text:
Sciatic nerve
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Sciatic Nerve
Right gluteal region, showing surface markings for arteries and sciatic nerve
Details
From
Lumbar and sacral plexus (L4-S3)
To
Tibial and common fibular nerve
Innervates
Lateral rotator group (except piriformis and quadratus femoris) and the posterior compartment of thigh
Identifiers
Latin
Nervus ischiadicus
Dorlands
/Elsevier
n_05/12566006
TA
A14.2.07.046
FMA
19034
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
[edit on Wikidata]
The sciatic nerve (/saɪˈætɪk/; also called ischiadic nerve, ischiatic nerve) is a large nerve in humans and other animals. It begins in the lower back and runs through the buttock and down the lower limb. It is the longest and widest single nerve in the human body, going from the top of the leg to the foot on the posterior aspect.[1] The sciatic nerve provides the connection to the nervous system for nearly the whole of the skin of the leg, the muscles of the back of the thigh, and those of the leg and foot. It is derived from spinal nerves L4 to S3. It contains fibers from both the anterior and posterior divisions of the lumbosacral plexus.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Development
2 Function
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Sciatica
3.2 Injury
3.3 Other disease
4 Society and culture
5 See also
6 Additional images
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Structure[edit]
The sciatic nerve is formed from the L4 to S3 segments of the sacral plexus, a collection of nerve fibres that emerge from the sacral part of the spinal cord. The fibres unite to form a single nerve in front of the piriformis muscle. The nerve passes beneath piriformis and through the greater sciatic foramen, exiting the pelvis.[2]:422–4 From here, it travels down the posterior thigh to the popliteal fossa. The nerve travels in the posterior compartment of the thigh behind (superficial to) the adductor magnus muscle, and is itself in front of (deep to) one head of the biceps femoris muscle. At the popliteal fossa, the nerve divides into its two branches:[2]:532
The tibial nerve, which travels down the posterior compartment of the leg into the foot
The common peroneal nerve (also called the common fibular nerve), which travels down the anterior and lateral compartments of the leg into the foot
The sciatic nerve is the largest nerve in the human body.[2]:422–4
Tibial and common peroneal nerve (aka common fibular nerve)
Development[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2014)
Function[edit]
The sciatic nerve supplies sensation to the skin of the foot, as well as the entire lower leg (except for its inner side). Sensation to skin to the sole of the foot is provided by the tibial nerve, and the lower leg and upper surface of the foot via the common fibular nerve.[2]:422–4
The sciatic nerve also innervates muscles. In particular:[2]:422–4
Via the tibial nerve, the muscles in the posterior compartment of the leg and sole of the foot (plantar aspect).[a]
Via the common peroneal nerve (also called the common fibular nerve), the muscles in the anterior and lateral compartments of the leg.[b]
Clinical significance[edit]
Sciatica[edit]
Main article: Sciatica
Pain caused by a compression or irritation of the sciatic nerve by a problem in the lower back is called sciatica. Common causes of sciatica include the following lower back and hip conditions: spinal disc herniation, degenerative disc disease, lumbar spinal stenosis, spondylolisthesis, and piriformis syndrome.[3] Other acute causes of sciatica include coughing, muscular hypertension, and sneezing.[4]
Injury[edit]
Sciatic nerve injury occurs between 0.5% and 2.0% of the time during total hip arthroplasty.[5] Sciatic nerve palsy is a complication of total hip arthroplasty with an incidence of 0.2% to 2.8% of the time, or with an incidence of 1.7% to 7.6% following revision.[6] Following the procedure, in rare cases, a screw, broken piece of trochanteric wire, fragment of methyl methacrylate bone cement, or Burch-Schneider metal cage can impinge on the nerve; this can cause sciatic nerve palsy which may resolve after the fragment is removed and the nerve freed. The nerve can be surrounded in oxidized regenerated cellulose to prevent further scarring. Sciatic nerve palsy can also result from severe spinal stenosis following the procedure, which can be addressed by spinal decompression surgery.[5][7] It is unclear if inversion therapy is able to decompress the sacral vertebrae, it may only work on the lumbar aspects of the sciatic nerves.
Sciatic nerve injury may also occur from improperly performed injections into the buttock, and may result in sensory loss.[8]:66
Other disease[edit]
Bernese periacetabular osteotomy resulted in major nerve deficits in the sciatic or femoral nerves in 2.1% of 1760 patients, of whom approximately half experienced complete recovery within a mean of 5.5 months.[9]
Sciatic nerve exploration can be done by endoscopy in a minimally invasive procedure to assess lesions of the nerve.[10] Endoscopic treatment for sciatic nerve entrapment has been investigated in deep gluteal syndrome; "Patients were treated with sciatic nerve decompression by resection of fibrovascular scar bands, piriformis tendon release, obturator internus, or quadratus femoris or by hamstring tendon scarring."[11]
Society and culture[edit]
According to Jewish law, the sciatic nerve (Hebrew: Gid hanasheh) cannot be eaten, to commemorate Jacob's hurt in his struggle with an Angel.[12]
See also[edit]
Lesser sciatic notch
Greater sciatic notch
Additional images[edit]
Sciatic nerve.
