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Ascot Racecourse
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For other uses, see Ascot Racecourse (disambiguation).
For the private housing development named Royal Ascot in Hong Kong, see Royal Ascot, Hong Kong.
Ascot Racecourse

Location
Ascot, Berkshire, England
Coordinates
51°24′58″N 0°40′37″W / 51.41611°N 0.67694°W / 51.41611; -0.67694
Owned by
Ascot Racecourse Ltd
Date opened
11 August 1711
Screened on
Racing UK
Course type
Flat
National Hunt
Notable races
The Gold Cup
Official website
Ascot Racecourse ("ascot" pronounced /ˈæskət/, often incorrectly pronounced /ˈæskɒt/) is a British racecourse, located in Ascot, Berkshire, England, which is used for thoroughbred horse racing. It is one of the leading racecourses in the United Kingdom, hosting 13 of Britain's 36 annual Group 1 horse races.[citation needed]
The course, owned by Ascot Racecourse Ltd,[1] enjoys close associations with the British Royal Family, being approximately 6 miles (9.7 km) from Windsor Castle.[citation needed]
Ascot currently stages 26 days of racing over the course of the year, comprising 18 flat meetings held between the months of May and October inclusive. It also stages important jump racing throughout the winter months. The Royal Meeting held each June, remains a major draw, its highlight being The Gold Cup. The most prestigious race is the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes run over the course in July.[citation needed]
Contents
1 History
2 Royal Ascot
3 British Champions Day
4 Notable races
5 Shergar Cup
6 Royal Ascot Cricket Club and Ascot United
7 In popular culture
8 Gallery
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
The Royal Enclosure on Cup Day, 1907
Ascot Racecourse was founded in 1711 by Queen Anne. The first race, "Her Majesty's Plate", with a purse of 100 guineas, was held on 11 August 1711. Seven horses competed. This first race comprised three separate four-mile (6437 m) heats. Handicap races started at Ascot, the first one being the Oatlands Handicap in 1791.[2]
In 1813 Parliament passed an Act to ensure that the grounds would remain a public racecourse. A new grandstand was opened in 1839 at a cost of £10000.[3] A further Act of Parliament of 1913 (Ascot Authority Act 1913 c.lxxxiv) establishing the Ascot Authority which entity manages the racecourse to this day. From its creation until 1945 the only racing that took place at Ascot was the Royal Meeting, a four-day event. Since that date, more fixtures have been introduced to the grounds, notably National Hunt racing in 1965. The National Hunt course was established using turf from Hurst Park Racecourse, which closed in 1962.[4]
Ascot's pre-2006 grandstand
Ascot racecourse closed for a period of twenty months on 26 September 2004, for a £185 million redevelopment funded by Allied Irish Bank and designed by Populous and Buro Happold. As owner of the Ascot estate, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth reopened the racecourse on Tuesday 20 June 2006.
Upon re-opening the new grandstand attracted criticism for failing to provide sufficiently raised viewing for patrons to watch the racing, and devoting too much space to restaurants, bars and corporate hospitality facilities. At the end of 2006 a £10 million programme of further alterations was announced to improve the viewing from lower levels of the grandstand using an innovative steel composite product ("SPS" sandwich plate system) to reprofile the existing concrete terraces. However, the upper levels provide far less accommodation for the everyday racegoer than was present in the former stand.[5]
In March 2009 it was confirmed that the main sponsors of Ascot, William Hill would be ceasing their sponsorship deal, citing that the decision by the BBC to reduce live race coverage as the main reason in its decision making process.[6]
In July 2009 Ascot Racecourse also hosted the third round of the UAE President's Cup.[7]
Royal Ascot[edit]
The Royal Ascot is the centrepiece of Ascot's year and dates back to 1711 when it was founded by Queen Anne. Every year Royal Ascot is attended by Elizabeth II and other members of the British Royal Family such as The Prince of Wales, arriving each day in a horse-drawn carriage with the Royal procession taking place at the start of each race day and the raising of the Queen's Royal Standard. The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge also attend, as well as the Earl and Countess of Wessex [8]. It is a major event in the British social calendar, and press coverage of the attendees and what they are wearing often exceeds coverage of the actual racing. There are three enclosures attended by guests on Royal Ascot week. In 2005, whilst Ascot was closed for redevelopment, the Royal meeting was held at York Racecourse
The Royal carriages depart after The Queen's arrival at the races
The Royal Enclosure is the most prestigious of the three enclosures, with recent visits from the Queen and Royal Family members. Access to the Royal Enclosure is restricted, with high security on the day. First-time applicants must apply to the Royal Enclosure Office and gain membership from someone who has attended the enclosure for at least four years. For existing badgeholders, an invitation is sent out by Her Majesty's Representative[9] to request badges. The badgeholder's name is written onto the badge and can be used only by that person; the colours of the badges vary each day for one-day applicants. Those in the Royal Enclosure have the options of fine dining and hospitality, and a selection of bars. The dress code is strictly enforced. For women, only a day dress with a hat is acceptable, with rules applying to the length and style of the dress. In addition, women must not show bare midriffs or shoulders. For men, black or grey morning dress with top hat is required.
Over 300,000 people make the annual visit to Berkshire during Royal Ascot week, making this Europe’s best-attended race meeting. There are eighteen group races on offer, with at least one Group One event on each of the five days. The Gold Cup is on Ladies' Day on the Thursday.
In 2012, the Golden Jubilee Stakes was renamed the Diamond Jubilee Stakes, to commemorate Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee.[10]
In 2013, the Windsor Forest Stakes was renamed the Duke of Cambridge Stakes, with the Queen’s consent, recognising the new title given to Prince William.[11]
In 2015, the newly created Commonwealth Cup became the eighth Group One race at Royal Ascot, replacing the Buckingham Palace Stakes.[12]
In 2016, total prize money across the five days of Royal Ascot was £6,580,000.[13] This was £1,000,000 more than the prize money on offer at the meeting in 2015, representing an overall increase of 18%. Races with notable prize money increases for 2016 included the Prince of Wales's Stakes (£750,000 from £525,000), the Queen Anne Stakes (£600,000 from £375,000) and the Diamond Jubilee Stakes (£600,000 from £525,000), while the other Group One races all had their prize money increased to £400,000. The Gold Cup in 2016 was run as "The Gold Cup in Honour of The Queen's 90th Birthday".
