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Hypothesis
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For the hypotheses of a theorem, see Theorem. For other uses, see Hypothesis (disambiguation).
"Hypothetical" redirects here. For the 2001 progressive metal album, see Hypothetical (album).
The hypothesis of Andreas Cellarius, showing the planetary motions in eccentric and epicyclical orbits.
Part of a series on
Certainty
Approximation
Belief
Certainty
Doubt
Determinism
Fallibilism
Fatalism
Hypothesis
Justification
Nihilism
Proof
Scientific theory
Skepticism
Solipsism
Theory
Truth
Uncertainty
Related concepts and fundamentals:
Agnosticism
Epistemology
Presupposition
Probability
v
t
e
A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific theory. A working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted hypothesis proposed for further research.[1]
A different meaning of the term hypothesis is used in formal logic, to denote the antecedent of a proposition; thus in the proposition "If P, then Q", P denotes the hypothesis (or antecedent); Q can be called a consequent. P is the assumption in a (possibly counterfactual) What If question.
The adjective hypothetical, meaning "having the nature of a hypothesis", or "being assumed to exist as an immediate consequence of a hypothesis", can refer to any of these meanings of the term "hypothesis".
Contents
[hide]
1 Uses
2 Scientific hypothesis
3 Working hypothesis
4 Hypotheses, concepts and measurement
4.1 Statistical hypothesis testing
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 External links
Uses[edit]
In its ancient usage, hypothesis referred to a summary of the plot of a classical drama. The English word hypothesis comes from the ancient Greek ὑπόθεσις word hupothesis, meaning "to put under" or "to suppose".[1]
In Plato's Meno (86e–87b), Socrates dissects virtue with a method used by mathematicians,[2] that of "investigating from a hypothesis."[3] In this sense, 'hypothesis' refers to a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach that simplifies cumbersome calculations.[4] Cardinal Bellarmine gave a famous example of this usage in the warning issued to Galileo in the early 17th century: that he must not treat the motion of the Earth as a reality, but merely as a hypothesis.[5]
In common usage in the 21st century, a hypothesis refers to a provisional idea whose merit requires evaluation. For proper evaluation, the framer of a hypothesis needs to define specifics in operational terms. A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In due course, a confirmed hypothesis may become part of a theory or occasionally may grow to become a theory itself. Normally, scientific hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model.[6] Sometimes, but not always, one can also formulate them as existential statements, stating that some particular instance of the phenomenon under examination has some characteristic and causal explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular characteristic.
In entrepreneurial science, a hypothesis is used to formulate provisional ideas within a business setting. The formulated hypothesis is then evaluated where either the hypothesis is proven to be "true" or "false" through a verifiability- or falsifiability-oriented experiment.[7][8][9]
Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reasoning (including deductive reasoning). It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The prediction may also invoke statistics and only talk about probabilities. Karl Popper, following others, has argued that a hypothesis must be falsifiable, and that one cannot regard a proposition or theory as scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown false. Other philosophers of science have rejected the criterion of falsifiability or supplemented it with other criteria, such as verifiability (e.g., verificationism) or coherence (e.g., confirmation holism). The scientific method involves experimentation, to test the ability of some hypothesis to adequately answer the question under investigation. In contrast, unfettered observation is not as likely to raise unexplained issues or open questions in science, as would the formulation of a crucial experiment to test the hypothesis. A thought experiment might also be used to test the hypothesis as well.
In framing a hypothesis, the investigator must not currently know the outcome of a test or that it remains reasonably under continuing investigation. Only in such cases does the experiment, test or study potentially increase the probability of showing the truth of a hypothesis.[10]:pp17,49–50 If the researcher already knows the outcome, it counts as a "consequence" — and the researcher should have already considered this while formulating the hypothesis. If one cannot assess the predictions by observation or by experience, the hypothesis needs to be tested by others providing observations. For example, a new technology or theory might make the necessary experiments feasible.