Structures surrounding left hip-joint.
Nerves of the right lower extremity. Posterior view.
Sciatic nerve.
Sciatic nerve.
Sciatic nerve.
See also[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Namely the flexor hallicus longus, flexor digitorum longus, tibialis posterior and popliteus of the deep part of the compartment, and the gastrocnemius, soleus and plantaris of the superficial part of the compartment.
Jump up ^ Namely the tibialis anterior, extensor hallucis longus, extensor digitorum longus, and fibularis tertius (peroneus tertius) of the anterior compartment, and the Fibularis longus and brevis of the lateral compartment.
References[edit]
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)
Jump up ^ "sciatic nerve (anatomy)". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Drake, Richard L.; Vogl, Wayne; Tibbitts, Adam W.M. Mitchell; illustrations by Richard; Richardson, Paul (2005). Gray's anatomy for students. Philadelphia: Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-8089-2306-0.
Jump up ^ "Sciatica - Topic Overview". WebMD. 21 July 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
Jump up ^ "What is sciatica: What causes sciatica?". MedicalBug. 11 April 2012. Retrieved 23 April 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Stiehl JB, Stewart WA (1998). "Late sciatic nerve entrapment following pelvic plate reconstruction in total hip arthroplasty". J Arthroplasty. 13 (5): 586–8. doi:10.1016/s0883-5403(98)90060-2. PMID 9726326.
Jump up ^ Alessandro Bistolfi; et al. (2011). "Operative Management of Sciatic Nerve Palsy due to Impingement on the Metal Cage after Total Hip Revision: Case Report". Case Report Med. 2011: 830296. doi:10.1155/2011/830296. PMC 3163138  . PMID 21876701.
Jump up ^ Abitbol JJ, Gendron D, Laurin CA, Beaulieu MA (1990). "Gluteal nerve damage following total hip arthroplasty. A prospective analysis". J Arthroplasty. 5 (4): 319–22. doi:10.1016/s0883-5403(08)80090-3. PMID 2290087. is cited by Stiehl and Stewart for the 0.5-2.0% figure.
Jump up ^ James, William D.; Berger, Timothy G.; et al. (2006). Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: clinical Dermatology. Saunders Elsevier. ISBN 0-7216-2921-0.
Jump up ^ Sierra RJ, Beaule P, Zaltz I, Millis MB, Clohisy JC, Trousdale RT (2012). "Prevention of nerve injury after periacetabular osteotomy". Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. 470 (8): 2209–19. doi:10.1007/s11999-012-2409-1. PMC 3392380  . PMID 22684336.
Jump up ^ Mobbs RJ, Teo C (2004). "Endoscopic-assisted sciatic nerve exploration". Minim Invasive Neurosurg. 47 (3): 178–80. doi:10.1055/s-2004-818488. PMID 15343436.
Jump up ^ Martin HD, Shears SA, Johnson JC, Smathers AM, Palmer IJ (2011). "The endoscopic treatment of sciatic nerve entrapment/deep gluteal syndrome". Arthroscopy. 27 (2): 172–81. doi:10.1016/j.arthro.2010.07.008. PMID 21071168.
Jump up ^ Goldberger, Moshe. "1: Not to Eat the Gid HaNasheh". The First Prohibitions. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
External links[edit]
Sciatic_nerve at the Duke University Health System's Orthopedics program
MedlinePlus Image 19503
pelvis at The Anatomy Lesson by Wesley Norman (Georgetown University) (pelvicnerves)
glutealregion at The Anatomy Lesson by Wesley Norman (Georgetown University) (glutealner)
Sciatica and the Sciatic Nerve
[hide]
v
t
e
Nerves of the lumbosacral plexus
Lumbar plexus
iliohypogastric
lateral cutaneous branch
anterior cutaneous branch
ilioinguinal
anterior scrotal ♂/labial ♀
genitofemoral
femoral branch
genital branch
Lateral cutaneous
patellar
obturator
anterior
cutaneous
posterior
accessory
femoral
anterior cutaneous branches
saphenous
(infrapatellar
medial crural cutaneous
sacral plexus
sciatic
common peroneal
lateral sural cutaneous
communicating branch
deep peroneal
lateral terminal branch
medial terminal branch
dorsal digital
superficial peroneal
medial dorsal cutaneous
intermediate dorsal cutaneous
dorsal digital
tibial
medial sural cutaneous
medial calcaneal
medial plantar (common plantar digital nerves
proper plantar digital)
lateral plantar (deep branch
superficial branch
common plantar digital
proper plantar digital)
sural
lateral dorsal cutaneous
lateral calcaneal
other
Muscular
superior gluteal
inferior gluteal
lateral rotator group (to quadratus femoris
to obturator internus
to the piriformis)
cutaneous: posterior cutaneous of thigh (inferior cluneal
perineal branches)
perforating cutaneous
coccygeal plexus
pudendal
inferior anal
perineal
deep
posterior scrotal ♂/labial ♀
dorsal of the penis ♂/clitoris ♀
anococcygeal
Related
cutaneous innervation of the lower limbs
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text:
Moscow mule
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Moscow mule
IBA Official Cocktail
Moscow mule as served at Rye, San Francisco, California, United States
Type
Mixed drink
Primary alcohol by volume
Vodka
Served
On the rocks; poured over ice
Standard garnish
Lime slice
Standard drinkware
copper mug
IBA specified
ingredients
4.5 cl (9 parts) vodka
0.5 cl (1 part) lime juice
12 cl (24 parts) ginger beer
Preparation
Combine vodka and ginger beer in a highball glass filled with ice. Add lime juice. Stir gently. Garnish.