Month
DOW
Race Name
Grade
Distance
Age/Sex
June Tuesday Queen Anne Stakes Group 1 1m 4yo +
June Tuesday Coventry Stakes Group 2 6f 2yo only
June Tuesday King's Stand Stakes Group 1 5f 3yo +
June Tuesday St James's Palace Stakes Group 1 1m 3yo C only
June Tuesday Ascot Stakes Handicap 2m 4f 4yo +
June Tuesday Windsor Castle Stakes Listed 5f 2yo only
June Wednesday Jersey Stakes Group 3 7f 3yo only
June Wednesday Queen Mary Stakes Group 2 5f 2yo F only
June Wednesday Duke of Cambridge Stakes Group 2 1m 4yo + FM
June Wednesday Prince of Wales's Stakes Group 1 1m 2f 4yo +
June Wednesday Royal Hunt Cup Handicap 1m 3yo +
June Wednesday Sandringham Stakes Handicap 1m 3yo F only
June Thursday Norfolk Stakes Group 2 5f 2yo only
June Thursday Hampton Court Stakes Group 3 1m 2f 3yo only
June Thursday Ribblesdale Stakes Group 2 1m 4f 3yo F only
June Thursday Gold Cup Group 1 2m 4f 4yo +
June Thursday Britannia Stakes Handicap 1m 3yo CG only
June Thursday King George V Stakes Handicap 1m 4f 3yo only
June Friday Albany Stakes Group 3 6f 2yo F only
June Friday King Edward VII Stakes Group 2 1m 4f 3yo CG only
June Friday Commonwealth Cup Group 1 6f 3yo only
June Friday Coronation Stakes Group 1 1m 3yo F only
June Friday Duke of Edinburgh Stakes Handicap 1m 4f 3yo +
June Friday Queen's Vase Group 2 1m 6f 3yo only
June Saturday Chesham Stakes Listed 7f 2yo only
June Saturday Wolferton Stakes Handicap 1m 2f 4yo +
June Saturday Hardwicke Stakes Group 2 1m 4f 4yo +
June Saturday Diamond Jubilee Stakes Group 1 6f 4yo +
June Saturday Wokingham Stakes Handicap 6f 3yo +
June Saturday Queen Alexandra Stakes Conditions 2m 5f 159y 4yo +
British Champions Day[edit]
Main article: British Champions Day
Since 2011, Ascot has staged British Champions Day, the climax to the British Champions Series, an event designed to increase the sport's public profile and to rival Arc weekend and the Breeders' Cup in terms of attracting the best horses.[14] The first event was staged on 15 October 2011 and was generally regarded as a success, though overshadowed by controversy regarding new regulations on the use of the whip. Winners on British Champions Day have included Frankel, who won the Queen Elizabeth II Stakes in 2011, and in the final race of his unbeaten career, the Champion Stakes in 2012.
Family day at Ascot Racecourse
Month
DOW
Race Name
Grade
Distance
Age/Sex
October Saturday British Champions Sprint Stakes Group 1 6f 3yo +
October Saturday British Champions Long Distance Cup Group 2 2m 3yo +
October Saturday British Champions Fillies' and Mares' Stakes Group 1 1m 4f 3yo + fm
October Saturday Queen Elizabeth II Stakes Group 1 1m 3yo +
October Saturday Champion Stakes Group 1 1m 2f 3yo +
Notable races[edit]
Month
DOW
Race Name
Type
Grade
Distance
Age/Sex
January Saturday Holloway's Hurdle Hurdle Grade 2 2m 3f 110y 4yo +
January Saturday Clarence House Chase Chase Grade 1 2m 1f 5yo +
January Saturday Warfield Mares' Hurdle Hurdle Grade 2 3m 4yo + m
February Saturday Reynoldstown Novices' Chase Chase Grade 2 3m 5yo +
February Saturday Ascot Chase Chase Grade 1 2m 5f 110y 5yo +
February Saturday Weatherbys Chase Chase Handicap 3m 5yo +
April Wednesday Sagaro Stakes Flat Group 3 2m 4yo +
April Wednesday Pavilion Stakes Flat Group 3 6f 3yo only
April Wednesday Paradise Stakes Flat Listed 1m 4yo +
May Saturday Victoria Cup Flat Handicap 7f 4yo +
July Saturday Summer Mile Stakes Flat Group 2 1m 4yo +
July Saturday Princess Margaret Stakes Flat Group 3 6f 2yo only f
July Saturday King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes Flat Group 1 1m 4f 3yo +
July Saturday Pat Eddery Stakes Flat Listed 7f 2yo only
October Friday Noel Murless Stakes Flat Listed 1m 6f 3yo
October Saturday Bengough Stakes Flat Group 3 6f 3yo +
October Saturday Cumberland Lodge Stakes Flat Group 3 1m 4f 3yo +
October Saturday Cornwallis Stakes Flat Group 3 5f 2yo only
Oct / Nov Saturday Sodexo Gold Cup Chase Grade 3 3m 4yo +
November Saturday Ascot Hurdle Hurdle Grade 2 2m 3f 110y 4yo +
November Saturday Amlin 1965 Chase Chase Grade 2 2m 3f 4yo +
December Friday Championship Standard Open NH Flat Race N H Flat Listed 2m 4yo-6yo
December Friday Noel Novices' Chase Chase Grade 2 2m 3f 4yo +
December Friday Kennel Gate Novices' Hurdle Hurdle Grade 2 2m 4yo +
December Saturday Racing Welfare Handicap Hurdle Hurdle Grade 3 2m 4yo +
December Saturday Ascot Silver Cup Chase Handicap 3m 4yo +
December Saturday Long Walk Hurdle Hurdle Grade 1 3m 1f 4yo +
Shergar Cup[edit]
The Shergar Cup is an annual horse racing event held at Ascot, usually during early August. The event is named in honour of Shergar, the horse that won the 1981 Epsom Derby, and was originally sponsored by Shergar's owner, the Aga Khan. The event is currently sponsored by Dubai Duty Free.
Royal Ascot Cricket Club and Ascot United[edit]
The racecourse is also home to Royal Ascot Cricket Club, which was founded in 1897. The club's ground is situated in the middle of the racecourse. Ascot United F.C. is located towards the eastern side of the site.[15] A new clubhouse, stand and floodlighting have recently been erected.
In popular culture[edit]
The racecourse is the setting for a scene in the musical My Fair Lady and the subject for the song "Ascot Gavotte".
The racecourse was used as a filming location in the James Bond film A View to a Kill (1985), where Bond (played for the last time by Roger Moore) was beginning his mission to defeat the villainous Max Zorin (Christopher Walken), whose horse was racing there.
