text:
Roman J. Israel, Esq.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Roman J. Israel, Esq.
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Dan Gilroy
Produced by
Todd Black
Jennifer Fox
Denzel Washington
Written by
Dan Gilroy
Starring
Denzel Washington
Colin Farrell
Carmen Ejogo
Music by
James Newton Howard
Cinematography
Robert Elswit
Edited by
John Gilroy
Production
companies
Macro Media
Topic Studios
Cross Creek Pictures
Bron Creative
Escape Artists
The Culture China/Image Nation Abu Dhabi Content Fund
Distributed by
Columbia Pictures
Release date
September 10, 2017 (2017-09-10) (TIFF)
November 17, 2017 (2017-11-17) (United States)
Running time
122 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$22 million[2]
Box office
$11.9 million[2]
Roman J. Israel, Esq. is a 2017 American legal drama film written and directed by Dan Gilroy. The film stars Denzel Washington, Colin Farrell, and Carmen Ejogo, and follows lawyer Roman J. Israel, who goes to work for a large law firm after his small-firm partner has a heart attack.
It premiered at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2017, and began a limited release in the United States by Columbia Pictures on November 17, 2017. The film went wide on November 22, 2017, and grossed $11 million against its $22 million budget. Despite the film receiving mixed reviews from critics, Washington was praised for his performance and was nominated for Best Actor – Drama at the 75th Golden Globe Awards and for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role at the 24th Screen Actors Guild Awards.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
4 Release
4.1 Box office
4.2 Critical response
4.3 Accolades
5 References
6 External links
Plot[edit]
Lawyer Roman J. Israel has been fighting the good fight while others take the credit for a small law firm in Los Angeles. He has spent years on developing a brief that will change the justice system, giving up a family and normal life to fight for justice. Short on interpersonal skills, but endowed with legal genius, Roman is the behind-the-scenes brains and partner in a two-partner law firm with his former professor.
When his partner, the firm’s front man, has a heart attack, Israel is suddenly forced to take on that role. He discovers secrets about the law firm that his partner hid from him. He also finds out that the firm is broke and is forced to look for a new job after learning some unsettling things about what the crusading law firm has done that run afoul of his values of helping the poor and dispossessed. While looking for a new job, he meets Maya during a job interview. The job interview does not go well, but Maya finds herself reaching to maintain her connection with Israel.
He takes a job with George Pierce, the person his partner put in charge of the firm, if anything should happen to him. Israel is a poor fit at the big firm although Pierce assigns him several clients.
One client, Ellerbee, has been arrested for a holdup-murder; he says he did not kill the clerk but is willing to testify against the shooter, Carter Johnson. Ellerbee tells Israel he also knows where to find Johnson. Israel negotiates badly with the state's attorney, though. No bargain is struck and Ellerbee is murdered before his case goes to trial.
Israel's mishandling of Ellerbee's case leads to trouble for the firm and for himself. Israel contacts relatives of the murdered store clerk and accepts their offer of a $100,000 reward for Johnson's location. The money buys Israel a new look and a new, cynical attitude. He is better accepted at work.
Maya, true to her word, calls Israel to ask him out on a date, even though the talk he gave to some young students at her request does not go very well. On the date, Maya shares some of her struggles with idealism and reality.
Maya credits Israel with renewing her idealism; Pierce thanks him for fresh inspiration and begins to incorporate a social justice agenda into the firm's work. But Israel struggles with his hypocrisy.
Johnson, arrested, calls the law firm; Pierce and Israel visit. Johnson reveals he suspects Israel of the very offense which upsets his conscience: turning Johnson over for the reward, divulging privileged communications for personal gain.
Ultimately, Israel has to pay the price for his decision and is shot dead in the streets. However, true justice is still within reach, as Pierce files Israel’s 1,000-plus page brief on his behalf.
Cast[edit]
Denzel Washington as Roman J. Israel
Colin Farrell as George Pierce
Carmen Ejogo as Maya Alston
Amari Cheatom as Carter Johnson
DeRon Horton as Derrell Ellerbee
Amanda Warren as Lynn Jackson
Nazneen Contractor as Melina Nassour
Shelley Hennig as Olivia Reed
Joseph David-Jones as Marcus Jones
Andrew T. Lee as James Lee
Production[edit]
On August 25, 2016, it was revealed that Dan Gilroy's next directorial project was Inner City, a legal drama in the vein of The Verdict. Gilroy was then courting Denzel Washington to star.[4] It was reported on September 21, 2016 that Sony Pictures was closing a deal to distribute the film, with principal photography scheduled to begin in March 2017.[5] Gilroy's collaborators on Nightcrawler, cinematographer Robert Elswit and editor John Gilroy, worked with him again on the project.[6] On January 31, 2017, it was reported that Colin Farrell was in talks to join the cast.[7] As of February 28, 2017, Ashton Sanders was in talks to join as well, though he was unable to because of scheduling conflicts.[8][9] In April 2017, Nazneen Contractor[10] and Joseph David-Jones[11] joined the cast. As of April 21, 2017, Inner City had begun filming in Los Angeles.[12] In June 2017, Carmen Ejogo joined the cast as a civil rights worker.[13] On June 22, 2017, the film was renamed Roman J. Israel, Esq.[14]
Release[edit]
The film had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 10, 2017,[15][16] before its commercial release on November 17, 2017, initially limited, by Columbia Pictures.[17] Following its festival premiere, the film was re-edited to tighten its pacing, with a dozen minutes (including one whole subplot) being shaved off the final runtime, and a key scene regarding Colin Farrell's character being shifted from the third act to earlier in the film.[18]
Box office[edit]
The film took in $61,999 from four theaters in its limited opening weekend, for a per-venue average of $15,500.[19] It then expanded to 1,648 theaters the following Wednesday, alongside the openings of Coco and The Man Who Invented Christmas, and was projected to gross around $4 million over its five-day weekend. It ended up debuting to $4.5 million, finishing 9th at the box office.[20]
Critical response[edit]
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 49% based on 111 reviews, with an average rating of 5.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Intriguing yet heavy-handed, Roman J. Israel, Esq. makes the most of—but never quite lives up to—Denzel Washington's magnetic performance in the title role."[21] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score 58 out of 100, based 39 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[22] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.[20]
Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, praising Washington and writing, "In no way is his performance a stunt. Washington digs so deep under the skin of this complex character that we almost breathe with him. It's a great, award-caliber performance in a movie that can barely contain it."[23] Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 2 out of 4 stars. He also highlighted Washington, but criticized the narrative, saying, "Roman J. Israel, Esq. has pockets of intrigue, and writer-director Gilroy and Washington have teamed up to create a promising dramatic character. We just never get full delivery on that promise."[24]
Accolades[edit]
Award
Date of ceremony
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref(s)
Golden Globe Awards January 7, 2018 Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama Denzel Washington Nominated [25]