Scientific hypothesis[edit]
People refer to a trial solution to a problem as a hypothesis, often called an "educated guess"[11][12] because it provides a suggested solution based on the evidence. However, some scientists reject the term "educated guess" as incorrect. Experimenters may test and reject several hypotheses before solving the problem.
According to Schick and Vaughn,[13] researchers weighing up alternative hypotheses may take into consideration:
Testability (compare falsifiability as discussed above)
Parsimony (as in the application of "Occam's razor", discouraging the postulation of excessive numbers of entities)
Scope – the apparent application of the hypothesis to multiple cases of phenomena
Fruitfulness – the prospect that a hypothesis may explain further phenomena in the future
Conservatism – the degree of "fit" with existing recognized knowledge-systems.
Working hypothesis[edit]
Main article: Working hypothesis
A working hypothesis is a hypothesis that is provisionally accepted as a basis for further research[14] in the hope that a tenable theory will be produced, even if the hypothesis ultimately fails.[15] Like all hypotheses, a working hypothesis is constructed as a statement of expectations, which can be linked to the exploratory research purpose in empirical investigation. Working hypotheses are often used as a conceptual framework in qualitative research.[16][17]
The provisional nature of working hypotheses make them useful as an organizing device in applied research. Here they act like a useful guide to address problems that are still in a formative phase.[18]
In recent years, philosophers of science have tried to integrate the various approaches to evaluating hypotheses, and the scientific method in general, to form a more complete system that integrates the individual concerns of each approach. Notably, Imre Lakatos and Paul Feyerabend, Karl Popper's colleague and student, respectively, have produced novel attempts at such a synthesis.
Hypotheses, concepts and measurement[edit]
Concepts in Hempel's deductive-nomological model play a key role in the development and testing of hypotheses. Most formal hypotheses connect concepts by specifying the expected relationships between propositions. When a set of hypotheses are grouped together they become a type of conceptual framework. When a conceptual framework is complex and incorporates causality or explanation it is generally referred to as a theory. According to noted philosopher of science Carl Gustav Hempel "An adequate empirical interpretation turns a theoretical system into a testable theory: The hypothesis whose constituent terms have been interpreted become capable of test by reference to observable phenomena. Frequently the interpreted hypothesis will be derivative hypotheses of the theory; but their confirmation or disconfirmation by empirical data will then immediately strengthen or weaken also the primitive hypotheses from which they were derived."[19]
Hempel provides a useful metaphor that describes the relationship between a conceptual framework and the framework as it is observed and perhaps tested (interpreted framework). "The whole system floats, as it were, above the plane of observation and is anchored to it by rules of interpretation. These might be viewed as strings which are not part of the network but link certain points of the latter with specific places in the plane of observation. By virtue of those interpretative connections, the network can function as a scientific theory."[20] Hypotheses with concepts anchored in the plane of observation are ready to be tested. In "actual scientific practice the process of framing a theoretical structure and of interpreting it are not always sharply separated, since the intended interpretation usually guides the construction of the theoretician."[21] It is, however, "possible and indeed desirable, for the purposes of logical clarification, to separate the two steps conceptually."[21]
Statistical hypothesis testing[edit]
Main article: Statistical hypothesis testing
When a possible correlation or similar relation between phenomena is investigated, such as whether a proposed remedy is effective in treating a disease, the hypothesis that a relation exists cannot be examined the same way one might examine a proposed new law of nature. In such an investigation, if the tested remedy shows no effect in a few cases, these do not necessarily falsify the hypothesis. Instead, statistical tests are used to determine how likely it is that the overall effect would be observed if the hypothesized relation does not exist. If that likelihood is sufficiently small (e.g., less than 1%), the existence of a relation may be assumed. Otherwise, any observed effect may be due to pure chance.
