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Oceanic crust
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Colors indicate the age of oceanic crust, wherein red indicates the youngest age, and blue indicates the oldest age. The lines represent tectonic plate boundaries.
Oceanic crust is the uppermost layer of the oceanic portion of a tectonic plate. It is composed of the upper oceanic crust, with pillow lavas and a dike complex, and the lower oceanic crust, composed of troctolite, gabbro and ultramafic cumulates.[1][2] The crust overlies the solidified and uppermost layer of the mantle. The crust and the solid mantle layer together constitute oceanic lithosphere.
Oceanic crust is primarily composed of mafic rocks, or sima, which is rich in iron and magnesium. It is thinner than continental crust, or sial, generally less than 10 kilometers thick; however it is denser, having a mean density of about 3.0 grams per cubic centimeter[3] as opposed to continental crust which has a density of about 2.7 grams per cubic centimeter.[4]
The crust uppermost is the result of the cooling of magma derived from mantle material below the plate. The magma is injected into the spreading center, which consists mainly of a partly solidified crystal mush derived from earlier injections, forming magma lenses that are the source of the sheeted dikes that feed the overlying pillow lavas.[5] As the lavas cool they are, in most instances, modified chemically by seawater.[6] These eruptions occur mostly at mid-ocean ridges, but also at scattered hotspots, and also in rare but powerful occurrences known as flood basalt eruptions. But most magma crystallises at depth, within the lower oceanic crust. There, newly intruded magma can mix and react with pre-existing crystal mush and rocks.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Composition
1.1 Geochemistry
1.2 Life cycle
2 Magnetic anomalies
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
Composition[edit]
Although a complete section of oceanic crust has not yet been drilled, geologists have several pieces of evidence that help them understand the ocean floor. Estimations of composition are based on analyses of ophiolites (sections of oceanic crust that are thrust onto and preserved on the continents), comparisons of the seismic structure of the oceanic crust with laboratory determinations of seismic velocities in known rock types, and samples recovered from the ocean floor by submersibles, dredging (especially from ridge crests and fracture zones) and drilling.[8] Oceanic crust is significantly simpler than continental crust and generally can be divided in three layers. According to mineral physics experiments, at lower mantle pressures, oceanic crust becomes denser than the surrounding mantle.[9]
Layer 1 is on an average 0.4 km thick. It consists of unconsolidated or semiconsolidated sediments, usually thin or even not present near the mid-ocean ridges but thickens farther away from the ridge.[10] Near the continental margins sediment is terrigenous, meaning derived from the land, unlike deep sea sediments which are made of tiny shells of marine organisms, usually calcareous and siliceous, or it can be made of volcanic ash and terrigenous sediments transported by turbidity currents.[11]
Layer 2 could be divided into two parts: layer 2A – 0.5 km thick uppermost volcanic layer of glassy to finely crystalline basalt usually in the form of pillow basalt, and layer 2B – 1.5 km thick layer composed of diabase dikes.[12]
Layer 3 is formed by slow cooling of magma beneath the surface and consists of coarse grained gabbros and cumulate ultramafic rocks.[13] It constitutes over two-thirds of oceanic crust volume with almost 5 km thickness.[14]
Geochemistry[edit]
The most voluminous volcanic rocks of the ocean floor are the mid-oceanic ridge basalts, which are derived from low-potassium tholeiitic magmas. These rocks have low concentrations of large ion lithophile elements (LILE), light rare earth elements (LREE), volatile elements and other highly incompatible elements. There can be found basalts enriched with incompatible elements, but they are rare and associated with mid-ocean ridge hot spots such as surroundings of Galapagos Islands, the Azores and Iceland.[15]
Life cycle[edit]
Oceanic crust is continuously being created at mid-ocean ridges. As plates diverge at these ridges, magma rises into the upper mantle and crust. As it moves away from the ridge, the lithosphere becomes cooler and denser, and sediment gradually builds on top of it. The youngest oceanic lithosphere is at the oceanic ridges, and it gets progressively older away from the ridges.[16]
As the mantle rises it cools and melts, as the pressure decreases and it crosses the solidus. The amount of melt produced depends only on the temperature of the mantle as it rises. Hence most oceanic crust is the same thickness (7±1 km). Very slow spreading ridges (<1 cm·yr−1 half-rate) produce thinner crust (4–5 km thick) as the mantle has a chance to cool on upwelling and so it crosses the solidus and melts at lesser depth, thereby producing less melt and thinner crust. An example of this is the Gakkel Ridge under the Arctic Ocean. Thicker than average crust is found above plumes as the mantle is hotter and hence it crosses the solidus and melts at a greater depth, creating more melt and a thicker crust. An example of this is Iceland which has crust of thickness ~20 km.[17]
The age of the oceanic crust can be used to estimate the (thermal) thickness of the lithosphere, where young oceanic crust has not had enough time to cool the mantle beneath it, while older oceanic crust has thicker mantle lithosphere beneath it.[18] The oceanic lithosphere subducts at what are known as convergent boundaries. These boundaries can exist between oceanic lithosphere on one plate and oceanic lithosphere on another, or between oceanic lithosphere on one plate and continental lithosphere on another. In the second situation, the oceanic lithosphere always subducts because the continental lithosphere is less dense. The subduction process consumes older oceanic lithosphere, so oceanic crust is seldom more than 200 million years old.[19] The process of super-continent formation and destruction via repeated cycles of creation and destruction of oceanic crust is known as the Wilson cycle.
The oldest large scale oceanic crust is in the west Pacific and north-west Atlantic - both are about up to 180-200 million years old. However, parts of the eastern Mediterranean Sea are remnants of the much older Tethys ocean, at about 270 and up to 340 million years old.[20][21][22]
Magnetic anomalies[edit]
Main article: Seafloor spreading
The oceanic crust displays a pattern of magnetic lines, parallel to the ocean ridges, frozen in the basalt. A symmetrical pattern of positive and negative magnetic lines emanates from the mid-ocean ridge.[23] New rock is formed by magma at the mid-ocean ridges, and the ocean floor spreads out from this point. When the magma cools to form rock, its magnetic polarity is aligned with the then-current positions of the magnetic poles of the Earth. New magma then forces the older cooled magma away from the ridge. This process results in parallel sections of oceanic crust of alternating magnetic polarity.
See also[edit]
Mohorovičić discontinuity
Plate tectonics
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Gillis et al (2014). Primitive layered gabbros from fast-spreading lower oceanic crust. Nature 505, 204-208
Jump up ^ Pirajno F. (2013). Ore Deposits and Mantle Plumes. Springer. p. 11. ISBN 9789401725026.
