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Dictatorship
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Adolf Hitler(left) and Joseph Stalin(right) are two people often used as examples of 20th century dictators from two different ideologies
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Dictatorship is a form of government in which a country or a group of countries is ruled by one person (a dictator) or by a polity and power is exercised through various mechanisms to ensure that the entity's power remains strong.[1][2] A dictatorship is a type of authoritarianism in which politicians regulate nearly every aspect of the public and private behavior of citizens. Dictatorship and totalitarian societies generally employ political propaganda to decrease the influence of proponents of alternative governing systems. In the past, different religious tactics were used by dictators to maintain their rule, such as the monarchical system in the West. In the 19th and 20th centuries, traditional monarchies gradually declined and disappeared. Dictatorship and constitutional democracy emerged as the world's two major forms of government.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Republican origins
1.2 19th-century Latin American caudillos
1.3 Stalinism and fascism in 20th-century dictatorships
1.4 Dictatorships in Africa and Asia after World War II
1.5 Democratization
2 Measuring dictatorships
3 Types
3.1 Classification
3.2 Origins of power
3.3 Stable dictatorship
3.4 Benevolent dictatorship
4 Theories of dictatorship
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
History[edit]
Between the two world wars, four types of dictatorships have been described: constitutional, communist (nominally championing the "dictatorship of the proletariat"), counterrevolutionary and fascist and many have questioned the distinctions between these prototypes. Since World War II, a broader range of dictatorships has been recognized, including Third World dictatorships, theocratic or religious dictatorships and dynastic or family-based dictatorships.[3]
Republican origins[edit]
During the Republican phase of Ancient Rome, a Roman dictator was the special magistrate who held well defined powers, normally for six months at a time, usually in combination with a consulship. Roman dictators were allocated absolute power during times of emergency. In execution, their power was originally neither arbitrary nor unaccountable, being subject to law and requiring retrospective justification. There were no such dictatorships after the beginning of the 2nd century BC and later dictators such as Sulla and the Roman Emperors exercised power much more personally and arbitrarily. As the Roman Emperor was a king in all but name, a concept that remained anathema to traditional Roman society, the institution was not carried forward into the Roman Empire.
19th-century Latin American caudillos[edit]
Main article: Caudillo
After the collapse of Spanish colonial rule, various dictators came to power in many liberated countries. Often leading a private army, these Caudillos or self-appointed political-military leaders, attacked weak national Governments once they controlled a region's political and economic powers, with examples such as Antonio López de Santa Anna in Mexico and Juan Manuel de Rosas in Argentina. Such dictators have been also referred to as "personalismos".[1]
The wave of military dictatorships in South America in the second half of the twentieth century left a particular mark on Latin American culture. In Latin American literature, the dictator novel challenging dictatorship and caudillismo is a significant genre. There are also many films depicting Latin American military dictatorships.
Stalinism and fascism in 20th-century dictatorships[edit]
In the first half of the 20th century, Stalinist and fascist dictatorships appeared in a variety of scientifically and technologically advanced countries, which are distinct from dictatorships in Latin America and post-colonial dictatorships in Africa and Asia. Leading examples of modern totalitarian dictatorship include:[1]
Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany, Benito Mussolini's Italy and other fascist dictatorships;
Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union, Mao Zedong's People's Republic of China and other Stalinist and Soviet-style Communist dictatorships that appeared after World War II in Central Europe, Eastern Europe, China and other countries.
Dictatorships in Africa and Asia after World War II[edit]
Mobutu Sese Seko, Zaire's longtime dictator
After World War II, dictators established themselves in the several new states of Africa and Asia, often at the expense or failure of the constitutions inherited from the colonial powers. These constitutions often failed to work without a strong middle class or work against the preexisting autocratic rule. Some elected presidents and prime ministers captured power by suppressing the opposition and installing one-party rule and others established military dictatorships through their armies.[1] Whatever their form, these dictatorships had an adverse impact on economic growth and the quality of political institutions.[4] Dictators who stayed in office for a long period of time found it increasingly difficult to carry out sound economic policies.
The often-cited exploitative dictatorship is the regime of Mobutu Sese Seko, who ruled Zaire from 1965 to 1997, embezzling over $5 billion from his country.[5]
Democratization[edit]
The global dynamics of democratization has been a central question for political Scientists.[6][7] The Third Wave Democracy was said to turn some dictatorships into democracies[6] (see also the contrast between the two figures of the Democracy-Dictatorship Index in 1988 and 2008).
Measuring dictatorships[edit]
Democracy Index by the Economist Intelligence Unit, 2016:[8] blue represents more democratic countries while red are considered authoritarian and dark red are most often totalitarian dictatorships
The conceptual and methodological differences in political science literature exist with regards to measuring and classifying regimes as either dictatorships or democracies, with prominent examples such as Freedom House, Polity IV and Democracy-Dictatorship Index and their validity and reliability being discussed.[9]
Roughly two research approaches exist: the minimalist approach focuses on whether a country has continued elections that are competitive, and the substantive approach expands the concept of democracy to include human rights, freedom of the press, the rule of law, et cetera.[10][11][12] The Democracy-Dictatorship Index is seen as an example of the minimalist approach, whereas the Polity data series, relatively more substantive.[13]
Types[edit]
The most general term is despotism, a form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute power. That entity may be an individual as in an autocracy, or it may be a group[14] as in an oligarchy. Despotism can mean tyranny (dominance through the threat of punishment and violence) or absolutism; or dictatorship (a form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator, not restricted by a constitution, laws or opposition, et cetera).[15] Dictatorships may take the form of authoritarianism or totalitarianism.