Moscow mule recipe at International Bartenders Association
Moscow mule is a cocktail made with vodka, spicy ginger beer, and lime juice, garnished with a slice or wedge of lime. It is a type of buck and therefore sometimes known as a vodka buck. The Moscow mule is popularly served in a copper mug. Public health advisories recommend the mugs be plated with nickel or stainless steel on the inside and the lip.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Copper vessel plating
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
History[edit]
George Sinclair's 2007 article on the origin of the drink quotes the New York Herald Tribune from 1948:
The mule was born in Manhattan but "stalled" on the West Coast for the duration. The birthplace of "Little Moscow" was in New York's Chatham Hotel. That was back in 1941 when the first carload of Jack Morgan's Cock 'n' Bull ginger beer was railing over the plains to give New Yorkers a happy surprise… The Violette Family helped. Three friends were in the Chatham bar, one John A. Morgan, known as Jack, president of Cock 'n' Bull Products and owner of the Hollywood Cock 'n' Bull Restaurant; one was John G. Martin, president of G.F. Heublein Brothers Inc. of Hartford, Conn., and the third was Rudolph Kunett, president of the Pierre Smirnoff, Heublein's vodka division. As Jack Morgan tells it, "We three were quaffing a slug, nibbling an hors d'oeuvre and shoving toward inventive genius". Martin and Kunett had their minds on their vodka and wondered what would happen if a two-ounce shot joined with Morgan's ginger beer and the squeeze of a lemon. Ice was ordered, lemons procured, mugs ushered in and the concoction put together. Cups were raised, the men counted five and down went the first taste. It was good. It lifted the spirit to adventure. Four or five days later the mixture was christened the Moscow mule...[1]
This story was well known for years, however in 2007 a new version of the invention of the Moscow mule cocktail was published. In this version the cocktail's inventor was Wes Price, Morgan's head bartender and the drink was born out of a need to clear the bar's cellar that was packed with unsalable goods such as Smirnoff Vodka and ginger beer.
Eric Felten quotes Wes Price in an article that was published in 2007 in The Wall Street Journal
"I just wanted to clean out the basement," Price would say of creating the Moscow mule. "I was trying to get rid of a lot of dead stock." The first one he mixed he served to the actor Broderick Crawford. "It caught on like wildfire," Price bragged."[2]
The Moscow mule is almost always served in a copper mug. The popularity of this drinking vessel is attributable to Martin, who went around the country to sell Smirnoff vodka and popularize the Moscow mule. Martin asked bartenders to pose with a specialty copper mug and a bottle of Smirnoff vodka, and photographed a Polaroid picture of them. He took two photos, leaving one with the bartender for display. The other photo would be put into a collection and used as proof to the next bar Martin visited of the popularity of the Moscow mule.[3] The copper mug remains, to this day, a popular serving vessel for the Moscow mule.
According to a 1942 Insider Hollywood article, the Moscow mule was most popular in Los Angeles, where it originated.[4] The Nevada State Journal (12 October 1943) reinforced the mule's popularity in reporting: "Already the mule is climbing up into the exclusive handful of most-popular mixed drinks". It became known as a favorite drink of Reno casino owner William F. Harrah. In his book Beat the Dealer (1964), Edward O. Thorp did not name the Tahoe casino where he thought he had been poorly treated as a card counter. Instead, he wrote, "Immediately I had a Moscow mule", subtly hinting that the location was Harrah's Lake Tahoe, due to Harrah's then well-known proclivity for the drink.[5]
Copper vessel plating[edit]
The ingredients in Moscow mule cocktails are acidic, and the resulting beverage has a pH well below 6.0. This creates a problem when using the traditional copper mugs, as copper can start dissolving into acidic solutions. Copper in solution is considered toxic at concentrations above 1 mg/L.
On 28 July 2017, the Iowa Alcoholic Beverages Division issued a statement that pure copper vessels should not be used to serve acidic drinks, but that "copper mugs lined on the interior with another metal, such as nickel or stainless steel, are allowed to be used and are widely available".[6] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration 2013 Food Code states that copper and copper alloys such as brass "may not be used in contact with a food that has a pH below 6 such as vinegar, fruit juice, or wine or for a fitting or tubing installed between a backflow prevention device and a carbonator."[7][8]
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s Model Food Code specifically “prohibits copper from coming into direct contact with foods that have a pH below 6.0.” The advisory relates only to solid copper mugs. Copper mugs that are lined with stainless steel or other food-safe materials are exempt from the advisory.[9]
See also[edit]
Highball
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Sinclair, George (January 2007). "Moscow Mule". Thinking Bartender. Archived from the original on 14 March 2007. Retrieved 25 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Felten, Eric (2007-06-09). "A Cock(tail) 'n' Bull Story". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2016-10-29.
