text:
Alcohol laws of Pennsylvania
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Location of Pennsylvania
The alcohol laws of Pennsylvania contain many peculiarities not found in other states, and are considered some of the strictest regulations in the United States.[1][2][3]
Contents
1 Alcohol sales
1.1 For consumption off-premises
1.2 For consumption on-premises
1.3 Attempts to privatize
2 Drinking age
3 Drunk driving
4 See also
5 References
Alcohol sales[edit]
For consumption off-premises[edit]
Pennsylvania is an alcoholic beverage control state. Spirits are to be sold only in the state owned Fine Wine and Good Spirits stores, which also sell wine, but not beer. Prices are generally the same throughout the state, but state stores may offer special discounts and sales,[4] and county sales tax may cause the price to differ slightly. People under the age of 21 are allowed to enter Fine Wine and Good Spirits stores, contrary to popular belief, but only if accompanied by a parent or guardian. Monday through Saturday, a store may open as early as 9 am and close as late as 10 pm. On Sunday, many stores sell liquor from 11 am until 7 pm.[5]
Wineries are common throughout the Commonwealth, and often sell their wines at storefronts in shopping malls; persons under the age of 21 are permitted to enter these establishments. Wine was available for a short time in supermarket kiosks, but this practice has ended.[6][7] Many supermarkets now operate restaurants at which they are permitted to sell small quantities of wine (see below).
Beer may only be purchased in large quantities from a distributor. Beer distributors mainly sell kegs of beer and cases. A beer distributor is also allowed to sell any package intended for resale by a PLCB-approved brewery containing any variety of bottle/can arrangements greater than or equal to 128 ounces. Beverage distributors (which also sell soft drinks) may sell beer and malt liquor, but not wine[citation needed] or hard liquor. People under 21 may enter most beverage distributors without an adult, since most distributors also sell water, soda, ice, tobacco products, and some snack foods. They are subject to the rules of the individual establishment.
The hours of operation of beer distributors are typically similar to that of Wine and Spirits stores and other retail establishments. These hours are only restricted by the state on Sundays, where a special license is required to sell beer, and sales before 11 am are not permitted.[8] Although state law permits late-night beer distributors, local authorities can place additional restrictions, and stores typically close before 10 pm.
Beer and wine in small quantities may be purchased from a restaurant, bar, or licensed retailer. These establishments may sell six and twelve packs of beer, along with individual bottles such as 40 ounce or 24 ounce beers. Their licenses permit them to sell up to 192 fluid ounces of beer per purchase. They may also sell up to 4 bottles of wine per purchase.[4]
Some supermarkets, including Wegmans, Giant Eagle, Giant, and Weis, have begun to sell alcohol within restaurants attached to the main supermarket building, but only under very specific conditions (the restaurant must have a defined separation from the rest of the supermarket, a separate cashier, and seating for at least 30 patrons). Supermarket chain ShopRite has begun to attach Wine and Spirits stores to its stores. For a time, Sheetz obtained a liquor license for a restaurant attached to one of its convenience stores in Altoona.[9] After several debates, the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania ruled that the store must sell beer to in-house customers as well as take-out.[10] The 17th Street store now again sells beer and allows limited in store consumption.[11]
For consumption on-premises[edit]
Closing time for restaurants and bars in Pennsylvania is 2 am and for private clubs is 3 am.
Attempts to privatize[edit]
Pennsylvania state lawmakers have attempted to privatize the sales of wine and spirits in the commonwealth. The state has had a monopoly over the sales of wine and spirits since the repeal of Prohibition. In the 2011 legislative session, the privatization of sales of wine and spirits was the focus of some controversy. This controversy is due to the budget deficit that the commonwealth faces. Supporters of the bill argue that sales taxes and license sales could generate nearly $1 billion worth of revenue for the state.
In the 2012 session, House Majority Leader Mike Turzai, with the backing of Governor Tom Corbett, announced a plan to issue 1,600 new liquor store licenses and auction the 600-plus liquor stores currently owned by the state. Stores would be allowed to sell beer in any configuration and without limit. Supporters say it could raise as much as $1.6 billion for the state. Opponents say that the proposed pricing would make it difficult for mom-and-pop stores to afford such licenses. Major opponents include the liquor store clerks union and the Pennsylvania Beer Alliance.[12]
Drinking age[edit]
The minimum drinking age in Pennsylvania is 21 years. Minors are prohibited from purchasing, possessing, or consuming alcohol, even if it is furnished by the minor's immediate family. Persons over the age of 18 are permitted to serve alcohol, so an exception is made in the possession portion of the law in this respect. Many states have exceptions for consuming alcohol made for religious or medicinal purposes, but Pennsylvania does not have exceptions for either.[13]
A person under the age of 21 may also be arrested, charged, and convicted of underage drinking through constructive possession, even if they had not consumed any alcohol, simply by being in the presence of alcohol. This is mainly exercised when officials break up large parties or other events where alcohol is being consumed and the issuance of chemical tests to every individual is deemed impractical.