Jump up ^ Rogers, N.; Blake, S.; Burton, K. An introduction to our dynamic planet. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-521-49424-3. Retrieved January 2008. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ Cogley 1984
Jump up ^ Sinton J.M.; Detrick R.S. (1992). "Mid‐ocean ridge magma chambers" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 97 (B1): 197–216. doi:10.1029/91JB02508.
Jump up ^ H. Elderfield (2006). The Oceans and Marine Geochemistry. Elsevier. pp. 182–. ISBN 978-0-08-045101-5.
Jump up ^ Lissenberg, C. J., MacLeod, C. J., Horward, K. A., and Godard, M. (2013). Pervasive reactive melt migration through fast-spreading lower oceanic crust (Hess Deep, equatorial Pacific Ocean). Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 361, 436–447. doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2012.11.012
Jump up ^ Kodaira, S., Noguchi, N., Takahashi, N., Ishizuka, O., & Kaneda, Y. (2010). Evolution from fore‐arc oceanic crust to island arc crust: A seismic study along the Izu‐Bonin fore arc. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 115(B9), N/a.
Jump up ^ Li, M., & McNamara, A. (2013). The difficulty for subducted oceanic crust to accumulate at the Earth's core‐mantle boundary. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 118(4), 1807-1816.
Jump up ^ Peter Laznicka (2 September 2010). Giant Metallic Deposits: Future Sources of Industrial Metals. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 82–. ISBN 978-3-642-12405-1.
Jump up ^ D. R. Bowes (1989) The Encyclopedia of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology, Van Nostrand Reinhold ISBN 0-442-20623-2
Jump up ^ Yildirim Dilek (1 January 2000). Ophiolites and Oceanic Crust: New Insights from Field Studies and the Ocean Drilling Program. Geological Society of America. pp. 506–. ISBN 978-0-8137-2349-5.
Jump up ^ Gillis et al (2014). Primitive layered gabbros from fast-spreading lower oceanic crust. Nature 505, 204-208
Jump up ^ Jon Erickson (14 May 2014). Plate Tectonics: Unraveling the Mysteries of the Earth. Infobase Publishing. pp. 83–. ISBN 978-1-4381-0968-8.
Jump up ^ Clare P. Marshall, Rhodes W. Fairbridge (1999) Encyclopedia of Geochemistry, Kluwer Academic Publishers ISBN 0-412-75500-9
Jump up ^ "Understanding plate motions [This Dynamic Earth, USGS]". pubs.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-16.
Jump up ^ C.M.R. Fowler (2005) The Solid Earth (2nd Ed.), Cambridge University Press ISBN 0-521-89307-0
Jump up ^ McKenzie, Dan; Jackson, James; Priestley, Keith (May 2005). "Thermal structure of oceanic and continental lithosphere". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Elsevier. 233 (3-4).
Jump up ^ Condie, K.C. 1997. Plate Tectonics and Crustal Evolution (4th Edition). 288 page, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.
Jump up ^ Müller, R. Dietmar (April 2008). "Age, spreading rates, and spreading asymmetry of the world's ocean crust". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. American Geophysical Union. 9 (4).
Jump up ^ Benson, Emily (15 August 2016). "World's oldest ocean crust dates back to ancient supercontinent". www.newscientist.com. New Scientist. Retrieved 11 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "Researcher uncovers 340 million year-old oceanic crust in the Mediterranean Sea using magnetic data". www.sciencedaily.com. Science Daily. 15 August 2016. Retrieved 11 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Pitman, W. C.; Herron, E. M.; Heirtzler, J. R. (1968-03-15). "Magnetic anomalies in the Pacific and sea floor spreading". Journal of Geophysical Research. 73 (6): 2069–2085. Bibcode:1968JGR....73.2069P. doi:10.1029/JB073i006p02069. ISSN 2156-2202.
References[edit]
Marshak, Stephen (2005) Earth: Portrait of a Planet (41-87)
McDuff, Russell E.; Heath, G. Ross. "Ocean 540: Oceanic Lithosphere; Plate Tectonics; Seafloor Topography". School of Oceanography, University of Washington. Retrieved August 2009. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
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Black Balloon (Goo Goo Dolls song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Black Balloon"
Single by Goo Goo Dolls
from the album Dizzy Up the Girl
Released
June 8, 1999
Format
CD single
Genre
Alternative rock, pop rock
Length
3:55
Label
Warner Bros.
Songwriter(s)
John Rzeznik
Producer(s)
Rob Cavallo, Goo Goo Dolls
Goo Goo Dolls singles chronology
"Dizzy"
(1999) "Black Balloon"
(1999) "Broadway"
(2000)
"Dizzy"
(1999) "Black Balloon"
(1999) "Broadway"
(2000)
Music video
"Black Balloon" on YouTube
"Black Balloon" is a song recorded by the Goo Goo Dolls. It was released in June 1999 as the fourth single from the band's 1998 album, Dizzy Up the Girl.
Contents
[hide]
1 Meaning and composition
2 Music video
3 Track listing
3.1 United States release
3.2 United Kingdom release
3.3 Australia release
4 Chart positions
4.1 Peak positions
4.2 End of year charts
5 References
6 External links
Meaning and composition[edit]
The song, according to lead singer Johnny Rzeznik, is based on a woman who is struggling with a heroin addiction and her lover who is desperately trying to save her. He has also said that it is about "seeing someone you love that is so great just screw up so bad." Speculation as to the exact subject matter of the song has also been attributed to the ex-wife of bassist Robby Takac (who had overdosed on heroin).
Like many other songs by Goo Goo Dolls, "Black Balloon" uses an unusual alternate tuning. Several electric guitars used in the introduction and the acoustic rhythm guitar are tuned to an open D-flat fifth chord. It was half-stepped on the album version.
Music video[edit]
The video for the song opens with a woman blowing smoke into a soap bubble (a "black balloon"). The video then changes focus and shows various scenes from a 50s or 60s era swim club while the band performs the song. Tracy Phillips is found in this video as well. The video was done by Nancy Bardwell.
During live performances of the song, fans can often be seen inflating black balloons and batting them around in the crowd.[1]
Track listing[edit]
United States release[edit]
"Black Balloon (Radio Remix)" - 4:10
"Slide (Live)" - 3:33
United Kingdom release[edit]
"Black Balloon (Radio Edit)" - 4:01
"Black Balloon (Album Version)" - 4:10
"Naked" - 3:44
Australia release[edit]
"Black Balloon"
"Lazy Eye"
"Naked (Remix)"
"Flat Top"
Chart positions[edit]
The track was moderately successful at rock radio, reaching number 13 and number 28 on Billboard's Modern Rock Tracks and Mainstream Rock Tracks charts, respectively. It also became the fourth pop hit for the band, reaching number 16 on the Billboard Hot 100.
