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Extracellular fluid
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It has been suggested that Interstitial fluid be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since September 2017.
The distribution of the total body water in mammals between the intracellular compartment and the extracellular compartment, which is, in turn, subdivided into interstitial fluid and smaller components, such as the blood plasma, the cerebrospinal fluid and lymph
Extracellular fluid (ECF) denotes all body fluid outside the cells. Total body water in humans makes up between 45 to 75% of total body weight. About two thirds of this is intracellular fluid within cells, and one third is the extracellular fluid.[1] The main component of the extracellular fluid is the interstitial fluid that bathes cells.
Extracellular fluid is the internal environment of all multicellular animals, and in those animals with a blood circulatory system a proportion of this fluid is blood plasma.[2] Plasma and interstitial fluid are the two compartments that make up at least 97% of the ECF. Lymph makes up a small percentage of the interstitial fluid.[3] The remaining small portion of the ECF includes the transcellular fluid (about 2.5%). The ECF can also be seen as having two components – plasma and lymph as a delivery system, and interstitial fluid for water and solute exchange with the cells.[4]
The extracellular fluid, in particular the interstitial fluid, constitutes the body's internal environment that bathes all of the cells in the body. The ECF composition is therefore crucial for their normal functions, and is maintained by a number of homeostatic mechanisms involving negative feedback. Homeostasis regulates, among others, the pH, sodium, potassium, and calcium concentrations in the ECF. The volume of body fluid, blood glucose, oxygen, and carbon dioxide levels are also tightly homeostatically maintained.
The volume of extracellular fluid in a young adult male of 70kg, is 20% of body weight – about fourteen litres. Eleven litres is interstitial fluid and the remaining three litres is plasma.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Components
2 Function
3 Regulation
4 Interaction between the blood plasma, interstitial fluid and lymph
5 Electrolytic constituents
6 Description
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Components[edit]
The main component of the extracellular fluid is the interstitial fluid which surrounds the cells in the body. The other major component of the ECF is the intravascular fluid of the circulatory system called blood plasma. The interstitial fluid and the plasma make up about 97% of the ECF, and a small percentage of this is lymph. The remaining small percentage of ECF includes the transcellular fluid. These constituents are often called compartments. The transcellular fluid includes the aqueous humour in the eye, the synovial fluid in the joints, the cerebrospinal fluid in the brain and spinal cord, the serous fluid in the serous membranes lining body cavities and in the saliva, and the perilymph and endolymph in the inner ear.
The volume of extracellular fluid in a young adult male of 70kg, is 20% of body weight – about fourteen litres. Eleven litres is interstitial fluid and the remaining three litres is plasma.[5]
Function[edit]
Cell membrane details between extracellular and intracellular fluid
Sodium-potassium pump and the diffusion between extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid
The extracellular fluid provides the medium for the exchange of substances between the ECF and the cells, and this can take place through dissolving, mixing and transporting in the fluid medium.[6] Substances in the ECF include dissolved gases, nutrients, and electrolytes, all needed to maintain life.[7] The ECF also contains materials secreted from cells in soluble form, but which quickly coalesces into fibres (e.g. collagen, reticular, and elastic fibres) or precipitates out into a solid or semisolid form (e.g. proteoglycans which form the bulk of cartilage, and the components of bone). These and many other substances occur, especially in association with various proteoglycans to form the extracellular matrix or the "filler" substance between the cells throughout the body.[8] These substances occur in the extracellular space, and are therefore all bathed or soaked in ECF, without being part of the ECF.
Regulation[edit]
The internal environment is stabilised in the process of homeostasis. Complex homeostatic mechanisms operate to regulate and keep the composition of the ECF stable. Individual cells can also regulate their internal composition by various mechanisms.[9]
Differences in the concentrations of ions giving the membrane potential.
There is a significant difference between the concentrations of sodium and potassium ions inside and outside the cell. The concentration of sodium ions is considerably higher in the extracellular fluid than in the intracellular fluid.[10] The converse is true of the potassium ion concentrations inside and outside the cell. These differences cause all cell membranes to be electrically charged, with the positive charge on the outside of the cells and the negative charge on the inside. In a resting neuron (not conducting an impulse) the membrane potential is known as the resting potential, and between the two sides of the membrane is about -70 mV.[11]
This potential is created by sodium-potassium pumps in the cell membrane, which pump sodium ions out of the cell, into the ECF, in return for potassium ions which enter the cell from the ECF. The maintenance of this difference in the concentration of ions between the inside of the cell and the outside, is critical to keep normal cell volumes stable, and also to enable some cells to generate action potentials.[12]
In several cell types voltage-gated ion channels in the cell membrane can be temporarily opened under specific circumstances for a few microseconds at a time. This allows a brief inflow of sodium ions into the cell (driven in by the sodium ion concentration gradient that exists between the outside and inside of the cell). This causes the cell membrane to temporarily depolarize (lose its electrical charge) forming the basis of action potentials.
The sodium ions in the ECF also play an important role in the movement of water from one body compartment to the other. When tears are secreted, or saliva is formed, sodium ions are pumped from the ECF into the ducts in which these fluids are formed and collected. The water content of these solutions results from the fact water follows the sodium ions (and accompanying anions) osmotically.[13][14] The same principle applies to the formation of many other body fluids.