In statistical hypothesis testing, two hypotheses are compared. These are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the hypothesis that states that there is no relation between the phenomena whose relation is under investigation, or at least not of the form given by the alternative hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis, as the name suggests, is the alternative to the null hypothesis: it states that there is some kind of relation. The alternative hypothesis may take several forms, depending on the nature of the hypothesized relation; in particular, it can be two-sided (for example: there is some effect, in a yet unknown direction) or one-sided (the direction of the hypothesized relation, positive or negative, is fixed in advance).[22]
Conventional significance levels for testing hypotheses (acceptable probabilities of wrongly rejecting a true null hypothesis) are .10, .05, and .01. Whether the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted, must be determined in advance, before the observations are collected or inspected. If these criteria are determined later, when the data to be tested are already known, the test is invalid.[23]
The above procedure is actually dependent on the number of the participants (units or sample size) that is included in the study. For instance, the sample size may be too small to reject a null hypothesis and, therefore, it is recommended to specify the sample size from the beginning. It is advisable to define a small, medium and large effect size for each of a number of important statistical tests which are used to test the hypotheses.[24]
See also[edit]
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Hypothesis.
Axiom
Case study
Conjecture
Explanandum
Hypothesis theory – a research area in cognitive psychology
Logical positivism
Operationalization
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica – for Newton's position on hypotheses
Reductionism
Research design
Sociology of scientific knowledge
Theorem
Thesis statement
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Hilborn, Ray; Mangel, Marc (1997). The ecological detective: confronting models with data. Princeton University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-691-03497-3. Retrieved 22 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Wilbur R. Knorr, "Construction as existence proof in ancient geometry", p. 125, as selected by Jean Christianidis (ed.), Classics in the history of Greek mathematics, Kluwer.
Jump up ^ Gregory Vlastos, Myles Burnyeat (1994) Socratic studies, Cambridge ISBN 0-521-44735-6, p. 1
Jump up ^ "Neutral hypotheses, those of which the subject matter can never be directly proved or disproved, are very numerous in all sciences." — Morris Cohen and Ernest Nagel (1934) An introduction to logic and scientific method p. 375. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company.
Jump up ^ "Bellarmine (Ital. Bellarmino), Roberto Francesco Romolo", Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition.: 'Bellarmine did not proscribe the Copernican system ... all he claimed was that it should be presented as a hypothesis until it should receive scientific demonstration.' This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hypothesis". Encyclopædia Britannica. 14 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 208.
Jump up ^ Crease, Robert P. (2008) The Great Equations ISBN 978-0-393-06204-5, p.112 lists the conservation of energy as an example of accounting a constant of motion. Hypothesized by Sadi Carnot, truth demonstrated by James Prescott Joule, proven by Emmy Noether.
Jump up ^ Harvard Business Review (2013) "Why Lean Startup Changes Everything"
Jump up ^ Tristan Kromer 2014 "Success Metric vs. Fail Condition"
Jump up ^ Lean Startup Circle "What is Lean Startup?"
Jump up ^ Popper 1959
Jump up ^ "When it is not clear under which law of nature an effect or class of effect belongs, we try to fill this gap by means of a guess. Such guesses have been given the name conjectures or hypotheses.", Hans Christian Ørsted(1811) "First Introduction to General Physics" ¶18. Selected Scientific Works of Hans Christian Ørsted, ISBN 0-691-04334-5 p.297
Jump up ^ "In general we look for a new law by the following process. First we guess it. ...", —Richard Feynman (1965) The Character of Physical Law p.156
Jump up ^ Schick, Theodore; Vaughn, Lewis (2002). How to think about weird things: critical thinking for a New Age. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 0-7674-2048-9.
Jump up ^ Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine. Eprint via Answers.com.
Jump up ^ See in "hypothesis", Century Dictionary Supplement, v. 1, 1909, New York: The Century Company. Reprinted, v. 11, p. 616 (via Internet Archive) of the Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia, 1911.
hypothesis [...]—Working hypothesis, a hypothesis suggested or supported in some measure by features of observed facts, from which consequences may be deduced which can be tested by experiment and special observations, and which it is proposed to subject to an extended course of such investigation, with the hope that, even should the hypothesis thus be overthrown, such research may lead to a tenable theory.