Dictatorship is 'a form of government in which absolute power is concentrated in a dictator or a "small clique" or "a government organization or group in which absolute power is so concentrated",[16] whereas democracy, with which the concept of dictatorship is often compared, is defined by most people as a form of government where those who govern are elected through contested elections. Authoritarian dictatorships are those in which there is little political mobilization and "a small group exercizes power within formally ill-defined limits but actually quite predictable ones".[17] Totalitarian dictatorships involve a "single party led by a single powerful individual with a powerful secret police and a highly developed ideology". The government here has "total control of mass communications and social and economic organizations".[18] Hannah Arendt labelled totalitarianism a new and extreme form of dictatorship involving "atomized, isolated individuals" in which ideology plays a leading role in defining how the entire society should be organized.[19] Juan Linz argues that the distinction between an authoritarian regime and a totalitarian one is that while an authoritarian one seeks to suffocate politics and political mobilization (depoliticization), a totalitarian one seeks to control politics and political mobilization.[20]
Antonio López de Santa Anna wearing Mexican military uniforms
Classification[edit]
Dictatorships may be classified in a number of ways, such as:
Social class
Dictatorship of the bourgeoisie
Dictatorship of the proletariat
Military dictatorship
"Arbitrator" and "ruler" types may be distinguished; arbitrator regimes are professional, civilian-oriented, willing to give up power once problems have been resolved and support the existing social order; "ruler" types view civilians as incompetent and have no intention of returning power to them, are politically organized and have a coherent ideology[21]
Civil-military dictatorship
An example is the Civic-military dictatorship of Uruguay (1973–1985)
One-party state
"Weak" and "strong" versions may be distinguished; in weak one-party states, "at least one other actor eclipses the role of the party (like a single individual, the military, or the president)",[22] with the Joseph Stalin era in the Soviet Union[23] and the Mao Zedong era in China can be cited as examples of weak one-party states
Personalist
Hybrid
Power behind the throne
There are some instances where a person or a group made heads of states as figureheads or puppet rulers while they wield dictatorial powers
An example in Korea is Yeon Gaesomun's de facto rule of Goguryeo and the Goryeo military regime
An example in Japan is the Shogunate
Some combination of the types above
Origins of power[edit]
Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier succeeded his father François "Papa Doc" Duvalier as the ruler of Haiti after his death in 1971.
Family dictatorship – inheriting power through family ties
Military dictatorship – through military force or coup d'état (in Latin America, military dictatorships were often ruled by committees known as military juntas)
Constitutional dictatorship – dictatorial powers provided for by constitutional means (often as a provision in case of emergency)
Self-coup – by suspending existing democratic mechanisms after attaining office by constitutional means
Stable dictatorship[edit]
A stable dictatorship is a dictatorship that is able to remain in power for a long period of time. The stable dictatorship theory concerning the Soviet Union held that after the succession crisis following Joseph Stalin's death in 1953, the victorious leader assumed the status of a Stalinist dictator without Stalin's terror apparatus.[24] Chile and Paraguay were both considered stable dictatorships in the 1970s.[25] It has been argued that stable dictatorships behave differently than unstable dictatorships. For instance, Maria Brouwer opines that "expansionary policies can fail and undermine the authority of the leader. Stable dictators, would therefore, be inclined to refrain from military aggression. This applies to imperial China, Byzantium and Japan, which refrained from expanding their empires at some point in time. Emerging dictators, by contrast, want to win the people's support by promising them riches and appropriating them from domestic or foreign wealth. They do not have much to lose from failure, whereas success could elevate them to positions of wealth and power".[26]
Benevolent dictatorship[edit]
Main article: Benevolent dictatorship
A benevolent dictatorship is a theoretical form of government in which an authoritarian leader exercises absolute political power over the state, but does so for the benefit of the population as a whole. A benevolent dictator may allow some economic liberalization or a form of democratic decision-making to exist, such as through public referenda or elected representatives with limited power; and he often makes preparations for a transition to genuine democracy during or after his term. It might be seen as a republican form of enlightened despotism. The label has been applied to leaders such as Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (Turkey),[27] Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia),[28] Lee Kuan Yew (Singapore),[29] Abdullah II of Jordan[30],[citation needed] Paul Kagame (Rwanda) and Qaboos bin Said al Said (Oman).
Theories of dictatorship[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2017)
Mancur Olson suggests that the emergence of dictatorships can be linked to the concept of "roving bandits", individuals in an atomic system who move from place to place extracting wealth from individuals. These bandits provide a disincentive for investment and production. Olson states that a community of individuals would be better served if that bandit were to establish himself as a stationary bandit to monopolize theft in the form of taxes. Except from the community, the bandits themselves will be better served, according to Olson, by transforming themselves into "stationary bandits". By settling down and making themselves the rulers of a territory, they will be able to make more profits through taxes than they used to obtain through plunder. By maintaining order and providing protection to the community, the bandits will create a peaceful environment in which their people can maximize their surplus which means a greater taxable base. Thus a potential dictator will have a greater incentive to provide security to a given community from which he is extracting taxes and conversely, the people from whom he extracts the taxes are more likely to produce because they will be unconcerned with potential theft by other bandits. This is the rationality that bandits use in order to justify their transformation from "roving bandits" into "stationary bandits".[31]
See also[edit]
Elective dictatorship
Generalissimo
Kleptocracy
List of longest-ruling non-royal national leaders since 1900
List of titles used by dictators
Maximum Leader
Nationalism
Nazism
Negative selection (politics)
Neo-fascism
Neo-Nazism
People's democratic dictatorship
Plutocracy
Selectorate theory
Strongman
Theocracy
Tyranny of the majority
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "dictatorship". Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago. 2013. 162240.
Jump up ^ Margaret Power (2008). "Dictatorship and Single-Party States". In Bonnie G. Smith. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History: 4 Volume Set. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-19-514890-9. Retrieved 14 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Frank J. Coppa (1 January 2006). Encyclopedia of Modern Dictators: From Napoleon to the Present. Peter Lang. p. xiv. ISBN 978-0-8204-5010-0. Retrieved 25 March 2014. In the period between the two world wars, four types of dictatorships were described by a number of smart people: constitutional, the communist (nominally championing the "dictatorship of the proletariat"), the counterrevolutionary, and the fascist. Many have rightfully questioned the distinctions between these prototypes. In fact, since World War II, we have recognized that the range of dictatorships is much broader than earlier posited and it includes so-called Third World dictatorships in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East and religious dictatorships....They are also family dictatorships ....
