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Sexual reproduction
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This article is about sexual reproduction. For non-sexual reproduction, see Asexual reproduction.
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In the first stage of sexual reproduction, "meiosis", the number of chromosomes is reduced from a diploid number (2n) to a haploid number (n). During "fertilization", haploid gametes come together to form a diploid zygote and the original number of chromosomes is restored.
Sexual reproduction is a kind of life cycle where generations alternate between cells with a single set of chromosomes (haploid) and cells with a double set of chromosomes (diploid).[1] Sexual reproduction is by far the most common life cycle in eukaryotes, for example animals and plants.
Diploid cells divide into haploid cells in a process called meiosis. Two haploid cells combine into one diploid cell in a process called fertilisation. Between fertilisation and meiosis there can be a large number of cell divisions without change of the number of chromosomes.
Fertilization creates a single-celled zygote which includes genetic material from both gametes. In a process called genetic recombination, genetic material (DNA) joins up so that homologous chromosome sequences are aligned with each other, and this is followed by exchange of genetic information. Two rounds of cell division then produce four daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes from each original parent cell, and the same number of chromosomes as both parents. For instance, in human reproduction each human cell contains 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs. Meiosis in the parents' gonads produce gamete cells which only contain 23 chromosomes each. When the gametes are combined via sexual intercourse to form a fertilized egg, the resulting child will have 23 chromosomes from each parent genetically recombined into 23 chromosome pairs or 46 total.
Cell division mitosis then initiates the development of a new individual organism in multicellular organisms,[2] including animals and plants, for the vast majority of whom this is the primary method of reproduction.[3]
The evolution of sexual reproduction is a major puzzle because asexual reproduction should be able to outcompete it as every young organism created can bear its own young. This implies that an asexual population has an intrinsic capacity to grow more rapidly with each generation.[4] This 50% cost is a fitness disadvantage of sexual reproduction.[5] The two-fold cost of sex includes this cost and the fact that any organism can only pass on 50% of its own genes to its offspring. One definite advantage of sexual reproduction is that it prevents the accumulation of genetic mutations.[6]
Sexual selection is a mode of natural selection in which some individuals out-reproduce others of a population because they are better at securing mates for sexual reproduction.[7][8] It has been described as "a powerful evolutionary force that does not exist in asexual populations."[9]
Prokaryotes, whose initial cell has additional or transformed genetic material, reproduce through asexual reproduction but may, in lateral gene transfer, display processes such as bacterial conjugation, transformation and transduction, which are similar to sexual reproduction although they do not lead to reproduction.
Contents
1 Evolution
2 Sexual selection
3 Sex ratio
4 Animals
4.1 Insects
4.2 Birds
4.3 Mammals
4.4 Fish
4.5 Reptiles
4.6 Amphibians
4.7 Mollusks
5 Plants
5.1 Flowering plants
5.2 Ferns
5.3 Bryophytes
6 Fungi
7 Bacteria and archaea
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Evolution[edit]
Main article: Evolution of sexual reproduction
The first fossilized evidence of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes is from the Stenian period, about 1 to 1.2 billion years ago.[10]
Biologists studying evolution propose several explanations for why sexual reproduction developed and why it is maintained. These reasons include reducing the likelihood of the accumulation of deleterious mutations, increasing rate of adaptation to changing environments,[11] dealing with competition, and masking deleterious mutations.[12][13][14] All of these ideas about why sexual reproduction has been maintained are generally supported, but ultimately the size of the population determines if sexual reproduction is entirely beneficial. Larger populations appear to respond more quickly to benefits obtained through sexual reproduction than do smaller population sizes.[15]
Maintenance of sexual reproduction has been explained by theories that work at several levels of selection, though some of these models remain controversial.[citation needed] However, newer models presented in recent years suggest a basic advantage for sexual reproduction in slowly reproducing complex organisms.
Sexual reproduction allows these species to exhibit characteristics that depend on the specific environment that they inhabit, and the particular survival strategies that they employ.[16]
Sexual selection[edit]
Main article: Sexual selection
In order to sexually reproduce, both males and females need to find a mate. Generally in animals mate choice is made by females while males compete to be chosen. This can lead organisms to extreme efforts in order to reproduce, such as combat and display, or produce extreme features caused by a positive feedback known as a Fisherian runaway. Thus sexual reproduction, as a form of natural selection, has an effect on evolution. Sexual dimorphism is where the basic phenotypic traits vary between males and females of the same species. Dimorphism is found in both sex organs and in secondary sex characteristics, body size, physical strength and morphology, biological ornamentation, behavior and other bodily traits. However, sexual selection is only implied over an extended period of time leading to sexual dimorphism.[17]
Sex ratio[edit]
Apart from some eusocial wasps, organisms which reproduce sexually have a 1:1 sex ratio of male and female births. The English statistician and biologist Ronald Fisher outlined why this is so in what has come to be known as Fisher's principle.[18] This essentially says the following:
Suppose male births are less common than female.
A newborn male then has better mating prospects than a newborn female, and therefore can expect to have more offspring.
Therefore parents genetically disposed to produce males tend to have more than average numbers of grandchildren born to them.
Therefore the genes for male-producing tendencies spread, and male births become more common.
As the 1:1 sex ratio is approached, the advantage associated with producing males dies away.
The same reasoning holds if females are substituted for males throughout. Therefore 1:1 is the equilibrium ratio.
