text:
Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about a famous phrase. For other uses, see The Pursuit of Happiness.
Office for Emergency Management. Office of War Information war poster 1941–1945
"Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness" is a well-known phrase in the United States Declaration of Independence.[1] The phrase gives three examples of the "unalienable rights" which the Declaration says have been given to all human beings by their Creator, and which governments are created to protect.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin and phrasing
1.1 Meaning of "happiness"
1.2 Lockean roots hypothesis
1.3 Virginia Declaration of Rights
1.4 Alternative hypotheses
2 Comparable mottos worldwide
3 References
Origin and phrasing[edit]
The United States Declaration of Independence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson, and then edited by the Committee of Five, which consisted of Jefferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston. It was then further edited and adopted by the Committee of the Whole of the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776.[2][3] The second paragraph of the first article in the Declaration of Independence contains the phrase "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness".
Jefferson's "original Rough draught" is on exhibit in the Library of Congress.[4] This version was used by Julian Boyd to create a transcript of Jefferson's draft,[5] which reads:
We hold these truths to be sacred & undeniable; that all men are created equal & independent, that from that equal creation they derive rights inherent & inalienable, among which are the preservation of life, & liberty, & the pursuit of happiness; ...
The Committee of Five edited Jefferson's draft. Their version survived further edits by the whole Congress intact, and reads:[6]
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. ——
A number of possible sources or inspirations for Jefferson's use of the phrase in the Declaration of Independence have been identified, although scholars debate the extent to which any one of them actually influenced Jefferson. Jefferson declared himself an Epicurean during his lifetime: this is a philosophical doctrine that teaches the pursuit of happiness and proposes autarchy, which translates as self-rule, self-sufficiency or freedom. The greatest disagreement comes between those who suggest the phrase was drawn from John Locke and those who identify some other source.[citation needed]
Meaning of "happiness"[edit]
There is debate about what the word "happiness" may have meant in 1776. Current usage focuses on pleasant, positive emotions and having needs satisfied,[7][8] whereas in 1776 the common meaning may have been "prosperity, thriving, wellbeing".[9][10]
Lockean roots hypothesis[edit]
In 1689, Locke argued in his Two Treatises of Government that political society existed for the sake of protecting "property", which he defined as a person's "life, liberty, and estate".[11] In A Letter Concerning Toleration, he wrote that the magistrate's power was limited to preserving a person's "civil interest", which he described as "life, liberty, health, and indolency of body; and the possession of outward things".[12] He declared in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding that "the highest perfection of intellectual nature lies in a careful and constant pursuit of true and solid happiness".[13]
According to those scholars who saw the root of Jefferson's thought in Locke's doctrine, Jefferson replaced "estate" with "the pursuit of happiness", although this does not mean that Jefferson meant the "pursuit of happiness" to refer primarily or exclusively to property. Under such an assumption, the Declaration of Independence would declare that government existed primarily for the reasons Locke gave, and some have extended that line of thinking to support a conception of limited government.[14][15][16][17][18]
Virginia Declaration of Rights[edit]
The first and second article of the Virginia Declaration of Rights, written by George Mason and adopted unanimously by the Virginia Convention of Delegates on June 12, 1776, speaks of happiness in the context of recognizably Lockean rights and is paradigmatic of the way in which "the fundamental natural rights of mankind" were expressed at the time.[19][20]
That all men are by nature equally free and independent and have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.
—  Virginia Declaration of Rights[21]
Benjamin Franklin was in agreement with Thomas Jefferson in downplaying protection of "property" as a goal of government. It is noted that Franklin found property to be a "creature of society" and thus, he believed that it should be taxed as a way to finance civil society.[22]
Alternative hypotheses[edit]
In 1628, Sir Edward Coke wrote in The First Part of the Institutes of the Lawes of England, his commentary on Thomas de Littleton, that "It is commonly said that three things be favoured in Law, Life, Liberty, Dower."[23] At common law, dower was closely guarded as a means by which the widow and orphan of a deceased landowner could keep their real property.[24]
Garry Wills has argued that Jefferson did not take the phrase from Locke and that it was indeed meant to be a standard by which governments should be judged.[25] Wills suggests Adam Ferguson as a good guide to what Jefferson had in mind:
If, in reality, courage and a heart devoted to the good of mankind are the constituents of human felicity, the kindness which is done infers a happiness in the person from whom it proceeds, not in him on whom it is bestowed; and the greatest good which men possessed of fortitude and generosity can procure to their fellow creatures is a participation of this happy character. If this be the good of the individual, it is likewise that of mankind; and virtue no longer imposes a task by which we are obliged to bestow upon others that good from which we ourselves refrain; but supposes, in the highest degree, as possessed by ourselves, that state of felicity which we are required to promote in the world.
—  Adam Ferguson, An Essay on the History of Civil Society[26]
The 17th-century cleric and philosopher Richard Cumberland wrote that promoting the well-being of our fellow humans is essential to the "pursuit of our own happiness".[27] Locke never associated natural rights with happiness, but his philosophical opponent Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz made such an association in the introduction to his Codex Iuris Gentium.[28] William Wollaston's The Religion of Nature Delineated describes the "truest definition" of "natural religion" as being "The pursuit of happiness by the practice of reason and truth".[29] An English translation of Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui's Principles of Natural and Politic Law prepared in 1763 extolled the "noble pursuit" of "true and solid happiness" in the opening chapter discussing natural rights.[30] Historian Jack Rakove posits Burlamaqui as the inspiration for Jefferson's phrase.[31]