Drunk driving[edit]
Driving, operating, or being in actual physical control of the movement of vehicle under the influence is a crime in Pennsylvania, and is subject to a great number of regulations outside of the state's alcohol laws. Pennsylvania's maximum blood alcohol level for driving is 0.08% for persons at or over the age of 21 (with suspension of license on the first offense), and 0.04% for a person operating a commercial vehicle (0.02% for a school bus) with revoking of the license on the first offense.[14] For those under 21, Pennsylvania follows a "zero tolerance" policy, meaning that any BAC over 0.02% is enough to warrant a DUI (the small allowance is for certain medicinal purposes such as some cold medicines that contain alcohol). Penalties include fines, license suspension, and possible imprisonment.[15]
See also[edit]
Sumptuary law
Allegheny County Alcoholic Beverage Tax
Law of Pennsylvania
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Cowell, Tom (January 12, 2010). "PA's Disgraceful Liquor Laws". Philadelphia Weekly. Review Publishing Limited Partnership. Archived from the original on January 31, 2014. Retrieved June 6, 2014.
Jump up ^ "45 States That Allow Underage (under 21) Alcohol Consumption - Minimum Legal Drinking Age - ProCon.org". Retrieved 24 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Baylen Linnekin (December 20, 2014). "Cops Seized Couple's $160,000 Wine Collection—And Want to Destroy It All: When it comes to alcohol laws, Pennsylvania is about as close to Saudi Arabia as you can get in America". Reason.com.
^ Jump up to: a b "Governor Wolf Signs Historic Liquor Reform Bill". Governor's Office. Retrieved 21 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Check out the 94 PA Liquor Stores That Will Now Be Open on Sunday". Governor's Office. Retrieved 21 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Pennsylvania introduces first wine 'kiosks' - Business - US business - Food Inc. - NBC News". msnbc.com. Retrieved 24 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "State Pulls Plug On Wine Kiosk Program". WGAL. Retrieved 24 September 2014. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Types of Licences". The Pennsylvania Liquor License Company. Retrieved 11 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "A convenience store to sell beer in Pa". Post-gazette.com. 2007-02-01. Archived from the original on March 2, 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
Jump up ^ Malloy, Daniel (2009-06-16). "Court OKs beer to-go but Sheetz must also sell on-site". Post-gazette.com. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
Jump up ^ "Pa. Supreme Court Stops Sales Of Takeout Beer At Altoona Sheetz". Retrieved 2013-05-23.
Jump up ^ Couloumbis, Angela (2012-06-09). "Showdown vote promised on Pa. liquor system - with beer in the mix". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Philadelphia. Archived from the original on 2017-01-10. Retrieved 2017-01-10. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ "Eight Different Exceptions to the Minimum Legal Drinking Age (MLDA) of 21". Retrieved 25 April 2014.
Jump up ^ http://www.dmv.state.pa.us/pdotforms/vehicle_code/chapter38.pdf
Jump up ^ Pennsylvania Liquor Control Board (2005-02-16). "edu: Pennsylvania's Zero Tolerance Law". Lcb.state.pa.us. Archived from the original on September 25, 2006. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
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Central nervous system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Central Nervous System
Schematic diagram showing the central nervous system in yellow, peripheral in orange
Details
Lymph
224
Identifiers
Latin
Systema nervosum centrale
pars centralis systematis nervosi[1]
Acronym(s)
CNS
MeSH
D002490
TA
A14.1.00.001
FMA
55675
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. The central nervous system is so named because it integrates information it receives from, and coordinates and influences the activity of, all parts of the bodies of bilaterally symmetric animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish—and it contains the majority of the nervous system. Many consider the retina[2] and the optic nerve (2nd cranial nerve),[3][4] as well as the olfactory nerves (1st) and olfactory epithelium[5] as parts of the CNS, synapsing directly on brain tissue without intermediate ganglia. As such, the olfactory epithelium is the only central nervous tissue in direct contact with the environment, which opens up for therapeutic treatments. [5] The CNS is contained within the dorsal body cavity, with the brain housed in the cranial cavity and the spinal cord in the spinal canal. In vertebrates, the brain is protected by the skull, while the spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae.[6] The brain and spinal cord are both enclosed in the meninges.[6]In central nervous system ,the interneuronal space is filled with large amount of supporting non nervous cells called neuroglial cells.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 White and gray matter
1.2 Spinal cord
1.2.1 Cranial nerves
1.3 Brain
1.3.1 Brainstem
1.3.2 Cerebellum
1.3.3 Diencephalon
1.3.4 Cerebrum
1.4 Difference from the peripheral nervous system
2 Development
2.1 Evolution
2.1.1 Planaria
2.1.2 Arthropoda
2.1.3 Chordata
2.1.3.1 Mammals
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Diseases
4 References
5 External links
Structure[edit]
Main article: Neuroanatomy
The central nervous system consists of the two major structures: the brain and spinal cord. The brain is encased in the skull, and protected by the cranium.[7] The spinal cord is continuous with the brain and lies caudally to the brain,[8] and is protected by the vertebrae.[7] The spinal cord reaches from the base of the skull, continues through[7] or starting below[9] the foramen magnum,[7] and terminates roughly level with the first or second lumbar vertebra,[8][9] occupying the upper sections of the vertebral canal.[4]
White and gray matter[edit]
Main articles: Gray matter and White matter
Dissection of a brain with labels showing the clear division between white and gray matter.