Animals[edit]
Further information: Reproductive system § Animals, Fertilization in animals, and Animal sexual behavior
Insects[edit]
Further information: Insect § Reproduction and development
Australian emperor laying egg, guarded by the male
Insect species make up more than two-thirds of all extant animal species. Most insect species reproduce sexually, though some species are facultatively parthenogenetic. Many insects species have sexual dimorphism, while in others the sexes look nearly identical. Typically they have two sexes with males producing spermatozoa and females ova. The ova develop into eggs that have a covering called the chorion, which forms before internal fertilization. Insects have very diverse mating and reproductive strategies most often resulting in the male depositing spermatophore within the female, which she stores until she is ready for egg fertilization. After fertilization, and the formation of a zygote, and varying degrees of development, in many species the eggs are deposited outside the female; while in others, they develop further within the female and are born live.
Birds[edit]
Further information: Avian reproduction
Mammals[edit]
Main article: Mammalian reproduction
See also: Human reproduction
There are three extant kinds of mammals: monotremes, placentals and marsupials, all with internal fertilization. In placental mammals, offspring are born as juveniles: complete animals with the sex organs present although not reproductively functional. After several months or years, depending on the species, the sex organs develop further to maturity and the animal becomes sexually mature. Most female mammals are only fertile during certain periods during their estrous cycle, at which point they are ready to mate. Individual male and female mammals meet and carry out copulation.[citation needed] For most mammals, males and females exchange sexual partners throughout their adult lives.[19][20][21]
Fish[edit]
Further information: Fish § Reproductive system
The vast majority of fish species lay eggs that are then fertilized by the male,[22] some species lay their eggs on a substrate like a rock or on plants, while others scatter their eggs and the eggs are fertilized as they drift or sink in the water column.
Some fish species use internal fertilization and then disperse the developing eggs or give birth to live offspring. Fish that have live-bearing offspring include the guppy and mollies or Poecilia. Fishes that give birth to live young can be ovoviviparous, where the eggs are fertilized within the female and the eggs simply hatch within the female body, or in seahorses, the male carries the developing young within a pouch, and gives birth to live young.[23] Fishes can also be viviparous, where the female supplies nourishment to the internally growing offspring. Some fish are hermaphrodites, where a single fish is both male and female and can produce eggs and sperm. In hermaphroditic fish, some are male and female at the same time while in other fish they are serially hermaphroditic; starting as one sex and changing to the other. In at least one hermaphroditic species, self-fertilization occurs when the eggs and sperm are released together. Internal self-fertilization may occur in some other species.[24] One fish species does not reproduce by sexual reproduction but uses sex to produce offspring; Poecilia formosa is a unisex species that uses a form of parthenogenesis called gynogenesis, where unfertilized eggs develop into embryos that produce female offspring. Poecilia formosa mate with males of other fish species that use internal fertilization, the sperm does not fertilize the eggs but stimulates the growth of the eggs which develops into embryos.[25]
Reptiles[edit]
Common house geckos (Hemidactylus frenatus) mating
Further information: Reptiles § Reproduction
Amphibians[edit]
Further information: Amphibian § Reproduction
Mollusks[edit]
Further information: Mollusk § Reproduction
Plants[edit]
Main article: Plant reproduction
Animals typically produce gametes directly by meiosis. Male gametes are called sperm, and female gametes are called eggs or ova. In animals, fertilization follows immediately after meiosis. Plants on the other hand have mitosis occurring in spores, which are produced by meiosis. The spores germinate into the gametophyte phase. The gametophytes of different groups of plants vary in size; angiosperms have as few as three cells in pollen, and mosses and other so called primitive plants may have several million cells. Plants have an alternation of generations where the sporophyte phase is succeeded by the gametophyte phase. The sporophyte phase produces spores within the sporangium by meiosis.
Flowering plants[edit]
Flowers are the sexual organs of flowering plants.
Flowering plants are the dominant plant form on land and they reproduce either sexually or asexually. Often their most distinguishing feature is their reproductive organs, commonly called flowers. The anther produces pollen grains which contain the male gametophytes (sperm). For pollination to occur, pollen grains must attach to the stigma of the female reproductive structure (carpel), where the female gametophytes (ovules) are located inside the ovary. After the pollen tube grows through the carpel's style, the sex cell nuclei from the pollen grain migrate into the ovule to fertilize the egg cell and endosperm nuclei within the female gametophyte in a process termed double fertilization. The resulting zygote develops into an embryo, while the triploid endosperm (one sperm cell plus two female cells) and female tissues of the ovule give rise to the surrounding tissues in the developing seed. The ovary, which produced the female gametophyte(s), then grows into a fruit, which surrounds the seed(s). Plants may either self-pollinate or cross-pollinate.
Nonflowering plants like ferns, moss and liverworts use other means of sexual reproduction.
In 2013, flowers dating from the Cretaceous (100 million years before present) were found encased in amber, the oldest evidence of sexual reproduction in a flowering plant. Microscopic images showed tubes growing out of pollen and penetrating the flower's stigma. The pollen was sticky, suggesting it was carried by insects.[26]
Ferns[edit]
Ferns mostly produce large diploid sporophytes with rhizomes, roots and leaves; and on fertile leaves called sporangium, spores are produced. The spores are released and germinate to produce short, thin gametophytes that are typically heart shaped, small and green in color. The gametophytes or thallus, produce both motile sperm in the antheridia and egg cells in separate archegonia. After rains or when dew deposits a film of water, the motile sperm are splashed away from the antheridia, which are normally produced on the top side of the thallus, and swim in the film of water to the archegonia where they fertilize the egg. To promote out crossing or cross fertilization the sperm are released before the eggs are receptive of the sperm, making it more likely that the sperm will fertilize the eggs of different thallus. A zygote is formed after fertilization, which grows into a new sporophytic plant. The condition of having separate sporephyte and gametophyte plants is called alternation of generations. Other plants with similar reproductive means include the Psilotum, Lycopodium, Selaginella and Equisetum.
