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Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, and the location of each is dependent on the application for which the vehicle will be used. Factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging (location and size of the passenger compartment and boot), weight distribution, and the vehicle's intended handling characteristics.
Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories: front- or rear-wheel drive. Four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels.
Contents
[hide]
1 Front-wheel-drive layouts
1.1 Characteristics
1.2 Advantages
1.3 Disadvantages
2 Rear-wheel-drive layouts
2.1 Characteristics
2.2 Advantages
2.3 Disadvantages
3 Four-wheel-drive layouts
3.1 Advantages
3.2 Disadvantages
3.3 Unusual 4WD layouts
4 History and current use
5 See also
6 References
Front-wheel-drive layouts[edit]
Main article: front-wheel drive
FF layout
Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven. The most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive – with the engine transversely in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. This layout is typically chosen for its compact packaging; since the engine and driven wheels are on the same side of the vehicle, there is no need for a central tunnel through the passenger compartment to accommodate a prop-shaft between the engine and the driven wheels.
As the steered wheels are also the driven wheels, FF (front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout) cars are generally considered superior to FR (front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout) cars in low-traction conditions such as snow, mud, or wet tarmac. The weight of the engine over the driven wheels also improves grip in such conditions. However, powerful cars rarely use the FF layout because weight transference under acceleration reduces the weight on the front wheels and reduces their traction, limiting the torque which can be utilized. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power.
A transverse engine (also known as "east-west") is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. The FF layout also restricts the size of the engine that can be placed in modern engine compartments, as FF configurations usually have inline-4 and V6 engines, while longer engines such as inline-6 and 90° V8 will rarely fit. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout. Exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 (FWD/4WD) which uses transversely mounted inline-6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive.
Characteristics[edit]
Front-wheel drive gives more interior space since the powertrain is a single unit contained in the engine compartment of the vehicle and there is no need to devote interior space for a driveshaft tunnel or rear differential, increasing the volume available for passengers and cargo.[1] There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space (see Porsche 911, and Volkswagen Beetle). It also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight.[1] The direct connection between engine and transaxle reduces the mass and mechanical inertia of the drivetrain compared to a rear-wheel-drive vehicle with a similar engine and transmission, allowing greater fuel economy.[1] In front-wheel-drive cars the mass of the drivetrain is placed over the driven wheels and thus moves the centre of gravity farther forward than a comparable rear-wheel-drive layout, improving traction and directional stability on wet, snowy, or icy surfaces.[1][2][3] Front-wheel-drive cars, with a front weight bias, tend to understeer at the limit which, according to Saab engineer Gunnar Larsson, is easier since it makes instinct correct in avoiding terminal oversteer, and less prone to result in fishtailing or a spin.[3][4]
According to a sales brochure for the 1989 Lotus Elan, the ride and handling engineers at Lotus found that "for a given vehicle weight, power and tyre size, a front-wheel-drive car was always faster over a given section of road."[5] However, this may only apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio.[2][6][7] According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the road layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest.[3]
Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle. During heavy acceleration, weight is shifted to the back, improving traction at the rear wheels at the expense of the front driving wheels; consequently, most racing cars are rear-wheel drive for acceleration. However, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with rear engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels, although fishtailing remains an issue on hard acceleration while in a turn. Some rear engine cars (e.g., Porsche 911) can suffer from reduced steering ability under heavy acceleration, since the engine is outside the wheelbase and at the opposite end of the car from the wheels doing the steering. A rear-wheel-drive car's centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, which may cause unpredictable handling behavior.[4]
On front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness.[4]
Advantages[edit]
Interior space: Since the powertrain is a single unit contained in the engine compartment of the vehicle, there is no need to devote interior space for a driveshaft tunnel or rear differential, increasing the volume available for passengers and cargo.[1]
Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes.
Weight: Fewer components usually means lower weight.
Improved fuel efficiency due to less weight.[8]
Cost: Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall. However, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. The difference is more probably explained by production volumes as most rear-wheel cars are usually in the sports/performance/luxury categories (which tend to be more upscale and/or have more powerful engines), while the FF configuration is typically in mass-produced mainstream cars. Few modern "family" cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible. A contrast could be somewhat drawn between the Audi A4 FrontTrak (which has an FF layout and front-wheel drive) and a rear-wheel-drive BMW 3 Series (which is FR), both which are in the compact executive car classification and use longitudinally mounted engines.[1]
Improved drivetrain efficiency: the direct connection between engine and transaxle reduce the mass and mechanical inertia of the drivetrain compared to a rear-wheel-drive vehicle with a similar engine and transmission, allowing greater fuel economy.[1]
Assembly efficiency: the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production.[citation needed]
Placing the mass of the drivetrain over the driven wheels moves the centre of gravity farther forward than a comparable rear-wheel-drive layout, improving traction and directional stability on wet, snowy, or icy surfaces.[1][2][3]
Predictable handling characteristics: front-wheel-drive cars, with a front weight bias, tend to understeer at the limit, which (according to SAAB engineer Gunnar Larsson) is easier since it makes instinct correct in avoiding terminal oversteer, and less prone to result in fishtailing or a spin.[3][4]
A skilled driver can control the movement of the car even while skidding by steering, throttling and pulling the hand brake (given that the hand brake operates the rear wheels as in most cases, with some Citroen and Saab models being notable exceptions).
It is easier to correct trailing-throttle or trailing-brake oversteer.[3]
The wheelbase can be extended without building a longer driveshaft (as with rear-wheel-driven cars).
Disadvantages[edit]
Front-engine front-wheel-drive layouts are "nose heavy" with more weight distribution forward, which makes them prone to understeer, especially in high horsepower applications.
