text:
History of Manchester City F.C.
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This article is about the history of Manchester City Football Club. For an overview of the club, see Manchester City F.C.
The history of the club is split into separate pages spanning different eras of the club:
History of Manchester City F.C. (1880–1928)
History of Manchester City F.C. (1928–1965)
History of Manchester City F.C. (1965–2001)
History of Manchester City F.C. (2001–present)
Contents
[hide]
1 History synopsis
2 See also
3 External links
4 References
History synopsis[edit]
Main article: History of Manchester City F.C. (1880–1928)
The 1898-99 team that promoted to the first division
The Manchester City team which won the FA Cup in 1904
Members of St. Mark's Church of England, West Gorton, Manchester, founded the football club that would become known as Manchester City, for largely humanitarian purposes. Two church wardens sought to curb local gang violence and alcoholism by instituting new activities for local men, whilst high unemployment plagued East Manchester, specifically Gorton. All men were welcome to join, regardless of religion.
A church cricket club had been formed in 1875, but no equivalent for the winter months existed. To rectify this, and as part of Rector Arthur Connell's general push to intervene in social ills, church wardens William Beastow and Thomas Goodbehere started a church football team called St Mark's (West Gorton) (sometimes written as West Gorton (St Mark's)) in the winter of 1880.
The team's first recorded match occurred on 13 November 1880, against a church team from Macclesfield. St. Marks lost the match 2–1, and only won one match during their inaugural 1880–81 season, with a victory over Stalybridge Clarence in March 1881.
City gained their first honours by winning the Second Division in 1899; with it came promotion to the highest level in English football, the First Division. They went on to claim their first major honour on 23 April 1904, beating Bolton Wanderers 1–0 at Crystal Palace to win the FA Cup; City narrowly missed out on a League and Cup double that season after finishing runners-up in the League but City became the first club in Manchester to win a major honour.[1] In the seasons following the FA Cup triumph, the club was dogged by allegations of financial irregularities, culminating in the suspension of seventeen players in 1906, including captain Billy Meredith, who subsequently moved across town to Manchester United.[2] A fire at Hyde Road destroyed the main stand in 1920, and in 1923 the club moved to their new purpose-built stadium at Maine Road in Moss Side.[3]
Main article: History of Manchester City F.C. (1928–1965)
In the 1930s, Manchester City reached two consecutive FA Cup finals, losing to Everton in 1933, before claiming the Cup by beating Portsmouth in 1934.[4] During the 1934 cup run, Manchester City broke the record for the highest home attendance of any club in English football history, as 84,569 fans packed Maine Road for a sixth round FA Cup tie against Stoke City in 1934 – a record which still stands to this day.[5] The club won the First Division title for the first time in 1937, but were relegated the following season, despite scoring more goals than any other team in the division.[6] Twenty years later, a City team inspired by a tactical system known as the Revie Plan reached consecutive FA Cup finals again, in 1955 and 1956; just as in the 1930s, they lost the first one, to Newcastle United, and won the second. The 1956 final, in which Manchester City beat Birmingham City 3–1, is one of the most famous finals of all-time, and is remembered for City goalkeeper Bert Trautmann continuing to play on after unknowingly breaking his neck.[7]
Main article: History of Manchester City F.C. (1965–2001)
After relegation to the Second Division in 1963, the future looked bleak with a record low home attendance of 8,015 against Swindon Town in January 1965.[8] In the summer of 1965, the management team of Joe Mercer and Malcolm Allison was appointed. In the first season under Mercer, City won the Second Division title and made important signings in Mike Summerbee and Colin Bell.[9] Two seasons later, in 1967–68, Manchester City claimed the League Championship for the second time, clinching the title on the final day of the season with a 4–3 win at Newcastle United and beating their close neighbours Manchester United into second place.[10] Further trophies followed: City won the FA Cup in 1969, before achieving European success by winning the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1970, beating Górnik Zabrze 2–1 in Vienna.[11] City also won the League Cup that season, becoming the second English team to win a European trophy and a domestic trophy in the same season.
The club continued to challenge for honours throughout the 1970s, finishing one point behind the league champions on two occasions and reaching the final of the 1974 League Cup.[12] One of the matches from this period that is most fondly remembered by supporters of Manchester City is the final match of the 1973–74 season against arch-rivals Manchester United, who needed to win to have any hope of avoiding relegation. Former United player Denis Law scored with a backheel to give City a 1–0 win at Old Trafford and confirm the relegation of their rivals.[13][14] The final trophy of the club's most successful period was won in 1976, when Newcastle United were beaten 2–1 in the League Cup final.
A long period of decline followed the success of the 1960s and 1970s. Malcolm Allison rejoined the club to become manager for the second time in 1979, but squandered large sums of money on unsuccessful signings, such as Steve Daley.[15] A succession of managers then followed – seven in the 1980s alone. Under John Bond, City reached the 1981 FA Cup final but lost in a replay to Tottenham Hotspur. The club were twice relegated from the top flight in the 1980s (in 1983 and 1987), but returned to the top flight again in 1989 and finished fifth in 1991 and 1992 under the management of Peter Reid.[16] However, this was only a temporary respite, and following Reid's departure Manchester City's fortunes continued to fade. City were co-founders of the Premier League upon its creation in 1992, but after finishing ninth in its first season they endured three seasons of struggle before being relegated in 1996. After two seasons in Division One, City fell to the lowest point in their history, becoming the second ever European trophy winners to be relegated to their country's third league tier, after 1. FC Magdeburg of Germany.
Main article: History of Manchester City F.C. (2001–present)
After relegation, the club underwent off-the-field upheaval, with new chairman David Bernstein introducing greater fiscal discipline.[17] City were promoted at the first attempt, achieved in dramatic fashion in a play-off against Gillingham. A second successive promotion saw City return to the top division, but this proved to have been a step too far for the recovering club, and in 2001 City were relegated once more. Kevin Keegan arrived as the new manager in the close season, bringing an immediate return to the top division as the club won the 2001–02 Division One championship, breaking club records for the number of points gained and goals scored in a season in the process.[18] The 2002–03 season was the last at Maine Road, and included a 3–1 derby victory over rivals Manchester United, ending a run of 13 years without a derby win.[19] City also qualified for European competition for the first time in 25 years. In the 2003 close season the club moved to the new City of Manchester Stadium. The first four seasons at the stadium all resulted in mid-table finishes. Former England manager Sven-Göran Eriksson became the club's first manager from overseas when appointed in 2007.[20] After a bright start performances faded in the second half of the season, and Eriksson was sacked in June 2008.[21] Eriksson was replaced by Mark Hughes two days later on 4 June 2008.[22]
By 2008, the club was in a financially precarious position. Thaksin Shinawatra had taken control of the club a year before, but his political travails saw his assets frozen.[23] Then, in August 2008, the club was purchased by the Abu Dhabi United Group. The takeover was immediately followed by a flurry of bids for high-profile players; the club broke the British transfer record by signing Brazilian international Robinho from Real Madrid for £32.5 million.[24] Performances were not a huge improvement on the previous season despite the influx of money however, with the team finishing tenth, although they did well to reach the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup. During the summer of 2009, the club took transfer spending to an unprecedented level, with an outlay of over £100 million on players Gareth Barry, Roque Santa Cruz, Kolo Touré, Emmanuel Adebayor, Carlos Tevez and Joleon Lescott.[25] In December 2009, Mark Hughes - who had been hired shortly before the change in ownership but was originally retained by the new board - was replaced as manager by Roberto Mancini.[26] City finished the season in fifth position in the Premier League, narrowly missing out on a place in the Champions League, and competed in the UEFA Europa League in season 2010–11.