Bryophytes[edit]
The bryophytes, which include liverworts, hornworts and mosses, reproduce both sexually and vegetatively. They are small plants found growing in moist locations and like ferns, have motile sperm with flagella and need water to facilitate sexual reproduction. These plants start as a haploid spore that grows into the dominate form, which is a multicellular haploid body with leaf-like structures that photosynthesize. Haploid gametes are produced in antherida and archegonia by mitosis. The sperm released from the antherida respond to chemicals released by ripe archegonia and swim to them in a film of water and fertilize the egg cells thus producing a zygote. The zygote divides by mitotic division and grows into a sporophyte that is diploid. The multicellular diploid sporophyte produces structures called spore capsules, which are connected by seta to the archegonia. The spore capsules produce spores by meiosis, when ripe the capsules burst open and the spores are released. Bryophytes show considerable variation in their breeding structures and the above is a basic outline. Also in some species each plant is one sex while other species produce both sexes on the same plant.[27]
Fungi[edit]
Main article: Mating in fungi
Further information: Fungus § Reproduction
Puffballs emitting spores
Fungi are classified by the methods of sexual reproduction they employ. The outcome of sexual reproduction most often is the production of resting spores that are used to survive inclement times and to spread. There are typically three phases in the sexual reproduction of fungi: plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis. The cytoplasm of two parent cells fuse during plasmogamy and the nuclei fuse during karyogamy. New haploid gametes are formed during meiosis and develop into spores.
Bacteria and archaea[edit]
Three distinct processes in prokaryotes are regarded as similar to eukaryotic sex: bacterial transformation, which involves the incorporation of foreign DNA into the bacterial chromosome; bacterial conjugation, which is a transfer of plasmid DNA between bacteria, but the plasmids are rarely incorporated into the bacterial chromosome; and gene transfer and genetic exchange in archaea.
Bacterial transformation involves the recombination of genetic material and its function is mainly associated with DNA repair. Bacterial transformation is a complex process encoded by numerous bacterial genes, and is a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer.[12][13] This process occurs naturally in at least 40 bacterial species.[28] For a bacterium to bind, take up, and recombine exogenous DNA into its chromosome, it must enter a special physiological state referred to as competence (see Natural competence). Sexual reproduction in early single-celled eukaryotes may have evolved from bacterial transformation,[14] or from a similar process in archaea (see below).
On the other hand, bacterial conjugation is a type of direct transfer of DNA between two bacteria through an external appendage called the conjugation pilus.[29] Bacterial conjugation is controlled by plasmid genes that are adapted for spreading copies of the plasmid between bacteria. The infrequent integration of a plasmid into a host bacterial chromosome, and the subsequent transfer of a part of the host chromosome to another cell do not appear to be bacterial adaptations.[12][30]
Exposure of hyperthermophilic archaeal Sulfolobus species to DNA damaging conditions induces cellular aggregation accompanied by high frequency genetic marker exchange.[31][32] Ajon et al.[32] hypothesized that this cellular aggregation enhances species-specific DNA repair by homologous recombination. DNA transfer in Sulfolobus may be an early form of sexual interaction similar to the more well-studied bacterial transformation systems that also involve species-specific DNA transfer leading to homologous recombinational repair of DNA damage.
See also[edit]
Book: Sex
Amphimixis (psychology)
Anisogamy
Biological reproduction
Hermaphroditism
Isogamy
Mate choice
Mating in fungi
Operational sex ratio
Outcrossing
Allogamy
Self-incompatibility
Sex
Sexual intercourse
Transformation (genetics)
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ BONY FISHES - Reproduction
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Further reading[edit]
Pang, K. "Certificate Biology: New Mastering Basic Concepts", Hong Kong, 2004
Journal of Biology of Reproduction, accessed in August 2005.
"Sperm Use Heat Sensors To Find The Egg; Weizmann Institute Research Contributes To Understanding Of Human Fertilization", Science Daily, 3 February 2003
Michod, RE; Levin, BE, eds. (1987). The Evolution of sex: An examination of current ideas. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 978-0878934584.
Michod, RE (1994). Eros and Evolution: A Natural Philosophy of Sex. Perseus Books. ISBN 978-0201407549.
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Diaphragm (optics)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A 35 mm lens set to f/8; the diameter of the seven-sided entrance pupil, the virtual image of the opening in the iris diaphragm, is 4.375 mm
In optics, a diaphragm is a thin opaque structure with an opening (aperture) at its center. The role of the diaphragm is to stop the passage of light, except for the light passing through the aperture. Thus it is also called a stop (an aperture stop, if it limits the brightness of light reaching the focal plane, or a field stop or flare stop for other uses of diaphragms in lenses). The diaphragm is placed in the light path of a lens or objective, and the size of the aperture regulates the amount of light that passes through the lens. The centre of the diaphragm's aperture coincides with the optical axis of the lens system.
Most modern cameras use a type of adjustable diaphragm known as an iris diaphragm, and often referred to simply as an iris.
See the articles on aperture and f-number for the photographic effect and system of quantification of varying the opening in the diaphragm.
Contents
[hide]
1 Iris diaphragms versus other types
2 History
3 See also
4 References
Iris diaphragms versus other types[edit]
Nine-blade iris
Pentacon 2.8/135 lens with 15-blade iris
A Zeiss rotating diaphragm, 1906.[1] One diaphragm with five apertures.
A natural optical system that has a diaphragm and an aperture is the human eye. The iris is the diaphragm, and the opening in the iris of the eye (the pupil) is the aperture. An analogous dev in a photographic lens is called an iris diaphragm.
In the early years of photography, a lens could be fitted with one of a set of interchangeable diaphragms [1], often as brass strips known as Waterhouse stops or Waterhouse diaphragms. The iris diaphragm in most modern still and video cameras is adjusted by movable blades, simulating the iris of the eye.
