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Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development
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Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development constitute an adaptation of a psychological theory originally conceived by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Kohlberg began work on this topic while a psychology graduate student at the University of Chicago[1] in 1958, and expanded upon the theory throughout his life.
The theory holds that moral reasoning, the basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental stages, each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than its predecessor.[2] Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment far beyond the ages studied earlier by Piaget,[3] who also claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages.[2] Expanding on Piaget's work, Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime,[4] a notion that spawned dialogue on the philosophical implications of such research.[5][6]
The six stages of moral development are grouped into three levels: pre-conventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality.
For his studies, Kohlberg relied on stories such as the Heinz dilemma, and was interested in how individuals would justify their actions if placed in similar moral dilemmas. He then analyzed the form of moral reasoning displayed, rather than its conclusion,[6] and classified it as belonging to one of six distinct stages.[7][8][9]
There have been critiques of the theory from several perspectives. Arguments include that it emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other moral values, such as caring;[10] that there is such an overlap between stages that they should more properly be regarded as separate domains; or that evaluations of the reasons for moral choices are mostly post hoc rationalizations (by both decision makers and psychologists studying them) of essentially intuitive decisions.[11]
Nevertheless, an entirely new field within psychology was created as a direct result of Kohlberg's theory, and according to Haggbloom et al.'s study of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, Kohlberg was the 16th most frequently cited psychologist in introductory psychology textbooks throughout the century, as well as the 30th most eminent overall.[12]
Kohlberg's scale is about how people justify behaviors and his stages are not a method of ranking how moral someone's behavior is. There should, however, be a correlation between how someone scores on the scale and how they behave, and the general hypothesis is that moral behaviour is more responsible, consistent and predictable from people at higher levels.[13]
Contents
[hide]
1 Stages
1.1 Pre-conventional
1.2 Conventional
1.3 Post-conventional
1.4 Further stages
2 Theoretical assumptions (philosophy)
2.1 Formal elements
3 Examples of applied moral dilemmas
4 Criticisms
5 Continued relevance
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Stages[edit]
Kohlberg's six stages can be more generally grouped into three levels of two stages each: pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional.[7][8][9] Following Piaget's constructivist requirements for a stage model, as described in his theory of cognitive development, it is extremely rare to regress in stages—to lose the use of higher stage abilities.[14][15] Stages cannot be skipped; each provides a new and necessary perspective, more comprehensive and differentiated than its predecessors but integrated with them.[14][15]
Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
1. Obedience and punishment orientation
(How can I avoid punishment?)
2. Self-interest orientation
(What's in it for me?)
(Paying for a benefit)
Level 2 (Conventional)
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
(Social norms)
(The good boy/girl attitude)
4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
(Law and order morality)
Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles
(Principled conscience)
The understanding gained in each stage is retained in later stages, but may be regarded by those in later stages as simplistic, lacking in sufficient attention to detail.
Pre-conventional[edit]
The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in children, although adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an action by its direct consequences. The pre-conventional level consists of the first and second stages of moral development and is solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society's conventions regarding what is right or wrong but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.[7][8][9]
In Stage one (obedience and punishment driven), individuals focus on the direct consequences of their actions on themselves. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished. "The last time I did that I got spanked, so I will not do it again." The worse the punishment for the act is, the more "bad" the act is perceived to be.[16] This can give rise to an inference that even innocent victims are guilty in proportion to their suffering. It is "egocentric", lacking recognition that others' points of view are different from one's own.[17] There is "deference to superior power or prestige".[17]
An example of obedience and punishment driven morality would be a child refusing to do something because it is wrong and that the consequences could result in punishment. For example, a child's classmate tries to dare the child to skip school. The child would apply obedience and punishment driven morality by refusing to skip school because he would get punished.
Stage two (self-interest driven) expresses the "what's in it for me" position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest but understood in a narrow way which does not consider one's reputation or relationships to groups of people. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, but only to a point where it might further the individual's own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a "You scratch my back, and I'll scratch yours" mentality.[2] The lack of a societal perspective in the pre-conventional level is quite different from the social contract (stage five), as all actions at this stage have the purpose of serving the individual's own needs or interests. For the stage two theorist, the world's perspective is often seen as morally relative.