Jump up ^ Patricia M. Shields, Hassan Tajalli (2006). "Intermediate Theory: The Missing Link in Successful Student Scholarship". Journal of Public Affairs Education. 12 (3): 313–334.
Jump up ^ Patricia M. Shields (1998). "Pragmatism As a Philosophy of Science: A Tool For Public Administration". In Jay D. White. Research in Public Administration. 4. pp. 195–225 [211]. ISBN 1-55938-888-9.
Jump up ^ Patricia M. Shields and Nandhini Rangarajan. 2013. A Playbook for Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual Frameworks and Project Management]. Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press. pp. 109-157
Jump up ^ Hempel, C. G. (1952). Fundamentals of concept formation in empirical science. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, p. 36
Jump up ^ Hempel, C. G. (1952). Fundamentals of concept formation in empirical science. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, p. 36.
^ Jump up to: a b Hempel, C. G. (1952). Fundamentals of concept formation in empirical science. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, p. 33.
Jump up ^ Altman. DG., Practical Statistics for Medical Research, CRC Press, 1990, Section 8.5,
Jump up ^ Mellenbergh, G.J.(2008). Chapter 8: Research designs: Testing of research hypotheses. In H.J. Adèr & G.J. Mellenbergh (Eds.) (with contributions by D.J. Hand), Advising on Research Methods: A consultant's companion (pp. 183-209). Huizen, The Netherlands: Johannes van Kessel Publishing
Jump up ^ Altman. DG., Practical Statistics for Medical Research, CRC Press, 1990, Section 15.3,
Bibliography[edit]
Popper, Karl R. (1959), The Logic of Scientific Discovery 1934, 1959.
External links[edit]
Look up hypothesis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiversity has learning resources about Hypothesis
"How science works", Understanding Science by the University of California Museum of Paleontology.
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40-yard dash
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The 40-yard dash is a sprint covering 40 yards (36.58 m). It is primarily run to evaluate the speed and acceleration of American football players by scouts, particularly for the NFL Draft but also for collegiate recruiting. A player's recorded time can have a heavy impact on his prospects in college or professional football. This was traditionally only true for the "skill" positions such as running back, wide receiver, and defensive back, although now a fast 40-yard dash time is considered important for almost every position. The 40-yard dash is not an official race in track and field athletics and is not an IAAF-recognized event.
The origin of timing football players for 40 yards comes from the average distance of a punt and the time it takes to reach that distance.[1] Punts average around 40 yards in distance from the line of scrimmage, and the hangtime (time of flight) averages approximately 4.5 seconds. Therefore, if a coach knows that a player runs 40 yards in 4.5 seconds, he will be able to leave the line of scrimmage when a punt is kicked, and reach the point where the ball comes down just as it arrives.
Contents
[hide]
1 Timing method and track comparisons
2 Records
2.1 Records at the NFL Scouting Combine
3 Average time by position
4 References
Timing method and track comparisons[edit]
In terms of judging a person's speed, the best method of timing is through lasers which start and stop the times when passed through. A laser start (from a stationary position) is more accurate for measuring pure speed as it does not register a runner's reaction time. However, the method of timing a 40-yard dash can affect the accuracy by as much 0.5 seconds (with the manual stopwatch method). The National Football League (NFL) did not begin using partial electronic timing (started by hand, stopped electronically) at the NFL Scouting Combine until 1990.[citation needed] For purposes of measurement at the Combine, the run is made along the lower sideline from the 40 yard-line to the end zone, which has built-in rundown space.
In track and field races, the runner must react to the starting gun, which takes approximately 0.24 seconds, based on FAT timing. A runner with a reaction time less than .100 is subject to disqualification as that is deemed too fast of a reaction time. For electronically timed 40-yard dashes, the runner is allowed to start when he wishes, and a timer hand-starts the clock. This aspect means that comparisons with track times are impossible given that a reaction time is not factored in. Furthermore, the use of hand-timing in the 40-yard dash can considerably alter a runner's time; the methods are not comparable to the rigorous electronic timing used in track and field.