Calcium ions have a great propensity to bind to proteins.[15] This changes the distribution of electrical charges on the protein, with the consequence that the 3D (or tertiary) structure of the protein is altered.[16][17] The normal shape, and therefore function of very many of the extracellular proteins, as well as the extracellular portions of the cell membrane proteins is dependent on a very precise ionized calcium concentration in the ECF. The proteins that are particularly sensitive to changes in the ECF ionized calcium concentration are several of the clotting factors in the blood plasma, which are functionless in the absence of calcium ions, but become fully functional on the addition of the correct concentration of calcium salts.[10][15] The voltage gated sodium ion channels in the cell membranes of nerves and muscle have an even greater sensitivity to changes in the ECF ionized calcium concentration.[18][19] Relatively small decreases in the plasma ionized calcium levels (hypocalcemia) cause these channels to leak sodium into the nerve cells or axons, making them hyper-excitable, thus causing spontaneous muscle spasms (tetany) and paraesthesia (the sensation of "pins and needles") of the extremities and round the mouth.[16][19][20] When the plasma ionized calcium rises above normal (hypercalcemia) more calcium is bound to these sodium channels having the opposite effect, causing lethargy, muscle weakness, anorexia, constipation and labile emotions.[20][21]
The tertiary structure of proteins is also affected by the pH of the bathing solution. In addition, the pH of the ECF affects the proportion of the total amount of calcium in the plasma which occurs in the free, or ionized form, as opposed to the fraction that is bound to protein and phosphate ions. A change in the pH of the ECF therefore alters the ionized calcium concentration of the ECF. Since the pH of the ECF is directly dependent on the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the ECF, hyperventilation, which lowers the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the ECF, produces symptoms that are almost indistinguishable from low plasma ionized calcium concentrations.[16]
The extracellular fluid is constantly “stirred” by the circulatory system, which ensures that the watery environment which bathes the body’s cells is virtually identical throughout the body. This means that nutrients can be secreted into the ECF in one place (e.g. the gut, liver, or fat cells) and will, within about a minute, be evenly distributed throughout the body. Hormones are similarly rapidly and evenly spread to every cell in the body, regardless of where they are secreted into the blood. Oxygen taken up by the lungs from the alveolar air is also evenly distributed at the correct partial pressure to all the cells of the body. Waste products are also uniformly spread to the whole of the ECF, and are removed from this general circulation at specific points (or organs), once again ensuring that there is generally no localized accumulation of unwanted compounds or excesses of otherwise essential substances (e.g. sodium ions, or any of the other constituents of the ECF). The only significant exception to this general principle is the plasma in the veins, where the concentrations of dissolved substances in individual veins differs, to varying degrees, from those in the rest of the ECF. However this plasma is confined within the waterproof walls of the venous tubes, and therefore does not affect the interstitial fluid in which the body's cell live. When the blood from all the veins in body mixes in the heart and lungs, the differing compositions cancel out (e.g. acidic blood from active muscles is neutralized by the alkaline blood homeostatically produced by the kidneys). From the left atrium onward, to every organ in the body, the normal, homeostatically regulated values of all of the ECF’s components are therefore restored.
Interaction between the blood plasma, interstitial fluid and lymph[edit]
Formation of interstial fluid from blood.
Diagram showing the formation of lymph from interstitial fluid (labeled here as "Tissue fluid"). The tissue fluid is entering the blind ends of lymph capillaries (shown as deep green arrows)
The arterial blood plasma, interstitial fluid and lymph interact at the level of the blood capillaries. The capillaries are permeable and water can move freely in and out. At the arteriolar end of the capillary the blood pressure is greater than the hydrostatic pressure in the tissues.[22][10] Water will therefore seep out of the capillary into the interstitial fluid. The pores through which this water moves are large enough to allow all the smaller molecules (up to the size of small proteins such as insulin) to move freely through the capillary wall as well. This means that their concentrations across the capillary wall equalize, and therefore have no osmotic effect (because the osmotic pressure caused by these small molecules and ions – called the crystalloid osmotic pressure to distinguish it from the osmotic effect of the larger molecules than cannot move across the capillary membrane – is the same on both sides of capillary wall).[22][10]
The movement of water out of the capillary at the arteriolar end causes the concentration of the substances that cannot cross the capillary wall to increase as the blood moves to the venular end of the capillary. The most important substances that are confined to the capillary tube are plasma albumin, the plasma globulins and fibrinogen. They, and particularly the plasma albumin, because of its molecular abundance in the plasma, are responsible for the so called ”oncotic” or "colloid" osmotic pressure which draws water back into the capillary, especially at the venular end.[22] (See the diagrams on the left.)
The net effect of all of these processes is that water moves out of and back into the capillary, while the crystalloid substances in the capillary and interstitial fluids equilibrate. Since the capillary fluid is constantly and rapidly renewed by the flow of the blood, its composition dominates the equilibrium concentration that is achieved in the capillary bed. This ensures that the watery environment of the body’s cells is always close to their ideal environment (set by the body’s homeostats).