The James Bond production crew returned to Ascot Racecourse for Skyfall (2012), where it stood in for Shanghai Pudong International Airport.[16]
Gallery[edit]
The stand, completed in 2006 and designed by architects Populous and engineers Buro Happold and built by Laing O'Rourke
Main straight
Front entrance to the 2006 Ascot Stands
The redeveloped stand
The redeveloped stand from inside
Dress & conduct rules for racegoers at Ascot – see at full size.
AscotStand from north west
References[edit]
Horse racing portal
Jump up ^ "About Ascot Racecourse".
Jump up ^ Barrett, Norman, ed. (1995). The Daily Telegraph Chronicle of Horse Racing. Enfield, Middlesex: Guinness Publishing. p. 10.
Jump up ^ Whyte, James Christie (1840). History of the British turf, from the earliest period to the present day, Volume I. London: H. Colburn. pp. 199–200. Retrieved 1 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Dennis, Steve (24 November 2017). "Desert Orchid thriller the highlight of 50 years of jump racing at Ascot". Racing Post.
Jump up ^ www.ascot.co.uk
Jump up ^ "Hills to end backing for jump racing at Ascot". Racing Post. 15 March 2009. Retrieved 29 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Ascot Racecourse hosts UAE President's cup in England Archived 6 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine., wam.org.ae, 26 July 2009, accessed 6 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "Royal Family enjoy the sun on day one at Ascot". BBC. Retrieved 6 Feb 2018.
Jump up ^ Mosley, Charles (ed.) (2003). Burke's Peerage & Baronetage, 107th edn. London: Burke's Peerage & Gentry Ltd. p. 1332 (ERNE, E). ISBN 0-9711966-2-1.
Jump up ^ "Royal Ascot prepares for star names at Diamond Jubilee festival". BBC. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Prize money for Royal Ascot hits £5 million". Racing Post. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "New Group One sprint at Royal Ascot to be named the Commonwealth Cup". ascot.co.uk. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "£1m boost to Royal Ascot prize fund". ascot.co.uk. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "2011 British Champions Series unveiled". Jockey Club. Retrieved 18 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ascot United". Retrieved 23 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Mathieson,, Amy. "Ascot racecourse to star in James Bond film". Horse and Hound. Archived from the original on 12 October 2012. Retrieved 30 November 2012.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ascot Racecourse.
Main Ascot website
Royal Ascot website
BBC Royal Ascot interactive guide
Course guide on GG.COM
Royal Ascot Guide
Royal Ascot Bloodline Interactive Tool
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Flag of Wales
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Wales
Use
National flag
Proportion
3:5
Adopted
1959 (current version)
Design
Per fess Argent and Vert, a dragon passant Gules
The flag of Wales (Welsh: Baner Cymru or Y Ddraig Goch, meaning the red dragon) consists of a red dragon passant on a green and white field. As with many heraldic charges, the exact representation of the dragon is not standardised and many renderings exist.
The flag incorporates the red dragon of Cadwaladr, King of Gwynedd, along with the Tudor colours of green and white. It was used by Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, after which it was carried in state to St Paul's Cathedral. The red dragon was then included as a supporter of the Tudor royal arms to signify their Welsh descent. It was officially recognised as the Welsh national flag in 1959. Several cities include a dragon in their flag design, including Cardiff, the Welsh capital, and the Welsh-founded city of Puerto Madryn in Argentina.
Contents
[hide]
1 Red dragon of Wales
1.1 Historic use
1.2 Modern use
2 Flag of Saint David
3 In popular culture
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 External links
Red dragon of Wales[edit]
Historic use[edit]
15th-century image illustrating the story of Vortigern and the red and white dragons.
The flag was granted official status in 1959, but the red dragon itself has been associated with Wales for centuries, though the origin of the adoption of the dragon symbol is now lost in history and myth. A possible theory is that the Romans brought the emblem to what is now Wales during their occupation of Britain in the form of the Draco standards borne by the Roman cavalry, itself inspired by the symbols of the Dacians or Parthians.[1] The Olm (Proteus anguinus) of Slovenia bear a similarity in miniature to the Draco standard and they are referred to as baby cave dragons by the locals. The green and white stripes of the flag were additions by the House of Tudor, the Welsh dynasty that held the English throne from 1485 to 1603. Green and white are also the colours of the leek, another national emblem of Wales.
The oldest known use of the dragon to represent Wales is from the Historia Brittonum,[2] written around 830; the text describes a struggle between two serpents deep underground, which prevents King Vortigern from building a stronghold. This story was later adapted into a prophecy made by the wizard Myrddin (or Merlin) of a long fight between a red dragon and a white dragon. According to the prophecy, the white dragon, representing the Saxons, would at first dominate but eventually the red dragon, symbolising the Britons, would be victorious and recapture Lloegr. According to the legend, this victory would be brought about by Y Mab Darogan. This is believed to represent the conflict in the 5th and 6th centuries between the Britons and the invading Saxons. A version of the tale also appears as part of the poem 'Cyfranc Lludd a Llefelys' in the Mabinogion.[2] One twelfth-century account of this is Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, where he states Merlin's prophecies.
The red dragon is popularly believed to have been the battle standard of Arthur[2] and other ancient Celtic/Romano-British leaders. There is considerable evidence to suggest that during this period the dragon was a symbol of the Romano-British monarchy and possibly Romano-British society more broadly, including some from Anglo-Saxon poetry.[3] The dragon is particularly associated in Welsh poetry with Cadwaladr king of Gwynedd from c.655 to 682. The Dragons of Arthur and Cadwaladr were possibly based on the draco standards carried by Roman cavalry units stationed in Britain. The Draco originated with the Sarmatians, a unit of whom were stationed in Ribchester from the 2nd to 4th centuries.[citation needed]
Despite the close link throughout early Welsh history, the dragon was not used exclusively as a symbol for Wales during this period, and it was used throughout Britain as a symbol of authority. In 1138, it was adopted by the Scottish as a royal standard, and Richard I took a dragon standard to the Third Crusade in 1191. Henry III fought under the dragon at the Battle of Lewes and it was used later by Edward III at the Battle of Crécy.