Jump up ^ Papaioannou, Kostadis; vanZanden, Jan Luiten (2015). "The Dictator Effect: How long years in office affect economic development". Journal of Institutional Economics. 11 (1). doi:10.1017/S1744137414000356.
Jump up ^ "Mobutu dies in exile in Morocco". CNN. 7 September 1997.
^ Jump up to: a b Samuel P. Huntington (6 September 2012). The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late 20th Century. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-8604-7.
Jump up ^ Nathan J. Brown (31 August 2011). The Dynamics of Democratization: Dictatorship, Development, and Diffusion. JHU Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0088-4.
Jump up ^ "Democracy Index 2015" (PDF). Economist Intelligence Unit. 21 January 2016.
Jump up ^ William Roberts Clark; Matt Golder; Sona N Golder (23 March 2012). "Chapter 5. Democracy and Dictatorship: Conceptualization and Measurement". Principles of Comparative Politics. CQ Press. ISBN 978-1-60871-679-1.
Jump up ^ "Democracy and Dictatorship: Conceptualization and Measurement". cqpress.com.
Jump up ^ Jørgen Møller; Svend-Erik Skaaning (29 March 2012). Requisites of Democracy: Conceptualization, Measurement, and Explanation. Routledge. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-1-136-66584-4. Retrieved 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ William Roberts Clark; Matt Golder; Sona Nadenichek Golder (September 2009). Principles of comparative politics. CQ Press. ISBN 978-0-87289-289-7.
Jump up ^ Divergent Incentives for Dictators: Domestic Institutions and (International Promises Not to) Torture Appendix "Unlike substantive measures of democracy (e.g., Polity IV and Freedom House), the binary conceptualization of democracy most recently described by Cheibub, Gandhi and Vree-land (2010) focuses on one institution—elections—to distinguish between dictatorships and democracies. Using a minimalist measure of democracy rather than a substantive one better allows for the isolation of causal mechanisms (Cheibub, Gandhi and Vreeland, 2010, 73) linking regime type to human rights outcomes."
Jump up ^ Despotism. Internet Archive (Film documentary). Prelinger Archives. Chicago, Illinois, US: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1946. OCLC 6325325.
Jump up ^ WordNet Search – 3.0 [dead link]
Jump up ^ Dictatorship – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Merriam-webster.com (31 August 2012). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
Jump up ^ Juan Linz, quoted in Natasha M. Ezrow, Erica Frantz (2011), Dictators and Dictatorships: Understanding Authoritarian Regimes and Their Leaders, Continuum International Publishing Group. p2
Jump up ^ Ezrow and Frantz (2011:2–3)
Jump up ^ Ezrow and Frantz (2011:3)
Jump up ^ Ezrow and Frantz (2011:4)
Jump up ^ Ezrow and Frantz (2011:6–7)
Jump up ^ Ezrow and Frantz (2011:6)
Jump up ^ Stalinism
Jump up ^ RC Thornton (1972), The Structure of Communist Politics, World Politics, JSTOR 2010454
Jump up ^ AG Cuzán (1986), Fiscal Policy, the Military, and Political Stability in Iberoamerica (PDF), Behavioral Science
Jump up ^ M Brouwer (2006), Democracy and Dictatorship: The Politics of Innovation (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 7 September 2012
Jump up ^ "Benevolent Dictator? Thinking About MK Atatürk". Turkey File. 19 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Shapiro, Susan; Shapiro, Ronald (2004). The Curtain Rises: Oral Histories of the Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe. McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-1672-6.
"...All Yugoslavs had educational opportunities, jobs, food, and housing regardless of nationality. Tito, seen by most as a benevolent dictator, brought peaceful co-existence to the Balkan region, a region historically synonymous with factionalism."
Jump up ^ Miller, Matt (2 May 2012). "What Singapore can teach us". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2015-11-25.
Jump up ^ "Abdullah II King Of Jordan". IMDb. Retrieved 2018-02-07.
Jump up ^ Olson, Mancur (1993). "Dictatorship, Democracy, and Development". American Political Science Review. 87 (3).
Further reading[edit]
Friedrich, Carl J.; Brzezinski, Zbigniew K. (1965). Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (2nd ed.). Praeger.
Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce; Smith, Alastair; Siverson, Randolph M.; Morrow, James D. (2003). The Logic of Political Survival. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-63315-9.
William J. Dobson (2013). The Dictator's Learning Curve: Inside the Global Battle for Democracy. Anchor. ISBN 978-0307477552.
Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and Alastair Smith (2011). The Dictator's Handbook: Why Bad Behavior is Almost Always Good Politics. Random House. p. 272. ISBN 9781610390446. OCLC 701015473.
Jan C. Behrends. Dictatorship: Modern Tyranny Between Leviathan and Behemoth in Docupedia Zeitgeschichte, 14 March 2017.
Look up dictatorship in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

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text:
Public interest litigation in India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Public Interest Litigation is directly filed by an individual or group of people in the Supreme Court of India and High Courts of India and judicial magistrate. It was felt that their interests are undermined by the government.In such a situation, the court directly accepts the public good. It is a new legal horizon in which court of law can initiate and enforce action to serve and secure significant Public Interest.
Contents
1 History
2 Frivolous PILs not permitted
2.1 Importance of PIL
2.2 PIL can be filed against govt only, not individuals
2.3 Filing of PIL under act 32, 226 or 133
2.4 Landmark PIL cases
3 Study on the impact of PIL
4 Further considerations
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
See also: Constitution of India
In December 1979, Kapila Hingorani had filed a petition regarding the condition of the prisoners detained in the Bihar jail, whose suits were pending in the court. The special thing about this petition was that it was not filed by any single prisoner, rather it was filed by various prisoners of the Bihar jail. The case was filed in the Supreme Court before the bench headed by Justice P.N.Bhagwati. This petition was filed by the name of the prisoner, Hussainara Khatoon, hence the petition came to be known as Hussainara Khatoon Vs State of Bihar. In this case, the Supreme Court upheld that the prisoners should get benefit of free legal aid and fast hearing. Because of this case 40,000 prisoners, whose suits were pending in the court, were released from the jail. There after many cases like this have registered in the supreme court. It was in the case of SP Gupta vs Union of India that the Supreme Court of India defined the term "public interest litigation" in the Indian Context.
