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Nuclear binding energy
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Nuclear physics
Nucleus · Nucleons (p, n) · Nuclear matter · Nuclear force · Nuclear structure · Nuclear reaction
Models of the nucleus[show]
Liquid drop · Nuclear shell model · Interacting boson model · Ab initio
Nuclides' classification[show]
Isotopes – equal Z
Isobars – equal A
Isotones – equal N
Isodiaphers – equal N − Z
Isomers – equal all the above
Mirror nuclei – Z ↔ N
Stable · Magic · Even/odd · Halo
Nuclear stability[show]
Binding energy · p–n ratio · Drip line · Island of stability · Valley of stability
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Alpha α · Beta β (2β, β+) · K/L capture · Isomeric (Gamma γ · Internal conversion) · Spontaneous fission · Cluster decay · Neutron emission · Proton emission
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Spontaneous · Products (pair breaking) · Photofission
Capturing processes[show]
electron · neutron (s · r) · proton (p · rp)
High energy processes[show]
Spallation (by cosmic ray) · Photodisintegration
Nucleosynthesis and
nuclear astrophysics[show]
Nuclear fusion
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Nuclear binding energy is the minimum energy that would be required to disassemble the nucleus of an atom into its component parts. These component parts are neutrons and protons, which are collectively called nucleons. The binding is always a positive number, as we need to spend energy in moving the nucleons away from each other (attracted by strong nuclear force). The mass of an atomic nucleus is less than the sum of the individual masses of the free constituent protons and neutrons (according to Einstein's equation E=mc2) and this 'missing mass' is known as the mass defect, and represents the energy that was released when the nucleus was formed.
The term "nuclear binding energy" may also refer to the energy balance in processes in which the nucleus splits into fragments composed of more than one nucleon. If new binding energy is available when light nuclei fuse, or when heavy nuclei split, either process can result in release of this binding energy. This energy may be made available as nuclear energy and can be used to produce electricity as in (nuclear power) or in a nuclear weapon. When a large nucleus splits into pieces, excess energy is emitted as photons (gamma rays) and as the kinetic energy of a number of different ejected particles (nuclear fission products).
The nuclear binding energies and forces are on the order of a million times greater than the electron binding energies of light atoms like hydrogen.[1]
The mass defect of a nucleus represents the mass of the energy of binding of the nucleus, and is the difference between the mass of a nucleus and the sum of the masses of the nucleons of which it is composed.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
1.1 Nuclear energy
1.2 The nuclear force
1.3 Physics of nuclei
1.3.1 Mass defect
1.3.2 Solar binding energy
1.3.3 Combining nuclei
1.4 Nuclear binding energy
1.4.1 Nuclear fusion
1.4.2 The binding energy maximum and ways to approach it by decay
2 Determining nuclear binding energy
2.1 Conversion of mass defect into energy
3 Fission and fusion
4 Binding energy for atoms
5 Nuclear binding energy curve
5.1 Binding energy and nuclide masses
5.2 Semiempirical formula for nuclear binding energy
6 Example values deduced from experimentally measured atom nuclide masses
7 External Links
8 References
Introduction[edit]
Nuclear binding energy is explained by the basic principles involved in nuclear physics.
Nuclear energy[edit]
An absorption or release of nuclear energy occurs in nuclear reactions or radioactive decay; those that absorb energy are called endothermic reactions and those that release energy are exothermic reactions. Energy is consumed or liberated because of differences in the nuclear binding energy between the incoming and outgoing products of the nuclear transmutation.[3]
The best-known classes of exothermic nuclear transmutations are fission and fusion. Nuclear energy may be liberated by atomic fission, when heavy atomic nuclei (like uranium and plutonium) are broken apart into lighter nuclei. The energy from fission is used to generate electric power in hundreds of locations worldwide. Nuclear energy is also released during atomic fusion, when light nuclei like hydrogen are combined to form heavier nuclei such as helium. The Sun and other stars use nuclear fusion to generate thermal energy which is later radiated from the surface, a type of stellar nucleosynthesis. In any exothermic nuclear process, nuclear mass might ultimately be converted to thermal energy, given off as heat.
In order to quantify the energy released or absorbed in any nuclear transmutation, one must know the nuclear binding energies of the nuclear components involved in the transmutation.
The nuclear force[edit]
Electrons and nuclei are kept together by electrostatic attraction (negative attracts positive). Furthermore, electrons are sometimes shared by neighboring atoms or transferred to them (by processes of quantum physics), and this link between atoms is referred to as a chemical bond, and is responsible for the formation of all chemical compounds.[4]
The force of electric attraction does not hold nuclei together, because all protons carry a positive charge and repel each other. Thus, electric forces do not hold nuclei together, because they act in the opposite direction. It has been established that binding neutrons to nuclei clearly requires a non-electrical attraction.[4]
Therefore, another force, called the nuclear force (or residual strong force) holds the nucleons of nuclei together. This force is a residuum of the strong interaction, which binds quarks into nucleons at an even smaller level of distance.
The nuclear force must be stronger than the electric repulsion at short distances, but weaker far away, or else different nuclei might tend to clump together. Therefore, it has short-range characteristics. An analogy to the nuclear force is the force between two small magnets: magnets are very difficult to separate when stuck together, but once pulled a short distance apart, the force between them drops almost to zero.[4]
Unlike gravity or electrical forces, the nuclear force is effective only at very short distances. At greater distances, the electrostatic force dominates: the protons repel each other because they are positively charged, and like charges repel. For that reason, the protons forming the nuclei of ordinary hydrogen—for instance, in a balloon filled with hydrogen—do not combine to form helium (a process that also would require some protons to combine with electrons and become neutrons). They cannot get close enough for the nuclear force, which attracts them to each other, to become important. Only under conditions of extreme pressure and temperature (for example, within the core of a star), can such a process take place.[5]
Physics of nuclei[edit]
Main article: Atomic nucleus
There are around 94 naturally occurring elements on earth. The atoms of each element have a nucleus containing a specific number of protons (always the same number for a given element), and some number of neutrons, which is often roughly a similar number. Two atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes of the element. Different isotopes may have different properties - for example one might be stable and another might be unstable, and gradually undergo radioactive decay to become another element.
The hydrogen nucleus contain just one proton, Its isotope deuterium, or heavy hydrogen, contains a proton and a neutron. Helium contains two protons and two neutrons, and carbon, nitrogen and oxygen - six, seven and eight of each particle, respectively. However, a helium nucleus weighs less than the sum of the weights of the two hydrogen nuclei which combine to make it. The same is true for carbon, nitrogen and oxygen. For example, the carbon nucleus is slightly lighter than three helium nuclei, which can combine to make a carbon nucleus. This difference is known as the mass defect.