Peak positions[edit]
Chart (1999)
Peak
position
Canadian Top Singles (RPM) 3
Canadian Rock/Alternative (RPM) 8
U.S. Billboard Hot 100 16
U.S. Billboard Adult Top 40 3
U.S. Billboard Mainstream Top 40 13
U.S. Billboard Modern Rock Tracks 13
U.S. Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks 28
U.S. Billboard Radio Songs 18
End of year charts[edit]
End of year chart (1999)
Position
Canadian RPM Singles Chart[2] 21
U.S. Billboard Hot 100[3] 64
References[edit]
Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M_BR6EGpygE
Jump up ^ "Top Singles - Volume 70, No. 8, December 13, 1999". RPM. Retrieved 2011-01-09.
Jump up ^ "Billboard Top 100 - 1999". Archived from the original on 2009-07-09. Retrieved 2010-08-28.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
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"So Far Away"
Tours
Something for the Rest of Us Tour
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Boxes Tour
Related material
Discography
Lance Diamond
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black_Balloon_(Goo_Goo_Dolls_song)&oldid=763770486"
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text:
Elastic artery
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Elastic artery
Details
System
Cardiovascular system
Identifiers
TH
H3.09.02.0.01010
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
An elastic artery (conducting artery or conduit artery) is an artery with a large number of collagen and elastin filaments in the tunica media, which gives it the ability to stretch in response to each pulse.[1] This elasticity also gives rise to the Windkessel effect, which helps to maintain a relatively constant pressure in the arteries despite the pulsating nature of the blood flow. Elastic arteries include the largest arteries in the body, those closest to the heart. They give rise to medium-sized vessels known as distributing arteries (or muscular arteries).
The pulmonary arteries, the aorta, and its branches together comprise the body's system of elastic arteries.
Elastic arteries receive their own blood supply by the vasa vasorum unlike smaller blood vessels, which are supplied by diffusion
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Shadwick RE (December 1999). "Mechanical design in arteries". J. Exp. Biol. 202 (Pt 23): 3305–13. PMID 10562513.
External links[edit]
Histology image: 05402loa – Histology Learning System at Boston University
Histology at usc.edu
[hide]
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Arteries and veins
Vessels
Arteries
Nutrient artery
Arteriole
Metarteriole
Elastic artery
Capillaries
Types
Continuous
Fenestrated
Sinusoidal
Precapillary sphincter
Precapillary resistance
Veins
Vena comitans
Superficial vein
Deep vein
Emissary veins
Venous plexus
Venule
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Lymphatic vessel
Lymph
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Circulatory system
Systemic
Left heart → Aorta → Arteries → Arterioles → Capillaries → Venules → Veins → Vena cava → (Right heart)
Pulmonary
Right heart → Pulmonary arteries → Lungs → Pulmonary vein → Left heart
Microanatomy
Microvessel
Microcirculation
Tunica intima
Endothelium
Internal elastic lamina
Tunica media
Tunica externa
Vasa vasorum
Vasa nervorum
Vascular nerves
Rete mirabile
Circulatory anastomosis
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text:
How to Train Your Dragon: The Hidden World
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 28 August 2018.
Jump to navigation Jump to search
How to Train Your Dragon:
The Hidden World
Official poster
Directed by
Dean DeBlois
Produced by
Bonnie Arnold
Brad Lewis
Screenplay by
Dean DeBlois
Based on
How to Train Your Dragon
by Cressida Cowell
Starring
Jay Baruchel
America Ferrera
Cate Blanchett
Craig Ferguson
Kit Harington
T. J. Miller
Christopher Mintz-Plasse
F. Murray Abraham
Gerald Butler
Music by
John Powell[1]
Edited by
John K. Carr
Production
company
DreamWorks Animation[2]
Mad Hatter Entertainment[2]
Distributed by
Universal Pictures[2]
Release date
March 1, 2019 (2019-03-01) (United States)
Country
United States
Language
English
How to Train Your Dragon: The Hidden World is an upcoming 2019 American 3D computer-animated action fantasy film loosely based on the book series of the same name by Cressida Cowell, produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Universal Pictures. It is a sequel to 2010's How to Train Your Dragon and 2014's How to Train Your Dragon 2, and is the third and final installment in the How to Train Your Dragon trilogy.[3]
Written and directed by Dean DeBlois, the film stars the voices of Jay Baruchel, Cate Blanchett, Craig Ferguson, America Ferrera, Jonah Hill, Kit Harington, Christopher Mintz-Plasse, T. J. Miller, Kristen Wiig and F. Murray Abraham. This will be the first DreamWorks Animation film to be distributed by Universal Pictures, whose parent company NBCUniversal acquired DWA in 2016,[4] and since the end of their distribution deal with 20th Century Fox. The film is slated to be released on March 1, 2019 in the United States.