Jump up ^ "What's the Story Behind the Moscow Mule and that Copper Mug?". Paykoc Imports. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Gwynn, Eith (27 December 1942). Insider Hollywood. There is a new drink that is a craze in the movie colony now. It is called 'Moscow Mule'. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Edward O. Thorp. Beat The Dealer: A Winning Strategy For The Game Of Twenty One (New York: Vintage Books, 1966), 68.
Jump up ^ State of Iowa Alcoholic Beverages Division (July 28, 2017). "Use of Copper Mugs in the Serving of Alcoholic Beverages" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Food and Drug Administration (2013). "Food Code" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Oliver, David (8 Aug 2017). "Health Buzz: Why You Should Stop Drinking Moscow Mules Out of Copper Mugs". US News. Retrieved 9 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Wang, Amy (8 Aug 2017). "Heads up, Moscow mule lovers: That copper mug could be poisoning you". Washington Post. Retrieved 9 August 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Moscow mule.
Grimes, William (2001). Straight Up or On the Rocks: The Story of the American Cocktail. New York: North Point Press. ISBN 0-86547-601-2.
[hide]
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text:
List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The location of the names on the tower
On the Eiffel Tower, seventy-two names of French scientists, engineers, and mathematicians are engraved in recognition of their contributions.[1] Gustave Eiffel chose this "invocation of science" because of his concern over the protests against the tower.[2] The engravings are found on the sides of the tower under the first balcony, in letters about 60 cm high, and originally painted in gold. The engraving was painted over at the beginning of the twentieth century and restored in 1986–1987 by Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, the company contracted by the city of Paris to operate the Tower. The repainting of 2010–2011 restored the letters to their original gold colour.
There are also names of the engineers who helped build the tower and design its architecture on the top of the tower on a plaque, where a laboratory was also built.[citation needed]
Contents
1 List
1.1 Location
1.2 Names
2 Criticism
2.1 Women
2.2 Hydraulic engineers and scholars
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links
List[edit]
Location[edit]
The list is split in four parts (for each side of the tower). The sides have been named after the parts of Paris that each side faces:
The North-East side (also known as La Bourdonnais side, La Bourdonnais is a part of Paris)
Petiet, Daguerre, Wurtz, Le Verrier, Perdonnet, Delambre, Malus, Breguet, Polonceau, Dumas, Clapeyron, Borda, Fourier, Bichat, Sauvage, Pelouze, Carnot, Lamé
The South-East side (also known as the Military School side)
Cauchy, Belgrand, Regnault, Fresnel, De Prony, Vicat, Ebelmen, Coulomb, Poinsot, Foucault, Delaunay, Morin, Haüy, Combes, Thénard, Arago, Poisson, Monge
The South-West side (also known as the Grenelle side)
Jamin, Gay-Lussac, Fizeau, Schneider, Le Chatelier, Berthier, Barral, De Dion, Goüin, Jousselin, Broca, Becquerel, Coriolis, Cail, Triger, Giffard, Perrier, Sturm
The North West side (also known as the Trocadéro side)
Seguin, Lalande, Tresca, Poncelet, Bresse, Lagrange, Belanger, Cuvier, Laplace, Dulong, Chasles, Lavoisier, Ampère, Chevreul, Flachat, Navier, Legendre, Chaptal
Names[edit]
In the table below are all the names on the four sides.
Name appearing
Full name
Occupation
Location
Portrait
SEGUIN Marc Seguin engineer NW01
LALANDE Jérôme Lalande astronomer NW02
TRESCA Henri Tresca engineer and mechanic NW03
PONCELET Jean-Victor Poncelet geometer NW04
BRESSE Jacques Antoine Charles Bresse civil engineer and hydraulic engineer NW05
LAGRANGE Joseph-Louis Lagrange mathematician NW06
BELANGER Jean-Baptiste-Charles-Joseph Bélanger mathematician and hydraulic engineer NW07
CUVIER Georges Cuvier naturalist NW08
LAPLACE Pierre-Simon Laplace mathematician and astronomer NW09
DULONG Pierre Louis Dulong physicist and chemist NW10
CHASLES Michel Chasles geometer NW11
LAVOISIER Antoine Lavoisier chemist NW12
AMPERE André-Marie Ampère mathematician and physicist NW13
CHEVREUL Michel Eugène Chevreul chemist NW14
FLACHAT Eugène Flachat civil engineer NW15
NAVIER Claude-Louis Marie Henri Navier mathematician NW16
LEGENDRE Adrien-Marie Legendre mathematician NW17
CHAPTAL Jean-Antoine Chaptal agronomist and chemist NW18
JAMIN Jules Jamin physicist SW01
GAY-LUSSAC Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac chemist SW02
FIZEAU Hippolyte Fizeau physicist SW03
SCHNEIDER Eugène Schneider industrialist SW04
LE CHATELIER Louis Le Chatelier engineer SW05
BERTHIER Pierre Berthier mineralogist SW06
BARRAL Jean-Augustin Barral agronomist, chemist, physicist SW07