Mass defect[edit]
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Mass defect (not to be confused with mass excess in nuclear physics or mass defect in mass spectrometry) is the difference between the mass of a composite particle and the sum of the masses of its parts. For example, a helium atom containing 4 nucleons has a mass about 0.8% less than the total mass of four hydrogen nuclei (which contain one nucleon each).
The "mass defect" can be explained using Albert Einstein's formula E = mc2, describing the equivalence of energy and mass. By this formula, adding energy also increases mass (both weight and inertia), whereas removing energy decreases mass. In the above example, the helium nucleus has four nucleons bound together, and the binding energy which holds them together is, in effect, the missing 0.8% of mass.
If a combination of particles contains extra energy—for instance, in a molecule of the explosive TNT—weighing it reveals some extra mass, compared to its end products after an explosion. (The weighing must be done after the products have been stopped and cooled, however, as the extra mass must escape from the system as heat before its loss can be noticed, in theory.) On the other hand, if one must inject energy to separate a system of particles into its components, then the initial mass is less than that of the components after they are separated. In the latter case, the energy injected is "stored" as potential energy, which shows as the increased mass of the components that store it. This is an example of the fact that energy of all types is seen in systems as mass, since mass and energy are equivalent, and each is a "property" of the other.[6]
The latter scenario is the case with nuclei such as helium: to break them up into protons and neutrons, one must inject energy. On the other hand, if a process existed going in the opposite direction, by which hydrogen atoms could be combined to form helium, then energy would be released. The energy can be computed using E = Δm c2 for each nucleus, where Δm is the difference between the mass of the helium nucleus and the mass of four protons (plus two electrons, absorbed to create the neutrons of helium).
For lighter elements, the energy that can be released by assembling them from lighter elements decreases, and energy can be released when they fuse. This is true for nuclei lighter that iron/nickel. For heavier nuclei, more energy is needed to bind them, to the point that energy is released by breaking them up into 2 fragments (known as atomic fission). Nuclear power is generated at present by breaking up uranium nuclei in nuclear power reactors, and capturing the released energy as heat, which is converted to electricity.
As a rule, very light elements can fuse comparatively easily, and very heavy elements can break up via fission very easily; elements in the middle are more stable and it is difficult to make them undergo either fusion or fission in an earthly environment such as a laboratory.
The reason the trend reverses after iron is the growing positive charge of the nuclei, which tends to force nuclei to break up. It is resisted by the strong nuclear interaction, which holds nucleons together. The electric force may be weaker than the strong nuclear force, but the strong force has a much more limited range: in an iron nucleus, each proton repels the other 25 protons, while the nuclear force only binds close neighbors. So for larger nuclei, the electrostatic forces tend to dominate and the nucleus will tend over time to break up.
As nuclei grow bigger still, this disruptive effect becomes steadily more significant. By the time polonium is reached (84 protons), nuclei can no longer accommodate their large positive charge, but emit their excess protons quite rapidly in the process of alpha radioactivity—the emission of helium nuclei, each containing two protons and two neutrons. (Helium nuclei are an especially stable combination.) Because of this process, nuclei with more than 94 protons are not found naturally on Earth (see periodic table). The isotopes beyond uranium (atomic number 92) with the longest half-lives are plutonium-244 (80 million years) and curium-247 (16 million years).
Solar binding energy[edit]
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The nuclear fusion process works as follows: five billion years ago, the new Sun formed when gravity pulled together a vast cloud of hydrogen and dust, from which the Earth and other planets also arose. The gravitational pull released energy and heated the early Sun, much in the way Helmholtz proposed.
Thermal energy appears as the motion of atoms and molecules: the higher the temperature of a collection of particles, the greater is their velocity and the more violent are their collisions. When the temperature at the center of the newly formed Sun became great enough for collisions between hydrogen nuclei to overcome their electric repulsion, and bring them into the short range of the attractive nuclear force, nuclei began to stick together. When this began to happen, protons combined into deuterium and then helium, with some protons changing in the process to neutrons (plus positrons, positive electrons, which combine with electrons and become neutral). This released nuclear energy now keeps up the high temperature of the Sun's core, and the heat also keeps the gas pressure high, keeping the Sun at its present size, and stopping gravity from compressing it any more. There is now a stable balance between gravity and pressure.
Different nuclear reactions may predominate at different stages of the Sun's existence, including the proton-proton reaction and the carbon-nitrogen cycle—which involves heavier nuclei, but whose final product is still the combination of protons to form helium.
A branch of physics, the study of controlled nuclear fusion, has tried since the 1950s to derive useful power from nuclear fusion reactions that combine small nuclei into bigger ones, typically to heat boilers, whose steam could turn turbines and produce electricity. Unfortunately, no earthly laboratory can match one feature of the solar powerhouse: the great mass of the Sun, whose weight keeps the hot plasma compressed and confines the nuclear furnace to the Sun's core. Instead, physicists use strong magnetic fields to confine the plasma, and for fuel they use heavy forms of hydrogen, which burn more easily. Magnetic traps can be rather unstable, and any plasma hot enough and dense enough to undergo nuclear fusion tends to slip out of them after a short time. Even with ingenious tricks, the confinement in most cases lasts only a small fraction of a second.