The concept of public interest litigation (PIL) is in consonance with the principles enshrined in Article 39A of the Constitution of India to protect and deliver prompt social justice with the help of law. Before the 1980s, only the aggrieved party could approach the courts for justice. After the emergency era the high court reached out to the people, devising a means for any person of the public (or an NGO) to approach the court seeking legal remedy in cases where the public interest is at stake. Justice P. N. Bhagwati and Justice V. R. Krishna Iyer were among the first judges to admit PILs in court.[1] Filing a PIL is not as cumbersome as a usual legal case; there have been instances when letters and telegrams addressed to the court have been taken up as PILs and heard.[2]
The Court entertained a letter from two professors at the University of Delhi seeking enforcement of the constitutional right of inmates at a protective home in Agra who were living in inhuman and degrading conditions. In Miss Veena Sethi v. State of Bihar, 1982 (2) SCC 583 : 1982 SCC (Cri) 511 : AIR 1983 SC 339, the court treated a letter addressed to a judge of the court by the Free Legal Aid Committee in Hazaribagh, Bihar as a writ petition. In Citizens for Democracy through its President v. State of Assam and Others, 1995 KHC 486 : 1995 (2) KLT SN 74 : 1995 (3) SCC 743 : 1995 SCC (Cri) 600 : AIR 1996 SC 2193, the court entertained a letter from Shri Kuldip Nayar (a journalist, in his capacity as President of Citizens for Democracy) to a judge of the court alleging human-rights violations of Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act (TADA) detainees; it was treated as a petition under Article 32 of the Constitution of India.[3][4]
Frivolous PILs not permitted[edit]
PIL is a rule of law declared by the courts of record. However, the person (or entity) filing the petition must prove to the satisfaction of the court that the petition is being filed for the public interest and not as a frivolous litigation for pecuniary gain. The 38th Chief Justice of India, S. H. Kapadia, has stated that substantial "fines" would be imposed on litigants filing frivolous PILs. His statement was widely welcomed, because the instance of frivolous PILs for pecuniary interest has increased; a bench of the high court has also expressed concern over the misuse of PILs. The bench has issued a set of guidelines it wanted all courts in the country to observe when entertaining PILs.
In a September 2008 speech, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh expressed concern over the misuse of PILs: “Many would argue that like in so many things in public life, in PILs too we may have gone too far. Perhaps a corrective was required and we have had some balance restored in recent times”.[citation needed] In what may be a tool against frivolous PILs, the Union Ministry of Law and Justice is preparing a law regulating PILs. Helping the ministry was former Chief Justice of India late P. N. Bhagwati who pioneered PIL. Justice V. R. Krishna Iyer, was also part of it till his death on 4 December 2014.
The judgment said: “This court wants to make it clear that an action at law is not a game of chess. A litigant who approaches the court must come with clean hands. He cannot prevaricate and take inconsistent positions”. Since the Amar Singh petition was vague, not in conformance with the rules of procedure and contained inconsistencies, the court did not explore his primary grievance (infringement of privacy). One positive outcome of the case was the court’s request that the government “frame certain statutory guidelines to prevent interception of telephone conversation on unauthorised requests”. In this case, Reliance Communications acted upon a forged request from police.
In Kalyaneshwari vs Union of India, the court cited the misuse of public-interest litigation in business conflicts. A writ petition was filed in the Gujarat High Court seeking the closure of asbestos units, stating that the material was harmful to humans. The high court dismissed the petition, stating that it was filed at the behest of rival industrial groups who wanted to promote their products as asbestos substitutes. A similar petition was then submitted to the Supreme Court. The plea was dismissed, and the plaintiff was assessed a fine of ₹ 100,000. The judgment read: “The petition lacks bona fide and in fact was instituted at the behest of a rival industrial group, which was interested in banning of the activity of mining and manufacturing of asbestos. A definite attempt was made by it to secure a ban on these activities with the ultimate intention of increasing the demand of cast and ductile iron products as they are some of the suitable substitute for asbestos. Thus it was litigation initiated with ulterior motive of causing industrial imbalance and financial loss to the industry of asbestos through the process of court”. The court stated that it was its duty in such circumstances to punish the petitioners under the Contempt of Courts Act; it must “ensure that such unscrupulous and undesirable public interest litigation be not instituted in courts of law so as to waste the valuable time of the courts as well as preserve the faith of the public in the justice delivery system”.
“By now it ought to be plain and obvious that this Court does not approve of an approach that would encourage petitions filed for achieving oblique motives on the basis of wild and reckless allegations made by individuals, i.e., busybodies”, a bench of Justices B. Sudershan Reddy and S. S. Nijjar observed in their judgment. The bench overturned an April 2010 Andhra Pradesh High Court decision, which set aside the services of a retired Indian Police Service (IPS) officer employed by the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple. The high court’s decision concerned a public-interest petition filed by S. Mangati Gopal Reddy, who alleged in court that the former IPS officer was involved in the loss of “300 gold dollars” from the temple and should not continue in office. The Supreme Court found that the high court decided against the accused with little information about Reddy himself.
“The parameters within which PILs can be entertained have been laid down. The credentials, the motive and the objective of the petitioner have to be apparently and patently aboveboard. Otherwise the petition is liable to be dismissed at the threshold”, the judgment stated. As for why it is skeptical about a large number of PILs, the bench spoke for the Supreme Court when it said that the “judiciary has to be extremely careful to see that behind the beautiful veil of public interest an ugly private malice, vested interest and/or publicity-seeking is not lurking. This Court (Supreme Court of India) must not allow its process to be abused for oblique considerations by masked phantoms who monitor at times from behind”.
Importance of PIL[edit]
Public interest litigation gives a wider description to the right to equality, life and personality which is guaranteed under part III of the Constitution of India.
It has introduced some kinds of reliefs or remedies under the writ jurisdiction.