Comparable mottos worldwide[edit]
Other tripartite mottos include "liberté, égalité, fraternité" (liberty, equality, fraternity) in France; "Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit" (unity, justice and liberty) in Germany and "peace, order, and good government" in Canada.[32] It is also similar to a line in the Canadian Charter of Rights: "life, liberty, security of the person" (this line was also in the older Canadian Bill of rights, which added "enjoyment of property" to the list).
The phrase can also be found in Chapter III, Article 13 of the 1947 Constitution of Japan, and in President Ho Chi Minh's 1945 declaration of independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. An alternative phrase "life, liberty, and property", is found in the Declaration of Colonial Rights, a resolution of the First Continental Congress. The Fifth Amendment and Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution declare that governments cannot deprive any person of "life, liberty, or property" without due process of law. Also, Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights reads, "Everyone has the right to life, liberty, and security of person".
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Declaration of Independence: Rough Draft". USHistory.org. Archived from the original on March 30, 2014. Retrieved May 18, 2014. Scanned image of the Jefferson's "original Rough draught" of the Declaration of Independence, written in June 1776, including all the changes made later by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and other members of the committee, and by Congress.
Jump up ^ Rakove, Jack N. (2009). The Annotated U.S. Constitution and Declaration of Independence. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 7–22. ISBN 0674036069.
Jump up ^ Dube, Ann Marie (May 1996). "The Declaration of Independence". A Multitude of Amendments, Alterations and Additions. Pennsylvania: U.S. National Park Service. OCLC 44638441.
Jump up ^ "We Hold These Truths To Be Self Evident...". U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved October 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ Boyd, Julian P., ed. (1950). The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Volume 1: 1760–1776. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 243–47. OCLC 16353926.
Jump up ^ "Declaration of Independence". U.S. National Archives. Retrieved May 19, 2013.
Jump up ^ Khoddam, Rubin (June 16, 2015). "What's Your Definition of Happiness?". Psychology Today. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kaufman, Scott Barry (January 30, 2016). "The Differences between Happiness and Meaning in Life". Scientific American. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Fountain, Ben (September 17, 2016). "Two American Dreams: how a dumbed-down nation lost sight of a great idea". The Guardian. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Shannon, Timothy J. (July 4, 2016). "What About That Pursuit of Happiness?". Philly.com via Gettysburg College. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Locke, John (1988) [1689]. Laslett, Peter, ed. Two Treatises of Government. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. Sec. 87, 123, 209, 222. ISBN 052135448X.
Jump up ^ Locke, John (1983) [1689]. Tully, James H., ed. A Letter Concerning Toleration. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing. p. 26. ISBN 091514560X.
Jump up ^ Locke, John (1975) [1689]. Nidditch, Peter H., ed. Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. Book 2, Chapter 21, Section 51. ISBN 0198245955.
Jump up ^ Zuckert, Michael P. (1996). The Natural Rights Republic. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. pp. 73–85. ISBN 0268014809.
Jump up ^ Corbett, Ross J. (2009). The Lockean Commonwealth. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. ISBN 1438427948.
Jump up ^ Pangle, Thomas L. (1988). The Spirit of Modern Republicanism. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226645401.
Jump up ^ Gibson, Alan (2009). Interpreting the Founding (2nd ed.). Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0700617051.
Jump up ^ Rahe, Paul A. (1994) [1992]. Republics Ancient & Modern, Volume 3; Inventions of Prudence: Constituting the American Regime. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 13–19. ISBN 080784473X.
Jump up ^ Rakove, Jack N. (2009). The Annotated U.S. Constitution and Declaration of Independence. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 78. ISBN 0674036069.
Jump up ^ Banning, Lance (1995). Jefferson & Madison. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 17, 103–04. ISBN 0945612486. Lance Banning notes that the Virginia Declaration of Rights was the inspiration for the phrase in the Declaration of Independence, but does not trace it back to Locke, and in general downplays Jefferson's debts to Locke.
Jump up ^ "The Virginia Declaration of Rights". U.S. National Archives. Retrieved May 19, 2013.
Jump up ^ Franklin, Benjamin (2006). Skousen, Mark, ed. The Compleated Autobiography. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing. p. 413. ISBN 0-89526-033-6.
Jump up ^ Coke, Edward (1628). The First Part of the Institutes of the Lawes of England. London: Adam Islip. Section 193. OCLC 84760833.
Jump up ^ Whitehead, Edward Jenkins (1922). The Law of Real Property in Illinois. 1. Chicago: Burdette J. Smith & Company. p. 178. OCLC 60731472.
Jump up ^ Wills, Gary (2002) [1978]. Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence. New York, NY: Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-618-25776-8.
Jump up ^ Ferguson, Adam (1995) [1767]. Oz-Salzberger, Fania, ed. An Essay on the History of Civil Society. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. 99–100. ISBN 052144215X.
Jump up ^ Cumberland, Richard (2005) [1727]. A Treatise of the Laws of Nature. Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund. pp. 523–24. ISBN 0865974721.
Jump up ^ Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1988). Riley, Patrick, ed. Leibniz: Political Writings (2nd ed.). Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. p. 171. ISBN 0521353807.
Jump up ^ Wollaston, William (1759) [1722]. The Religion of Nature Delineated (8th ed.). London: Samuel Palmer. p. 90. OCLC 2200588.
Jump up ^ Burlamaqui, Jean-Jacques (2006) [1747]. The Principles of Natural and Politic Law. Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund. p. 31. ISBN 0865974969.