Combining nuclei[edit]
Small nuclei that are larger than hydrogen can combine into bigger ones and release energy, but in combining such nuclei, the amount of energy released is much smaller compared to hydrogen fusion. The reason is that while the overall process releases energy from letting the nuclear attraction do its work, energy must first be injected to force together positively charged protons, which also repel each other with their electric charge.[5]
For elements that weigh more than iron (a nucleus with 26 protons), the fusion process no longer releases energy. In even heavier nuclei energy is consumed, not released, by combining similar sized nuclei. With such large nuclei, overcoming the electric repulsion (which affects all protons in the nucleus) requires more energy than what is released by the nuclear attraction (which is effective mainly between close neighbors). Conversely, energy could actually be released by breaking apart nuclei heavier than iron.[5]
With the nuclei of elements heavier than lead, the electric repulsion is so strong that some of them spontaneously eject positive fragments, usually nuclei of helium that form very stable combinations (alpha particles). This spontaneous break-up is one of the forms of radioactivity exhibited by some nuclei.[5]
Nuclei heavier than lead (except for bismuth, thorium, and uranium) spontaneously break up too quickly to appear in nature as primordial elements, though they can be produced artificially or as intermediates in the decay chains of lighter elements. Generally, the heavier the nuclei are, the faster they spontaneously decay.[5]
Iron nuclei are the most stable nuclei (in particular iron-56), and the best sources of energy are therefore nuclei whose weights are as far removed from iron as possible. One can combine the lightest ones—nuclei of hydrogen (protons)—to form nuclei of helium, and that is how the Sun generates its energy. Or else one can break up the heaviest ones—nuclei of uranium or plutonium—into smaller fragments, and that is what nuclear power reactors do.[5]
Nuclear binding energy[edit]
An example that illustrates nuclear binding energy is the nucleus of 12C (carbon-12), which contains 6 protons and 6 neutrons. The protons are all positively charged and repel each other, but the nuclear force overcomes the repulsion and causes them to stick together. The nuclear force is a close-range force (it is strongly attractive at a distance of 1.0 fm and becomes extremely small beyond a distance of 2.5fm), and virtually no effect of this force is observed outside the nucleus. The nuclear force also pulls neutrons together, or neutrons and protons.[7]
The energy of the nucleus is negative with regard to the energy of the particles pulled apart to infinite distance (just like the gravitational energy of planets of the solar system), because energy must be utilized to split a nucleus into its individual protons and neutrons. Mass spectrometers have measured the masses of nuclei, which are always less than the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons that form them, and the difference—by the formula E = m c2—gives the binding energy of the nucleus.[7]
Nuclear fusion[edit]
The binding energy of helium is the energy source of the Sun and of most stars. The sun is composed of 74 percent hydrogen (measured by mass), an element whose nucleus is a single proton. Energy is released in the sun when 4 protons combine into a helium nucleus, a process in which two of them are also converted to neutrons.[7]
The conversion of protons to neutrons is the result of another nuclear force, known as the weak (nuclear) force. The weak force, like the strong force, has a short range, but is much weaker than the strong force. The weak force tries to make the number of neutrons and protons into the most energetically stable configuration. For nuclei containing less than 40 particles, these numbers are usually about equal. Protons and neutrons are closely related and are collectively known as nucleons. As the number of particles increases toward a maximum of about 209, the number of neutrons to maintain stability begins to outstrip the number of protons, until the ratio of neutrons to protons is about three to two.[7]
The protons of hydrogen combine to helium only if they have enough velocity to overcome each other's mutual repulsion sufficiently to get within range of the strong nuclear attraction. This means that fusion only occurs within a very hot gas. Hydrogen hot enough for combining to helium requires an enormous pressure to keep it confined, but suitable conditions exist in the central regions of the Sun, where such pressure is provided by the enormous weight of the layers above the core, pressed inwards by the Sun's strong gravity. The process of combining protons to form helium is an example of nuclear fusion.[7]
The earth's oceans contain a large amount of hydrogen that could theoretically be used for fusion, and helium byproduct of fusion does not harm the environment, so some consider nuclear fusion a good alternative to supply humanity's energy needs. Experiments to generate electricity from fusion have so far only partially succeeded. Sufficiently hot hydrogen must be ionized and confined. One technique is to use very strong magnetic fields, because charged particles (like those trapped in the Earth's radiation belt) are guided by magnetic field lines. Fusion experiments also rely on heavy hydrogen, which fuses more easily, and gas densities can be moderate. But even with these techniques far more net energy is consumed by the fusion experiments than is yielded by the process.[7]
The binding energy maximum and ways to approach it by decay[edit]
In the main isotopes of light nuclei, such as carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, the most stable combination of neutrons and of protons are when the numbers are equal (this continues to element 20, calcium). However, in heavier nuclei, the disruptive energy of protons increases, since they are confined to a tiny volume and repel each other. The energy of the strong force holding the nucleus together also increases, but at a slower rate, as if inside the nucleus, only nucleons close to each other are tightly bound, not ones more widely separated.[7]
The net binding energy of a nucleus is that of the nuclear attraction, minus the disruptive energy of the electric force. As nuclei get heavier than helium, their net binding energy per nucleon (deduced from the difference in mass between the nucleus and the sum of masses of component nucleons) grows more and more slowly, reaching its peak at iron. As nucleons are added, the total nuclear binding energy always increases—but the total disruptive energy of electric forces (positive protons repelling other protons) also increases, and past iron, the second increase outweighs the first. Iron-56 (56Fe) is the most efficiently bound nucleus[7] meaning that it has the least average mass per nucleon. However, nickel-62 is the most tightly bound nucleus in terms of energy of binding per nucleon [8]. (Nickel-62's higher energy of binding does not translate to a larger mean mass loss than Fe-56, because Ni-62 has a slightly higher ratio of neutrons/protons than does iron-56, and the presence of the heavier neutrons increases nickel-62's average mass per nucleon).
To reduce the disruptive energy, the weak interaction allows the number of neutrons to exceed that of protons—for instance, the main isotope of iron has 26 protons and 30 neutrons. Isotopes also exist where the number of neutrons differs from the most stable number for that number of nucleons. If the ratio of protons to neutrons is too far from stability, nucleons may spontaneously change from proton to neutron, or neutron to proton.
The two methods for this conversion are mediated by the weak force, and involve types of beta decay. In the simplest beta decay, neutrons are converted to protons by emitting a negative electron and an antineutrino. This is always possible outside a nucleus because neutrons are more massive than protons by an equivalent of about 2.5 electrons. In the opposite process, which only happens within a nucleus, and not to free particles, a proton may become a neutron by ejecting a positron. This is permitted if enough energy is available between parent and daughter nuclides to do this (the required energy difference is equal to 1.022 MeV, which is the mass of 2 electrons). If the mass difference between parent and daughter is less than this, a proton-rich nucleus may still convert protons to neutrons by the process of electron capture, in which a proton simply electron captures one of the atom's K orbital electrons, emits a neutrino, and becomes a neutron.[7]
Among the heaviest nuclei, starting with tellurium nuclei (element 52) containing 106 or more nucleons, electric forces may be so destabilizing that entire chunks of the nucleus may be ejected, usually as alpha particles, which consist of two protons and two neutrons (alpha particles are fast helium nuclei). (Beryllium-8 also decays, very quickly, into two alpha particles.) Alpha particles are extremely stable. This type of decay becomes more and more probable as elements rise in atomic weight past 106.
