text:
Natural heritage
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Natural heritage refers to the sum total of the elements of biodiversity, including flora and fauna , ecosystems and geological structures.
Heritage is that which is inherited from past generations, maintained in the present, and bestowed to future generations. The term "natural heritage", derived from "natural inheritance", pre-dates the term "biodiversity." It is a less scientific term and more easily comprehended in some ways by the wider audience interested in conservation.
The term was used in this context in the United States when Jimmy Carter set up the Georgia Heritage Trust [1] while he was governor of Georgia;[2] Carter's trust dealt with both natural and cultural heritage.[3][4] It would appear that Carter picked the term up from Lyndon Johnson,[5] who used it in a 1966 Message to Congress. (He may have gotten the term from his wife Lady Bird Johnson who was personally interested in conservation.) President Johnson signed the Wilderness Act of 1964.
The term "Natural Heritage" was picked up by the Science Division of The Nature Conservancy when, under Robert E. Jenkins, Jr., it launched in 1974 what ultimately became the network of state natural heritage programs -- one in each state, all using the same methodology and all supported permanently by state governments because they scientifically document conservation priorities and facilitate science-based environmental reviews. When this network was extended outside the United States, the term "Conservation Data Center (or Centre)" was suggested by Guillermo Mann and came to be preferred for programs outside the US[citation needed]. Despite the name difference, these programs, too, use the same core methodology as the 50 state natural heritage programs.
Legal status[edit]
An important site of natural heritage or cultural heritage can be listed as a World Heritage Site by the World Heritage Committee of UNESCO. The UNESCO programme, catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humanity. As of March 2012, there are 936 World Heritage Sites: 725 cultural, 183 natural, and 28 mixed properties, in 153 countries.
The 1972 UNESCO World Heritage Convention established that biological resources, such as plants, were the common heritage of mankind or as was expressed in the preamble: "need to be preserved as part of the world heritage of mankind as a whole.". These rules probably inspired the creation of great public banks of genetic resources, located outside the source-countries.
New global agreements (e.g., the Convention on Biological Diversity), now give sovereign national rights over biological resources (not property). The idea of static conservation of biodiversity is disappearing and being replaced by the idea of dynamic conservation, through the notion of resource and innovation.
The new agreements commit countries to conserve biodiversity, develop resources for sustainability and share the benefits resulting from their use. Under new rules, it is expected that bioprospecting or collection of natural products has to be allowed by the biodiversity-rich country, in exchange for a share of the benefits.
In 2005, the World Heritage Marine Programme was established to protect marine areas with Outstanding Universal Values.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://maps.csc.noaa.gov/RoisDatabaseEntry/lawDetails.jsp?lawID=107 The creation of the Heritage Trust Commission, Georgia Heritage Trust Act, Official Code of Georgia (O.C.G.A.) Section 12-3-70
Jump up ^ President Jimmy Carter
Jump up ^ http://alumnus.tennessee.edu/issues/contents/spring-2007/ Paul Pritchard, founder and president of the National Park Trust
Jump up ^ p. 311, The Governors of Georgia, 1754-2004 By James F. Cook, ISBN 0-86554-954-0, 2005 Mercer University Press
Jump up ^ Kiely, Kathy (2009-01-22). "Lady Bird Johnson dies at 94". USA Today. Retrieved 2010-05-20.
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Christmas Eve
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Christmas night" redirects here. For the album by the Cambridge Singers, see Christmas Night.
For other uses, see Christmas Eve (disambiguation).
Christmas Eve
Julaftonen (Christmas Eve), a 1904–05 watercolor painting by Carl Larsson
Also called
Christmas Evening
Christmas Vigil
Day before Christmas
Night before Christmas
Observed by
Christians
Many non-Christians[1]
Type
Christian, cultural
Significance
Day or evening preceding the traditional birthday of Jesus
Observances
Gift shopping, gift giving, goodwill greetings, Midnight Mass, other church services, meals, preparations for the arrival of Christmas gift-bringers, preparing for Christmas
Date
24 December (alternatively 5 January 6 or 18 January)[2][3]
Frequency
Annual
Related to
Christmas Day, Christmastide, New Year's Eve
Christmas Eve is the evening or entire day before Christmas Day, the festival commemorating the birth of Jesus.[4] Christmas Day is observed around the world, and Christmas Eve is widely observed as a full or partial holiday in anticipation of Christmas Day. Together, both days are considered one of the most culturally significant celebrations in Christendom and Western society.