It also functions as an effective instrument for changes in the society or social welfare.
Through public interest litigation, any public or person can seek remedy on behalf of the oppressed class by introducing a PIL.[5]
PIL can be filed against govt only, not individuals[edit]
A PIL may be filed against state government, central government, municipal authority not any private party. But, private person may be included in PIL as ‘Respondent’, after concerned of state authority. i.e. a private factory in Mumbai which is causing pollution then public interest litigation can be file against government of Mumbai, state pollution central board including that private factory of Mumbai.[6]
Filing of PIL under act 32, 226 or 133[edit]
The court must be satisfied that the Writ petition fulfils some basic needs for PIL as the letter is addressed by the aggrieved person, public spirited individual and a social action group for the enforcement of legal or Constitutional rights to any person who are not able to approach the court for redress. Any citizen can file a public case by filing a petition:
Under Act 32 of the Indian Constitution, in the Supreme court.
Under Act 226 of the Indian Constitution, in the High court.
Under sec. 133 of the Criminal Procedure Code, in the court of Magistrate.[7]
Landmark PIL cases[edit]
Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan
This case was against sexual harassment at work place, brought by Bhanwari Devi to stop the marriage of a one year old girl in rural Rajasthan. Five men raped her. She faced numerous problems when she attempted to seek justice. Naina Kapoor decided to initiate a PIL to challenge sexual harassment at work place, in this supreme court.
The judgement of the case recognized sexual harassment as a violation of the fundamental constitutional rights of Article 14, Article 15 and Article 21. The guidelines also directed for sexual harassment prevention.[8]
M. C. Mehta v. Union of India
In this case, the court passed three landmark judgements and several orders against polluting industries which were more than 50,000 in the Ganga basin. The court shut down numerous industries and allowing them to reopen only after controlled pollution. At the end, millions of people escaped air and water pollution in the Ganga basin, including eight states in India.[9]
Study on the impact of PIL[edit]
According to a controversial study by social scientist Hans Dembowski, PIL has been successful in making official authorities accountable to NGOs. While Dembowski also found some effect at the grassroots level, PIL cases dealing with major environmental grievances in the Kolkata urban agglomeration did not tackle underlying problems (such as inadequate town planning). Dembowski's book Taking the State to Supreme Court - Public Interest Litigation and the Public Sphere in Metropolitan India was originally published by Oxford University Press in 2001. The publisher, however, discontinued distribution because of contempt of court proceedings initiated by the Calcutta High Court. The author (who claimed he was never officially notified by the court) has republished the book online with German NGO Asia House.[10][11]
Further considerations[edit]
A bench consisting of Justices G. S. Singhvi and Asok Kumar Ganguly pointed out that laws enacted for achieving the goals set out in the Preamble to the Constitution were inadequate; the benefits of welfare measures embodied in the legislation had not reached millions of poor people, and efforts to bridge the gap between rich and poor did not yield the desired results.
Writing the judgment in a case concerning sewage workers, Justice Singhvi stated: “The most unfortunate part of the scenario is that whenever one of the three constituents of the state i.e., the judiciary issues directions for ensuring that the right to equality, life, and liberty no longer remains illusory for those who suffer from the handicap of poverty, illiteracy and ignorance, and directions are given for implementation of the laws enacted by the legislature for the benefit of the have-nots, a theoretical debate is started by raising the bogey of judicial activism or overreach”.[12]
The bench clarified that it was necessary to erase the impression on some that the superior courts, by entertaining PIL petitions for the poor (who could not seek protection of their rights), exceeded the unwritten boundaries of their jurisdiction. The judges said it was the duty of the judiciary (like that of the legislative and executive constituents of the state) to protect the rights of every citizen and ensure that all lived with dignity.
Such cases may be filed in the public interest when victims lack the capability to commence litigation, or their freedom to petition the court has been encroached. The court may proceed suo motu, or cases can proceed on the petition of an individual or group. Courts may also proceed on the basis of letters written to them, or newspaper reports.
The Centre for Law and Policy Research, Bangalore (CLPR) hosts a Public Interest Lawyering Hub,[13] where resources on PIL are available.
See also[edit]
Rule of law
Rule according to higher law
Parens patriae
Qui tam
Legal aid
Constitution of India
Constitutional theory
Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India
Class action
Civil society
Weiquan movement
References[edit]
Jump up ^ PIL A Boon Or A Bane
Jump up ^ Introduction to Public Interest Litigation
Jump up ^ Constitution of India
Jump up ^ Divine Retreat Centre Vs. State of Kerala and Others [AIR 2008 SC 1614
Jump up ^ "PIL AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN "PUBILC INTEREST LITIGATION" AND "PRIVATE INTEREST LITIGATION" - Into Legal World". Into Legal World. Retrieved 2017-12-07.
Jump up ^ "PIL AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN "PUBILC INTEREST LITIGATION" AND "PRIVATE INTEREST LITIGATION" - Into Legal World". Into Legal World. Retrieved 2017-12-07.
Jump up ^ "PIL AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN "PUBILC INTEREST LITIGATION" AND "PRIVATE INTEREST LITIGATION" - Into Legal World". Into Legal World. Retrieved 2017-12-07.
Jump up ^ "PIL AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN "PUBILC INTEREST LITIGATION" AND "PRIVATE INTEREST LITIGATION" - Into Legal World". Into Legal World. Retrieved 2017-12-07.
Jump up ^ "PIL AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN "PUBILC INTEREST LITIGATION" AND "PRIVATE INTEREST LITIGATION" - Into Legal World". Into Legal World. Retrieved 2017-12-07.
Jump up ^ Taking the State to Court
Jump up ^ Dembowski, Hans (2009). "Erratic justice?". Development and Cooperation. Frankfurt am Main: Societäts-Verlag. 36 (3): 122–123.
Jump up ^ "Supreme Court Judgment on Scavengers working under the Delhi Jal Board (Civil Appeal No 5322 of 2011)".