If a front-engine front-wheel-drive layout is fitted with a four-wheel-drive, plus enthusiast driver aids, such as active front differential, active steering, and ultra-quick electrically adjustable shocks, this somewhat negate the understeer problem and allow the car to perform as well as a front-engine rear-wheel-drive car. These trick differentials, which are found on the Acura TL SH-AWD and Audi S4 3.0 TFSI quattro, and Audi RS5 4.2 FSI quattro, are heavy, complex, and expensive.[9][10] While these aids do tame front end plow, cars fitted with these systems are still at a disadvantage when track tested against rear-wheel drive vehicles (including those with added four-wheel drive[11]).[12]
Torque steer is the tendency for some front-wheel-drive cars to pull to the left or right under hard acceleration. It is a result of the offset between the point about which the wheel steers (it is aligned with the points where the wheel is connected to the steering mechanisms) and the centroid of its contact patch. The tractive force acts through the centroid of the contact patch, and the offset of the steering point means that a turning moment about the axis of steering is generated. In an ideal situation, the left and right wheels would generate equal and opposite moments, canceling each other out; however, in reality, this is less likely to happen. Torque steer can be addressed by using a longitudinal layout, equal length drive shafts, half shafts, a multilink suspension or centre-point steering geometry.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19]
In a vehicle, the weight shifts back during acceleration, giving more traction to the rear wheels. This is one of the main reasons nearly all racing cars are rear-wheel drive. However, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions such as attempting to accelerate up a wet hill or attempting to beat another RWD car off the line.
In some towing situations, front-wheel-drive cars can be at a traction disadvantage since there will be less weight on the driving wheels. The weight of the trailer pushes down on the towbar at the rear of the car. The car pivots on the rear wheels and raises the front wheels, which now have less grip. Because of this, the weight that the vehicle is rated to safely tow is likely to be less than that of a rear-wheel-drive or four-wheel-drive vehicle of the same size and power.
Due to geometry and packaging constraints, the CV joints (constant-velocity joints) attached to the wheel hub have a tendency to wear out much earlier than the universal joints typically used in their rear-wheel-drive counterparts (although rear-wheel-drive vehicles with independent rear suspension also employ CV joints and half-shafts). The significantly shorter drive axles on a front-wheel-drive car causes the joint to flex through a much wider degree of motion, compounded by additional stress and angles of steering, while the CV joints of a rear-wheel-drive car regularly see angles and wear of less than half that of front-wheel-drive vehicles.
Turning circle – FF layouts almost always use a transverse engine ("east-west") installation, which limits the amount by which the front wheels can turn, thus increasing the turning circle of a front-wheel-drive car compared to a rear-wheel-drive one with the same wheelbase. A notable example is the original Mini. It is widely misconceived that this limitation is due to a limit on the angle at which a CV joint can be operated, but this is easily disproved by considering the turning circle of car models that use a longitudinal FF or F4 layout from Audi and (prior to 1992) Saab.
The FF transverse engine layout (also known as "east-west") restricts the size of the engine that can be placed in modern engine compartments, so it is rarely adopted by powerful luxury and sports cars. FF configurations can usually only accommodate inline-4 and V6 engines, while longer engines such as inline-6 and 90° big-bore V8 will rarely fit, though there are exceptions. One way around this problem is using a staggered engine.
It makes heavier use of the front tyres (i.e., accelerating, braking, and turning), causing more wear in the front than in a rear-wheel-drive layout.
Under extreme braking (like for instance in a panic stop), the already front heavy layout further reduces traction to the rear wheels. This results in disproportionate gripping forces focused at the front while the rear does not have enough weight to effectively use its brakes. Because the rear tyres' capabilities in braking are not very high, a significant number of cheaper front drive vehicles use drum brakes in the rear even today.
The steering 'feel' is more numbed than a RWD car. This is due to the extra weight of drive shafts and CV joint components that increase unsprung weight.
Rear-wheel-drive layouts[edit]
FR layout
RR layout
Rear-wheel drive (RWD) typically places the engine in the front of the vehicle and the driven wheels are located at the rear, a configuration known as front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout (FR layout). The front mid-engine, rear mid-engine and rear engine layouts are also used. This was the traditional automobile layout for most vehicles up until the 1970s and 1980s.[20] Nearly all motorcycles and bicycles use rear-wheel drive as well, either by driveshaft, chain, or belt, since the front wheel is turned for steering, and it would be very difficult and cumbersome to "bend" the drive mechanism around the turn of the front wheel. A relatively rare exception is with the 'moving bottom bracket' type of recumbent bicycle, where the entire drivetrain, including pedals and chain, pivot with the steering front wheel.
Characteristics[edit]
The vast majority of rear-wheel-drive vehicles use a longitudinally mounted engine in the front of the vehicle, driving the rear wheels via a driveshaft linked via a differential between the rear axles. Some FR layout vehicles place the gearbox at the rear, though most attach it to the engine at the front.
The FR layout is often chosen for its simple design and good handling characteristics. Placing the drive wheels at the rear allows ample room for the transmission in the centre of the vehicle and avoids the mechanical complexities associated with transmitting power to the front wheels. For performance-oriented vehicles, the FR layout is more suitable than front-wheel-drive designs because weight transfers to the rear of the vehicle during acceleration, which loads the rear wheels and increases their grip.
Another advantage of the FR layout is relatively easy access to the engine compartment, a result of the longitudinal orientation of the drivetrain, as compared to the FF layout (front-engine, front-wheel drive). Powerful engines such as the inline-6 and 90° big-bore V8 are usually too long to fit in a FF transverse engine ("east-west") layout; the FF configuration can typically accommodate at the maximum an inline-4 or V6. This is another reason luxury/sports cars almost never use the FF layout.
Advantages[edit]
Even weight distribution – The layout of a rear-wheel-drive car is much closer to an even fore-and-aft weight distribution than a front-wheel-drive car, as more of the engine can lie between the front and rear wheels (in the case of a mid-engine layout, the entire engine), and the transmission is moved much farther back.[21]
Weight transfer during acceleration – During heavy acceleration, weight is placed on the rear, or driving wheels, which improves traction.
No torque steer[22] (unless it's an all-wheel steer with an offset differential).
Steering radius – As no complicated drive shaft joints are required at the front wheels, it is possible to turn them further than would be possible using front-wheel drive, resulting in a smaller steering radius for a given wheelbase.