c.1400 – c.1416 Y Ddraig Aur, royal standard of Owain Glyndŵr
In 1400, Owain Glyndŵr raised the dragon standard during his revolts against the occupation of Wales by the English crown. Owain's banner known as Y Ddraig Aur or "The Golden Dragon" was raised over Caernarfon during the Battle of Tuthill in 1401 against the English. The flag has ancient origins, Glyndŵr chose to fly the standard of a Golden dragon on a white background, the traditional standard.[4][5][6] Fifteen years later the English crown, under the rule of Henry V, used the red dragon standard itself during the Battle of Agincourt. The English forces during the battle utilised Welsh longbowmen, along with their own archers. In 1485, the most significant link between the symbol of the red dragon and Wales occurred when Henry Tudor flew the red dragon of Cadwaladr during his invasion of England.[7] Henry was of Welsh descent and after leaving France with an army of 2000, landed at Milford Haven on 7 August. He made capital of his Welsh ancestry in gathering support and gaining safe passage through Wales. Henry met and fought Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth, and in victory took the English throne. After the battle, Henry carried the red dragon standard in state to St Paul's Cathedral, and later the Tudor livery of green and white was added to the flag.[8]
Modern use[edit]
The 1953 Royal Badge of Wales
In 1807, the red dragon on a green mount was adopted as the Royal Badge of Wales,[2] and on 11 March 1953[9] the motto Y Ddraig goch ddyry cychwyn ('The red dragon gives impetus' or 'The red dragon leads the way') was added, a line from the poem by Deio ab Ieuan Du. The badge was the basis of a flag of Wales[10] in which it was placed on a horizontal white and green bicolour. However, the flag was the subject of derision, both because the tail pointed downwards and because the motto was a potential double entendre, used in the original poem to allude to the penis of a copulating bull.[2][11][12] In 1959, government use of this flag was dropped in favour of the current flag[13][14] at the urging of the Gorsedd of Bards.[15] Today the flag can be seen flying from the Senedd in Cardiff, and from the Wales Office in Whitehall, London each day.
Flag of 1807–1953.
Flag of 1953–59, depicting the Royal Badge of Wales after its augmentation of honour.
Flag of Puerto Madryn and Y Wladfa.
The red dragon on the tailfin of an Air Wales ATR 42 aircraft.
Flag of Saint David[edit]
Flag of Saint David
The flag of Saint David, a yellow cross on a black field, is used in the emblem of the Diocese of St David's and is flown on St David's Day. In recent times the flag has been adopted as a symbol of Welsh nationalism.[citation needed] Some organisations, such as the Christian Party use this flag instead of Y Ddraig Goch, citing their dissatisfaction with the current flag.[16]
However, traditionally, in both Protestant and Catholic traditions, crossed emblems have only been allocated to those martyred in the name of Christianity. Examples are saints such as St Andrew (Scotland), St George (England), St Denis (France), and St Alban (England/Hertfordshire).
In popular culture[edit]
The flag of Wales has been used by those in the arts, sport and business to show a sense of patriotism or recognition with Wales. During the 1999 Rugby World Cup, which was hosted in Wales, the opening ceremony used the motif of the dragon several times, though most memorably, the flag was worn on a dress by Welsh singer Shirley Bassey.[17]
Other musicians to have used the flag, include Nicky Wire of Manic Street Preachers, who will often drape the Welsh flag over amps when playing live,[18] and Cerys Matthews who has worn the image on her clothes,[19] while classical singer Katherine Jenkins has taken the flag on stage during live performances.[20][21]
Roger Waters' album Radio K.A.O.S. follows the story of a disabled Welsh man, grounded in California, who regularly expresses nostalgia and a hope for return to his home country. The chorus of "Sunset Strip", the album's fifth track, uses the imagery of the Welsh flag to further emphasise this:
And I sit in the canyon with my back to the sea
There's a blood-red dragon on a field of green
Calling me back, back to the Black Hills again
See also[edit]
Wales portal
List of flags of the United Kingdom
List of Welsh flags
National symbols of Wales
Flags of Europe
Olm
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Weston, John. "Data Wales : The Welsh Flag and other Welsh symbols".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Davies (2008), pg 732.
Jump up ^ Davis, Dai. The Origin and Meaning of the Welsh Dragon. Welsh Flag. Retrieved 8 August 2012
Jump up ^ Hackett, Martin (30 July 2014). "Lost Battlefields of Wales". Amberley Publishing Limited – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Davies, John (25 January 2007). "A History of Wales". Penguin Adult – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Breverton, Terry (15 May 2009). "Owain Glyndwr: The Story of the Last Prince of Wales". Amberley Publishing Limited – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ The dragon and war BBC Wales history
Jump up ^ Perrin, W.G. (1922). British Flags. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Origin of Y Ddraig Goch Archived 11 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Flags of the World
Jump up ^ "Wales: History of Welsh Flags".
Jump up ^ Eriksen, Thomas; Jenkins, Richard (2007). Flag, nation and symbolism in Europe and America (1. publ. ed.). London: Routledge. p. 80. ISBN 9780415444040.
Jump up ^ Black, Ronald (1992). "Studies in honour of James Carney (1914–89)". Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies (23): 109.
Jump up ^ Barraclough, EMC. Flags of the World, 1965.
Jump up ^ "WELSH FLAG (Hansard, 23 February 1959)".
Jump up ^ Lofmark, C. A History of the Red Dragon Archived 7 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Christian group wants 'evil' Welsh flag changed". Walesonline.co.uk. 3 March 2007. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
Jump up ^ World Cup kicks off in style BBC News, 1 October 1999
Jump up ^ Manic Street Preachers - Nicky Wire BBC, Wales Music
Jump up ^ Pop music: The changing face of Brit guitar rock The Independent, 27 March 1998
Jump up ^ Katherine Jenkins threatens to spill out of dress on stage as boyfriend Gethin Jones looks on Archived 5 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine. London Evening Standard, 25 August 2008
Jump up ^ Katherine shines at last night of the Proms Daily Express, 14 September 2009
Bibliography[edit]
Davies, John; Jenkins, Nigel (2008). The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0-7083-1953-6.
Eriksen, Thomas; Jenkins, Richard (2007). Flag, nation and symbolism in Europe and America (1. publ. ed.). London: Routledge. p. 80. ISBN 9780415444040.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flags of Wales.
HiJack, an article addressing the question of why Wales has no explicit symbolic representation on the Union Flag.
Wales at Flags of the World
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Granite
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Granite (disambiguation).
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Granite
Igneous rock
Granite containing potassium feldspar, plagioclase feldspar, quartz, and biotite and/or amphibole
Composition
Potassium feldspar, plagioclase feldspar, and quartz; differing amounts of muscovite, biotite, and hornblende-type amphiboles
Granite ( /ˈɡrænɪt/) is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be predominantly white, pink, or gray in color, depending on their mineralogy. The word "granite" comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the coarse-grained structure of such a holocrystalline rock. Strictly speaking, granite is an igneous rock with between 20% and 60% quartz by volume, and at least 35% of the total feldspar consisting of alkali feldspar, although commonly the term "granite" is used to refer to a wider range of coarse grained igneous rocks containing quartz and feldspar.