Screen Actors Guild Awards January 21, 2018 Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role Denzel Washington Nominated [26]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "ROMAN J. ISRAEL, ESQ. (12A)". Columbia Pictures Corporation. British Board of Film Classification. Retrieved November 28, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Roman J. Israel, Esq. (2017)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved December 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Rubin, Rebecca (December 11, 2017). "Golden Globe Nominations: Complete List". Variety. Retrieved December 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Setoodeh, Ramin (August 25, 2016). "Denzel Washington Circling Dan Gilroy's Legal Drama 'Inner City' (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Agar, Chris (September 21, 2016). "Sony Nears Deal For Denzel Washington's Inner City". ScreenRant. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Fleming Jr., Mike (September 21, 2016). "Sony Pictures Near Deal For Denzel Washington-Dan Gilroy Spec Package 'Inner City'". Deadline. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (January 31, 2017). "Colin Farrell in Talks to Join Denzel Washington in Thriller 'Inner City'". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mazzanti, Mike (February 28, 2017). "'Moonlight' Star Ashton Sanders Joins Denzel Washington and Colin Farrell in Dan Gilroy's 'Inner City'". The Film Stage. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Lee, Benjamin (April 22, 2017). "Moonlight's Ashton Sanders: 'America isn't made for the black man'". The Guardian. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ N'Duka, Amanda (April 10, 2017). "Nazneen Contractor Cast In Untitled Denzel Washington Thriller; Sendhil Ramamurthy Joins 'Shotgun'". Deadline. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (April 12, 2017). "Denzel Washington's Crime Drama 'Inner City' Adds Joseph David-Jones (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Friday, April 21 Filming Locations for Inner City, Shooter, Chicago Med, Mr. Robot & more!". On Location Vacations. April 21, 2017. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (June 20, 2017). "Carmen Ejogo Joins Denzel Washington in Legal Drama". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved June 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (June 22, 2017). "Sony's Denzel Washington Legal Drama Gets Title (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved June 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Glenn Whipp (August 31, 2017). "Denzel Washington is back in the awards mix with TIFF entry 'Roman J. Israel, Esq.'". L.A. Times.
Jump up ^ "Schedule Changes". Toronto International Film Festival Inc. Retrieved September 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Roman J. Israel, Esq.: Title summary". Sony Pictures Publicity. 2017. Retrieved September 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Retrial! How Dan Gilroy & Denzel Trimmed 12 Minutes Of 'Roman J. Israel, Esq' Following Toronto Bow". Deadline.com. October 18, 2017. Retrieved November 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 19, 2017). "'Justice League' Encounters Kryptonite At The B.O. With $96M Opening: Why The DC Movie Weakened – Sunday AM Update". Deadline.com. Retrieved November 19, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 26, 2017). "Thanksgiving B.O. At $268M, +3% Over 2016 Spurred By 'Coco' & Holdovers". Deadline.com. Retrieved November 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Roman J. Israel, Esq (2017)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved December 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Roman J. Israel, Esq reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved December 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ Travers, Peter (November 16, 2017). "'Roman J. Israel, Esq' Review: 'Great' Denzel Washington Breaks New Ground". Rolling Stone. Retrieved November 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Roeper, Richard (November 21, 2017). "Roman J. Israel, Esq.' waylays a winning Denzel Washington character". Chicago Sun Times. Retrieved November 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Golden Globe nominations 2018: The list
Jump up ^ "SAG Award Nominations: The Complete List". The Hollywood Reporter. December 13, 2017. Retrieved December 13, 2017.
External links[edit]
Roman J. Israel, Esq. on IMDb
[hide]
v
t
e
Films of Dan Gilroy
Directed
Nightcrawler (2014)
Roman J. Israel, Esq. (2017)
Written
Freejack (1992)
Chasers (1994)
Two for the Money (2005)
The Fall (2006)
Real Steel (2011)
The Bourne Legacy (2012)
Kong: Skull Island (2017)
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text:
Great Pacific garbage patch
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The area of increased plastic particles is located within the North Pacific Gyre, one of the five major oceanic gyres.
Play media
Visualisation showing ocean garbage patches.
The Great Pacific garbage patch, also described as the Pacific trash vortex, is a gyre of marine debris particles in the central North Pacific Ocean discovered between 1985 and 1988. It is located roughly between 135°W to 155°W and 35°N and 42°N.[1] The patch extends over an indeterminate area of widely varying range depending on the degree of plastic concentration used to define the affected area.
The patch is characterized by exceptionally high relative concentrations of pelagic plastics, chemical sludge and other debris that have been trapped by the currents of the North Pacific Gyre.[2] Its low density (4 particles per cubic meter) prevents detection by satellite photography, or even by casual boaters or divers in the area. It consists primarily of a small increase in suspended, often microscopic, particles in the upper water column.
Contents
[hide]
1 Discovery
2 Information
3 Estimates of size
4 Photodegradation of plastics
5 Effect on marine life and humans
6 Controversy
7 Cleanup research
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Discovery[edit]
The Patch is created in the gyre of the North Pacific Subtropical Convergence Zone
The great Pacific garbage patch was described in a 1988 paper published by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the United States. The description was based on results obtained by several Alaska-based researchers between 1988 and 1988 that measured neustonic plastic in the North Pacific Ocean.[3] Researchers found high concentrations of marine debris accumulating in regions governed by ocean currents. Extrapolating from findings in the Sea of Japan, the researchers hypothesized that similar conditions would occur in other parts of the Pacific where prevailing currents were favorable to the creation of relatively stable waters. They specifically indicated the North Pacific Gyre.[4]
Charles J. Moore, returning home through the North Pacific Gyre after competing in the Transpac sailing race in 1999, claimed to have come upon an enormous stretch of floating debris. Moore alerted the oceanographer Curtis Ebbesmeyer, who subsequently dubbed the region the "Eastern Garbage Patch" (EGP).[5] The area is frequently featured in media reports as an exceptional example of marine pollution.[6]
The patch is not easily visible, because it consists of tiny pieces almost invisible to the naked eye.[7] Most of its contents are suspended beneath the surface of the ocean,[8] and the relatively low density of the plastic debris is, according to one scientific study, 5.1 kilograms per square kilometer of ocean area (5.1 mg/m2).[9]
A similar patch of floating plastic debris is found in the Atlantic Ocean, called the North Atlantic garbage patch.[10][11]
Information[edit]
The north Pacific Garbage Patch on a continuous ocean map
It is thought that, like other areas of concentrated marine debris in the world's oceans, the Great Pacific garbage patch formed gradually as a result of ocean or marine pollution gathered by oceanic currents.[12] The garbage patch occupies a large and relatively stationary region of the North Pacific Ocean bound by the North Pacific Gyre (a remote area commonly referred to as the horse latitudes). The gyre's rotational pattern draws in waste material from across the North Pacific Ocean, including coastal waters off North America and Japan. As material is captured in the currents, wind-driven surface currents gradually move floating debris toward the center, trapping it in the region.