Continued investment in players followed in successive seasons, and results began to match the upturn in player quality. City reached the 2011 FA Cup Final, their first major final in over thirty years, after defeating derby rivals Manchester United in the semi-final,[27] the first time they had knocked their rival out of a cup competition since 1975. They defeated Stoke City 1–0 in the final, securing their fifth FA Cup, the club's first major trophy since winning the 1976 League Cup. In the same week, the club qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time since 1968 with a 1–0 Premier League win over Tottenham Hotspur.[28] On the last day of the 2010–11 season, City passed Arsenal for third place in the Premier League, thereby securing qualification directly into the Champions League group stage. Strong performances continued to follow in the 2011–12 season, with the club beginning the following season in commanding form, including beating Tottenham 5–1 at White Hart Lane and humbling Manchester United by a 6–1 scoreline in United's own stadium. Although the strong form waned half-way through the season, and City at one point fell eight points behind their bitter rivals with only six games left to play, an unprecedented slump by the previous champions allowed the blue side of Manchester to draw back level with two games to go, setting up a thrilling finale to the season with both teams going into the last day equal on points. Despite City only needing a home win against a team in the relegation zone, they still managed to fall a goal behind by the end of normal time, leading some of United's players to finish their game celebrating in the belief that they had won the league. Two goals in injury time - including one scored almost five minutes after normal time had elapsed - resulted in an almost-literal last-minute title victory, City's first in 44 years, and became only the fifth team to win the Premier League since its creation in 1992. In the aftermath that followed, the event was described by media sources from the UK and around the world as the greatest moment in Premier League history.[29][30] The game was only made all the more notable for former player Joey Barton's sending off, where he committed three separate red card-able incidents on three different players in the space of only a few seconds, resulting in a 12-game ban which effectively forced him to leave English football.[31]
After an end to the season which many believed would only spur City on, however, the following season failed to capitalise on any of the gains made in the first two full seasons of Mancini's reign. The transfer window saw virtually no players join the club until the last day of the season, when a last-minute burst of activity saw four different players all join in the space of around 10 hours. The free-flowing football of the previous season was suddenly rare to behold, and while City rarely seemed likely to drop below second in the table, they posed little title challenge all season. In the UEFA Champions League, the club was eliminated at the group stage for a second successive season, in a result which seemed to confirm Mancini's reputation as far better at managing in domestic games than European, while a second FA Cup final in three seasons ended in a 1–0 defeat to relegated Wigan Athletic.[32] The loss resulted in Mancini's dismissal, ostensibly as he had failed to reach his targets for the season[33] but with many in the press suggesting a break-down of relations between Mancini and his players[34] but also between the Italian and his board-level superiors,[35] while a refusal to promote young players was also cited.[36] In his place was appointed the Chilean Manuel Pellegrini,[37] who boasted a far more impressive Champions League record but less of a reputation for trophy-winning.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Manchester City.
Book: Manchester City Football Club
Manchester City F.C. seasons
External links[edit]
Manchester City Official Website - Club history
mcfcstats.com - Website with records of all Manchester City matches and players
References[edit]
Jump up ^ James, Manchester City – The Complete Record, p32
Jump up ^ James, Manchester:The Greatest City, pp 59–65.
Jump up ^ Bevan, Chris (11 May 2003). "Maine Road through the ages". BBC Sport. Retrieved 10 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Ward, The Manchester City Story, pp. 31–33
Jump up ^ James, Gary (22 April 2011). "FA Cup special: Thrills, spills and a cast of thousands at Maine Road". menmedia.co.uk. Archived from the original on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "England 1937/38". league table from RSSSF. Retrieved 29 December 2005.
Jump up ^ Rowlands, Trautmann – The Biography, pp. 178–184
Jump up ^ Ward, The Manchester City Story, p. 57
Jump up ^ Penney, Manchester City – The Mercer-Allison Years, pp. 27–36
Jump up ^ Penney, Manchester City – The Mercer-Allison Years, pp. 37–56
Jump up ^ Gardner, The Manchester City Football Book No. 2, pp. 13–22
Jump up ^ James, Manchester City – The Complete Record, pp. 410–420
Jump up ^ Other results meant United would have been relegated even if they had won or drawn, but neither team knew this at the time.
Jump up ^ Ward, The Manchester City Story, p. 70
Jump up ^ Tossell, Big Mal, Chapter 18
Jump up ^ James, Manchester City – The Complete Record, p. 68
Jump up ^ Buckley, Andy; Burgess, Richard (2000). Blue Moon Rising: The Fall and Rise of Manchester City. Bury: Milo. ISBN 0-9530847-4-4. p. 177
Jump up ^ Manchester City – The Complete Record, p. 265
Jump up ^ "Goater double gives City derby win". RTÉ. Archived from the original on 19 December 2007. Retrieved 28 May 2007.
Jump up ^ "Eriksson named Man City manager". BBC Sport. 6 July 2007. Retrieved 20 July 2007.
Jump up ^ "Eriksson's reign at Man City ends". BBC Sport. 2 June 2008. Retrieved 2 June 2008.
Jump up ^ "Manchester City appoint Mark Hughes". Manchester City FC. 4 June 2008. Retrieved 21 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Winrow, Ian (12 August 2008). "Thaksin Shinawatra's crisis ends Manchester City's European dream". London: Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 4 September 2010.
Jump up ^ "Man City beat Chelsea to Robinho". BBC. 1 September 2008. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
Jump up ^ "Lescott completes Man City move". BBC Sport. 25 August 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2009.
Jump up ^ "Mark Hughes sacked as Man City appoint Mancini manager". BBC Sport. 19 December 2009. Retrieved 19 December 2009.
Jump up ^ "Man City 1 – 0 Man Utd". BBC Sport. 16 April 2011.
Jump up ^ "Man City 1 – 0 Tottenham". BBC Sport. 10 May 2011. Retrieved 10 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "Is Man City's title win really the best Premier League moment ever? See the Top 50 here.. and then tell us yours". The Mirror (UK). 9 August 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Reconstructing The Most Exciting Day In The History Of Soccer (And Maybe Sports, Period)". deadspin.com. 16 May 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Barton blow as bad boy is told he must serve ban at new club Marseille". The Daily Mail. 6 September 2012. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "REVEALED: Bitter dressing room battles that sealed the fate of preening Mancini". The Daily Mail. 17 May 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Club Statement". mcfc.co.uk. 13 May 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Player power: Kompany, Hart and Silva threatened to quit Manchester City if Mancini didn't leave". The Mirror (UK). 18 May 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Ex-City boss Mancini reveals Soriano rift". Manchester Evening News. 4 July 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Roberto Mancini: Man City exit because of poor relationships". BBC Sport. 14 May 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Manuel Pellegrini: Manchester City appoint Chilean as manager". BBC Sport. 12 June 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2013.