Jump up ^ Rakove, Jack N. (2010). Revolutionaries: A New History of the Invention of America. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 300. ISBN 0618267468. ...arguably owed more to Jefferson's reading of the Swiss jurist Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui than it did to his manifest debt to John Locke.
Jump up ^ Dyck, Perry Rand (2000). Canadian Politics: Critical Approaches (3rd ed.). Scarborough, ON: Nelson Thomson Learning. ISBN 978-0-17-616792-9.
[show]
v
t
e
Historical documents of the United States
[show]
Constitution
Preamble
& Articles
Preamble
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
Amendments
Ratified
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Pending
Congressional Apportionment
Titles of Nobility
Corwin (State Domestic Institutions)
Child Labor
Unsuccessful
Equal Rights
District of Columbia Voting Rights
See also
List of Constitutional Amendments
Bill of Rights (Amendments 1–10)
Reconstruction Amendments (Amendments 13–15)
Amendment proposals in Congress
Conventions to propose amendments
State ratifying conventions
Formation
History
Articles of Confederation
Mount Vernon Conference
Annapolis Convention
Philadelphia Convention
Virginia Plan
New Jersey Plan
Connecticut Compromise
Three-Fifths Compromise
Committee of Detail
Signing
Independence Hall
Syng inkstand
The Federalist Papers
Anti-Federalist Papers
Massachusetts Compromise
Virginia Ratifying Convention
Hillsborough Convention
Drafting and ratification timeline
Clauses
Appointments
Appropriations
Assistance of Counsel
Bill of credit
Case or Controversy
Citizenship
Commerce
Compact
Compulsory Process
Confrontation
Contract
Copyright and Patent
Double Jeopardy
Due Process
Equal Protection
Establishment
Exceptions
Excessive Bail
Ex post facto
Extradition
Free Exercise
Free Speech
Fugitive Slave
Full Faith and Credit
General Welfare
Guarantee
Impeachment
Import-Export
Ineligibility (Emolument)
Militia
Natural-born citizen
Necessary and Proper
New States
No Religious Test
Oath or Affirmation
Origination
Petition
Postal
Presentment
Privileges and Immunities
Privileges or Immunities
Recommendation
Self-Incrimination
Speech or Debate
Speedy Trial
State of the Union
Supremacy
Suspension
Take Care
Takings
Taxing and Spending
Territorial
Title of Nobility
Treaty
Trial by Jury
Vesting
Vicinage
War Powers
List of clauses
Interpretation
Concurrent powers
Congressional enforcement
Constitutional law
Criminal procedure
Criminal sentencing
Dormant Commerce Clause
Enumerated powers
Equal footing
Executive privilege
Incorporation of the Bill of Rights
Judicial review
Nondelegation doctrine
Preemption
Saxbe fix
Separation of church and state
Separation of powers
Taxation power
Unitary executive theory
Signatories
Convention President
George Washington
New Hampshire
John Langdon
Nicholas Gilman
Massachusetts
Nathaniel Gorham
Rufus King
Connecticut
William Samuel Johnson
Roger Sherman
New York
Alexander Hamilton
New Jersey
William Livingston
David Brearley
William Paterson
Jonathan Dayton
Pennsylvania
Benjamin Franklin
Thomas Mifflin
Robert Morris
George Clymer
Thomas Fitzsimons
Jared Ingersoll
James Wilson
Gouverneur Morris
Delaware
George Read
Gunning Bedford Jr.
John Dickinson
Richard Bassett
Jacob Broom
Maryland
James McHenry
Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer
Daniel Carroll
Virginia
John Blair
James Madison
North Carolina
William Blount
Richard Dobbs Spaight
Hugh Williamson
South Carolina
John Rutledge
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
Charles Pinckney
Pierce Butler
Georgia
William Few
Abraham Baldwin
Convention Secretary
William Jackson
Display
and legacy
National Archives
Charters of Freedom Rotunda
Independence Mall
Constitution Day
Constitution Gardens
National Constitution Center
Scene at the Signing of the Constitution (painting)
A More Perfect Union (film)
Worldwide influence
[show]
Declaration of Independence
Primary author
Thomas Jefferson
Signatories
President of Congress
John Hancock (Massachusetts)
New Hampshire
Josiah Bartlett
William Whipple
Matthew Thornton
Massachusetts
Samuel Adams
John Adams
Robert Treat Paine
Elbridge Gerry
Rhode Island
Stephen Hopkins
William Ellery
Connecticut
Roger Sherman
Samuel Huntington
William Williams
Oliver Wolcott
New York
William Floyd
Philip Livingston
Francis Lewis
Lewis Morris
New Jersey
Richard Stockton
John Witherspoon
Francis Hopkinson
John Hart
Abraham Clark
Pennsylvania
Robert Morris
Benjamin Rush
Benjamin Franklin
John Morton
George Clymer
James Smith
George Taylor
James Wilson
George Ross
Delaware
George Read
Caesar Rodney
Thomas McKean
Maryland
Samuel Chase
William Paca
Thomas Stone
Charles Carroll of Carrollton
Virginia
George Wythe
Richard Henry Lee
Thomas Jefferson
Benjamin Harrison
Thomas Nelson Jr.
Francis Lightfoot Lee
Carter Braxton
North Carolina
William Hooper
Joseph Hewes
John Penn
South Carolina
Edward Rutledge
Thomas Heyward Jr.
Thomas Lynch Jr.
Arthur Middleton
Georgia
Button Gwinett
Lyman Hall
George Walton
See also
Virginia Declaration of Rights
Lee Resolution
Committee of Five
Document's history
signing
portrait
Second Continental Congress
"All men are created equal"
"Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness"
"Consent of the governed"
Independence Hall
Syng inkstand
American Revolution
[show]
Articles of Confederation
Signatories
Primary drafter
John Dickinson
New Hampshire
Josiah Bartlett
John Wentworth Jr.
Massachusetts
John Hancock
Samuel Adams
Elbridge Gerry
Francis Dana
James Lovell
Samuel Holten
Rhode Island
William Ellery
Henry Marchant
John Collins
Connecticut
Roger Sherman
Samuel Huntington
Oliver Wolcott
Titus Hosmer
Andrew Adams
New York
James Duane
Francis Lewis
William Duer
Gouverneur Morris
New Jersey
John Witherspoon
Nathaniel Scudder
Pennsylvania
Robert Morris
Daniel Roberdeau
Jonathan Bayard Smith
William Clingan
Joseph Reed
Delaware
Thomas McKean
John Dickinson
Nicholas Van Dyke
Maryland
John Hanson
Daniel Carroll
Virginia
Richard Henry Lee
John Banister
Thomas Adams
John Harvie
Francis Lightfoot Lee
North Carolina
John Penn
Cornelius Harnett
John Williams
South Carolina
Henry Laurens
William Henry Drayton
John Mathews
Richard Hutson
Thomas Heyward Jr.
Georgia
John Walton
Edward Telfair
Edward Langworthy
See also
Continental Congress
Congress of the Confederation
American Revolution
Perpetual Union
[show]
Continental Association
Signatories
President of Congress
Peyton Randolph
New Hampshire
John Sullivan
Nathaniel Folsom
Massachusetts Bay
Thomas Cushing
Samuel Adams
John Adams
Robert Treat Paine
Rhode Island
Stephen Hopkins
Samuel Ward
Connecticut
Eliphalet Dyer
Roger Sherman
Silas Deane
New York
Isaac Low
John Alsop
John Jay
James Duane
Philip Livingston
William Floyd
Henry Wisner
Simon Boerum
New Jersey
James Kinsey
William Livingston
Stephen Crane
Richard Smith