Microscopically, there are differences between the neurons and tissue of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.[citation needed] The central nervous system is divided in white and gray matter.[8] This can also be seen macroscopically on brain tissue. The white matter consists of axons and oligodendrocytes, while the gray matter consists of neurons and unmyelinated fibers. Both tissues include a number of glial cells (although the white matter contains more), which are often referred to as supporting cells of the central nervous system. Different forms of glial cells have different functions, some acting almost as scaffolding for neuroblasts to climb during neurogenesis such as bergmann glia, while others such as microglia are a specialized form of macrophage, involved in the immune system of the brain as well as the clearance of various metabolites from the brain tissue.[4] Astrocytes may be involved with both clearance of metabolites as well as transport of fuel and various beneficial substances to neurons from the capillaries of the brain. Upon CNS injury astrocytes will proliferate, causing gliosis, a form of neuronal scar tissue, lacking in functional neurons.[4]
The brain (cerebrum as well as midbrain and hindbrain) consists of a cortex, composed of neuron-bodies constituting gray matter, while internally there is more white matter that form tracts and commissures. Apart from cortical gray matter there is also subcortical gray matter making up a large number of different nuclei.[8]
Spinal cord[edit]
Main article: Spinal cord
Diagram of the columns and of the course of the fibers in the spinal cord. Sensory synapses occur in the dorsal spinal cord (above in this image), and motor nerves leave through the ventral (as well as lateral) horns of the spinal cord as seen below in the image.
Different ways in which the central nervous system can be activated without engaging the cortex, and making us aware of the actions. The above example shows the process in which the pupil dilates during dim light, activating neurons in the spinal cord. The second example shows the constriction of the pupil as a result of the activation of the Eddinger-Westphal nucleus (a cerebral ganglion).
From and to the spinal cord are projections of the peripheral nervous system in the form of spinal nerves (sometimes segmental nerves[7]). The nerves connect the spinal cord to skin, joints, muscles etc. and allow for the transmission of efferent motor as well as afferent sensory signals and stimuli.[8] This allows for voluntary and involuntary motions of muscles, as well as the perception of senses. All in all 31 spinal nerves project from the brain stem,[8] some forming plexa as they branch out, such as the brachial plexa, sacral plexa etc.[7] Each spinal nerve will carry both sensory and motor signals, but the nerves synapse at different regions of the spinal cord, either from the periphery to sensory relay neurons that relay the information to the CNS or from the CNS to motor neurons, which relay the information out.[8]
The spinal cord relays information up to the brain through spinal tracts through the "final common pathway"[8] to the thalamus and ultimately to the cortex.
Schematic image showing the locations of a few tracts of the spinal cord.
Reflexes may also occur without engaging more than one neuron of the central nervous system as in the below example of a short reflex.