Christmas celebrations in the denominations of Western Christianity have long begun on the night of the 24th, due in part to the Christian liturgical day starting at sunset,[5] a practice inherited from Jewish tradition[6] and based on the story of Creation in the Book of Genesis: "And there was evening, and there was morning – the first day."[7] Many churches still ring their church bells and hold prayers in the evening; for example, the Nordic Lutheran churches.[8] Since tradition holds that Jesus was born at night (based in Luke 2:6-8), Midnight Mass is celebrated on Christmas Eve, traditionally at midnight, in commemoration of his birth.[9] The idea of Jesus being born at night is reflected in the fact that Christmas Eve is referred to as Heilige Nacht (Holy Night) in German, Nochebuena (the Good Night) in Spanish and similarly in other expressions of Christmas spirituality, such as the song "Silent Night, Holy Night".
Many other varying cultural traditions and experiences are also associated with Christmas Eve around the world, including the gathering of family and friends, the singing of Christmas carols, the illumination and enjoyment of Christmas lights, trees, and other decorations, the wrapping, exchange and opening of gifts, and general preparation for Christmas Day. Legendary Christmas gift-bearing figures including Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Christkind, and Saint Nicholas are also often said to depart for their annual journey to deliver presents to children around the world on Christmas Eve, although until the Protestant introduction of Christkind in 16th-century Europe,[10] such figures were said to instead deliver presents on the eve of Saint Nicholas' feast day (6 December).
Contents
[hide]
1 Religious traditions
1.1 Western churches
1.2 Eastern churches
1.3 Meals
1.3.1 Bulgaria
1.3.2 France
1.3.3 Italy
1.3.4 Poland
1.3.5 Russia, Ukraine and Lithuania
1.3.6 Serbia
2 Gift giving
3 Christmas Eve around the world
3.1 Celebrations
3.2 In Jewish culture
3.2.1 In contemporary American-Jewish culture
4 Historical events
4.1 Christmas truce
4.2 Apollo 8 reading from Genesis
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Religious traditions[edit]
Western churches[edit]
Midnight Mass is held in many churches toward the end of Christmas Eve, often with dim lighting and traditional decorative accents such as greenery
Roman Catholics and high church Anglicans traditionally celebrate Midnight Mass, which begins either at or sometime before midnight on Christmas Eve. This ceremony, which is held in churches throughout the world, celebrates the birth of Christ, which is believed to have occurred at night. Midnight Mass is popular in Poland (pasterka).
In recent years some churches have scheduled their "Midnight" Mass as early as 7 pm. In Spanish-speaking areas, the Midnight Mass is sometimes referred to as Misa de Gallo, or Missa do Galo in Portuguese ("Rooster's Mass"). In the Philippines, the custom has expanded into the nine-day Simbang Gabi, when Filipinos attend dawn Masses (traditionally beginning around 04:00 to 05:00 PST) from 16 December, continuing daily until Christmas Eve. In 2009 Vatican officials scheduled the Midnight Mass to start at 10 pm so that the 82-year-old Pope Benedict XVI would not have too late a night.[11]
Whilst it does not include any kind of Mass, the Church of Scotland has a service beginning just before midnight, in which carols are sung. The Church of Scotland no longer holds Hogmanay services on New Year's Eve, however. The Christmas Eve Services are still very popular. On Christmas Eve, the Christ Candle in the center of the Advent wreath is traditionally lit in many church services. In candlelight services, while singing Silent Night, each member of the congregation receives a candle and passes along their flame which is first received from the Christ Candle.
Advent wreath, lighting the candle
Lutherans traditionally practice Christmas Eve Eucharistic traditions typical of Germany and Scandinavia. "Krippenspiele" (Nativity plays), special festive music for organ, vocal and brass choirs and candlelight services make Christmas Eve one of the highlights in the Lutheran Church calendar. A nativity scene may be erected indoors or outdoors, and is composed of figurines depicting the infant Jesus resting in a manger, Mary, and Joseph.[12] Other figures in the scene may include angels, shepherds, and various animals. The figures may be made of any material,[13] and arranged in a stable or grotto. The Magi may also appear, and are sometimes not placed in the scene until the week following Christmas to account for their travel time to Bethlehem. While most home nativity scenes are packed away at Christmas or shortly thereafter, nativity scenes in churches usually remain on display until the feast of the Baptism of the Lord.[13]
Christmas Vespers are popular in the early evening, and midnight services are also widespread in regions which are predominantly Lutheran. The old Lutheran tradition of a Christmas Vigil in the early morning hours of Christmas Day (Christmette) can still be found in some regions. In eastern and middle Germany, congregations still continue the tradition of "Quempas singing": separate groups dispersed in various parts of the church sing verses of the song "He whom shepherds once came Praising" (Quem pastores laudavere) responsively.