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text:
2026 FIFA World Cup
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
2026 FIFA World Cup
FIFA World Cup United 2026
Copa Mundial de la FIFA Unidos 2026
Coupe du Monde de la FIFA - Unis 2026
Bid logo
Tournament details
Host countries
United States
Canada
Mexico
Dates
June–July
Teams
48 (from 6 confederations)
Venue(s)
16 (in 16 host cities)
← 2022
2030 →
The 2026 FIFA World Cup (Spanish: Copa mundial de la FIFA de 2026; French: Coupe du monde de la FIFA de 2026) will be the 23rd FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international men's football championship contested by the national teams of the member associations of FIFA. The tournament will be jointly hosted by 16 cities in three North American countries; 60 matches, including the quarterfinals, semi-finals, and the final, will be hosted by the United States while neighboring Canada and Mexico will each host 10 matches. The tournament will be the first hosted by three nations.[1][2]
The United 2026 bid beat a rival bid by Morocco during a final vote at the 68th FIFA Congress in Moscow. It will be the first World Cup since South Korea/Japan in 2002 that will be hosted by more than one nation. With its past hosting of the 1970 and 1986 tournaments, Mexico will also become the first country to host all or part of three men's World Cups.
The 2026 World Cup will also see the tournament expanded from 32 to 48 teams.[3]
Contents
1 Format
1.1 Slot allocation
1.1.1 Playoff tournament
1.2 Host selection
1.2.1 Voting
2 Qualification
3 Candidate cities and venues
3.1 Canada
3.2 Mexico
3.3 United States
4 Controversies
5 Broadcasting rights
6 References
Format[edit]
Michel Platini, who was then the UEFA president, had suggested in October 2013 an expansion of the tournament to 40 teams,[4][5] an idea that FIFA president Gianni Infantino also suggested in March 2016.[6] A desire to increase the number of participants in the tournament from the previous 32 team format was announced on October 4, 2016. Four expansion options were considered:[7][8][9][10]
Expand to 40 teams (8 groups of 5 teams) – 88 matches
Expand to 40 teams (10 groups of 4 teams) – 76 matches
Expand to 48 teams (opening 32-team playoff round) – 80 matches
Expand to 48 teams (16 groups of 3 teams) – 80 matches
On January 10, 2017, the FIFA Council voted unanimously to expand to a 48-team tournament.[3]
The tournament will open with a group stage consisting of 16 groups of three teams, with the top two teams progressing from each group to a knockout tournament starting with a round of 32 teams.[11] The number of games played overall will increase from 64 to 80, but the number of games played by finalists remains at seven, the same as with 32 teams, but one group match will be replaced by a knockout match. The tournament will also be completed within 32 days, the same as previous 32-team tournaments.[12]
The European Club Association and its member clubs opposed the proposal for expansion, saying that the number of games was already at an "unacceptable" level and they urged the governing body to reconsider its idea of increasing the number of teams that qualify.[13] They contended that it was a decision taken for political reasons because Infantino would thus satisfy his electorate, rather than for sporting reasons.[14] Liga de Fútbol Profesional president Javier Tebas agreed, affirming the unacceptability of the new format. He told Marca that the football industry is maintained thanks to clubs and leagues, not FIFA, and that Infantino did politics because to be elected he promised more countries in the World Cup; he wanted to keep the electoral promises.[15] German national team coach Joachim Löw warned that expansion, as had occurred for Euro 2016, would dilute the value of the world tournament because players have already reached their physical and mental limit.[16] Another criticism of the new format is that with three-team groups, the risk of collusion between the two teams playing in the last round of the group stage will increase compared with four-team groups (where simultaneous kick-offs have been employed). One suggestion by president Infantino is that group matches that end in draws will be decided by penalty shootouts.[17]
Slot allocation[edit]
On March 30, 2017, the Bureau of the FIFA Council (composed of the FIFA president and the presidents of each of the six confederations) proposed a slot allocation for the 2026 FIFA World Cup. The recommendation was submitted for the ratification by the FIFA Council.[18][19]
On May 9, 2017, two days before the 67th FIFA Congress, the FIFA Council approved the slot allocation in a meeting in Manama, Bahrain. It includes an intercontinental playoff tournament involving six teams to decide the last two FIFA World Cup berths.[20]
Confederation
FIFA eligible members
Places in finals
(including hosts)
Percentage of members
with places in finals
Places before 2026
(excluding hosts,
including half-places)
AFC 46 8 17% 4.5
CAF 54 9 17% 5
CONCACAF 35 6 17% 3.5
CONMEBOL 10 6 60% 4.5
OFC 11 1 9% 0.5
UEFA 55 16 29% 13
Playoff – 2 33% –
Total
211
48
23%
31 (+ hosts)
The issue of how to allocate automatic host country qualification given that there are multiple host countries has not yet been resolved and will be decided by the FIFA council.[18][20][21] The United bid anticipated all three host countries being awarded automatic places.[22]
The ratification of slot allocation gives OFC a guaranteed berth in the final tournament for the first time in FIFA World Cup history. The 2026 FIFA World Cup will be the first tournament in which all six confederations have guaranteed berths.
Playoff tournament[edit]
A playoff tournament involving six teams will be held to decide the last two FIFA World Cup berths,[18] consisting of one team per confederation (except for UEFA) and one additional team from the confederation of the host country (i.e. CONCACAF).
Two of the teams will be seeded based on the FIFA World Rankings, and the seeded teams will play for a FIFA World Cup berth against the winners of the first two knockout games involving the four unseeded teams.
The tournament is to be played in the host country(ies) and to be used as a test event for the FIFA World Cup. The existing playoff window of November 2025 has been suggested as a tentative date for the 2026 edition.
Host selection[edit]
Main articles: Morocco 2026 FIFA World Cup bid and United 2026 FIFA World Cup bid
Map of the World with the six confederations
The FIFA Council went back and forth between 2013 and 2017 on limitations within hosting rotation based on the continental confederations. Originally, it was set that bids to be host would not be allowed from countries belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments. It was temporarily changed to only prohibit countries belonging to the confederation that hosted the previous World Cup from bidding to host the following tournament,[23] before the rule was changed back to its prior state of two World Cups. However, the FIFA Council did make an exception to potentially grant eligibility to member associations of the confederation of the second-to-last host of the FIFA World Cup in the event that none of the received bids fulfill the strict technical and financial requirements.[24][25] In March 2017, FIFA president Gianni Infantino confirmed that "Europe (UEFA) and Asia (AFC) are excluded from the bidding following the selection of Russia and Qatar in 2018 and 2022 respectively."[26] Therefore, the 2026 World Cup could be hosted by one of the remaining four confederations: CONCACAF (North America; last hosted in 1994), CAF (Africa; last hosted in 2010), CONMEBOL (South America; last hosted in 2014), or OFC (Oceania, never hosted before), or potentially by UEFA in case no bid from those four met the requirements.
