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List of works by Caspar David Friedrich
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Gerhard von Kügelgen, Portrait of Caspar David Friedrich (c. 1810–20)
This is an incomplete list of works by the German Romantic artist Caspar David Friedrich (1774–1840) by completion date where known. Friedrich was a prolific artist who produced over 500 attributed works; however, he is generally known for only a small number of works seen as emblems of Romanticism.[1]
In line with Romantic ideals of the time, Friedrich intended that his paintings would function visually only, and thus he was cautious that the titles given to his work were not overly descriptive or evocative. It is likely that some of today's relatively literal titles, such as The Stages of Life, were not given by the artist himself, but were instead adopted during one of the revivals of interest in the artist during the late 19th or early 20th century.[2]
Complications arise when dating Friedrich's work, mainly because he often did not directly name or date his canvases. However, he kept a carefully detailed notebook on his output, which has been used by scholars to tie paintings to their completion dates.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Paintings
2 Drawings, watercolours, and prints
3 References
4 Sources
5 External links
Paintings[edit]
Painting
Name
German name
Year
Technique
Dimensions
City
Gallery
Notes
Landscape with Temple Ruins 1797 Oil on canvas
Wreck in the Ice-sea Wrack im Eismeer 1798 Oil on canvas 31.4x23.6 cm Hamburg Kunsthalle The attribution of this work to Friedrich is disputed.[citation needed]
View of Arkona with Rising Moon and Nets Blick auf Arkona mit aufgehendem Mond und Netzen 1803 Oil on canvas Private collection of Jan Krugier
West Facade of the Eldena Ruins with Bakehouse and Barn Westfassade der Ruine Eldena mit Backhaus und Scheune 1806 Oil on canvas Angers Musée des Beaux-Arts
Seashore and Fisherman Meeresstrand mit Fischer c. 1807 Oil on canvas 33.5 x 51 cm Vienna Österreichische Galerie Belvedere
The Summer Der Sommer 1807 Oil on canvas 71.4 x 103.6 cm Münich Neue Pinakothek
Dolmen in the Snow Hünengrab im Schnee 1807 Oil on canvas 61.5x80 cm Dresden Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister
Fog Nebel 1807 Oil on canvas 34.5 x 52 cm Vienna Kunsthistorisches Museum
Cross in the Mountains (Tetschen Altar) Das Kreuz im Gebirge (Tetschener Altar) 1808 Oil on canvas 115 x 110 cm Dresden Galerie Neue Meister [3]
Portrait of a Man 1808-1810 Oil on canvas 51.7 x 42.4 cm Hanover Niedersächsisches Landesmuseum
Morning Fog in the Mountains Morgennebel im Gebirge 1808 Oil on canvas 71x104 cm Rudolstadt Museum Schloss Heidecksburg
The Heldstein near Rathen 1808 Oil on canvas
Winter Winter (Klosterruine Eldena) 1808 Oil on canvas NA NA 1931- destroyed by fire in the Glaspalast, Munich
The Monk by the Sea Der Mönch am Meer 1809 Oil on canvas 115 x 110 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie
Giant Mountains Landscape with Rising Fog Abtei im Eichwald 1809-1810 Oil on canvas 110 x 171 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie [4]
The Abbey in the Oakwood Riesengebirgslandschaft mit aufsteigendem Nebel 1809-1810 Oil on canvas 54.9 x 70.4 cm cm Munich Neue Pinakothek
Mountain Landscape and Rainbow Gebirgslandschaft mit Regenbogen 1810 Oil on canvas 70x102 cm Essen Museum Folkwang
Bohemian Landscape with Mount Milleschauer Böhmische Landschaft mit dem Milleschauer 1808 Oil on canvas 70 x 104 cm Dresden Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister
Morning in the Giant Mountains Morgen im Riesengebirge 1810-1811 Oil on canvas 108 x 170 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie
Landscape with Rainbow Landschaft mit Regenbogen c. 1810 Oil on canvas 59 x 84.5 cm NA NA Missing since 1945
Winter Landscape Winterlandschaft 1811 Oil on canvas 32 x 45 cm London National Gallery, London
Winter Landscape Winterlandschaft 1811 Oil on canvas 32.5 x 45 cm Schwerin Staatliches Museum [5]
Winter Landscape with Church Winterlandschaft mit Kirche 1811 Oil on canvas 33 x 45 cm Dortmund Museum für Kunst und Kulturgeschichte
Rocks in the Harz mountain Felspartie im Harz 1811 Oil on canvas 32 x 45 cm Dresden Galerie Neue Meister
The Cross in the Mountains Das Kreuz im Gebirge 1812 Oil on canvas 45 x 37 cm Düsseldorf Museum Kunst Palast [6]
Old Heroes' Graves Gräber gefallener Freiheitskrieger 1812 Oil on canvas 49.5 × 70.5 cm Hamburg Kunsthalle
Cross in the Mountains Kreuz im Wald 1813 Oil on canvas 42 x 32 cm Stuttgart Staatsgalerie Inv. Nr. L 569
The Chasseur in the Forest Der Chasseur im Walde 1814 Oil on canvas 66 x 47 cm Private collection
Cross in the Mountains Kreuz im Gebirge (Der Ilsenstein) Perhaps 1814 Oil on canvas 71.7 cm wide, 128 cm at highest point Gotha Schlossmuseum
The Cross beside the Baltic Kreuz an der Ostsee 1815 Oil on canvas 45 x 33,5 cm Berlin Schloss Charlottenburg [7]
Sailing Ship Segelschiff 1815 Oil on canvas 72.3 x 51 cm Chemnitz Städtische Kunstsammlungen Inv. n. 215
View of a Harbour Ansicht eines Hafens 1815-16 Oil on canvas 90 x 71 cm Berlin Sanssouci Palace
Greifswald in Moonlight Greifswald im Mondschein 1816-17 Oil on canvas 22.5 x 30.5 cm Oslo National gallery
Two Men by the Sea 1817 Oil on canvas 51 x 66 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie
Coastal Landscape in Twilight Küstenlandschaft in der Dämmerung 1816-18 Oil on canvas 22 x 31 cm Lübeck Museum für Kunst und Kulturgeschichte Inv. Nr. 1950/5
Neubrandenburg c. 1817 Oil on canvas 91 x 72 cm Greifswald Pommersches Landesmuseum
The Wanderer above the Mists Der Wanderer über dem Nebelmeer 1817-18 Oil on canvas 94,8 x 74,8 cm Hamburg Kunsthalle Hamburg [8]
The Cathedral 1818 Oil on canvas 70 x 152 cm
Garden Bower in Greifswald Gartenlaube in Greifswald 1818 Oil on canvas 30.0 x 21.5 cm Munich Neue Pinakothek Inv.-Nr. FV 10
Chalk Cliffs on Rügen Kreidefelsen auf Rügen c. 1818 Oil on canvas 90,5 x 71 cm Winterthur Stiftung Oskar Reinhart [9]
Woman on the Beach of Rügen Frau am Strand von Rügen c. 1818 Oil on canvas Winterthur Stiftung Oskar Reinhart
Woman before the Rising Sun (Woman before the Setting Sun) Frau vor untergehender Sonne (Sonnenuntergang, Sonnenaufgang, Frau in der Morgensonne) 1818-20 Oil on canvas 22 x 30 cm Essen Museum Folkwang [10]
Greifswald Harbour Schiffe im Hafen von Greifswald 1818-20 Oil on canvas 90 x 70 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie [11]
On the Sailing Boat Auf dem Segler c. 1819 Oil on canvas 71 x 56 cm St. Petersburg Hermitage Museum
Monastery Graveyard in the Snow (Cloister Cemetery in the Snow) Klosterfriedhof im Schnee 1819 Oil on canvas destroyed 1945
