]
The siege of Yorktown is also known in some German historiographies as "die deutsche Schlacht" ("the German battle"), because Germans played significant roles in all three armies, accounting for roughly one third of all forces involved. According to one estimate more than 2,500 German soldiers served at Yorktown with each of the British and French armies, and more than 3,000 German-Americans were in Washington's army.[89]
Four Army National Guard units (113th Inf,[90] 116th Inf,[91] 175th Inf[92] and 198th Sig Bn[93]) and one active Regular Army Field Artillery battalion (1–5th FA[94]) are derived from American units that participated in the Battle of Yorktown. There are thirty current U.S. Army units with lineages that go back the colonial era.
Yorktown Victory Monument[edit]
Yorktown Victory Monument
Five days after the British surrendered, Congress passed a resolution agreeing to erect a structure dedicated to commemorating those who participated in the battle.[95] Construction of the monument was delayed, however, as the federal government had several other financial obligations that were considered to be of a more urgent nature.[95] The battle's centennial sparked renewed enthusiasm in the resolution and prompted the government to begin building the monument in 1881 amid national support.[95] The structure was formally erected in 1884 and currently resides within Colonial National Historical Park.[95]
See also[edit]
American Revolutionary War portal
Colonial National Historical Park
List of American Revolutionary War battles
USS Yorktown, for a list of U.S. Navy ships named after the battle
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "He was again drafted for 3 months and served the time fully under the command of Capt. John Faulkner, and was in the Siege of Little York, when Lord Cornwallis surrendered..."[6]
Jump up ^ "...we were going by Gen. Washington and marched down to the siege of Little York"[7]
Jump up ^ Conserved in the Galerie des Batailles, Château de Versailles, France. A copy is displayed at the Colonial National Historical Park Visitors' Center in Yorktown.
Jump up ^ The moon had been full on 2 October.[39]
Jump up ^ The pitch dark of a new moon occurred 17 October 1781.[50]
Jump up ^ Hamilton (through his subordinate, Major Nicholas Fish), Gimat, and Colonel Laurens commanded the three (of six) battalions of light infantry in Lafayette's Light Division that participated in the assault on redoubt 10.
Jump up ^ Article 3 states that: “the garrison of York will march out to a place to be appointed in front of the posts, at two o’clock precisely, with shouldered arms, colors cased, and drums beating a British or German march. They are then to ground their arms, and return to their encampments, where they will remain until they are dispatched to the places of their destination.”[69]
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ "German Auxiliary Units at Yorktown". National Park Service. Retrieved July 28, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Lengel p. 337
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lengel p. 330
^ Jump up to: a b c Greene, p. 307
^ Jump up to: a b Greene, pp. 307–308
Jump up ^ Declaration of John Dunkley in open court, Halifax County, Virginia: Ancestry.com. U.S., Revolutionary War Pension and Bounty-Land Warrant Application Files, 1800–1900 [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2010.; Original data: Revolutionary War Pension and Bounty-Land Warrant Application Files (NARA microfilm publication M804, 2,670 rolls). Records of the Department of Veterans Affairs, Record Group 15. National Archives, Washington, D.C., October 23, 1832
Jump up ^ Thornton Gentry (Georgia Chapter Director – DAR), Lelia (ed.). Historical Collections of the Georgia Chapters Daughters of the American Revolution. Vol. 1. Clearfield Publishing (original)/Genealogical Publishing Co (reprint). p. 147. Retrieved August 22, 2016. .