A small proportion of the solution that leaks out of the capillaries is not drawn back into the capillary by the colloid osmotic forces. This amounts to between 2-4 liters per day for the body as a whole. This water is collected by the lymphatic system and is ultimately discharged into the left subclavian vein, where it mixes with the venous blood coming from the left arm, on its way to the heart.[10] The lymph flows through lymph capillaries to lymph nodes where bacteria and tissue debris are removed from the lymph, while various types white blood cells (mainly lymphocytes) are added to the fluid. In addition the lymph which drains the small intestine contains fat droplets called chylomicrons after the ingestion of a fatty meal.[15] This lymph is called chyle which has a milky appearance, and imparts the name lacteals (referring to the milky appearance of their contents) to the lymph vessels of the small intestine.[23]
Electrolytic constituents[edit]
Main cations:[24]
Sodium (Na+) 136–151 mM
Potassium (K+) 3.4–5.2 mM
Calcium (Ca2+) 1.4–1.5 mM
Main anions:[24]
Chloride (Cl−) 99–110 mM
Bicarbonate (HCO3−) 22–28 mM
Phosphate (HPO42−) 0.8-1.4 mM
Description[edit]
The interstitial fluid component of the ECF is an almost colorless solution, which is salty to the taste. The plasma, which contains the plasma proteins which are largely absent from the interstitial fluid is generally straw colored. It also tastes salty, and has a "sticky" feel due its protein content. Plasma will clot if left standing for more than a few minutes, due to the presence of clotting factors, which are activated by contact with any wettable surface such as the glass of a test tube or simply by stagnation (through an unknown mechanism). Lymph can be almost colorless, but tends to have a slightly turbid appearance due to its content of cells (mainly white blood cells) or fat globules when it drains the intestines after a meal.
See also[edit]
Effective circulating volume (ECV)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Tortora, G (1987). Principles of anatomy and physiology (5th ed. ed.). New York, NY: Harper and Row. p. 693. ISBN 0-06-350729-3. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
Jump up ^ Hillis, David (2012). Principles of life. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. p. 589. ISBN 978-1-4292-5721-3.
Jump up ^ Pocock, Gillian; Richards, Christopher D. (2006). Human physiology : the basis of medicine (3rd ed. ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 548. ISBN 978-0-19-856878-0. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
Jump up ^ Canavan, A; Arant, BS Jr (2009), "Diagnosis and management of dehydration in children" (PDF), Am Fam Physician, 80 (7): 692–696, PMID 19817339.
^ Jump up to: a b Hall, John (2011). Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology (12th ed. ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders/Elsevier. pp. 286–287. ISBN 978-1-4160-4574-8. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
Jump up ^ Tortora, Gerard (1987). Principles of anatomy and physiology (5th ed. Harper international ed.). New York: Harper & Row. pp. 61–62. ISBN 0-06-046669-3.
Jump up ^ Tortora, Gerard (1987). Principles of anatomy and physiology (5th ed. Harper international ed.). New York: Harper & Row. p. 17. ISBN 0-06-046669-3.
Jump up ^ Voet, Donald; Voet, Judith; Pratt, Charlotte (2016). Fundamentals of Biochemistry: Life at the Molecular Level. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 235. ISBN 978-1-118-91840-1.
Jump up ^ Pocock, Gillian; Richards, Christopher D. (2006). Human physiology : the basis of medicine (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-19-856878-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Tortora, Gerard (1987). Principles of anatomy and physiology (5th ed.). New York: Harper & Row, International. pp. 40, 49–50, 61, 268–274, 449–453, 456, 494–496, 530–552, 693–700. ISBN 0-06-046669-3.
Jump up ^ Tortora, Gerald (1987). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. p. 269. ISBN 0-06-046669-3.
Jump up ^ Tortora, Gerard (2011). Principles of anatomy and physiology (13th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. pp. 73–74. ISBN 978-0-470-64608-3.
Jump up ^ Tortora, G; Anagnostakos, Nicholas (1987). Principles of anatomy and physiology (5th ed. ed.). New York, NY: Harper and Row. pp. 34,621, 693–694. ISBN 0-06-350729-3. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
Jump up ^ http://pcwww.liv.ac.uk/~petesmif/petesmif/salivary%20secretion/fluid%20secretion.htm
^ Jump up to: a b c Stryer, Lubert (1995). Biochemistry. (Fourth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 255–256, 347–348, 697–698. ISBN 0 7167 2009 4.
^ Jump up to: a b c Macefield, Gary; Burke, David (1991). "Paraesthesiae and tetany induced by voluntary hyperventilation: increased excitability of cutaneous and motor axons". Brain. 114 (1): 527–540. doi:10.1093/brain/114.1.527.
Jump up ^ Stryer, Lubert (1995). Biochemistry. (Fourth ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 347, 348. ISBN 0 7167 2009 4.
Jump up ^ Armstrong CM, Cota G (Mar 1999). "Calcium block of Na+ channels and its effect on closing rate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 96 (7): 4154–7. Bibcode:1999PNAS...96.4154A. PMC 22436  . PMID 10097179. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.7.4154.
^ Jump up to: a b Armstrong, C.M.; Cota, Gabriel. (1999). "Calcium block of Na+ channels and its effect on closing rate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 96 (7): 4154–4157. PMC 22436  . PMID 10097179. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.7.4154.
^ Jump up to: a b Harrison TR. Principles of Internal Medicine (third ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. pp. 170, 571–579.
Jump up ^ Waters, M (2009). "Hypercalcemia". InnovAiT. 2 (12). doi:10.1093/innovait/inp143.
^ Jump up to: a b c Guyton, Arthur; Hall, John (2006). "Chapter 16: The Microcirculation and the Lymphatic System". In Gruliow, Rebecca. Textbook of Medical Physiology (Book) (11th ed.). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Elsevier Inc. pp. 187–188. ISBN 0-7216-0240-1.
Jump up ^ Williams, Peter L; Warwick, Roger; Dyson, Mary; Bannister, Lawrence H. (1989). Gray’s Anatomy (Thirty-seventh ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. p. 821. ISBN 0443 041776.
^ Jump up to: a b Diem, K.; Lentner, C. (1970). "Blood – Inorganic substances". in: Scientific Tables (Seventh ed.). Basle, Switzerland: CIBA-GEIGY Ltd. pp. 561–568.