The curve of binding energy is a graph that plots the binding energy per nucleon against atomic mass. This curve has its main peak at iron and nickel and then slowly decreases again, and also a narrow isolated peak at helium, which as noted is very stable. The heaviest nuclei in nature, uranium 238U, are unstable, but having a half-life of 4.5 billion years, close to the age of the Earth, they are still relatively abundant; they (and other nuclei heavier than helium) have formed in stellar evolution events like supernova explosions [9] preceding the formation of the solar system. The most common isotope of thorium, 232Th, also undergoes alpha particle emission, and its half-life (time over which half a number of atoms decays) is even longer, by several times. In each of these, radioactive decay produces daughter isotopes that are also unstable, starting a chain of decays that ends in some stable isotope of lead.[7]
Determining nuclear binding energy[edit]
Calculation can be employed to determine the nuclear binding energy of nuclei. The calculation involves determining the mass defect, converting it into energy, and expressing the result as energy per mole of atoms, or as energy per nucleon.[2]
Conversion of mass defect into energy[edit]
Mass defect is defined as the difference between the mass of a nucleus, and the sum of the masses of the nucleons of which it is composed. The mass defect is determined by calculating three quantities.[2] These are: the actual mass of the nucleus, the composition of the nucleus (number of protons and of neutrons), and the masses of a proton and of a neutron. This is then followed by converting the mass defect into energy. This quantity is the nuclear binding energy, however it must be expressed as energy per mole of atoms or as energy per nucleon.[2]
Fission and fusion[edit]
Nuclear energy is released by the splitting (fission) or merging (fusion) of the nuclei of atom(s). The conversion of nuclear mass-energy to a form of energy, which can remove some mass when the energy is removed, is consistent with the mass-energy equivalence formula:
ΔE = Δm c2,
in which,
ΔE = energy release,
Δm = mass defect,
and c = the speed of light in a vacuum (a physical constant 299,792,458 m/s by definition).
Nuclear energy was first discovered by French physicist Henri Becquerel in 1896, when he found that photographic plates stored in the dark near uranium were blackened like X-ray plates (X-rays had recently been discovered in 1895).[10]
Nickel-62 has the highest binding energy per nucleon of any isotope. If an atom of lower average binding energy is changed into two atoms of higher average binding energy, energy is given off. Also, if two atoms of lower average binding energy fuse into an atom of higher average binding energy, energy is given off. The chart shows that fusion of hydrogen, the combination to form heavier atoms, releases energy, as does fission of uranium, the breaking up of a larger nucleus into smaller parts. Stability varies between isotopes: the isotope U-235 is much less stable than the more common U-238.
Nuclear energy is released by three exoenergetic (or exothermic) processes:
Radioactive decay, where a neutron or proton in the radioactive nucleus decays spontaneously by emitting either particles, electromagnetic radiation (gamma rays), or both. Note that for radioactive decay, it is not strictly necessary for the binding energy to increase. What is strictly necessary is that the mass decrease. If a neutron turns into a proton and the energy of the decay is less than 0.782343 MeV (such as rubidium-87 decaying to strontium-87), the average binding energy per nucleon will actually decrease.
Fusion, two atomic nuclei fuse together to form a heavier nucleus
Fission, the breaking of a heavy nucleus into two (or more rarely three) lighter nuclei
Binding energy for atoms[edit]
The binding energy of an atom (including its electrons) is not the same as the binding energy of the atom's nucleus. The measured mass deficits of isotopes are always listed as mass deficits of the neutral atoms of that isotope, and mostly in MeV. As a consequence, the listed mass deficits are not a measure for the stability or binding energy of isolated nuclei, but for the whole atoms. This has very practical reasons, because it is very hard to totally ionize heavy elements, i.e. strip them of all of their electrons.
This practice is useful for other reasons, too: stripping all the electrons from a heavy unstable nucleus (thus producing a bare nucleus) changes the lifetime of the nucleus, or the nucleus of a stable neutral atom can likewise become unstable after stripping, indicating that the nucleus cannot be treated independently. Examples of this have been shown in bound-state β decay experiments performed at the GSI) heavy ion accelerator.[11] [12] This is also evident from phenomena like electron capture. Theoretically, in orbital models of heavy atoms, the electron orbits partially inside the nucleus (it does not orbit in a strict sense, but has a non-vanishing probability of being located inside the nucleus).
A nuclear decay happens to the nucleus, meaning that properties ascribed to the nucleus change in the event. In the field of physics the concept of "mass deficit" as a measure for "binding energy" means "mass deficit of the neutral atom" (not just the nucleus) and is a measure for stability of the whole atom.
Nuclear binding energy curve[edit]
In the periodic table of elements, the series of light elements from hydrogen up to sodium is observed to exhibit generally increasing binding energy per nucleon as the atomic mass increases. This increase is generated by increasing forces per nucleon in the nucleus, as each additional nucleon is attracted by other nearby nucleons, and thus more tightly bound to the whole.
The region of increasing binding energy is followed by a region of relative stability (saturation) in the sequence from magnesium through xenon. In this region, the nucleus has become large enough that nuclear forces no longer completely extend efficiently across its width. Attractive nuclear forces in this region, as atomic mass increases, are nearly balanced by repellent electromagnetic forces between protons, as the atomic number increases.
Finally, in elements heavier than xenon, there is a decrease in binding energy per nucleon as atomic number increases. In this region of nuclear size, electromagnetic repulsive forces are beginning to overcome the strong nuclear force attraction.
At the peak of binding energy, nickel-62 is the most tightly bound nucleus (per nucleon), followed by iron-58 and iron-56.[13] This is the approximate basic reason why iron and nickel are very common metals in planetary cores, since they are produced profusely as end products in supernovae and in the final stages of silicon burning in stars. However, it is not binding energy per defined nucleon (as defined above), which controls which exact nuclei are made, because within stars, neutrons are free to convert to protons to release even more energy, per generic nucleon, if the result is a stable nucleus with a larger fraction of protons. In fact, it has been argued that photodisintegration of 62Ni to form 56Fe may be energetically possible in an extremely hot star core, due to this beta decay conversion of neutrons to protons.[14] The conclusion is that at the pressure and temperature conditions in the cores of large stars, energy is released by converting all matter into 56Fe nuclei (ionized atoms). (However, at high temperatures not all matter will be in the lowest energy state.) This energetic maximum should also hold for ambient conditions, say T = 298 K and p = 1 atm, for neutral condensed matter consisting of 56Fe atoms—however, in these conditions nuclei of atoms are inhibited from fusing into the most stable and low energy state of matter.