Cranial nerves[edit]
Apart from the spinal cord, there are also peripheral nerves of the PNS that synapse through intermediaries or ganglia directly on the CNS. These 12 nerves exist in the head and neck region and are called cranial nerves. Cranial nerves bring information to the CNS to and from the face, as well as to certain muscles (such as the trapezius muscle, which is innervated by accessory nerves[7] as well as certain cervical spinal nerves).[7]
Two pairs of cranial nerves; the olfactory nerves and the optic nerves[2] are often considered structures of the central nervous system. This is because they do not synapse first on peripheral ganglia, but directly on central nervous neurons. The olfactory epithelium is significant in that it consists of central nervous tissue expressed in direct contact to the environment, allowing for administration of certain pharmaceuticals and drugs. [5]
A peripheral nerve myelinated by Schwann cells (left) and a CNS neuron myelinated by an oligodendrocyte (right)
Brain[edit]
Main article: Brain
Rostrally to the spinal cord lies the brain.[8] The brain makes up the largest portion of the central nervous system, and is often the main structure referred to when speaking of the nervous system. The brain is the major functional unit of the central nervous system. While the spinal cord has certain processing ability such as that of spinal locomotion and can process reflexes, the brain is the major processing unit of the nervous system.[citation needed]
Brainstem[edit]
Main article: Brainstem
The brainstem consists of the medulla, the pons and the midbrain. The medulla can be referred to as an extension of the spinal cord, and its organization and functional properties are similar to those of the spinal cord.[8] The tracts passing from the spinal cord to the brain pass through here.[8]
Regulatory functions of the medulla nuclei include control of the blood pressure and breathing. Other nuclei are involved in balance, taste, hearing and control of muscles of the face and neck.[8]
The next structure rostral to the medulla is the pons, which lies on the ventral anterior side of the brainstem. Nuclei in the pons include pontine nuclei which work with the cerebellum and transmit information between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex.[8] In the dorsal posterior pons lie nuclei that have to do with breathing, sleep and taste.[8]
The midbrain (or mesencephalon) is situated above and rostral to the pons, and includes nuclei linking distinct parts of the motor system, among others the cerebellum, the basal ganglia and both cerebral hemispheres. Additionally parts of the visual and auditory systems are located in the mid brain, including control of automatic eye movements.[8]
The brainstem at large provides entry and exit to the brain for a number of pathways for motor and autonomic control of the face and neck through cranial nerves,[8] and autonomic control of the organs is mediated by the tenth cranial (vagus) nerve.[4] A large portion of the brainstem is involved in such autonomic control of the body. Such functions may engage the heart, blood vessels, pupillae, among others.[8]
The brainstem also hold the reticular formation, a group of nuclei involved in both arousal and alertness.[8]
Cerebellum[edit]
Main article: Cerebellum
The cerebellum lies behind the pons. The cerebellum is composed of several dividing fissures and lobes. Its function includes the control of posture, and the coordination of movements of parts of the body, including the eyes and head as well as the limbs. Further it is involved in motion that has been learned and perfected though practice, and will adapt to new learned movements.[8] Despite its previous classification as a motor structure, the cerebellum also displays connections to areas of the cerebral cortex involved in language as well as cognitive functions. These connections have been shown by the use of medical imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET.[8]
The body of the cerebellum holds more neurons than any other structure of the brain including that of the larger cerebrum (or cerebral hemispheres), but is also more extensively understood than other structures of the brain, and includes fewer types of different neurons.[8] It handles and processes sensory stimuli, motor information as well as balance information from the vestibular organ.[8]
Diencephalon[edit]
Main articles: Diencephalon, Thalamus, and Hypothalamus
The two structures of the diencephalon worth noting are the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a linkage between incoming pathways from the peripheral nervous system as well as the optical nerve (though it does not receive input from the olfactory nerve) to the cerebral hemispheres. Previously it was considered only a "relay station", but it is engaged in the sorting of information that will reach cerebral hemispheres (neocortex).[8]
Apart from its function of sorting information from the periphery, the thalamus also connects the cerebellum and basal ganglia with the cerebrum. In common with the aforementioned reticular system the thalamus is involved in wakefullness and consciousness, such as though the SCN.[8]
The hypothalamus engages in functions of a number of primitive emotions or feelings such as hunger, thirst and maternal bonding. This is regulated partly through control of secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland. Additionally the hypothalamus plays a role in motivation and many other behaviors of the individual.[8]
Cerebrum[edit]
Main articles: Cerebrum, Cerebral cortex, Basal ganglia, Amygdala, and Hippocampus
The cerebrum of cerebral hemispheres make up the largest visual portion of the human brain. Various structures combine forming the cerebral hemispheres, among others, the cortex, basal ganglia, amygdala and hippocampus. The hemispheres together control a large portion of the functions of the human brain such as emotion, memory, perception and motor functions. Apart from this the cerebral hemispheres stand for the cognitive capabilities of the brain.[8]
Connecting each of the hemispheres is the corpus callosum as well as several additional commissures.[8] One of the most important parts of the cerebral hemispheres is the cortex, made up of gray matter covering the surface of the brain. Functionally, the cerebral cortex is involved in planning and carrying out of everyday tasks.[8]
The hippocampus is involved in storage of memories, the amygdala plays a role in perception and communication of emotion, while the basal ganglia play a major role in the coordination of voluntary movement.[8]
Difference from the peripheral nervous system[edit]
A map over the different structures of the nervous systems in the body, showing the CNS, PNS, and ENS.
This differentiates the central nervous system from the peripheral nervous system, which consists of neurons, axons and Schwann cells. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have similar functions in the central and peripheral nervous system respectively. Both act to add myelin sheaths to the axons, which acts as a form of insulation allowing for better and faster proliferation of electrical signals along the nerves. Axons in the central nervous system are often very short (barely a few millimeters) and do not need the same degree of isolation as peripheral nerves do. Some peripheral nerves can be over 1m in length, such as the nerves to the big toe. To ensure signals move at sufficient speed, myelination is needed.