Dolmen in the Fall Hünengrab im Herbst c. 1820 Dresden Galerie Neue Meister
"Swans in the Reeds at Dawn Schwäne im Schilf beim ersten Morgenrot c. 1819/1820 Oil on canvas 38 x 44 cm Frankfurt/M., Freies Deutsches Hochstift Frankfurter Goethe-Museum
Two Men Contemplating the Moon Zwei Männer in Betrachtung des Mondes 1819-20 Oil on canvas 35 x 44 cm Dresden Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister [12]
Oak in the Snow 1820 Oil on canvas 44 x 34,5 cm Cologne Wallraf-Richartz Museum
The Sisters on the Balcony Nacht im Hafen (Schwestern) c. 1820 Oil on canvas 74 x 52 cm St. Petersburg Hermitage Museum [13]
Drifting Clouds Ziehende Wolken c. 1820 Oil on canvas 18,3 x 24,5 cm Hamburg Kunsthalle Hamburg
Evening Der Abend c. 1820-1821 Oil on canvas 22 x 30.5 Hannover Niedersächsisches Landesmuseum
Morning Der Morgen c. 1820-1821 Oil on canvas 22 x 30.5 Hannover Niedersächsisches Landesmuseum
View of the Baltic 1820-25 Oil on canvas 34,5 x 44 cm Düsseldorf Museum Kunst Palast
Fog in the Elbe Valley 1821 Oil on canvas 33 x 43 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie
Moonrise by the Sea Mondaufgang am Meer c.1821 Oil on canvas 135 x 170 cm St. Petersburg Hermitage Museum
Morning in the Mountains 1822-23 Oil on canvas 135 x 170 cm St. Petersburg Hermitage Museum
The Tree of Crows Krähen auf einem Baum c. 1822 Oil on canvas 59 x 73 cm Paris Musée du Louvre
The Lonely Tree Der einsame Baum 1822 Oil on canvas 55 x 71 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie
Moonrise Over the Sea Mondaufgang am Meer 1822 Oil on canvas 55 x 71 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie
Meadows near Greifswald Wiesen bei Greifswald c. 1822 Oil on canvas 34,5 x 48,3 cm Hamburg Kunsthalle Hamburg
Woman at a Window 1822 Oil on canvas 44 x 37 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie
Rocky Ravine Felsenlandschaft im Elbsandsteingebirge 1822-23 Oil on canvas 94 x 74 cm Vienna Kunsthistorisches Museum
Ruins of Eldena, near Greifswald Klosterruine Eldena bei Greifswald 1825 Oil on canvas 35 x 49 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie Inv. Nr. A II 574
The Sea of Ice Das Eismeer (Die gescheiterte Hoffnung) 1824 Oil on canvas 96,7 x 126,9 cm Hamburg Kunsthalle Hamburg
Hill and Ploughed Field near Dresden 1824 Oil on canvas 22,2 x 30,5 cm Hamburg Kunsthalle Hamburg
Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon Mann und Frau in Betrachtung des Mondes c. 1824 Oil on canvas 34 x 44 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie
Evening Oct 1824 Oil on cardboard 20 x 27,5 cm Mannheim Kunsthalle Mannheim
Rocky Reef on the Sea Shore c. 1824 Oil on canvas 22 x 31 cm Karlsruhe Staatliche Kunsthalle
Trees and Bushes in the Snow Bäume und Sträucher im Schnee c.1825 Oil on canvas 31 x 25.5 cm Dresden Galerie Neue Meister
The Cemetery Entrance 1825 Oil on canvas 143 x 110 cm Dresden Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister
The Cemetery Gate (The Churchyard) 1825-30 Oil on canvas 31 x 25 cm Bremen Kunsthalle Bremen
Seashore with Shipwreck by Moonlight 1825-30 Oil on canvas 77 x 97 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie
The Watzmann 1824-25 Oil on canvas 135 x 170 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie
Graveyard under Snow 1826 Oil on canvas 31 x 25 cm Leipzig Museum der bildenden Künste
The Oaktree in the Snow 1829 Oil on canvas 71 x 48 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie
Boats in the Harbour at Evening Schiffe im Hafen am Abend c. 1828 Oil on canvas 76,5 x 88,2 cm Dresden Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister
The Evergreens by the Waterfall Tannen am Wasserfall 1828 Oil on canvas 44,2 x 34,8 cm Hamburg Hamburger Kunsthalle
The Temple of Juno in Agrigento Junotempel in Agrigent c. 1828-1830 Oil on canvas 53.3 x 71.5 cm Dortmund Museum am Ostwall Inv. Nr. C 5022
Evening Landscape with Two Men 1830-35 Oil on canvas 25 x 31 cm St. Petersburg Hermitage Museum
The Giant Mountains 1830-35 Oil on canvas 72 x 102 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie
The Grosse Gehege near Dresden Das Große Gehege (Ostra-Gehege) bei Dresden c. 1832 Oil on canvas 73,5 x 102,5 cm Dresden Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister
Neubrandenburg in Flames
(Sunrise near Neubrandenburg) c. 1835 Oil on canvas 72 x 101 cm Hamburg Kunsthalle Hamburg [14]
Wreck in the Moonlight c. 1835 Oil on canvas 31,3 x 42,5 cm Berlin Alte Nationalgalerie
The Stages of Life Die Lebensstufen 1835 Oil on canvas 72.5 x 94 cm Leipzig Museum der bildenden Künste
Landschaft mit dem Rosenberg in der böhmischen Schweiz c. 1835 Oil on canvas 34.9 x 48.5 cm Frankfurt am Main Städelsches Kunstinstitut Inv. Nr. 1821
Seashore in Moonlight Meeresufer im Mondschein 1835 Hamburg Kunsthalle
Wald im Spätherbst (Waldwasser, Herbstwald) 1835 Oil on canvas 35 x 44 cm Erfurt Angermuseum Inv. Nr. 3626
Monument to Goethe 1835 Oil on canvas
Countryside in the Character of the Bohemian Central Uplands (Giant Mountains) Landschaft im Charakter des böhmischen Mittelgebirges (Riesengebirge) c. 1830-1835 Oil on canvas 27 x 103 cm NA NA Missing since 1945
The Dreamer Der Träumer 1820-1840 Oil on canvas 27 x 21 cm St. Petersburg The Hermitage
Drawings, watercolours, and prints[edit]
Artwork
Name
German name
Year
Technique
Dimensions
City
Gallery
Notes
Schriftblatt: Gott hat selbst in unsere Schmerzen December 1, 1788 Pen, ink and watercolour 207 x 329 mm Greifswald Museum der Stadt Greifswald
Female Nude in the Style of Johann Daniel Preißler Weiblicher Akt nach Preißler 1790-94 Pencil 321 x 201 mm Greifswald Museum der Stadt Greifswald
Die Luisen-Quelle in Frederiksdahl 1797 Pen, ink and watercolour 289 x 244 mm Hamburg Hamburger Kunsthalle
Die Frederiksberger Quelle bei Kopenhagen I July 9, 1797 Brown ink and watercolour 217 x 168 mm Dresden Kupferstich-Kabinett
Landscape with Pavilion Landschaft mit Pavillon c. 1797 Pen, ink and watercolour 167 x 217 mm Hamburg Kunsthalle Hamburg [15]
Fishing Boat Fischerboot 1798 Pencil 103 x 168 mm Greifswald Museum der Stadt Greifswald
Tree, Ship, and Nets Baum, Boot, Netze c. 1798 Pencil 150 x 165 mm Greifswald Museum der Stadt Greifswald
Studie eines sitzendes Jünglings May 7, 1798 Pen, ink and watercolour 289 x 244 mm Prague National Gallery in Prague
Portrait of the Pastor and Poet Ernst Theodor Johann Brûckner Bildnis des Pastors und Dichters Ernst Theodor Johann Brûckner c. 1798 Black chalk 251 x 199 mm Berlin Staatliche Museen, Berlin
Self-Portrait Selbstportrait 1800 Black chalk 420 x 276 mm Copenhagen Statens Museum for Kunst [16]
Mother Heiden Mutter Heiden 1798–1802 Black chalk 420 x 276 mm Greifswald Pommersches Landesmuseum [17]
Portrait of Adolph Gottlieb Friedrich Bildnis des Vaters Adolph Gottlieb Friedrich c. 1798-1802 Black chalk 250 x 205 mm Greifswald Museum der Stadt Greifswald