The term "granitic" means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of intrusive igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition and origin. These rocks mainly consist of feldspar, quartz, mica, and amphibole minerals, which form an interlocking, somewhat equigranular matrix of feldspar and quartz with scattered darker biotite mica and amphibole (often hornblende) peppering the lighter color minerals. Occasionally some individual crystals (phenocrysts) are larger than the groundmass, in which case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a porphyritic texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks. Petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids.[1] The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite.[2]
Granite is nearly always massive (lacking any internal structures), hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3 (165.4 - 171.7 lb/ft3)[3], its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 • 1019 Pa·s.[4]
The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C (2219–2300 °F);[5] it is strongly reduced in the presence of water, down to 650 °C at a few kBar pressure.[6]
Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Mineralogy
1.1 Chemical composition
2 Occurrence
3 Origin
3.1 Geochemical origins
3.2 Chappell & White classification system
3.3 Granitization
4 Ascent and emplacement
5 Weathering
6 Natural radiation
7 Industry
8 Uses
8.1 Antiquity
8.2 Modern
8.2.1 Sculpture and memorials
8.2.2 Buildings
8.2.3 Engineering
8.2.4 Other uses
9 Rock climbing
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Mineralogy[edit]
QAPF diagram for classification of plutonic rocks
Mineral assemblage of igneous rocks
Granite is classified according to the QAPF diagram for coarse grained plutonic rocks and is named according to the percentage of quartz, alkali feldspar (orthoclase, sanidine, or microcline) and plagioclase feldspar on the A-Q-P half of the diagram. True granite (according to modern petrologic convention) contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite. When a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite; pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite. Two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites.
Chemical composition[edit]
A worldwide average of the chemical composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses:[7]
SiO2 72.04% (silica) 72.04
Al2O3 14.42% (alumina) 14.42
K2O 4.12% 4.12
Na2O 3.69% 3.69
CaO 1.82% 1.82
FeO 1.68% 1.68
Fe2O3 1.22% 1.22
MgO 0.71% 0.71
TiO2 0.30% 0.3
P2O5 0.12% 0.12
MnO 0.05% 0.05
Occurrence[edit]
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The Cheesewring, a granite tor
A granite peak at Huangshan, China
Granite containing rock is widely distributed throughout the continental crust.[8] Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age; it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin sedimentary veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs. Granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as relatively small, less than 100 km² stock masses (stocks) and in batholiths that are often associated with orogenic mountain ranges. Small dikes of granitic composition called aplites are often associated with the margins of granitic intrusions. In some locations, very coarse-grained pegmatite masses occur with granite.
Origin[edit]
Granite has a felsic composition and is more common in recent geologic time in contrast to Earth's ultramafic ancient igneous history. Felsic rocks are less dense than mafic and ultramafic rocks, and thus they tend to escape subduction, whereas basaltic or gabbroic rocks tend to sink into the mantle beneath the granitic rocks of the continental cratons. Therefore, granitic rocks form the basement of all land continents.
Geochemical origins[edit]
Granitoids have crystallized from magmas that have compositions at or near a eutectic point (or a temperature minimum on a cotectic curve). Magmas will evolve to the eutectic because of igneous differentiation, or because they represent low degrees of partial melting. Fractional crystallisation serves to reduce a melt in iron, magnesium, titanium, calcium and sodium, and enrich the melt in potassium and silicon – alkali feldspar (rich in potassium) and quartz (SiO2), are two of the defining constituents of granite.
This process operates regardless of the origin of the parental magma to the granite, and regardless of its chemistry. However, the composition and origin of the magma that differentiates into granite leaves certain geochemical and mineral evidence as to what the granite's parental rock was. The final mineralogy, texture and chemical composition of a granite is often distinctive as to its origin. For instance, a granite that is formed from melted sediments may have more alkali feldspar, whereas a granite derived from melted basalt may be richer in plagioclase feldspar. It is on this basis that the modern "alphabet" classification schemes are based. Granite has a slow cooling process which forms larger crystals.
Chappell & White classification system[edit]
The letter-based Chappell & White classification system was proposed initially to divide granites into I-type granite (or igneous protolith) granite and S-type or sedimentary protolith granite.[9] Both of these types of granite are formed by the melting of high grade metamorphic rocks, either other granite or intrusive mafic rocks, or buried sediment, respectively.
M-type or mantle derived granite was later proposed to cover those granites that were clearly sourced from crystallized mafic magmas, generally sourced from the mantle. These are rare, because it is difficult to turn basalt into granite via fractional crystallisation.
A-type or anorogenic granites are formed above volcanic "hot spot" activity and have a peculiar mineralogy and geochemistry. These granites are formed by the melting of the lower crust under conditions that are usually extremely dry. A-type granites occur in the Koettlitz Glacier Alkaline Province in the Royal Society Range, Antarctica. The rhyolites of the Yellowstone caldera are examples of volcanic equivalents of A-type granite.[10][11]
H-type or hybrid granites are formed following a mixing of two granitic magmas from different sources, e.g. M-type and S-type.
Granitization[edit]
An old, and largely discounted theory, granitization states that granite is formed in place by extreme metasomatism by fluids bringing in elements, e.g. potassium, and removing others, e.g. calcium, to transform the metamorphic rock into a granite. This was supposed to occur across a migrating front. The production of granite by metamorphic heat is difficult, but is observed to occur in certain amphibolite and granulite terrains. In-situ granitisation or melting by metamorphism is difficult to recognise except where leucosome and melanosome textures are present in migmatites. Once a metamorphic rock is melted it is no longer a metamorphic rock and is a magma, so these rocks are seen as a transitional between the two, but are not technically granite as they do not actually intrude into other rocks. In all cases, melting of solid rock requires high temperature, and also water or other volatiles which act as a catalyst by lowering the solidus temperature of the rock.