The diaphragm has two to twenty blades (with most lenses today featuring between five and ten blades), depending on price and quality of the device in which it is used. Straight blades result in polygon shape of the diaphragm opening, while curved blades improve the roundness of the iris opening. In a photograph, the number of blades that the iris diaphragm has can be guessed by counting the number of diffraction spikes converging from a light source or bright reflection. For an odd number of blades, there are twice as many spikes as there are blades.
In case of an even number of blades, the two spikes per blade will overlap each other, so the number of spikes visible will be the number of blades in the diaphragm used. This is most apparent in pictures taken in the dark with small bright spots, for example night cityscapes. Some cameras, such as the Olympus XA or lenses such as the MC Zenitar-ME1, however, use a two-bladed diaphragm with right-angle blades creating a square aperture.
Similarly, out-of-focus points of light (circles of confusion) appear as polygons with the same number of sides as the aperture has blades. If the blurred light is circular, then it can be inferred that the aperture is either round or the image was shot "wide-open" (with the blades recessed into the sides of the lens, allowing the interior edge of the lens barrel to effectively become the iris).
The shape of the iris opening has a direct relation with the appearance of the blurred out-of-focus areas in an image called bokeh. A rounder opening produces softer and more natural out-of-focus areas.
Some lenses utilize specially shaped diaphragms in order to create certain effects. This includes the diffusion discs or sieve aperture of the Rodenstock Tiefenbildner-Imagon, Fuji and Sima soft focus lenses, the sector aperture of Seibold's Dreamagon, or the circular apodization filter in the Minolta/Sony Smooth Trans Focus or Fujifilm APD lenses.
Some modern automatic point-and-shoot cameras do not have a diaphragm at all, and simulate aperture changes by using an automatic ND filter. Unlike a real diaphragm, this has no effect on depth of field. A real diaphragm when more-closed will cause the depth of field to increase (i.e., cause the background and the subject to both appear more in-focus at the same time) and if the diaphragm is opened up again the depth of field will decrease (i.e., the background and foreground will share less and less of the same focal plane).[2]
History[edit]
In his 1567 work La Pratica della Perspettiva Venetian nobleman Daniello Barbaro (1513-1570) described using a camera obscura with a biconvex lens as a drawing aid and points out that the picture is more vivid if the lens is covered as much as to leave a circumference in the middle.[3]
In 1762, Leonhard Euler[4] says with respect to telescopes that, "it is necessary likewise to furnish the inside of the tube with one or more diaphragms, perforated with a small circular aperture, the better to exclude all extraneous light."
In 1867, Dr. Désiré van Monckhoven, in one of the earliest books on photographic optics,[5] draws a distinction betweens stops and diaphragms in photography, but not in optics, saying:
"Let us see what takes place when the stop is removed from the lens to a proper distance. In this case the stop becomes a diaphragm.
* In optics, stop and diaphragm are synonyms. But in photographic optics they are only so by an unfortunate confusion of language. The stop reduces the lens to its central aperture; the diaphragm, on the contrary, allows all the segments of the lens to act, but only on the different radiating points placed symmetrically and concentrically in relation to the axis of the lens, or of the system of lenses (of which the axis is, besides, in every case common)."
This distinction was maintained in Wall's 1889 Dictionary of Photography (see figure), but disappeared after Ernst Abbe's theory of stops unified these concepts.
According to Rudolf Kingslake,[6] the inventor of the iris diaphragm is unknown. Others credit Joseph Nicéphore Niépce for this device, around 1820. Mr. J. H. Brown, a member of the Royal Microscopical Society, appears to have invented a popular improved iris diaphragm by 1867.[7]
Kingslake has more definite histories for some other diaphragm types, such as M. Noton's adjustable cat eye diaphragm of two sliding squares in 1856, and the Waterhouse stops of John Waterhouse in 1858.
See also[edit]
Aperture
f-number
Shutter (photography)
Leaf shutter
Valbray
Diffraction spike
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Louis Derr, Photography for students of physics and chemistry London: The Macmillan Co., 1906
Jump up ^ Steven Ascher; Edward Pincus (2007). The Filmmaker's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for the Digital Age. Plume. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-452-28678-8.
Jump up ^ Ilardi, Vincent (2007). Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes.
Jump up ^ Leonhard Euler, "Precautions to be used in the Construction of Telescopes. Necessitiy of blackening the Inside of Tubes. Diaphragms." 1762, in Letters of Euler on different subjects in physics and philosophy. Addressed to a German princess, Vol. II, Henry Hunter, D.D. (ed.), London, 1802,
Jump up ^ Désiré van Monckhoven, Photographic Optics: Including the Description of Lenses and Enlarging Apparatus, English translation, London: Robert Hardwicke, 1867
Jump up ^ Rudolf Kingslake, A History of the Photographic Lens, London: Academic Press, 1989
Jump up ^ J. Henle, W, Keferstein, and G. Meissner, Bericht über die Fortschritte der Anatomie und Physiologie im Jahre 1867, Liepzip: C. F. Winter'sche Verlagshandlung, 1868.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diaphragm_(optics)&oldid=802851074"
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Multi-channel network
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A multi-channel network (MCN) is an organization that works with video platforms such as YouTube, to offer assistance to a channel owner in areas such as "product, programming, funding, cross-promotion, partner management, digital rights management, monetization/sales, and/or audience development"[1] in exchange for a percentage of the ad revenue from the channel.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Name origin
2 Purpose
3 Benefits
4 Purchases
5 See also
6 References
Name origin[edit]
The name Multi-channel Network has only recently begun to be standard, coined by former YouTube employee Jed Simmons (reportedly because of YouTube's distaste for the notion of "networks.")[3] Prior to 2014 many names were used by the different companies, including Online Video Studio, Internet Television Company, ITC, OVS, YouTube Network or simply Network.[4][not in citation given]
Sub-networks[5] of MCNs are known as SubMCNs, Virtual Networks, Proprietary Networks, Content Distribution Networks, SMCNs, VNs, PNs, or CDNs.[6]
Purpose[edit]
They work by a company setting up an account with YouTube CMS (the system used for ContentID), the company adds anyone who signs a contract with them to their CMS, allowing users (and the CMS account owner) to use monetization, block and track policies. Monetization allows for videos to generate revenue, Block prevents access to videos and Track allows content owners to see the analytics of 'reuploads' and copyright infringing content. Some MCN partners can block videos by country (e.g., if a video is uploaded with a banned or unlicensed logo).