The way in which the Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes myelinate nerves differ. A Schwann cell usually myelinates a single axon, completely surrounding it. Sometimes they may myelinate many axons, especially when in areas of short axons.[7] Oligodendrocytes usually myelinate several axons. They do this by sending out thin projections of their cell membrane which envelop and enclose the axon.
Development[edit]
Top; CNS as seen in a median section of a 5 week old embryo.
Bottom; CNS seen in a median section of a 3 month old embryo.
Main article: Neural development
During early development of the vertebrate embryo, a longitudinal groove on the neural plate gradually deepens and the ridges on either side of the groove (the neural folds) become elevated, and ultimately meet, transforming the groove into a closed tube called the neural tube.[10] The formation of the neural tube is called neurulation. At this stage, the walls of the neural tube contain proliferating neural stem cells in a region called the ventricular zone. The neural stem cells, principally radial glial cells, multiply and generate neurons through the process of neurogenesis, forming the rudiment of the central nervous system.[11]
The neural tube gives rise to both brain and spinal cord. The anterior (or 'rostral') portion of the neural tube initially differentiates into three brain vesicles (pockets): the prosencephalon at the front, the mesencephalon, and, between the mesencephalon and the spinal cord, the rhombencephalon. (By six weeks in the human embryo) the prosencephalon then divides further into the telencephalon and diencephalon; and the rhombencephalon divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. The spinal cord is derived from the posterior or 'caudal' portion of the neural tube.
As a vertebrate grows, these vesicles differentiate further still. The telencephalon differentiates into, among other things, the striatum, the hippocampus and the neocortex, and its cavity becomes the first and second ventricles. Diencephalon elaborations include the subthalamus, hypothalamus, thalamus and epithalamus, and its cavity forms the third ventricle. The tectum, pretectum, cerebral peduncle and other structures develop out of the mesencephalon, and its cavity grows into the mesencephalic duct (cerebral aqueduct). The metencephalon becomes, among other things, the pons and the cerebellum, the myelencephalon forms the medulla oblongata, and their cavities develop into the fourth ventricle.[8]
Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the embryonic vertebrate brain, later forming forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
Development of the neural tube
Central
nervous
system Brain Prosencephalon Telencephalon
Rhinencephalon, Amygdala, Hippocampus, Neocortex, Basal ganglia, Lateral ventricles
Diencephalon
Epithalamus, Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Subthalamus, Pituitary gland, Pineal gland, Third ventricle
Brain stem Mesencephalon
Tectum, Cerebral peduncle, Pretectum, Mesencephalic duct
Rhombencephalon Metencephalon
Pons, Cerebellum
Myelencephalon Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord
Evolution[edit]
Top: the lancelet, regarded an archetypal vertebrate, lacking a true brain. Middle: an early vertebrate. Bottom: spindle diagram of the evolution of vertebrates.
See also: Encephalization and Archicortex
Planaria[edit]
Planarians, members of the phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms), have the simplest, clearly defined delineation of a nervous system into a central nervous system (CNS) and a peripheral nervous system (PNS).[12][13] Their primitive brains, consisting of two fused anterior ganglia, and longitudinal nerve cords form the CNS; the laterally projecting nerves form the PNS. A molecular study found that more than 95% of the 116 genes involved in the nervous system of planarians, which includes genes related to the CNS, also exist in humans.[14] Like planarians, vertebrates have a distinct CNS and PNS, though more complex than those of planarians.
Arthropoda[edit]
In arthropods, the ventral nerve cord, the subesophageal ganglia and the supraesophageal ganglia are usually seen as making up the CNS.
Chordata[edit]
The CNS of chordates differs from that of other animals in being placed dorsally in the body, above the gut and notochord/spine.[15] The basic pattern of the CNS is highly conserved throughout the different species of vertebrates and during evolution. The major trend that can be observed is towards a progressive telencephalisation: the telencephalon of reptiles is only an appendix to the large olfactory bulb, while in mammals it makes up most of the volume of the CNS. In the human brain, the telencephalon covers most of the diencephalon and the mesencephalon. Indeed, the allometric study of brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained through cranial endocasts.
Mammals[edit]
Mammals – which appear in the fossil record after the first fishes, amphibians, and reptiles – are the only vertebrates to possess the evolutionarily recent, outermost part of the cerebral cortex known as the neocortex.[16] The neocortex of monotremes (the duck-billed platypus and several species of spiny anteaters) and of marsupials (such as kangaroos, koalas, opossums, wombats, and Tasmanian devils) lack the convolutions – gyri and sulci – found in the neocortex of most placental mammals (eutherians).[17] Within placental mammals, the size and complexity of the neocortex increased over time. The area of the neocortex of mice is only about 1/100 that of monkeys, and that of monkeys is only about 1/10 that of humans.[16] In addition, rats lack convolutions in their neocortex (possibly also because rats are small mammals), whereas cats have a moderate degree of convolutions, and humans have quite extensive convolutions.[16] Extreme convolution of the neocortex is found in dolphins, possibly related to their complex echolocation.