After the selection, the map of world cup hosts stayed like this. Remember that some city locations may be wrong
Co-hosting the FIFA World Cup—which had been banned by FIFA after the 2002 World Cup—was approved for the 2026 World Cup, though not limited to a specific number but instead evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Also by 2026, the FIFA general secretariat, after consultation with the Competitions Committee, will have the power to exclude bidders who do not meet the minimum technical requirements to host the competition.[24]
Canada, Mexico and the United States had all publicly considered bidding for the tournament separately, but the United joint bid was announced on April 10, 2017. The United bid contacted 48 venues in 43 cities (3 venues in 3 cities in Mexico, 8 venues in 6 cities in Canada and 37 venues in 34 cities in the United States). This bid was ultimately cut down to 23 venues in 23 cities (3 in Canada, 3 in Mexico and 17 in the United States; the American venues will be cut down to 10 for a total of 16 venues for the tournament). Morocco announced its bid in August 2017, and had 14 proposed venues in 12 cities.
Voting results:
Allowed to vote
Banned from voting
Voted for United bid
Canada/Mexico/United States
Voted for Moroccan bid
Morocco
Voted for neither
Sanctioned by FIFA
Abstained from voting
Not a FIFA member
Voting[edit]
Main article: 2026 FIFA World Cup bids
The voting took place on June 13, 2018, during FIFA's annual congress in Moscow, and it was reopened to all eligible members.[27] The United bid won receiving 134 valid ballots, while the Morocco bid received 65 valid ballots. Upon the selection, Canada becomes the fifth country to host both men's and women's World Cup—the latter was in 2015, Mexico becomes the first country to host three men's World Cups—previously in 1970 and 1986, and the United States becomes the first country to host both men's and women's World Cup twice each—having hosted the 1994 men's and the 1999 and 2003 women's World Cups.
Qualification[edit]
The 2026 World Cup's qualification process has yet to be decided. The FIFA Council is expected to decide which hosts, if any, will receive automatic qualifications to the tournament.[18][20][21] The United Bid personnel anticipated that all three host countries would be awarded automatic places.[22]
CAF (Africa): 9 slots
AFC (Asia): 8 slots
UEFA (Europe): 16 slots
CONCACAF (North and Central America and Caribbean): 3 slots
OFC (Oceania): 1 slot
CONMEBOL (South America): 6 slots
Playoff: 2 slots
Candidate cities and venues[edit]
During the bidding process, there were 49 venues in 43 cities contacted to be part of the bid. 41 cities with 45 venues responded and submitted to be part of the bid (3 venues in 3 cities in Mexico, 8 venues in 6 cities in Canada and 38 venues in 34 cities in the United States). A first round elimination cut 9 venues and 9 cities, then a second round elimination cut 9 venues in 6 cities, reducing the total number to 23 venues, each in their own city or metropolitan area. The 23 candidate cities and venues will be narrowed down to 16 in 2020 or 2021 (3 in Canada, 3 in Mexico, and 10 in the United States):
A denotes a stadium used for previous men's World Cup tournaments (United States and Mexico only)
A denotes an indoor stadium with a fixed or retractable roof.
Canada[edit]
Montreal[28]
Edmonton[28]
Toronto[28]
Olympic Stadium Commonwealth Stadium BMO Field
Capacity: 61,004
(Bid book capacity: 55,822)
(Expandable to 73,000) Capacity: 56,302
(Bid book capacity: 56,418) Capacity: 30,000
(Expanding to 45,500 for tournament)
Edmonton
Montreal
Toronto
Canadian candidate cities
Mexico[edit]
Mexico City[28]
Monterrey[28]
Guadalajara[28]
Estadio Azteca Estadio BBVA Bancomer Estadio Akron
Capacity: 87,523 Capacity: 53,500
(Bid book capacity: 53,460) Capacity: 46,232
(Bid book capacity: 48,071)
Mexico City
Monterrey
Guadalajara
Mexican candidate cities
United States[edit]
Los Angeles[28]
New York City[28]
Washington, D.C.[28]
Dallas[28]
Rose Bowl
(Pasadena, California) MetLife Stadium
(East Rutherford, New Jersey) FedExField
(Landover, Maryland) AT&T Stadium
(Arlington, Texas)
Capacity: 92,000
(Bid book capacity: 88,432) Capacity: 82,500
(Bid book capacity: 87,157) Capacity: 82,000
(Bid book capacity: 70,249) Capacity: 80,000
(Bid book capacity: 92,967)
(expandable to 100,000)
Kansas City[28]
Denver[28]
Houston[28]
Baltimore[28]
Arrowhead Stadium Broncos Stadium at Mile High NRG Stadium M&T Bank Stadium
Capacity: 76,416
(Bid book capacity: 76,640) Capacity: 76,125
(Bid book capacity: 77,595) Capacity: 71,795
(Bid book capacity: 72,220) Capacity: 71,006
(Bid book capacity: 70,976)
Atlanta[28]
Atlanta
Baltimore
Boston
Cincinnati
Dallas
Denver
Houston
Kansas City
Los Angeles
Miami
Nashville
New York City
Orlando
Philadelphia
San Francisco Bay Area
Seattle
Washington, D.C.
United States candidate cities
Mercedes-Benz Stadium
Capacity: 71,000
(Bid book capacity: 75,000)
(expandable to 83,000)
Philadelphia[28]
Nashville[28]
Seattle[28]
San Francisco Bay Area[28]
Lincoln Financial Field Nissan Stadium CenturyLink Field Levi's Stadium
(Santa Clara, California)
Capacity: 69,176
(Bid book capacity: 69,328) Capacity: 69,143
(Bid book capacity: 69,722)
(expandable to 75,000) Capacity: 69,000
(expandable to 72,000) Capacity: 68,500
(Bid book capacity: 70,909)
(expandable to 75,000)
Boston[28]
Cincinnati[28]
Miami[28]
Orlando[28]
Gillette Stadium
(Foxborough, Massachusetts) Paul Brown Stadium Hard Rock Stadium
(Miami Gardens, Florida) Camping World Stadium
Capacity: 65,878
(Bid book capacity: 70,000) Capacity: 65,515
(Bid book capacity: 67,402) Capacity: 64,767
(Bid book capacity: 67,518) Capacity: 60,219
(Bid book capacity: 65,000)
Controversies[edit]
FIFA president Gianni Infantino criticized the U.S. travel ban on several Muslim-majority nations. Infantino said, "When it comes to FIFA competitions, any team, including the supporters and officials of that team, who qualify for a World Cup need to have access to the country, otherwise there is no World Cup. That is obvious."[29]
However, assurances were later given by the government that there would be no such discrimination.[30][31]
U.S. President Donald Trump threatened the countries that intended to support the Morocco bid to host the 2026 World Cup, tweeting: "The US has put together a STRONG bid w/ Canada & Mexico for the 2026 World Cup. It would be a shame if countries that we always support were to lobby against the U.S. bid. Why should we be supporting these countries when they don’t support us (including at the United Nations)?"[32]
Broadcasting rights[edit]
Canada – CTV, TSN, RDS[33]
United States – Fox, Telemundo[34]
On February 12, 2015, Fox, Telemundo, and Bell Media's rights to the tournament were renewed by FIFA to cover 2026, without accepting any other bids. The New York Times believed that this extension was intended as compensation for the rescheduling of the 2022 World Cup to November-December rather than its traditional June-July scheduling, which falls during the heart of the regular season for several major North American sports leagues (including the National Football League; Fox is a main U.S. rightsholder).[35][36][37]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "World Cup 2026: Canada, US & Mexico joint bid wins right to host tournament". BBC. June 13, 2018. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ Carlise, Jeff (April 10, 2017). "U.S., neighbors launch 2026 World Cup bid". ESPN. Archived from the original on April 11, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Unanimous decision expands FIFA World Cup™ to 48 teams from 2026". FIFA. January 10, 2017. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Michel Platini calls for 40-team World Cup starting with Russia 2018". The Guardian. October 28, 2013. Retrieved January 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ "BBC Sport — Michel Platini's World Cup expansion plan unlikely — Fifa". BBC Sport. October 29, 2013. Archived from the original on April 21, 2014. Retrieved January 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Infantino suggests 40-team World Cup finals". Independent Online. South Africa: IOL. Reuters. March 30, 2016. Archived from the original on December 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ "New Fifa chief backs 48-team World Cup". HeraldLIVE. October 7, 2016. Archived from the original on October 10, 2016. It's an idea, just as the World Cup with 40 teams is already on the table with groups of four or five teams.