MCNs have been described as a means to "negate the hassle involved when seeking out your own advertising opportunities on the site."[2] Advertisers who work with MCNs can pay for services including overlay adverts, product placement and in show sponsorships, aiming to gain repeated exposure,[2] endorsement by YouTube personalities,[2] and increased audience engagement, especially compared with television advertisements which are often ignored or skipped.[2][7]
Benefits[edit]
Further information: Maker Studios § Ray William Johnson dispute
The benefits and drawbacks of partnering with a multi-channel network have been discussed by several high-profile YouTube creators, including Hank Green,[8] Freddie Wong[9] as well as YouTube itself.[1]
The possible benefits can include:
Access to video creation and publishing tools[10]
Marketing and promotion[11]
Access to production and editing facilities[12]
Higher CPM[13]
Access to traditional media projects and celebrities[14]
Cover song and background music licenses on copyrighted music[15][16][17]
Live events and merchandise[18]
However, there have been several controversies involving YouTube Networks.
Machinima has been criticised for the use of perpetual contracts.[19] Ben Vacas, known to the YouTube community as 'Braindeadly', attracted media attention in January 2013 over contractual issues with Machinima.[20] Under the terms of his contract, Machinima were permitted to place advertisements on Vacas's videos and in return he would receive a percentage of the profits generated.[20] However, the contract also disclosed that it existed "in perpetuity";[19] meaning Machinima would hold the rights to any content created by Vacas published on his partnered YouTube channel in his lifetime, a detail Vacas failed to read.[19]
Machinima was criticised in early 2013 by high-profile YouTuber Athene for "intimidating... multiple partners" to sign a contract that would significantly lower their CPM. Athene called it "one of the worst deals on the internet" and advised his subscribers not to "sign with Machinima" stating that they could get a better arrangement with other networks.[21]
Purchases[edit]
Several MCNs have been purchased by larger corporations. In early 2014 Maker Studios was sold to Disney for $500 million,[22] and Big Frame was sold to DreamWorks Animation through AwesomenessTV for $15 million.[23] In June 2013, RTL Group invested $36 million in BroadbandTV Corp.[24]
See also[edit]
List of multi-channel networks
Cost per impression
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b YouTube. "Multi Channel Networks 101". Retrieved 2013-05-18.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Davidson, Neil. "Can a Multi-Channel Network Boost Your YouTube Marketing Success?". Site Pro News. Retrieved 19 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Vidani, Peter. "Fred Seibert dot com (Inspired by Channel 102, and Julie Klausner’s "Cat...)". Fred Seibert dot com. Retrieved 2016-07-08.
Jump up ^ "Top Networks by Social Blade YouTube Stats". Social Blade. Retrieved 2013-08-19.
Jump up ^ "TCN: A large Sub-network example powered by BroadbandTV". Social Blade. Retrieved 2015-03-05.
Jump up ^ "How to Start a YouTube Network. | YouTube Forum | The #1 YouTube Community | Video Editing, Branding & YouTube Help". Yttalk.com. 2013-05-09. Retrieved 2013-08-19.
Jump up ^ Millar, Michael (2013-04-08). "Digital product placement creates adverts out of thin air". BBC. Retrieved 19 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Should I Join a YouTube Network?". YouTube. Retrieved 2013-08-19.
Jump up ^ "YouTube Networks: 7 Things You Need to Know « Rocketjump". Rocketjump.com. 2012-09-02. Retrieved 2013-08-19.
Jump up ^ "Introducing Fullscreen Uploader for Facebook Video". Fullscreen. 2015-03-25. Retrieved 2016-11-14.
Jump up ^ "Fullscreen To Spend A Cool Million On Marketing For Smaller Channels". Tubefilter. 2012-11-30. Retrieved 2016-11-14.
Jump up ^ "Big Frame Moves Into Larger Headquarters With Dedicated Production and Sound Studios". Newmediarockstars.com. 2013-04-10. Retrieved 2013-08-19.
Jump up ^ "Turnstyle: Covering Pop Hits On YouTube Is Starting To Pay". Huffingtonpost.com. 2013-05-15. Retrieved 2013-08-19.
Jump up ^ Kanter, Jake (2013-05-16). "ChannelFlip: TV red tape is driving talent online | News | Broadcast". Broadcastnow.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-08-19.
Jump up ^ "Fullscreen Opens Universal Music Library To Its Artists". Newmediarockstars.com. 2013-04-04. Retrieved 2013-08-19.
Jump up ^ "Universal Music Publishing Group Announces Partnership With Fullscreen and Maker Studios". Newmediarockstars.com. 2013-02-14. Retrieved 2013-08-19.
Jump up ^ Baumann, Drew (2013-04-04). "Introducing the new FAM experience // Fullscreen". Blog.fullscreen.net. Retrieved 2013-08-19.
Jump up ^ Hamedy, Saba. "Fullscreen acquires platform to help creators monetize content, engage with fans". Mashable. Retrieved 2016-11-14.