John De Hart
Pennsylvania
Joseph Galloway
John Dickinson
Charles Humphreys
Thomas Mifflin
Edward Biddle
John Morton
George Ross
The Lower Counties
Caesar Rodney
Thomas McKean
George Read
Maryland
Matthew Tilghman
Thomas Johnson, Junr
William Paca
Samuel Chase
Virginia
Richard Henry Lee
George Washington
Patrick Henry, Junr
Richard Bland
Benjamin Harrison
Edmund Pendleton
North Carolina
William Hooper
Joseph Hewes
Richard Caswell
South Carolina
Henry Middleton
Thomas Lynch
Christopher Gadsden
John Rutledge
Edward Rutledge
See also
Virginia Association
First Continental Congress
Carpenters' Hall
Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress
[show]
v
t
e
Thomas Jefferson
3rd President of the United States (1801–1809)
2nd U.S. Vice President (1797–1801)
1st U.S. Secretary of State (1790–1793)
U.S. Minister to France (1785–1789)
2nd Governor of Virginia (1779–1781)
Delegate, Second Continental Congress (1775–1776)
Founding
documents of
the United States
A Summary View of the Rights of British America (1774)
Initial draft, Olive Branch Petition (1775)
Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms (1775)
1776 Declaration of Independence
Committee of Five
authored
physical history
"All men are created equal"
"Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness"
"Consent of the governed"
1786 Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom
freedom of religion
French Revolution
Co-author, Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)
Presidency
Inaugural Address (1801
1805)
Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves
Louisiana Purchase
Lewis and Clark Expedition
Corps of Discovery
timeline
Empire of Liberty
Red River Expedition
Pike Expedition
Cumberland Road
Embargo Act of 1807
Chesapeake–Leopard Affair
Non-Intercourse Act of 1809
First Barbary War
Native American policy
Marbury v. Madison
West Point Military Academy
State of the Union Addresses (texts
1801
1802
1805)
Cabinet
Federal judicial appointments
Other noted
accomplishments
Early life and career
Founder, University of Virginia
history
Land Ordinance of 1784
Northwest Ordinance 1787
Anti-Administration party
Democratic-Republican Party
Jeffersonian democracy
First Party System
republicanism
Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measure of the United States (1790)
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
A Manual of Parliamentary Practice (1801)
Jeffersonian
architecture
Barboursville
Farmington
Monticello
gardens
Poplar Forest
University of Virginia
The Rotunda
The Lawn
Virginia State Capitol
White House Colonnades
Other writings
Notes on the State of Virginia (1785)
1787 European journey memorandums
Indian removal letters
Jefferson Bible (1895)
Jefferson manuscript collection at the Massachusetts Historical Society
Related
Age of Enlightenment
American Enlightenment
American Philosophical Society
American Revolution
patriots
Member, Virginia Committee of Correspondence
Committee of the States
Founding Fathers of the United States
Franco-American alliance
Jefferson and education
Religious views
Jefferson and slavery
Jefferson and the Library of Congress
Jefferson disk
Jefferson Pier
Pet mockingbird
National Gazette
Residence Act
Compromise of 1790
Sally Hemings
Jefferson–Hemings controversy
Betty Hemings
Separation of church and state
Swivel chair
The American Museum magazine
Virginia dynasty
Elections
United States Presidential election 1796
1800
1804
Legacy
Bibliography
Jefferson Memorial
Mount Rushmore
Birthday
Thomas Jefferson Building
Thomas Jefferson Center for the Protection of Free Expression
Jefferson Lecture
Jefferson National Expansion Memorial
Thomas Jefferson Star for Foreign Service
Jefferson Lab
Monticello Association
Jefferson City, Missouri
Jefferson College
Thomas Jefferson School of Law
Thomas Jefferson University
Washington and Jefferson National Forests
Other placenames
Currency depictions
Jefferson nickel
Two-dollar bill
U.S. postage stamps
Popular culture
Ben and Me (1953 short)
1776 (1969 musical
1972 film)
Jefferson in Paris (1995 film)
Thomas Jefferson (1997 film)
Liberty! (1997 documentary series)
Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series)
John Adams (2008 miniseries)
Jefferson's Garden (2015 play)
Hamilton (2015 musical)
Jefferson–Eppes Trophy
Wine bottles controversy
Family
Peter Jefferson (father)
Jane Randolph Jefferson (mother)
Lucy Jefferson Lewis (sister)
Randolph Jefferson (brother)
Isham Randolph (grandfather)
William Randolph (great-grandfather)
Martha Jefferson (wife)
Martha Jefferson Randolph (daughter)
Mary Jefferson Eppes (daughter)
Harriet Hemings (daughter)
Madison Hemings (son)
Eston Hemings (son)
Thomas J. Randolph (grandson)
Francis Eppes (grandson)
George W. Randolph (grandson)
John Wayles Jefferson (grandson)
Thomas Mann Randolph Jr. (son-in-law)
John Wayles Eppes (son-in-law)
John Wayles (father-in-law)
Dabney Carr (brother-in-law)
Dabney Carr (nephew)
← John Adams
James Madison →
Category
[show]
v
t
e
George Mason
United States
Founding events
Drafted, 1769 Virginia Association resolutions
Primary author, 1774 Fairfax Resolves
Primary author, 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights
"All men are created equal"
Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness
Freedom of the press
Freedom of religion
Consent of the governed
Baseless search and seizure
Cruel and unusual punishments
Speedy trial
1776 Virginia Constitution
1785 Mount Vernon Conference
1787 Constitutional Convention
Virginia Ratifying Convention
Co-father, United States Bill of Rights
history
Founding Father
Writings inspired
1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (France)
1789 United States Bill of Rights
Life
Chopawamsic plantation
Gunston Hall
On slavery
Ohio Company
Legacy
George Mason Memorial
George Mason University
George Mason Stadium
George Mason Memorial Bridge
George Mason High School
18-cent postage stamp
Related
Age of Enlightenment
American Enlightenment
American Revolution
patriots
Wilson v. Mason
Hollin Hall
Woodbridge plantation
Mason's Island
Family
George Mason V (son)
William Mason (son)
Thomson Mason (son)
John Mason (son)
Thomas Mason (son)
George Mason III (father)
Thomson Mason (brother)
George Mason II (grandfather)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Life,_Liberty_and_the_pursuit_of_Happiness&oldid=803488831"
Categories:
United States Declaration of Independence
English phrases
Human rights concepts
Political catchphrases
Happiness
Hidden categories:
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2014
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
한국어
日本語
Svenska
ไทย
Edit links
This page was last edited on 2 October 2017, at 20:59.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values: The Pursuit of Happiness (disambiguation)