Jump up ^ Herring p. 26
Jump up ^ Chávez p. 225
Jump up ^ Mitchell p. 23
^ Jump up to: a b Lengel p. 328
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Lengel p. 329
Jump up ^ Ferling, p. 510
Jump up ^ Lengel p. 331
Jump up ^ Wickwire, p. 340
Jump up ^ Grainger, p. 44
Jump up ^ Davis p. 3
Jump up ^ Davis p. 14
^ Jump up to: a b Lengel p. 332
^ Jump up to: a b Lengel p. 333
^ Jump up to: a b c Lengel p. 335
Jump up ^ Davis p. 21
Jump up ^ Davis p. 36
Jump up ^ Vowell, Sarah (2015). Lafayette in the Somewhat United States. New York City: Riverhead Books. p. 229. ISBN 978-1-59463-174-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lengel p. 336
Jump up ^ Davis p. 189
Jump up ^ Davis p. 193
Jump up ^ Davis p. 194
^ Jump up to: a b Davis p. 195
Jump up ^ Davis p. 197
Jump up ^ Lengelp. 337
^ Jump up to: a b Davis p. 199
^ Jump up to: a b Davis p. 202
Jump up ^ Davis p. 203
Jump up ^ Davis p. 204
^ Jump up to: a b Davis p. 205
Jump up ^ Davis p. 207
^ Jump up to: a b Davis p. 208
Jump up ^ Davis p. 214
^ Jump up to: a b Davis p. 215
^ Jump up to: a b Davis p. 216
^ Jump up to: a b c Davis p. 217
^ Jump up to: a b Davis p. 218
^ Jump up to: a b Davis p. 219
Jump up ^ Davis p. 221
Jump up ^ Davis p. 222
^ Jump up to: a b c d Davis p. 224
^ Jump up to: a b Lengel p. 338
^ Jump up to: a b c Davis p. 225
Jump up ^ NASA Eclipse Website – Phases of the Moon 1700–1799; accessed 4 October 2009; "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2009-10-04. Retrieved 2009-10-04.
^ Jump up to: a b Lengel p. 339
Jump up ^ Davis p. 225.
^ Jump up to: a b Lengel p. 340
^ Jump up to: a b Davis p. 227
^ Jump up to: a b c Davis p. 228
^ Jump up to: a b c Davis p. 229
^ Jump up to: a b c Davis p. 230
Jump up ^ Davis p. 232
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lengel p. 341
Jump up ^ Davis p. 234
^ Jump up to: a b c Davis p. 235
Jump up ^ Davis p. 236
Jump up ^ Davis p. 237
Jump up ^ Davis p. 255
Jump up ^ Fleming p. 16
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Lengel p. 342
Jump up ^ Morrissey, p. 73
Jump up ^ "George Washington on General Cornwallis' Surrender at Yorktown". The American Revolution, 1763–1783. Library of Congress. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
Jump up ^ "Surrender of the British General Cornwallis to the Americans, October 19, 1781". The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History.
Jump up ^ Kennedy, David; Cohen, Lizabeth (2015). The American Pageant. Cengage Learning. p. 153. Cornwallis surrendered his entire force of seven thousand men on October 19, 1781, as his band appropriately played "The World Turn'd Upside Down."
Jump up ^ "Cornwallis' Surrender". Visiting Yorktown.com. American tradition has it that the British song played was "The World Turned Upside Down." However, there was no historical record of which song or songs were played by the band. The account of it being that particular song was added to the historical record almost a 100 years after the event.
Jump up ^ Davis p. 265
^ Jump up to: a b Lengel p. 343
Jump up ^ Manning, Jack (October 19, 2016). "Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown". The American Patriotic Chronicle. Alabama Society, Sons of the American Revolution.
Jump up ^ Davis p. 267
Jump up ^ Davis p. 268
Jump up ^ Hibbert p. 330
Jump up ^ Skemp, Shiela L. (1990) William Franklin Oxford University Press p. 253
Jump up ^ McNeill, J.R. (October 18, 2010). "Malarial mosquitoes helped defeat British in battle that ended Revolutionary War". The Washington Post.
Jump up ^ Mann, Charles C. 1493:Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. Knopf: 2011
Jump up ^ Fleming p. 34
Jump up ^ Fleming p. 35
Jump up ^ Fleming p. 21
Jump up ^ "Yorktown Battlefield".