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Music of Game of Thrones
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Ramin Djawadi is the composer of the Game of Thrones score.
The music for the fantasy TV series Game of Thrones is composed by Ramin Djawadi. The music is primarily instrumental with the occasional vocal performances, and is created to support musically the characters and plots of the show. It features various themes, the most prominent being the Main Title that accompanies the series' title sequence. In every season, a soundtrack album would be released.
The music of Game of Thrones has inspired many cover versions; the main title theme is particularly popular.[1] There are also decidedly non-medieval renditions of songs from the series's source novels by indie bands. These adaptations, according to Wired, create attention for the series in media that wouldn't normally cover it, but are also notable for their musical merits independent of the series.[2]
A series of concerts which featured Game of Thrones music, Game of Thrones Live Concert Experience with composer Ramin Djawadi, took place in 2017. First to be performed in Saint Paul, Minnesota, it then went on to tour across the United States and Canada.[3][4] A world tour to be held starting May 2018 in Madrid was announced in September 2017.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Themes
2.1 Main Title
2.2 Houses and characters
2.3 List of themes
3 Other compositions and songs
4 Releases
4.1 Soundtrack
4.2 Mixtapes
5 Tours
6 Awards
6.1 Awards and nominations
7 See also
8 References
Background[edit]
Initially a different composer, Stephen Warbeck, was hired for the pilot episode of Game of Thrones but he left the project.[6] The music consultant for HBO and music supervisor of Game of Thrones Evyen Klean then suggested Ramin Djawadi to David Benioff and D. B. Weiss.[7] Djawadi, although initially interested, declined the offer three days later as the schedule conflicted with a film he was working on. Djawadi was nevertheless persuaded to take on the project after a few meetings.[8] The showrunners Benioff and Weiss sent Djawadi the first two episodes of the series, which Djawadi was impressed by, and so arranged a meeting with Benioff and Weiss to discuss the concept of the series, after which he began to compose the music for the series.[2][9] According to Djawadi, Benioff and Weiss wanted the different characters and plots to be musically supported.[10] They decided that the music would be used to express the emotion and mood of each scene in the series, and that distinct themes would be created for some of the main characters.[11] Benioff and Weiss also wanted a soundscape that is distinct from other productions in the fantasy genre, therefore flutes and solo vocals were initially avoided, and cello became a prominent feature of the music of Game of Thrones, notably in its title theme.[12]
The process of composition is essentially the same throughout the series. Once the filming is nearly completed, episodes are sent to Djawadi in batches as they're being edited together but often before any special effects added in the footage, and these episodes may be sent singly or in set of multiple episodes. Benioff and Weiss would also inform Djawadi in advance of the need to expand a theme or create new themes for characters.[9] Asked in interview about the overall process of composing the music and how it is used in the series, Djawadi said: "I sit with David and Dan and we do what's called a spotting session where we watch the entire episode and then discuss when music should start and stop. Everybody's very involved with that. And it constantly gets played with. What I love about Game of Thrones is that the positioning of the music is so well done, because it's not overdone. When the music cuts in, it really has something to say."[13]
The recordings of most of the soundtracks were conducted in Prague with The Czech Film Orchestra and Choir. Djawadi interacted with the orchestra over the internet and would be present during the entire recording session, giving comments on the recordings via the internet.[14]
Themes[edit]
Main Title[edit]
Main article: Game of Thrones Theme
Game of Thrones' main title theme
Sample of "Main Title", the series's musical theme tune, illustrating the melody played with cello and variations of the riff in strings
Problems playing this file? See media help.
According to Djawadi, the series creators wanted the main title theme that accompany the Game of Thrones title sequence to be about a journey as there are many locations, characters in the series and involves much traveling. After Djawadi had seen the preliminary animated title sequence the visual effect artists were still working on, he was inspired to write the piece. Djawadi said he intended to capture the overall impression of the series with the theme tune.[14][15] The title theme is unusually long for a television series at nearly two minutes long, and cello was chosen as the main instrument for the music as he thought it has a "darker sound" that suited the series.[14] The main title theme may also be incorporated into other music segments, particularly at climactic moments.[12]
Houses and characters[edit]
Djawadi composed leitmotifs for each of the major houses, some locations and some of the characters, which are often played in scenes involving them and these themes can be used to tell a story. Not all characters would have their own themes due to the large number of characters in the series.[11] The theme for House Stark is the first theme to be composed and is played on a cello.[16] Most of the Stark characters only have variations on the same theme on cello. Arya Stark is the first of the house to have her own theme, first heard when she started her lesson on swordplay in episode three of season one, with the music featuring a hammered dulcimer.[17][18] A new theme for Jon Snow, previously using only the House Stark theme, was created in the sixth season and prominently featured in the episode "Battle of the Bastards". It was first heard at the end of episode three when he said "My watch is ended", signifying a shift in the character after he had been resurrected.[9]