Clinical significance[edit]
Diseases[edit]
Main article: Central nervous system disease
There are many central nervous system diseases and conditions, including infections of the central nervous system such as encephalitis and poliomyelitis, early-onset neurological disorders including ADHD and autism, late-onset neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and essential tremor, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, genetic disorders such as Krabbe's disease and Huntington's disease, as well as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and adrenoleukodystrophy. Lastly, cancers of the central nervous system can cause severe illness and, when malignant, can have very high mortality rates. Symptoms depend on the size, growth rate, location and malignancy of tumors and can include alterations in motor control, hearing loss, headaches and changes in cognitive ability and autonomic functioning.
Specialty professional organizations recommend that neurological imaging of the brain be done only to answer a specific clinical question and not as routine screening.[18]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Farlex Partner Medical Dictionary, Farlex 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Purves, Dale (2000). Neuroscience, Second Edition. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 9780878937424.
Jump up ^ "Medical Subject Headings (MeSH): Optic Nerve". National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 28 September 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Estomih Mtui, M.J. Turlough FitzGerald, Gregory Gruener. Clinical neuroanatomy and neuroscience (6th ed.). Edinburgh: Saunders. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-7020-3738-2.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gizurarson S (2012). "Anatomical and histologica\ ]=\ factors affecting intranasal drug and vaccine delivery". Current Drug Delivery. 9 (6): 566–582. doi:10.2174/156720112803529828. PMC 3480721  . PMID 22788696.
^ Jump up to: a b Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins; Charles William McLaughlin; Susan Johnson; Maryanna Quon Warner; David LaHart; Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. pp. 132–144. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Arthur F. Dalley, Keith L. Moore, Anne M.R. Agur (2010). Clinically oriented anatomy (6th ed., [International ed.]. ed.). Philadelphia [etc.]: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Wolters Kluwer. pp. 48–55,464,700,822,824,1075. ISBN 978-1-60547-652-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad Kandel ER, Schwartz JH (2012). Principles of neural science (5. ed.). Appleton & Lange: McGraw Hill. pp. 338–343. ISBN 978-0-07-139011-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Huijzen, R. Nieuwenhuys, J. Voogd, C. van (2007). The human central nervous system (4th ed.). Berlin: Springer. p. 3. ISBN 978-3-540-34686-9.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F.; College, Swarthmore; Helsinki, the University of (2014). Developmental biology (Tenth ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer. ISBN 978-0878939787.
Jump up ^ Rakic, P (October 2009). "Evolution of the neocortex: a perspective from developmental biology". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 10 (10): 724–35. doi:10.1038/nrn2719. PMC 2913577  . PMID 19763105.
Jump up ^ Hickman, Jr., Cleveland P.; Larry S. Roberts; Susan L. Keen; Allan Larson; Helen L'Anson; David J. Eisenhour (2008). Integrated Princinples of Zoology: Fourteenth Edition. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. p. 733. ISBN 978-0-07-297004-3.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Neil A.; Jane B. Reece; Lisa A. Urry; Michael L. Cain; Steven A. Wasserman; Peter V. Minorsky; Robert B. Jackson (2008). Biology: Eighth Edition. San Francisco, CA, USA: Pearson / Benjamin Cummings. p. 1065. ISBN 978-0-8053-6844-4.
Jump up ^ Mineta K, Nakazawa M, Cebria F, Ikeo K, Agata K, Gojobori T (2003). "Origin and evolutionary process of the CNS elucidated by comparative genomics analysis of planarian ESTs". PNAS. 100 (13): 7666–7671. doi:10.1073/pnas.1332513100. PMC 164645  . PMID 12802012.
Jump up ^ Romer, A.S. (1949): The Vertebrate Body. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia. (2nd ed. 1955; 3rd ed. 1962; 4th ed. 1970)
^ Jump up to: a b c Bear, Mark F.; Barry W. Connors; Michael A. Paradiso (2007). Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain: Third Edition. Philadelphia, PA, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 196–199. ISBN 978-0-7817-6003-4.
Jump up ^ Kent, George C.; Robert K. Carr (2001). Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates: Ninth Edition. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. p. 409. ISBN 0-07-303869-5.
Jump up ^ American College of Radiology; American Society of Neuroradiology (2010). "ACR-ASNR practice guideline for the performance of computed tomography (CT) of the brain". Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Reston, VA, USA: American College of Radiology. Retrieved 9 September 2012
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Central nervous system.
Overview of the Central Nervous System, Neuroscience Online (electronic neuroscience textbook)
High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases
Explaining the human nervous system.
The Department of Neuroscience at Wikiversity
Central nervous system histology
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text:
1st Academy Awards
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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1st Academy Awards
The first Academy Awards was at The Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel.