DE DION Henri de Dion engineer SW08
GOUIN Ernest Goüin engineer and industrialist SW09
JOUSSELIN Louis Didier Jousselin engineer SW10
BROCA Paul Broca physician and anthropologist SW11
BECQUEREL Antoine César Becquerel physicist SW12
CORIOLIS Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis engineer and scientist SW13
CAIL Jean-François Cail industrialist SW14
TRIGER Jacques Triger engineer SW15
GIFFARD Henri Giffard engineer SW16
PERRIER François Perrier geographer and mathematician SW17
STURM Jacques Charles François Sturm mathematician SW18
CAUCHY Augustin-Louis Cauchy mathematician SE01
BELGRAND Eugène Belgrand engineer SE02
REGNAULT Henri Victor Regnault chemist and physicist SE03
FRESNEL Augustin-Jean Fresnel physicist SE04
DE PRONY Gaspard de Prony engineer SE05
VICAT Louis Vicat engineer SE06
EBELMEN Jacques-Joseph Ebelmen chemist SE07
COULOMB Charles-Augustin de Coulomb physicist SE08
POINSOT Louis Poinsot mathematician SE09
FOUCAULT Léon Foucault physicist SE10
DELAUNAY Charles-Eugène Delaunay astronomer SE11
MORIN Arthur Morin mathematician and physicist SE12
HAUY René Just Haüy mineralogist SE13
COMBES Charles Combes engineer and metallurgist SE14
THENARD Louis Jacques Thénard chemist SE15
ARAGO François Arago astronomer and physicist SE16
POISSON Siméon Denis Poisson mathematician and physicist SE17
MONGE Gaspard Monge geometer SE18
PETIET Jules Petiet engineer NE01
DAGUERRE Louis Daguerre artist and chemist NE02
WURTZ Charles-Adolphe Wurtz chemist NE03
LE VERRIER Urbain Le Verrier astronomer NE04
PERDONNET Albert Auguste Perdonnet engineer NE05
DELAMBRE Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre astronomer NE06
MALUS Étienne-Louis Malus physicist NE07
BREGUET Louis Breguet physicist and inventor NE08
POLONCEAU Camille Polonceau engineer NE09
DUMAS Jean-Baptiste Dumas chemist NE10
CLAPEYRON Émile Clapeyron engineer and physicist NE11
BORDA Jean-Charles de Borda mathematician NE12
FOURIER Joseph Fourier mathematician NE13
BICHAT Marie François Xavier Bichat anatomist and physiologist NE14
SAUVAGE François Clément Sauvage engineer and geologist NE15
PELOUZE Théophile-Jules Pelouze chemist NE16
CARNOT Lazare Carnot[3] mathematician NE17
LAME Gabriel Lamé mathematician NE18
Criticism[edit]
Women[edit]
The list contains no women. The list has been criticized for excluding the name of Sophie Germain, a noted French mathematician whose work on the theory of elasticity was used in the construction of the tower itself.[4] In 1913, John Augustine Zahm suggested that Germain was excluded because she was a woman.[5]
Hydraulic engineers and scholars[edit]
14 hydraulic engineers and scholars are listed on the Eiffel Tower. Eiffel acknowledged most of the leading scientists in the field. Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy is missing; some of his work did not come into wide use until the 20th century. Also missing are Antoine Chézy, who was less famous; Joseph Valentin Boussinesq, who was early in his career at the time;[6] and mathematician Évariste Galois.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The 72 Scientists". La Tour Eiffel. Archived from the original on 15 February 2008. Retrieved 31 January 2008.
Jump up ^ Harriss, Joseph (1975). The Tallest Tower: Eiffel And The Belle Epoque. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 100–101. ISBN 0395204402.
Jump up ^ Not to be confused with Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, his son.
Jump up ^ Gray, Mary (1978). "Sophie Germain (1776-1831)". In Louise S. Grinstein and Paul Campbell. Women of Mathematics: A Bibliographic Sourcebook. Greenwood. pp. 47–55. ISBN 978-0-313-24849-8. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Mozen, H. J. (pseud.) (1913). Women in Science: With an Introductory Chapter on Women's Long Struggle for Things of the Mind. D. Appleton. pp. 154–157.
Jump up ^ Chanson, Hubert (13 April 2009). "Hydraulic Engineering Legends Listed on the Eiffel Tower". In Jerry R. Rogers. Great Rivers History: Proceedings and Invited Papers for the EWRI Congress and Great Rivers History Symposium. American Society of Civil Engineers. pp. 1–7. doi:10.1061/41032(344)1. ISBN 978-0-7844-1032-5.
Further reading[edit]
Barral, Georges (1892). Le Panthéon scientifique de la tour Eiffel: histoire des origines de la construction de la Tour. Savine. Reprinted as Barral, Georges (2013). Le Panthéon scientifique de la tour Eiffel: histoire des origines de la construction de la Tour. Hachette Livre. ISBN 2-01-285936-4.
External links[edit]
Paris portal
Media related to 72 names on the Eiffel Tower at Wikimedia Commons
Paris streets named for the 72 scientists
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_the_72_names_on_the_Eiffel_Tower&oldid=854280347"
Categories:
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text:
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Hanging Garden (disambiguation).