Due to the large number of themes, the introductions of different themes are also deliberately spaced over a longer period so as not to confuse audience, for example, the theme for Theon Greyjoy was not introduced until the second season even though he first appeared in the first season.[19] House Lannister has an associated song, "The Rains of Castamere". The song was played at the Red Wedding, but first heard when Tyrion Lannister whistled a small part in the first episode of the second season.[10]
Djawadi may choose distinctive sounds and instruments for different themes, for example, didgeridoos are used for the wildlings, while the Armenian duduk flute is used for the Dothrakis.[19] The duduk flute has a different sound from other flutes, which were deliberately avoided as they are frequently used in other fantasy films.[20] The themes for the White Walkers and the Night King are more of sound designs rather than regular themes; the White Walker theme initially employed a glass harmonica for a "really high, eerie, icy sound", but became fully orchestral when the army of the dead was revealed in the season two finale.[17] The theme music for the White Walker extended over time into the music of the Army of the Dead, representing the gathering strength of Army of the Dead, which was only introduced in full in the finale of the seventh season when the wall fell.[21]
The themes may evolve over time in the series. The theme for Daenerys Targaryen started small, but became grander as she became more powerful. Her theme was initially played with a single instrument such as a processed cello, but later began incorporating more instruments, including Japanese taiko-inspired drums, Indonesian bedug drums, and an Armenian duduk flute.[17] Syllables and words in Valyrian, a fictional language of Game of Thrones, were also used in her theme music, although not as whole sentences.[9] The instrumentations for her theme are also used for dragon attacks.[18]
Different themes may also be combined in some themes and scenes. Several examples exist: during the first scene of the fourth season, as Ice, the Stark sword, is reforged by Tywin Lannister, the Starks' and Lannisters' themes are clearly played simultaneously, to finally end with the Lannister theme only. Also, in Season 5, the music for House or Black and White is an extension from the themes for Arya and Jaqen H'ghar.[22] In the finale of Season 6 with the shot of the armada at the end, at least five themes were combined – themes for Daenerys, Theon, the Unsullied, the dragons, and the main title.[17]
List of themes[edit]
The themes and their locations in the soundtracks (seasons 1–7):
Game of Thrones ("Main Title", "Winter Has Come"),
White Walkers ("White Walkers"),
House Stark ("Goodbye Brother", "Home"),
House Baratheon ("The King’s Arrival"),
Daenerys and Khal Drogo ("Love In The Eyes"),
Dragons ("Mother of Dragons", "Breaker of Chains"),
Daenerys Targaryen ("Finale", "Mhysa"),
Conspiracy ("Chaos Is a Ladder"),
Honor ("The Old Gods and the New"),
Night’s Watch ("The Wall"),
Water Dancing ("The Pointy End"),
Viserys Targaryen ("A Golden Crown"),
Assassin ("The Assassin’s Dagger"),
Dothraki ("To Vaes Dothrak"),
Joffrey Baratheon ("You Win Or You Die"),
Mirri Maz Durr Prophecy
House Greyjoy ("What Is Dead May Never Die", "Pay the Iron Price"),
R’hllor Religion ("Warrior of Light", "The Red Woman"),
Arya Stark ("Valar Morghulis", "Needle"),
Qarth ("Qarth"),
Love ("I Am Hers, She Is Mine"),
Pyat Pree ("Pyat Pree"),
Craster’s Keep ("Craster’s Keep"),
Wildlings ("We Are the Watchers On the Wall"),
House Lannister ("A Lannister Always Pays His Debts", "The Queen’s Justice"),
White Walker March ("White Walkers"),
Dracarys ("Dracarys"),
Jon and Ygritte
Night’s Watch Adventure ("Wall of Ice"),
Jaime Lannister ("Kingslayer"),
White Walker Arrival ("White Walkers"),
Ramsay Bolton ("Reek"),
The Red Wedding ("The Lannisters Send Their Regards"),
Dragon Flight ("Bloof of the Dragon"),
Grey Worm and Missandei ("I’m Sorry For Today"),
Thenns ("Thenns"),
Battle of Castle Black ("Let’s Kill Some Crows"),
Meereen ("Meereen"),
Three-Eyed Raven ("Three-Eyed Raven"),
The Hound ("Oathkeeper"),
Battle at the Cave of the Three-Eyed Raven ("He Is Lost"),
The Children ("He Is Lost"),
Faceless Men ("House of Black and White"),
House Martell ("Jaws of the Viper"),
White Walkers Approaching ("Hardhome, Pt. 1"),
White Walker Fight ("Hardhome, Pt. 2"),
The Night King ("Hardhome, Pt. 2"),
White Walker Resurrection ("Hardhome, Pt. 2"),
High Sparrow ("High Sparrow"),
House Bolton ("Let’s Play a Game"),
Sons of the Harpy ("Sons of the Harpy"),
Queen Cersei ("Light of the Seven"),
Euron Greyjoy ("Coronation"),
Jon Snow ("My Watch Has Ended"),
The Citadel ("Maester"),
Dragon Landing ("Reign"),
Dragon Awe ("Reign"),
House Tyrell ("Service of the Gods"),
The Mountain ("I Choose Violence"),
Dragonglass ("Dragonglass"),
Jon and Daenerys ("Dragonglass", "Truth"),
White Walker Power ("The Army of the Dead"),
etc.
Other compositions and songs[edit]
Various pieces of music are also composed for particular plot lines in the series. A notable piece is the "Light of the Seven" which is played at the beginning of the final episode of the sixth season, "The Winds of Winter". This piece, which is over nine minutes long, is unusual in its choice of piano which is not an instrument used before on the series.[23] Such long pieces are seldom used, although in the sixth season there are soundtracks that cover a 10-minute section in the Hodor scenes in "The Door" episode and a 22-minute sequence in the "Battle of the Bastards" episode.[23]
A number of songs have been composed by Djawadi for the show using lyrics from the books A Song of Ice and Fire, the most prominent of which is "The Rains of Castamere". The National recorded the song in the second season, while Sigur Rós also recorded it in the fourth season for a cameo appearance.[24] In season 3, Kerry Ingram who played the character Shireen Baratheon sang "It's Always Summer Under the Sea", while The Bear and the Maiden Fair" was performed by The Hold Steady (but first sung on the episode by the captors of Brienne of Tarth and Jaime Lannister).[25][2] The character Bronn played by Jerome Flynn sang "The Dornishman's Wife" in season 5, while Ed Sheeran also appeared in a cameo to perform "Hands of Gold" in season 7.[26] However, neither of the latter two songs appear in the soundtrack albums.