Better handling at the hands of an expert – the more even weight distribution and weight transfer improve the handling of the car. The front and rear tyres are placed under more even loads, which allows for more grip while cornering.[23]
Better braking – the more even weight distribution helps prevent lockup from the rear wheels becoming unloaded under heavy braking.[23]
Towing – Rear-wheel drive puts the wheels which are pulling the load closer to the point where a trailer articulates, helping steering, especially for large loads.[24]
Serviceability – Drivetrain components on a rear-wheel-drive vehicle are modular and do not involve packing as many parts into as small a space as does front-wheel drive, thus requiring less disassembly or specialized tools in order to service the vehicle.[citation needed]
Robustness – due to geometry and packaging constraints, the universal joints attached to the wheel hub have a tendency to wear out much later than the CV joints typically used in front-wheel-drive counterparts. The significantly shorter drive axles on a front-wheel-drive car causes the joint to flex through a much wider degree of motion, compounded by additional stress and angles of steering, while the CV joints of a rear-wheel-drive car regularly see angles and wear of less than half that of front-wheel-drive vehicles.[citation needed]
Can accommodate more powerful engines as a result of the longitudinal orientation of the drivetrain, such as the inline-6, 90° big-bore V8, V10 and V12 making the FR a common configuration for luxury and sports cars. These engines are usually too long to fit in a FF transverse engine ("east-west") layout; the FF configuration can typically accommodate at the maximum an inline-4 or V6.
Road grip feedback – front wheels are not affected by engine and gearbox, thus allowing for better feeling of tyre grip on road surface.
Disadvantages[edit]
Under heavy acceleration (as in racing), oversteer and fishtailing may occur as the rear wheels break free and spin. The corrective action is to let off the throttle (this is what traction control automatically does for RWD vehicles).
On snow, ice and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front- or all-wheel-drive vehicles, which have greater weight on the driven wheels. This issue is particularly noticeable on pickup trucks, as the weight of the engine and cab will significantly shift the weight from the rear to the front wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with rear engine or mid engine configuration do not suffer from this, although fishtailing remains an issue. To correct this situation, owners of RWD vehicles can load sandbags in the back of the vehicle (either in the bed, or boot) in order to increase the weight over the rear axle, however speeds should be restricted to correctly predicted available grip of the road.
Some rear engine cars (e.g., Porsche 911) can suffer from reduced steering ability under heavy acceleration, because the engine is outside the wheelbase and at the opposite end of the car from the wheels doing the steering although the engine weight over the rear wheels provides outstanding traction and grip during acceleration.
Decreased interior space – Though individual designs vary greatly, rear-wheel-drive vehicles may have: Less front leg room as the transmission tunnel takes up a space between the driver and front passenger, less leg room for centre rear passengers (due to the tunnel needed for the drive shaft), and sometimes less boot space (since there is also more hardware that must be placed underneath the boot). Rear engine designs (such as the Porsche 911 and Volkswagen Beetle) do not inherently take away interior space.
A rear-wheel drive vehicle with four-wheel drive, compared to a front-wheel drive vehicle with four-wheel drive, will have a less efficient interior packaging since the transmission is often under the front passenger compartment between the two seats, whereas the latter can package all the components under the hood.[11]
Increased weight – The components of a rear-wheel-drive vehicle's power train are less complex, but they are larger. The driveshaft adds weight. There is extra sheet metal to form the transmission tunnel. There is a rear axle or rear half-shafts, which are typically longer than those in a front-wheel-drive car. A rear-wheel-drive car will weigh slightly more than a comparable front-wheel-drive car (but less than four-wheel drive).
Rear biased weight distribution when loaded – A rear-wheel-drive car's centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, which may cause unpredictable handling behavior at the hands of an inexperienced driver.[4] It needs to be noted that rear engine cars are by their very nature, rear weight biased.
Higher initial purchase price – Modern rear-wheel-drive vehicles are typically more expensive to purchase than comparable front-wheel-drive vehicles. Part of this can be explained by the added cost of materials and increased labor put into assembly of FR layouts, as the powertrain is not one compact unit. However, the difference is more probably explained by production volumes as most rear-wheel cars are usually in the sports/performance/luxury categories (which tend to be more upscale and/or have more powerful engines), while the FF configuration is typically in mass-produced mainstream cars.
The possibility of a slight loss in the mechanical efficiency of the drivetrain (approximately 17% coastdown losses between engine flywheel and road wheels compared to 15% for front-wheel drive – however these losses are highly dependent on the individual transmission).[citation needed] Cars with rear engine or mid engine configuration and a transverse engine layout do not suffer from this.
The long driveshaft (on front engine cars) adds to drivetrain elasticity.[4] The driveshaft must also be extended for cars with a stretched wheelbase (e.g. limousines, minivans).
Four-wheel-drive layouts[edit]
Front-engine, rear-wheel drive derived “F4” layout
Note: in North America, Australia and New Zealand the term "four-wheel drive" usually refers only to drivetrains which are primarily two-wheel drive with a part-time four-wheel-drive capability, as typically found in pickup trucks and other off-road vehicles, while the term "all-wheel drive" is used to refer to full time four-wheel-drive systems found in performance cars and smaller car-based SUVs. This section uses the term four-wheel drive to refer to both.
Main article: four-wheel drive
Most 4WD layouts are front-engine and are derivatives of earlier front-engine, two-wheel-drive designs. They fall into two major categories:
Front-engine, rear-wheel drive derived 4WD systems, standard in most sport utility vehicles and in passenger cars, (frequently referred to as “front engine, rear-wheel drive/four-wheel drive”), forerunners of today's models include the Jensen FF, AMC Eagle and Mercedes-Benz W124 with the 4Matic system and Suzuki Grand Vitara with/without 4 mode transfer case.
Transverse and longitudinal engine 4WD systems derived almost exclusively from front-engine, front-drive layouts, fitted to luxury, sporting and heavy duty segments, for example the transverse-engine Mitsubishi 3000GT VR-4 and Toyota RAV4 and the longitudinal-engine Audi Quattro and most of the Subaru line.
For a full explanation of 4WD engineering considerations, see the main article on four-wheel drive.