Jump up ^ Public Interest Lawyering Hub
External links[edit]
British Council's LEGAL eNEWS compares Indian and British experiences on public interest litigation
Public interest litigation described on Helplinelaw - detailed pages explaining various aspects of PILs in Indian law
Right to Food Campaign in India - information about one of the most significant PILs on rights to food in the world
Bodhisattwa Gautam vs. Subhra Chakraborty: a case where PIL introduced the case to court
Environmental Law Research and Guidance Foundation (India) - more judgments on Public Interest Environmental Law
Supreme Court of India - official website of Supreme Court of India
Supreme Court of India - Commonwealth website of Supreme Court of India Judgments
Judgments from the Supreme Court and Other Courts of India - official website of court judgements in India
Cunningham, Clark D. "Public interest litigation in Indian Supreme Court: a study in the light of American experience." Journal of the Indian Law Institute 29 (1987): 494.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_interest_litigation_in_India&oldid=856646573"
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Skandar Keynes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Skandar Keynes
Born
Alexander Amin Casper Keynes [1][2]
(1991-09-05) 5 September 1991 (age 26)
Camden, London, England
Education
Pembroke College, Cambridge
Occupation
Actor
Years active
2001–2015
Known for
Edmund Pevensie in The Chronicles of Narnia
Website
www.skandar-keynes.org
Alexander Amin Casper "Skandar" Keynes (/ˈkeɪnz/; 5 September 1991) is an English former actor. He is best known for starring as Edmund Pevensie in the Chronicles of Narnia film series since 2005.[3] He has appeared in all three instalments, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, Prince Caspian, and most recently The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, which was released on 10 December 2010.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
1.1 Ancestry
2 Career
3 Personal life
4 Filmography
5 Awards and nominations
5.1 Young Artist Awards
5.2 CAMIE Awards
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Early life[edit]
Keynes was born in Camden, London,. His mother is Zelfa Hourani and his father is author Randal Keynes. He has an older sister, Soumaya Anne Keynes (born August 1989), who has appeared in various productions for BBC Radio 4 and now works as an economist at the Institute for Fiscal Studies.[5]
Ancestry[edit]
On his father's side, Keynes is of English descent, and is the grandson of physiologist Richard Keynes, the nephew of two Cambridge professors, the historian Simon Keynes, and the neuroscientist Roger Keynes, the cousin of Catholic writer and apologist Laura Keynes,[6] and the great-great-nephew of economist John Maynard Keynes.[7][8] His great-great-great-grandfather was naturalist Charles Darwin. Keynes' great-grandparents were Nobel Prize laureate Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian and Hester Adrian, Baroness Adrian.[9]
On his mother's side, Keynes is of Lebanese, Persian and Turkish descent.[10] (The nickname Skandar is Pashto[11] for the Greek name "Alexander", Pashto being an Iranic language like Persian, or is short for "Iskandar," an Arabic variant.[12]) Lebanese nationality law states that citizenship is passed on patrilineally, so Keynes is legally a foreigner in the country he considers his second home.[13] His maternal grandparents were Furugh Afnan and Cecil Fadlo Hourani, who was an advisor to the late Tunisian president Habib Bourguiba. The Hourani family were immigrants to Manchester from Marjeyoun in southern Lebanon. Cecil's two brothers were Albert, a major historian of the Middle East, and George, philosopher, historian, and classicist.[citation needed] Furugh Afnan was the great-granddaughter of Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Bahá'í Faith, making Skandar a great great great grandson of Baha'u'llah.[14]
Career[edit]
Keynes auditioned for the role of Edmund Pevensie in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe at the same time as he auditioned for the role of Simon Brown in Nanny McPhee, winning the former while losing the latter to Thomas Sangster. His voice changed, due to puberty, during the filming of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe,[15] so the director used his sister Soumaya to voice some of his lines in the movie.[16]
He reprised his role as Edmund in Prince Caspian, released 16 May 2008. Keynes said he enjoyed the action-oriented stuntwork in the film but bruised his heel during a stunt with a horse. When he later had to run in the same scene, he did so while on pain medication and worried it was noticeable.[17]
He starred again as Edmund in The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, the third installment of The Chronicles of Narnia film series. Filming began in July 2009, and finished in December of the same year. The film was released on 10 December 2010 in Britain and the US. In preparation for this film, Keynes studied to earn his Professional Association of Diving Instructors license for underwater scenes.[18]
Keynes contributed his voice in 2014 to the audio project, In Freedom's Cause as Sir Allan Kerr, which would be the final project of his official acting career.
In 2016, Keynes announced that he is no longer pursuing a career in acting.[19]
Skandar Keynes is now a parliamentary adviser to Crispin Blunt, MP.[20]
Personal life[edit]
Keynes attended the Anna Scher Theatre School from 2000 to 2005, having attended Thornhill Primary School from 1996–2002. He attended the all-boys City of London School from 2005. There he wrote as a film critic for the review section of The Citizen, the City of London School weekly school newspaper. He sat his GCSEs in May and June 2008 and started Sixth Form and his first year of his A-level studies the following September. He studied biology, chemistry, maths, further maths and history at A-level.[21] In October 2010 he began his degree in Arabic and Middle Eastern History at Pembroke College, Cambridge. He was listed as one of Business Insider's "16 Incredibly Impressive Students At Cambridge University".[22] Keynes received his degree in Middle Eastern Studies in 2014.[19]
He and his family have visited Marjeyoun since he was a child. "We've been coming every year to Lebanon and visiting Marjeyoun despite the political situation. I was here in 1996 during Operation Grapes of Wrath. I was four at the time and I had no concept that it was war," Keynes told a reporter. "I remember when the gravity of the situation dawned on me. It was during the 2006 July war, I was 14 then… but it didn't really shake my view of Lebanon as effectively a second home, a place where I come to and I have family."[13] Keynes explains that he is cognizant of the political situation:
"And I understand that in part the law that a mother cannot pass her nationality to her children is tied up with the Palestinian issue, and sometimes I wonder who I am to complain when there are people who have been born and brought up in Lebanon, who speak Arabic better than I ever will and can't get Lebanese citizenship... I would like to see the law changed and would like to be able to be considered Lebanese by the Lebanese government. When I arrive at the airport, I would like to show a Lebanese passport, I would like to go to my [family's] house without having to get permission, but part of me feels that I have to put my hands up in the air and say, 'Well, what I want is not what I'm going to get,' and I don't know how or to what extent I should resign myself to the fact that I'm not Lebanese as far as they are concerned."[13]
Filmography[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2001 Queen Victoria Died in 1901 and is Still Alive Today Waif TV documentary
2003 Ferrari Enzo Ferrari at 8 years old TV film
2005 Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, TheThe Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe Edmund Pevensie
2008 Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian, TheThe Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian Edmund Pevensie
Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian, TheThe Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian T4 Film Special Edmund Pevensie Behind-the-scenes TV programme (23 min.)