Scene from Schiller's "The Robbers" Szene aus Schillers
"Die Räuber"
1800–1801 Pen and sepia 203 x 263 mm Greifswald Pommersches Landesmuseum
Self-Portrait with Cap and Sighting Eye-Shield Selbstportrait mit Mütze und Augenklappe 1802 Pencil, brush and ink 175 x 105 mm Hamburg Kunsthalle Hamburg [18]
Hiker at the Milestone Wanderer am Grenzstein 1802 Sepia
Adolf Gottlieb Friedrich, Reading Adolf Gottlieb Friedrich,
lesend
1802 Black chalk 346 x 320 mm Mannheim Kunsthalle Mannheim
The Woman with the spider's web between bare trunks Die Frau mit dem Spinnennetz zwischen unbelaubten Baumstümpfen 1803 Woodcut; block cut by Friedrich's brother Christian 171 x 119 mm Various (block in Hamburg Kunsthalle) [19]
Pilgrimage at Sunset (Sunrise) Pilgerreise im Sonnenuntergang (Sonnenaufgang) 1805 Sepia 405 x 620 mm Weimar Kunstsammlungen
View from the Painter's Studio Blick aus dem Maleratelier 1805-6 Sepia Vienna Kunsthistorisches Museum
Ruins of Eldena Klosterruine Eldena 1806 Watercolor and ink
Cross in the Mountains Kreuz in den Bergen 1805-06 Pencil and sepia 640 x 931 mm Berlin Kupferstichkabinett (Print room) at Kulturforum, Staatliche Museen
Giant Grave by the Sea Riesengruft am Meer 1806-07 Pen, brush and sepia over graphite 645 x 950 mm Weimar Staatliche Kunstsammlungen
Self-Portrait Selbstprotrait 1810 Black chalk 228 x 182 mm Berlin Kupferstichkabinett (Print room) at Kulturforum, Staatliche Museen [8]
Window Looking over the Park Fenster mit Blick über den Park c.1810-11 Sepia and pencil 39.8x30.5 cm St. Petersburg The Hermitage
The Marketplace in Greifswald Der Marktplatz in Greifswald 1818 Pencil, ink and watercolour
View of Greifswald from the East Blick auf Greifswald vom Osten 1818 Watercolour
The Ruins of Eldena Die Ruinen von Eldena c. 1825 Pencil, ink and watercolour 178 x 229 mm Private collection [20]
Chalk Cliffs on Rügen
(Watercolour)
Kreidefelsen auf Rügen (Wasserfarben) 1824-6 Watercolour 25 x 32 cm
The Rock Gates in Neurathen Die Felsentore in Neurathen c.1826-28 Watercolor over pencil 27.9x24.5 cm. St. Petersburg The Hermitage
Ruins of Teplitz Castle Ruinen der Teplitz-Burg 1828 Pencil, ink and watercolour
Mountainous River Landscape (Night Version) Von Bergen umgebene Flusslandschaft (Nachtversion) 1830-35 Mixed media on transparent paper 77 x 127 cm Kassel Staatliche Museen
Mountainous River Landscape (Day Version) Von Bergen umgebene Flusslandschaft
(Tagesversion)
1830-35 Mixed media on transparent paper 77 x 127 cm Kassel Staatliche Museen [21]
Two Young Men on the Sea Shore by the Rising Moon Zwei junge Männer am Strand bei aufgehendem Mond 1835 Sepia
Vulture on a Spade Geier auf Spaten 1835 Sepia
Moonrise Mondaufgang c.1835-7 Sepia and pencil 24.5x34.5 cm St. Petersburg The Hermitage
Owl in a Gothic Window Eule im Gotischen Fenster c.1836 Sepia and pencil 37.8x25.6 cm St. Petersburg The Hermitage
Landscape with Grave, Coffin and Owl Landschaft mit Grab, Sarg und Eule 1836-37 Sepia over pencil 385 x 383 mm Hamburg Kunsthalle Hamburg [22]
Owl upon the Grave Marker Eule auf Grabkreuz 1836-37 Sepia over pencil Moscow Pushkin Museum
Owl Flying against a Moonlit Sky Eule, die gen mondbeschienenen Himmel fliegt 1836-37 Sepia over pencil 27.9x24.4 cm St. Petersburg The Hermitage
Boat on the Shore, Moonrise Boot am Ufer, Mondaufgang 1837-39 Sepia over pencil 24.4x41.6 cm St. Petersburg The Hermitage
Landscape in the Giant Mountains Landschaft im Riesengebirge Unknown Watercolor over pencil Winterthur Oskar Reinhart Foundation
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Siegel, 3
Jump up ^ "caspar david friedrich inventing romanticism Archived 2008-12-08 at the Wayback Machine.". designboom.com. Retrieved on October 21, 2008.
Jump up ^ Wolf, 28
Jump up ^ Vaughan, 122
Jump up ^ Malerei des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts
Jump up ^ Vaughan, 86
Jump up ^ Vaughan, 124
^ Jump up to: a b Vaughan, 94
Jump up ^ Wolf, 52
Jump up ^ "A German Dream: Masterpieces of Romanticism from the Nationalgalerie Berlin". National Gallery of Ireland, September 2004. Retrieved on November 21, 2008.
Jump up ^ Vaughan, 162
Jump up ^ Siege, 102
Jump up ^ Vaughan, 115
Jump up ^ Vaughan, 301
Jump up ^ Vaughan, 32
Jump up ^ Vaughan, 37
Jump up ^ Wolf, 94
Jump up ^ Vaughan, 50
Jump up ^ Griffiths, Antony and Carey, Francis; German Printmaking in the Age of Goethe, p. 206, 1994, British Museum Press, ISBN 0-7141-1659-9
Jump up ^ Vaughan, 191
Jump up ^ Vaughan, 271
Jump up ^ Siegel, 131
Sources[edit]
Siegel, Linda. Caspar David Friedrich and the Age of German Romanticism. Branden Publishing Co, 1978. ISBN 0-8283-1659-7.
Vaughan, William. Friedrich. London: Phaidon Press, 2004. ISBN 0-7148-4060-2.
Wolf, Norbert. Friedrich. Cologne: Taschen, 2003. ISBN 3-8228-2293-0.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Caspar David Friedrich.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Caspar David Friedrich
Caspar David Friedrich Foundation
Hermitage Museum Archive
Web Gallery of Art - collection of Friedrich's works
Artcyclopedia - links to Friedrich's pictures from Image Archives, articles etc.
Biographical timeline, Hamburg Kunsthalle

[show]
v
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Caspar David Friedrich
List of works
Selected
paintings
Cairn in Snow (1807)
The Monk by the Sea (1808–10)
The Abbey in the Oakwood (1809–10)
Mountain Landscape with Rainbow (1809–10)
Wanderer above the Sea of Fog (1818)
Chalk Cliffs on Rügen (1818)
Two Men Contemplating the Moon (1819–1820)
The Lonely Tree (1822)
Moonrise by the Sea (1822)
The Tree of Crows (1822)
The Sea of Ice (1823–24)
Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon (1824)
The Stages of Life (1835)
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Fontanelle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the human anatomical feature. For other uses, see Fontanelle (disambiguation).
"Soft spot" redirects here. For the Clem Snide album, see Soft Spot.
Fontanelle
The skull at birth, showing the anterior and posterior fontanelles.
The skull at birth, showing the lateral fontanelles.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
fonticuli cranii
TA
A02.1.00.027
FMA
75437
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
A fontanelle (or fontanel) (colloquially, soft spot) is an anatomical feature of the infant human skull comprising any of the soft membranous gaps (sutures) between the cranial bones that make up the calvaria of a fetus or an infant.[1] Fontanelles allow for rapid stretching and deformation of the neurocranium as the brain expands faster than the surrounding bone can grow.[2] Premature complete ossification of the sutures is called craniosynostosis.