Advantages[edit]
In terms of handling, traction and performance, 4WD systems generally have most of the advantages of both front-wheel drive and rear-wheel drive. Some unique benefits are:
Traction is nearly doubled compared to a two-wheel-drive layout. Given sufficient power, this results in unparalleled acceleration and driveability on surfaces with less than ideal grip, and superior engine braking on loose surfaces. The development of 4WD systems for high performance cars was stimulated primarily by rallying.
Handling characteristics in normal conditions can be configured to emulate FWD or RWD, or some mixture, even to switch between these behaviours according to circumstance. However, at the limit of grip, a well balanced 4WD configuration will not degenerate into either understeer or oversteer, but instead break traction of all 4 wheels at the same time into a four-wheel drift. Combined with modern electronic driving aids, this flexibility allows production car engineers a wide range of freedom in selecting handling characteristics that will allow a 4WD car to be driven more safely at higher speeds by inexpert motorists than 2WD designs.
Disadvantages[edit]
4WD systems require more machinery and complex transmission components, and so increase the manufacturing cost of the vehicle and complexity of maintenance procedures and repairs compared to 2WD designs
4WD systems increase powertrain mass, rotational inertia and power transmission losses, resulting in a reduction in performance in ideal dry conditions and increased fuel consumption compared to 2WD designs
The handbrake may not be used to induce oversteer for maneuvering purposes, as the drivetrain couples the front and rear axles together. To overcome this limitation, some custom prepared stage rally cars have a special mechanism added to the transmission to disconnect the rear drive if the handbrake is applied when the vehicle is moving.
Unusual 4WD layouts[edit]
From 1989 onwards, some models of Porsche 911 feature a rear-engine 4WD layout, which is akin to a longitudinal front-engine 4WD layout installed backwards with the engine at the rear of the car
From 2007 onwards, the Nissan GT-R features a front-engine 4WD longitudinal layout, but with the gearbox at the rear of the vehicle. This provides a more ideal weight balance, and improves directional stability at very high speeds by increasing the vehicle's moment of inertia around the vertical axis. This layout necessitates a second prop-shaft to carry power to the front wheels.
Some types of farm tractors and construction site machinery use a 4WD layout where the wheels on each side are coupled together, rather than the wheels on each axle, allowing these vehicles to pivot about their centre point. Such vehicles are controlled in a fashion similar to a military tank.
The Citroën Sahara had a 4WD system using complete Citroën 2CV drivetrains at both ends of the car, such that the engine at the front powered the front wheels and the engine at the back powered the rear wheels.[25]
A 'through the road' hybrid vehicle uses a conventional piston engine to power two wheels, with electric motor/generators on the other two wheels, giving a form of part-time 4WD.
The 2005 Jeep Hurricane concept had an all-wheel drive layout that featured two V8 engines powering a single driveshaft, with a gearbox mounted in the centre of the vehicle. The gears connected to two additional driveshafts, one on each side of the vehicle, that delivered power to the wheels via driveshaft joints.[26] This was designed in order to accommodate the vehicle's unique steering system.
The Ferrari FF features a front-engine 4WD layout in which a separate transmission is used for each pair of driven wheels,[27] rather than the more conventional setup in which a single transmission is used, followed by a centre differential or viscous coupling unit to split power between the front and rear wheels.
History and current use[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2012)
FMR layout, standard in most Front-engine / Rear-wheel-drive cars pre-World War II, where the engine was located behind the front axle.
The first FR car was an 1895 Panhard model, so this layout was known as the "Système Panhard" in the early years. Most American cars used the FR layout until the mid-1980s. The Oil crisis of the 1970s and the success of small FF cars like the Mini, Volkswagen Golf, Toyota Tercel, and Honda Civic led to the widespread adoption of that layout.
After the Arab oil embargo of 1973 and the 1979 fuel crises, a majority of American FR vehicles (station wagons, luxury sedans) were phased out for the FF layout – this trend would spawn the SUV/van conversion market. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, most American companies set as a priority the eventual removal of rear-wheel drive from their mainstream and luxury lineup.[28] Chrysler went 100% FF by 1990 and GM's American production went entirely FF by 1997 except the Firebird, Corvette and Camaro. Ford's full-size cars (the Ford Crown Victoria, Mercury Grand Marquis, and Lincoln Town Car) have always been FR,[29] as was the Lincoln LS. In 2008, Hyundai introduced its own rear-wheel-drive car, the Hyundai Genesis.
In Australia, FR cars have remained popular throughout this period, with the Holden Commodore and Ford Falcon having consistently strong sales. In Europe, front-wheel drive was popularized by small cars like the Mini, Renault 5 and Volkswagen Golf and adopted for virtually all mainstream cars.
Upscale marques like Mercedes-Benz, BMW, and Jaguar remained mostly independent of this trend, and retained a lineup mostly or entirely made up of FR cars.[30] Japanese mainstream marques such as Toyota and Nissan became mostly or entirely FF early on, while reserving for their latterly conceived luxury divisions (Lexus and Infiniti, respectively) a mostly FR lineup. While many automakers lost sight of the true sports car, Mazda introduced the highly successful Miata roadster in 1990, a true two-seater sports car using the traditional FR layout which led to other compaines such as General Motors to produce a FR sports car based on their Kappa platform.
Currently most cars are FF, including virtually all front-engine economy cars, though FR cars are making a return as an alternative to large sport-utility vehicles.[citation needed] In North America, GM returned to production of the FR luxury car with the 2003 Cadillac CTS, and with the removal of the DTS,[31] Cadillac will be entirely FR (with four-wheel drive available as an option on several models) by 2010, and the 2010 Camaro returns as a FR sports car. Chrysler returned its full-size cars to this layout with the Chrysler 300 and related models.[32][33] Despite Ford's 2011 discontinuation of the rear-wheel drive Panther Platform cars, they are seeking to develop a new FR replacement.[34] Nissan is also bringing back the Silvia to their line-up, Mazda is said to be releasing a new rotary-powered FR car in their RX line-up, and Toyota has produced the FT-86, an affordable RWD car which is the successor to the AE86. Hyundai introduced their affordable RWD car being the 2009 Hyundai Genesis and 2010 Hyundai Genesis Coupe.