An example of self-interest driven is when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks, "what's in it for me?" The parents offer the child an incentive by giving a child an allowance to pay them for their chores. The child is motivated by self-interest to do chores.
Conventional[edit]
The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. To reason in a conventional way is to judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and expectations. The conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of moral development. Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong. At this level an individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid, however, and a rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.[7][8][9]
In Stage three (good intentions as determined by social consensus), the self enters society by conforming to social standards. Individuals are receptive to approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society's views. They try to be a "good boy" or "good girl" to live up to these expectations,[2] having learned that being regarded as good benefits the self. Stage three reasoning may judge the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences in terms of a person's relationships, which now begin to include things like respect, gratitude, and the "golden rule". "I want to be liked and thought well of; apparently, not being naughty makes people like me." Conforming to the rules for one's social role is not yet fully understood. The intentions of actors play a more significant role in reasoning at this stage; one may feel more forgiving if one thinks that "they mean well".[2]
In Stage four (authority and social order obedience driven), it is important to obey laws, dictums, and social conventions because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society. Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three. A central ideal or ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. When someone does violate a law, it is morally wrong; culpability is thus a significant factor in this stage as it separates the bad domains from the good ones. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.[2]
Post-conventional[edit]
The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society, and that the individual's own perspective may take precedence over society's view; individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice. People who exhibit post-conventional morality view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms—ideally rules can maintain the general social order and protect human rights. Rules are not absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level.[citation needed]
Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.[7][8][9]
In Stage five (social contract driven), the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet "the greatest good for the greatest number of people".[8] This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is ostensibly based on stage five reasoning.
In Stage six (universal ethical principles driven), moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. Legal rights are unnecessary, as social contracts are not essential for deontic moral action. Decisions are not reached hypothetically in a conditional way but rather categorically in an absolute way, as in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant.[18] This involves an individual imagining what they would do in another's shoes, if they believed what that other person imagines to be true.[19] The resulting consensus is the action taken. In this way action is never a means but always an end in itself; the individual acts because it is right, and not because it avoids punishment, is in their best interest, expected, legal, or previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.[15]
Further stages[edit]
In Kohlberg's empirical studies of individuals throughout their life Kohlberg observed that some had apparently undergone moral stage regression. This could be resolved either by allowing for moral regression or by extending the theory. Kohlberg chose the latter, postulating the existence of sub-stages in which the emerging stage has not yet been fully integrated into the personality.[8] In particular Kohlberg noted a stage 4½ or 4+, a transition from stage four to stage five, that shared characteristics of both.[8] In this stage the individual is disaffected with the arbitrary nature of law and order reasoning; culpability is frequently turned from being defined by society to viewing society itself as culpable. This stage is often mistaken for the moral relativism of stage two, as the individual views those interests of society that conflict with their own as being relatively and morally wrong.[8] Kohlberg noted that this was often observed in students entering college.[8][15]
Kohlberg suggested that there may be a seventh stage—Transcendental Morality, or Morality of Cosmic Orientation—which linked religion with moral reasoning.[20] Kohlberg's difficulties in obtaining empirical evidence for even a sixth stage,[15] however, led him to emphasize the speculative nature of his seventh stage.[5]
Theoretical assumptions (philosophy)[edit]
Kohlberg's stages of moral development are based on the assumption that humans are inherently communicative, capable of reason, and possess a desire to understand others and the world around them. The stages of this model relate to the qualitative moral reasonings adopted by individuals, and so do not translate directly into praise or blame of any individual's actions or character. Arguing that his theory measures moral reasoning and not particular moral conclusions, Kohlberg insists that the form and structure of moral arguments is independent of the content of those arguments, a position he calls "formalism".[6][7]
Kohlberg's theory centers on the notion that justice is the essential characteristic of moral reasoning. Justice itself relies heavily upon the notion of sound reasoning based on principles. Despite being a justice-centered theory of morality, Kohlberg considered it to be compatible with plausible formulations of deontology[18] and eudaimonia.
Kohlberg's theory understands values as a critical component of the right. Whatever the right is, for Kohlberg, it must be universally valid across societies (a position known as "moral universalism"):[7] there can be no relativism. Moreover, morals are not natural features of the world; they are prescriptive. Nevertheless, moral judgments can be evaluated in logical terms of truth and falsity.