A nativity scene
Methodists celebrate the evening in different ways. Some, in the early evening, come to their church to celebrate Holy Communion with their families. The mood is very solemn, and the only visible light is the Advent Wreath, and the candles upon the Lord's Table. Others celebrate the evening with services of light, which include singing the song Silent Night as a variety of candles (including personal candles) are lit. Other churches have late evening services perhaps at 11 pm, so that the church can celebrate Christmas Day together with the ringing of bells at midnight. Others offer Christmas Day services as well.
The annual "Nine Lessons and Carols", broadcast from King's College, Cambridge on Christmas Eve, has established itself a Christmas custom in the United Kingdom.[14] It is broadcast outside the UK via the BBC World Service, and is also bought by broadcasters around the world.[14]
Eastern churches[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Annunciation of the Virgin Mary Greek Orthodox Cathedral, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
In the Byzantine Rite, Christmas Eve is referred to as Paramony ("preparation"). It is the concluding day of the Nativity Fast and is observed as a day of strict fasting by those devout Byzantine Christians who are physically capable of doing so. In some traditions, nothing is eaten until the first star appears in the evening sky, in commemoration of the Star of Bethlehem. The liturgical celebration begins earlier in the day with the celebration of the Royal Hours, followed by the Divine Liturgy combined with the celebration of Vespers, during which a large number of passages from the Old Testament are chanted, recounting the history of salvation. After the dismissal at the end of the service, a new candle is brought out into the center of the church and lit, and all gather round and sing the Troparion and Kontakion of the Feast.
In the evening, the All-Night Vigil for the Feast of the Nativity is composed of Great Compline, Matins and the First Hour. The Byzantine services of Christmas Eve are intentionally parallel to those of Good Friday, illustrating the theological point that the purpose of the Incarnation was to make possible the Crucifixion and Resurrection. This is illustrated in Eastern icons of the Nativity, on which the Christ Child is wrapped in swaddling clothes reminiscent of his burial wrappings. The child is also shown lying on a stone, representing the Tomb of Christ, rather than a manger. The Cave of the Nativity is also a reminder of the cave in which Jesus was buried.
The services of Christmas Eve are also similar to those of the Eve of Theophany (Epiphany), and the two Great Feasts are considered one celebration.
In some Orthodox cultures, after the Vesperal Liturgy the family returns home to a festive meal, but one at which Orthodox fasting rules are still observed: no meat or dairy products (milk, cheese, eggs, etc.) are consumed (see below for variations according to nationality). Then they return to the church for the All-Night Vigil.
The next morning, Christmas Day, the Divine Liturgy is celebrated again, but with special features that occur only on Great Feasts of the Lord. After the dismissal of this Liturgy, the faithful customarily greet each other with the kiss of peace and the words: "Christ is Born!", to which the one being greeted responds: "Glorify Him!" (these are the opening words of the Canon of the Nativity that was chanted the night before during the Vigil). This greeting, together with many of the hymns of the feast, continue to be used until the leave-taking of the feast on 29 December.
The first three days of the feast are particularly solemn. The second day is known as the Synaxis of the Theotokos, and commemorates the role of the Virgin Mary in the Nativity of Jesus. The third day is referred to simply as "the Third Day of the Nativity". The Saturday and Sunday following 25 December have special Epistle and Gospel readings assigned to them. 29 December celebrates the Holy Innocents.
Byzantine Christians observe a festal period of twelve days, during which no one in the Church fasts, even on Wednesdays and Fridays, which are normal fasting days throughout the rest of the year. During this time one feast leads into another: 25–31 December is the afterfeast of the Nativity; 2–5 January is the forefeast of the Epiphany.
Meals[edit]
Further information: List of Christmas dishes
Bulgaria[edit]
In Bulgaria, the meal consists of an odd number of lenten dishes in compliance with the rules of fasting. They are usually the traditional sarma, bob chorba (bean soup), fortune kravai (pastry with a fortune in it; also called bogovitsa, vechernik, kolednik), stuffed peppers, nuts, dried fruit, boiled wheat.[15] The meal is often accompanied with wine or Bulgaria's traditional alcoholic beverage rakia, in the past - olovina (a type of homemade rye beer). The meals used to be put on top of hay, directly on the floor, together with a ploughshare or a coulter.[16]
France[edit]
In French-speaking places, Réveillon is a long dinner eaten on Christmas Eve.
Italy[edit]
While other Christian families throughout the world celebrate the Christmas Eve meal with various meats, Italians (especially Sicilians) celebrate the traditional Catholic "Feast of the Seven Fishes" which was historically served after a 24-hour fasting period. Although Christmas fasting is no longer a popular custom, some Italian-Americans still enjoy a meatless Christmas Eve feast[17] and attend the Midnight Mass. In various cultures, a festive dinner is traditionally served for the family and close friends in attendance, when the first star (usually Sirius) arrives on the sky.