In the 21st century, with solutions to the engineering complexities of 4WD being widely understood, and consumer demand for increasing performance in production cars, front-engine 4WD layouts are rapidly becoming more common, and most major manufacturers now offer 4WD options on at least some models. Manufacturers with a notable expertise and history in producing 4WD performance cars are Audi and Subaru.
See also[edit]
Car handling
Car classification
Gyrocar
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Citroën 2CV Sahara at UltimateCarPage.com
Jump up ^ How the Jeep Hurricane Works at HowStuffWorks.com
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Battle of the Pyramids
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Battle of the Pyramids
Part of the Campaign in Egypt and Syria of the French Revolutionary Wars

The Battle of the Pyramids, Louis-François, Baron Lejeune, 1808
Date
21 July 1798
Location
Embabeh, near Cairo, Ottoman Egypt
30°5′N 31°12′E / 30.083°N 31.200°E / 30.083; 31.200Coordinates: 30°5′N 31°12′E / 30.083°N 31.200°E / 30.083; 31.200
Result
Decisive French victory
Belligerents
France
Ottoman Empire
Mamluks
Commanders and leaders
Napoleon Bonaparte Murad Bey
Ibrahim Bey
Strength
20,000 total
3,000 cavalry
17,000 infantry
42 cannons[1][2] 25,000[3]
Casualties and losses
29 dead, 260 wounded[4] 20,000 Mamelukes from Napoleon's own records[5] or uncertain from other sources
Several thousand peasants dead or wounded
[show]
v
t
e
Egypt–Syria Campaign
of the French Revolutionary Wars
Shubra Khit
Pyramids
Nile
1st Cairo
El Arish
Jaffa
Acre
Mount Tabor
1st Aboukir
Heliopolis
2nd Aboukir
Mandora
Canope
Fort Julien
2nd Cairo
Alexandria
The Battle of the Pyramids, also known as the Battle of Embabeh, was a major engagement fought on July 21, 1798 during the French Invasion of Egypt. The French army under Napoleon Bonaparte scored a decisive victory against the forces of the local Mamluk rulers, wiping out almost the entire Egyptian army. It was the battle where Napoleon employed one of his significant contributions to military tactics, the divisional square. Actually a rectangle, the deployment of the French brigades into these massive formations repeatedly threw back multiple cavalry charges by the Egyptians.
The victory effectively sealed the French conquest of Egypt as Murad Bey salvaged the remnants of his army, chaotically fleeing to Upper Egypt. French casualties amounted to roughly 300, but Egyptian casualties soared into the thousands. Napoleon entered Cairo after the battle and created a new local administration under his supervision.
The battle exposed the fundamental military and political decline of the Ottoman Empire throughout the past century, especially compared to the rising power of Napoleon's France. Napoleon named the battle after the Egyptian pyramids because they were faintly visible on the horizon when the battle took place.
Contents
[hide]
1 Prelude
2 Battle
3 Aftermath
4 References
Prelude[edit]
In July 1798 Napoleon was marching from Alexandria toward Cairo after invading and capturing the former. He met the forces of the ruling Mamluks nine miles (15 kilometres) from the Pyramids and only four miles (six kilometres) from Cairo. The Mamluk forces were commanded by two Georgian mamluks, Murad Bey and Ibrahim Bey, and had powerful and highly developed cavalry. This fight was known as The Battle of Chobrakit.
Napoleon realized that the only Egyptian troops of any worth on the battlefield were the cavalry. He exhorted his troops, saying, "Forward! Remember that from those monuments yonder 40 centuries look down upon you."[6][7]
Battle[edit]
Napoleon ordered an advance on Murad's army with each of the five divisions of his army organized into hollow rectangles with cavalry and baggage at the center and cannon at the corners.
A map of the battle.
The Battle of the Pyramids, François-Louis-Joseph Watteau, 1798-1799
The French divisions advanced south in echelon, with the right flank leading and the left flank protected by the Nile. From right to left, Napoleon posted the divisions of Louis Charles Antoine Desaix, Jean-Louis-Ébénézer Reynier, Charles-François-Joseph Dugua, Honoré Vial and Louis André Bon. In addition, Desaix sent a small detachment to occupy the nearby village of Biktil, just to the west.
Murad anchored his right flank on the Nile at the village of Embabeh, which was fortified and held with infantry and some ancient cannons. His Mamluk cavalry deployed on the desert flank. Ibrahim, with a second army, watched helplessly from the east bank of the Nile, unable to intervene. Chandler asserts that Napoleon's 25,000-strong army outnumbered Murad's 6,000 Mamluks and 15,000 infantry.
At about 3:30 P.M., the Mamluk cavalry hurled itself at the French without warning. The divisional squares of Desaix, Reynier and Dugua held firm and repelled the horsemen with point-blank musket and artillery fire. Unable to make an impression on the French formations, some of the frustrated Mamluks rode off to attack Desaix's detached force. This was also a failure.
Meanwhile, nearer the river, Bon's division deployed into attack columns and charged Embabeh. Breaking into the village, the French routed the garrison. Trapped against the river, many of the Mamluks and infantry tried to swim to safety, and hundreds drowned.
Napoleon reported a loss of 29 killed and 260 wounded. Murad's losses were far heavier, perhaps as many as 3,000 of the irreplaceable Mamluk cavalry and unknown numbers of infantry. Murad escaped to Upper Egypt, where he carried on an active guerilla campaign before being run to earth by Desaix in late 1799.
Aftermath[edit]
Upon the news of the defeat of their legendary cavalry, the waiting Mamluk armies in Cairo dispersed to Syria to reorganize. The Battle of the Pyramids signalled the beginning of the end of seven centuries of Mamluk rule in Egypt. Despite this auspicious beginning, Admiral Horatio Nelson's victory in the Battle of the Nile ten days later ended Napoleon's hopes for a conquest of the Middle East.
Engulfed by the west bank portion of the city of Cairo, nothing remains of the battlefield today.
References[edit]
Notes
Jump up ^ Smith The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book. Greenhill Books, 1998. p. 140
Jump up ^ Connelly. Blundering to Glory: Napoleon’s Military Campaigns. Rowman & Littlefield Pub., 2006. 3rd ed. p.50.