According to Kohlberg, someone progressing to a higher stage of moral reasoning cannot skip stages. For example, an individual cannot jump from being concerned mostly with peer judgments (stage three) to being a proponent of social contracts (stage five).[15] On encountering a moral dilemma and finding their current level of moral reasoning unsatisfactory, however, an individual will look to the next level. Realizing the limitations of the current stage of thinking is the driving force behind moral development, as each progressive stage is more adequate than the last.[15] The process is therefore considered to be constructive, as it is initiated by the conscious construction of the individual, and is not in any meaningful sense a component of the individual's innate dispositions, or a result of past inductions.
Formal elements[edit]
Progress through Kohlberg's stages happens as a result of the individual's increasing competence, both psychologically and in balancing conflicting social-value claims. The process of resolving conflicting claims to reach an equilibrium is called "justice operation". Kohlberg identifies two of these justice operations: "equality", which involves an impartial regard for persons, and "reciprocity", which means a regard for the role of personal merit. For Kohlberg, the most adequate result of both operations is "reversibility", in which a moral or dutiful act within a particular situation is evaluated in terms of whether or not the act would be satisfactory even if particular persons were to switch roles within that situation (also known colloquially as "moral musical chairs").[6]
Knowledge and learning contribute to moral development. Specifically important are the individual's "view of persons" and their "social perspective level", each of which becomes more complex and mature with each advancing stage. The "view of persons" can be understood as the individual's grasp of the psychology of other persons; it may be pictured as a spectrum, with stage one having no view of other persons at all, and stage six being entirely socio-centric.[6] Similarly, the social perspective level involves the understanding of the social universe, differing from the view of persons in that it involves an appreciation of social norms.
Examples of applied moral dilemmas[edit]
Kohlberg established the Moral Judgement Interview in his original 1958 dissertation.[4] During the roughly 45-minute tape recorded semi-structured interview, the interviewer uses moral dilemmas to determine which stage of moral reasoning a person uses. The dilemmas are fictional short stories that describe situations in which a person has to make a moral decision. The participant is asked a systemic series of open-ended questions, like what they think the right course of action is, as well as justifications as to why certain actions are right or wrong. The form and structure of these replies are scored and not the content; over a set of multiple moral dilemmas an overall score is derived.[4][9]
A dilemma that Kohlberg used in his original research was the druggist's dilemma: Heinz Steals the Drug In Europe.[5]
Criticisms[edit]
One criticism of Kohlberg's theory is that it emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other values, and so may not adequately address the arguments of those who value other moral aspects of actions. Carol Gilligan has argued that Kohlberg's theory is overly androcentric.[10] Kohlberg's theory was initially developed based on empirical research using only male participants; Gilligan argued that it did not adequately describe the concerns of women.[21] Kohlberg stated that women tend to get stuck at level 3, focusing on details of how to maintain relationships and promote the welfare of family and friends. Men are likely to move on to the abstract principles, and thus have less concern with the particulars of who is involved.[22] Consistent with this observation, Gilligan's theory of moral development does not focus on the value of justice. She developed an alternative theory of moral reasoning based on the ethics of caring.[10] Critics such as Christina Hoff Sommers, however, argued that Gilligan's research is ill-founded, and that no evidence exists to support her conclusion.[23]
Kohlberg's stages are not culturally neutral, as demonstrated by its application to a number of different cultures.[1] Although they progress through the stages in the same order, individuals in different cultures seem to do so at different rates.[24] Kohlberg has responded by saying that although different cultures do indeed inculcate different beliefs, his stages correspond to underlying modes of reasoning, rather than to those beliefs.[1][25]
Another criticism of Kohlberg’s theory is that people frequently demonstrate significant inconsistency in their moral judgements.[26] This often occurs in moral dilemmas involving drinking and driving and business situations where participants have been shown to reason at a subpar stage, typically using more self-interest driven reasoning (i.e., stage two) than authority and social order obedience driven reasoning (i.e., stage four).[26][27] Kohlberg’s theory is generally considered to be incompatible with inconsistencies in moral reasoning.[26] Carpendale has argued that Kohlberg’s theory should be modified to focus on the view that the process of moral reasoning involves integrating varying perspectives of a moral dilemma rather than simply fixating on applying rules.[27] This view would allow for inconsistency in moral reasoning since individuals may be hampered by their inability to consider different perspectives.[26] Krebs and Denton have also attempted to modify Kohlberg’s theory to account for a multitude of conflicting findings, but eventually concluded that the theory is not equipped to take into consideration how most individuals make moral decisions in their everyday lives.[28]