Poland[edit]
Traditional Polish Wigilia meal
A similar tradition (Wigilia, or 'Christmas Vigil') exists in Poland. The number of dishes used to be traditionally an odd number (usually 5, 7, 9, or 11.)[18] According to the Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego (Etymological Dictionary of the Polish Language) by Aleksander Brückner, the number of dishes was traditionally related to social class: the peasants' vigil consisted of 5 or 7 dishes, the gentry usually had 9, and the aristocracy, 11 dishes, but the even number 12 is also found today to remember the 12 disciples. It is obligatory to try a portion of all of them. Some traditions specify that the number of guests cannot be odd.[19][20]
In Poland, gifts are unwrapped on the Christmas Eve, as opposed to the Christmas Day.
Russia, Ukraine and Lithuania[edit]
In Russia, Ukraine, and Lithuania, a traditional meatless 12-dishes Christmas Eve Supper is served on Christmas Eve before opening gifts. This is known as the "Holy Meal" (Kūčios in Lithuania). The table is spread with a white cloth symbolic of the swaddling clothes the Child Jesus was wrapped in, and a large white candle stands in the center of the table symbolizing Christ the Light of the World. Next to it is a round loaf of bread symbolizing Christ Bread of Life. Hay is often displayed either on the table or as a decoration in the room, reminiscent of the manger in Bethlehem. The twelve dishes (which differ by nationality or region) symbolize the Twelve Apostles.
The Holy Meal was a common Eastern Orthodox tradition in the Russian Empire, but during the era of the Soviet Union it was greatly discouraged as a result of the official atheism of the former regime. It is coming back in Russia and continues to be popular in Ukraine.
The main attributes of Holy Meal in Ukraine are kutia, a poppy seed, honey and wheat dish, and uzvar, a drink made from reconstituted dried fruits. Other typical dishes are borscht, Varenyky, and dishes made of fish, phaseolus and cabbage.
Serbia[edit]
Candles on Christmas Eve 2010
In accordance with the Christmas traditions of the Serbs, their festive meal has a copious and diverse selection of foods, although it is prepared according to the rules of fasting.
As well as a round, unleavened loaf of bread and salt, which are necessary, this meal may comprise roast fish, cooked beans, sauerkraut, noodles with ground walnuts, honey, and wine.
Families in some Slavic countries leave an empty place at the table for guests (alluding to Mary and Joseph looking for shelter in Bethlehem).
Gift giving[edit]
Christmas presents under the Christmas tree
During the Reformation in 16th- and 17th-century Europe, many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, and the date of giving gifts changed from 6 December to Christmas Eve.[21] It is the night when Santa Claus makes his rounds delivering gifts to good children. Many trace the custom of giving gifts to the Magi who brought gifts for the Christ child in the manger.
In the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Croatia and Hungary, where Saint Nicholas (sv. Mikuláš/szent Mikulás) gives his sweet gifts on 6 December, the Christmas gift-giver is the Child Jesus (Ježíšek in Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian, Ježiško in Slovak and Isusek in Croatian).[22]
In most parts of Austria, Germany, Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic and Switzerland, presents are traditionally exchanged on the evening of 24 December. Children are commonly told that presents were brought either by the Christkind (German for Christ child),[23] or by the Weihnachtsmann. Both leave the gifts, but are in most families not seen doing so. In Germany, the gifts are also brought on 6 December by "the Nikolaus" with his helper Knecht Ruprecht.
Christmas tree with presents hanging on the tree
In Estonia Jõuluvana, in Finland Joulupukki, in Norway Julenissen and in Sweden Jultomten, personally meets children and gives presents in the evening of Christmas Eve.[24][25]
In Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Bulgaria, Colombia, Denmark, Estonia, the Faroe Islands, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Slovakia, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Quebec, Romania, Uruguay, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland and the Czech Republic, Christmas presents are opened mostly on the evening of the 24th – following German tradition, this is also the practice among the British Royal Family since it was introduced by Queen Victoria and Albert, Prince Consort[26][27] – while in Italy, the United States, the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, English Canada, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia, this occurs mostly on the morning of Christmas Day.
In other Latin American countries, people stay awake until midnight, when they open the presents.
In Spain, gifts are traditionally opened on the morning of 6 January, Epiphany day ("Día de Los Tres Reyes Magos"),[28] though in some other countries, like Argentina and Uruguay, people receive presents both around Christmas and on the morning of Epiphany day.
In Belgium and the Netherlands Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas and his companion Zwarte Piet deliver presents to children and adults alike on the evening of 5 December, the eve of his nameday.[29] On 24 December they go to church or watch the late-night mass on TV, or have a meal.[citation needed]
Christmas Eve around the world[edit]
A Christmas Eve candlelight service in Baghdad, Iraq
Christmas Eve is celebrated in different ways around the world, varying by country and region. Elements common to many areas of the world include the attendance of special religious observances such as a midnight Mass or Vespers, and the giving and receiving of presents. Along with Easter, Christmastime is one of the most important periods on the Christian calendar, and is often closely connected to other holidays at this time of year, such as Advent, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, St. Nicholas Day, St. Stephen's Day, New Year's, and the Feast of the Epiphany.