Jump up ^ NAKOULA EL-TURK. Histoire de l'expédition des français en Égypte par Nakoula El-Turk. Publiée et traduite par M. Desgrandes Aîné.
Jump up ^ NAKOULA EL-TURK. Histoire de l'expédition des français en Égypte par Nakoula El-Turk. Publiée et traduite par M. Desgrandes Aîné.
Jump up ^ NAKOULA EL-TURK. Histoire de l'expédition des français en Égypte par Nakoula El-Turk. Publiée et traduite par M. Desgrandes Aîné.
Jump up ^ The Campaigns of Napoleon, Volume 1, By David G. Chandler; page 224
Jump up ^ Eugène de Beauharnais, Mémoires et Correspondance Politique et Militaire du Prince Eugène de Beauharnais, tome premier, p. 41, Michel Lévy Frères, Paris (1858)
Bibliography
Chandler, David, The Campaigns of Napoleon New York, Macmillan, 1966.
Cole, Juan, Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. ISBN 1403964319
Herold, J. Christopher, Bonaparte in Egypt - London, Hamish Hamilton, 1962.
Herold, J. Christopher, The Age of Napoleon. New York, American Heritage, 1963.
Moorehead, Alan, The Blue Nile New York, Harper & Row, 1962.
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For 20th-century battles before 1914 see List of Ottoman battles in the 20th century
For the battles during World War I see List of Ottoman battles in World War I
Ottoman victories are in bold.
Authority control
GND: 7527686-0
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_the_Pyramids&oldid=834381307"
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Conflicts in 1798
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Battle of Fort Necessity
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Battle of Fort Necessity
Part of the French and Indian War

The modern replica of Fort Necessity
Date
July 3, 1754
Location
Near present-day Farmington and Uniontown, Pennsylvania
39°48′50.9″N 79°35′13.58″W / 39.814139°N 79.5871056°W / 39.814139; -79.5871056Coordinates: 39°48′50.9″N 79°35′13.58″W / 39.814139°N 79.5871056°W / 39.814139; -79.5871056
Result
French & Native American victory
Belligerents
Great Britain
British America
France
Colony of Canada
French-allied natives (Hurons, Ottawas, Nipissings, et al.)
Commanders and leaders
George Washington
James Mackay Louis Coulon de Villiers
Strength
100 regulars
300 militia[1] 600 regulars, militia and Indians[2]
Casualties and losses
31 killed
369 captured (70 of whom WIA)[3] 3 killed
19 wounded
[show]
v
t
e
Seven Years' War in North America: The French and Indian War, Ohio Valley Theater
Jumonville Glen
Fort Necessity
Braddock Expedition
Monongahela
The Trough
Sideling Hill
Great Cacapon
Kittanning
Forbes Expedition
Fort Duquesne
Fort Ligonier
The Battle of Fort Necessity (also called the Battle of the Great Meadows) took place on July 3, 1754, in what is now the mountaintop hamlet of Farmington in Fayette County, Pennsylvania. The engagement was one of the first battles of the French and Indian War and George Washington's only military surrender. The battle, along with the May 28 Battle of Jumonville Glen, contributed to a series of military escalations that resulted in the global Seven Years' War.
Washington built Fort Necessity on an alpine meadow west of the summit of a pass through the Allegheny Mountains. Another pass nearby leads to Confluence, Pennsylvania; to the west, Nemacolin's Trail begins its descent to Uniontown, Pennsylvania, and other parts of Fayette County along the relatively low altitudes of the Allegheny Plateau.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Prelude
2.1 Jumonville Glen
2.2 Fort Necessity
2.3 Red Stone Creek
2.4 British preparations
3 Battle
3.1 French attack
3.2 Negotiations
3.3 Surrender
4 Aftermath
5 Political consequences
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Background[edit]
Main article: French and Indian War
Throughout the 1740s and early 1750s, British and French traders had increasingly come into contact in the Ohio Country, including the upper watershed of the Ohio River in what is now western Pennsylvania.[4] Authorities in New France became more aggressive in their efforts to expel British traders and colonists from this area, and in 1753 began construction of a series of fortifications in the area.[5] In previous wars, the Québecois had more than held their own against the English colonials.[6]
The French action drew the attention of not just the British, but also the Indian tribes of the area. Despite good Franco-Indian relations, British traders became successful in convincing the Indians to trade with them in preference to the Canadiens, and the planned large-scale advance was not well received by all.[7] The reason for this was that they had to provide them with the goods that the Anglo-American traders had previously supplied, and at similar prices. This proved to be singularly difficult. With the exception of one or two Montreal merchant traders, the Canadians showed a great reluctance to venture into the Ohio country.[8] In particular, Tanacharison, a Mingo chief also known as the "Half King", became anti-French as a consequence. In a meeting with Paul Marin de la Malgue, commander of the Canadian construction force, the latter reportedly lost his temper, and shouted at the Indian chief, "I tell you, down the river I will go. If the river is blocked up, I have the forces to burst it open and tread under my feet all that oppose me. I despise all the stupid things you have said."[9] He then threw down some wampum that Tanacharison had offered as a good will gesture.[9] Marin died not long after, and command of the operations was turned over to Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre.[10]
Virginia colonial Lieutenant Colonel George Washington was sent by Governor Robert Dinwiddie to travel from Williamsburg to Fort LeBeouf in the Ohio Territory (a territory claimed by several of the British colonies, including Virginia) as an emissary in December 1753, to deliver a letter. Saint-Pierre politely informed Washington that he was there pursuant to orders, and Washington's letter should have been addressed to his commanding officer in Canada.[11]
Washington returned to Williamsburg and informed Governor Dinwiddie that the French refused to leave.[12] Dinwiddie ordered Washington to begin raising a militia regiment to hold the Forks of the Ohio, in present-day Pittsburgh, a site Washington had identified as a fine location for a fortress.[13] The governor also issued a captain's commission to Ohio Company employee William Trent, with instructions to raise a small force and immediately begin construction of a fortification on the Ohio. Dinwiddie issued these instructions on his own authority, without even asking for funding from the Virginia House of Burgesses until after the fact.[14] Trent's company arrived on site in February 1754, and began construction of a storehouse and stockade with the assistance of Tanacharison and the Mingos.[14][15] In response, the Canadians sent a force of about 500 men, Canadian, French, and Indians under Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur (rumors reaching Trent's men put its size at 1,000). On April 16, they arrived at the forks; the next day, Trent's force of 36 men, led by Ensign Edward Ward in Trent's absence, agreed to leave the site.[16] The Canadians tore down the British works, and began construction of the fort they called Fort Duquesne.[17]