Date
May 16, 1929 (1929-05-16)
Site
Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel
Hollywood, Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Hosted by
Douglas Fairbanks
Highlights
Best Picture
Wings[1]
Most awards
7th Heaven and Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans (3)
Most nominations
7th Heaven (5)
Academy Awards
2nd →
The 1st Academy Awards ceremony, presented by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best films of 1927 and 1928 and took place on May 16, 1929 at a private dinner held at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel in Los Angeles, California. AMPAS president Douglas Fairbanks hosted the show. Tickets cost $5 (which would be $71 in 2017 considering inflation), 270 people attended the event and the presentation ceremony lasted 15 minutes. Awards were created by Louis B. Mayer, founder of Louis B. Mayer Pictures Corporation (at present merged into Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer). It is the only Academy Awards ceremony not to be broadcast either on radio or television. The radio broadcast was introduced the following year in 1930.
During the ceremony, the AMPAS presented Academy Awards, now known as the Oscars in 12 categories. Winners were announced three months before the live event. Some nominations were announced without reference to a specific film, such as for Ralph Hammeras and Nugent Slaughter, who received nominations in the now defunct category of Engineering Effects.[2] Unlike later ceremonies, an actor could be awarded for multiple works within a calendar year for the same category. Emil Jannings, for example, was given the Best Actor award for his work in both The Way of All Flesh and The Last Command. Also, Charlie Chaplin and Warner Brothers each received an Honorary Award.[3][4]
Major winners at the ceremony included 7th Heaven and Sunrise, which each received three awards, and Wings, receiving two awards. Among its honors, Sunrise won the award for Unique and Artistic Picture and Wings won the award for Outstanding Picture (now known as Best Picture). These two categories at the time were regarded equally as the top award of the night intended to honor different and important aspects of superior filmmaking. The next year, the Academy dropped the Unique and Artistic Picture award, and decided retroactively that the award won by Wings was the highest honor that could be awarded.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Ceremony
3 Winners and nominees
3.1 Awards
3.2 Honorary Awards
3.3 Multiple nominations and awards
4 Gallery
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
Background[edit]
In 1927, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) was established by Louis B. Mayer, originator of Louis B. Mayer Pictures Corporation, which then would be joined into Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM). Mayer's purpose in creating the award was to unite the five branches of the film industry, including actors, directors, producers, technicians, and writers.[5] Mayer commented on the creation of the awards "I found that the best way to handle [filmmakers] was to hang medals all over them ... If I got them cups and awards, they'd kill them to produce what I wanted. That's why the Academy Award was created".[6] Mayer asked Cedric Gibbons, art director of MGM, to design an Academy Award trophy.[5][7] Nominees were notified through a telegram in February 1928.[5] In August 1928, Mayer contacted the Academy Central Board of Judges to decide winners.[5] However, according to the American director King Vidor, the voting for the Academy Award for Best Picture was in the hands of the AMPAS founders Douglas Fairbanks, Sid Grauman, Mayer, Mary Pickford, and Joseph Schenck.[8]
Ceremony[edit]
The ceremony was held on May 16, 1929[9][3][4][10] at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel, located in Los Angeles.[3] It consisted of a private dinner with 36 banquet tables,[11] where 270 people attended and tickets cost five dollars (equivalent to $71.26 in 2017).[3] Actors and actresses arrived at the hotel in luxury vehicles, where many fans attended to encourage celebrities.[11] The ceremony was not broadcast on radio or television,[3] and was hosted by AMPAS director Fairbanks[9][3][4][12] during a 15-minute event.[10]
Winners and nominees[edit]
Winners were announced three months before the ceremony.[3][4][10] The recipients included: Emil Jannings, the inaugural first award recipient [3] for Best Actor (The Way of All Flesh and The Last Command);[4][10] Janet Gaynor for Best Actress (7th Heaven, Street Angel, and Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans); Frank Borzage for Best Director, Drama (7th Heaven); Lewis Milestone for Best Director, Comedy (Two Arabian Knights); and Wings for Best Picture (the most expensive film of its time).[9][2] Two presentations were made of a Special Award: Charlie Chaplin, a multiple nominee for one movie (Best Actor, Best Writer and Best Director, Comedy; all for The Circus) having been removed from the list so as to recognize his total contribution to the industry;[4] and Warner Brothers, an award for pioneering talking pictures (The Jazz Singer). Three categories were eliminated for subsequent presentations: Best Engineering Effects, Best Title Writing, and Best Unique and Artistic Quality of Production.[2] The larger film producers received the preponderance of awards: Fox Film Corporation, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Paramount Pictures, Radio-Keith-Orpheum, and Warner Bros..[5]