This hand-coloured engraving, probably made in the 19th century after the first excavations in the Assyrian capitals, depicts the fabled Hanging Gardens, with the Tower of Babel in the background.
Timeline and map of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the other Wonders of the Ancient World
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World as listed by Hellenic culture, described as a remarkable feat of engineering with an ascending series of tiered gardens containing a wide variety of trees, shrubs, and vines, resembling a large green mountain constructed of mud bricks, and said to have been built in the ancient city of Babylon, near present-day Hillah, Babil province, in Iraq.
According to one legend, the Neo-Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled between 605 and 562 BC, built the Hanging Gardens, alongside a grand palace that came to be known as The Marvel of the Mankind, for his Median wife, Queen Amytis, because she missed the green hills and valleys of her homeland; this is attested to by the Babylonian priest Berossus, writing in about 290 BC, and quoted later by Josephus.
The Hanging Gardens are the only one of the Seven Wonders for which the location has not been definitively established.[1] There are no extant Babylonian texts which mention the gardens, and no definitive archaeological evidence has been found in Babylon.[2][3] Three theories have been suggested to account for this. One: that they were purely mythical, and the descriptions found in ancient Greek and Roman writers including Strabo, Diodorus Siculus and Quintus Curtius Rufus represent a romantic ideal of an eastern garden.[4] Two: that they existed in Babylon, but were completely destroyed sometime around the first century AD.[5][6] Three: that the legend refers to a well-documented garden that the Assyrian King Sennacherib (704–681 BC) built in his capital city of Nineveh on the River Tigris, near the modern city of Mosul.[7][8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Descriptions
2 Scholarship and controversy
3 Hanging Garden at Nineveh
4 See also
5 References
6 Sources
7 Further reading
8 External links
Descriptions
There are five principal writers whose descriptions of Babylon are extant in some form today. These writers concern themselves with the size of the Hanging Gardens, their overall design and means of irrigation, and why they were built.
Josephus (c.37–100 AD) quotes a description of the gardens by Berossus, a Babylonian priest of Marduk writing circa 290 BC.[1] Berossus described the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and is the only source to credit that king with the construction of the Hanging Gardens.[9]
In this palace he erected very high walks, supported by stone pillars; and by planting what was called a pensile paradise, and replenishing it with all sorts of trees, he rendered the prospect an exact resemblance of a mountainous country. This he did to gratify his queen, because she had been brought up in Media, and was fond of a mountainous situation.[10]
Hanging gardens of Semiramis, by H. Waldeck
Diodorus Siculus (active c.60–30 BC) seems to have consulted the 4th century BC texts of both Cleitarchus (a historian of Alexander the Great) and Ctesias of Cnidus. Diodorus ascribes the construction to a Syrian king. He states that the garden was in the shape of a square, with each side approximately four plethra long. The garden was tiered, with the uppermost gallery being 50 cubits high. The walls, 22 feet thick, were made of brick. The bases of the tiered sections were sufficiently deep to provide root growth for the largest trees, and the gardens were irrigated from the nearby Euphrates.[11]
Quintus Curtius Rufus (fl. 1st century AD) probably drew on the same sources as Diodorus.[12] He states that the gardens were located on top of a citadel, which was 20 stadia in circumference. He attributes the building of the gardens to a Syrian king, again for the reason that his queen missed her homeland.
The account of Strabo (c.64 BC – 21 AD) possibly based his account on the lost account of Onesicritus from the 4th century BC[13] He mentions that the gardens were watered by means of a screw leading to the gardens from the Euphrates.
The last of the classical sources, thought to be independent of the others, is A Handbook to the Seven Wonders of the World, authored not by Philo of Byzantium, but by another author of the same name who flourished in the 4th to 5th century AD.[14] The method of raising water by screw matches that described by Strabo.[15] The author marvels at the engineering and ingenuity of building vast areas of deep soil, which had a tremendous mass, so far above the natural grade of the surrounding land, as well as the irrigation techniques.
Scholarship and controversy
This copy of a bas relief from the North Palace of Ashurbanipal (669–631 BC) at Nineveh shows a luxurious garden watered by an aqueduct.
There is some controversy as to whether the Hanging Gardens were an actual construction or a poetic creation, owing to the lack of documentation in contemporaneous Babylonian sources. There is also no mention of Nebuchadnezzar's wife Amyitis (or any other wives), although a political marriage to a Median or Persian would not have been unusual.[16] Many records exist of Nebuchadnezzar's works, yet his long and complete inscriptions do not mention any garden.[17]
Herodotus, who describes Babylon in his Histories, does not mention the Hanging Gardens.[18]
To date, no archaeological evidence has been found at Babylon for the Hanging Gardens.[1] It is possible that evidence exists beneath the Euphrates, which cannot be excavated safely at present. The river flowed east of its current position during the time of Nebuchadnezzar II, and little is known about the western portion of Babylon.[19] Rollinger has suggested that Berossus attributed the Gardens to Nebuchadnezzar for political reasons, and that he had adopted the legend from elsewhere.[20]
A recent theory proposes that the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were actually constructed by the Assyrian king Sennacherib (reigned 704 – 681 BC) for his palace at Nineveh. Stephanie Dalley posits that during the intervening centuries the two sites became confused, and the extensive gardens at Sennacherib's palace were attributed to Nebuchadnezzar II's Babylon.[8] Recently discovered evidence includes excavation of a vast system of aqueducts inscribed to Sennacherib, which Dalley proposes were part of a 80-kilometre (50 mi) series of canals, dams, and aqueducts used to carry water to Nineveh with water-raising screws used to raise it to the upper levels of the gardens.[21]
Dalley bases her arguments on recent developments in the decipherment of contemporary Akkadian inscriptions. Her main points are:[22]
The name "Babylon", meaning "Gate of the Gods"[23] was applied to several Mesopotamian cities.[24] Sennacherib renamed the city gates of Nineveh after gods,[25] which suggests that he wished his city to be considered "a Babylon".