Contents
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Release
4.1 Marketing
5 References
6 External links
Plot[edit]
After becoming the chief of Berk, Hiccup has fulfilled his dream of creating a peaceful dragon utopia, while the sudden discovery of a wild, elusive mate lures Toothless away. When danger threatens their village and tests Hiccup's reign as chief, Hiccup and Toothless are forced to leave the only home they know. As they travel to a hidden world thought to only exist in myth, both dragon and rider will fight together to the very end to protect everything they love.[5][6]
Cast[edit]
Jay Baruchel as Hiccup[7]
Cate Blanchett as Valka[7]
Craig Ferguson as Gobber the Belch[8]
America Ferrera as Astrid[7]
Jonah Hill as Snotlout Jorgenson[8]
Kit Harington as Eret[9]
T. J. Miller and Kristen Wiig as Tuffnut and Ruffnut Thorston[8]
Christopher Mintz-Plasse as Fishlegs Ingerman[8]
F. Murray Abraham as Grimmel[9]
Gerard Butler as Stoick the Vast[10]
Production[edit]
In December 2010, DreamWorks CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg announced that there would also be a third film in the series: "How To Train Your Dragon is at least three: maybe more, but we know there are at least three chapters to that story."[11] Dean DeBlois, the writer and director of the second and the third film, said that How to Train Your Dragon 2 is being intentionally designed as the second act of the trilogy: "There are certain characters and situations that come into play in the second film that will become much more crucial to the story by the third."[12] DeBlois said in an interview that the third part will be released in 2016.[13] Although the series has taken a different path of telling a story of Hiccup and Vikings, Cressida Cowell has revealed that the trilogy and the book series will have similar endings (with "an explanation as to why dragons are no more").[14]
The film is being produced by Bonnie Arnold, and exec-produced by Dean DeBlois and Chris Sanders.[15] Jay Baruchel, Craig Ferguson, America Ferrera, Jonah Hill, Christopher Mintz-Plasse, T. J. Miller and Kristen Wiig are set to return in the third film.[15] Cate Blanchett will also reprise her role as Valka from the second film.[7] On November 14, 2017, it was announced that Kit Harington will reprise his role as Eret and F. Murray Abraham has joined the cast.[9] In the earlier stages of production, DeBlois has stated that Djimon Hounsou would also return as Drago Bludvist,[16] though there has been no recent report of his character's return.[citation needed] On April 17, 2018, DreamWorks announced that the sequel's title has changed to How to Train Your Dragon: The Hidden World.[17][18]
Release[edit]
In September 2012, 20th Century Fox, the studio's then-distributor partner, and DreamWorks Animation announced the release date for June 18, 2016,[15] which was later changed to June 17, 2016.[19][20] In September 2014, the film's release date was moved to June 9, 2017.[7] DeBlois explained the release date shift: "It's just that these movies take three years. I think it was a little ambitious to say 2016 (laughs). As is normally the case, they kind of throw darts out into the future and wherever they land they call that a release date until we start talking about it in practical terms, and then it's like, 'Uh yeah that's not enough time. So knowing that they take three years from this moment, from outlining and writing the screenplay through to the final lighting of it, it's just a process of building models and doing tests and animating, storyboarding, the whole thing just adds up to about three years."[21]
In January 2015, the release date was pushed back to June 29, 2018 following corporate restructuring, massive lay-offs, and to maximize the company's "creative talent and resources, reduce costs, and drive profitability."[22][23] On June 18, 2016, the release date was moved up to May 18, 2018, taking over the release date of Warner Animation Group's The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part.[24] On December 5, 2016, the release date was pushed back again to March 1, 2019.[25]
Marketing[edit]
On May 31, 2018, the first poster was released and the first official trailer premiered on June 7.[26][27]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Chitwood, Adam. "Composer John Powell Talks HOW TO TRAIN YOUR DRAGON 2, the State of Film Scoring Today, His Career, Taking a Break, Hans Zimmer, and More". Collider. Retrieved 13 June 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Film releases". Variety Insight. Retrieved June 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ Alexander, Bryan (June 7, 2018). "Toothless is in love! New trailer, photos from 'How to Train Your Dragon 3'". Retrieved June 7, 2018.
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (October 19, 2016). "'How To Train Your Dragon 3' & 'Larrikins' Move From Fox To Uni Release Schedule". Deadline. Retrieved October 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ Gallagher, Brian (5 December 2016). "How to Train Your Dragon 3 Delayed, Gets New 2019 Release Date". movieweb.com. Watchr Media. Retrieved 18 June 2018. As Hiccup fulfills his dream of creating a peaceful dragon utopia, Toothless' discovery of an untamed, elusive mate draws the dragon away. When danger mounts at home and Hiccup's reign as village chief is tested, both dragon and rider must make impossible decisions to save their kind.
Jump up ^ "HOW TO TRAIN YOUR DRAGON: THE HIDDEN WORLD Official Trailer". youtube.com. DreamWorks Animation. 7 June 2018. Retrieved 18 June 2018. Now chief and ruler of Berk alongside Astrid, Hiccup has created a gloriously chaotic dragon utopia. When the sudden appearance of female Light Fury coincides with the darkest threat their village has ever faced, Hiccup and Toothless must leave the only home they’ve known and journey to a hidden world thought only to exist in myth. As their true destines are revealed, dragon and rider will fight together—to the very ends of the Earth—to protect everything they’ve grown to treasure.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "How to Train Your Dragon 3 Pushed Back to 2017". ComingSoon.net. September 2, 2014. Retrieved September 2, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "'How to Train Your Dragon 3 (2019) News & Info'". Screen Rant. Retrieved December 28, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "F. Murray Abraham To Get Evil For DreamWorks Animation's 'How To Train Your Dragon 3'". Deadline.com. November 2017.
Jump up ^ "'How to Train Your Dragon 3 Is The Best One Yet, Says Gerard Butler'". Screen Rant. Retrieved June 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ O'Hara, Helen (December 3, 2010). "Katzenberg Talks DreamWorks Sequels". Empire. Retrieved September 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (June 2, 2011). "Storyboarding Has Begun on 'How to Train Your Dragon' Sequel". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved September 12, 2011.
Jump up ^ Rao, Priya (April 5, 2012). "THIS WEEK IN TORONTO — PART 3". First Weekend Club. Retrieved October 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ Neish, Steven (August 14, 2012). "Author Cressida Cowell Talks How To Train Your Dragon Sequels". Hey U Guys. Retrieved August 27, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c DreamWorks Animation (September 9, 2012). "New Distributor Twentieth Century Fox Unveils DreamWorks Animation's Release Slate Through 2016". PR Newswire. Retrieved October 5, 2014.
Jump up ^ Chitwood, Adam (February 5, 2015). "Director Dean DeBlois Talks HOW TO TRAIN YOUR DRAGON 3 at VES Awards". Collider. Retrieved February 5, 2015.
Jump up ^ Lang, Brent (April 17, 2018). "How To Train Your Dragon 3: Title Announced". Variety.
Jump up ^ White, James. "How To Train Your Dragon 3 Is The Hidden World". Empire. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
Jump up ^ McClintock, Pamela (June 13, 2013). "'Monsters,' 'Despicable Me 2,' 'Turbo': Summer's Brutal Animation War". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Upcoming Releases". DreamWorks Animation. Retrieved August 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ Chitwood, Adam (October 17, 2014). "Dean DeBlois Talks HOW TO TRAIN YOUR DRAGON 3 and Potential Spinoffs; Says He's Talked Jeffrey Katzenberg Down from the Idea of DRAGON 4". Collider.com. Retrieved October 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Maas, Jennifer (January 22, 2015). "DreamWorks Animation cuts back to two films a year, delays 'How to Train Your Dragon 3'". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved January 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Graser, Marc (January 22, 2015). "Jeffrey Katzenberg on DWA's Cutbacks: '3 Films a Year Was Too Ambitious'". Variety. Retrieved January 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Schaefer, Sandy (June 19, 2016). "How to Train Your Dragon 3 Takes LEGO Movie 2's Old Release Date". Screen Rant. Retrieved December 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (December 5, 2016). "'How To Train Your Dragon 3' Flies To 2019; Uni's DWA To Scale 'Everest'". Deadline. Retrieved December 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ DreamWorks Animation [@DWAnimation] (31 May 2018). "In ONE WEEK, see the trailer for How to Train Your Dragon: The Hidden World. #HowToTrainYourDragon" (Tweet). Retrieved June 6, 2018 – via Twitter.