Releases[edit]
In every season, a soundtrack album of the music used in that season was released toward the end of the season. The first two were released by Varèse Sarabande, all subsequent releases were by WaterTower Music Mixtapes were also released in 2014 and 2015 before the start of the fourth and fifth season respectively and they were available as free downloads to promote the season.[27][28]
Soundtrack[edit]
Year
Title
Composer
Ref(s)
2011 Game of Thrones (season 1) Ramin Djawadi [29]
2012 Game of Thrones (season 2) [30]
2013 Game of Thrones (season 3) [31]
2014 Game of Thrones (season 4) [32]
2015 Game of Thrones (season 5) [33]
2016 Game of Thrones (season 6) [34]
2017 Game of Thrones (season 7) [35]
Mixtapes[edit]
Year
Title
Artist
Ref(s)
2014 Catch the Throne: Volume I Various [36]
2015 Catch the Throne: Volume II Various [37]
Tours[edit]
Main article: Game of Thrones Live Concert Experience
A concert tour featuring the music of Game of Thrones was produced in 2017.[3] The tour involved an 80-piece orchestra, a choir, and seven custom 360-degree stages. Instruments were specially created for the tour, such as a 12-foot Wildling horn played during the Wildling attack on the Wall section.[16][38]
Awards[edit]
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Nominee(s)
Result
Ref.
2011 International Film Music Critics Association Best Original Score for a Television Series Nominated [39]
2012 ASCAP Awards Top Television Series Won [40]
2013 ASCAP Awards Top Television Series Won [41]
International Film Music Critics Association Best Original Score for a Television Series Nominated [42]
2014 66th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards Outstanding Music Composition For A Series (Original Dramatic Score) Episode: "The Mountain and the Viper" Nominated [43]
Hollywood Music in Media Awards Best Original Score - TV Show/Digital Streaming Series Nominated [44]
2016 World Soundtrack Awards Television Composer of the Year Nominated [45]
International Film Music Critics Association Best Original Score for a Television Series Won [46]
Film Music Composition Of The Year Song: "Light of the Seven" Nominated [47]
2018 60th Annual Grammy Awards Best Score Soundtrack For Visual Media Nominated [48]
See also[edit]
For other music based on the A Song of Ice and Fire novels, see Works based on A Song of Ice and Fire.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Lynch, Joe (August 22, 2016). "These Are the 10 Most Popular 'Game of Thrones' Cover Songs on YouTube: Exclusive". Billboard.
^ Jump up to: a b c Watercutter, Angela (April 15, 2013). "Why HBO Turned to Indie Bands for the Medieval Tunes of Game of Thrones". Wired. Retrieved April 17, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Game of Thrones concert experience hits the road in 2017". The Guardian. August 8, 2016. Archived from the original on August 21, 2016. Retrieved January 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Selcke, Dan (February 21, 2017). "The Game of Thrones Live Concert Experience has begun, and fans love it". Winteriscoming.net. Archived from the original on February 22, 2017. Retrieved March 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Tenreyro, Tatiana (September 26, 2017). "'Game of Thrones' Live Concert Experience Announces 2018 World Tour". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Thrones Switches Composer". Winter is Coming. February 2, 2011.
Jump up ^ Kawashima, Dale (February 24, 2016). "Interview With Evyen Klean, Top Music Supervisor and Owner of Neophonic". Songwriter Universe.
Jump up ^ Davis, Cindy (September 12, 2016). "Mindhole Blowers: 20 Facts About "Game of Thrones" That Might Leave You Crippled, a Bastard or a Broken Thing". Pajiba.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Renfro, Kim (July 7, 2016). "Meet the musical genius behind the Game of Thrones soundtrack who watches each season before anyone else". Tech Insider. Archived from the original on July 8, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Mahoney, Lesley (September 20, 2013). "Behind the Scenes with Game of Thrones Composer Ramin Djawadi". Berklee College of Music.
^ Jump up to: a b Ferreiro, Laura (April 25, 2013). "Game of Thrones' Composer Ramin Djawadi Talks Epic Score, Daenerys' Dragons, and Metal 'Thrones' Theme". Yahoo! Music.
^ Jump up to: a b "Composer Interview: Ramin Djawadi". Filmmusicmedia.com. December 22, 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Blickley, Leigh (June 29, 2016). "'Game Of Thrones' Composer Breaks Down The Season Finale's Opening Sequence". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on August 17, 2016. Retrieved October 10, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hrishikesh Hirway, Ramin Djawadi (June 11, 2015). "Here's Why 'Game of Thrones' Theme Song Is as Treacherous as Westeros". The Creators Project. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Hirway, Hrishikesh. "Song Exploder 40: RAMIN DJAWADI ("Game of Thrones")". Soundcloud.
^ Jump up to: a b Bell, Crystal (February 17, 2017). "Inside the Epic Game of Thrones Tour That's Bringing Westeros to Life". MTV.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Vineyard, Jennifer. "Game of Thrones Composer Ramin Djawadi on the Show's Key Musical Elements, and That Godfather-esque Finale Tune". Vulture.
^ Jump up to: a b Morton, Ashley (February 17, 2017). "Ramin Djawadi Shares Secrets of GoT Composing, Characters and Concerts". Making Game of Thrones (HBO).