Celebrations[edit]
Among Christians, as well as non-Christians who celebrate Christmas, the significant amount of vacation travel, and travel back to family homes, that takes place in the lead-up to Christmas means that Christmas Eve is also frequently a time of social events and parties, worldwide.[30][31][32][33][34]
Further information on Christmas Eve traditions around the world: Christmas worldwide
In Jewish culture[edit]
Nittel Nacht is a name given to Christmas Eve by Jewish scholars in the 17th century.
In contemporary American-Jewish culture[edit]
With Christmas Day a work holiday throughout the United States, there is a space of unfilled free time during which much of American commerce and society is not functioning, and which can give rise to a sense of loneliness or alienation for American Jews.[35][36][37][38][39]
Jews also typically do not engage in the family gathering and religious worship activities that are central to Christmas Eve for Christians.[40]
Typical contemporary activities have usually been limited to "Chinese and a movie"[41][42][43]—consuming a meal at a Chinese restaurant, which tend to be open for business on the Christmas holiday, and watching a movie at the theater or at home, stereotypically a rerun of It's a Wonderful Life.[39][44][45][46]
Since the 1980s a variety of social events for young Jews have sprung up, and become popular, on Christmas Eve.[47] These include the Matzo Ball, The Ball, and a number of local events organized by Jewish communities and local Jewish Federations in North America.[36]
Further information on Christmas Eve social events for young Jews in North America: Matzo Ball
Historical events[edit]
A cross, left near Ypres in Belgium in 1999, to commemorate the site of the 1914 Christmas Truce. The text reads 1914—The Khaki Chum's Christmas Truce—85 Years—Lest We Forget.
A number of historical events have been influenced by the occurrence of Christmas Eve.
Christmas truce[edit]
Main article: Christmas truce
During World War I in 1914 and 1915 there was an unofficial Christmas truce, particularly between British and German troops. The truce began on Christmas Eve, 24 December 1914, when German troops began decorating the area around their trenches in the region of Ypres, Belgium, for Christmas. They began by placing candles on trees, then continued the celebration by singing Christmas carols, most notably Stille Nacht ("Silent Night"). The British troops in the trenches across from them responded by singing English carols. The two sides shouted Christmas greetings to each other. Soon there were calls for visits across the "No man's land" when small gifts were exchanged. The truce also allowed a breathing space during which recently killed soldiers could be brought back behind their lines by burial parties. Funerals took place as soldiers from both sides mourned the dead together and paid their respects. At one funeral in No Man's Land, soldiers from both sides gathered and read a passage from Psalm 23. The truce occurred in spite of opposition at higher levels of the military command. Earlier in the autumn, a call by Pope Benedict XV for an official truce between the warring governments had been ignored.
Earthrise, as seen from Apollo 8, 24 December 1968 (NASA)
Apollo 8 reading from Genesis[edit]
Main article: Apollo 8 Genesis reading
On 24 December 1968, in what was the most watched television broadcast to that date, the astronauts Bill Anders, Jim Lovell and Frank Borman of Apollo 8 surprised the world with a reading of the Creation from the Book of Genesis as they orbited the moon.[48] Madalyn Murray O'Hair, an atheist activist, filed a lawsuit under the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment; the US Supreme Court dismissed the suit.[49][50]
In 1969, the United States Postal Service issued a stamp (Scott# 1371) commemorating the Apollo 8 flight around the moon. The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph, Earthrise, of the Earth "rising" over the moon (NASA image AS8-14-2383HR), taken by Anders on Christmas Eve, and the words, "In the beginning God..."
See also[edit]
Christmas Day
Nativity of Jesus
Santa Claus
Winter holiday season
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Christmas as a Multi-faith Festival—BBC News. Retrieved 24 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Several traditions of Eastern Christianity that use the Julian calendar celebrate on 25 December according to that calendar, which is now 6 January on the Gregorian calendar. Some Armenian churches use the Julian calendar, thus celebrating Christmas Eve on 18 January on the Gregorian calendar.
Jump up ^ Ramzy, John. "The Glorious Feast of Nativity:? 29 Kiahk? 25 December?". Coptic Orthodox Church Network. Retrieved 17 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Mary Pat Fisher (1997). Living Religions: an encyclopedia of the world's faiths. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9781860641480. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2010. Christmas is the celebration of Jesus' birth on earth.