Jump up ^ "Fifa's 5 options for a 2026 World Cup of 48, 40 or 32 teams". Yahoo! Sports. Associated Press. December 23, 2016. Archived from the original on January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "FIFA World Cup format proposals" (PDF). FIFA. December 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Federations 'overwhelmingly in favour' of 48-team World Cup – Infantino". ESPN. December 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Fifa approves Infantino's plan to expand World Cup to 48 teams from 2026". The Guardian. Archived from the original on January 10, 2017. Retrieved January 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "World Cup: Gianni Infantino defends tournament expansion to 48 teams". BBC Sport. January 10, 2017. Archived from the original on March 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ "World Cup: Europe's top clubs oppose FIFA's expansion plans". CNN. December 15, 2016. Archived from the original on December 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Críticas a decisión de la FIFA de jugar el Mundial 2026 con 48 selecciones". El Universo (in Spanish). Agence France-Presse. January 10, 2017. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mundial de 48 equipos: durísimas críticas en Europa". Clarín (in Spanish). January 10, 2017. Archived from the original on January 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Low confirms opposition to 40-team World Cup". sbs.com.au. Australian Associated Press. October 2, 2016. Archived from the original on October 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ George Flood (January 10, 2017). "How 48-team World Cup in 2026 will work and what is left to be decided". International Business Times. Archived from the original on January 11, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Bureau of the Council recommends slot allocation for the 2026 FIFA World Cup". FIFA. March 30, 2017. Archived from the original on April 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "World Cup 2026: Fifa reveals allocation for 48-team tournament". BBC. March 30, 2017. Archived from the original on March 30, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "FIFA Council prepares Congress, takes key decisions for the future of the FIFA World Cup™". FIFA. May 9, 2017. Archived from the original on June 18, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "World Cup 2026: Canada, US & Mexico joint bid wins right to host tournament". BBC Sport. June 13, 2018. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "United 2026 bid book" (PDF). Retrieved June 13, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Current allocation of FIFA World Cup™ confederation slots maintained". FIFA. May 30, 2015. Archived from the original on May 30, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "FIFA Council discusses vision for the future of football". FIFA. October 14, 2016. Archived from the original on October 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ "FIFA blocks Europe from hosting 2026 World Cup, lifting Canada's chances". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Associated Press. October 14, 2016. Archived from the original on October 14, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Trump travel ban could prevent United States hosting World Cup". The Guardian. March 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ https://www.theguardian.com/football/live/2018/jun/13/world-cup-2026-vote-fifa-nations-choose-between-north-america-and-morocco-live
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w "United 2026 bid book" (PDF). united2026.com. Retrieved April 30, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Donald Trump travel ban could prevent USA from hosting 2026 World Cup". The Independent. March 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ Davis, Scott. "Anti-Trump sentiments around the world could reportedly cost the US a chance to host the 2026 World Cup". Business Insider.
Jump up ^ "U.S. offers assurances over 2026 World Cup". ESPN. Associated Press. Retrieved May 9, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Donald Trump issues warning to other countries over voting against US 2026 World Cup bid". The Independent. April 27, 2018.
Jump up ^ Sandomir, Richard (February 12, 2015). "Fox and Telemundo to Show World Cup Through 2026 as FIFA Extends Contracts"". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Parker, Ryan. "2026 World Cup TV rights awarded without bids; ESPN 'surprised'" Archived March 3, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.. Los Angeles Times. February 13, 2015.
Jump up ^ "FIFA grants Fox, Telemundo U.S. TV rights for World Cup through 2026". SI.com. February 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Why FIFA Made Deal With Fox for 2026 Cup". The New York Times. February 26, 2015.
Jump up ^ "FIFA extending TV deals through 2026 World Cup with CTV, TSN and RDS". The Globe and Mail. 12 February 2015. Archived from the original on 10 April 2016.
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text:
London Bridge Is Falling Down
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"London Bridge Is Falling Down"
Illustration from Walter Crane's A Baby's Bouquet (c. 1877). Play (help·info)
Nursery rhyme
Published
c. 1744
Songwriter(s)
Unknown
"London Bridge Is Falling Down" (also known as "My Fair Lady" or "London Bridge") is a traditional English nursery rhyme and singing game, which is found in different versions all over the world. It deals with the depredations of London Bridge and attempts, realistic or fanciful, to repair it. It may date back to bridge rhymes and games of the Late Middle Ages, but the earliest records of the rhyme in English are from the seventeenth century. The lyrics were first printed in close to their modern form in the mid-eighteenth century and became popular, particularly in Britain and the United States in the nineteenth century.
The modern melody was first recorded in the late nineteenth century and the game resembles arch games of the Middle Ages, but seems to have taken its modern form in the late nineteenth century. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 502. Several theories have been advanced to explain the meaning of the rhyme and the identity of the "fair lady" of the refrain. The rhyme is one of the best known in the world and has been referenced in a variety of works of literature and popular culture.
Contents
[hide]
1 Lyrics
2 Melody
3 The game
4 Origins
5 Meaning
5.1 Viking attack theory
5.2 Child sacrifice theory
5.3 Age and damage theory
5.4 "Fair lady" identity
6 Legacy
7 See also
8 References
Lyrics[edit]
London Bridge Is Falling Down
Tune for London Bridge Is Falling Down
Problems playing this file? See media help.
London Bridge (1616) by Claes Van Visscher
A prospect of Old London Bridge in 1710.
New London Bridge in the late nineteenth century.
The reconstructed New London Bridge in Lake Havasu City, Arizona.
The modern concrete London Bridge.
There is considerable variation in the lyrics of the rhyme. The most frequently used first verse is:
London Bridge is falling down,
Falling down, falling down.
London Bridge is falling down,
My fair lady.[1]
In the version quoted by Iona and Peter Opie in 1951 the first verse is:
London Bridge is broken down,
Broken down, broken down.