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: img

attrs: href class

attrs: href title

values:
/wiki/Office_of_War_Information
mw-redirect
Office of War Information

value: b

values: United States Declaration of Independence

value: sup

values:
/wiki/Unalienable_rights
mw-redirect
Unalienable rights

values:
/wiki/Committee_of_the_Whole
mw-redirect
Committee of the Whole

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2014)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: Virginia Declaration of Rights

values:
/wiki/Natural_rights
mw-redirect
Natural rights

values:
/wiki/Jack_Rakove
mw-redirect
Jack Rakove

values: Edit section: Comparable mottos worldwide

values:
/wiki/Tripartite_motto
mw-redirect
Tripartite motto

values:
/wiki/Canadian_Charter_of_Rights
mw-redirect
Canadian Charter of Rights

values: Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam

values:
/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Vietnam
mw-redirect
Democratic Republic of Vietnam

values:
/wiki/Declaration_of_Colonial_Rights
mw-redirect
Declaration of Colonial Rights

values: Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/44638441

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/16353926

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/84760833

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/60731472

values:
nofollow
external text
http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/1353

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/2200588

values:
nofollow
external text
http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/1717

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Template talk:Historical American Documents

values: Preamble to the United States Constitution

values: Article One of the United States Constitution

values: Article Two of the United States Constitution

values: Article Three of the United States Constitution

values: Article Four of the United States Constitution

values: Article Five of the United States Constitution

values: Article Six of the United States Constitution

values: Article Seven of the United States Constitution

values: First Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Second Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Third Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution

values:
/wiki/Article_the_First
mw-redirect
Article the First

values: District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment

values: List of amendments to the United States Constitution

values: List of proposed amendments to the United States Constitution

values: Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution

values: History of the United States Constitution

values: Constitutional Convention (United States)

values: Signing of the United States Constitution

values: Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution

values: Oath of office of the President of the United States

values: List of clauses of the United States Constitution

values: United States constitutional criminal procedure

values: United States constitutional sentencing law

values: Separation of church and state in the United States

values: Separation of powers under the United States Constitution

values: George Read (American politician, born 1733)

values: Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States

values: United States Constitution and worldwide influence

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-subgroup

values: Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence

values: Samuel Huntington (Connecticut politician)

values: William Williams (Connecticut politician)

values: Richard Stockton (Continental Congressman)

values: Physical history of the United States Declaration of Independence

values: Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: List of Vice Presidents of the United States

values: List of Secretaries of State of the United States

values: A Summary View of the Rights of British America

values: T Jefferson by Charles Willson Peale 1791 2.jpg

values:
navbox-image
11
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

values: Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

values: s:Thomas Jefferson's First Inaugural Address

values: s:Thomas Jefferson's Second Inaugural Address

values: Timeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition

values:
/wiki/Chesapeake%E2%80%93Leopard_Affair
mw-redirect
Chesapeake–Leopard Affair

values: History of the United States Military Academy

values: List of federal judges appointed by Thomas Jefferson

values: Early life and career of Thomas Jefferson

values: Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage, Weights, and Measures of the United States

values: Memorandums taken on a journey from Paris into the southern parts of France and Northern Italy, in the year 1787

values: United States presidential election, 1796

values: United States presidential election, 1800

values: United States presidential election, 1804

values: Thomas Jefferson Star for Foreign Service

values: Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility

values: George Washington and Jefferson National Forests

values: List of places named for Thomas Jefferson

values: List of Presidents of the United States on currency

values: Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishments
mw-redirect
Cruel and unusual punishments

values: Category:United States Declaration of Independence

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2014

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: الحياة والحرية والسعي لتحقيق السعادة – Arabic