Jump up ^ "Christian Calendar". Jerusalem Center for Jewish-Christian Relations. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Kessler, Edward; Neil Wenborn (2005). A dictionary of Jewish-Christian relations. Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom: Cambridge university Press. p. 274.
Jump up ^ Bible - NIV. 2005.
Jump up ^ "Helgmålsringning". Natinalencyclopedin. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
Jump up ^ "Vatican Today". Retrieved 29 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Forbes, Bruce David, Christmas: a candid history, University of California Press, 2007, ISBN 0-520-25104-0, pp. 68–79.
Jump up ^ "Woman knocks Pope down at Christmas Mass". British Broadcasting Company. 25 December 2009.
Jump up ^ Vermes, Geza. The Nativity: History and Legend. Penguin, 2006
^ Jump up to: a b Dues, Greg.Catholic Customs and Traditions: A Popular Guide Twenty-Third Publications, 2000.
^ Jump up to: a b Alex Webb (24 December 2001), Choir that sings to the world, BBC News
Jump up ^ Bulgarian Main Courses Archived 4 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Христо Вакарелски. Етнография на България. Наука и изкуство. София 1977. с. 500
Jump up ^ "Feast of Seven Fishes – A Sicilian Christmas Eve Tradition". Rachael Ray Digital LLC. 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2014. Sicilians traditionally celebrate Christmas Eve with a "Feast of Seven Fishes" which was historically served after a 24-hour fasting period. Although pre-Christmas fasting is not a popular custom still practiced by Italian-Americans, many still enjoy a meatless Christmas Eve feast.
Jump up ^ Kasprzyk, Magdalena. "The 12 Dishes of Polish Christmas". Culture.pl. Retrieved 3 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "12, 11, 9? Ile dań na Wigilie? - Święta". polskieradio.pl. 19 December 2010. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Wigilia". Polishcenter.org. Archived from the original on 24 February 2014. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Forbes, Bruce David, Christmas: a candid history, University of California Press, 2007, ISBN 0-520-25104-0, pp. 68–79.
Jump up ^ The Christmas encyclopedia McFarland p.143. & Co., 2005
Jump up ^ The Christmas Almanack p.56. Random House Reference, 2004
Jump up ^ Llewellyn's Sabbats Almanac: Samhain 2010 to Mabon 2011 p.64. Llewellyn Worldwide, 2010
Jump up ^ Festivals of Western Europe p.202. Forgotten Books, 1973
Jump up ^ "Queen Victoria's Christmas - A 'chandelier Christmas tree' and family gifts go on display for the first time". Royal Collection Trust. 30 November 2012. Retrieved 25 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Hoey, Brian (12 December 2014). "How the Royal Family do Christmas". Wales Online. Retrieved 25 December 2016.
Jump up ^ Francis, Charles Wisdom Well Said p.224 Levine Mesa Press, 2009
Jump up ^ Concepts of person in religion and thought Walter de Gruyter, 1990
Jump up ^ Eugene Fodor, Fodor's South 1980: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, 1979, at p. 87, available at Google Books
Jump up ^ Gary Sigley, A Chinese Christmas Story, in Shi-xu, ed., Discourse as Cultural Struggle, 2007, at p. 99, available at Google Books
Jump up ^ Adebayo Oyebade, Culture and Customs of Angola, 2007, at pp. 103, 140, available at Google Books
Jump up ^ See, e.g., GetQd Twas the Night Before Christmas @ Tonic @ Tonic Nightclub Vancouver BC, 2009 Archived 6 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ See, e.g., Upcoming.org, The College Night Out, 2009 Archived 18 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Kellie Hwang, Dec. 24 is time to party at Mazelpalooza, Matzoball, Arizona Republic/AZCentral.com, December 18, 2014
^ Jump up to: a b Jessica Gresko, "Dec. 24 Becomes Party Night for Jewish Singles", Associated Press (Washington Post), December 24, 2006
Jump up ^ Marc Tracy, "Christmas is the Greatest Jewish Holiday", The New Republic, December 19, 2013
Jump up ^ Barbara Lewis, "MatzoBall Detroit: Jewish singles now have their own party on Christmas Eve", Detroit Jewish News, December 18, 2014
^ Jump up to: a b "Hundreds of Jewish singles in Palm Beach County will spend Christmas Eve mingling", China Daily, December 24, 2008
Jump up ^ Brenda Lane Richardson, "Deciding to Celebrate Christmas, or Not", New York Times, December 16, 1987
Jump up ^ Marziah Karch, "Happy Chinese and a Movie", Wired, December 24, 2014
Jump up ^ Julie Wiener, The joy of not celebrating Christmas, JTA (Jewish Telegraphic Agency), December 24, 2013
Jump up ^ Simon Vozick-Levinson, "Chinese food and movies: A Christmas tradition", Entertainment Weekly, December 25, 2009
Jump up ^ Marshall Heyman, "'Tis the Season For Matzo Balls", Wall Street Journal, December 27, 2010
Jump up ^ Jodi Duckett, "Jewish Singles Mingle Christmas Eve", Allentown Morning Call, December 18, 1995
Jump up ^ Robert Gluck, "What young Jews do on Christmas Eve", Los Angeles Jewish Journal, December 20, 2011
Jump up ^ "Christmas Eve parties now a Jewish tradition". 24 December 2006. Retrieved 25 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Apollo 8 Christmas Eve Broadcast". NASA National Space Science Data Center. 25 September 2007. Archived from the original on 19 April 2008. Retrieved 12 April 2008.