Other psychologists have questioned the assumption that moral action is primarily a result of formal reasoning. Social intuitionists such as Jonathan Haidt, for example, argue that individuals often make moral judgments without weighing concerns such as fairness, law, human rights, or abstract ethical values. Thus the arguments analyzed by Kohlberg and other rationalist psychologists could be considered post hoc rationalizations of intuitive decisions; moral reasoning may be less relevant to moral action than Kohlberg's theory suggests.[11]
Continued relevance[edit]
Kohlberg's body of work on the stages of moral development has been utilized by others working in the field. One example is the Defining Issues Test (DIT) created in 1979 by James Rest,[29] originally as a pencil-and-paper alternative to the Moral Judgement Interview.[30] Heavily influenced by the six-stage model, it made efforts to improve the validity criteria by using a quantitative test, the Likert scale, to rate moral dilemmas similar to Kohlberg's.[31] It also used a large body of Kohlbergian theory such as the idea of "post-conventional thinking".[32][33] In 1999 the DIT was revised as the DIT-2;[30] the test continues to be used in many areas where moral testing is required,[34] such as divinity, politics, and medicine.[35][36][37]
See also[edit]
Psychology portal
Elliot Turiel
Robert Kegan
William Damon, Purpose
Jonathan Haidt, Social intuitionism
Carol Gilligan, Ethics of care
Jane Loevinger, Stages of ego development
James W. Fowler, Stages of faith development
Moral hierarchy
Positive disintegration
Universal value
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Crain, William C. (1985). Theories of Development (2Rev ed.). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-913617-7. Archived from the original on 2011-10-04.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Kohlberg, Lawrence (1973). "The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment". Journal of Philosophy. The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 70, No. 18. 70 (18): 630–646. doi:10.2307/2025030. JSTOR 2025030.
Jump up ^ Piaget, Jean (1932). The Moral Judgment of the Child. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co. ISBN 0-02-925240-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kohlberg, Lawrence (1958). The Development of Modes of Thinking and Choices in Years 10 to 16 (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Chicago.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kohlberg, Lawrence (1981). Essays on Moral Development, Vol. I: The Philosophy of Moral Development. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-064760-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kohlberg, Lawrence; Charles Levine; Alexandra Hewer (1983). Moral stages : a current formulation and a response to critics. Basel, NY: Karger. ISBN 3-8055-3716-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Kohlberg, Lawrence (1971). From Is to Ought: How to Commit the Naturalistic Fallacy and Get Away with It in the Study of Moral Development. New York: Academic Press.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Kohlberg, Lawrence (1976). "Moral stages and moralization: The cognitive-developmental approach". In Lickona, T. Moral Development and Behavior: Theory, Research and Social Issues. Holt, NY: Rinehart and Winston.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Colby, Anne; Kohlberg, L. (1987). The Measurement of Moral Judgment Vol. 2: Standard Issue Scoring Manual. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24447-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gilligan, Carol (1982). "In a Different Voice: Women's Conceptions of Self and Morality". Harvard Educational Review. 47 (4).
^ Jump up to: a b Haidt, J (2001). "The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment". Psychological Review. 108: 814–834. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.4.814.
Jump up ^ Haggbloom, S.J.; et al. (2002). "The 100 Most Eminent Psychologists of the 20th Century". Review of General Psychology. 6 (2): 139–15. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139.
Jump up ^ Section on Kohlberg's stages from "Theories of Development" by W.C. Crain (1985) Archived 2011-10-04 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Walker, Lawrence, J. (February 1989). "A longitudinal study of moral reasoning". Child Development. Child Development, Vol. 60, No. 1. 60 (1): 157–166. doi:10.2307/1131081. JSTOR 1131081. PMID 2702866.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Colby, Anne; Gibbs, J.; Lieberman, M.; Kohlberg, L. (1983). A Longitudinal Study of Moral Judgment: A Monograph for the Society of Research in Child Development. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 99932-7-870-X.