values: 행복추구권 – Korean

values: Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness – Swedish

values: ชีวิต เสรีภาพ และการเสาะแสวงหาความสุข – Thai

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Life_Liberty_and_the_pursuit_of_Happiness rootpage-Life_Liberty_and_the_pursuit_of_Happiness vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view


text:
The Race Question
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Race
Categorization
Genetics and differences
Race and genetics
Human genetic variation
Society
Historical concepts
Race
in Brazil
in the United States
Racial inequality in the United States
Racial wage gap in the United States
Racial profiling
Racism
in the United States
Scientific racism
Race and...
Crime in the United Kingdom
Crime in the United States
Race and health
in the United States
Intelligence
History of the race
and intelligence controversy
Sports
Video games
Related topics
Ethnic group
Eugenics
Genetics
Human evolution
Index
Category
v
t
e
Morris Ginsberg
Claude Levi-Strauss
Edwin G. Conklin
Gunnar Dahlberg
Julian Huxley
The Race Question is the first of four UNESCO statements about issues of race. It was issued on 18 July 1950 following World War II and Nazi racism to clarify what was scientifically known about race, and as a moral condemnation of racism.[1]:1 It was criticized on several grounds and revised versions were publicized in 1951, 1967 and 1978.
Contents
[hide]
1 Authors
2 Introduction
3 Criticism and controversy
4 The 1951 revised statement
5 Legacy and other UNESCO statements
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Authors[edit]
The statements were signed by some of the leading researchers of the time, in the field of sociology, psychology, biology, cultural anthropology and ethnology.
The original statement was drafted by Ernest Beaglehole; Juan Comas; Luiz de Aguiar Costa Pinto; Franklin Frazier, sociologist specialised in race relations studies; Morris Ginsberg, founding chairperson of the British Sociological Association; Humayun Kabir, writer, philosopher, and twice Education Minister of India; Claude Lévi-Strauss, one of the founders of ethnology and leading theorist of structural anthropology; and Ashley Montagu, anthropologist and author of The Elephant Man: A Study in Human Dignity, who was the rapporteur.
The text was then revised by Ashley Montagu following criticisms submitted by Hadley Cantril; E. G. Conklin; Gunnar Dahlberg; Theodosius Dobzhansky, author of Genetics and the Origin of Species (1937); L. C. Dunn; Donald Hager; Julian Huxley, first director of UNESCO and one of the many key contributors to modern evolutionary synthesis; Otto Klineberg; Wilbert Moore; H. J. Muller; Gunnar Myrdal, author of An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944); Joseph Needham, a biochemist specialist of Chinese science; and geneticist Curt Stern.
Introduction[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The introduction states that it was inevitable that UNESCO should take a position in the controversy. The preamble to the UNESCO constitution states that it should combat racism. The constitution itself stated that "The great and terrible war that has now ended was a war made possible by the denial of the democratic principles of the dignity, equality and mutual respect of men, and by the propagation, in their place, through ignorance and prejudice, of the doctrine of the inequality of men and races."[1]:1
A 1948 UN Social and Economic Council resolution called upon UNESCO to consider the timeliness "of proposing and recommending the general adoption of a programme of dissemination of scientific facts designed to bring about the disappearance of that which is commonly called race prejudice." In 1949, the UNESCO adopted three resolutions which committed it to "study and collect scientific materials concerning questions of race", "to give wide diffusion to the scientific material collected", and "to prepare an education campaign based on this information." Before undertaking this campaign, the scientific position had to be clarified.
Furthermore, in doing this
UNESCO took up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project which the International Institute for Intellectual Co-operation has wished to carry through but which it had to abandon in deference to the appeasement policy of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of Nazi ideology and policy. Masaryk and Beneš took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race... ...But they were not given such an opportunity. Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.
The introduction stated "Knowledge of the truth does not always help change emotional attitudes that draw their real strength from the subconscious or from factors beside the real issue." But it could "however, prevent rationalizations of reprehensive acts or behaviour prompted by feelings that men will not easily avow openly."
UNESCO made a moral statement:
Concern for human dignity demands that all citizens be equal before the law, and that they share equally in the advantages assured them by the law, no matter what their physical or intellectual differences may be. The law sees in each person only a human being who has the right to the same consideration and to equal respect. The conscience of all mankind demand that this be true for all the peoples of the earth. It matters little, therefore, whether the diversity of men's gift be the result of biological or cultural factors.
UNESCO would start a campaign to spread the results of the report to a "vast public" such as by publishing pamphlets. It described Brazil as having an "exemplary situation" regarding race relations and that research should be undertaken in order to understand the causes of this "harmony".
Criticism and controversy[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Despite the introduction stating that "The competence and objectivity of the scientists who signed the document in its final form cannot be questioned", the first version of the statement was heavily criticized. A revised edition in 1951 explained the controversy as "At the first discussion on the problem of race, it was chiefly sociologists who gave their opinions and framed the ‘Statement on race’. That statement had a good effect, but it did not carry the authority of just those groups within whose special province fall the biological problems of race, namely the physical anthropologists and geneticists. Secondly, the first statement did not, in all its details, carry conviction of these groups and, because of this, it was not supported by many authorities in these two fields. In general, the chief conclusions of the first statement were sustained, but with differences in emphasis and with some important deletions."
Some examples of differences include that the first version argued that there was no evidence for intellectual or personality differences. The revised version stated that "When intelligence tests, even non-verbal, are made on a group of non-literate people, their scores are usually lower than those of more civilised people" but concluded that "Available scientific knowledge provides no basis for believing that the groups of mankind differ in their innate capacity for intellectual and emotional development."
The first version did not reject the idea of race biology, a biological basis to racial categories. It defined the concept of race in terms of a population defined by certain anatomical and physiological characteristics diverging from other populations; it gives as examples the Caucasian race, Mongoloid and Negroid races.[2]