After infancy, the anterior fontanelle is known as the bregma.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Closure
2 Clinical significance
2.1 Disease
2.1.1 Fontanelles – bulging
2.1.2 Fontanelles – sunken
2.1.3 Fontanelles – enlarged
3 In other animals
3.1 In dogs
4 Additional images
5 References
Structure[edit]
The skull of a baby consists of five main bones: two frontal bones, two parietal bones, and one occipital bone. These are joined by fibrous sutures, which allow movement that facilitates childbirth and brain growth.
Posterior fontanelle is triangle-shaped. It lies at the junction between the sagittal suture and lambdoid suture. At birth, the skull features a small posterior fontanelle with an open area covered by a tough membrane, where the two parietal bones adjoin the occipital bone (at the lambda). The posterior fontanelles ossify within 2 or 3 months after birth. This is called intramembranous ossification. The mesenchymal connective tissue turns into bone tissue.
Anterior fontanelle is a diamond-shaped membrane-filled space located between the two frontal and two parietal bones of the developing fetal skull. It persists until approximately 18 months after birth. It is at the junction of the coronal suture and sagittal suture. The fetal anterior fontanelle may be palpated until 18 months. In cleidocranial dysostosis, however, it is often late in closing or may never close. Examination of an infant includes palpating the anterior fontanelle.
Two smaller fontanelles are located on each side of the head, more anteriorly the sphenoidal or anterolateral fontanelle (between the sphenoid, parietal, temporal, and frontal bones) and more posteriorly the mastoid or posterolateral fontanelle (between the temporal, occipital, and parietal bones).
During birth, fontanelles enable the bony plates of the skull to flex, allowing the child's head to pass through the birth canal. The ossification of the bones of the skull causes the anterior fontanelle to close over by 9 to 18 months.[3] The sphenoidal and posterior fontanelles close during the first few months of life. The closures eventually form the sutures of the neurocranium. Other than the anterior and posterior fontanelles, the mastoid fontanelle and the sphenoidal fontanelle are also significant.
Closure[edit]
In humans, the sequence of fontanelle closure is as follows:[2][4]
The posterior fontanelle generally closes 2 to 3 months after birth;
The sphenoidal fontanelle is the next to close around 6 months after birth;
The mastoid fontanelle closes next from 6 to 18 months after birth; and
The anterior fontanelle is generally the last to close between 18–24 months.
Clinical significance[edit]
The fontanelle may pulsate, and although the precise cause of this is not known, it is perfectly normal and seems to echo the heartbeat, perhaps via the arterial pulse within the brain vasculature, or in the meninges. This pulsating action is how the soft spot got its name – fontanelle is borrowed from the old French word fontenele, which is a diminutive of fontaine, meaning "spring". It is assumed that the term spring is used because of the analogy of the dent in a rock or earth where a spring arises.[5]
Parents may worry that their infant may be more prone to injury at the fontanelles. In fact, although they may colloquially be called "soft-spots", the membrane covering the fontanelles is extremely tough and difficult to penetrate.[6]
Fontanelles allow the infant brain to be imaged using ultrasonography. Once they are closed, most of the brain is inaccessible to ultrasound imaging, because the bony skull presents an acoustic barrier.[6]
Disease[edit]
Fontanelles – bulging[edit]
A very tense or bulging anterior fontanelle indicates raised intracranial pressure. Increased cranial pressure in infants may cause the fontanelles to bulge or the head to begin to enlarge abnormally.[7] It can occur due to:[4]
Encephalitis – swelling (inflammation) of the brain, most often due to infections
Hydrocephalus – a buildup of fluid inside the skull
Meningitis—infection of the membranes covering the brain
Abusive Head Trauma (AHT) previously called Shaken Baby Syndrome
Fontanelles – sunken[edit]
A sunken (also called "depressed") fontanelle indicates dehydration or malnutrition.[8]
Baby anterior fontanelle 1 month
Fontanelles – enlarged[edit]
The fontanelles may be enlarged, may be slow to close or may never close most commonly due to causes like:[9]
Down syndrome
Hydrocephalus
Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR)
Premature birth
Rarer causes include:[9]
Achondroplasia
Apert syndrome
Cleidocranial dysostosis
Congenital rubella
Neonatal hypothyroidism
Osteogenesis imperfecta
Rickets
In other animals[edit]
In apes the fontanelles fuse soon after birth. In chimpanzees the anterior fontanelle is fully closed by 3 months of age.[2]
In dogs[edit]
One of the more serious problems that can affect canines is known as an "open fontanelle," which occurs when the skull bones at the top of the head fail to close. The problem is often found in conjunction with hydrocephalus, which is a condition in which too much fluid is found within and around the brain, placing pressure on the brain and surrounding tissues. Often the head will appear dome-shaped, and the open fontanelle is noticeable as a "soft spot" on the top of the dog's head. The fluid-filled spaces within the brain, known as ventricles, also become swollen. The increased pressure damages or prevents the development of brain tissue.[10]
Not all open fontanelles are connected with hydrocephalus. In many young dogs the skull bones are not fused at birth, but instead will close slowly over a three- to six-month period. Occasionally these bones fail to close, but the dog is still healthy. In these cases, however, the dog's owners need to be very careful, since any injury or bumps to the animal's head could cause significant brain damage, as well as conditions like epilepsy.
Additional images[edit]
Fontanelle.
Anterior fontanelle.
Cranial sutures shown from top of head.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "fontanelle". TheFreeDictionary. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Beasley, Melanie. "Age of Closure of Fontanelles / Sutures". The Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA). Retrieved 24 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "USMLE Step 2: Secrets".editor1=Theodore X. O'Connell.editor2=Adam Brochert.book=USMLE Step 2: Secrets.ed=3rd.page=271
^ Jump up to: a b MedlinePlus Encyclopedia Fontanelles - bulging
Jump up ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 2016-04-02.
^ Jump up to: a b "Fontanels". Boundless. Retrieved 3 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Waxman, Stephen G. Clinical Neuroanatomy. 25th ed. New York: Lange Medical /McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division, 2003.
Jump up ^ MedlinePlus Encyclopedia Fontanelles - sunken
^ Jump up to: a b MedlinePlus Encyclopedia Fontanelles - enlarged
Jump up ^ "Open Skull Bones May, May Not Be Sign of Deadly Disorder". Terrificpets.com. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fontanelle (anatomy).
[hide]
v
t
e
Compound structures of skull
Neurocranium
Calvaria
Diploë
Asterion
Pterion
Stephanion
Inion
Bregma
Lambda
Fossae
anterior
middle
posterior
cranial cavity
Base of skull
Fontanelle
anterior
posterior
sphenoidal
mastoid
Facial skeleton
Nasion
Gonion
Both
dacryon
zygomatic arch
temporal fossa
infratemporal fossa
pterygomaxillary fissure
pterygopalatine fossa
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fontanelle&oldid=825832477"
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Wolves in Great Britain
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Wolves were once present in Great Britain. Early writing from Roman and later Saxon chronicles indicate that wolves appear to have been extraordinarily numerous on the island.[1] Unlike other British animals, wolves were unaffected by island dwarfism,[2] with certain skeletal remains indicating that they may have grown as large as Arctic wolves.[3] The species was exterminated from Britain through a combination of deforestation and active hunting through bounty systems.
Contents
[hide]
1 Past presence and extinction
1.1 England and Wales
1.2 Scotland
2 Folklore and literature
3 Fossil finds
4 Proposed reintroduction to Scotland and England
5 See also
6 References
Past presence and extinction[edit]
England and Wales[edit]
An Anglo Saxon wolf hunt, as illustrated in The British wolf-hunters: A Tale of England in the Olden Time by Thomas Miller.
Humphrey Head, a limestone outcrop which juts into the sea at the entrance to the Kent estuary and is allegedly the place where the last wolf in England was killed in the 14th century.