London Bridge is broken down,
My fair lady.[2]
The rhyme is constructed of quatrains in trochaic tetrameter catalectic,[3] (each line made up of four metrical feet of two syllables, with the stress falling on the first syllable in a pair; the last foot in the line missing the unstressed syllable), which is common in nursery rhymes.[4] In its most common form it relies on a double repetition, rather than a rhyming scheme, which is a frequently employed device in children's rhymes and stories.[5] The Roud Folk Song Index, which catalogues folk songs and their variations by number, classifies the song as 502.[6]
Melody[edit]
The melody now most associated with the rhyme.
A melody is recorded for "London Bridge" in an edition of John Playford's The Dancing Master published in 1718, but it differs from the modern tune and no lyrics were given. An issue of Blackwood's Magazine in 1821 noted the rhyme as a being sung to the tune of "Nancy Dawson", now better known as "Nuts in May" and the same tune was given in Richard Thomson's Chronicles of London Bridge (1827).[2]
Another tune was recorded in Samuel Arnold's Juvenile Amusements in 1797. E. F. Rimbault's Nursery Rhymes (1836) has the same first line, but then a different tune.[1] The tune now associated with the rhyme was first recorded in 1879 in the US in A. H. Rosewig's Illustrated National Songs and Games.[7]
The game[edit]
Girls playing "London Bridge" in 1898.
The rhyme is often used in a children's singing game, which exists in a wide variety of forms, with additional verses. Most versions are similar to the actions used in the rhyme "Oranges and Lemons". The most common is that two players hold hands and make an arch with their arms while the others pass through in single file. The "arch" is then lowered at the song's end to "catch" a player. In the United States it is common for two teams of those that have been caught to engage in a tug of war.[2] In England until the nineteenth century the song may have been accompanied by a circle dance, but arch games are known to have been common across late medieval Europe.[1]
Five of nine versions published by Alice Gomme in 1894 included references to a prisoner who has stolen a watch and chain. This may be a late nineteenth century addition from another game called "Hark the Robbers",[8] or "Watch and Chain". This rhyme is sung to the same tune and may be an offshoot of "London Bridge" or the remnant of a distinct game. In one version the first two verses have the lyrics:
Who has stole my watch and chain,
Watch and chain, watch and chain;
Who has stole my watch and chain,
My fair lady?

Off to prison you must go,
You must go, you must go;
Off to prison you must go,
My fair lady.[1]
Origins[edit]
Detail from Philippe Pigouchet's Heures a lusaige de Paris (1497), showing an arch game similar to that known to be associated with the rhyme from the late nineteenth century.
The cover of the third edition of Dumpling and Pudding, which contains Henry Carey's satire "Namby Pamby" (1725), one of the earliest surviving works to refer to the rhyme.
Similar rhymes can be found across Europe, pre-dating the records in England. These include "Knippelsbro Går Op og Ned" from Denmark, "Die Magdeburger Brück" from Germany, "pont chus" from sixteenth-century France; and "Le porte", from fourteenth-century Italy. It is possible that the rhyme was acquired from one of these sources and then adapted to fit the most famous bridge in England.[2]
One of the earliest references to the rhyme in English is in the comedy The London Chaunticleres, printed in 1657, but probably written about 1636,[9] in which the dairy woman Curds states that she had "danced the building of London-Bridge" at the Whitsun Ales in her youth, although no words or actions are mentioned.[1] Widespread familiarity with the rhyme is suggested by its use by Henry Carey in his satire Namby Pamby (1725), as:
Namby Pamby is no Clown,
London Bridge is broken down:
Now he courts the gay Ladee
Dancing o'er The Lady-Lee.[1]
The oldest extant version could be that recalled by a correspondent to the Gentleman's Magazine in 1823, which he claimed to have heard from a woman who was a child in the reign of Charles II (r. 1660–85) and had the lyrics:
London Bridge is broken down,
Dance over the Lady Lea;
London Bridge is broken down,
With a gay lady (la-dee).
The earliest printed English version is in the oldest extant collection of nursery rhymes, Tommy Thumb's Pretty Song Book, printed by John Newbery in London (c. 1744), beginning with the following text:
The first page of the rhyme from an 1815 edition of Tommy Thumb's Pretty Song Book (c. 1744).
James Ritson, whose Gammer Gurton's Garland contains one of the earliest versions of the rhyme (Engraving by James Sayers, published in 1803).
London Bridge
Is Broken down,
Dance over my Lady Lee.
London Bridge
Is Broken down
With a gay Lady.[2]
A version from James Ritson's Gammer Gurton's Garland (1784) is similar but replaces the last verse with:
Build it up with stone so strong,
Dance o'er my Lady lee,
Huzza! 'twill last for ages long,
With a gay lady.[2]
Meaning[edit]
Cnut the Great's men on the London bridge, under attack by Olaf II of Norway from a Victorian children's book published in 1894.
The meaning of the rhyme is not certain. It may simply relate to the many difficulties experienced in bridging the River Thames, but a number of alternative theories have been put forward.
Viking attack theory[edit]
One theory of origin is that the rhyme relates to the supposed destruction of London Bridge by Olaf II of Norway in 1014 (or 1009).[10] The nineteenth-century translation of the Norse saga the Heimskringla, published by Samuel Laing in 1844, included a verse by Óttarr svarti, that looks very similar to the nursery rhyme:
London Bridge is broken down. —
Gold is won, and bright renown.
Shields resounding,
War-horns sounding,
Hild is shouting in the din!
Arrows singing,
Mail-coats ringing —
Odin makes our Olaf win!
However, modern translations make it clear that Laing was using the nursery rhyme as a model for his very free translation, and the reference to London Bridge does not appear at the start of the verse and it is unlikely that this is an earlier version of the nursery rhyme.[11] Some historians have raised the possibility that the attack never took place. However, the original document detailing the attack was written only about 100 years after what would be a famous event in a highly populated area, leading the majority of historians to conclude that the account is at least relatively accurate.[12][13] While it might or might not be the origin of the rhyme, this would make King Olaf's victory the only historically recorded incidence of London Bridge "falling down."
Child sacrifice theory[edit]
Detail of the Great Fire of London 1666 by an unknown painter. The Tower of London is on the right and London Bridge on the left.
The theory that the song refers to the burying, perhaps alive, of children in the foundations of the bridge was first advanced by Alice Bertha Gomme (later Lady Gomme) in The Traditional Games of England, Scotland and Ireland (1894–1898) and perpetuated by the usually sceptical Iona and Peter Opie.[11] This was based around the idea that a bridge would collapse unless the body of a human sacrifice were buried in its foundations and that the watchman is actually a human sacrifice, who will then watch over the bridge. However, there is no archaeological evidence for any human remains in the foundations of London Bridge.[11]
Age and damage theory[edit]
Until the mid-eighteenth century the Old London Bridge was the only crossing on the Thames in London. It was damaged in a major fire in 1633, but in the fire of 1666 this damage acted as a fire break and prevented the flames from further damaging the bridge and crossing to the south side of the Thames. With its 19 narrow arches, it impeded river traffic and flow. Central piers were removed to create a wider navigational span. Widening and the removal of its houses was completed in 1763, but it remained relatively narrow and needed continual and expensive repairs. In the early nineteenth century it was decided to replace the bridge with a new construction. New London Bridge was opened in 1831 and survived until it was replaced in 1972. It was then transported and reconstructed in Lake Havasu City, Arizona.[14]
"Fair lady" identity[edit]
The seal of Matilda of Scotland, one of the candidates for the "fair lady" of the refrain.