^ Jump up to: a b Selcke, Dan. "Video: Game of Thrones Composer Ramin Djawadi on Writing the Show's Music". Winter Is Coming.
Jump up ^ Kalus, Ruben (April 22, 2016). "No flutes allowed: Composer Ramin Djawadi on the music of 'Game of Thrones'". Deutsche Welle.
Jump up ^ Li, Shirley (August 29, 2017). "Game of Thrones composer breaks down season 7 finale score". Entertainment Weekley.
Jump up ^ Misra, Sulagna (June 12, 2015). "Inside the Music of Game of Thrones Season 5". Vanity Fair.
^ Jump up to: a b Wigler, Josh (June 28, 2016). "'Game of Thrones' Composer Discusses "Light of the Seven," the Finale's "Haunting" King's Landing Score". Hollywood Reporter.
Jump up ^ Cooper, Leonie (April 4, 2014). "Sigur Ros to cover The National for 'Game Of Thrones' soundtrack". NME.
Jump up ^ March 5, 2013, James. "'Game of Thrones' and the Hold Steady team for season 3 song". EW.com.
Jump up ^ Vincent, Alice (July 18, 2017). "The secret meaning of Ed Sheeran's Game of Thrones character - and the song he sings". The Daily Telegraph.
Jump up ^ Battan, Carrie (March 5, 2014). "Game of Thrones" Official HBO Mixtape to Feature Big Boi, Common, Wale, More". Pitchfork.
Jump up ^ Camp, Zoe (March 17, 2015). "Stream Catch the Throne Vol. 2, Official "Game of Thrones" Mixtape". Pitchfork.
Jump up ^ "Game of Thrones by Ramin Djawadi". AllMusic. Retrieved July 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Game of Thrones: Season 2 by Ramin Djawadi". Retrieved July 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Game of Thrones: Season 3 by Ramin Djawadi". Retrieved July 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Game of Thrones: Season 4 by Ramin Djawadi". Retrieved July 20, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Game of Thrones: Season 5 by Ramin Djawadi". Retrieved July 20, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Game of Thrones: Season 6 by Ramin Djawadi". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Game of Thrones: Season 7 by Ramin Djawadi". Retrieved August 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Beauchemin, Molly; Battan, Carrie (March 7, 2014). "Listen to the "Game Of Thrones" Mixtape, Catch the Throne". Pitchfork.
Jump up ^ Blistein, Jon (March 17, 2015). "Hear the Second 'Game of Thrones' Mixtape Now". Rolling Stone. Retrieved March 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ Pfleegor, Dan (February 23, 2017). "Behind the Scenes of The Game of Thrones Live Experience". Consequence of Sound.
Jump up ^ "IFMCA Award Nominations 2011 - IFMCA: the International Film Music Critics Association".
Jump up ^ "ASCAP Honors Top Film and Television Music Composers at 27th Annual Awards Celebration". www.ascap.com.
Jump up ^ "ASCAP Honors Top Film and Television Music Composers at 28th Annual Awards Celebration". www.ascap.com.
Jump up ^ "IFMCA Award Nominations 2013 - IFMCA: the International Film Music Critics Association".
Jump up ^ "Emmy Awards 2014: the nominations in full". Daily Telegraph. July 10, 2014. Retrieved July 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hollywood Music in Media Awards Nominations Announced". International Film Music Critics Association. October 8, 2014. Retrieved February 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ Gent, Film Fest. "16th World Soundtrack Awards announces first wave of nominees". Film Fest Gent. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "IFMCA Award Winners 2016 | IFMCA: International Film Music Critics Association". International Film Music Critics Association. Retrieved April 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "IFMCA Award Nominations 2016 | IFMCA: International Film Music Critics Association". International Film Music Critics Association. Retrieved April 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Grammys 2018: See the Complete List of Nominees". Billboard. Retrieved 28 November 2017.
[show]
v
t
e
George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire
A Game of Thrones (1996)
A Clash of Kings (1998)
A Storm of Swords (2000)
A Feast for Crows (2005)
A Dance with Dragons (2011)
The Winds of Winter (TBA)
Franchise media
Novellas
Tales of Dunk and Egg (1998–2010)
The Princess and the Queen (2013)
The Rogue Prince (2014)
The Sons of the Dragon (2017)
TV series
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Season 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Awards
Characters
Music
"Game of Thrones Theme"
"The Rains of Castamere"
"The Bear and the Maiden Fair"
"Light of the Seven"
Catch the Throne
Live Concert Experience
Soundtracks
Season 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Title sequence
After the Thrones
Thronecast
Video games
A Game of Thrones: Genesis
Game of Thrones (2012)
Game of Thrones Ascent
Game of Thrones (2014)
Other media
The World of Ice & Fire (2014)
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Gendry
Tormund Giantsbane
Gilly
Theon Greyjoy
Cersei Lannister
Jaime Lannister
Tyrion Lannister
Tywin Lannister
Oberyn Martell
Melisandre
Missandei
Jorah Mormont
Daario Naharis
Ellaria Sand
Davos Seaworth
Jon Snow
High Sparrow
Arya Stark
Bran Stark
Catelyn Stark
Ned Stark
Rickon Stark
Robb Stark
Sansa Stark
Daenerys Targaryen
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Samwell Tarly
Brienne of Tarth
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Olenna Tyrell
Varys
Ygritte
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Biuret test
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The characteristic color of a positive biuret test
The biuret test (Piotrowski's test[1]) is a chemical test used for detecting the presence of peptide bonds. In the presence of peptides, a copper(II) ion forms violet-colored coordination complexes in an alkaline solution.[2] Several variants on the test have been developed, such as the BCA test and the Modified Lowry test.[3]
The biuret reaction can be used to assess the concentration of proteins because peptide bonds occur with the same frequency per amino acid in the peptide. The intensity of the color, and hence the absorption at 540 nm, is directly proportional to the protein concentration, according to the Beer-Lambert law.