There is no strong scientific data concerning the origins of pelagic plastics.[dubious – discuss][citation needed] In a study published in 2014,[13] researchers sampled 1571 locations throughout the worlds oceans, and determined that discarded fishing gear such as buoys, lines, and nets accounted for more than 60%[14] of the mass of plastic marine debris. According to a 2011 EPA report, "The primary source of marine debris is the improper waste disposal or management of trash and manufacturing products, including plastics (e.g., littering, illegal dumping) ... Debris is generated on land at marinas, ports, rivers, harbors, docks, and storm drains. Debris is generated at sea from fishing vessels, stationary platforms and cargo ships."[15] Pollutants range in size from abandoned fishing nets to micro-pellets used in abrasive cleaners.[16] Currents carry debris from the west coast of North America to the gyre in about six years,[5] and debris from the east coast of Asia in a year or less.[17][18]
A 2017 study conducted by scientists from the University of California, Santa Barbara, and the University of Georgia, concluded that of the 9.1 billion tons of plastic produced since 1950, close to 7 billion tons are no longer in use.[19] The authors estimate that only 9 percent got recycled over the years, while another 12 percent was incinerated, leaving 5.5 billion tons of plastic waste to litter the oceans or land.[19]
Another recent Australian study focused on the high rate of seafloor plastic pollution, thereby highlighting an often overlooked aspect of oceanic plastic pollution. The researchers from the Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies at the University of Tasmania stated that "while the huge volume of plastic debris accumulating in the world's oceans and on beaches has received global attention, the amount of plastic accumulating on the seafloor is relatively unknown."[20][21]
Estimates of size[edit]
The size of the patch is unknown, as is the precise distribution of debris, because large items readily visible from a boat deck are uncommon.[22] Most debris consists of small plastic particles suspended at or just below the surface, making it difficult to accurately detect by aircraft or satellite. Instead, the size of the patch is determined by sampling. Estimates of size range from 700,000 square kilometres (270,000 sq mi) (about the size of Texas) to more than 15,000,000 square kilometres (5,800,000 sq mi) (0.4% to 8% of the size of the Pacific Ocean). Such estimates, however, are conjectural given the complexities of sampling and the need to assess findings against other areas. Further, although the size of the patch is determined by a higher-than-normal degree of concentration of pelagic debris, there is no standard for determining the boundary between "normal" and "elevated" levels of pollutants to provide a firm estimate of the affected area.
Net-based surveys are less subjective than direct observations but are limited regarding the area that can be sampled (net apertures 1–2 m and ships typically have to slow down to deploy nets, requiring dedicated ship's time). The plastic debris sampled is determined by net mesh size, with similar mesh sizes required to make meaningful comparisons among studies. Floating debris typically is sampled with a neuston or manta trawl net lined with 0.33 mm mesh. Given the very high level of spatial clumping in marine litter, large numbers of net tows are required to adequately characterize the average abundance of litter at sea. Long-term changes in plastic meso-litter have been reported using surface net tows: in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre in 1999, plastic abundance was 335 000 items/km2 and 5.1 kg/km2, roughly an order of magnitude greater than samples collected in the 1980s. Similar dramatic increases in plastic debris have been reported off Japan. However, caution is needed in interpreting such findings, because of the problems of extreme spatial heterogeneity, and the need to compare samples from equivalent water masses, which is to say that, if an examination of the same parcel of water a week apart is conducted, an order of magnitude change in plastic concentration could be observed.[23]
In August 2009, the Scripps Institution of Oceanography/Project Kaisei SEAPLEX survey mission of the Gyre found that plastic debris was present in 100 consecutive samples taken at varying depths and net sizes along a 1,700 miles (2,700 km) path through the patch. The survey also confirmed that, although the debris field does contain large pieces, it is on the whole made up of smaller items that increase in concentration toward the Gyre's centre, and these 'confetti-like' pieces are clearly visible just beneath the surface. Although many media and advocacy reports have suggested that the patch extends over an area larger than the continental U.S., recent research sponsored by the National Science Foundation suggests the affected area may be much smaller.[23][24][25] Recent data collected from Pacific albatross populations suggest there may be two distinct zones of concentrated debris in the Pacific.[26]
Photodegradation of plastics[edit]
Main article: Photodegradation
Washed up plastic waste on a beach in Singapore.
The Great Pacific garbage patch has one of the highest levels known of plastic particulate suspended in the upper water column. As a result, it is one of several oceanic regions where researchers have studied the effects and impact of plastic photodegradation in the neustonic layer of water.[27] Unlike organic debris, which biodegrades, the photodegraded plastic disintegrates into ever smaller pieces while remaining a polymer. This process continues down to the molecular level.[28] As the plastic flotsam photodegrades into smaller and smaller pieces, it concentrates in the upper water column. As it disintegrates, the plastic ultimately becomes small enough to be ingested by aquatic organisms that reside near the ocean's surface. In this way, plastic may become concentrated in neuston, thereby entering the food chain.
Some plastics decompose within a year of entering the water, leaching potentially toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A, PCBs, and derivatives of polystyrene.[29]
The process of disintegration means that the plastic particulate in much of the affected region is too small to be seen. In a 2001 study, researchers (including Charles Moore) found concentrations of plastic particles at 334,721 pieces per km2 with a mean mass of 5,114 grams (11.27 lbs) per km2, in the neuston. Assuming each particle of plastic averaged 5 mm × 5 mm × 1 mm, this would amount to only 8 m2 per km2 due to small particulates. Nonetheless, this represents a high amount with respect to the overall ecology of the neuston. In many of the sampled areas, the overall concentration of plastics was seven times greater than the concentration of zooplankton. Samples collected at deeper points in the water column found much lower concentrations of plastic particles (primarily monofilament fishing line pieces).[9]
Effect on marine life and humans[edit]
Some of these long-lasting plastics end up in the stomachs of marine animals, and their young,[5][30][31] including sea turtles and the black-footed albatross. Midway Atoll receives substantial amounts of marine debris from the patch. Of the 1.5 million Laysan albatrosses that inhabit Midway, nearly all are likely to have plastic in their digestive system.[32] Approximately one-third of their chicks die, and many of those deaths are due to being fed plastic from their parents.[33][34] Twenty tons of plastic debris washes up on Midway every year with five tons of that debris being fed to albatross chicks.[35]
Besides the particles' danger to wildlife, on the microscopic level the floating debris can absorb organic pollutants from seawater, including PCBs, DDT, and PAHs.[36] Aside from toxic effects,[37] when ingested, some of these are mistaken by the endocrine system as estradiol, causing hormone disruption in the affected animal.[34] These toxin-containing plastic pieces are also eaten by jellyfish, which are then eaten by fish.