Jump up ^ Chaikin, Andrew (1994). A Man On The Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts. Viking. pp. 204, 623. ISBN 0-670-81446-6.
Jump up ^ "O'Hair v. Paine, 397 U.S. 531". Findlaw. 1970. Retrieved 13 February 2008.
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Forgive Me, Leonard Peacock
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Forgive Me, Leonard Peacock is a fiction novel written by Matthew Quick about a 17-year-old boy who plans to shoot his ex bestfriend, then kill himself, on his birthday.
Summary[edit]
Leonard Peacock is a high school student who plans to kill his best friend, then himself.[1] The novel passes for a day in the life of Leonard, in which many characters who play an important role in his life stumble in his way. We realize at the end of the novel that his best friend, Asher, sexually abused him a couple of years ago, then forgot their friendship in exchange of being accepted by the popular kids in school.
Film adaptation[edit]
In October 2017, Channing Tatum announced that plans for a movie adaptation, upon which he had been working in association with the Weinstein Company, were no longer to continue in the wake of allegations of sexual assaults by Harvey Weinstein. The movie was to have been Tatum's directorial debut.[2]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Forgive Me, Leonard Peacock". Matthewquickwriter.com. Retrieved 15 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Channing Tatum pulls Weinstein Company sexual abuse film". BBC News. 19 October 2017.
[hide]
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forgive_Me,_Leonard_Peacock&oldid=806076128"
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2013 American novels
Novels by Matthew Quick
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text:
The Tyger
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Tyger
by William Blake
Copy A of Blake's original printing of The Tyger, c. 1795. Copy A is currently held by the British Museum
Country
UK
Language
English
Publication date
1794 (1794)
"Tyger Tyger" redirects here. For the Alfred Bester novel Tiger! Tiger!, see The Stars My Destination. For the Batman: The Animated Series episode, see Tyger Tyger (Batman: The Animated Series).
"The Tyger" is a poem by the English poet William Blake published in 1794 as part of the Songs of Experience collection. Literary critic Alfred Kazin calls it "the most famous of his poems",[1] and The Cambridge Companion to William Blake says it is "the most anthologized poem in English".[2] It is one of Blake's most reinterpreted and arranged works.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Poem
3 Structure
4 Themes and critical analysis
5 Musical versions
6 See also
7 References
8 Sources
9 External links
Background[edit]
The Songs of Experience was published in 1794 as a follow up to Blake's 1789 Songs of Innocence.[4] The two books were published together under the merged title Songs of Innocence and of Experience, showing the Two Contrary States of the Human Soul: the author and printer, W. Blake[4] featuring 54 plates. The illustrations are arranged differently in some copies, while a number of poems were moved from Songs of Innocence to Songs of Experience. Blake continued to print the work throughout his life.[5] Of the copies of the original collection, only 28 published during his life are known to exist, with an additional 16 published posthumously.[6] Only 5 of the poems from Songs of Experience appeared individually before 1839.[7]
Poem[edit]
Tyger Tyger, burning bright,
In the forests of the night;
What immortal hand or eye,
Could frame thy fearful symmetry?

In what distant deeps or skies,
Burnt the fire of thine eyes?
On what wings dare he aspire?
What the hand, dare seize the fire?

And what shoulder, & what art,
Could twist the sinews of thy heart?
And when thy heart began to beat,
What dread hand? & what dread feet?

What the hammer? what the chain,
In what furnace was thy brain?
What the anvil? what dread grasp,
Dare its deadly terrors clasp!

When the stars threw down their spears
And water'd heaven with their tears:
Did he smile his work to see?
Did he who made the Lamb make thee?

Tyger Tyger burning bright,
In the forests of the night:
What immortal hand or eye,
Dare frame thy fearful symmetry?