The first version stated that "National, religious, geographic, linguistic and cultural groups do not necessarily coincide with racial groups: and the cultural traits of such groups have no demonstrated genetic connection with racial traits. Because serious errors of this kind are habitually committed when the term ‘race’ is used in popular parlance, it would be better when speaking of human races to drop the term ‘race’ altogether and speak of ethnic groups." The revised version instead stated that the experts "agreed to reserve race as the word to be used for anthropological classification of groups showing definite combinations of physical (including physiological) traits in characteristic proportions."
The well known English statistician and biologist Ronald Fisher opposed the statement, believing that evidence and everyday experience showed that human groups differ profoundly "in their innate capacity for intellectual and emotional development" and concluded that the "practical international problem is that of learning to share the resources of this planet amicably with persons of materially different nature", and that "this problem is being obscured by entirely well-intentioned efforts to minimize the real differences that exist". The revised statement titled "The Race Concept: Results of an Inquiry" (1951) was accompanied by Fisher's dissenting commentary.[3]
The 1951 revised statement[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The 1951 revised statement stated that Homo sapiens is one species. "The concept of race is unanimously regarded by anthropologists as a classificatory device providing a zoological frame within which the various groups of mankind may be arranged and by means of which studies of evolutionary processes can be facilitated. In its anthropological sense, the word ‘race’ should be reserved for groups of mankind possessing well-developed and primarily heritable physical differences from other groups." These differences have been caused in part by partial isolation preventing intermingling, geography an important explanation for the major races, often cultural for the minor races. National, religious, geographical, linguistic and cultural groups do not necessarily coincide with racial groups.
Most anthropologists have classified humans into three large groups. Such a classification does not depend on any single physical character such as skin color. There is considerable overlap. With respect to most, if not all, measurable characters, the differences among individuals belonging to the same race are greater than the differences that occur between the observed averages for two or more races within the same major group.
Most anthropologists do not include mental characteristics in their classification of human races. "When intelligence tests, even non-verbal, are made on a group of non-literate people, their scores are usually lower than those of more civilised people." However, overall, available scientific knowledge provides no basis for believing that the groups of mankind differ in their innate capacity for intellectual and emotional development.
There is no evidence for the existence of so-called "pure races" and no scientific justification exists for discouraging reproduction between persons of different races.
Legacy and other UNESCO statements[edit]
The UNESCO later published other similar statements on racism. In 1978, the UNESCO Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice[4] stated that "All peoples of the world possess equal faculties for attaining the highest level in intellectual, technical, social, economic, cultural and political development" and "The differences between the achievements of the different peoples are entirely attributable to geographical, historical, political, economic, social and cultural factors." Unlike the previous statement there was no consultation with scientific experts. It also argued for implementing a number of policies in order to combat racism and inequalities. It also stated that "Population groups of foreign origin, particularly migrant workers and their families who contribute to the development of the host country, should benefit from appropriate measures designed to afford them security and respect for their dignity and cultural values and to facilitate their adaptation to the host environment and their professional advancement with a view to their subsequent reintegration in their country of origin and their contribution to its development; steps should be taken to make it possible for their children to be taught their mother tongue."
A draft of the statement was prepared by the Director-General and "eminent specialists in human rights". It was discussed at a meeting by government representatives from over 100 member states. It was recommended that the representatives should include among them "social scientists and other persons particularly qualified to in the social, political, economic, cultural, and scientific aspects of the problem". A number of non-governmental and inter-governmental organizations sent observers. A final text of was adopted by the meeting of government representatives "by consensus, without opposition or vote" and later by the UNESCO General Conference, Twentieth Session.[5]
In 1995, UNESCO published a Declaration of Principles on Tolerance[6] to add to its dialogue about racial equality with recommendations for tolerant treatment of persons with varied racial and cultural backgrounds. It stated "Tolerance is respect, acceptance and appreciation of the rich diversity of our world's cultures, our forms of expression and ways of being human. It is fostered by knowledge, openness, communication, and freedom of thought, conscience and belief. Tolerance is harmony in difference. It is not only a moral duty, it is also a political and legal requirement. Tolerance, the virtue that makes peace possible, contributes to the replacement of the culture of war by a culture of peace."
The 1950 UNESCO statement contributed to the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court desegregation decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.[7]
See also[edit]
Nazism and race
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005)
Racial Equality Proposal
World Conference against Racism
International Day for Tolerance
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "The Race Question", UNESCO, 1950, 11pp
Jump up ^ Banton, Michael (2008). "Race, Unesco statements on". In Schaefer, Richard T. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. Sage. p. 1096; 1098. ISBN 978-1-4129-2694-2. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
Jump up ^ "The Race Concept: Results of an Inquiry", p. 27. UNESCO, 1952
Jump up ^ "Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice", UNESCO, 1978. (PDF:)
Jump up ^ Draft Declaration on race and racial prejudice, General Conference, Twentieth Session, Paris, 1978 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0002/000287/028739eb.pdf
Jump up ^ "Declaration of Principles on Tolerance", UNESCO, 1995. (PDF:)
Jump up ^ "Toward a World without Evil: Alfred Métraux as UNESCO Anthropologist (1946-1962)", by Harald E.L. Prins and Edgardo Krebs, UNESCO
External links[edit]
The Race Question, 1950
The Race Question, 1951 revised version
Statement on Race and Racial Prejudice, 1967
[hide]
v
t
e
Historical race concepts
By color
Black
Bronze
Brown
Red
White
Yellow
Anthropological
Australoid
Capoid
Caucasoid
Mongoloid
Negroid
Sub-types
Alpine
Arabid
Armenoid
Atlantid
Borreby
Brunn
Caspian
Dinaric
East Baltic
Ethiopid
Hamitic
Dravidian
Irano-Afghan
Japhetic
Malay
Mediterranean
Neo-Mongoloid
Neo-Danubian
Nordic
Northcaucasian
Ladogan
Lappish
Pamirid
Proto-Mongoloid
Semitic
Turanid
Multiracial
Miscegenation
Ethnogenesis
List of racially mixed groups
Writers
Louis Agassiz
John Baker
Erwin Baur
John Beddoe
Robert Bennett Bean
François Bernier
Renato Biasutti
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
Franz Boas
Paul Broca
Alice Mossie Brues
Halfdan Bryn
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
Charles Caldwell
Petrus Camper
Samuel A. Cartwright
Houston Stewart Chamberlain
Sonia Mary Cole
Carleton S. Coon
Georges Cuvier
Jan Czekanowski
Charles Davenport
Joseph Deniker
Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt
Anténor Firmin
Eugen Fischer
John Fiske
Francis Galton
Stanley Marion Garn
Reginald Ruggles Gates
George Gliddon
Arthur de Gobineau
Madison Grant
John Grattan
Hans F. K. Günther
Ernst Haeckel
Frederick Ludwig Hoffman
Earnest Hooton
Julian Huxley
Thomas Henry Huxley
Calvin Ira Kephart
Robert Knox
Robert E. Kuttner
Georges Vacher de Lapouge
Fritz Lenz
Carl Linnaeus
Cesare Lombroso
Bertil Lundman
Felix von Luschan
Dominick McCausland
John Mitchell
Ashley Montagu
Lewis H. Morgan
Samuel George Morton
Josiah C. Nott
Karl Pearson
Oscar Peschel
Isaac La Peyrère
Charles Pickering
Ludwig Hermann Plate
Alfred Ploetz
James Cowles Prichard
Otto Reche
Gustaf Retzius
William Z. Ripley
Alfred Rosenberg
Benjamin Rush
Henric Sanielevici
Heinrich Schmidt
Ilse Schwidetzky
Charles Gabriel Seligman
Giuseppe Sergi
Samuel Stanhope Smith
Herbert Spencer
Morris Steggerda
Lothrop Stoddard
William Graham Sumner
Thomas Griffith Taylor
Paul Topinard
John H. Van Evrie
Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer
Rudolf Virchow
Voltaire
Alexander Winchell
Ludwig Woltmann
Writings
An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People in Different Climates (1744)
The Outline of History of Mankind (1785)
Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question (1849)
An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1855)
The Races of Europe (Ripley, 1899)
The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (1899)
Race Life of the Aryan Peoples (1907)
Heredity in Relation to Eugenics (1911)
Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development (1916)
The Passing of the Great Race (1916)
The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy (1920)
The Myth of the Twentieth Century (1930)
Annihilation of Caste (1936)
The Races of Europe (Coon, 1939)
An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus (1943)
The Race Question (1950)
Theories
Eugenics
Great chain of being
Monogenism
Polygenism
Pre-Adamite
Related
History of anthropometry
Racial categorization
in India
in Latin America
in Brazil
in Colombia
in Singapore
in the United States
Scientific racism
Nazism and race
Racial hygiene
Whiteness
in the United States
Whitening
Branqueamento/Blanqueamiento
Passing
Racial stereotypes
Martial race
Master race
Color names
Colorism
Négritude
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Race_Question&oldid=793430558"
Categories:
Scientific racism
UNESCO
1950 in science
Ethnicity
Ethnology
Historical definitions of race
Race (human categorization)
Politics and race
1950 in politics
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list
Articles needing additional references from January 2014
All articles needing additional references
Use dmy dates from March 2011
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Dansk
Español
Français
Italiano
Norsk
Português
Suomi
Svenska
Edit links
This page was last edited on 1 August 2017, at 18:17.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: th