Certain historians write that in 950, King Athelstan imposed an annual tribute of 300 wolf skins on Welsh king Hywel Dda,[4] while William of Malmesbury states that Athelstan requested gold and silver, and that it was his nephew Edgar the Peaceful who gave up that fine and instead demanded a tribute of wolf skins on King Constantine of Wales. Wolves at that time were especially numerous in the districts bordering Wales, which were heavily forested.[5]
This imposition was maintained until the Norman conquest of England.[4] At the time, several criminals, rather than being put to death, would be ordered to provide a certain number of wolf tongues annually.[6] The monk Galfrid, whilst writing about the miracles of St. Cuthbert seven centuries earlier, observed that wolves were so numerous in Northumbria, that it was virtually impossible for even the richest flock-masters to protect their sheep, despite employing many men for the job. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that the month of January was known as “Wolf monath”, as this was the first full month of wolf hunting by the nobility. Officially, this hunting season would end on March 25; thus it encompassed the cubbing season, when wolves were at their most vulnerable, and their fur was of greater quality.[1]
The Norman kings (reigning from 1066 to 1154) employed servants as wolf hunters and many held lands granted on condition that they fulfilled this duty. William the Conqueror granted the lordship of Riddesdale in Northumberland to Robert de Umfraville on condition that he defend that land from enemies and wolves.[6] There were no restrictions on or penalties for the hunting of wolves, except in royal game reserves, under the reasoning that the temptation for a commoner to shoot a deer there would be too great.[7]
English wolves were more often trapped than hunted. Indeed, the Wolfhunt family, who resided in Peak forest in the 13th century, would march into the forest in March and December, and place pitch in the areas wolves frequented. At that time of year, wolves would have had greater difficulty in smelling the pitch than at others. During the dry summers, they would enter the forest to destroy cubs.[5] Gerald of Wales wrote of how wolves in Holywell ate the corpses resulting from Henry II’s punitive expedition to Wales in 1165.[1]
King John gave a premium of 10 shillings for the capture of two wolves.[6] King Edward I, who reigned from 1272 to 1307, ordered the total extermination of all wolves in his kingdom and personally employed one Peter Corbet, with instructions to destroy wolves in the counties of Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Shropshire and Staffordshire – areas near to and including some of the Welsh Marches, where wolves were more common than in the southern areas of England.[8]
In the forty-third year of Edward III's rule, a Thomas Engaine held lands in Pytchley in the county of Northampton, on the condition that he find special hunting dogs to kill wolves in the counties of Northampton, Rutland, Oxford, Essex and Buckingham. In the eleventh year of Henry VI's reign (1433), a Sir Robert Plumpton held a bovate of land called “Wolf hunt land” in Nottingham, by service of winding a horn and chasing or frightening the wolves in Sherwood Forest. The wolf is generally thought to have become extinct in England during the reign of Henry VII (1485–1509), or at least very rare. By this time, wolves had become limited to the Lancashire forests of Blackburnshire and Bowland, the wilder parts of the Derbyshire Peak District, and the Yorkshire Wolds. Indeed, wolf bounties were still maintained in the East Riding until the early 19th century.[5]
Scotland[edit]
A small sea stack on Handa, where the Scots once buried their dead to prevent their graves from being desecrated by wolves.
In Scotland, during the reign of James VI, wolves were considered such a threat to travellers that special houses called spittals were erected on the highways for protection.[9] In Sutherland, wolves dug up graves so frequently that the inhabitants of Eddrachillis resorted to burying their dead on the island of Handa, Scotland.[1]
On Ederachillis’ shore
The grey wolf lies in wait-
Woe to the broken door,
Woe to the loosened gate,
And the groping wretch whom sleety fogs
On the trackless moor belate.
The lean and hungry wolf,
With his fangs so sharp and white,
His starveling body pinched
By the frost of a northern night,
And his pitiless eyes that scare the dark
With their green and threatening light.
[…]
He climeth the guarding dyke,
He leapeth the hurdle bars,
He steals the sheep from the pen,
And the fish from the boat-house spars,
And he digs the dead from out of the sod,
And gnaws them under the stars.
[…]
Thus every grave we dug
The hungry wolf uptore,
And every morn the sod
Was strewn with bones and gore:
Our mother-earth had denied us rest
On Ederchaillis’ shore
—  The Book of Highland Minstrelsy, 1846, pp. 256-258
Island burial was a practice also adopted on Tanera Mòr and on Inishail, while in Atholl, coffins were made wolf-proof by building them out of five flagstones. Wolves likely became extinct in the Scottish Lowlands during the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries, when immense tracts of forest were cleared.[1] James I passed a law in 1427 requiring three wolf hunts a year between 25 April and 1 August, coinciding with the wolf's cubbing season.[4] Scottish wolf populations reached a peak during the second half of the 16th century. Mary, Queen of Scots is known to have hunted wolves in the forest of Atholl in 1563.[4]
The wolves later caused such damage to the cattle herds of Sutherland that in 1577, James VI made it compulsory to hunt wolves three times a year.[1] Stories of the killing of the alleged last wolf of Scotland vary. Official records indicate that the last Scottish wolf was killed by Sir Ewen Cameron in 1680 in Killiecrankie (Perthshire),[1][10] but there are reports that wolves survived in Scotland up until the 18th century,[8] and a tale even exists of one being seen as late as 1888.[11]
Folklore and literature[edit]
Gelert by Charles Burton Barber (1845-1894).
In the Welsh tale of Gelert, Llywelyn the Great, Prince of Gwynedd, killed his faithful dog Gelert after finding him covered in blood which he presumed belonged to his baby son. Only later does he discover that his son is still alive, and that the blood belonged to a wolf which Gelert killed in defence of the young prince. In Welsh mythology, both St. Ciwa the "Wolf Girl" and Bairre (an ancestor of Amergin Glúingel) are said to have been suckled by wolves.[12]
Scottish folklore tells of how an old man in Morayshire named MacQueen of Findhorn killed the last wolf in 1743.[8]
Fossil finds[edit]
Illustration of the diseased jawbone of a young wolf from Oreston.
Illustration of a wolf skull excavated from Kents Cavern.
Wolf remains in the Kirkdale Cave were noted to be scanty when compared with the prominence of cave hyena bones. Cuvier later pointed out that the number of wolf bones in Kirkdale was even lower than originally thought, as a lot of teeth first referred to as belonging to wolves turned out to be those of juvenile hyenas. The few positively identified wolf remains were thought to have been transported to the cave system by hyenas for consumption. William Buckland, in his Reliquiae Diluvianae, wrote that he only found one molar tooth which could be positively identified as being that of a wolf, while other bone fragments were indistinguishable from those of domestic dogs.[3]
In the Paviland limestone caves of the Gower Peninsula in south Wales, the jaw, a heel bone and several metatarsals were found of a large canid, though it was impossible to definitively prove that they belonged to a wolf rather than a large dog.[3]
In a series of caves discovered in a quarry in Oreston, Plymouth, a Mr. Whidbey found several bones and teeth of a species of canis indistinguishable from modern wolves. Richard Owen examined a jaw bone excavated from Oreston, which he remarked was from a subadult animal with evidence of having been enlarged by exotosis and ulceration, probably due to a fight with another wolf. The other bones showed evidence of having been gnawed by small animals, and many were further damaged by workmen in their efforts to extricate them from the clay. Unlike those of the Kirkdale wolves, the Oreston remains showed no evidence of having been gnawed on by hyenas.[3]
An almost entire skull with missing teeth was discovered in Kents Cavern by a Mr. Mac Enery. The skull was exactly equal in size to that of an Arctic wolf, the only notable differences being that the sectorial molar was slightly larger and the lower border of the jaw was more convex. It was positively identified as being that of a wolf by its low and contracted forehead.[3]
Proposed reintroduction to Scotland and England[edit]
In 1999, Dr. Martyn Gorman, senior lecturer in zoology at Aberdeen University and vice chairman of the UK Mammal Society, called for a reintroduction of wolves to the Scottish Highlands and English countryside in order to deal with the then 350,000 red deer damaging young trees in commercial forests. Scottish National Heritage considered re-establishing carefully controlled colonies of wolves, but shelved the idea following an outcry from sheep farmers.[13]
In 2002, Paul van Vlissingen, a wealthy landowner at Letterewe, Achnasheen, Ross-shire, in the western Highlands, proposed the reintroduction of both wolves and lynxes to Scotland and England, stating that current deer-culling methods were inadequate, and that wolves would boost the Scottish tourist industry.[14]
In 2007, British and Norwegian researchers who included experts from the Imperial College London said that wolf reintroduction into the Scottish Highlands and English countryside would aid in the re-establishment of plants and birds currently hampered by the deer population. Their study also assessed people's attitudes towards the idea of releasing wolves into the wild. While the public were generally positive, people living in rural areas were more sensitive, though they were open to the idea provided they would be reimbursed for livestock losses.[15]
Richard Morley, of the Wolves and Humans Foundation (formerly The Wolf Society of Great Britain), forecast in 2007 that public support for wolf reintroduction would grow over the next 15 years, though he criticised previous talks as being too "simple or romantic". He stated that although wolves would be good for tourism, farmers and crofters had serious concerns about the effect wolves could have on their livestock, particularly sheep, that had to be acknowledged.[16]
Although the prospect of reintroducing wolves and other large carnivores in the Highlands of Scotland remains highly controversial, there are some who are already making plans for reintroductions. Paul Lister is the laird of Alladale Estate in the Caledonian Forest of North Scotland, and he has plans to reintroduce large carnivores into his wildlife reserve, such as wolves, lynx, and bears[17]. Many of the arguments against this kind of reintroduction are due to the potential impacts these animals could have on farming, but Lister argues that this would not be a problem in Alladale as there is very little farming in the area that could be affected. This type of reintroduction could be beneficial for the economy and ecology of the UK, just as it has in the U.S. In 1995, wolves were reintroduced into Yellowstone National Park.[18], which transformed the ecology of the area, allowing forests to regenerate and biodiversity to increase. Wolf related tourism also brings $35.5 million annually to Wyoming.[19].