Ascent and emplacement[edit]
The ascent and emplacement of large volumes of granite within the upper continental crust is a source of much debate amongst geologists. There is a lack of field evidence for any proposed mechanisms, so hypotheses are predominantly based upon experimental data. There are two major hypotheses for the ascent of magma through the crust:
Stokes diapir
Fracture propagation
Of these two mechanisms, Stokes diapir was favoured for many years in the absence of a reasonable alternative. The basic idea is that magma will rise through the crust as a single mass through buoyancy. As it rises, it heats the wall rocks, causing them to behave as a power-law fluid and thus flow around the pluton allowing it to pass rapidly and without major heat loss.[12] This is entirely feasible in the warm, ductile lower crust where rocks are easily deformed, but runs into problems in the upper crust which is far colder and more brittle. Rocks there do not deform so easily: for magma to rise as a pluton it would expend far too much energy in heating wall rocks, thus cooling and solidifying before reaching higher levels within the crust.
Fracture propagation is the mechanism preferred by many geologists as it largely eliminates the major problems of moving a huge mass of magma through cold brittle crust. Magma rises instead in small channels along self-propagating dykes which form along new or pre-existing fracture or fault systems and networks of active shear zones.[13] As these narrow conduits open, the first magma to enter solidifies and provides a form of insulation for later magma.
Granitic magma must make room for itself or be intruded into other rocks in order to form an intrusion, and several mechanisms have been proposed to explain how large batholiths have been emplaced:
Stoping, where the granite cracks the wall rocks and pushes upwards as it removes blocks of the overlying crust
Assimilation, where the granite melts its way up into the crust and removes overlying material in this way
Inflation, where the granite body inflates under pressure and is injected into position
Most geologists today accept that a combination of these phenomena can be used to explain granite intrusions, and that not all granites can be explained entirely by one or another mechanism.
Weathering[edit]
Further information: Weathering
Grus sand and granitoid it derived from
Physical weathering occurs on a large scale in the form of exfoliation joints, which are the result of granite's expanding and fracturing as pressure is relieved when overlying material is removed by erosion or other processes.
Chemical weathering of granite occurs when dilute carbonic acid, and other acids present in rain and soil waters, alter feldspar in a process called hydrolysis.[14][15] As demonstrated in the following reaction, this causes potassium feldspar to form kaolinite, with potassium ions, bicarbonate, and silica in solution as byproducts. An end product of granite weathering is grus, which is often made up of coarse-grained fragments of disintegrated granite.
2 KAlSi3O8 + 2 H2CO3 + 9 H2O → Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 4 H4SiO4 + 2 K+ + 2 HCO3−
Climatic variations also influence the weathering rate of granites. For about two thousand years, the relief engravings on Cleopatra's Needle obelisk had survived the arid conditions of its origin before its transfer to London. Within two hundred years, the red granite has drastically deteriorated in the damp and polluted air there.[16]
Natural radiation[edit]
Granite is a natural source of radiation, like most natural stones. However, some granites have been reported to have higher radioactivity, thereby raising some concerns about their safety.
Potassium-40 is a radioactive isotope of weak emission, and a constituent of alkali feldspar, which in turn is a common component of granitic rocks, more abundant in alkali feldspar granite and syenites. Naturally, a geiger counter should register this low effect.
Some granites contain around 10 to 20 parts per million (ppm) of uranium. By contrast, more mafic rocks, such as tonalite, gabbro and diorite, have 1 to 5 ppm uranium, and limestones and sedimentary rocks usually have equally low amounts. Many large granite plutons are sources for palaeochannel-hosted or roll front uranium ore deposits, where the uranium washes into the sediments from the granite uplands and associated, often highly radioactive pegmatites. Cellars and basements built into soils over granite can become a trap for radon gas, which is formed by the decay of uranium.[17] Radon gas poses significant health concerns and is the number two cause of lung cancer in the US behind smoking.[18]
Thorium occurs in all granites as well.[19] Conway granite has been noted for its relatively high thorium concentration of 56±6 ppm.[20]
There is some concern that some granite sold as countertops or building material may be hazardous to health. Dan Steck of St. Johns University has stated[21] that approximately 5% of all granite is of concern, with the caveat that only a tiny percentage of the tens of thousands of granite slab types have been tested. Various resources from national geological survey organizations are accessible online to assist in assessing the risk factors in granite country and design rules relating, in particular, to preventing accumulation of radon gas in enclosed basements and dwellings.
A study of granite countertops was done (initiated and paid for by the Marble Institute of America) in November 2008 by National Health and Engineering Inc. of USA. In this test, all of the 39 full-size granite slabs that were measured for the study showed radiation levels well below the European Union safety standards (section 4.1.1.1 of the National Health and Engineering study) and radon emission levels well below the average outdoor radon concentrations in the US.[22]
Industry[edit]
Granite and related marble industries are considered one of the oldest industries in the world; existing as far back as Ancient Egypt.[23]
Major modern exporters of granite include China, India, Italy, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Sweden, Spain and the United States .[24]
Indian granite quarries have been mired in controversy over child labor and slavery.[25][26]
Uses[edit]
Antiquity[edit]
Cleopatra's Needle, London
The Red Pyramid of Egypt (c. 26th century BC), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed limestone surfaces, is the third largest of Egyptian pyramids. Menkaure's Pyramid, likely dating to the same era, was constructed of limestone and granite blocks. The Great Pyramid of Giza (c. 2580 BC) contains a huge granite sarcophagus fashioned of "Red Aswan Granite". The mostly ruined Black Pyramid dating from the reign of Amenemhat III once had a polished granite pyramidion or capstone, which is now on display in the main hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo (see Dahshur). Other uses in Ancient Egypt include columns, door lintels, sills, jambs, and wall and floor veneer.[27] How the Egyptians worked the solid granite is still a matter of debate. Dr. Patrick Hunt[28] has postulated that the Egyptians used emery, which has greater hardness on the Mohs scale.
Rajaraja Chola I of the Chola Dynasty in South India built the world's first temple entirely of granite in the 11th century AD in Tanjore, India. The Brihadeeswarar Temple dedicated to Lord Shiva was built in 1010. The massive Gopuram (ornate, upper section of shrine) is believed to have a mass of around 81 tonnes. It was the tallest temple in south India.[29]
Imperial Roman granite was quarried mainly in Egypt, and also in Turkey, and on the islands of Elba and Giglio. Granite became "an integral part of the Roman language of monumental architecture".[30] The quarrying ceased around the third century CE. Beginning in Late Antiquity the granite was reused, which since at least the early 16th century became known as spoliation. Through the process of case-hardening, granite becomes harder with age. The technology required to make tempered steel chisels was largely forgotten during the Middle Ages. As a result, Medieval stoneworkers were forced to use saws or emery to shorten ancient columns or hack them into discs. Giorgio Vasari noted in the 16th century that granite in quarries was "far softer and easier to work than after it has lain exposed" while ancient columns, because of their "hardness and solidity have nothing to fear from fire or sword, and time itself, that drives everything to ruin, not only has not destroyed them but has not even altered their colour."[30]
Modern[edit]
Sculpture and memorials[edit]
Various granites (cut and polished surfaces)
In some areas, granite is used for gravestones and memorials. Granite is a hard stone and requires skill to carve by hand. Until the early 18th century, in the Western world, granite could be carved only by hand tools with generally poor results.