Several attempts have been made to identify the 'fair lady', 'lady gay', or lady 'lee/lea' of the rhyme. They include:
Matilda of Scotland (c. 1080–1118) Henry I's consort, who between 1110 and 1118 was responsible for the building of the series of bridges that carried the London-Colchester road across the River Lea and its side streams between Bow and Stratford.[11]
Eleanor of Provence (c. 1223–91), consort of Henry III who had custody of the bridge revenues from 1269 to about 1281.[11]
A member of the Leigh family of Stoneleigh Park, Warwickshire, who have a family story that a human sacrifice lies under the building.[2]
The River Lea, which is a tributary of the Thames.[2]
Legacy[edit]
Since the late nineteenth century the rhyme has been seen as one of the most popular and well known in the English-speaking world.[1] It has also been referenced in both literature and popular culture.
It was used by T. S. Eliot at the climax of his poem The Waste Land (1922).[15]
The final line of the verse was probably the inspiration for the title of Lerner and Loewe's 1956 musical My Fair Lady.[16]
The musical unicorn-in-glass-dome ornament bought by William Foster in the 1993 movie Falling Down plays the tune of the nursery rhyme "London Bridge is falling down" [17]. (So the movie title is evidently derived from this old nursery rhyme.)
The tune is often used by English football supporters as the basis for chants.[18][19]
In 1982 was sampled as "Halloween Montage" by John Carpenter and Alan Howarth feat. Tommy Lee Wallace, for the Film Halloween III: Season of the Witch, who was used as Song of the Silver Shamrock Commercial.[20]
See also[edit]
Children's literature portal
Dong, Dong, Dongdaemun, a similar Korean nursery rhyme.
References[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
London Bridge Is Falling Down
Wikimedia Commons has media related to London Bridge Is Falling Down.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g I. Opie and P. Opie, The Singing Game (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), ISBN 0192840193, pp. 61–72.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h I. Opie and P. Opie, The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951, 2nd edn., 1997), ISBN 0198600887, pp. 270–6.
Jump up ^ A. L. Lazarus, A. MacLeish, and H. W. Smith, Modern English: a Glossary of Literature and Language (London: Grosset & Dunlap, 1971), ISBN 0448021315, p. 194
Jump up ^ L. Turco, The Book of Forms: a Handbook of Poetics (Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England, 3rd edn., 2000), ISBN 1-58465-022-2, pp. 28–30.
Jump up ^ R. B. Browne, Objects of Special Devotion: Fetishism in Popular Culture (Madison, WI: Popular Press, 1982), ISBN 087972191X, p. 274.
Jump up ^ Searchable database, English Folk Song and Dance Society, retrieved 12 July 2012.
Jump up ^ J. J. Fuld, The Book of World-famous Music: Classical, Popular, and Folk (London: Courier Dover, 2000), ISBN 0486414752, p. 337.
Jump up ^ S. Roud, The Lore of the Playground: One Hundred Years of Children's Games, Rhymes & Traditions (New York City, NY: Random House, 2010), ISBN 1905211511, pp. 270–1.
Jump up ^ W. Carew Hazlitt, A Manual for the Collector and Amateur of Old English Plays (London: Ayer Publishing, 1966), ISBN 0833716298, p. 131.
Jump up ^ M. Gibson, The Vikings (London: Wayland, 1972), ISBN 0-85340-164-0, p. 72.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e J. Clark, 'London bridge archaeology of a nursery rhyme', London Archaeologist, 9 (2002), pp. 338–40; for the original Old Norse see Wikisource
Jump up ^ J. R. Hagland and B. Watson, 'Fact or folklore: the Viking attack on London Bridge', London Archaeologist, 12 (2005), pp. 328–33.
Jump up ^ E. Monsen 'Heimskringla or the Lives of the Norse Kings', Dover Publications, Inc[1] (ISBN 978-0-486-26366-3)
Jump up ^ D. J. Brown, Bridges: Three Thousand Years of Defying Nature (St. Paul, MN: MBI, 2001), ISBN 0760312346, pp. 52–55.
Jump up ^ C. Raine, T.S. Eliot (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), ISBN 0195309936, p. 87.
Jump up ^ W. E. Studwell, The National and Religious Song Reader: Patriotic, Traditional, and Sacred Songs from Around the World (London: Routledge, 1996), ISBN 0789000997, p. 63.
Jump up ^ ""Not Economically Viable"". YouTube. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
Jump up ^ G. Robson, No One Likes Us, We Don't Care: The Myth and Reality of Millwall Fandom (Berg, 2000), ISBN 1859733727, p. 65.
Jump up ^ D. Russell, Looking North: Northern England And The National Imagination (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), ISBN 0719051789, p. 276.
Jump up ^ The repeated notes of London Bridge is Falling Down (where the Silver Shamrock song comes from) add to a already disturbing scene.
[hide]
v
t
e
Nursery rhymes (list)
"A-Tisket, A-Tasket"
"Baa, Baa, Black Sheep"
"Did You Ever See a Lassie?"
"Hey Diddle Diddle"
"Hickory Dickory Dock"
"Hot Cross Buns"
"Humpty Dumpty"
"I'm a Little Teapot"
"It's Raining, It's Pouring"
"Jack and Jill"
"Little Bo Peep"
"Little Boy Blue"
"Little Jack Horner"
"Little Miss Muffet"
"Mary Had a Little Lamb"
"Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary"
"Old King Cole"
"Old MacDonald Had a Farm"
"Old Mother Hubbard"
"Old Woman Who Lived in a Shoe"
"Peter Piper"
"Polly Put the Kettle On"
"Poor Mary"
"Pop Goes the Weasel"
"Pussy Cat Pussy Cat"
"Rain Rain Go Away"
"Roses Are Red"
"Rub-a-dub-dub"
"Simple Simon"
"Sticks and Stones"
"The Grand Old Duke of York"
"The Queen of Hearts"
"Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star"
Clapping
"A Sailor Went to Sea"
"Down Down Baby"
"Mary Mack"
"Miss Susie"
"Miss Lucy"
"Pat-a-cake"
"Pretty Little Dutch Girl"
"Pease Porridge Hot"
Counting
"Duck, duck, goose"
"Eeny, meeny, miny, moe"
"One, Two, Buckle My Shoe"
"One, Two, Three, Four, Five"
"This Old Man"
"Tinker, Tailor"
Finger-
plays
"Five Little Monkeys"
"Five Little Ducks"
"Five Little Speckled Frogs"
"Itsy Bitsy Spider"
"Little Robin Redbreast"
"Round and Round the Garden"
"This Little Piggy"
"Two Little Dickie Birds"
Games
"London Bridge"
"The Muffin Man"
"Mulberry Bush"
"Oranges and Lemons"
"Ring a Ring o' Roses"
"The Farmer in the Dell"
Riddle
"As I was going to St Ives"
Lullabies
"Hush, Little Baby"
"Rock-a-bye Baby"
Rounds
"Ding Dong Bell"
"Frère Jacques"
"Kookaburra"
"Row, Row, Row Your Boat"
"Scotland's Burning"
"Three Blind Mice"
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text:
Viral entry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Influenza virus life cycle
Entry
Replication
Latency
Shedding
Viral entry is the earliest stage of infection in the viral life cycle, as the virus comes into contact with the host cell and introduces viral material into the cell. The major steps involved in viral entry are shown below.[1] Despite the variation among viruses, there are several shared generalities concerning viral entry.