Jump up ^ Shaffer, David R. (2004). Social and Personality Development (5th ed.). Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 0-534-60700-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Kohlberg, Lawrence (Oct 1974). "Education, Moral Development and Faith". Journal of Moral Education. 4 (1): 5–16. doi:10.1080/0305724740040102.
^ Jump up to: a b Kant, Immanuel (1964). Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. Harper and Row Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-06-131159-6.
Jump up ^ * Rawls, John (1971). A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, MA: Belkap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01772-2.
Jump up ^ Kohlberg, Lawrence; Power, Clark (1981). "Moral Development, Religious Thinking, and the Question of a Seventh Stage". In Kohlberg, Lawrence. Essays on Moral Development Vol. I: Philosophy of Moral Development. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-064760-4.
Jump up ^ Woolfolk, Anita (2012). Educational Psychology. Prentice Hall. p. 101. ISBN 9780132893589.
Jump up ^ Waller, Bruce (2005). Consider Ethics: Theory, Readings, and Contemporary Issues. Pearson Education. p. 115. ISBN 0321202805.
Jump up ^ Sommers, The War Against Boys.
Jump up ^ Harkness, Sara; Edwards, Carolyn P.; Super, Charles M. (1981). "The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment". Developmental Psychology. 17 (5): 595–603. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.17.5.595.
Jump up ^ Kohlberg, Lawrence; Carol Gilligan (1971). The Adolescent as a Philosopher: The Discovery of the Self in a Postconventional World. Daedalus.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Parke, R. D.; Gauvain, M.; Schmuckler, M. A. (2010). Child psychology : a contemporary viewpoint (3rd Canadian ed.). Whitby, ON: McGraw-Hill Ryerson. ISBN 0070782385.
^ Jump up to: a b Carpendale, J (1 June 2000). "Kohlberg and Piaget on Stages and Moral Reasoning". Developmental Review. 20 (2): 181–205. doi:10.1006/drev.1999.0500.
Jump up ^ Krebs, Dennis L.; Denton, Kathy (1 January 2005). "Toward a More Pragmatic Approach to Morality: A Critical Evaluation of Kohlberg's Model" (PDF). Psychological Review. 112 (3): 629–649. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.112.3.629. PMID 16060754.
Jump up ^ Rest, James (1979). Development in Judging Moral Issues. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-0891-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Rest, James; Narvaez, D.; Bebeau, M.; Thoma, S. (1999). "DIT-2: Devising and testing a new instrument of moral judgment". Journal of Educational Psychology. 91 (4): 644–659. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.4.644.
Jump up ^ "Center for the Study of Ethical Development". DIT --Sample Dilemma: Heinz and the Drug. Archived from the original (Website) on 2007-06-29. Retrieved 2006-12-05.
Jump up ^ Rest, James; Narvaez, D.; Bebeau, M.; Thoma, S. (1999). "A Neo-Kohlbergian Approach: The DIT and Schema Theory". Educational Psychology Review. 11 (4): 291–324. doi:10.1023/A:1022053215271.
Jump up ^ Rest, James; Narvaez, D.; Bebeau, M.; Thoma, S. (1999). Postconventional Moral Thinking: A Neo-Kohlbergian Approach. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-3285-8.
Jump up ^ Rest, James (1986). Moral development: Advances in research and theory. In collaboration with Barnett, R.; Bebeau, M.; Deemer, D.; Getz, I.; Moon, Y.; Spickelmeier, J.; Thoma, S. and Volker, J. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-92254-5.
Jump up ^ Bunch, Wilton H. (2005). "Changing moral judgement in divinity students". Journal of Moral Education. 34 (3): 363–370. doi:10.1080/03057240500211543.
Jump up ^ Muhlberger, P. (2000). "Moral reasoning effects on political participation". Political Psychology. 21 (4): 667–695. doi:10.1111/0162-895X.00212.
Jump up ^ Hedl, John J.; Glazer, H.; Chan, F. (2005). "Improving the Moral Reasoning of Allied Health Students". Journal of Allied Health. 34 (2): 121–122. PMID 16032920.
Further reading[edit]
Crain, William C. (1985). Theories of Development (2Rev ed.). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-913617-7.