^ Jump up to: a b c Marsden, Rhodri (2013-01-23). "Channels spawned by YouTube are making a fortune but are the people making the videos missing out?". London: The Independent. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Stuart, Tessa. "Rage Against Machinima". Houston Press. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Boumaaza, Bachir. "YT Partners Warning". AtheneWins. Retrieved 18 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Pomerantz, Dorothy. "With Disney Buying Maker, Do All Big Media Companies Need To Up Their YouTube Game?". Forbes. Retrieved 2 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Spangler, Todd (2014-04-02). "AwesomenessTV Buys YouTube MCN Big Frame for $15 Million". Variety.
Jump up ^ Spangler, Todd (2013-06-26). "RTL Takes Control of BroadbandTV with $36 Million Investment". Variety. Retrieved 29 June 2015.
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You Raise Me Up
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"You Raise Me Up"
Song by Secret Garden
from the album Once in a Red Moon
Released
December 27, 2001
Length
5:04
Songwriter(s)
Brendan Graham (lyricist)
Rolf Løvland (composer)
Producer(s)
Decca
Once in a Red Moon track listing
"Awakening"
(1) "You Raise Me Up"
(2) "Silent Wings"
(3)
"You Raise Me Up" is a song originally composed by Irish-Norwegian duo Secret Garden. The music was written by Secret Garden's Rolf Løvland and the lyrics by Brendan Graham. After the song was performed early in 2002 by the Secret Garden and their invited lead singer, Brian Kennedy, the song only became a minor UK hit. The song has been recorded by more than a hundred other artists including Josh Groban, who popularized the song in 2003; his rendition became a hit in the United States. The Irish band Westlife then popularized the song in the UK two years later.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Popularity
3 Josh Groban version
3.1 Performances
3.2 Charts
4 Westlife version
4.1 Tours performed at
4.1.1 as Westlife
4.2 Track listing
4.3 Charts
4.3.1 Year-end charts
4.3.2 Certifications and sales
5 Wesley version
6 Other covers
7 Use in popular culture
8 References
9 External links
Background[edit]
The song was originally composed as an instrumental piece and titled "Silent Story". Some have claimed there is a strong resemblance to the traditional Irish tune Londonderry Air, to which Løvland has commented: "There are similarities but no plagiarism. When I made "You Raise Me Up" I asked myself - what is the inner essence of Irish music?"[2] Løvland later approached Irish novelist and songwriter Brendan Graham to write the lyrics to his melody, after reading Graham's novels.[3]
The song was made by and for Løvland himself and performed for the very first time at the funeral of Løvland's mother. Here he noted "there's something about the song people are embracing - which becomes emotionally strong. [...] I believe people think of it as a song they use for their own purposes.".[2][4] The original designated vocalist was Johnny Logan, himself also from Eurovision fame, who recorded a demo with an orchestra. However, a desire to distance the album from Eurovision Song Contest led to a change in vocalist.
In 2002, it was released on the Secret Garden album Once in a Red Moon, with the vocals sung by Irish singer Brian Kennedy, and sold well in both Ireland and Norway. Originally, Brian Kennedy was supposed to follow Secret Garden on their Asian tour in 2002, but Curb records couldn't come to an agreement with Universal to release Brian, and he reluctantly could not attend the tour. He was replaced by Norwegian singer Jan Werner Danielsen, who also later recorded the song together with Secret Garden. A demo version of this recording was released in 2010, on Danielsen's posthumous compilation album One More Time - The Very Best Of, which included several previously unpublished recordings.
Popularity[edit]
Although the original version did not chart internationally, the song has now been covered more than 125 times,[5] with the most successful covers being by Josh Groban (#73 in the US and #1 on the US Adult Contemporary chart), Christian group Selah (#1 on Billboard's Christian charts), Westlife (#1 in the UK), Daniel O'Donnell (#22 in the UK) and Dutch Popstars winner Wesley Klein (#4 in the Netherlands). The song has also found success as part of a three-song EP entitled "George Best - A Tribute" by Peter Corry and the song's original vocalist Brian Kennedy, which reached #4 in the UK.
In 2004, the song was played more than 500,000 times on American radio. In late 2005, there were over 80 versions available in US alone, and it has been nominated for Gospel Music Awards four times, including "Song of the Year."
On 21 September 2006, "You Raise Me Up" became the first song to have sold over 76,000 copies of the score on the popular sheet music website musicnotes.com.[6]
Josh Groban version[edit]
"You Raise Me Up"
Single by Josh Groban
from the album Closer
Released
September 10, 2004(Single) October, 2003(Album)
Genre
Operatic Pop, Adult Contemporary, Classical
Length
4:52
Label
Reprise Records
Warner Bros. Records
143 Records
Songwriter(s)
Brendan Graham (lyricist)
Rolf Løvland (composer)
Producer(s)
David Foster
Music video
"You Raise Me Up" on YouTube
In 2003, David Foster decided to produce the song after being introduced to it by Frank Petrone of peermusic, the song's publisher. He chose the up-and-coming Josh Groban to record the song, which was accompanied by the tenor Craig Von Vennik of the Establishment. Groban's version made it to #1 on the Billboard adult contemporary chart in early 2004 and remained there for six weeks. This version also peaked at #73 on the Billboard Hot 100, his first single to do so, and was nominated for a 2005 Grammy award.
Performances[edit]
Groban performed the song at Super Bowl XXXVIII, in a special NASA commemoration for the crew of the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster. A special surprise performance by Groban, for Oprah Winfrey's 50th birthday, also gave "You Raise Me Up" massive international prominence. On April 25, 2007, Groban also performed it at the first Idol Gives Back Concert, along with the African Children's Choir. This version was released as a single and peaked at #76 on the Billboard Hot 100. He performed this version with the African Children's Choir again on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on August 10, 2007.