Contents
[hide]
1 Reducing cellular proximity
1.1 Overview
1.2 Entry via Membrane Fusion
1.3 Entry via Endocytosis
1.4 Entry via Genetic Injection
2 Aftermath
3 References
Reducing cellular proximity[edit]
A virus floating around an enclosed space with possible host cells faces a large hurdle, the thermodynamics of diffusion. Because neutrally charged objects do not naturally clump around each other, the virus must find a way to move even near a host cell. It does this by attachment -- or adsorption --- onto a susceptible cell; a cell which holds a receptor that the virus can bind to. The receptors on the viral envelope effectively become connected to complementary receptors on the cell membrane. This attachment causes the two membranes to remain in mutual proximity, favoring further interactions between surface proteins. This is also the first requisite that must be satisfied before a cell can become infected. Satisfaction of this requisite makes the cell susceptible. Viruses that exhibit this behavior include many enveloped viruses such as HIV and Herpes simplex virus
This basic idea extends to viruses that do not contain an envelope. Well studied examples are the viruses that infect bacteria, known as bacteriophages or simply phages. Typical phages have long tails used to attach to receptors on the bacterial surface.
Overview[edit]
Prior to entry, a virus must attach to a host cell. Attachment is achieved when specific proteins on the viral capsid or viral envelope bind to specific proteins called to receptor proteins receptors on the cell membrane of the target cell. A virus must now enter the cell, which is covered by a phospholipid bilayer, a cell's natural barrier to the outside world. The process by which this barrier is breached depends upon the virus. Types of entry are:
Membrane Fusion or Hemifusion State: The cell membrane is punctured and made to further connect with the unfolding viral envelope.
Endocytosis: The host cell takes in the viral particle through the process of endocytosis, essentially engulfing the virus like it would a food particle.
Viral Penetration: The viral capsid or genome is injected into the host cell's cytoplasm.
Through the use of green fluorescent protein (GFP), virus entry and infection can be visualized in real-time. Once a virus enters a cell, replication is not immediate and indeed takes some time (seconds to hours).[2][3]
Entry via Membrane Fusion[edit]
Viral entry via membrane fusion.
The most well-known example is through membrane fusion. In viruses with a viral envelope, viral receptors attach to the receptors on the surface of the cell and secondary receptors may be present to initiate the puncture of the membrane or fusion with the host cell. Following attachment, the viral envelope fuses with the host cell membrane, emptying the now-bare virus into the cell. In essence, the virus's envelope "blends" with the host cell membrane, releasing its contents into the cell. Obviously, this can only be done with viruses that have an envelope (examples of such enveloped viruses include HIV and herpes simplex virus.[4])
Entry via Endocytosis[edit]
Viral entry via endocytosis.
Viruses with no viral envelope enter the cell through endocytosis; they are ingested by the host cell through the cell membrane. In essence, the virus tricks the cell into thinking that the virus knocking at the door is nothing more than nutrition or harmless goods. A cell, which naturally takes in resources from the environment by attaching goods onto surface receptors and bringing them into the cell, will engulf the virus. Once inside the cell, the virus must now break out of the vesicle by which it was taken up in order to gain access to the cytoplasm. Examples include the poliovirus, Hepatitis C virus[5] and Foot-and-mouth disease virus.[6]
Many enveloped viruses also enter the cell through endocytosis. Entry via the endosome guarantees low pH and exposure to proteases which are needed to open the viral capsid and release the genetic material inside. Further, endosomes transport the virus through the cell and ensure that no trace of the virus is left on the surface, which could be a substrate for immune recognition.[7]
Entry via Genetic Injection[edit]
A third and more specific example, is by simply attaching to the surface of the cell via receptors on the cell, and injecting only its genome into the cell, leaving the rest of the virus on the surface. This is restricted to viruses in which only the gene is required for infection of a cell (most positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses because they can be immediately translated) and further restricted to viruses that actually exhibit this behavior. The best studied example includes the bacteriophages; for example, when the tail fibers of the T2 phage land on a cell, its central sheath pierces the cell membrane and the phage injects DNA from the head capsid directly into the cell.[8]
Aftermath[edit]
Once a virus is in a cell, it will activate formation of proteins (either by itself or using the host) to gain full control of the host cell, if it is able to. Control mechanisms include the suppression of intrinsic cell defenses, suppression of cell signaling and suppression of host cellular transcription and translation. Often, it is these cytotoxic effects that lead to the death and decline of a cell infected by a virus.
A cell is classified as susceptible to a virus if the virus is able to enter the cell. After the introduction of the viral particle, unpacking of the contents (viral proteins in the tegument and the viral genome via some form of nucleic acid) occurs as preparation of the next stage of viral infection: viral replication.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Subramanian RP, Geraghty RJ (20 Feb 2007). "Herpes simplex virus type 1 mediates fusion through a hemifusion intermediate by sequential activity of glycoproteins D, H, L, and B". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA. 104 (8): 2903–8. PMC 1815279  . PMID 17299053. doi:10.1073/pnas.0608374104.
Jump up ^ Lakadamyali, Melike; Michael J. Rust; Hazen P. Babcock; Xiaowei Zhuang (2003). "Visualizing infection of individual influenza viruses". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (16): 9280–9285. PMC 170909  . PMID 12883000. doi:10.1073/pnas.0832269100. Retrieved 2009-05-21.
Jump up ^ Joo, K-I; P Wang (2008-05-15). "Visualization of Targeted Transduction by Engineered Lentiviral Vectors". Gene Ther. 15 (20): 1384–1396. ISSN 0969-7128. PMC 2575058  . PMID 18480844. doi:10.1038/gt.2008.87.
Jump up ^ Campadelli-Fiume G, Amasio M, Avitabile E, Cerretani A, Forghieri C, Gianni T, Menotti L. "The multipartite system that mediates entry of herpes simplex virus into the cell." Rev Med Virol. 2007 Sep-Oct;17(5):313-26. Review.
Jump up ^ Helle F, Dubuisson J. "Hepatitis C virus entry into host cells." Cell Mol Life Sci. 2007 Oct 4
Jump up ^ N.J. Dimmock et al. "Introduction to Modern Virology, 6th edition." Blackwell Publishing, 2007.
Jump up ^ Howley, Peter M; Knipe, David M "Fields Virology" Lippincott Williams & Williams 2013
Jump up ^ Sebestyén MG, Budker VG, Budker T, Subbotin VM, Zhang G, Monahan SD, Lewis DL, Wong SC, Hagstrom JE, Wolff JA. "Mechanism of plasmid delivery by hydrodynamic tail vein injection. I. Hepatocyte uptake of various molecules." J Gene Med. 2006 Jul;8(7):852-73.
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Microbiology: Virus
Components
Viral envelope
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Viral life cycle
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