See also[edit]
Wolves in Ireland
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Perry, Richard (1978). Wildlife in Britain and Ireland. London: Taylor and Francis. ISBN 978-0-85664-306-4.
Jump up ^ Harting, James Edmund (1 June 2009). "British Animals Extinct Within Historic Times With Some Account of British Wild White Cattle". BiblioBazaar. Retrieved 30 December 2017 – via Google Books.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Owen, Richard (1846). A History of British Fossil Mammals, and Birds. London: J. Van Voorst. pp. 124–131.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Buczacki, Stefan (2005). Fauna Britannica. Hamlyn. p. 528. ISBN 0-600-61392-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c Strutt, Joseph (1801). "The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England: From the Earliest Period, Including the Rural and Domestic Recreations, May Games, Mummeries, Pageants, Processions and Pompous Spectacles". Methuen & Company. Retrieved 30 December 2017 – via Google Books.
^ Jump up to: a b c The Progressive English reading books. Nelson Thomas and Sons Ltd. 1862.
Jump up ^ Griffin, Emma (2007). Blood Sport: Hunting in Britain Since 1066. p. 296. ISBN 0-300-11628-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c Stanmore, Ivy. "The Disappearance of Wolves in the British Isles". Wolf Song of Alaska. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
Jump up ^ Matthews, Richard (1995). Nightmares of Nature. p. 256. ISBN 0-00-220015-5.
Jump up ^ Shoberl, Frederic (1834). Natural History of Quadrupeds. J. Harris.
Jump up ^ "The Dionard Wolf". Lastwolf.net. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Matthews, John; Berk, Ari (2002). Celtic Totem Animals. Red Wheel. ISBN 978-1-59003-022-6.
Jump up ^ "Call for return of Scottish wolves". BBC News. 17 September 1999.
Jump up ^ "Call for wolves to be reintroduced". BBC News. 25 June 2002.
Jump up ^ "Wild wolves 'good for ecosystems'". BBC News. 31 January 2007.
Jump up ^ "Wolves debate turned into a play". BBC News. 18 October 2009.
Jump up ^ "The Big Fang Theory: Could wolves help regenerate Highland Scotland?". The Herald. 25 March 2017. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Ripple, W. J.; Beschta, R. L. (January 2012). "Trophic cascades in Yellowstone: The first 15 years after wolf reintroduction". Biological Conservation. Elsevier Ltd. 145 (1): 205–213. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.11.005.
Jump up ^ "The Economic Benefits of Wolves". Defenders of Wildlife. 24 April 2014. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
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Elizabeth Bennet
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For other people with similar names, see Elizabeth Bennett.
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Elizabeth Bennet
Elizabeth Bennet, a fictional character appearing in the novel Pride and Prejudice, depicted by C. E. Brock
Full name
Elizabeth, Mrs Fitzwilliam Darcy
Miss Elizabeth Bennet, formerly
Gender
Female
Age
20
Income
£50 per annum (Interest on £1,000 from her mother's fortune by settlement upon her death.)
Primary residence
Longbourn, near Meryton, Hertfordshire
Family
Spouse(s)
Fitzwilliam Darcy
Romantic interest(s)
Mr. William Collins
Lt. George Wickham
Col. Fitzwilliam
Mr. Fitzwilliam Darcy
Parents
Mr. and Mrs. Bennet
Sibling(s)
Jane Bennet
Mary Bennet
Catherine "Kitty" Bennet
Lydia Bennet
Elizabeth and Mr. Darcy by Hugh Thomson, 1894
Elizabeth Bennet is the protagonist in the 1813 novel Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen. She is often referred to as Eliza or Lizzy by her friends and family. Elizabeth is the second child in a family of five daughters. Though the circumstances of the time and environment push her to seek a marriage of convenience for economic security, Elizabeth wishes to marry for love.
Elizabeth is regarded as the most admirable and endearing of Austen's heroines.[1] She is considered one of the most beloved characters in British literature[2] because of her complexity. Austen herself described Elizabeth as "as delightful a creature as ever appeared in print."[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Analysis
2.1 An unconventional character
3 In popular culture
4 Depictions in film and television
4.1 Film
4.2 Television
5 References
6 Bibliography
Background[edit]
Elizabeth is the second eldest of the five Bennet sisters of the Longbourn estate, situated near the fictional market village of Meryton in Hertfordshire, England. She is 20 years old at the beginning of the novel.[4] Elizabeth is described as an intelligent young woman, with "a lively, playful disposition, which delighted in anything ridiculous". She often presents a playful good-natured impertinence that does not offend. Early in the novel she is depicted as being personally proud of her wit and her accuracy in judging the social behaviour and intentions of others.
Her father is a landowner, but his daughters cannot inherit because the estate is entailed upon the male line (it can only be inherited by male relatives). Upon his death, Longbourn will therefore be inherited by his cousin and nearest male relation, Mr. William Collins, a clergyman for the Rosings Estate in Kent owned by Lady Catherine de Bourgh. This future provides the cause of Mrs. Bennet's eagerness to have her daughters married off to wealthy men.
Elizabeth is her father's favourite, described by him as having "something more of quickness than her sisters". In contrast, she is the least dear to her mother, especially after Elizabeth refuses a marriage proposal from Mr Collins. Her mother tends to contrast her negatively with her sisters Jane and Lydia, whom she considers superior in beauty and disposition, respectively, and does not understand her father's preference. Elizabeth is often upset and embarrassed by the impropriety and silliness of her mother and three younger sisters.
Within her neighbourhood Elizabeth is considered a beauty and a charming young woman with "fine eyes", to which Mr. Darcy is first drawn. Darcy is later attracted more particularly to her "light and pleasing" figure, the "easy playfulness" of her manners, her mind and personality, and eventually considers her "one of the handsomest women" in his acquaintance.