Structure[edit]
The first and last stanzas are identical except the word "could" becomes "dare" in the second iteration. Kazin says to begin to wonder about the tiger, and its nature, can only lead to a daring to wonder about it. Blake achieves great power through the use of alliteration ("frame" and "fearful") combined with imagery (burning, fire, eyes), and he structures the poem to ring with incessant repetitive questioning, demanding of the creature, "Who made thee?" In the third stanza the focus moves from the tiger, the creation, to the creator – of whom Blake wonders "What dread hand? & what dread feet?".[1] "The Tyger" is six stanzas in length, each stanza four lines long. Much of the poem follows the metrical pattern of its first line and can be scanned as trochaic tetrameter catalectic. A number of lines, however, such as line four in the first stanza, fall into iambic tetrameter.
"The Tyger" lacks narrative movement. The first stanza opens the central question, "What immortal hand or eye, / Could frame thy fearful symmetry?" Here the direct address to the creature becomes most obvious, but certainly, "the Tyger" cannot provide the lyrical "I" with a satisfactory answer, so the contemplation continues. The second stanza questions "the Tyger" about where he was created; the third about how the creator formed him; the fourth about what tools were used. In the fifth stanza, Blake wonders how the creator reacted to "the Tyger", and who created the creature. Finally, the sixth restates the central question while raising the stakes; rather than merely question what/who "could" create the Tyger, the speaker wonders: who dares.
Themes and critical analysis[edit]
"The Tyger" is the sister poem to "The Lamb" (from "Songs of Innocence"), a reflection of similar ideas from a different perspective (Blake's concept of "contraries"), with "The Lamb" bringing attention to innocence. "The Tyger" presents a duality between aesthetic beauty and primal ferocity, and Blake believes that to see one, the hand that created "The Lamb", one must also see the other, the hand that created "The Tyger”: "Did he who made the Lamb make thee?"
The "Songs of Experience" were written as a contrary to the "Songs of Innocence" – a central tenet in Blake's philosophy, and central theme in his work.[1] The struggle of humanity is based on the concept of the contrary nature of things, Blake believed, and thus, to achieve truth one must see the contraries in innocence and experience. Experience is not the face of evil but rather another facet of that which created us. Kazin says of Blake, "Never is he more heretical than ... where he glories in the hammer and fire out of which are struck ... the Tyger".[1] Rather than believing in war between good and evil or heaven and hell, Blake thought each man must first see and then resolve the contraries of existence and life. In "The Tyger" he presents a poem of "triumphant human awareness" and "a hymn to pure being", according to Kazin.[1]
Musical versions[edit]
Rebecca Clarke – "The Tiger" (1929–33)
Benjamin Britten, in his song cycle Songs and Proverbs of William Blake (1965)
Greg Brown, on the album "Songs of Innocence and of Experience" (1986)
John Tavener – "The Tyger" (1987)[8]
Tangerine Dream – the album Tyger (1987)
Jah Wobble – "Tyger Tyger" (1996)
Kenneth Fuchs – Songs of Innocence and of Experience: Four Poems by William Blake for Baritone, Flute, Oboe, Cello, and Harp (completed 2006)
Herbst in Peking – "The Tyger and The Fly" (2014)
Qntal – "Tyger" (2014)
Mephisto Walz – "The Tyger"
See also[edit]
Fearful Symmetry (disambiguation)
Quasar, Quasar, Burning Bright
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kazin, 41–43.
Jump up ^ Eaves, p. 207.
Jump up ^ Whitson and Whittaker 63–71.
^ Jump up to: a b Gilchrist 1907 p. 118
Jump up ^ Davis 1977 p. 55
Jump up ^ Damon 1988 p. 378
Jump up ^ Bentley 2003 p. 148
Jump up ^ "John Tavener". musicsalesclassical.com. Chester Music. Retrieved August 2, 2016.
Sources[edit]
Bentley, G. E. (editor) William Blake: The Critical Heritage. London: Routledge, 1975.
Bentley, G. E. Jr. The Stranger From Paradise. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-300-10030-2
Damon, S. Foster. A Blake Dictionary. Hanover: University Press of New England, 1988.
Davis, Michael. William Blake: A New Kind of Man. University of California Press, 1977.
Eaves, Morris. The Cambridge Companion to William Blake, 2003. ISBN 978-0-521-78677-5
Gilchrist, Alexander. The Life of William Blake. London: John Lane Company, 1907.
Kazin, Alfred. "Introduction". The Portable Blake. The Viking Portable Library.
Whitson, Roger and Jason Whittaker. William Blake and Digital Humanities:Collaboration, Participation, and Social Media. New York: Routledge, 2013. ISBN 978-0415-65618-4.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Tyger.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Tyger
A Comparison of Different Versions of Blake's Printing of The Tyger at the William Blake Archive
The Taoing of a Sound – Phonetic Drama in William Blake’s The Tyger Detailed stylistic analysis of the poem by linguist Haj Ross
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Tyger&oldid=811451693"
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