Only Josephus names Nebuchadnezzar as the king who built the gardens; although Nebuchadnezzar left many inscriptions, none mentions any garden or engineering works.[26] Diodorus Siculus and Quintus Curtius Rufus specify a "Syrian" king.
By contrast, Sennacherib left written descriptions,[27] and there is archaeological evidence of his water engineering.[28] His grandson Assurbanipal pictured the mature garden on a sculptured wall panel in his palace.[29]
Sennacherib called his new palace and garden "a wonder for all peoples". He describes the making and operation of screws to raise water in his garden.[30]
The descriptions of the classical authors fit closely to these contemporary records. Before the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC Alexander the Great camped for four days near the aqueduct at Jerwan.[31] The historians who travelled with him would have had ample time to investigate the enormous works around them, recording them in Greek. These first-hand accounts do not survive into our times but were quoted by later Greek writers.
Hanging Garden at Nineveh
King Sennacherib's Hanging Garden was considered a world wonder not just for its beauty – a year-round oasis of lush green in a dusty summer landscape – but also for the marvelous feats of water engineering that maintained the garden.[32]
There was a tradition of Assyrian royal garden building. King Ashurnasirpal II (883–859 BC) had created a canal, which cut through the mountains. Fruit tree orchards were planted. Also mentioned were pines, cypresses and junipers; almond trees, date trees, ebony, rosewood, olive, oak, tamarisk, walnut, terebinth, ash, fir, pomegranate, pear, quince, fig, and grapes.
Photo of Assyrian wall relief showing garden in the ancient city of Nineveh (Mosul Iraq)
Sennacherib is the only Mesopotamian king who has left a record of his love for his wife. Of Sennacherib's palace, he mentions the massive limestone blocks that reinforce the flood defences. Parts of the palace were excavated by Austin Henry Layard in the mid-19th century. His citadel plan shows contours which would be consistent with Sennacherib's garden, but its position has not been confirmed. The area has been used as a military base in recent times, making it difficult to investigate further.
A sculptured wall panel of Assurbanipal shows the garden in its maturity. One original panel[33] and the drawing of another[34] are held by the British Museum, although neither is on public display. Several features mentioned by the classical authors are discernible on these contemporary images.
The irrigation of such a garden demanded an upgraded water supply to the city of Nineveh. The canals stretched over 50 km into the mountains. Sennacherib was proud of the technologies he had employed and describes them in some detail on his inscriptions. At the headwater of Bavian (Khinnis)[35] his inscription mentions automatic sluice gates. An enormous aqueduct crossing the valley at Jerwan was constructed of over 2 million dressed stones. It used stone arches and waterproof cement.[36] On it is written:
Sennacherib king of the world king of Assyria. Over a great distance I had a watercourse directed to the environs of Nineveh, joining together the waters.... Over steep-sided valleys I spanned an aqueduct of white limestone blocks, I made those waters flow over it.
Sennacherib claims to be the first to deploy a new casting technique in place of the "lost-wax" process for his monumental (30 tonne) bronze castings.
Sennacherib could bring the water into his garden at a high level because it was sourced from further up the mountains. He then raised the water even higher by deploying his new water screws. This meant he could build a garden that towered above the landscape with large trees on the top of the terraces – a stunning artistic effect that surpassed those of his predecessors and which justifies his own claim to have built a "Wonder for all Peoples".
See also
Folkewall
Green wall
Green roof
Historical hydroculture
History of gardening
References
^ Jump up to: a b c Finkel (1988) p. 41.
Jump up ^ Finkel (1988) p. 58.
Jump up ^ Finkel, Irving; Seymour, Michael (2008). Babylon: City of Wonders. London: British Museum Press. p. 52. ISBN 0-7141-1171-6.
Jump up ^ Finkel 2008
Jump up ^ "The Hanging Gardens of Babylon". Retrieved 5 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Hanging Gardens of Babylon". Retrieved 5 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Dalley, Stephanie (2013). The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive World Wonder traced. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Stephanie Dalley (1993). "Ancient Mesopotamian Gardens and the Identification of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Resolved". Garden History. 21: 7. JSTOR 1587050.
Jump up ^ Finkel (2008) p. 108.
Jump up ^ Joseph. contr. Appion. lib. 1. c. 19.—Syncel. Chron. 220.—Euseb. Præp. Evan. lib. 9.