attrs: class style

value: tr

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)
mw-redirect
Race (human categorization)

value: li

value: ul

value: td

values:
/wiki/Race_in_the_United_States
mw-redirect
Race in the United States

values: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;padding-top:0;

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;width:16.0em;

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Race_(classification_of_humans)
mw-redirect
Race (classification of humans)

values:
/wiki/Franklin_Frazier
mw-redirect
Franklin Frazier

values:
/wiki/E._G._Conklin
mw-redirect
E. G. Conklin

values:
/wiki/Modern_evolutionary_synthesis
mw-redirect
Modern evolutionary synthesis

values:
/wiki/Wilbert_Moore
mw-redirect
Wilbert Moore

values:
/wiki/H._J._Muller
mw-redirect
H. J. Muller

values:
/wiki/Chinese_science
mw-redirect
Chinese science

values:
/wiki/Curt_Stern_(geneticist)
mw-redirect
Curt Stern (geneticist)

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

values:
/wiki/Appeasement_of_Hitler
mw-redirect
Appeasement of Hitler

values:
/wiki/Nazi_ideology
mw-redirect
Nazi ideology

values:
/wiki/Tom%C3%A1%C5%A1_Masaryk
mw-redirect
Tomáš Masaryk

values:
/wiki/Race_biology
mw-redirect
Race biology

values:
/wiki/Negroid_race
mw-redirect
Negroid race

values: Edit section: The 1951 revised statement

values: Edit section: Legacy and other UNESCO statements

values: Category:CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list

values: Harald E.L. Prins and Edgardo Krebs (page does not exist)

values: Template talk:Historical definitions of race

values:
/wiki/Yellow_people
mw-redirect
Yellow people

values:
/wiki/Dravidian_peoples
mw-redirect
Dravidian peoples

values: The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century

values: Historical definitions of races in India

values:
/wiki/Race_in_Brazil
mw-redirect
Race in Brazil

values: Definitions of whiteness in the United States

values:
/wiki/Passing_(race)
mw-redirect
Passing (race)

values:
/wiki/Racial_stereotype
mw-redirect
Racial stereotype

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from January 2014

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/The_Race_Question
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: Dichiarazione sulla razza (UNESCO 1950) – Italian

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-The_Race_Question rootpage-The_Race_Question vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view