Awards[edit]
Winners are listed first and indicated with double dagger
Outstanding Picture
Wings – Lucien Hubbard for Paramount Pictures
7th Heaven – William Fox for Fox Film Corporation
The Racket – Howard Hughes for The Caddo Company
Best Unique and Artistic Picture
Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans – William Fox for Fox Film Corporation
Chang: A Drama of the Wilderness – Merian C. Cooper and Ernest B. Schoedsack for Paramount Pictures
The Crowd – Irving Thalberg for MGM
Best Director, Comedy Picture
Lewis Milestone – Two Arabian Knights
Ted Wilde – Speedy
Best Director, Dramatic Picture
Frank Borzage – 7th Heaven
King Vidor – The Crowd
Herbert Brenon – Sorrell and Son
Best Actor
Emil Jannings – The Last Command and The Way of All Flesh
Richard Barthelmess – The Noose and The Patent Leather Kid
Best Actress
Janet Gaynor – 7th Heaven, Street Angel, and Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans
Louise Dresser – A Ship Comes In
Gloria Swanson – Sadie Thompson
Best Original Story
Underworld – Ben Hecht
The Last Command – Lajos Bíró
Best Adaptation
7th Heaven – Benjamin Glazer, based on the play by Austin Strong
Glorious Betsy – Anthony Coldeway, based on the play by Rida Johnson Young
The Jazz Singer – Alfred A. Cohn, based on the story "The Day of Atonement" and the play The Jazz Singer by Samson Raphaelson
Best Art Direction
The Dove and Tempest – William Cameron Menzies
7th Heaven – Harry Oliver
Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans – Rochus Gliese
Best Cinematography
Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans – Charles Rosher and Karl Struss
The Devil Dancer – George Barnes
The Magic Flame – George Barnes
Sadie Thompson – George Barnes
Best Engineering Effects
Wings – Roy Pomeroy
(No specific film) – Ralph Hammeras
(No specific film) – Nugent Slaughter
Best Title Writing
(No specific film) – Joseph W. Farnham
(No specific film) – George Marion Jr.
The Private Life of Helen of Troy – Gerald Duffy (posthumous nomination)
Honorary Awards[edit]
Charlie Chaplin
"For versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing The Circus".[3]
Warner Brothers Production
"For producing The Jazz Singer, the pioneer outstanding talking picture, which has revolutionized the industry".[3]
Multiple nominations and awards[edit]
The following six films received multiple nominations:
Nominations
Film
5 7th Heaven
4 Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans
2 The Crowd
The Last Command
Sadie Thompson
Wings
The following three films received multiple awards:
Awards
Film
3 7th Heaven
Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans
2 Wings
Gallery[edit]
Academy Award winners – Gallery
Wings is the first film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture, which was at the time known as Outstanding Picture. Also won an award for the Best Engineering Effects[9]
Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans won the Academy Award for Best Unique and Artistic Picture, the only year that such a prize was awarded. The prize was intended to honor prestige art films separately from "commercial fare".[13]
Frank Borzage, Best Director, Dramatic Picture
Emil Jannings, Best Actor
Janet Gaynor, Best Actress
Charles Chaplin, Honorary Award
Warner Brothers Production, Honorary Award. In top image First National Studios, Burbank, c. 1928.
See also[edit]
1927 in film
1928 in film
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The 1st Academy Awards Memorable Moments". Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "The Official Academy Awards Database". Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on February 8, 2009. Retrieved February 18, 2012. Reader must select "1927/28" in the "Award Year(s):" drop-down menu and press "Search".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j "History of the Academy Awards". Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on April 8, 2010. Retrieved May 6, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Dirks, Tim. "1927–28 Academy Awards Winners and History". Filmsite. Rainbow Media. Archived from the original on July 24, 2010. Retrieved May 6, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Cosgrave 2007, p. 1
Jump up ^ Eyman 2005, p. 117
Jump up ^ Eyman 2005, p. 209
Jump up ^ Eyman 2005, p. 138
^ Jump up to: a b c d "This day in History". History. A&E Television Networks. Archived from the original on March 7, 2010. Retrieved October 5, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Pawlak, Debra Ann. "The Story of the First Academy Awards". The MediaDrome{{inconsistent citations}}
^ Jump up to: a b Cosgrave 2007, p. 4
Jump up ^ "Names make news". Time. Time Inc. May 27, 1929. Archived from the original on October 27, 2010. Retrieved October 5, 2010.
Jump up ^ Decherney, Peter (August 14, 2012). "Hollywood and the Culture Elite: How the Movies Became American". Columbia University Press – via Google Books.
Bibliography[edit]
Cosgrave, Bronwyn (2007). Made for Each Other: Fashion and the Academy Awards (I ed.). New York, United States: Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 978-0-7475-7630-3. OCLC 74523691.
Eyman, Scott (2005). Lion of Hollywood: the life and legend of Louis B. Mayer (I ed.). New York, United States: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-0481-6. OCLC 57506846.
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