Prelude[edit]
In March 1754, Governor Dinwiddie sent Washington back to the frontier with orders to "act on the [defensive], but in Case any Attempts are made to obstruct the Works or interrupt our [settlements] by any Persons whatsoever, You are to restrain all such Offenders, & in Case of resistance to make Prisoners of or kill & destroy them". Historian Fred Anderson describes Dinwiddie's instructions, which were issued without the knowledge or direction of the British government in London, as "an invitation to start a war".[18] Washington was ordered to gather as many supplies and paid volunteers as he could along the way. By the time he left for the frontier on April 2, he had gathered 186 men.[19]
Contrecœur operated under orders that forbade attacks by his force unless they were provoked. On May 23, he sent Joseph Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville with 35 men to see if Washington had entered French territory, and with a summons to order Washington's troops to leave; this summons was similar in nature to the one Washington had delivered to them four months previous.[20] Sources disagree on the exact composition of Jumonville's force, which may have included French troupes de la marine, Canadian militia, and Indians.[21][22]
Portrait of George Washington by Charles Willson Peale, 1772
During the march through the forests of the frontier, Washington received a few more men from another regiment that they met at Winchester.[19] At this point Captain Trent arrived with news of the advance of the French force under Jumonville. Trent was accompanied by Tanacharison, who promised warriors to assist the British.[19] To keep Tanacharison's support, Washington decided not to turn back, choosing instead to build a fortification 37 miles (60 km) south of the forks and await further instructions.[23]
Jumonville Glen[edit]
Main article: Battle of Jumonville Glen
Washington sent out Captain Hog with 75 men to pursue French troops who had threatened to destroy his house and property.[24] However, shortly after Hog left, Washington called together some young Indians and told them that the French had come to kill Tanacharison, and the Indians also left to pursue the French. That evening, Washington received a message from Tanacharison, who said he had found the French encampment.[25] Washington decided to attack himself and brought 40 soldiers with him towards Tanacharison's camp. That morning, they met with Tanacharison's 12 Indian warriors, and Washington and Tanacharison agreed to attack the encampment.[26] Washington ambushed the French, killing 10 to 12, wounding 2 and capturing 21.[27] Among the dead was Jumonville; the exact manner of his death is uncertain, but by several accounts Tanacharison executed Jumonville in cold blood, crushing his head with a tomahawk and washing his hands in Jumonville's brains.[27] One account, reported by an Indian to Contrecœur, claimed that Jumonville was killed by Half King while the summons was being read.[28]
Fort Necessity[edit]
An engraving depicting the evening council of George Washington at Fort Necessity
After retiring from Jumonville, Washington expected to be attacked.[29] Tanacharison attempted to convince the Delaware, Shawnee and the Seneca Indians to join the Virginians at Great Meadows. With about 150 Virginians at Great Meadows, they began to construct a fort, which Washington named Fort Necessity. The fort was completed on June 3.[29] By June 9, the rest of the Virginia Regiment arrived at Great Meadows, excluding Colonel Joshua Fry, who had fallen from his horse, broken his neck and died.[1] Washington took his place as colonel. A few days later, 100 British regulars under the command of James Mackay arrived, but, instead of making camp with the Virginians, they camped separately outside the fort.[1]
Red Stone Creek[edit]
Washington had heard that there were 500 poorly supplied French troops at Fort Duquesne, and thus he led the 300 Virginians out of Great Meadows on June 16 to widen the road, for he had been unable to convince the other chiefs to assist. They had said that they would also be unable to help the Virginians. Although he had lost Indian support, which made his troops more vulnerable to attack, Washington continued to widen the road towards Red Stone Creek.
On June 28, after a council of war, Washington ordered the withdrawal to Great Meadows. That same day 600 French, and 100 Indians left Fort Duquesne led by the slain Jumonville's older brother, Louis Coulon de Villiers. In order to keep ahead of the French/Canadian force, the Virginians had to abandon most of their supplies. On July 1, they reached Fort Necessity.[30]
British preparations[edit]
At Fort Necessity, the provision hut was depleted, and there was little shelter from the heavy rain that started to fall on the 2nd.[31] With the rain, the trenches that Washington had ordered to be dug had turned into streams. Washington realized that he would have to defend against a frontal assault and also realized that it would be difficult because the woods were less than 100 yards away, within musket range, making it possible for a besieging attacker to pick off the defenders.[2] To improve the defense, Washington ordered his men to cut trees down and to make them into makeshift breastworks.[2]
As the British worked, Coulon approached Fort Necessity using the road the Virginians had built.[2] He arrived at Jumonville's Glen early on the morning of July 3. Horrified to find several scalped French bodies, he immediately ordered them to be buried.[2]
Battle[edit]
French attack[edit]
By 11:00 am on the 3rd of July 1754, Louis Coulon de Villiers came within sight of Fort Necessity.[2] At this time, the Virginians were digging a trench in the mud. The pickets fired their muskets and fell back to the fort, whereupon three columns of Canadian soldiers and Indians advanced downhill towards the fort.[2] However, Coulon had miscalculated the location of the fort and had advanced with the fort at his right. As Coulon halted and then redeployed his troops, Washington began to prepare for an attack.[2]