It is generally believed that iron-56 is more common than nickel isotopes in the universe for mechanistic reasons, because its unstable progenitor nickel-56 is copiously made by staged build-up of 14 helium nuclei inside supernovas, where it has no time to decay to iron before being released into the interstellar medium in a matter of a few minutes, as the supernova explodes. However, nickel-56 then decays to cobalt-56 within a few weeks, then this radioisotope finally decays to iron-56 with a half life of about 77.3 days. The radioactive decay-powered light curve of such a process has been observed to happen in type II supernovae, such as SN 1987A. In a star, there are no good ways to create nickel-62 by alpha-addition processes, or else there would presumably be more of this highly stable nuclide in the universe.
Binding energy and nuclide masses[edit]
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The fact that the maximum binding energy is found in medium-sized nuclei is a consequence of the trade-off in the effects of two opposing forces that have different range characteristics. The attractive nuclear force (strong nuclear force), which binds protons and neutrons equally to each other, has a limited range due to a rapid exponential decrease in this force with distance. However, the repelling electromagnetic force, which acts between protons to force nuclei apart, falls off with distance much more slowly (as the inverse square of distance). For nuclei larger than about four nucleons in diameter, the additional repelling force of additional protons more than offsets any binding energy that results between further added nucleons as a result of additional strong force interactions. Such nuclei become increasingly less tightly bound as their size increases, though most of them are still stable. Finally, nuclei containing more than 209 nucleons (larger than about 6 nucleons in diameter) are all too large to be stable, and are subject to spontaneous decay to smaller nuclei.
Nuclear fusion produces energy by combining the very lightest elements into more tightly bound elements (such as hydrogen into helium), and nuclear fission produces energy by splitting the heaviest elements (such as uranium and plutonium) into more tightly bound elements (such as barium and krypton). Both processes produce energy, because middle-sized nuclei are the most tightly bound of all.
As seen above in the example of deuterium, nuclear binding energies are large enough that they may be easily measured as fractional mass deficits, according to the equivalence of mass and energy. The atomic binding energy is simply the amount of energy (and mass) released, when a collection of free nucleons are joined together to form a nucleus.
Nuclear binding energy can be computed from the difference in mass of a nucleus, and the sum of the masses of the number of free neutrons and protons that make up the nucleus. Once this mass difference, called the mass defect or mass deficiency, is known, Einstein's mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc² can be used to compute the binding energy of any nucleus. Early nuclear physicists used to refer to computing this value as a "packing fraction" calculation.
For example, the atomic mass unit (1 u) is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a 12C atom—but the atomic mass of a 1H atom (which is a proton plus electron) is 1.007825 u, so each nucleon in 12C has lost, on average, about 0.8% of its mass in the form of binding energy.
Semiempirical formula for nuclear binding energy[edit]
Main article: Semi-empirical mass formula
For a nucleus with A nucleons, including Z protons and N neutrons, a semi-empirical formula for the binding energy (BE) per nucleon is:
BE A ⋅ MeV = a − b A 1 / 3 − c Z 2 A 4 / 3 − d ( N − Z ) 2 A 2 ± e A 7 / 4 {\displaystyle {\frac {\text{BE}}{A\cdot {\text{MeV}}}}=a-{\frac {b}{A^{1/3}}}-{\frac {cZ^{2}}{A^{4/3}}}-{\frac {d\left(N-Z\right)^{2}}{A^{2}}}\pm {\frac {e}{A^{7/4}}}}
where the coefficients are given by: a = 14.0 {\displaystyle a=14.0} ; b = 13.0 {\displaystyle b=13.0} ; c = 0.585 {\displaystyle c=0.585} ; d = 19.3 {\displaystyle d=19.3} ; e = 33 {\displaystyle e=33} .
The first term a {\displaystyle a} is called the saturation contribution and ensures that the binding energy per nucleon is the same for all nuclei to a first approximation. The term − b / A 1 / 3 {\displaystyle -b/A^{1/3}} is a surface tension effect and is proportional to the number of nucleons that are situated on the nuclear surface; it is largest for light nuclei. The term − c Z 2 / A 4 / 3 {\displaystyle -cZ^{2}/A^{4/3}} is the Coulomb electrostatic repulsion; this becomes more important as Z {\displaystyle Z} increases. The symmetry correction term − d ( N − Z ) 2 / A 2 {\displaystyle -d(N-Z)^{2}/A^{2}} takes into account the fact that in the absence of other effects the most stable arrangement has equal numbers of protons and neutrons; this is because the n-p interaction in a nucleus is stronger than either the n-n or p-p interaction. The pairing term ± e / A 7 / 4 {\displaystyle \pm e/A^{7/4}} is purely empirical; it is + for even-even nuclei and - for odd-odd nuclei.
A graphical representation of the semi-empirical binding energy formula. The binding energy per nucleon in MeV (highest numbers in yellow, in excess of 8.5 MeV per nucleon) is plotted for various nuclides as a function of Z, the atomic number (y-axis), vs. N, the number of neutrons (x-axis). The highest numbers are seen for Z = 26 (iron).
Example values deduced from experimentally measured atom nuclide masses[edit]
The following table lists some binding energies and mass defect values.[15] Notice also that we use 1 u = (931.494028 ± 0.000023) MeV. To calculate the binding energy we use the formula Z (mp + me) + N mn − mnuclide where Z denotes the number of protons in the nuclides and N their number of neutrons. We take mp = 938.2723 MeV, me = 0.5110 MeV and mn = 939.5656 MeV. The letter A denotes the sum of Z and N (number of nucleons in the nuclide). If we assume the reference nucleon has the mass of a neutron (so that all "total" binding energies calculated are maximal) we could define the total binding energy as the difference from the mass of the nucleus, and the mass of a collection of A free neutrons. In other words, it would be (Z + N) mn − mnuclide. The "total binding energy per nucleon" would be this value divided by A.