Many of these fish are then consumed by humans, resulting in their ingestion of toxic chemicals.[38] While eating their normal sources of food, plastic ingestion can be unavoidable or the animal may mistake the plastic as a food source.[39][40][41][42][43]
Marine plastics also facilitate the spread of invasive species that attach to floating plastic in one region and drift long distances to colonize other ecosystems.[16] Research has shown that this plastic marine debris affects at least 267 species worldwide.[44]
The United Nations Ocean Conference estimated that the oceans might contain more weight in plastics than fish by the year 2050.[45]
Controversy[edit]
There has been some controversy surrounding the use of the term "garbage patch" and photos taken off the coast of Manila in the Philippines in attempts to portray the patch in the media often misrepresenting the true scope of the problem and what could be done to solve it. Angelicque White, Associate Professor at Oregon State University, who has studied the "garbage patch" in depth, warns that "the use of the phrase 'garbage patch' is misleading. ...It is not visible from space; there are no islands of trash; it is more akin to a diffuse soup of plastic floating in our oceans." In the article Dr. White and Professor Tamara Galloway, from the University of Exeter, call for regulation and cleanup and state that the focus should be on stemming the flow of plastic into the ocean from coastal sources.[46]
The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) agrees, saying:
While "Great Pacific Garbage Patch" is a term often used by the media, it does not paint an accurate picture of the marine debris problem in the North Pacific Ocean. The name "Pacific Garbage Patch" has led many to believe that this area is a large and continuous patch of easily visible marine debris items such as bottles and other litter—akin to a literal island of trash that should be visible with satellite or aerial photographs. This is not the case.
—  Ocean Facts, National Ocean Service[47]
Cleanup research[edit]
In April 2008, Richard Sundance Owen, a building contractor and scuba dive instructor, formed the Environmental Cleanup Coalition (ECC) to address the issue of North Pacific pollution. ECC collaborates with other groups to identify methods to safely remove plastic and persistent organic pollutants from the oceans.[48][49] The JUNK raft project was a trans-Pacific sailing voyage from June to August 2008 made to highlight the plastic in the patch, organized by the Algalita Marine Research Foundation.[50][51][52]
Project Kaisei, a project to study and clean up the garbage patch, launched in March 2009. In August 2009, two project vessels, the New Horizon and the Kaisei, embarked on a voyage to research the patch and determine the feasibility of commercial scale collection and recycling.[53] The SEAPLEX expedition, a group of researchers from Scripps Institution of Oceanography, spent 19 days on the ocean in August, 2009 researching the patch. Their primary goal was to describe the abundance and distribution of plastic in the gyre in the most rigorous study to date. Researchers were also looking at the impact of plastic on mesopelagic fish, such as lanternfish.[54][55] This group utilized a dedicated oceanographic research vessel, the 170 ft (52 m) long New Horizon.[56][57]
In 2012, Miriam C. Goldstein, Marci Rosenberg, and Lanna Cheng wrote:
Plastic pollution in the form of small particles (diameter less than 5 mm)—termed ‘microplastic’—has been observed in many parts of the world ocean. They are known to interact with biota on the individual level, e.g. through ingestion, but their population-level impacts are largely unknown. One potential mechanism for microplastic-induced alteration of pelagic ecosystems is through the introduction of hard-substrate habitat to ecosystems where it is naturally rare. Here, we show that microplastic concentrations in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre (NPSG) have increased by two orders of magnitude in the past four decades, and that this increase has released the pelagic insect Halobates sericeus from substrate limitation for oviposition. High concentrations of microplastic in the NPSG resulted in a positive correlation between H. sericeus and microplastic, and an overall increase in H. sericeus egg densities. Predation on H. sericeus eggs and recent hatchlings may facilitate the transfer of energy between pelagic- and substrate-associated assemblages. The dynamics of hard-substrate-associated organisms may be important to understanding the ecological impacts of oceanic microplastic pollution.[58]
The Goldstein et al. study compared changes in small plastic abundance between 1972–1987 and 1999–2010 by using historical samples from the Scripps Pelagic Invertebrate Collection and data from SEAPLEX, a NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer cruise in 2010, information from the Algalita Marine Research Foundation as well as various published papers.[59]
At TEDxDelft2012,[60][61] Dutch Aerospace Engineering student Boyan Slat unveiled a concept for removing large amounts of marine debris from the five oceanic gyres. Calling his project The Ocean Cleanup, he proposed to use surface currents to let debris drift to specially designed arms and collection platforms. Operating costs would be minimal and the operation would be so efficient that it might even be profitable. The concept makes use of floating booms, that divert rather than catch the debris. This way bycatch would be avoided, although even the smallest particles would be extracted. According to Slat's calculations, a gyre could be cleaned up in five years' time, collecting at least 7.25 million tons of plastic across all gyres.[62] He also advocated "radical plastic pollution prevention methods" to prevent gyres from reforming.[62][63]
Method, a producer of household products, markets a dish soap whose container is made partly of recycled ocean plastic. The company sent crews to Hawaiian beaches to recover some of the debris that had washed up.[64] Artists such as Marina DeBris use trash from the garbage patch to create trashion, or clothes made out of trash. The main purpose is to educate people about the garbage patch.
The 2012 Algalita/5 Gyres Asia Pacific Expedition began in the Marshall Islands on 1 May, investigated the little-studied Western Pacific garbage patch, collecting samples for the 5 Gyres Institute, Algalita Marine Research Foundation and several other colleagues, including NOAA, SCRIPPS, IPRC and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute. From 4 October to 9 November 2012, the Sea Education Association (SEA) conducted a research expedition to study plastic pollution in the North Pacific gyre. A similar research expedition was conducted by SEA in the North Atlantic Ocean in 2010. During the Plastics at SEA 2012 North Pacific Expedition, a total of 118 net tows were conducted and nearly 70,000 pieces of plastic were counted to estimate the density of plastics, map the distribution of plastics in the gyre, and examine the effects of plastic debris on marine life. [65]
On 11 April 2013, in order to create awareness, artist Maria Cristina Finucci founded The Garbage Patch State at UNESCO—Paris[66] in front of Director General Irina Bokova. It was the first of a series of events under the patronage of UNESCO and of the Italian Ministry of the Environment.[67] In 2015, The Ocean Cleanup project was a category winner in the Design Museum's 2015 Designs of the Year awards.[68] A fleet of 30 vessels, including a 32 metres (105 ft) mothership, took part in a month-long voyage to determine how much plastic is present using trawls and aerial surveys.[68]
In 2016, plans are in the concept stage to create floating Oceanscrapers, made from the plastic found in the Great Pacific garbage patch.[69] In June, The Ocean Cleanup project launched a prototype boom, nicknamed Boomy McBoomface, off the coast of the Netherlands in the North Sea, with the intention that if tests with the 100 meter prototype go well plans to develop a 100 kilometer long scaled up version that would then be deployed in the Pacific would go forward.[70]
See also[edit]
Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
Southern Pacific Garbage Patch[71]
Indian Ocean garbage patch
Marine debris
North Atlantic garbage patch
Plastic particle water pollution
Plastic pollution
Plastisphere
References[edit]
Jump up ^ See the relevant sections below for specific references concerning the discovery and history of the patch. A general overview is provided in Dautel, Susan L. "Transoceanic Trash: International and United States Strategies for the Great Pacific Garbage Patch", 3 Golden Gate U. Envtl. L.J. 181 (2009)
Jump up ^ For this and what follows, see Moore (2004) and Moore (2009), which includes photographs taken from the patch,
Jump up ^ Day, Robert H.; Shaw, David G.; Ignell, Steven E. (1988). "Quantitative distribution and characteristics of neustonic plastic in the North Pacific Ocean. Final Report to US Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service, Auke Bay Laboratory. Auke Bay, AK" (PDF). pp. 247–266.