On May 26, 2007, Josh Groban appeared on BBC's talent show Any Dream Will Do to select one of the remaining contestants (or "Josephs") to perform the song with him. He chose show favourite and eventual winner Lee Mead, whilst the other four contestants (Lewis Bradley, Craig Chalmers, Ben Ellis, and Keith Jack) performed as backing singers. Following this, the solo version of "You Raise Me Up" charted in the UK at #74, making it his first chart entry there.
Charts[edit]
Chart (solo version)[7]
Peak
position
Austrian Singles Chart (2008) 54
Danish Singles Chart (2009) 26
French Singles Chart (2012) 16
Swiss Singles Chart (2008) 54
US Billboard Hot 100 (2004) 73
US Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks (2004) 1
UK Singles Chart (2007) 74
Chart (2007 version with African Children's Choir)
Peak
position
US Billboard Hot 100 76
Preceded by
"Forever and for Always" by Shania Twain
"The First Cut Is the Deepest" by Sheryl Crow Billboard Adult Contemporary number-one single (Josh Groban version)
March 13 - April 3, 2004
April 17–24, 2004 Succeeded by
"The First Cut Is the Deepest" by Sheryl Crow
Westlife version[edit]
"You Raise Me Up"
Single by Westlife
from the album Face to Face
Released
October 24, 2005
Format
CD Single
Recorded
Rokstone Studios, London 2004
Length
4:01
Label
Sony BMG
Songwriter(s)
Brendan Graham (lyricist)
Rolf Løvland (composer)
Producer(s)
Steve Mac
Westlife singles chronology
"Obvious"
(2004) "You Raise Me Up"
(2005) "When You Tell Me That You Love Me"
(2005)
"Obvious"
(2004) "You Raise Me Up"
(2005) "When You Tell Me That You Love Me"
(2005)
Music video
"You Raise Me Up" on YouTube
"You Raise Me Up" was released as the lead single from Westlife's sixth studio album Face to Face. This version is one of the most successful covers of the song, peaking at No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart,[8] the only version to do so. This was the band's 13th number-one single as well as the first single to be released following the departure of Brian McFadden from the group. The single has sold 540,000 copies in the UK so far.[9] In South Korea, it entered the Official South Korean Year-end Downloads Singles Chart in 2010 with 130,759 sales.[10] Westlife performed this song with Secret Garden at the 2005 Nobel Peace Prize concert. On December 11, 2009, they performed it again at the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize concert celebrating US President Barack Obama. Westlife's official music video for "You Raise Me Up" was shot in late-2005 and is directed by Alex Hemming.[11] The backing track is re-used in the Spanish version of this song, "Por Ti Sere", performed by Il Divo in their Siempre album. When Louis Walsh suggested the band to record it, Filan, Egan, Byrne, and Feehily were against it saying it was a church song, and would not be a success. They also said they did not want to record it. However, they have since claimed in 2011, six years after the single's release, that the song changed their careers and were glad they recorded it.
The song was reinstated in the live bonus disc album of the band's Greatest Hits in 2011. After the band broke up in 2012, the single was performed solo in many live instances by three of band members Shane Filan, Kian Egan and Mark Feehily. In 2018, the single was re-recorded by its member Shane Filan for his solo album Love Always - Deluxe Version.
Tours performed at[edit]
as Westlife[edit]
Face to Face Tour (2006)
The Love Tour (2007)
Back Home Tour (2008)
Where We Are Tour (2010)
Gravity Tour (2011)
The Farewell Tour (2012)
Track listing[edit]
UK CD1
"You Raise Me Up" – 4:00
"World of Our Own" (Acoustic Version) – 3:30
UK CD2
"You Raise Me Up" – 4:00
"Flying Without Wings" (Acoustic Version) – 3:30
"My Love" (Acoustic Version) – 3:48
Charts[edit]
Chart (2005)
Peak
position
Australian Singles Chart 3
Austrian Singles Chart 46
Dutch Singles Chart 47
Europe (Eurochart Hot 100)[12] 4
German Singles Chart 11
Irish Singles Chart 1
Norwegian Singles Chart 3
Romania[13] 45
Scottish Singles Chart[14] 1
South Korea[15] 102
Swedish Singles Chart 7
Swiss Singles Chart 18
UK Singles Chart 1
World Singles Chart[16] 33
Charts (2007)
Peak
position
UK Singles (Official Charts Company) 96
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (2005)
Position
Irish Singles Chart 1
UK Singles Chart 9
Chart (2006)
Position
Australian Singles Chart 14[17]
Chart (2010)
Position
South Korean Singles Chart 96
Certifications and sales[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
United Kingdom (BPI)[18]
Platinum 600,000[19]
*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
Preceded by
"Push the Button" by the Sugababes Irish Singles Chart number-one single (Westlife version)
October 27, 2005–December 1, 2005 Succeeded by
"My Humps" by The Black Eyed Peas
Preceded by
"I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor" by Arctic Monkeys Scottish Singles Chart (Westlife version)
30 October 2005–13 November 2005 Succeeded by
"Hung Up" by Madonna
Preceded by
"I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor" by Arctic Monkeys UK Singles Chart number-one single (Westlife version)
30 October 2005–13 November 2005 Succeeded by
"Hung Up" by Madonna
Wesley version[edit]
"You Raise Me Up"
Single by Wesley
from the album Vandaag en morgen
Released
February 4, 2010
Format
CD Single
Songwriter(s)
Brendan Graham (lyricist)
Rolf Løvland (composer)
Wesley singles chronology
"You Raise Me Up"
(2010) "Een ongelofelijke droom"
(2010)
"You Raise Me Up"
(2010) "Een ongelofelijke droom"
(2010)
On the second season of Popstars in the Netherlands, "You Raise Me Up" was recorded by each of the four finalists - Kim Stolker, Kristel Roulaux, Joshua Newton and Wesley Klein. When Klein won, his version was released as a single in the Netherlands under the mononym Wesley, peaking at #4 in the Dutch Top 40 and staying in the charts for eleven weeks,[20] making it the first version of the song to reach the top 10 in the Netherlands. The song was subsequently released as the final track on his debut album Vandaag en morgen (meaning Today and Tomorrow in Dutch).