Most strongly bound nuclides atoms
nuclide
Z
N
mass excess
total mass
total mass / A
total binding energy / A
mass defect
binding energy
binding energy / A
56Fe 26 30 −60.6054 MeV 55.934937 u 0.9988372 u 9.1538 MeV 0.528479 u 492.275 MeV 8.7906 MeV
58Fe 26 32 −62.1534 MeV 57.932276 u 0.9988496 u 9.1432 MeV 0.547471 u 509.966 MeV 8.7925 MeV
60Ni 28 32 −64.472 MeV 59.93079 u 0.9988464 u 9.1462 MeV 0.565612 u 526.864 MeV 8.7811 MeV
62Ni 28 34 −66.7461 MeV 61.928345 u 0.9988443 u 9.1481 MeV 0.585383 u 545.281 MeV 8.7948 MeV
56Fe has the lowest nucleon-specific mass of the four nuclides listed in this table, but this does not imply it is the strongest bound atom per hadron, unless the choice of beginning hadrons is completely free. Iron releases the largest energy if any 56 nucleons are allowed to build a nuclide—changing one to another if necessary, The highest binding energy per hadron, with the hadrons starting as the same number of protons Z and total nucleons A as in the bound nucleus, is 62Ni. Thus, the true absolute value of the total binding energy of a nucleus depends on what we are allowed to construct the nucleus out of. If all nuclei of mass number A were to be allowed to be constructed of A neutrons, then 56Fe would release the most energy per nucleon, since it has a larger fraction of protons than 62Ni. However, if nuclei are required to be constructed of only the same number of protons and neutrons that they contain, then nickel-62 is the most tightly bound nucleus, per nucleon.
Some light nuclides resp. atoms
nuclide
Z
N
mass excess
total mass
total mass / A
total binding energy / A
mass defect
binding energy
binding energy / A
n 0 1 8.0716 MeV 1.008665 u 1.008665 u 0.0000 MeV 0 u 0 MeV 0 MeV
1H 1 0 7.2890 MeV 1.007825 u 1.007825 u 0.7826 MeV 0.0000000146 u 0.0000136 MeV 13.6 eV
2H 1 1 13.13572 MeV 2.014102 u 1.007051 u 1.50346 MeV 0.002388 u 2.22452 MeV 1.11226 MeV
3H 1 2 14.9498 MeV 3.016049 u 1.005350 u 3.08815 MeV 0.0091058 u 8.4820 MeV 2.8273 MeV
3He 2 1 14.9312 MeV 3.016029 u 1.005343 u 3.09433 MeV 0.0082857 u 7.7181 MeV 2.5727 MeV
In the table above it can be seen that the decay of a neutron, as well as the transformation of tritium into helium-3, releases energy; hence, it manifests a stronger bound new state when measured against the mass of an equal number of neutrons (and also a lighter state per number of total hadrons). Such reactions are not driven by changes in binding energies as calculated from previously fixed N and Z numbers of neutrons and protons, but rather in decreases in the total mass of the nuclide/per nucleon, with the reaction. (Note that the Binding Energy given above for hydrogen-1 is the atomic binding energy, not the nuclear binding energy which would be zero.)
External Links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nuclear binding energy.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Dr. Rod Nave of the Department of Physics and Astronomy, Dr. Rod Nave (July 2010). "Nuclear Binding Energy". Hyperphysics - a free web resource from GSU. Georgia State University. Retrieved 2010-07-11.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Nuclear binding energy". How to solve for nuclear binding energy. Guides to solving many of the types of quantitative problems found in Chemistry 116. Purdue University. July 2010. Retrieved 2010-07-10. Guides
Jump up ^ "Nuclear Energy". Energy Education is an interactive curriculum supplement for secondary-school science students, funded by the U. S. Department of Energy and the Texas State Energy Conservation Office (SECO). U. S. Department of Energy and the Texas State Energy Conservation Office (SECO). July 2010. Archived from the original on 2011-02-26. Retrieved 2010-07-10.
^ Jump up to: a b c Stern, Dr. David P. (September 23, 2004). "Nuclear Physics". "From Stargazers to Starships" Public domain content. NASA website. Retrieved 2010-07-11.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Stern, Dr. David P. (November 15, 2004). "A Review of Nuclear Structure". "From Stargazers to Starships" Public domain content. NASA website. Retrieved 2010-07-11.
Jump up ^ Lilley, J.S. (2006). Nuclear physics : principles and applications (Repr. with corrections Jan. 2006. ed.). Chichester: J. Wiley. p. 7. ISBN 0-471-97936-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Stern, Dr. David P. (February 11, 2009). "Nuclear Binding Energy". "From Stargazers to Starships" Public domain content. NASA website. Retrieved 2010-07-11.
Jump up ^ N R Sree Harsha, "The tightly bound nuclei in the liquid drop model", Eur. J. Phys. 39 035802 (2018), https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6404/aaa345
Jump up ^ Turning Lead into Gold
Jump up ^ "Marie Curie - X-rays and Uranium Rays". aip.org. Retrieved 2006-04-10.
Jump up ^ Jung, M.; et al. (1992). "First observation of bound-state β− decay". Physical Review Letters. 69 (15): 2164–2167. Bibcode:1992PhRvL..69.2164J. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.69.2164. PMID 10046415.
Jump up ^ Bosch, F.; et al. (1996). "Observation of bound-state beta minus decay of fully ionized 187Re: 187Re–187Os Cosmochronometry". Physical Review Letters. 77 (26): 5190–5193. Bibcode:1996PhRvL..77.5190B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.77.5190. PMID 10062738.
Jump up ^ Fewell, M. P. (1995). "The atomic nuclide with the highest mean binding energy". American Journal of Physics. 63 (7): 653–658. Bibcode:1995AmJPh..63..653F. doi:10.1119/1.17828.
Jump up ^ M.P. Fewell, 1995
Jump up ^ Jagdish K. Tuli, Nuclear Wallet Cards, 7th edition, April 2005, Brookhaven National Laboratory, US National Nuclear Data Center
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Jeepers Creepers 3
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Jeepers Creepers 3
Theatrical poster
Directed by
Victor Salva
Produced by
Michael Ohoven
Jake Seal
Victor Salva
Written by
Victor Salva
Starring
Jonathan Breck
Meg Foster
Gabrielle Haugh
Chester Rushing
Stan Shaw
Brandon Smith
Gina Philips
Music by
Andrew Morgan Smith
Cinematography
Don E. FauntLeRoy
Edited by
Misty Talley
Production
company
Infinity Films
Myriad Pictures
Distributed by
Screen Media Films
Release date
September 26, 2017 (2017-09-26)
Running time
85 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Box office
$2.3 million[1]
Jeepers Creepers 3 is a 2017 American horror film written and directed by Victor Salva and the third installment in the Jeepers Creepers franchise, taking place in between Jeepers Creepers and Jeepers Creepers 2. Jonathan Breck reprises his role as the Creeper. Gina Philips returns in a cameo as her character Trish Jenner, her first time returning to the franchise since the original film.