Jump up ^ Fleming p. 194
Jump up ^ Fleming p. 312
Jump up ^ Reeves p. 253
Jump up ^ Johnston, Henry Phelps. The Yorktown Campaign and the Surrender of Cornwallis, 1781. (New York: 1881) page 156; accessed 5 October 2009
Jump up ^ Cronau, pp. 243–244
Jump up ^ Department of the Army, Lineage and Honors, 113th Infantry. Reproduced in Sawicki 1981, pp. 221–223.
Jump up ^ Department of the Army, Lineage and Honors, 116th Infantry. Reproduced in Sawicki 1981, pp. 227–229.
Jump up ^ Department of the Army, Lineage and Honors, 175th Infantry. Reproduced in Sawicki 1982, pp. 343–345.
Jump up ^ Department of the Army, Lineage and Honors, 198th Signal Battalion.
Jump up ^ Department of the Army, Lineage and Honors, 1st Battalion, 5th Field Artillery.http://www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/lineages/branches/fa/0005fa01bn.htm.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Yorktown Victory Monument". National Parks Service. August 21, 2015. Retrieved July 19, 2017.
Bibliography[edit]
Alden, John (1969). A History of the American Revolution. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-80366-6.
Anderson, Dale (2004). The Battle of Yorktown. Gareth Stevens Publishing.
Chávez, Thomas E. (2002). Spain and the Independence of the United States: An Intrinsic Gift. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-2794-X.
Cronau, Rudolf (2010). Drei Jahrhunderte deutschen Lebens in Amerika (in German). Hamburg: Severus Verlag. ISBN 978-3-942382-31-1. OCLC 649506358.
Davis, Burke (2007). The Campaign that Won America. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-8368-5393-3.
Ferling, John E (2007). Almost a miracle: the American victory in the War of Independence. New York: Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-518121-0.
Fleming, Thomas (1970). The Perils of Peace. New York: The Dial Press. ISBN 978-0-06-113911-6.
Grainger, John (2005). The Battle of Yorktown, 1781: a reassessment. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 978-1-84383-137-2. OCLC 232006312.
Greene, Jerome A. (2005). The Guns of Independence: The Siege of Yorktown, 1781. New York: Savas Beattie. ISBN 1-932714-05-7.
Herring, George C. (2011). From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199765539.
Hibbert, Christopher (2002). Redcoats and Rebels. W. W. Norton & Company Paperbacks.
Lengel, Edward (2005). General George Washington. New York: Random House Paperbacks. ISBN 0-8129-6950-2.
Mitchell, Barbara (Spring 2007). "Bankrolling the Battle of Yorktown: Gold and silver from Havana enabled Washington’s troops to trap Lord Cornwallis". MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History: 16–24.
Reeves, Thomas C (1975). Gentleman Boss. American Political Biography Press. ISBN 978-0-945707-03-5.
Morrissey, Brendan (1997). Yorktown 1781: the World Turned Upside Down. London: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-85532-688-0. OCLC 39028166.
Sawicki, James A. (1981). Infantry Regiments of the US Army. Dumfries, VA: Wyvern Publications. ISBN 978-0-9602404-3-2.
Wickwire, Franklin and Mary (1970). Cornwallis: The American Adventure. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 62690.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Siege of Yorktown.
Yorktown Battlefield (National Park Service)
1931 Army War College history of the siege republished by the United States Army Center of Military History
Siege of Yorktown at Xenophon Group Military History Database
Articles of Capitulation at Yorktown.
The French Army in the American Revolution at the John Carter Brown Library
Animated History of The Siege of Yorktown
The Role of the Spanish and Cubans in the Siege of Yorktown
The Yorktown Campaign (George Washington's Mount Vernon)
Yorktown: Now or Never (George Washington's Mount Vernon)
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Siege of Yorktown
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