Jump up ^ "After entering the ocean, however, neuston plastic is redistributed by currents and winds. For example, plastic entering the ocean in Japan is moved eastward by the Subarctic Current (in Subarctic Water) and the Kuroshio (in Transitional Water, Kawai 1972; Favorite et al. 1976; Nagata et al. 1986). In this way, the plastic is transported from high-density areas to low-density areas. In addition to this eastward movement, Ekman stress from winds tends to move surface waters from the subarctic and the subtropics toward the Transitional Water mass as a whole (see Roden 1970: fig. 5). Because of the convergent nature of this Ekman flow, densities tend to be high in Transitional Water. In addition, the generally convergent nature of water in the North Pacific Central Gyre (Masuzawa 1972) should result in high densities there also." Day, etc... 1988, p. 261 (Emphasis added)
^ Jump up to: a b c Moore, Charles (November 2003). "Across the Pacific Ocean, plastics, plastics, everywhere". Natural History Magazine.
Jump up ^ Berton, Justin (19 October 2007). "Continent-size toxic stew of plastic trash fouling swath of Pacific Ocean". San Francisco Chronicle. San Francisco: Hearst. pp. W–8. Retrieved 22 October 2007.
Jump up ^ Cecil Adams Why don't we ever see pictures of the floating island of garbage? Straight Dope / Chicago Reader
Jump up ^ Steve Gorman Scientists study huge plastic patch in Pacific Reuters
^ Jump up to: a b Moore, C.J; Moore, S.L; Leecaster, M.K; Weisberg, S.B (2001). "A Comparison of Plastic and Plankton in the North Pacific Central Gyre". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 42 (12): 1297–300. PMID 11827116. doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(01)00114-X.
Jump up ^ Lovett, Richard A. (2 March 2010). "Huge Garbage Patch Found in Atlantic Too". National Geographic News. National Geographic Society.
Jump up ^ Victoria Gill (24 February 2010). "Plastic rubbish blights Atlantic Ocean". BBC. Retrieved 16 March 2010.
Jump up ^ For this and what follows, see David M. Karl, "A Sea of Change: Biogeochemical Variability in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre", Ecosystems, Vol. 2, No. 3 (May – Jun., 1999), pp. 181–214 and, for gyres generally, Sverdrup HU, Johnson MW, Fleming RH. 1946. The oceans, their physics, chemistry and general biology. New York: Prentice-Hall.
Jump up ^ Eriksen, Marcus; Lebreton, Laurent C. M.; Carson, Henry S.; Thiel, Martin; Moore, Charles J.; Borerro, Jose C.; Galgani, Francois; Ryan, Peter G.; Reisser, Julia (2014-12-10). "Plastic Pollution in the World's Oceans: More than 5 Trillion Plastic Pieces Weighing over 250,000 Tons Afloat at Sea". PLOS ONE. 9 (12): e111913. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4262196  . PMID 25494041. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111913.
Jump up ^ Eriksen, Marcus; Lebreton, Laurent C. M.; Carson, Henry S.; Thiel, Martin; Moore, Charles J.; Borerro, Jose C.; Galgani, Francois; Ryan, Peter G.; Reisser, Julia (2014-12-10). "Plastic Pollution in the World's Oceans: More than 5 Trillion Plastic Pieces Weighing over 250,000 Tons Afloat at Sea". PLOS ONE. 9 (12). Table S2. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4262196  . PMID 25494041. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111913.
Jump up ^ Marine Debris in the North Pacific (2011)
^ Jump up to: a b Ferris, David (May–June 2009). "Message in a bottle". Sierra. San Francisco: Sierra Club. Retrieved 13 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Faris, J.; Hart, K. (1994). "Seas of Debris: A Summary of the Third International Conference on Marine Debris". N.C. Sea Grant College Program and NOAA.
Jump up ^ "Garbage Mass Is Growing in the Pacific". National Public Radio. 28 March 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "Plastic pollution threatens to smother our planet". NewsComAu. Retrieved 2017-07-21.
Jump up ^ "Australian research uncovers high rate of plastic seafloor pollution - Xinhua | English.news.cn". news.xinhuanet.com. Retrieved 2017-07-21.
Jump up ^ "Microplastic pollution of seafloor widespread along Australia's south-east coast: study". ABC News. 2017-07-14. Retrieved 2017-07-21.
Jump up ^ Brassey, Dr Charlotte (2017-07-16). "A mission to the Pacific plastic patch". BBC News. Retrieved 2017-07-21.
^ Jump up to: a b Ryan, P. G.; Moore, C. J.; Van Franeker, J. A.; Moloney, C. L. (2009). "Monitoring the abundance of plastic debris in the marine environment". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 364 (1526): 1999–2012. JSTOR 40485978. PMC 2873010  . PMID 19528052. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0207.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived 14 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Oceanic "garbage patch" not nearly as big as portrayed in media – News & Research Communications – Oregon State University". oregonstate.edu.
Jump up ^ Young, Lindsay C.; Vanderlip, Cynthia; Duffy, David C.; Afanasyev, Vsevolod; Shaffer, Scott A. (2009). Ropert-Coudert, Yan, ed. "Bringing Home the Trash: Do Colony-Based Differences in Foraging Distribution Lead to Increased Plastic Ingestion in Laysan Albatrosses?". PLoS ONE. 4 (10): e7623. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.7623Y. PMC 2762601  . PMID 19862322. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007623.
Jump up ^ Thompson, R. C.; Olsen, Y; Mitchell, RP; Davis, A; Rowland, SJ; John, AW; McGonigle, D; Russell, AE (2004). "Lost at Sea: Where is All the Plastic?". Science. 304 (5672): 838. PMID 15131299. doi:10.1126/science.1094559.
Jump up ^ Barnes, D. K. A.; Galgani, F.; Thompson, R. C.; Barlaz, M. (2009). "Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 364 (1526): 1985–98. JSTOR 40485977. PMC 2873009  . PMID 19528051. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0205.