Despite its name, the reagent does not in fact contain biuret ((H2N-CO-)2NH). The test is named so because it also gives a positive reaction to the peptide-like bonds in the biuret molecule.
In this assay, the copper(II) binds with nitrogens present in the peptides of proteins. In a secondary reaction, the copper(II) is reduced to copper(I). Buffers, such as Tris and ammonia interfere with this assay, therefore rendering this assay inappropriate for protein samples purified from ammonium sulfate precipitation. Due to its insensitivity and little interference by free amino acids, this assay is most useful for whole tissue samples and other sources with high protein concentration.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Procedure
2 Biuret reagent
3 High sensitivity variants of the biuret test
4 References
5 External links and notes
Procedure[edit]
An aqueous sample is treated with an equal volume of 1% strong base (sodium or potassium hydroxide) followed by a few drops of aqueous copper(II) sulfate. If the solution turns purple, protein is present. 5–160 mg/mL can be determined. Peptides with the chain length of at least 3 amino acids are necessary for a significant, measurable colour shift with these reagents.[5]
Biuret reagent[edit]
The Biuret reagent is made of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrated copper(II) sulfate, together with potassium Chemical Reagents Potassium sodium tartrate[6] is added to chelate and thus stabilize the cupric ions. The reaction of the cupric ions with the nitrogen atoms involved in peptide bonds leads to the displacement of the peptide hydrogen atoms under the alkaline conditions. A tri or tetra dentate chelation with the peptide nitrogen produces the "biuret" color. This is found with dipeptides (Datta,S.P., Leberman,R., and Rabin,B.R., Trans.Farad.Soc. (1959), 55, 2141.)
The reagent is commonly used in the biuret protein assay, a colorimetric test used to determine protein concentration by UV/VIS spectroscopy at wavelength 550 nm.
High sensitivity variants of the biuret test[edit]
Two major modifications of the biuret test are commonly applied in modern colorimetric analysis of peptides: the bicinchoninic acid (BCA) assay and the Lowry assay. In these tests, the Cu+ formed during the biuret reaction reacts further with other reagents, leading to a deeper color.
In the BCA test, Cu+ forms a deep purple complex with bicinchoninic acid (BCA),[7] which absorbs around 562 nm, producing the signature violet color. The water-soluble BCA/copper complex absorbs much more strongly than the peptide/copper complex, increasing the sensitivity of the biuret test by a factor of around 100: the BCA assay allows to detect proteins in the range of 0.0005 to 2 mg/mL). Additionally, the BCA protein assay gives the important benefit of compatibility with substances such as up to 5% surfactants in protein samples.
In the Lowry protein assay Cu+ is oxidized back to Cu2+ by MoVI in Folin-Ciocalteu's reagent, which forms molybdenum blue (MoIV). Tyrosine residues in the protein also form molybdenum blue under these circumstances. In this way, proteins can be detected in concentrations between 0.005 and 2 mg/mL.[8] Molybdenum blue in turn can bind certain organic dyes such as malachite green and Auramine O, resulting in further amplification of the signal.[9]
In Poland, the Biuret Test is more commonly called as the Piotrowski Test, in honor of the Polish toxological chemist, Jerzy Kazimierz Piotrowski (b. 1926) of Lodz.[citation needed]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Charles William Hale: Domestic Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1915, s. 229, seria: Cambridge technical series.
Jump up ^ The reaction was first observed 1833: Ferdinand Rose (1833) "Über die Verbindungen des Eiweiss mit Metalloxyden" (On the compounds of albumin with metal oxides), Poggendorfs Annalen der Physik und Chemie, vol. 104, pages 132-142, doi:10.1002/andp.18331040512. It was independently rediscovered in 1857 by a Polish physiologist: G. Piotrowski (1857) "Eine neue Reaction auf Eiweisskörper und ihre näheren Abkömmlinge" (A new reaction of proteins and their related derivatives) Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Classe (Proceedings of the Imperial Academy of Philosophies in Vienna, mathematical-natural sciences section), vol. 24, pages 335-337.
Jump up ^ “Chemistry of Protein Assay” Thermo Scientific Protein Methods Library. http://www.piercenet.com
Jump up ^ Ninfa, Alexander; Ballou, David; Benore, Marilee (2009). Fundamental Laboratory Approaches for Biochemistry and Biotechnology. Wiley. p. 111. ISBN 978-0470087664.
Jump up ^ Fenk, C. J.; Kaufman, N.; and Gerbig, D. G. J. Chem. Educ. 2007, 84, 1676-1678.
Jump up ^ Chemical Reagents
Jump up ^ Smith, P.K. et al.: Measurement of protein using bicinchoninic acid. Anal. Biochem. 150 (1985) 76-85.
Jump up ^ O.H. Lowry, N.J. Rosebrough, A.L. Farr, R.J. Randall: Protein Measurement With the Folin Phenol Reagent, J. Biol. Chem. 193 (1951) 265 - 275.
Jump up ^ Sargent, M.G.: Fiftyfold amplification of the Lowry protein assay. Anal. Biochem. 163 (1987) 476-481.
External links and notes[edit]
Gold. 1990. Organic Compounds in Biological Systems, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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