Jump up ^ DreamworksTV (7 June 2018). "HOW TO TRAIN YOUR DRAGON: THE HIDDEN WORLD | Official Trailer". Retrieved 7 June 2018 – via YouTube.
External links[edit]
Official website
How to Train Your Dragon: The Hidden World on IMDb
show
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Films directed by Dean DeBlois
Lilo & Stitch (2002)
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Go Quiet (2010)
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How to Train Your Dragon: The Hidden World (2019)
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A subsidiary of NBCUniversal, a Comcast company
Feature
films
Antz (1998)
The Prince of Egypt (1998)
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Joseph: King of Dreams (2000)
Shrek (2001)
Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron (2002)
Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas (2003)
Shrek 2 (2004)
Shark Tale (2004)
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Shrek the Third (2007)
Bee Movie (2007)
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Monsters vs. Aliens (2009)
How to Train Your Dragon (2010)
Shrek Forever After (2010)
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Kung Fu Panda 2 (2011)
Puss in Boots (2011)
Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted (2012)
Rise of the Guardians (2012)
The Croods (2013)
Turbo (2013)
Mr. Peabody & Sherman (2014)
How to Train Your Dragon 2 (2014)
Penguins of Madagascar (2014)
Home (2015)
Kung Fu Panda 3 (2016)
Trolls (2016)
The Boss Baby (2017)
Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie (2017)
Produced with
Aardman
Chicken Run (2000)
Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit (2005)
Flushed Away (2006)
Upcoming
How to Train Your Dragon: The Hidden World (2019)
Abominable (2019)
Trolls World Tour (2020)
The Croods 2 (2020)
The Boss Baby 2 (2021)
Spooky Jack (2021)
Franchises
Shrek (since 2001)
Madagascar (since 2005)
Kung Fu Panda (since 2008)
Monsters vs. Aliens (2009–14)
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Tales of Arcadia (since 2016)
TV series
Ended
Toonsylvania (1998)
Invasion America (1998)
Alienators: Evolution Continues (2001–02)
Father of the Pride (2004–05)
The Penguins of Madagascar (2008–15)
Neighbors from Hell (2010)
Kung Fu Panda: Legends of Awesomeness (2011–16)
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Current
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Noddy, Toyland Detective (since 2016)
Voltron: Legendary Defender (since 2016)
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The Boss Baby: Back in Business (since 2018)
The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle (since 2018)
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She-Ra and the Princesses of Power (2018)
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Television
specials
Shrek the Halls (2007)
Monsters vs. Aliens: Mutant Pumpkins from Outer Space (2009)
Merry Madagascar (2009)
Scared Shrekless (2010)
Kung Fu Panda Holiday (2010)
Madly Madagascar (2013)
Trolls Holiday (2017)
Short films
Shrek 4-D (2003)
Far Far Away Idol (2004)
The Madagascar Penguins in a Christmas Caper (2005)
First Flight (2006)
Hammy's Boomerang Adventure (2006)
Secrets of the Furious Five (2008)
B.O.B.'s Big Break (2009)
Legend of the Boneknapper Dragon (2010)
Megamind: The Button of Doom (2011)
Night of the Living Carrots (2011)
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No-till farming
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No-till farming
Young soybean plants thrive in and are protected by the residue of a wheat crop. This form of no till farming provides good protection for the soil from erosion and helps retain moisture for the new crop.
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No-till farming (also called zero tillage or direct drilling) is a way of growing crops or pasture from year to year without disturbing the soil through tillage. No-till is an agricultural technique which increases the amount of water that infiltrates into the soil and increases organic matter retention and cycling of nutrients in the soil. In many agricultural regions it can reduce or eliminate soil erosion. It increases the amount and variety of life in and on the soil, including disease-causing organisms and disease organisms. The most powerful benefit of no-tillage is improvement in soil biological fertility, making soils more resilient. Farm operations are made much more efficient, particularly improved time of sowing and better trafficability of farm operations.
Tillage remains relevant in agriculture today, but the success of no-till methods in many contexts keeps farmers aware that multiple options exist. In some cases low-till methods combine aspects of till and no-till methods. For example, some approaches may use a limited amount of shallow disc harrowing but no plowing.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Origin of No-till for modern farms
3 Adoption rate in the United States
4 Issues
4.1 Profit, economics, yield
4.2 Environmental
4.2.1 Carbon (air and soil) and other greenhouse gases
4.2.2 Soil and water
4.2.3 Soil biota, wildlife, etc.
4.2.4 Albedo
4.3 Historical artifacts
4.4 Cost
4.4.1 Equipment
4.4.2 Drainage
4.4.3 Gullies
4.4.4 Increased chemical use
5 Management
5.1 Cover crops
5.2 Disease, pathogens, insects and the use of crop rotations
5.3 Organic no-till
5.4 Water issues
5.5 Equipment
5.6 Soil temperature
5.7 Residue
5.8 Fertilizer
6 Misconceptions
6.1 Need to fluff the soil
7 Similar terms
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Background[edit]
Tillage is the agricultural preparation of soil by mechanical agitation, typically killing the plants earlier in place.[1] This tilling can result in a flat seed bed or one that has formed areas, such as rows or raised beds, to enhance the growth of desired plants. It is an ancient technique with clear evidence of its use since at least 3000 B.C.E.[2]
The effects of tillage can include soil compaction; loss of organic matter; degradation of soil aggregates; death or disruption of soil microbes and other organisms including mycorrhizae, arthropods, and earthworms;[3] and soil erosion where topsoil is washed or blown away.
Origin of No-till for modern farms[edit]
The idea of modern no-till farming started in the 1940s with Edward H. Faulkner, author of Plowman's Folly,[4] but it wasn't until the development of several chemicals after WWII that various researchers and farmers started to try out the idea. The first adopters of no-till include Klingman (North Carolina), Edward Faulkner, L.A. Porter (New Zealand), Harry and Lawrence Young (Herndon, Kentucky), the Instituto de Pesquisas Agropecuarias Meridional (1971 in Brazil) with Herbert Bartz.[5]
Adoption rate in the United States[edit]
No-till farming is widely used in the United States and the number of acres managed in this way continues to grow. This growth is supported by a decrease in costs related to tillage; no-till management results in fewer passes with equipment for approximately equal harvests, and the crop residue prevents evaporation of rainfall and increases water infiltration into the soil.[6]
Issues[edit]
Profit, economics, yield[edit]
Studies have found that no-till farming can be more profitable[7][8] if performed correctly.