Jacoby Ford, who ran a 4.28 s in the 2010 NFL Combine, had a collegiate best of 6.51 s in the 60-meter dash (outside the top-40 of the all-time lists).[2] This highlights the difficulties in comparing track running times to football 40-yard times due to the different timing methods.[3]
Records[edit]
Auburn's Bo Jackson claims to have run a 40-yard dash with a time of 4.12 s.[4][5] A time of 4.18 run by Jackson within the same week added some support to the legitimacy of the times.[6][7] Texas Tech's Jakeem Grant was hand-timed by a New Orleans Saints scout as running a 4.10 in 2016, potentially beating Jackson's record.[8] Deion Sanders ran a 4.27-second 40-yard dash in 1989.[9]
In 2013, Carlin Isles recorded a time of 4.22 at a Detroit Lions facility during a workout.[10]
In 2017 Olympic sprinter Christian Coleman ran a time of 4.12 seconds on turf in response to claims that NFL players are as fast as Usain Bolt.[11]
Records at the NFL Scouting Combine[edit]
This is a list of the official 40-yard dash results of 4.30 seconds or better recorded at the NFL Scouting combine since 1999, the first year electronic timing was implemented at the NFL Scouting Combine.[12][13]
Time
Name
Height
Weight
Position
College
Year
Draft
4.22[14] John Ross 5 ft 11 in (180 cm) 190 lb (86 kg) Wide receiver Washington 2017 No. 9 overall by Cincinnati Bengals
4.24 Rondel Menendez 5 ft 9 in (175 cm) 192 lb (87 kg) Wide receiver Eastern Kentucky 1999 No. 247 overall by Atlanta Falcons
4.24 Chris Johnson 5 ft 11 in (180 cm) 192 lb (87 kg) Running back East Carolina 2008 No. 24 overall by Tennessee Titans
4.26 Jerome Mathis 5 ft 11 in (180 cm) 184 lb (83 kg) Wide receiver Hampton 2005 No. 114 overall by Houston Texans
4.26 Dri Archer 5 ft 8 in (173 cm) 173 lb (78 kg) Running back Kent State 2014 No. 97 overall by Pittsburgh Steelers
4.27 Stanford Routt 6 ft 2 in (188 cm) 193 lb (88 kg) Cornerback Houston 2005 No. 38 overall by Oakland Raiders
4.27 Marquise Goodwin 5 ft 10 in (178 cm) 181 lb (82 kg) Wide receiver Texas 2013 No. 78 overall by Buffalo Bills
4.28 Champ Bailey 6 ft 0 in (183 cm) 192 lb (87 kg) Cornerback Georgia 1999 No. 7 overall by Washington Redskins
4.28 Jacoby Ford 5 ft 9 in (175 cm) 190 lb (86 kg) Wide receiver Clemson 2010 No. 108 overall by Oakland Raiders
4.28[15] Jalen Myrick 5 ft 10 in (178 cm) 200 lb (91 kg) Cornerback Minnesota 2017 No. 222 overall by Jacksonville Jaguars
4.28[16] J. J. Nelson 5 ft 10 in (178 cm) 156 lb (71 kg) Wide receiver UAB 2015 No. 159 overall by Arizona Cardinals
4.28 DeMarcus Van Dyke 6 ft 1 in (185 cm) 187 lb (85 kg) Cornerback Miami 2011 No. 81 overall by Oakland Raiders
4.29 Fabian Washington 5 ft 11 in (180 cm) 188 lb (85 kg) Cornerback Nebraska 2005 No. 23 overall by Oakland Raiders
4.29 Dominique Rodgers-Cromartie 6 ft 2 in (188 cm) 184 lb (83 kg) Cornerback Tennessee State 2008 No. 16 overall by the Arizona Cardinals
4.29 Josh Robinson 5 ft 10 in (178 cm) 199 lb (90 kg) Cornerback UCF 2012 No. 66 overall by Minnesota Vikings
4.30 Darrent Williams 5 ft 9 in (175 cm) 176 lb (80 kg) Cornerback Oklahoma State 2005 No. 56 overall by Denver Broncos
4.30 Tye Hill 5 ft 10 in (178 cm) 185 lb (84 kg) Cornerback Clemson 2006 No. 15 overall by St. Louis Rams
4.30 Yamon Figurs 5 ft 11 in (180 cm) 174 lb (79 kg) Wide receiver Kansas State 2007 No. 74 overall by Baltimore Ravens