A key breakthrough was the invention of steam-powered cutting and dressing tools by Alexander MacDonald of Aberdeen, inspired by seeing ancient Egyptian granite carvings. In 1832, the first polished tombstone of Aberdeen granite to be erected in an English cemetery was installed at Kensal Green Cemetery. It caused a sensation in the London monumental trade and for some years all polished granite ordered came from MacDonald's.[31] As a result of the work of sculptor William Leslie, and later Sidney Field, granite memorials became a major status symbol in Victorian Britain. The royal sarcophagus at Frogmore was probably the pinnacle of its work, and at 30 tons one of the largest. It was not until the 1880s that rival machinery and works could compete with the MacDonald works.
Modern methods of carving include using computer-controlled rotary bits and sandblasting over a rubber stencil. Leaving the letters, numbers, and emblems exposed on the stone, the blaster can create virtually any kind of artwork or epitaph.
The stone known as "black granite" is usually gabbro, which has a completely different chemical composition.[32]
Buildings[edit]
Granite has been extensively used as a dimension stone and as flooring tiles in public and commercial buildings and monuments. Aberdeen in Scotland, which is constructed principally from local granite, is known as "The Granite City". Because of its abundance in New England, granite was commonly used to build foundations for homes there. The Granite Railway, America's first railroad, was built to haul granite from the quarries in Quincy, Massachusetts, to the Neponset River in the 1820s.
Engineering[edit]
Engineers have traditionally used polished granite surface plates to establish a plane of reference, since they are relatively impervious and inflexible. Sandblasted concrete with a heavy aggregate content has an appearance similar to rough granite, and is often used as a substitute when use of real granite is impractical. A most unusual use of granite was as the material of the tracks of the Haytor Granite Tramway, Devon, England, in 1820. Granite block is usually processed into slabs, which can be cut and shaped by a cutting center. Granite tables are used extensively as bases for optical instruments because of granite's rigidity, high dimensional stability, and excellent vibration characteristics. In military engineering, Finland planted granite boulders along its Mannerheim Line to block invasion by Russian tanks in the winter war of 1940.
Other uses[edit]
Curling stones are traditionally fashioned of Ailsa Craig granite. The first stones were made in the 1750s, the original source being Ailsa Craig in Scotland. Because of the rarity of this granite, the best stones can cost as much as US$1,500. Between 60 and 70 percent of the stones used today are made from Ailsa Craig granite, although the island is now a wildlife reserve and is still used for quarrying under license for Ailsa granite by Kays of Mauchline for curling stones.[33]
Rock climbing[edit]
Granite is one of the rocks most prized by climbers, for its steepness, soundness, crack systems, and friction. Well-known venues for granite climbing include Yosemite, the Bugaboos, the Mont Blanc massif (and peaks such as the Aiguille du Dru, the Mountains of Mourne, the Adamello-Presanella Alps, the Aiguille du Midi and the Grandes Jorasses), the Bregaglia, Corsica, parts of the Karakoram (especially the Trango Towers), the Fitzroy Massif, Patagonia, Baffin Island, Ogawayama, the Cornish coast, the Cairngorms, Sugarloaf Mountain in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and the Stawamus Chief, British Columbia, Canada.
Granite rock climbing is so popular that many of the artificial rock climbing walls found in gyms and theme parks are made to look and feel like granite.
Granite was used for setts on the St. Louis riverfront and for the piers of the Eads Bridge (background)
The granite peaks of the Torres del Paine in the Chilean Patagonia
Half Dome, Yosemite, a classic granite dome and popular rock climbing destination
Rixö red granite quarry in Lysekil, Sweden
See also[edit]
Cold Spring Granite
Cheyenne Mountain Complex
Epoxy granite
Exfoliating granite
Falkenfelsen, or Falcon Rock
Fall River granite
Greisen
Hypersolvus
Igneous rock
List of rock types
Luxullianite
Mourne Mountains
Orbicular granite
Pikes Peak granite, Colorado
Quartz monzonite
Rapakivi granite
Stone Mountain, Georgia
Subsolvus
Wicklow Mountains, Ireland
References[edit]
Notes
Jump up ^ "Granitoids – Granite and the Related Rocks Granodiorite, Diorite and Tonalite". Geology.about.com. 2010-02-06. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
Jump up ^ Haldar, S.K.; Tišljar, J. (2014). Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology. Elsevier. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-12-408133-8.
Jump up ^ "Rock Types and Specific Gravities". EduMine. Retrieved 2017-08-27.
Jump up ^ Kumagai, Naoichi; Sadao Sasajima; Hidebumi Ito (1978). "Long-term Creep of Rocks: Results with Large Specimens Obtained in about 20 Years and Those with Small Specimens in about 3 Years". Journal of the Society of Materials Science (Japan). 27 (293): 157–161. doi:10.2472/jsms.27.155.
Jump up ^ Larsen, Esper S. (1929). "The temperatures of magmas". American Mineralogist. 14: 81–94.
Jump up ^ Holland, Tim; Powell, Roger (2001). "Calculation of phase relations involving haplogranitic melts using an internally consistent thermodynamic dataset". Journal of Petrology. 42 (4): 673–683. doi:10.1093/petrology/42.4.673.
Jump up ^ Harvey Blatt & Robert J. Tracy (1997). Petrology (2nd ed.). New York: Freeman. p. 66. ISBN 0-7167-2438-3.
Jump up ^ Singh, G. (2009). Earth Science Today. Discovery Publishing House. ISBN 9788183564380.
Jump up ^ Chappell, B. W.; White, A. J. R. (2001). "Two contrasting granite types: 25 years later". Australian Journal of Earth Sciences. 48 (4): 489–499. doi:10.1046/j.1440-0952.2001.00882.x.
Jump up ^ Boroughs, S.; Wolff, J.; Bonnichsen, B.; Godchaux, M.; Larson, P. (2005). "Large-volume, low-δ18O rhyolites of the central Snake River Plain, Idaho, USA". Geology. 33 (10): 821. doi:10.1130/G21723.1.