Coulon moved his troops into the woods, within easy musket range of the fort.[2] Washington knew he had to dislodge the Canadians and Indians from that position, so he ordered an assault with his entire force across the open field. Seeing the assault coming, Coulon ordered his soldiers, led by Indians, to charge directly at Washington's line.[32] Washington ordered the men to hold their ground and fire a volley. Mackay's regulars obeyed Washington's command, and supported by two swivel cannons, they inflicted several casualties on the oncoming Indians.[32] The Virginians, however, fled back to the fort, leaving Washington and the British regulars greatly outnumbered. Washington ordered a retreat back to the fort.[32]
Coulon reformed his troops in the woods.[32] The Canadians spread out around the clearing and kept up heavy fire on Fort Necessity. Washington ordered his troops to return fire, but they aimed too high, inflicting few casualties, and the swivel cannon fared no better.[32] To add to the garrison's troubles, heavy rain began to fall that afternoon, and Washington's troops were unable to continue the firefight because their gunpowder was wet.[32]
Negotiations[edit]
Louis Coulon de Villiers, who did not know when British reinforcements might arrive, sent an officer under a white flag to negotiate.[33] Washington did not allow the Canadian officer into or near the fort, but sent two of his own men, including his translator Jacob Van Braam, to negotiate. As negotiations began, the Virginians, against Washington's orders, broke into the fort's liquor supply and got drunk.[33] Coulon told Van Braam that all he wanted was the surrender of the garrison, and the Virginians could go back to Virginia. He warned, however, that if they did not surrender now, the Indians might storm the fort and scalp the entire garrison.[33]
Surrender[edit]
Van Braam brought this message to Washington, who agreed to these basic terms.[33] One of Louis Coulon de Villiers' aides then wrote down Coulon's surrender terms and then gave them to Van Braam, who in turn gave them to Washington. Washington, who could not read French, had Van Braam translate it for him, and in the document it said that Jumonville had been "assassinated".[33] However, Van Braam may have skipped over this word; otherwise Washington would have likely sent it back to Coulon and asked that the word be removed. Both Washington and Mackay signed the surrender document.[33]
Aftermath[edit]
On July 4, Washington and his troops abandoned Fort Necessity.[34] The garrison marched away with drums beating and flags flying, but the Indians and the French began to loot the garrison's baggage on their way out. Washington, who feared a bloodbath, did not try to stop the looting.[34] The Indians continued to steal from the soldiers until July 5. Washington and his troops arrived back in eastern Virginia in mid-July.[35] On the 17th, Washington delivered his report of the battles to Governor Dinwiddie, expecting a rebuke, but Washington instead received a vote of thanks from the House of Burgesses and Dinwiddie blamed the defeat not on Washington but on poor supply and the refusal of aid by the other colonies.[35]
The battlefield is preserved at Fort Necessity National Battlefield, and includes a reconstruction of Fort Necessity.
Political consequences[edit]
Further information: Great Britain in the Seven Years War
When news of the two battles reached England in August, the government of the Duke of Newcastle, after several months of negotiations, decided to send an army expedition the following year to dislodge the French.[36] Major General Edward Braddock was chosen to lead the expedition.[37] His expedition ended in disaster, and the French remained in control of Fort Duquesne until 1758, when an expedition under General John Forbes finally succeeded in taking the fort.[38]
Word of the British military plans leaked to France well before Braddock's departure for North America, and King Louis XV dispatched a much larger body of troops to Canada in 1755.[39] Although they arrived too late to participate in Braddock's defeat, the French troop presence led to a string of French victories in the following years. In a second British act of aggression, Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide in a naval action on June 8, 1755, capturing her and two troop ships carrying some of those troops.[40] Military matters escalated on both North American soil and sea until France and Britain declared war on each other in spring 1756, marking the formal start of the Seven Years' War.[41]
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Lengel, p. 40
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Lengel, p. 42
Jump up ^ Sheppard, p. 48
Jump up ^ O'Meara, pp. 10–12
Jump up ^ O'Meara, pp. 15–19
Jump up ^ W. J. Eccles, France in America, p. 179
Jump up ^ O'Meara, p. 27
Jump up ^ Canadian Frontier, W. J. Eccles, p. 165
^ Jump up to: a b O'Meara, p. 28
Jump up ^ O'Meara, pp. 4,30
Jump up ^ O'Meara, pp. 3–5,33
Jump up ^ Anderson, p. 45
Jump up ^ Anderson, pp. 43–45
^ Jump up to: a b Anderson, p. 46
Jump up ^ O'Meara, p. 49
Jump up ^ O'Meara, pp. 50–51
Jump up ^ Anderson, p. 49
Jump up ^ Anderson, p. 51
^ Jump up to: a b c Lengel, p. 32
Jump up ^ Lengel, p. 34
Jump up ^ Nos racines, T.L.M. Inc, 1979, p. 458
Jump up ^ Sheppard, pp. 41–44
Jump up ^ Lengel, p. 33
Jump up ^ Lengel, p. 35
Jump up ^ Lengel, p. 36
Jump up ^ Lengel, p. 37
^ Jump up to: a b Lengel, p. 38
Jump up ^ Anderson, p. 54
^ Jump up to: a b Lengel, p. 39
Jump up ^ Lengel, pp. 40–41
Jump up ^ Lengel p. 41
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Lengel, p. 43
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Lengel, p. 44
^ Jump up to: a b Lengel, p. 45
^ Jump up to: a b Lengel, p. 47
Jump up ^ Fowler, p. 52
Jump up ^ Lengel, p. 52
Jump up ^ Fowler, pp. 159–163
Jump up ^ Fowler, p. 64
Jump up ^ Fowler, pp. 74–75
Jump up ^ Fowler, p. 98
References[edit]
Anderson, Fred (2000). Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. New York: Alfred Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40642-5.
Fowler, William M (2005). Empires at war: The French and Indian War and the Struggle for North America 1754–1763. New York: Walker & Company. ISBN 0-8027-1411-0.
Jennings, Francis (1988). Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America. New York: Norton. ISBN 0-393-30640-2.
Lengel, Edward (2005). General George Washington. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks.
O'Meara, Walter (1965). Guns at the Forks. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. OCLC 21999143.
Sheppard, Ruth (2006). Empires Collide. Osprey Publishing.
Pittsburgh portal
New France portal
External links[edit]
Fort Necessity National Battlefield
Robert Stobo one of the hostages taken by Louis Coulon de Villiers at the surrender of Fort Necessity
Jumonville & Fort Necessity Includes podcast of the topic.
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values: 네세시티 요새 전투 – Korean

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