Jump up ^ Barry, Carolyn (20 August 2009). "Plastic Breaks Down in Ocean, After All – And Fast". National Geographic News. National Geographic Society. Retrieved 30 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "Harbour snow dumping dangerous to environment: biologist". cbc.ca. 18 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Beached whale in Spain dies from ingesting plastic waste" Agence France-Presse 7 March 2013 Archived 6 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Chris Jordan (11 November 2009). "Midway: Message from the Gyre". Retrieved 2009-11-13.
Jump up ^ "Q&A: Your Midway questions answered". BBC News. 28 March 2008. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Moore, Charles (2 October 2002). "Great Pacific Garbage Patch". Santa Barbara News-Press.
Jump up ^ Plastic-Filled Albatrosses Are Pollution Canaries in New Doc. Wired. 29 June 2012. Accessed 6-11-13
Jump up ^ Rios, Lorena M.; Moore, Charles; Jones, Patrick R. (2007). "Persistent organic pollutants carried by synthetic polymers in the ocean environment". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 54 (8): 1230–7. PMID 17532349. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.03.022.
Jump up ^ Tanabe, Shinsuke; Watanabe, Mafumi; Minh, Tu Binh; Kunisue, Tatsuya; Nakanishi, Shigeyuki; Ono, Hitoshi; Tanaka, Hiroyuki (2004). "PCDDs, PCDFs, and Coplanar PCBs in Albatross from the North Pacific and Southern Oceans: Levels, Patterns, and Toxicological Implications". Environmental Science & Technology. 38 (2): 403–13. Bibcode:2004EnST...38..403T. PMID 14750714. doi:10.1021/es034966x.
Jump up ^ Rogers, Paul. ci_13258216?nclick_check=1 "'Pacific Garbage Patch' expedition finds plastic, plastic everywhere." The Contra Costa Times [Walnut Creek, CA] 1 Sep 2009: n. pag. Web. 4 Oct 2009.
Jump up ^ "Marine biologists discover rubbish haul in stomach of dead whale in Taiwan" ABC news. October 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Most seabirds have plastic in their guts" CBC news. Aug 31, 2015 .
Jump up ^ "Ocean plastic is the new DDT, Canadian scientist warns" CBC news. Sep 11, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Pacific sea birds dine on trash: researchers" CBC news. October 27, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Whales are starving – their stomachs full of our plastic waste" author Philip Hoare. 30 March 2016
Jump up ^ Greenpeace Plastic Ocean Report[full citation needed]
Jump up ^ “UN Ocean Conference: Plastics Dumped In Oceans Could Outweigh Fish by 2050, Secretary-General Says.” The Weather Channel, weather.com/science/environment/news/united-nations-ocean-conference-antonio-guterres-plastics.
Jump up ^ Knapton, Sarah; Pearlman, Jonathan. "'Great Pacific Garbage Patch' Is a Myth, Warn Experts, as Survey Shows There Is No 'Rubbish Island'". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved August 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "What is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch?". National Ocean Service. Retrieved August 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bradshaw, Kate (29 January 2009). "The Great Garbage Swirl". Maui Time Weekly. Maui: Linear Publishing. Retrieved 26 April 2009.
Jump up ^ "Applicable Technologies". gyrecleanup.org.
Jump up ^ Yap, Britt (28 August 2008). "A raft made of junk crosses Pacific in 3 months". USA Today. Archived from the original on 30 September 2009. Retrieved 30 September 2009.
Jump up ^ "Raft made of junk bottles crosses Pacific". msnbc. 28 August 2008. Archived from the original on 30 September 2009. Retrieved 30 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Jeavans, Christine (20 August 2008). "Mid-ocean dinner date saves rower". BBC News. Archived from the original on 30 September 2009. Retrieved 30 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Walsh, Bryan (1 August 2009). "Expedition Sets Sail to the Great Plastic Vortex". Time. Retrieved 2 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Alison Cawood (12 August 2009). "SEAPLEX Day 11 Part 1: Midwater Fish " SEAPLEX". Archived from the original on 8 October 2009. Retrieved 2 June 2016. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
Jump up ^ "Scientists Find 'Great Pacific Ocean Garbage Patch'" (Press release). National Science Foundation. 27 August 2009. Archived from the original on 28 August 2009. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
Jump up ^ ":: SHIP OPERATIONS AND MARINE TECHNICAL SUPPORT : SHIPS ::". ucsd.edu.
Jump up ^ [2] Archived 20 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Goldstein, M. C.; Rosenberg, M.; Cheng, L. (2012). "Increased oceanic microplastic debris enhances oviposition in an endemic pelagic insect". Biology Letters. 8 (5): 817–20. PMC 3440973  . PMID 22573831. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2012.0298.
Jump up ^ Writers, Staff; Report, Innovations. "Plastic trash altering ocean habitats, Scripps study shows". Retrieved 2012-10-12
Jump up ^ "How the oceans can clean themselves – Boyan Slat at TEDxDelft". Retrieved 2012-10-24.
Jump up ^ "BOYAN SLAT: THE MARINE LITTER EXTRACTION PROJECT – TEDxDelft". Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Boyan Slat – Marine Litter Extraction (In Depth)". Retrieved 2012-10-24.
Jump up ^ "The Ocean Cleanup". Retrieved 2012-10-24.
Jump up ^ "Clean Your Hands and the Pacific". Retrieved 2012-10-12
Jump up ^ Sea Education Association. "Plastics at SEA North Pacific Expedition". Retrieved 2012-12-09.
Jump up ^ "The garbage patch territory turns into a new state". United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Jump up ^ "RIFIUTI DIVENTANO STATO, UNESCO RICONOSCE 'GARBAGE PATCH' – SITI – PATRIMONIO ITALIANO UNESCO". rivistasitiunesco.it. Archived from the original on 3 November 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Robarts, Stu (August 25, 2015). "Ocean Cleanup project completes Great Pacific Garbage Patch research expedition". www.gizmag.com. Retrieved 2015-08-25.
Jump up ^ "Plans for underwater 'oceanscraper' revealed".
Jump up ^ Neslen, Arthur (2016-06-22). "Dutch prototype clean-up boom brings Pacific plastics solution a step closer". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2016-11-17.
Jump up ^ http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/plastic-pollution-island-worst-in-world-henderson-south-pacific-university-tasmania-jennifer-lavers-a7737806.html
Further reading[edit]
Oliver J. Dameron; Michael Parke; Mark A. Albins; Russell Brainard (April 2007). "Marine debris accumulation in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: An examination of rates and processes". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 54 (4): 423–433. PMID 17217968. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2006.11.019.
Rei Yamashita; Atsushi Tanimura (2007). "Floating plastic in the Kuroshio Current area, western North Pacific Ocean". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 54 (4): 485–488. PMID 17275038. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2006.11.012.
Masahisa Kubota; Katsumi Takayama; Noriyuki Horii (2000). "Movement and accumulation of floating marine debris simulated by surface currents derived from satellite data" (PDF). School of Marine Science and Technology, Tokai University.