The film was shown in theaters on September 26, 2017, in what was originally announced as a one-night-only showing, and was then shown again on October 4, 2017.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Filming
4 Release
4.1 Home media
5 Marketing
6 Reception
6.1 Box office
6.2 Critical response
7 Sequel
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Plot[edit]
The film opens with a shuriken (flying star) flying through the air and hitting a wooden post, as a man runs for his life. When the man reaches the road, the Creeper suddenly drops from the sky and flies off with him while another man watches from his truck. When he gets out to investigate, he looks up in the air and sees a severed hand fall from the sky.
Twenty-three years later, shortly after the events of the first film, the police discover the Creeper's truck filled with dead bodies. The truck has been rigged with several booby-traps, including spikes that emerge from the back, and a spear that shoots out from the tail-pipe. When Sheriff Dan Tashtego arrives, Sergeant Davis Tubbs tells him what happened and Tashtego informs him that the Creeper has been around for thousands of years and must be stopped. They then rush to get the Creeper's truck back after learning it is headed for the impound.
As Frank and Deputy Lang transport the vehicle, the Creeper lands on the tow truck and severs the cables. They then watch as the truck drives off seemingly on its own, while the Creeper stands on top of it. When the truck turns around, the Creeper lands on Frank and abducts him while Lang froze in fear, pointing her gun at it. The next day, Gaylen Brandon sees a vision of her son Kenny, who was killed by the Creeper twenty-three years earlier. He warns her that the Creeper will return soon to uncover something buried on the property and will kill anyone there, including her and her granddaughter, Addison.
Meanwhile, Tashtego informs Tubbs that he has put together a small team to hunt down the Creeper and kill it once and for all. Later, a group of teenagers discovers the Creeper's truck in a field. After finding the bodies, they take off on dirt bikes, but one of them, Kirk, is shot in the leg with the spear. As two of the other boys try to free him, the Creeper returns and kills them both with another spear. The last boy is abducted by the Creeper as he tries to escape for peeing on the Creeper's truck.
Later, Addison goes into town to buy hay for her horse. When she can't pay for it, her friend Buddy helps her out and the two drive up to a plantation house to deliver more hay. There they find the owner and a couple other men hiding under cars, but before they can get help the Creeper arrives and abducts Addison, leaving Buddy traumatized. Gaylen discovers a sack containing the Creeper's severed hand buried in her front yard, and when she touches it she goes into a hypnotic state.
When Tashtego and Tubbs arrive with the team, she reveals that the hand contains secrets about the Creeper's origins, and Tashtego decides to touch it to uncover a possible way to kill it. Addison wakes up in the Creeper's truck along with Kirk, and together they try to find a way out. When Kirk reaches for the door handle a spear shoots out from between the seats and impales him in the head.
Meanwhile, Tashtego and Tubbs discover the Creeper's location, and they head off to find him, along with Michael (who has a machine gun attached to his car). They find the Creeper driving down the highway in his truck, but when they shoot at it the bullets deflect, and Michael is killed. A small explosive is then ejected from the bottom of the Creeper's truck. When it goes off, Tashtego and Tubbs's car lands in a field. Tubbs gets out and tries to shoot the Creeper, but all of his attempts fail. Before the Creeper can kill Tubbs, Tashtego calls him and he goes for him instead. When the Creeper jumps into the air, Tashtego shoots him several times with the machine gun, but the bullets have no effect and he is tackled to the ground and struck in the head with an axe. When the Creeper stands he removes his axe from Tashtego's head and walks away, while Tubbs watches from afar.
That night, the Creeper discovers that Addison is still alive, but before he can kill her, she causes the spear to shoot out and impale him in the head. She quickly escapes and runs through a field. Unable to run, he throws a spear at her which barely misses. He is then hit by a truck and Addison runs away. When the truck driver gets out to see what happened, he is killed by the Creeper. Addison runs and hides in the field, but she is found by Gaylen and Buddy and the three leave together. The Creeper then returns to Gaylen's house where he finds a sign that says 'We know what you are' along with the hand, and yells out in anger.
The next day, Addison says goodbye to Buddy as he leaves for a high school basketball game in the same bus that is attacked by the Creeper in the second movie. Twenty-three years later, Trish Jenner is seen typing a letter on a computer calling for people to fight against the Creeper when it returns, and vows to get revenge on the Creeper for the death of her brother, Darry.
Cast[edit]
Jonathan Breck as the Creeper
Meg Foster as Gaylen Brandon
Gabrielle Haugh as Addison Brandon
Stan Shaw as Sheriff Dan Tashtego
Joyce Giraud as Deputy Dana Lang
Jordan Salloum as Kenny Brandon
Ryan Moore as Kirk Mathers
Brandon Smith as Sergeant Davis Tubbs
Gina Philips as Trish Jenner (cameo)
Production[edit]
The third film was in talks even before Jeepers Creepers 2 was released back in 2003. In 2006, the movie was "announced" and was tentatively called Jeepers Creepers 3: The Creeper Walks Among Us. MGM had originally planned to release the movie direct to DVD, but was unable to find proper financing. The movie's script was written by director Victor Salva, with the new title Jeepers Creepers 3: Cathedral, with Gina Philips returning as Trish Jenner from the first film. For nine more years, the film faced many false starts and setbacks, with Victor Salva saying "the film has come close many times to going before the cameras, and I hope someone sees the wisdom in shooting this".[2]
Officially on September 11, 2015, the movie got the green light to start filming from Myriad Pictures, and was to begin filming in early 2016. However, before filming could begin in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canadian talent agencies sent out an alert to warn others about Victor Salva's criminal past, and then the casting calls were removed, which halted the production. However, producer Stan Spry assured a fan on Twitter that the movie was not cancelled.[3]
On the special edition Blu-ray release of Jeepers Creepers 2, Victor Salva stated that he has written a new script for Jeepers Creepers 3 set between the days of Jeepers Creepers and Jeepers Creepers 2, where the Creeper terrorizes a farming community. Plans changed yet again, as Gina Philips was brought in to reprise her role as Trish in a cameo. The film's plot is set in between the first two films, in the year 2001, although the original Cathedral storyline had the film take place 23 years after the first two films. Actor Stan Shaw, who plays a sheriff in this film, confirmed to a fan on Twitter that the Cathedral storyline was scrapped as that material was more than 12 years old.[4]
Filming[edit]
In January 2017, it was confirmed the film was back in pre-production and that filming would begin in February 2017 in Louisiana, instead of Canada as originally planned (more closely duplicating the Florida setting of the original film). Principal photography finally began on February 15, 2017 in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. On April 4, one of the cameras of the production revealed in their social networks that the filming was already finished.[5]