Jump up ^ Diodorus Siculus II.10-1-10
Jump up ^ History of Alexander V.1.35-5
Jump up ^ Strabo, Geography XVI.1.5, translation adapted from H.L. Jones, Loeb Classical Library edn (1961).
Jump up ^ i.e. not by Philo the Engineer of Byzantium, but perhaps Philo the Paradoxographer of Byzantium; Stephanie Dalley, "More about the Hanging Gardens," in Of Pots and Pans: Papers on the Archaeology and History of Mesopotamia and Syria as presented to David Oates on his 75th Birthday, Edited by L. al-Gailani-Werr, J.E. Curtis, H. Martin, A. McMahon, J. Oates and J.E. Reade, (London), pp. 67–73 ISBN 1-897750-62-5.
Jump up ^ Dalley (2013), p. 40. Dalley bases her translation on Brodersen (1992) who uses an early Greek text. A previous translation by David Oates, based on a Latin text, is found in Finkel (1988) pp. 45–46.
Jump up ^ Finkel (2008) p. 109.
Jump up ^ Dalley (2013)
Jump up ^ Priestley, Jessica (2014). Herodotus and Hellenistic culture: Literary Studies in the Reception of the Histories. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 91.
Jump up ^ Joan Oates, Babylon, Revised Edition, Thames and Hudson, London (1986) p. 144 ISBN 0500273847.
Jump up ^ Rollinger, Robert "Berossos and the Monuments", ed. J Haubold et al, The World of Berossos, Wiesbaden (2013), p151
Jump up ^ Alberge, Dalya (5 May 2013). "Babylon's hanging garden: ancient scripts give clue to missing wonder". The Guardian. Retrieved 6 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Dalley, Stephanie (2013) The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive World Wonder traced, Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5.
Jump up ^ AR George, Babylonian Topographical Texts, (1992)
Jump up ^ see for example Cuneiform Texts in the British Museum, Vol 19, page 25, line 25
Jump up ^ Pongratz-Leisten, Ina Sulmi Erub (1994),
Jump up ^ See Dalley (2013) ch 1 for a summary.
Jump up ^ Especially: the Iraq Museum prism dated 694 BC published by A Heidel, The Octagonal Sennacherib Prism in the Iraq Museum, Sumer 9 (1953); and the British Museum prism BM103000 of the same date
Jump up ^ T Jacobsen and S Lloyd, Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan (1935); Reade, Studies in Assyrian Geography, Revue d'Assyriologie 72 (1978); Channel 4 TV programme Secret History: Finding Babylon's Hanging Garden, 24th November 2013
Jump up ^ AH Layard, Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, (1853)
Jump up ^ Dalley (2013), pp. 62–63
Jump up ^ R Lane Fox, Alexander the Great (1973)
Jump up ^ Stephanie Dalley (2013). The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: An Elusive World Wonder Traced. Oxford University Press. p. 65–82. ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5. The quotations in this section are the translations of the author and are reproduced with the permission of OUP.
Jump up ^ BM124939
Jump up ^ Original Drawing IV 77
Jump up ^ Layard (1853)
Jump up ^ Jacobsen (1935)
Sources
Finkel, Irving (1988). "The Hanging Gardens of Babylon". In Clayton, Peter; Price, Martin. The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. New York: Routledge. pp. 38 ff. ISBN 0-415-05036-7.
Finkel, Irving L.; Seymour, Michael J., eds. (2008). Babylon. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-538540-3.
Dalley, Stephanie (2013). The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an elusive World Wonder traced. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966226-5.
Library resources about
Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
Further reading
Dalley, Stephanie. 1994. "Nineveh, Babylon and the Hanging Gardens: Cuneiform and Classical Sources Reconciled." Iraq 56: 45-58. doi:10.2307/4200384.
--. 2013. The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: An Elusive World Wonder Traced. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Norwich, John Julius. 2009. The Great Cities In History. London: Thames & Hudson.
Reade, Julian. 2000. "Alexander the Great and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon." Iraq 62: 195-217. doi:10.2307/4200490.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
How the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World Work: The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
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The Lost Gardens of Babylon Documentary produced by the PBS Series Secrets of the Dead
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Coordinates: 32°32′08″N 44°25′39″E / 32.5355°N 44.4275°E / 32.5355; 44.4275
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values: Kopshtet e varura të Babilonisë – Albanian

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values: බැබිලෝනියාවේ එල්ලෙන උද්‍යාන – Sinhala

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values: Hanging Gardens of Babylon – Simple English

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values: باخە ھەڵواسراوەکانی بابل – Central Kurdish

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values: Висећи вртови из Вавилона – Serbian

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values: Semiramidini viseći vrtovi – Serbo-Croatian

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values: Mga Nakabiting Hardin ng Babilonya – Tagalog

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values: பாபிலோனின் தொங்கு தோட்டம் – Tamil

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values:
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values: สวนลอยบาบิโลน – Thai

values:
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values:
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values: Сади Семіраміди – Ukrainian

values: بابل کے معلق باغات – Urdu

values: Nakasaray nga mga Hardin han Babylon – Waray

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