Chart (2005)
Peak
position
Dutch Top 40 4[20]
Other covers[edit]
The song was recorded by Daniel O'Donnell in 2003 and was a hit throughout Ireland and the UK, charting at #22 in the UK.
A version by Christian group Selah went to #1 on Billboard's Christian charts and was included on their 2004 album Hiding Place. This recording was nominated for Song of the Year at the 2005 Dove Awards.
Brian Kennedy re-released the single after performing it at Northern Irish football player George Best's funeral on 3 December 2005. The song charted in the UK at #4 in January 2006 (as part of a three-song EP entitled "George Best — A Tribute").
Åsa Jinder has written lyrics in Swedish, "Rör vid min själ" and was recorded by Sanna Nielsen and was released as a 2006 single[21] and is included on her 2006 album "Nära mej, nära dej".[22]
In 2005, Celtic Woman cover this song, and it is used as the theme song of the Japanese TV drama Byakkotai.
The song was covered in Japanese by Korean-American singer Lena Park as the opening theme to the Japanese anime television series Romeo x Juliet, which premiered in Japan on April 2007. Park also covered an English version of the song, which was featured in episodes 7 and 24 of the English version of the series, released in two sets in both June and August 2009.
On November 16, 2008, the song Video on YouTube was performed by Michael Hirte from Potsdam in the show "Das Supertalent" (the German version of "Britain's Got Talent") using his harmonica. This version charted in Switzerland at #76.[23]
In 2009, Celtic Thunder released their cover of the song performed by Paul Byrom, then with the group, on their third studio album and second concert DVD, both titled Take Me Home.
In 2014, Hong Kong singer Celine Tam, aged 6, covered "You Raise Me Up".
In 2015, Canadian singer Jeffrey Li, aged 10, and Сeline Tam, aged 7, performed at the Miss World final.
In 2016, Chinese female group SNH48 along with their counterparts BEJ48 and GNZ48 issued a cover version of the song "比翼齐飞", with the lyrics re-written by several members of them, and performed by themselves.
October, 2017 crooner Arthur Manuntag from the Philippines recorded his own version of the song. Arthur Manuntag is the Asian representative to the 100th Anniversary of Frank Sinatra on December 12, 2015 in Smetana Hall, Prague.
December, 2017 Hong Kong singer Celine Tam, aged 9, performed cover of the song together with Helene Fischer on the annual "Die Helene Fischer Show" Video on YouTube
Use in popular culture[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Shizuka Arakawa, the 2006 Olympic gold medalist in figure skating, used the piece as an exhibition number for many shows and professional competitions during 2005–2010. Michelle Kwan skated to the song during the 2004 Champion on Ice Tour and other competitions in 2005. Caroline Zhang skated this song in her exhibitions in the 2006–2007 and 2007–2008 skating season.
I.K. Start, a Norwegian football club, uses this song as a club anthem.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Thorne, Roger. "You Raise Me Up Info". Thornesmusic.freeserve.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2013-10-14. Retrieved 2012-10-31.
^ Jump up to: a b "Løvland feirer at "You Raise Me Up" er ti år" (in Norwegian). VG. Retrieved 2011-11-13.
Jump up ^ "You Raise Me Up". Secretgarden.no. Archived from the original on 2014-04-17. Retrieved 2014-04-02.
Jump up ^ "Lydverket - Følelser" (in Norwegian). NRK. Retrieved 2012-09-19.
Jump up ^ Brendan Graham. "The Global Independent - Brendan Graham - Artist Details". peermusic. Retrieved 2014-04-02.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on September 1, 2007. Retrieved 2007-09-01.
Jump up ^ "Josh Groban and The African Children's Choir - You Raise Me Up - Music Charts". Acharts.us. Retrieved 2014-04-02.
Jump up ^ Roberts, David (2006). British Hit Singles & Albums (19th ed.). London: Guinness World Records Limited. p. 718. ISBN 1-904994-10-5.
Jump up ^ "Westlife | Official Top 20 | MTV UK". Mtv.co.uk. 2009-10-28. Retrieved 2014-04-02.
Jump up ^ http://www.gaonchart.co.kr/main/section/total/2010.list.gaon
Jump up ^ westlifeVEVO (2009-10-03), Westlife - You Raise Me Up, retrieved 2017-07-16
Jump up ^ Billboard - Google Books. 2005-12-17. Retrieved 2014-04-02 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ http://www.musicchartheaven.com/westlife/westlifeface2face.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.officialcharts.com/charts/scottish-singles-chart/20051030/41/
Jump up ^ http://www.musicchartheaven.com/westlife/westlifeface2face.htm
Jump up ^ https://acharts.co/song/2289
Jump up ^ "ARIA Charts - End of Year Charts - Top 100 Singles 2006". Aria.com.au. Archived from the original on 2013-11-06. Retrieved 2014-04-02.
Jump up ^ "British single certifications – Westlife – You Raise Me Up". British Phonographic Industry. Retrieved 30 October 2016. Enter You Raise Me Up in the search field and then press Enter.
Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference uksales was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Jump up to: a b "Wesley - You Raise Me Up - Music Charts". Acharts.us. Retrieved 2014-04-02.
Jump up ^ "Rör vid min själ" (in Swedish). Svensk mediedatabas. 2006. Retrieved 15 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "Nära mej, nära dej" (in Swedish). Svensk mediedatabas. 2006. Retrieved 8 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Chart performance for Michael Hirte version
Notes
External links[edit]
Thornes Music
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
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