Analysis[edit]
From the beginning, opinions have been divided on the character, Anne Isabella Milbanke gave a glowing review of the novel, while Mary Russell Mitford criticizes Elizabeth's lack of taste.[5] The modern exegetes are torn between admiration for the vitality of the character and the disappointment of seeing Elizabeth intentionally suppress her verve[6] and submit, at least outwardly, to male authority.[7] In Susan Fraiman's essay 'The Humiliation of Elizabeth Bennett', the author criticises the fact that Elizabeth must forgo her development as a woman in order to ensure the success of "ties among men [such as her father and Darcy] with agendas of their own."[8] The British literacy critic Robert Irvine stated that the reference in the novel to the militia being mobilised and lacking sufficient barracks, requiring them to set up camps in the countryside dates the settling of the novel to the years 1793-1795 as the militia was moblised in 1793 after France declared war on the United Kingdom and the last of the barracks for the militia were completed by 1796.[9] Irvine argued that a central concern in Britain in the 1790s, when Austen wrote the first draft of Pride and Prejudice under the title First Impressions was the need for British elites, both national and regional to rally around the flag in face of the challenge from revolutionary France.[10] It is known that Austen was working on First Impressions by 1796 (it is not clear when she began working on the book) and finished off First Impressions in 1797.[11] Irvine states while the character of Elizabeth is a clearly middle-class while Mr. Darcy is part of the aristocracy.[12] Irvine wrote "Elizabeth, in the end, is awed by Pemberly, and her story ends with her delighted submission to Darcy in marriage. It is gratitude that forms the foundation of Elizabeth Bennet's love for Fitzwilliam Darcy: caught in a reciprocal gaze with Darcy's portrait at Pemberly, impressed with the evidence of his social power that surrounds her, Elizabeth 'thought of his regard with a deeper sentiment of gratitude than it had ever raised before'...Elizabeth's desire for Darcy does not happen despite the difference in their social situation: it is produced by that difference, and can be read as a vindication of the hierarchy which constructs that difference in the first place".[13] Irvine observes that Darcy spends about half his time in London while for people in Meryton London is a stylish place that is very far away, observing that a key difference is when one of the Bennett family is ill, they use the services of a local apothecary while Mr. Darcy calls upon a surgeon from London.[14] In this regard, Irvine argued that the marriage of Elizabeth and Darcy stands for the union of local and national elites in Britain implicitly against the challenge to the status quo represented by the French republic.[15]
By contrast, the American scholar Rachel Brownstein argued that Elizabeth rejects two offers of marriage by the time she arrives at Pemberley, and notes in rejecting Mr. Collins that the narrator of the novel paraphrases the feminist Mary Wollstonecraft that Elizabeth cannot love him because she is "a rational creature speaking the truth from her heart".[16] Brownstein notes that it after she reads Darcy's letter following her first rejection of him that leads her to say "Till this moment, I never knew myself".[17] Brownstein further states that Austen has it both ways in depicting Elizabeth as she uses much irony. After Elizabeth rejects Darcy and then realizes she loves him, she comments "no such happy marriage could now teach the admiring multitude what connubial felicity really was" as if she herself is aware that she is a character in a romance novel.[18] Later, she tells Darcy in thanking him for paying off Wickham's debts and ensuring Lydia's marriage might be wrong "for what become of the moral, if our comfort springs from a breach of promise, for I ought not to have mentioned the subject?".[19] Brownstein argues that Austen's ironical way of depicting Elizabeth allows her to present her heroine as both a "proto-feminist" and a "fairy-tale heroine".[20]
Susan Morgan regards Elizabeth's major flaw to be that she is "morally disengaged" - taking much of her philosophy from her father, Elizabeth observes her neighbours, never becoming morally obligated to make a stand.[21] Bennett's self-destination is one of skepticism and opposition to the world around her, and much of the novel concerns Bennett's struggle to find her own place in a world she rejects.[22] Gary Kelly argued that Austen as the daughter of a Church of England minister would have been very familiar with the Anglican view of life as a "romantic journey" in which God watches over stories of human pride, folly, fall and redemption by free will and the ability to learn from one's mistakes.[23] Kelly argued that aspects of the Anglican understanding of life and the universe can be seen in Elizabeth who after rejecting Darcy and then receives his letter explaining his actions rethinks her view of him, and comes to understand that her pride and prejudice had blinded her to who he really was, marking the beginning of her romantic journey of "suffering and endurance" that ends happily for her.[24]
In the early 19th century, there was a genre of "conduct books" settling out what were the rules for "propriety" for young women, and the scholar Mary Poovey argued in her 1984 book The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer examining the "conduct books" noted one of the main messages was that a "proper young lady" never expresses any sexual desire for a man.[25] Poovey argued that in this context that Elizabeth's wit is a merely her ways of defending herself from the rules of "propriety" set out by the conduct books as opposed of being a subversive force.[26] In this regard, Poovey argued that Austen played it safe by having Elizabeth abandon her wit when she falls in love with Darcy, taking her struggle into effort to mortify Darcy's pride instead of seeking him out because she loves him.[27] The conduct books had a double meaning of the word modesty, which meant both to be outwardly polite in one's conduct and to be ignorant of one's sexuality.[28] This double meaning of modesty placed women in a bind, since any young woman who outwardly conformed to expectations of modesty was not really modest at all, as she was attempting to hide her awareness of sexuality.[29] In the novel, when Elizabeth rejects Mr. Collins's marriage proposal, she explains she is being modest in rejecting an offer from a man she cannot love, which leads her to be condemned for not really being modest.[30]
An unconventional character[edit]
In her letter to Cassandra dated 29 January 1813, Jane Austen wrote: "I must confess that I think her as delightful a creature as ever appeared in print, and how I shall be able to tolerate those who do not like her at least I do not know".[31] Austen herself wrote to Cassandra about one fan of her books that "Her liking Darcy & Elizth is enough".[32] The book notes that "Follies and nonsense, whims and inconsistencies" are what delight Elizabeth, which Brownstein noted also applied to Austen as well.[33] This mix of energy and intelligence, and her gaiety and resilience make Elizabeth a true Stendhal heroine according to Tony Tanner, and he adds that there are not many English heroines that we can say that of.[34] Elizabeth Bowen, however, found her charmless, whilst to Gervase Fen she and her sisters were “intolerable...those husband-hunting minxes in Pride and Prejudice”.[35]
In popular culture[edit]
The character of Elizabeth Bennet, marked by intelligence and independent thinking, and her romance with the proud Mr Darcy have carried over into various theatrical retellings. Helen Fielding's novel Bridget Jones's Diary, as well as the film series of the same name, is a modern adaptation of Pride and Prejudice, with Elizabeth as Renée Zellweger's title character. In Gurinder Chadha's Bollywood adaptation, Bride and Prejudice, Aishwarya Rai plays the Elizabeth character, Lalita Bakshi. In the 2008 television film Lost in Austen, actress Gemma Arterton plays a version of Lizzy who switches places with a modern-day young woman. Lily James starred as the zombie-slaying Elizabeth Bennet in the film version of Pride and Prejudice and Zombies, a popular novel by Seth Grahame-Smith.[36]
One of the most notable portrayals of the character has been that of Keira Knightley in Pride & Prejudice, directed by Joe Wright. Knightley received a Best Actress Oscar nomination for her performance.
The character has most recently been used in The Lizzie Bennet Diaries, a project which is partly headed by YouTube vlogger Hank Green, and depicts Elizabeth (played by Ashley Clements) as a modern-day woman in America posting video blogs about her life along with her friend 'Charlotte Lu' a character based on Charlotte Lucas.
Depictions in film and television[edit]
Further information: Jane Austen in popular culture § Pride and Prejudice
Film[edit]
Year
Actress
Role
Film
Notes
1940 Greer Garson Elizabeth Bennet Pride and Prejudice
2003 Kam Heskin Elizabeth Bennet Pride & Prejudice: A Latter-Day Comedy A Modern adaptation of Pride and Prejudice.
2004 Aishwarya Rai Lalita Bakshi Bride and Prejudice A Bollywood adaptation of Pride and Prejudice.
2005 Keira Knightley Elizabeth Bennet Pride & Prejudice Nominated — Academy Award for Best Actress
Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
Nominated — Satellite Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
Nominated — Empire Award for Best Actress
Nominated — Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress
Nominated — Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress
Nominated — London Film Critics' Circle Award for British Actress of the Year
Nominated — Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Actress
Nominated — Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Actress
2016 Lily James Elizabeth Bennet Pride and Prejudice and Zombies Based on the parody novel by Seth Grahame-Smith.
Television[edit]
Year
Actress
Role
Television programme
Notes
1938 Curigwen Lewis Elizabeth Bennet Pride and Prejudice Television film
1949 Madge Evans Elizabeth Bennet The Philco Television Playhouse Season 1, episode 17: "Pride and Prejudice"
1952 Daphne Slater Elizabeth Bennet Pride and Prejudice TV mini-series
1957 Virna Lisi Elisabeth Bennet Orgoglio e pregiudizio An adaptation in Italian.
1958 Jane Downs Elizabeth Bennet Pride and Prejudice TV mini-series
Kay Hawtrey Elizabeth Bennet General Motors Theatre Episode: "Pride and Prejudice". Originally aired 21 December.