Jump up ^ Frost, C.D. et al. (2005) "Extrusive A-type magmatism of the Yellowstone hot spot track". 15th Goldschmidt Conference Field Trip AC-4. Field Trip Guide, University of Wyoming.
Jump up ^ Weinberg, R. F.; Podladchikov, Y. (1994). "Diapiric ascent of magmas through power law crust and mantle". Journal of Geophysical Research. 99: 9543. Bibcode:1994JGR....99.9543W. doi:10.1029/93JB03461.
Jump up ^ Clemens, John (1998). "Observations on the origins and ascent mechanisms of granitic magmas". Journal of the Geological Society of London. 155 (Part 5): 843–51. doi:10.1144/gsjgs.155.5.0843.
Jump up ^ "Granite [Weathering]". University College London. Retrieved 10 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hydrolysis". Geological Society of London. Retrieved 10 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Marsh, William M.; Kaufman, Martin M. (2012). Physical Geography: Great Systems and Global Environments. Cambridge University Press. p. 510. ISBN 9781107376649.
Jump up ^ "Decay series of Uranium". Archived from the original on March 9, 2012. Retrieved 2008-10-19.
Jump up ^ "Radon and Cancer: Questions and Answers". National Cancer Institute. Retrieved 2008-10-19.
Jump up ^ Hubbert, M. King (March 8, 1956) Nuclear Energy and the Fossil Fuels. American Petroleum Institute Conference. Energy Bulletin.
Jump up ^ Adams, J. A.; Kline, M. C.; Richardson, K. A.; Rogers, J. J. (1962). "The Conway Granite of New Hampshire As a Major Low-Grade Thorium Resource". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 48 (11): 1898–905. PMC 221093  . PMID 16591014. doi:10.1073/pnas.48.11.1898.
Jump up ^ Steck, Daniel J. (2009). "Pre- and Post-Market Measurements of Gamma Radiation and Radon Emanation from a Large Sample of Decorative Granites". Nineteenth International Radon Symposium (PDF). pp. 28–51.
Jump up ^ Natural Stone Countertops and Radon – Environmental Health and Engineering – Assessing Exposure to Radon and Radiation from Granite Countertops.
Jump up ^ Nelson L. Nemerow (27 January 2009). Environmental Engineering: Environmental Health and Safety for Municipal Infrastructure, Land Use and Planning, and Industry. John Wiley & Sons. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-470-08305-5.
Jump up ^ Parmodh Alexander (15 January 2009). A Handbook of Minerals, Crystals, Rocks and Ores. New India Publishing. p. 585. ISBN 978-81-907237-8-7.
Jump up ^ "Modern slavery and child labour in Indian quarries - Stop Child Labour". Stop Child Labour. Retrieved 2016-03-09.
Jump up ^ "Modern slavery and child labour in Indian quarries". www.indianet.nl. Retrieved 2016-03-09.
Jump up ^ James A. Harrell. "Decorative Stones in the Pre-Ottoman Islamic Buildings of Cairo, Egypt". Retrieved 2008-01-06.
Jump up ^ "Egyptian Genius: Stoneworking for Eternity". Archived from the original on 2007-10-14. Retrieved 2008-01-06.
Jump up ^ Heitzman, James (1991). "Ritual Polity and Economy: The Transactional Network of an Imperial Temple in Medieval South India". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. BRILL. 34 (1/2): 23–54. JSTOR 3632277. doi:10.1163/156852091x00157.
^ Jump up to: a b Waters, Michael (2016). "Reviving Antiquity with Granite: Spolia and the Development of Roman Renaissance Architecture". Architectural History. 59: pp. 149–179. doi:10.1017/arh.2016.5. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
Jump up ^ Friends of West Norwood Cemetery newsletter 71 Alexander MacDonald (1794–1860) – Stonemason,
Jump up ^ "Black granite and black marble". Trade Brochure. Graniteland.com. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Roach, John (October 27, 2004). "National Geographic News — Puffins Return to Scottish Island Famous for Curling Stones". National Geographic News.
Further reading[edit]
Blasik, Miroslava; Hanika, Bogdashka, eds. (2012). Granite: Occurrence, Mineralogy and Origin. Hauppauge, New York: Nova Science. ISBN 978-1-62081-566-3.
Twidale, Charles Rowland (2005). Landforms and Geology of Granite Terrains. Leiden, Netherlands: A. A. Balkema. ISBN 978-0-415-36435-5.
Marmo, Vladimir (1971). Granite Petrology and the Granite Problem. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier Scientific. ISBN 978-0-444-40852-5.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Granite.
The Emplacement and Origin of Granite
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Common igneous rocks classified by silicon dioxide content
Type Ultramafic
<45% SiO2 Mafic
45–52% SiO2 Intermediate
52–63% SiO2 Intermediate–felsic
63–69% SiO2 Felsic
>69% SiO2
Volcanic rocks:
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Komatiite, Picrite basalt
Kimberlite, Lamproite
Peridotite
Basalt
Diabase (Dolerite)
Gabbro
Andesite
Microdiorite
Diorite
Dacite
Microgranodiorite
Granodiorite
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Help
Category:Rivers of Uttar Pradesh
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rivers of Uttar Pradesh.
Subcategories
This category has the following 4 subcategories, out of 4 total.
B
► Betwa River (5 P)
C
► Chambal River (11 P)
G
► Ganges (4 C, 35 P)
Y
► Yamuna River (2 C, 21 P)
Pages in category "Rivers of Uttar Pradesh"
The following 44 pages are in this category, out of 44 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).
B
Babai River
Bakulahi River
Banas River
Beson
Betwa River
Bhainsai
C
Chambal River
Choti Saryu
D
Dhasan River
G
Gaangi
Ganges
Ghaghara
Gomti River
H
Hindon River
J
Jamni River
K
Kali River (Uttar Pradesh)
Kanhar River
Karmanasa River
Kathana
Ken River
Kukarail River
M
Magai
P
Pirai River (India)
R
Ramganga
Rihand River
River Sharda
Rohni River
S
Sai River (Uttar Pradesh)
Sarayan river
Sarayu
Sasur Khaderi River
Sengar River
Sharda River
Sindh River
Son River
Sot River
Suheli River
T
Template:Hydrography of Uttar Pradesh
Tamsa River
U
Ul river
V
Varuna River
W
West Rapti River
Y
Yamuna
Ξ
Template:Son basin
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Rivers_of_Uttar_Pradesh&oldid=827275747"
Categories:
Landforms of Uttar Pradesh
Rivers of India by state or union territory
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