Release[edit]
During an interview for the Edmond Sun, Justin Hall specifically revealed that the film would be released on September 4, but nothing was confirmed by Victor Salva or the movie studio.[6] On August 16, the AMC Theaters website stated Jeepers Creepers 3 opens on September 26, 2017. On August 29, selected theaters began selling tickets along with the official poster, revealing that the film would be on display for only one night. Fathom Events then announced that the film's premiere would also feature never-before-seen bonus pictures and an interview with Jonathan Breck, who plays the Creeper in all three franchise films.[7] A second showing in theaters on October 4 was later added.[8] Fandango updated the brief film synopsis shortly after, "this Fall, the Creeper returns. See the next film in the iconic horror franchise when Jeepers Creepers 3 returns for a special encore event in movie theaters nationwide for only one night on Wednesday, October 4."[9] Other participating theaters included Marcus Theaters[10] and Galaxy Theaters[11]
The film's Facebook account announced that the film would have its television premiere on the Syfy network on October 28, 2017.[12] The channel aired an encore showing on October 29.[citation needed]
Home media[edit]
The film is set to be released on DVD and Blu-ray on December 26, 2017.[13]
Marketing[edit]
Since the announcement of the final filming, several photos began to appear on the internet implying that they were photos leaked from the post production of Jeepers Creepers 3, mainly for presenting the actor Stan Shaw that had already been confirmed in the film. The photos ended up being confirmed and shortly after it was released a Behind the Scenes video of the film in social networks.[14]
The first teaser trailer for 30 seconds was released on September 6 and the official trailer for the movie was released on September 15 on various YouTube trailer channels.[15]
Reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
During its limited two-day run, Jeepers Creepers 3 grossed $2.3 million in the United States. The film opened in 635 theaters for one day and debuted in #3 in Tuesday Box Office ranking, alongside Kingsman: The Golden Circle and It.[16]
Critical response[edit]
Jeepers Creepers 3 received mixed reviews from critics.
Film critic Steve Pulaski gave the film a mixed review, saying that "through all its shortcomings, some admittedly due to what the wonders the passing of time does to one's expectations, I did find some enjoyment in Jeepers Creepers 3. All of these films have been a tad different from their predecessor, and this one is no exception. It clearly wants to give fans something they can appreciate, it just doesn't always know the best route."[17] Steve Barton in review to Dread Central gave the film three and a half out of five stars and said, "at the end of the day if you're a fan of the franchise, you'll be happy with this latest entry… which for my tastes is better than the second but just falls short of the goodness and quality of the original experience. The door has been left open for Jeepers Creepers 4, and whether or not that will happen remains to be seen".[18]
However, Robert Yaniz, Jr. from We Got This Covered said that "lacking in imagination or genuine scares, Jeepers Creepers 3 falls tragically short on just about every front".[19] Adam Dileo from IGN gave his verdict saying that being "an unremarkable entry in a cult favorite franchise, Jeepers Creepers 3 offers fans too little to get excited about. While the monster still rules its slice of country highway and the skies above it, the rest of the film crashes in the cornfields".[20]
Sequel[edit]
In an interview for Diabolique, actress Gina Philips revealed that Victor Salva has a plot ready for a fourth installment in Jeepers Creepers franchise. She said "Victor has written what happens from the second after the conclusion of 'Jeepers Creepers 3'. I think that's all I'm allowed to say about it but he wrote in such detail and he had a lot of flashbacks to what happened over the years that it made it very easy for me. I got to see what will eventually happen to the character and he put enough flashbacks in there that I got to see what happened to her over the last 15 years. Let's just say, there's more to come."[21]
See also[edit]
Jeepers Creepers
Jeepers Creepers 2
Horror films
List of horror films
2017 films
List of horror films of 2017
List of horror films of 2000
Monster movies
Jersey Devil
Spring-heeled Jack
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Jeepers Creepers 3 (2017)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "'Jeepers Creepers 3' Is Happening…Soon". November 14, 2013. Retrieved September 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Jeepers Creepers 3 Casting Notice Removed". March 28, 2016. Retrieved September 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Is 'Jeepers Creepers 3' Gina Philips' Story?!". January 30, 2017. Retrieved September 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Miska, Brad. "'Jeepers Creepers 3' Started Filming Today (Exclusive) - Bloody Disgusting!". Bloody Disgusting.com. Brad Miska. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Jeepers Creepers 3 possible release date revealed". May 7, 2017. Retrieved September 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Jeepers Creepers in Theaters". August 29, 2017. Retrieved September 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Jeepers Creepers 3, 2nd showing in Theaters". September 24, 2017. Retrieved September 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Fandango 2nd showing of Jeepers Creepers 3". October 4, 2017. Retrieved September 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ "2nd Showing October 4th, 2017". September 24, 2017. Retrieved September 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ "2nd Showing October 4 2017". September 24, 2017. Retrieved September 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ Wegotthiscovered.com
Jump up ^ Dvdreleasedates.com
Jump up ^ "Here's Stan Shaw in 'Jeepers Creepers 3'". June 27, 2017. Retrieved September 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Jeepers Creepers 3 gets full trailer w/ tons of new footage". September 15, 2017. Retrieved September 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Jeepers Creepers 3 (2017)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved September 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Pulaski, Steve. "Jeepers Creepers 3". The Steve Pulaski Message Board.
Jump up ^ "Jeepers Creepers 3 (2017)". Dread Central. Retrieved September 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Jeepers Creepers 3 (2017)". We Got This Covered. Retrieved September 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Jeepers Creepers 3 Review". IGN. Retrieved September 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "'Jeepers Creepers 4' Confirmed — Before 'Jeepers Creepers 3' Is Even Released!". June 1, 2017. Retrieved September 15, 2017.
External links[edit]
Jeepers Creepers 3 on IMDb
Jeepers Creepers 3 at Rotten Tomatoes
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v
t
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Films directed by Victor Salva
Clownhouse (1989)
The Nature of the Beast (1995)
Powder (1995)
Rites of Passage (1999)
Jeepers Creepers (2001)
Jeepers Creepers 2 (2003)
Peaceful Warrior (2006)
Rosewood Lane (2011)
Dark House (2014)
Jeepers Creepers 3 (2017)
[show]
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Jeepers Creepers
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