Gregory, M.R.; Ryan, P.G. (1997). "Pelagic plastics and other seaborne persistent synthetic debris: a review of Southern Hemisphere perspectives". In Coe, J.M.; Rogers, D.B. Marine Debris: Sources, Impacts, Solutions. New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 49–66.
Moore, Charles G.; Phillips, Cassandra (2011). Plastic Ocean. Penguin Group. ISBN 9781452601465.
Density of plastic particles found in zooplankton trawls from coastal waters of California to the North Pacific Central Gyre – Charles J Moore, Gwen L Lattin and Ann F Zellers (2005)
The quantitative distribution and characteristics of neuston plastic in the North Pacific Ocean, 1984–1988 – R H Day, D G Shaw and S E Ignell (1988)
Thomas Morton, 'Oh, This is Great, Humans Have Finally Ruined the Ocean', Vice Magazine, Vol. 6, No. 2 (2007), pp. 78–81.
Hohn, Donovan (2011). Moby-Duck: The True Story of 28,800 Bath Toys Lost at Sea. Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-02219-9.
Hoshaw, Lindsey (9 November 2009). "Afloat in the Ocean, Expanding Islands of Trash". New York Times. Retrieved 10 November 2009.
Newman, Patricia (2014). Plastic, Ahoy! Investigating the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Millbrook Press. (Juvenile Nonfiction).
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
Pacific Garbage Patch – Smithsonian Ocean Portal
"Plastic Surf" The Unhealthful Afterlife of Toys and Packaging: Small remnants of toys, bottles and packaging persist in the ocean, harming marine life and possibly even us by Jennifer Ackerman Scientific American August 2010
Plastic Paradise Movie – independent documentary by Angela Sun uncovering the mystery of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch known as the Plastic Paradise
The source of the garbage patches, pictures
Irish Examiner article
Mega Expedition Departs Honolulu on YouTube
Midway, a plastic island on YouTube
Climate change, meet your apocalyptic twin: oceans poisoned by plastic. Public Radio International. December 13, 2016
By 2050, the oceans could have more plastic than fish. Business Insider. January 27, 2017.
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Triple DES
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Triple Data Encryption Algorithm
General
First published
1998 (ANS X9.52)
Derived from
DES
Cipher detail
Key sizes
168, 112 or 56 bits (keying option 1, 2, 3 respectively)
Block sizes
64 bits
Structure
Feistel network
Rounds
48 DES-equivalent rounds
Best public cryptanalysis
Lucks: 232 known plaintexts, 2113 operations including 290 DES encryptions, 288 memory; Biham: find one of 228 target keys with a handful of chosen plaintexts per key and 284 encryptions
In cryptography, Triple DES (3DES), officially the Triple Data Encryption Algorithm (TDEA or Triple DEA), is a symmetric-key block cipher, which applies the DES cipher algorithm three times to each data block.
While the government and industry standards abbreviate the algorithm's name as TDES (Triple DES) and TDEA (Triple Data Encryption Algorithm),[1] RFC 1851 called it 3DES from the time it first promulgated the idea, and this namesake has since come into wide use by most vendors, users, and cryptographers.[2][3][4][5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Standards
2 Algorithm
3 Keying options
4 Encryption of more than one block
5 Security
6 Usage
7 See also
8 References and notes
9 External links
Standards[edit]
The Triple Data Encryption Algorithm is variously defined in several standards documents:
RFC 1851, The ESP Triple DES Transform[6] (approved in 1995)
ANSI ANS X9.52-1998 Triple Data Encryption Algorithm Modes of Operation[7] (approved in 1998, withdrawn in 2008[8])
FIPS PUB 46-3 Data Encryption Standard (DES)[9] (approved in 1999, withdrawn in 2005[10])
NIST Special Publication 800-67 Revision 2 Recommendation for the Triple Data Encryption Algorithm (TDEA) Block Cipher[11] (approved in 2017)
ISO/IEC 18033-3:2010: Part 3: Block ciphers[12] (approved in 2005)
Algorithm[edit]
The original DES cipher's key size of 56 bits was generally sufficient when that algorithm was designed, but the availability of increasing computational power made brute-force attacks feasible. Triple DES provides a relatively simple method of increasing the key size of DES to protect against such attacks, without the need to design a completely new block cipher algorithm.
A naive approach to increase strength of a block encryption algorithm with short key length (like DES) would be to use two keys (K1, K2) instead of one, and encrypt each block twice: EK2(EK1(plaintext)). If the original key length is n bits, one would hope this scheme provides security equivalent to using key 2n bits long. Unfortunately, this approach is vulnerable to meet-in-the-middle attack: given a known plaintext pair (x, y), such that y = EK2(EK1(x)), one can recover the key pair (K1, K2) in ~2n steps, instead of ~22n steps one would expect from algorithm with 2n bits of key.
Therefore, Triple DES uses a "key bundle" that comprises three DES keys, K1, K2 and K3, each of 56 bits (excluding parity bits). The encryption algorithm is:
ciphertext = EK3(DK2(EK1(plaintext)))
I.e., DES encrypt with K1, DES decrypt with K2, then DES encrypt with K3.
Decryption is the reverse:
plaintext = DK1(EK2(DK3(ciphertext)))
I.e., decrypt with K3, encrypt with K2, then decrypt with K1.
Each triple encryption encrypts one block of 64 bits of data.
In each case the middle operation is the reverse of the first and last. This improves the strength of the algorithm when using keying option 2, and provides backward compatibility with DES with keying option 3.
Keying options[edit]
The standards define three keying options:
Keying option 1
All three keys are independent. Sometimes known as 3TDEA[13] or triple-length keys.[14]
This is the strongest, with 3 × 56 = 168 independent key bits. It is still vulnerable to meet-in-the-middle attack, but the attack requires 22 × 56 steps.
Keying option 2
K1 and K2 are independent, and K3 = K1. Sometimes known as 2TDEA[13] or double-length keys.[14]
This provides a shorter key length of 112 bits and a reasonable compromise between DES and Keying option 1, with the same caveat as above.[15] This is an improvement over "double DES" which only requires 256 steps to attack. NIST has deprecated this option.[13]
Keying option 3
All three keys are identical, i.e. K1 = K2 = K3.
This is backward compatible with DES, since two operations cancel out. ISO/IEC 18033-3 never allowed this option, and NIST no longer allows it.[13][11]
Each DES key is 8 odd-parity bytes, with 56 bits of key and 8 bits of error-detection.[7] A key bundle requires 24 bytes for option 1, 16 for option 2, or 8 for option 3.