4.30 Darrius Heyward-Bey[17] 6 ft 2 in (188 cm) 210 lb (95 kg) Wide receiver Maryland 2009 No. 7 overall by Oakland Raiders
Average time by position[edit]
According to a five-year NFL combine report, wide receivers and cornerbacks had the fastest average times at 4.55, followed by running backs at 4.59. The following average times were measured between 2008 and 2012 at the NFL combine.[18]
Position
Time
Wide receiver 4.55
Cornerback 4.55
Running back 4.59
Safety 4.62
Outside linebacker 4.74
Tight end 4.77
Fullback 4.80
Inside linebacker 4.80
Quarterback 4.87
Defensive end 4.88
Defensive tackle 5.13
Center 5.30
Offensive tackle 5.32
Offensive guard 5.36
References[edit]
Jump up ^ MacCambridge, Michael (2005). America's Game: The Epic Story of How Pro Football Captured a Nation (1st ed.). New York: Anchor Books. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-375-72506-7. Intent on building a fast team, [Paul Brown in the mid-1940s] began timing players in the 40-yard dash, rather than the 100, reasoning that the 40 was a more meaningful measure of true football speed, about the distance a player would cover on a punt.
Jump up ^ 60 Metres - men - senior - indoor. IAAF. Retrieved on 2013-05-29.
Jump up ^ 60 Metres - men - senior - indoor. IAAF. Retrieved on 2013-05-29.
Jump up ^ Rothstein, Matthew (February 29, 2016). "Bo Jackson Talking About His 4.13 40-Yard-Dash Is A Reminder Of How Superhuman He Was". Uproxx.com.
Jump up ^ Tanier, Mike (July 16, 2015). "NFL Urban Legends: Bo Jackson and the Too-Fast-to-Be-True 40-Yard Dash". BleacherReport.com.
Jump up ^ Based on Cooney, Frank (23 February 2008). "Combine 40-yard times -- Nothing is official". The Sports Xchange. , plus updates.
Jump up ^ Cooney, Frank (24 Feb 2008). "With 40-yard dash times, nothing's quite 'official'". USA Today.
Jump up ^ Haislop, Tadd (11 March 2016). "Texas Tech's Jakeem Grant clocked at 4.10 in 40-yard dash". SportingNews. Retrieved 12 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Hessler, Warner (23 April 1989). "NFL General Managers Moan About Another Diluted Draft". Daily Press. Retrieved 2012-03-01.
Jump up ^ "Detroit Lions sign rugby player Carlin Isles to practice squad". Daily News. New York. 26 Dec 2013.
Jump up ^ "Olympic sprinter shows up John Ross". USA Today. Retrieved 26 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Top Performers 2006-2011". 16 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Cooney, Frank (1 Mar 2011). "Officially, Van Dyke is combine’s fastest player". USA Today.
Jump up ^ "John Ross III runs 40-yard dash in record 4.22 seconds at NFL Combine". Sportsnet. March 4, 2017. Retrieved March 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Jalen Myrick Combine Profile". NFL.com. Retrieved March 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ "NFL on Twitter". Twitter. February 21, 2015. Retrieved February 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Darrius Heyward-Bey - WR - Maryland - 2009 NFL Combine Results". NFL Combine Results.
Jump up ^ Topher Doll (February 12, 2013). "Some Clarification is in Order: Average Speed by Position". MileHighReport.com.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=40-yard_dash&oldid=799620597"
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