Less tillage of the soil reduces labour,[9] fuel,[10] irrigation[11] and machinery costs.[8] No-till can increase yield because of higher water infiltration and storage capacity, and less erosion.[12] Another benefit of no-till is that because of the higher water content, instead of leaving a field fallow it can make economic sense to plant another crop instead.[13]
As sustainable agriculture becomes more popular, monetary grants and awards are becoming readily available to farmers who practice conservation tillage. Some large energy corporations which are among the greatest generators of fossil-fuel-related pollution may purchase carbon credits, which can encourage farmers to engage in conservation tillage.[14][15] Under such schemes, the farmers' land is legally redefined as a carbon sink for the power generators' emissions. This helps the farmer in several ways[citation needed], and it helps the energy companies meet regulatory demands for reduction of pollution, specifically carbon emissions.
No-till farming can increase organic (carbon based)[12] matter in the soil, which is a form of carbon sequestration. However, there is debate over whether this increased sequestration detected in scientific studies of no-till agriculture is actually occurring, or is due to flawed testing methods or other factors.[16] Regardless of this debate, a case can still be made for no-till, in the form of reduction in fossil fuel use, less erosion and better soil quality.
Environmental[edit]
Carbon (air and soil) and other greenhouse gases[edit]
No-till farming has carbon sequestration potential through storage of soil organic matter in the soil of crop fields.[17] Whereas, when soil is tilled by machinery, the soil layers invert, air mixes in, and soil microbial activity dramatically increases over baseline levels. Tilling results in soil organic matter being broken down much more rapidly, and carbon is lost from the soil into the atmosphere. In addition to the effect on soil from tilling, emissions from the farm tractors increases carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.
Cropland soils are ideal for use as a carbon sink, since they have been depleted of carbon in most areas. It is estimated that 78 billion metric tonnes of carbon that was trapped in the soil has been released[18] because of tillage. Conventional farming practices that rely on tillage have removed carbon from the soil ecosystem by removing crop residues such as left over corn stalks, and through the addition of chemical fertilizers which have the above-mentioned effects on soil microbes. By eliminating tillage, crop residues decompose where they lie, and by growing winter cover crops, carbon loss can be slowed and eventually reversed.
Nonetheless, a growing body of research is showing that no-till systems lose carbon stocks over time. Regarding a 2014 study of which he was principal investigator, University of Illinois soil scientist Ken Olson said this differing result occurs in part because tested soil samples need to include the full depth of rooting; 1–2 meters deep. He said, “That no-till subsurface layer is often losing more soil organic carbon stock over time than is gained in the surface layer.” Also, there has not been a uniform definition of soil organic carbon sequestration among researchers.[19] The study concludes, "Additional investments in soil organic carbon (SOC) research is needed to better understand the agricultural management practices that are most likely to sequester SOC or at least retain more net SOC stocks."[20]
In addition to keeping carbon in the soil, no-till farming reduces nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions by 40-70%, depending on rotation.[21][22] Nitrous oxide is a potent greenhouse gas, 300 times stronger than CO2, and stays in the atmosphere for 120 years.[23] Fertilizing farmlands with (excessive) nitrogen increases the release of nitrous oxide.
Soil and water[edit]
No-till farming improves soil quality (soil function), carbon, organic matter, aggregates,[24] protecting the soil from erosion,[25] evaporation of water,[26] and structural breakdown. A reduction in tillage passes helps prevent the compaction of soil. It has been shown that this type of farming can help bring soil erosion rates close to soil production rates.[27]
Recently, researchers at the Agricultural Research Service of the United States Department of Agriculture found that no-till farming makes soil much more stable than plowed soil. Their conclusions draw from over 19 years of collaborated tillage studies. No-till stores more carbon in the soil and carbon in the form of organic matter is a key factor in holding soil particles together. The first inch of no-till soil is two to seven times less vulnerable than that of plowed soil. The practice of no-till farming is especially beneficial to Great Plains farmers because of its avoidance of erosion.[28]
Crop residues left intact help both natural precipitation and irrigation water infiltrate the soil where it can be used. The crop residue left on the soil surface also limits evaporation, conserving water for plant growth. Soil compaction and no tillage-pan, soil absorbs more water and plants are able to grow their roots deeper into the soil and suck up more water.
Tilling a field reduces the amount of water, via evaporation, around 1/3 to 3/4 inches (0.85 to 1.9 cm) per pass.[26] By no-tilling, this water stays in the soil, available to the plants.
Soil biota, wildlife, etc.[edit]
In no-till farming the soil is left intact and crop residue is left on the field. Therefore, soil layers, and in turn soil biota, are conserved in their natural state. No-tilled fields often have more beneficial insects and annelids,[29] a higher microbial content, and a greater amount of soil organic material. Since there is no ploughing there is less airborne dust.
No-till farming increases the amount and variety of wildlife.[30] This is the result of improved cover, reduced traffic and the reduced chance of destroying ground nesting birds and animals (plowing destroys all of them).
Albedo[edit]
Tillage lowers the albedo of croplands. The potential for global cooling as a result of decreased Albedo in no till croplands is similar in magnitude to the biogeochemical (carbon sequestration) potential.[31]
Historical artifacts[edit]
Tilling regularly damages ancient structures under the soil such as long barrows. In the UK, half of the long barrows in Gloucestershire and almost all the burial mounds in Essex have been damaged. According to English Heritage modern tillage techniques have done as much damage in the last six decades as traditional tilling did in the previous six centuries. By using no-till methods these structures can be preserved and can be properly investigated instead of being destroyed.[32]
Cost[edit]
Equipment[edit]
No-till farming requires specialized seeding equipment designed to plant seeds into undisturbed crop residues and soil. If the farmer has equipment designed for tillage farming, purchasing new equipment (seed drills for example) would be expensive and while the cost could be offset by selling off plows, etc. doing so is not usually done until the farmer decides to switch completely over (after trying it out for a few years). This would result in more money being invested into equipment in the short term (until old equipment is sold off).[33]
Drainage[edit]
If a soil has poor drainage, it may need drainage tiles or other devices in order to help with the removal of excess water under no-till. Farmers should remember that water infiltration will improve after several years of a field being in no-till farming, so they may want to wait until 5–8 years have passed to see if the problems persists before deciding to invest in such an expensive system.