1961 Lies Franken Elizabeth Bennet De vier dochters Bennet An adaptation in Dutch.
1967 Celia Bannerman Elizabeth Bennet Pride and Prejudice 6-episode television series.
1980 Elizabeth Garvie Elizabeth Bennet Pride and Prejudice 5-episode television series.
1995 Jennifer Ehle Elizabeth Bennet Pride and Prejudice Six-episode television series. Won - British Academy Television Award for Best Actress
Dee Hannigan Elizabeth Bennet Wishbone Season 1, episode 25: "Furst Impressions"
1997 Julia Lloyd Elizabeth Bennet Red Dwarf Season 7, episode 6: "Beyond a Joke"
2001 Lauren Tom Elizabeth Bennet Futurama Season 3, episode 10: "The Day the Earth Stood Stupid"
2008 Gemma Arterton Elizabeth Bennet Lost in Austen A fantasy adaptation of Pride and Prejudice in which modern woman trades places with Elizabeth Bennet.
2012–2013 Ashley Clements Lizzie Bennet The Lizzie Bennet Diaries Web series. A modern adaptation in which the main character tells the story of Pride and Prejudice through video blogs.
2013 Anna Maxwell Martin Elizabeth Darcy/Mrs Darcy Death Comes to Pemberley Three-part series based on P.D. James's novel about events after Pride and Prejudice.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ William Dean Howells 2009, p. 48
Jump up ^ "SparkNotes: Pride and Prejudice: Analysis of Major Characters". sparknotes.com. Retrieved 19 September 2010. [unreliable source?]
Jump up ^ Wright, Andrew H. "Elizabeth Bennet." Elizabeth Bennet (introduction by Harold Bloom). Broomall: Chelsea House Publishers , 2004. 37–38 . Google Book Search. Web. 22 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Pride and Prejudice. Chapter 29.
Jump up ^ In a letter to Sir William Elford dated December 20, 1814.
Jump up ^ Morrison, Robert, ed. (2005). Jane Austen's Pride and prejudice : a sourcebook. New York, NY [u.a.]: Routledge. p. 83. ISBN 9780415268493.
Jump up ^ Lydia Martin 2007 , p. 201.
Jump up ^ Fraiman, Susan (1993). Unbecoming Women: British Women Writers and the Novel of Development. Columbia University Press. p. 73.
Jump up ^ Irvine, Robert Jane Austen, London: Routledge, 2005 pages 56-57.
Jump up ^ Irvine, Robert Jane Austen, London: Routledge, 2005 page 58.
Jump up ^ Irvine, Robert Jane Austen, London: Routledge, 2005 pages 56.
Jump up ^ Irvine, Robert Jane Austen, London: Routledge, 2005 pages 57 & 59.
Jump up ^ Irvine, Robert Jane Austen, London: Routledge, 2005 page 59.
Jump up ^ Irvine, Robert Jane Austen, London: Routledge, 2005 page 60.
Jump up ^ Irvine, Robert Jane Austen, London: Routledge, 2005 pages 60-61.
Jump up ^ Brownstein, Rachel "Northanger Abbey, Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice" pages 32-57 from The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 page 53.
Jump up ^ Brownstein, Rachel "Northanger Abbey, Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice" pages 32-57 from The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 page 54.
Jump up ^ Brownstein, Rachel "Northanger Abbey, Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice" pages 32-57 from The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 page 54.
Jump up ^ Brownstein, Rachel "Northanger Abbey, Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice" pages 32-57 from The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 page 54.
Jump up ^ Brownstein, Rachel "Northanger Abbey, Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice" pages 32-57 from The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 page 54.
Jump up ^ Morgan, Susan (August 1975). "Intelligence in "Pride and Prejudice"". Modern Philology. 73 (1): 54–68. JSTOR 436104.
Jump up ^ Irvine, Robert Jane Austen, London: Routledge, 2005, page 102.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Gary "Religion and Politics" pages 149-169 from The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austenedited by Edward Copeland and Juliet McMaster, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 page 165.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Gary "Religion and Politics" pages 149-169 from The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austenedited by Edward Copeland and Juliet McMaster, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 page 166.
Jump up ^ Irvine, Robert Jane Austen, London: Routledge, 2005 page 126.
Jump up ^ Irvine, Robert Jane Austen, London: Routledge, 2005 page 126.
Jump up ^ Irvine, Robert Jane Austen, London: Routledge, 2005 page 126.
Jump up ^ Irvine, Robert Jane Austen, London: Routledge, 2005 page 126.
Jump up ^ Irvine, Robert Jane Austen, London: Routledge, 2005 page 126.
Jump up ^ Irvine, Robert Jane Austen, London: Routledge, 2005 page 126.
Jump up ^ "Jane Austen -- Letters -- Other excerpts from letters in Austen-Leigh's "Memoir"". pemberley.com.
Jump up ^ Brownstein, Rachel "Northanger Abbey, Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice" pages 32-57 from The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 page 51.
Jump up ^ Brownstein, Rachel "Northanger Abbey, Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice" pages 32-57 from The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 page 55.
Jump up ^ Tanner, Tony (1986). Jane Austen. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University press. p. 105. ISBN 9780674471740.
Jump up ^ Quoted in R.Jenkyns, A Fine Brush on Ivory (Oxford 2007) p. 85
Jump up ^ Dave McNary. "‘Pride and Prejudice and Zombies’ Casts Lily James, Sam Riley, Bella Heathcote". Variety.
Bibliography[edit]
Jane Austen portal
Fictional characters portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pride and Prejudice.
Austen, Jane (1907). Pride and Prejudice. Dent.
Howells, William Dean (1901). Heroines of Fiction, Volume 1. Harper and Brothers. pp. 37–48.
Nardin, Jane (1973). Those Elegant Decorums: The Concept of Propriety in Jane Austen's Novels. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-236-7.
[show]
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Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice
Characters
Bennet family
Elizabeth Bennet
Fitzwilliam Darcy
William Collins
Lady Catherine de Bourgh
Mr. Wickham
Films
Pride and Prejudice (1940)
Bridget Jones's Diary (2001)
Pride & Prejudice: A Latter-Day Comedy (2003)
Bride and Prejudice (2004 film)
Pride & Prejudice (2005)
Pride and Prejudice and Zombies (2016)
Television
Pride and Prejudice (1958)
Pride and Prejudice (1967)
Pride and Prejudice (1980)
Trishna (1985)
Pride and Prejudice (1995)
Lost in Austen (2008)
Death Comes to Pemberley (2013)
Novels
Darcy's Story (1995)
Bridget Jones's Diary (1996)
Mr. Darcy's Daughters (2003)
Fitzwilliam Darcy, Gentleman
An Assembly Such as This (2003)
Duty and Desire (2004)
These Three Remain (2005)
Austenland (2007)
Love, Lies and Lizzie (2009)
Pride and Prejudice and Zombies (2009 parody)
Pride and Prejudice and Zombies: Dawn of the Dreadfuls (2010 parody)
Death Comes to Pemberley (2011)
Other
First Impressions (1959 musical)
Pride and Prejudice (1993 musical)
"Beyond a Joke" (1997)
Stolthet och fördom (2011 opera)
The Lizzie Bennet Diaries (2012 web series)
Austenland (2013 film)
See also
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Pemberley
List of literary adaptations
[show]
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