2010 Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, TheThe Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader Edmund Pevensie
2014 The Extraordinary Adventures of G.A. Henty: In Freedom's Cause Sir Allan Kerr Audio Drama
Awards and nominations[edit]
Young Artist Awards[edit]
Year
Nominated work
Category
Result
Ref.
2009 The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian Best Performance in a Feature Film – Leading Young Actor Nominated [23]
Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Ensemble Cast Nominated
2011 The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Ensemble Cast Nominated [24]
CAMIE Awards[edit]
Year
Nominated work
Category
Result
Ref.
2006 The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe N/A Won [25]
See also[edit]
Keynes family
Darwin-Wedgwood family
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Findmypast.co.uk". Findmypast.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-03-18.
Jump up ^ London, England, Births and Christening Notices from The Times, 1983-2003.; at ancestry.com
Jump up ^ Skandar Keynes. Internet Movie Database, retrieved 2011-07-18
Jump up ^ The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe; The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian; The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader. Internet Movie Database, retrieved 2011-07-18
Jump up ^ Soumaya Keynes at the Institute for Fiscal Studies Archived 2 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine.. Institute for Fiscal Studies, retrieved 2013-11-23
Jump up ^ West, Ed (2013-06-13). Descendant of Darwin Becomes a Catholic Apologist. The Catholic Herald. Retrieved 2013-07-09.
Jump up ^ Anderson, Jon Lee (2006-07-24). "Change of Plans". The New Yorker. Retrieved 2006-10-18.
Jump up ^ "Randal Hume Keynes1". The Peerage. 2010-11-01. Retrieved 2010-11-01.
Jump up ^ "Notes on the Rendall family" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-05-29. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ SKANDAR KEYNES – Personal Facts. Skandar-keynes.com, 2008-07-31, retrieved 2011-07-18
Jump up ^ Ashraf, Mohsin (2007). Top Ten Lives of the Greatest Monarchs of History. London, UK: LuLu Publications. p. 1. ISBN 1430329394.
Jump up ^ "Skandar". Pronounce Names: The Dictionary of Name Pronunciation. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Elali, Nadine (29 September 2012). "A second home in Lebanon: Talking to Skandar Keynes". NOW Lebanon. Beirut, Lebanon. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Behai, Shua Ullah (2014). Stetson, Eric, ed. A Lost History of the Baha'i Faith: The Progressive Tradition of Baha'u'llah's Forgotten Family. Newark, Delaware: Vox Humri Media. p. 550. ISBN 978-0-692-33135-4.
Jump up ^ Skandar Keynes, Georgie Henley, and Andrew Adamson (2006). The Chronicles of Narnia:The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe [Cast Commentary] (DVD).
Jump up ^ Mark Johnson, Michael Apted (2011). The Chronicles of Narnia:The Voyage of the Dawn Treader[Director's Commentary] (DVD).
Jump up ^ Utichi, Joe (25 June 2008). "RT Interview: Skandar Keynes on the Action Challenge of Prince Caspian: Edmund Pevensie on the new experiences of the Narnian second part". Rotten Tomatoes. Archived from the original on 28 June 2008. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Nemiroff, Perri (2010-12-06). "Interview: The Chronicles Of Narnia's Skandar Keynes". Cinema Blend. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Skandar Keynes - About". skandar-keynes.org. Retrieved 2016-04-13.
Jump up ^ "Commons Committee" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Gadelrab, Roisin (2009-03-13). "Evolution of screen heartthrob Skandar". Islington Tribune. Retrieved 2009-03-22.
Jump up ^ Robinson, Melia; Stranger, Melissa (23 May 2014). "16 Incredibly Impressive Students At Cambridge University". Business Insider. Retrieved 3 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "30th Annual Young Artist Awards". Young Artist Foundation. 2009. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "32nd Annual Young Artist Awards". Young Artist Foundation. 2011. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Awards for Skandar Keynes", Internet Movie Database http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1342727/awards. Retrieved 13 October 2012.
External links[edit]
Official website
Skandar Keynes on IMDb
Prince Caspian Interview (12 May 2008)
Prince Caspian On set interview (July 2007)
Cinema Confidential interview (7 December 2005)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 54443933
LCCN: no2006034908
ISNI: 0000 0001 1764 0782
GND: 142226793
BNF: cb151074673 (data)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Skandar_Keynes&oldid=802370583"
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Cori cycle
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Cori cycle
The Cori cycle (also known as the Lactic acid cycle), named after its discoverers, Carl Ferdinand Cori and Gerty Cori,[1] refers to the metabolic pathway in which lactate produced by anaerobic glycolysis in the muscles moves to the liver and is converted to glucose, which then returns to the muscles and is metabolized back to lactate.[2]
Contents
1 Cycle
2 Significance
3 See also
4 References
5 Sources
Cycle[edit]
Carl Cori and Gerty Cori jointly won the 1947 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, not however for their discovery of the Cori cycle but for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen.
Muscular activity requires ATP, which is provided by the breakdown of glycogen in the skeletal muscles. The breakdown of glycogen, a process known as glycogenolysis, releases glucose in the form of glucose-1-phosphate (G-1-P). The G-1-P is converted to G-6-P by the enzyme phosphoglucomutase. G-6-P is readily fed into glycolysis, (or can go into the pentose phosphate pathway if G-6-P concentration is high) a process that provides ATP to the muscle cells as an energy source. During muscular activity, the store of ATP needs to be constantly replenished. When the supply of oxygen is sufficient, this energy comes from feeding pyruvate, one product of glycolysis, into the Krebs cycle.