Gullies[edit]
Gullies can be a problem in the long-term. While much less soil is displaced by using no-till farming, any drainage gulleys that do form will get deeper each year since they aren't being smoothed out by plowing.[34] This may necessitate either sod drainways, waterways, permanent drainways, cover crops, etc. Gully formation can be avoided entirely with proper water management practices, including the creation of swales on contour.
Increased chemical use[edit]
One of the purposes of tilling is to remove weeds. No-till farming does change weed composition drastically. Faster growing weeds may no longer be a problem in the face of increased competition, but shrubs and trees may begin to grow eventually.
Some farmers attack this problem with a “burn-down” herbicide such as glyphosate in lieu of tillage for seedbed preparation and because of this, no-till is often associated with increased chemical use in comparison to traditional tillage based methods of crop production. However, there are many agroecological alternatives to increased chemical use, such as winter cover crops and the mulch cover they provide, soil solarization or burning.
Management[edit]
No-till farming requires some different skills to achieve success. As with any production system, if no-till isn't done correctly, yields can drop. A combination of technique, equipment, pesticides, crop rotation, fertilization, and irrigation have to be used for local conditions.
Cover crops[edit]
Cover crops are used occasionally in no-till farming to help control weeds and increase nutrients in the soil (by using legumes)[35] or by using plants with long roots to pull mobile nutrients back up to the surface from lower layers of the soil. Farmers experimenting with organic no-till use cover crops instead of tillage for controlling weeds, and are developing various methods to kill the cover crops (rollers, crimper, choppers, etc.)[36] so that the newly planted crops can get enough light, water, nutrients, etc.[37][38]
Disease, pathogens, insects and the use of crop rotations[edit]
With no-till farming, residue from the previous years crops lie on the surface of the field, cooling it and increasing the moisture. This can cause increased or decreased or variations of diseases that occur,[39] but not necessarily at a higher or lower rate than conventional tillage.[40] In order to help eliminate weed, pest and disease problems, crop rotations are used. By rotating the crops on a multi-year cycle, pests and diseases will decrease since the pests will no longer have a food supply to support their numbers.
Organic no-till[edit]
Some farmers who prefer to pursue an organic management practice often rely on the use of normal, non-dyed corrugated cardboard for use on seed-beds and vegetable areas. Used correctly, cardboard placed on a specific area can
keep important fungal hyphae and microorganisms in the soil intact
prevent recurring weeds from popping up
increase residual nitrogen and plant nutrients by top-composting plant residues and
create valuable topsoil that is well suited for next years seeds or transplants.
The plant residues (left over plant matter originating from cover crops, grass clippings, original plant life etc.) will rot while underneath the cardboard so long as it remains sufficiently moist. This rotting attracts worms and other beneficial microorganisms to the site of decomposition, and over a series of a few seasons (usually Spring-->Fall or Fall-->Spring) and up to a few years, will create a layer of rich topsoil. Plants can then be direct seeded into the soil come spring, or holes can be cut into the cardboard to allow for transplantation. Using this method in conjunction with other sustainable practices such as composting/vermicompost, cover crops and rotations are often considered beneficial to both land and those who take from it.
On fields too large to manually apply a residue with a high carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, a cover crop may be used to produce a similar effect. The cover crop may be killed by mowing or by crimping the stalk, as with a roller/crimper.[41] The residue is then planted through, and left as a mulch to retard weed growth and slowly release the nutrients contained therein. Cover crops typically must be crimped when they enter the flowering/pollination stage.[42]
Water issues[edit]
No-till farming dramatically reduces the amount of erosion in a field. While much less soil is displaced, any gullies that do form will get deeper each year instead of being smoothed out by regular plowing. This may necessitate either sod drainways, waterways, permanent drainways, cover crops, etc.[43]
A problem that occurs in some fields is water saturation in soils. Switching to no-till farming will correct the drainage the because of the qualities of soil under continuous no-till include a higher water infiltration rate.[44]
Equipment[edit]
It is very important to have planting equipment that can properly penetrate through the residue, into the soil and prepare a good seedbed.[45] Switching to no-till reduces the maximum amount of power needed from farm tractors, which means that a farmer can farm under no-till with a smaller tractor than under tilling.[46] Using a smaller, lighter tractor has the added benefit of reducing compaction.
Soil temperature[edit]
Another problem that growers face is that in the spring the soil will take longer to warm and dry, which may delay planting to a less ideal future date. One reason why the soil is slower to warm is that the field absorbs less solar energy as the residue covering the soil is a much lighter color than the black soil which would be exposed in conventional tillage. This can be managed by using row cleaners on a planter.[47] Since the soil can be cooler, harvest can occur a few days later than a conventionally tilled field. Note: A cooler soil is also a benefit because water doesn't evaporate as fast.
Residue[edit]
On some crops, like continuous no-till corn, the thickness of the residue on the surface of the field can become a problem without proper preparation and/or equipment.
Fertilizer[edit]
One of the most common yield reducers is nitrogen being immobilized in the crop residue, which can take a few months to several years to decompose, depending on the crop's C to N ratio and the local environment.[48] Fertilizer needs to be applied at a higher rate during the transition period while the soil rebuilds its organic matter. The nutrients in the organic matter will be eventually released back into the soil, so this is only a concern during the transition time frame (4–5 years for Kansas, USA). An innovative solution to this problem is to integrate animal husbandry in various ways to aid in the decomposition cycle.[49]
Misconceptions[edit]
Need to fluff the soil[edit]
Although no-till farming often causes a slight increase in soil bulk density, periodic tilling is not needed to “fluff” the soil back up[citation needed]. No-till farming mimics the natural conditions under which most soils formed more closely than any other method of farming, in that the soil is left undisturbed except to place seeds in a position to germinate.
Similar terms[edit]
No-till farming is not equivalent to conservation tillage or strip tillage. Conservation tillage is a group of practices that reduce the amount of tillage needed. No-till and strip tillage are both forms of conservation tillage. No-till is the practice of never tilling a field. Tilling every other year is called rotational tillage.
See also[edit]
Conventional tillage
Broadfork, a tool to aerate the soil without overturning
Masanobu Fukuoka, one of the pioneers of no-till grain cultivation
Cereal (Macrobiotic) agriculture, uses minimal tillage[50][51]
Natural farming
Conservation agriculture
No-dig gardening
Permaculture
Strip-till
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Tillage". Wikipedia. 2016-11-15.