Encryption of more than one block[edit]
As with all block ciphers, encryption and decryption of multiple blocks of data may be performed using a variety of modes of operation, which can generally be defined independently of the block cipher algorithm. However, ANS X9.52 specifies directly, and NIST SP 800-67 specifies via SP 800-38A[16] that some modes shall only be used with certain constraints on them that do not necessarily apply to general specifications of those modes. For example, ANS X9.52 specifies that for cipher block chaining, the initialization vector shall be different each time, whereas ISO/IEC 10116[17] does not. FIPS PUB 46-3 and ISO/IEC 18033-3 define only the single block algorithm, and do not place any restrictions on the modes of operation for multiple blocks.
Security[edit]
In general, Triple DES with three independent keys (keying option 1) has a key length of 168 bits (three 56-bit DES keys), but due to the meet-in-the-middle attack, the effective security it provides is only 112 bits.[13] Keying option 2 reduces the effective key size to 112 bits (because the third key is the same as the first). However, this option is susceptible to certain chosen-plaintext or known-plaintext attacks,[18][19] and thus, it is designated by NIST to have only 80 bits of security.[13] This can be considered broken, as the whole 3des keyspace can be searched thoroughly by affordable consumer hardware today (2017).[citation needed]
Practical Sweet32 attack on 3DES-based cipher-suites in TLS required 2 36.6 {\displaystyle 2^{36.6}} blocks (785 GB) for a full attack, but researchers were lucky to get a collision just after around 2 20 {\displaystyle 2^{20}} blocks which took only 25 minutes.[20]
The security of TDEA is affected by the number of blocks processed with one key bundle. One key bundle shall not be used to apply cryptographic protection (e.g., encrypt) more than 2 20 {\displaystyle 2^{20}} 64-bit data blocks.
—  Recommendation for Triple Data Encryption Algorithm (TDEA) Block Cipher (SP 800-67 Rev2)[11]
OpenSSL does not include 3DES per default since version 1.1.0 (August 2016), and considers it a "weak cipher".[21]
Usage[edit]
The electronic payment industry uses Triple DES and continues to develop and promulgate standards based upon it (e.g. EMV).[22]
Microsoft OneNote,[23] Microsoft Outlook 2007[24] and Microsoft System Center Configuration Manager 2012[25] use Triple DES to password protect user content and system data.
Firefox and Mozilla Thunderbird[26] use Triple DES in CBC mode to encrypt website authentication login credentials when using a master password.
See also[edit]
DES-X
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
Feistel cipher
Walter Tuchman
References and notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Triple DES Encryption". IBM. Retrieved 2010-05-17.
Jump up ^ "New Comparative Study Between DES, 3DES and AES within Nine Factors". Journal of Computing. 2 (3). March 2010. ISSN 2151-9617. Retrieved 2017-09-05.
Jump up ^ "Cisco PIX 515E Security Appliance Getting Started Guide: Obtaining a DES License or a 3DES-AES License" (PDF). Cisco. 2006. Retrieved 2017-09-05.
Jump up ^ "3DES Update: Most Banks Are Done, But..." ATM & Debit News. 2007-03-29. Retrieved 2017-09-05.
Jump up ^ RFC 2828 and RFC 4949
Jump up ^ Karn, P.; Metzger, P.; Simpson, W. (September 1995). The ESP Triple DES Transform. doi:10.17487/RFC1851. RFC 1851. https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1851.
^ Jump up to: a b "ANSI X9.52-1998 Triple Data Encryption Algorithm Modes of Operation" . Retrieved 2017-09-05. Extends ANSI X3.92-1981 Data Encryption Algorithm.
Jump up ^ "ANSI Standards Action" (PDF). Vol. 39 no. 46. ANSI. 2008-11-14. Retrieved 2017-09-05.
Jump up ^ "FIPS PUB 46-3: Data Encryption Standard (DES)" (PDF). United States Department of Commerce. Oct 25, 1999. Retrieved 2017-09-05.
Jump up ^ "Announcing Approval of the Withdrawal of Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 46–3..." (PDF). Federal Register. 70 (96). 2005-05-19. Retrieved 2017-09-05.
^ Jump up to: a b c Barker, Elaine; Mouha, Nicky (November 2017). "NIST Special Publication 800-67 Revision 2: Recommendation for the Triple Data Encryption Algorithm (TDEA) Block Cipher". NIST. Retrieved 2017-11-21.
Jump up ^ "ISO/IEC 18033-3:2010 Information technology -- Security techniques -- Encryption algorithms -- Part 3: Block ciphers". ISO. December 2010. Retrieved 2017-09-05.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Barker, Elaine (January 2016). "NIST Special Publication 800-57: Recommendation for Key Management Part 1: General" (PDF) (4 ed.). NIST. Retrieved 2017-09-05.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Cryptography Guide: Triple DES". Cryptography World. Archived from the original on 2017-03-12. Retrieved 2017-09-05.
Jump up ^ Katz, Jonathan; Lindell, Yehuda (2015). Introduction to Modern Cryptography. Chapman and Hall/CRC. p. 223. ISBN 9781466570269.
Jump up ^ NIST Special Publication 800-38A, Recommendation for Block Cipher Modes of Operation, Methods and Techniques, 2001 Edition (PDF)
Jump up ^ "ISO/IEC 10116:2006 Information technology -- Security techniques -- Modes of operation for an n-bit block cipher" (3 ed.). February 2006. Retrieved 2017-09-05.
Jump up ^ Merkle, Ralph; Hellman, Martin (July 1981). "On the Security of Multiple Encryption" (PDF). Communications of the ACM. 24 (7): 465–467. doi:10.1145/358699.358718.
Jump up ^ van Oorschot, Paul; Wiener, Michael J. (1990). A known-plaintext attack on two-key triple encryption. EUROCRYPT'90, LNCS 473. pp. 318–325. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.66.6575  .
Jump up ^ "Sweet32: Birthday attacks on 64-bit block ciphers in TLS and OpenVPN". sweet32.info. Retrieved 2017-09-05.
Jump up ^ Salz, Rich (2016-08-24). "The SWEET32 Issue, CVE-2016-2183". OpenSSL. Retrieved 2017-09-05.
Jump up ^ "Annex B Approved Cryptographic Algorithms – B1.1 Data Encryption Standard (DES)". EMV 4.2: Book 2 - Security and Key Management (4.2 ed.). EMVCo. June 2008. p. 137. The double-length key triple DES encipherment algorithm (see ISO/IEC 18033-3) is the approved cryptographic algorithm to be used in the encipherment and MAC mechanisms specified in Annex A1. The algorithm is based on the (single) DES algorithm standardised in ISO 16609.
Jump up ^ Daniel Escapa's OneNote Blog - Encryption for Password Protected Sections, November 2006
Jump up ^ "Encrypt e-mail messages - Outlook - Microsoft Office Online". office.microsoft.com. Archived from the original on 2008-12-25. Applies to: Microsoft Office Outlook 2007
Jump up ^ Microsoft TechNet product documentation - Technical Reference for Cryptographic Controls Used in Configuration Manager, October 2012
Jump up ^ Mozilla NSS source code
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This page was last edited on 19 December 2017, at 15:37.
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