When oxygen supply is insufficient, typically during intense muscular activity, energy must be released through anaerobic metabolism. Lactic acid fermentation converts pyruvate to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase. Most importantly, fermentation regenerates NAD+, maintaining the NAD+ concentration so that additional glycolysis reactions can occur. The fermentation step oxidizes the NADH produced by glycolysis back to NAD+, transferring two electrons from NADH to reduce pyruvate into lactate. (Refer to the main articles on glycolysis and fermentation for the details.)
Instead of accumulating inside the muscle cells, lactate produced by anaerobic fermentation is taken up by the liver. This initiates the other half of the Cori cycle. In the liver, gluconeogenesis occurs. From an intuitive perspective, gluconeogenesis reverses both glycolysis and fermentation by converting lactate first into pyruvate, and finally back to glucose. The glucose is then supplied to the muscles through the bloodstream; it is ready to be fed into further glycolysis reactions. If muscle activity has stopped, the glucose is used to replenish the supplies of glycogen through glycogenesis.[3]
Overall, the glycolysis part of the cycle produces 2 ATP molecules at a cost of 6 ATP molecules consumed in the gluconeogenesis part. Each iteration of the cycle must be maintained by a net consumption of 4 ATP molecules. As a result, the cycle cannot be sustained indefinitely. The intensive consumption of ATP molecules indicates that the Cori cycle shifts the metabolic burden from the muscles to the liver.
Significance[edit]
The cycle's importance is based on the prevention of lactic acidosis in the muscle under anaerobic conditions. However, normally before this happens the lactic acid is moved out of the muscles and into the liver.[3]
The cycle is also important in producing ATP, an energy source, during muscle activity. The Cori cycle functions more efficiently when muscle activity has ceased. This allows the oxygen debt to be repaid such that the Krebs cycle and electron transport chain can produce energy at peak efficiency.[3]
The Cori cycle is a much more important source of substrate for gluconeogenesis than food.[4][5] The contribution of Cori cycle lactate to overall glucose production increases with fasting duration before plateauing.[6] Specifically, after 12, 20, and 40 hours of fasting by human volunteers, gluconeogenesis accounts for 41%, 71%, and 92% of glucose production, but the contribution of Cori cycle lactate to gluconeogenesis is 18%, 35%, and 36%, respectively.[6] The remaining glucose production comes from protein breakdown,[6] muscle glycogen,[6] and glycerol from lipolysis.[7]
The drug metformin can cause lactic acidosis in patients with renal failure because metformin inhibits the hepatic gluconeogenesis of the Cori cycle, particularly the mitochondrial respiratory chain complex 1.[8] The buildup of lactate and its substrates for lactate production, pyruvate and alanine, lead to excess lactate.[9] Normally, the excess lactate would be cleared by the kidneys, but in patients with renal failure, the kidneys cannot handle the excess lactic acid.
See also[edit]
Alanine cycle
Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/carbohydratemetabolism.html
Jump up ^ Nelson, David L., & Cox, Michael M.(2005) Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry Fourth Edition. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, p. 543.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Cori Cycle Archived 2008-04-23 at the Wayback Machine.". Retrieved May 3, 2008, from Elmhurst, pp. 1–3.
Jump up ^ Gerich JE, Meyer C, Woerle HJ, Stumvoll M (2001). "Renal gluconeogenesis: Its importance in human glucose homeostasis" (PDF). Diabetes Care. 24 (2): 382–391. doi:10.2337/diacare.24.2.382. PMID 11213896.
Jump up ^ Nuttall FQ, Ngo A, Gannon MC (2008). "Regulation of hepatic glucose production and the role of gluconeogenesis in humans: is the rate of gluconeogenesis constant?" (PDF). Diabetes/metabolism Research and Reviews. 24 (6): 438–458. doi:10.1002/dmrr.863. PMID 18561209.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Katz J, Tayek JA (1998). "Gluconeogenesis and the Cori cycle in 12-, 20-, and 40-h-fasted humans". American Journal of Physiology. 275 (3 Pt 1): E537–E542. PMID 9725823.
Jump up ^ Cahill GF (2006). "Fuel metabolism in starvation" (PDF). Annual Review of Nutrition. 26: 1–22. doi:10.1146/annurev.nutr.26.061505.111258. PMID 16848698.
Jump up ^ Vecchio, S. et al. "Metformin accumulation: lactic acidosis and high plasmatic metformin levels in a retrospective case series of 66 patients on chronic therapy.", Clin Toxicol. 2014;52(2).
Jump up ^ Sirtori CR, Pasik C. "Re-evaluation of a biguanide, metformin: mechanism of action and tolerability". Pharmacol Res 1994; 30.
Sources[edit]
Smith, A.D., Datta, S.P., Smith, G. Howard, Campbell, P.N., Bentley, R., (Eds.) et al.(1997) Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. New York: Oxford University Press.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
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Metabolism: carbohydrate metabolism: glycolysis/gluconeogenesis enzymes
Glycolysis
Hexokinase (HK1, HK2, HK3, Glucokinase)→/Glucose 6-phosphatase←
Glucose isomerase
Phosphofructokinase 1 (Liver, Muscle, Platelet)→/Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase←
Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase (Aldolase A, B, C)
Triosephosphate isomerase
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
Phosphoglycerate kinase
Phosphoglycerate mutase
Enolase
Pyruvate kinase (PKLR, PKM2)
Gluconeogenesis only
to oxaloacetate:
Pyruvate carboxylase
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase
from lactate (Cori cycle):
Lactate dehydrogenase
from alanine (Alanine cycle):
Alanine transaminase
from glycerol:
Glycerol kinase
Glycerol dehydrogenase
Regulatory
Fructose 6-P,2-kinase:fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase
PFKFB1, PFKFB2, PFKFB3, PFKFB4
Bisphosphoglycerate mutase
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cori_cycle&oldid=861368539"
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