Jump up ^ name=history of tillage Archived 2016-01-07 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Preston Sullivan (2004). "Sustainable Soil Management". Attra.ncat.org. Archived from the original on 2007-08-15. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
Jump up ^ "Is Organic Farming Better for the Environment? | Genetic Literacy Project". geneticliteracyproject.org. Retrieved 2018-01-09.
Jump up ^ Derpsch, Rolf. "A short History of No-till". NO- TILLAGE. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
Jump up ^ name=no till farming on the rise
Jump up ^ D.L. Beck, J.L. Miller, and M.P. Hagny "Successful No-Till on the Central and Northern Plains"
^ Jump up to: a b Derpsch, Rolf. "Economics of No-till farming. Experiences from Latin America" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-27. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
Jump up ^ Time savings from no-till are the result of fewer passes over a field being needed and less time for each pass (its faster to pull a sprayer over a field than a plow through it).
Jump up ^ http://ecat.sc.egov.usda.gov/Fuel.aspx
Jump up ^ Network, University of Nebraska-Lincoln | Web Developer (2015-09-17). "How Tillage and Crop Residue Affect Irrigation Requirements - UNL CropWatch, April 5, 2013". CropWatch. Retrieved 2018-01-31.
^ Jump up to: a b "Better Management Practices: No-Till/Conservation Tillage". WWF. Retrieved 4 April 2011. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Yield & Economic Comparisons: University Research Trials" (PDF). p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 May 2005.
Jump up ^ "How to Utilize Carbon Credits" (PDF). extension.umn.edu. 7 August 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
Jump up ^ "Carbon Credit Program". National Farmers Union. Archived from the original on 2010-05-07. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
Jump up ^ Baker et al. (2007) Tillage and soil carbon sequestration—What do we really know?. Journal of Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. Volume 118, Issues 1–4
Jump up ^ Carbon sequestration in two Brazilian Cerrado soils under no-till Bayer, C | Martin-Neto, L | Mielniczuk, J | Pavinato, A | Dieckow, J Soil and Tillage Research [Soil Tillageyhjs.]. Vol. 86, no. 2, p.237-245. Apr 2006.
Jump up ^ Lal, Rattan. "No-Till Farming Offers A Quick Fix To Help Ward Off Host Of Global Problems". Researchnews.osu.edu. Archived from the original on 2010-04-27. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
Jump up ^ "No-till soil organic carbon sequestration rates published". Science Daily. Retrieved 2012-04-21. April 18, 2014.
Jump up ^ Olson K.R., Al-Kaisi M.M., Lal R., Lowery B. (2014). Experimental Consideration, Treatments, and Methods in Determining Soil Organic Carbon Sequestration Rates. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 78:2:pp.348-360. (Open access).
Jump up ^ Omonode, R. A.; Smith, D. R.; Gál, A.; Vyn, T. J. (2011). "Soil Nitrous Oxide Emissions in Corn following Three Decades of Tillage and Rotation Treatments". Soil Science Society of America Journal. 75: 152. doi:10.2136/sssaj2009.0147.
Jump up ^ Study: No-till farming reduces greenhouse gas San-Francisco Chronicle
Jump up ^ Wallheimer, Brian. "No-till, rotation can limit greenhouse gas emissions from farm fields". physorg.com. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
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Jump up ^ "Conservation Tillage". Monsanto.com. Archived from the original on June 20, 2008. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
^ Jump up to: a b http://cropwatch.unl.edu/input$/notill_irrigation.htm. Retrieved April 17, 2009. Missing or empty |title= (help)[dead link]
Jump up ^ Montgomery, David R. "Is agriculture eroding civilization's foundation?" (PDF). GSA Today. 17 (10). doi:10.1130/gsat01710a.1.
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Jump up ^ Chan, K.Y. "An overview of some tillage impacts on earthworm population abundance and diversity — implications for functioning in soils". Soil and Tillage Research. 57 (4): 179–191. doi:10.1016/S0167-1987(00)00173-2.
Jump up ^ D. B. Warburton and W. D. Klimstra; D. B. Warburton; W. D. Klimstra (1984-09-01). "Wildlife use of no-till and conventionally tilled corn fields". 39 (5). Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
Jump up ^ D. B. Lobell, G. Bala and P. B. Duffy; D. B. Lobell; G. Bala; P. B. Duffy (2006-03-23). "Biogeophysical impacts of cropland management changes on climate" (PDF). 33. GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS. Retrieved 2012-07-02.
Jump up ^ "Ripping Up History" July 2003 English Heritage
Jump up ^ "Kansas No-till handbook"
Jump up ^ Elton Robinson (Aug 1, 2008). "Tilling ephemeral gullies can cost you soil". Deltafarmpress.com. Archived from the original on 2008-08-05. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
Jump up ^ "TIPS FOR NO-TILL PLANTING INTO COVER CROPS" Penn. State University
Jump up ^ "Crimping Cover Crops". Conservation Currents. Northern Virginia Soil and Water Conservation District. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "No-Till Revolution". Rodale Institute. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
Jump up ^ George Kuepper (June 2001). "Pursuing Conservation Tillage Systems for Organic Crop Production". Attra.ncat.org. Archived from the original on June 12, 2008. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
Jump up ^ Daryl D. Buchholz (October 1993). "No-Till Planting Systems". University of Missouri Extension. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
Jump up ^ "Tillage has less effect on crop diseases than other factors". Top Crop Manager. Archived from the original on 2011-10-07. Retrieved 2011-12-04.
Jump up ^ "Organic No-Till | Rodale Institute". rodaleinstitute.org. Retrieved 2017-01-16.
Jump up ^ "INTRODUCTION TO COVER CROP ROLLING & THE VAUSDA CRIMPER ROLLER DEMONSTRATION PROJECT" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Elton Robinson "Tilling ephemeral gullies can cost you soil" Archived 2008-08-05 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Kindig, Wendy. "No till/Cover Crops Articles". York County Conservation District. Retrieved 2 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "Soybeans: No-Till and Minimum Till Guidelines"
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Jump up ^ Macrobiotic agriculture
Jump up ^ Handboek ecologisch tuinieren by Herman Van Boxem
Further reading[edit]
Wright, Sylvia (Winter 2006). "Pay Dirt". UC Davis Magazine. pp. 24–27.
Philpott, Tom (2013-09-09). "One Weird Trick to Fix Farms Forever". Mother Jones. Retrieved 2014-03-14.
Montgomery, David R. (2007). Dirt: the erosion of civilizations. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520248700.
External links[edit]
Texas A&M AgriLife Research and Extension Center at Lubbock; along with New Mexico University Extension Service. No-till and Cover Crops for Texas and New Mexico.
No-Till Farmer Website
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BNF: cb135706596 (data)
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