Kohlberg, Lawrence (1971). "From 'is' to 'ought': How to commit the naturalistic fallacy and get away with it in the study of moral development". In Theodore Mischel (ed.). Cognitive development and epistemology. New York: Academic Press. pp. 151–284. ISBN 0-12-498640-4. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Kohlberg, Lawrence (1973). "The Claim to Moral Adequacy of a Highest Stage of Moral Judgment". Journal of Philosophy. The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 70, No. 18. 70 (18): 630–646. doi:10.2307/2025030. JSTOR 2025030.
Kohlberg, Lawrence (1981). Essays on Moral Development, Vol. I: The Philosophy of Moral Development. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-064760-4.
Kohlberg, Lawrence; Charles Levine; Alexandra Hewer (1983). Moral stages : a current formulation and a response to critics. Basel, NY: Karger. ISBN 3-8055-3716-6.
External links[edit]
Library resources about
Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development
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Moral Development and Moral Education: An Overview
Kohlberg's Moral Stages
Boston Review article covering the topic and other related areas
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development
Summary and inspiration for Kohlbergs theory of moral development stages
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Shantanu
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Shantanu
Mahabharata character
Shantanu, a king of Hastinapura in the Mahabharata, saw a beautiful woman on the banks of the river Ganga
Information
Family
Pratipa (father)
Spouse(s)
Ganga and Satyavati
Children
Bhishma, Chitrangada and Vichitravirya
In the epic Mahabharata, Shantanu was a Kuru king of Hastinapura. He was a descendant of the Bharata race, of the lunar dynasty and great-grandfather of the Pandavas and Kauravas. He was the youngest son of King Pratipa of Hastinapura and had been born in the latter's old age. The eldest son Devapi had leprosy and gave up his inheritance to become a hermit. The middle son Bahlika (or Vahlika) abandoned his paternal kingdom and started living with his maternal uncle in Balkh and inherited the kingdom from him. Shantanu became the king of Hastinapura by default.
Etymology Shantanu or Santanu is derived from Sanskrit meaning "Wholesome". He is best known for being the father of Bhishma, one of the mightiest warriors of all time.
Contents
[hide]
1 Brahma's Curse & Birth Of Shantanu
2 Shantanu & Ganga
3 Shantanu Reunites With His Son
4 Shantanu & Satyavati
5 References
Brahma's Curse & Birth Of Shantanu[edit]
In his previous birth, Shantanu was a powerful king of the Ikshvaku dynasty named Mahabhisha. Mahabhisha possessed many virtuous qualities, and after performing a thousand Ashwamedha Yagnas and a hundred Rajasuya Yagnas (to qualify as emperor), he had attained heaven after his death. Once he got an opportunity to visit the court of Brahma where all the Devas and Ganga were also present. While the celestials were worshipping Brahma, a wind blew and displaced Ganga's clothes revealing her body. Everybody present there bashfully bent their heads except Mahabhisha who kept on gazing at her body. Upon seeing this act, Brahma lost his temper and cursed him to be born as mortals and that Ganga will cause much emotional pain to him. Mahabhisha then requested Brahma to be born as the son of Kuru king Pratipa and his wish was granted by Brahma.
The Kuru king Pratipa was once meditating, in atonement for the crimes he had committed in seizing the throne of Hastinapur. At that time Ganga took the form of a beautiful woman, approached the king and sat on his right thigh. When he asked her what she wanted, Ganga requested him to become her husband. Pratipa however refused since he had taken a vow not to lust for anybody, and also that she had sat on his right thigh and according to traditions a man's right thigh was for his daughter or daughter-in-law while the left thigh was for his wife. He then proposed that she marry his son, to which she agreed.
A child was born to Pratipa and his wife in their old age. He was named Shantanu because when he was born his father had controlled his passions by ascetic penances. Pratipa then installed Shantanu as king of Hastinapura and retired into the woods to perform penances. Bahlika who was elder than Shantanu also gave permission to him for becoming the king of Hastinapura.
Shantanu & Ganga[edit]
Shantanu Meets Goddess Ganga by Warwick Goble, 1913
Shantanu stops Ganga from drowning their eighth child, who later was known as Bhishma.
Shantanu saw a beautiful woman on the banks of the river Ganges (Ganga) and asked her to marry him. She agreed but with one condition: that Shantanu would not ask any questions about her actions. They married and she later gave birth to a son. But she drowned the child. Shantanu could not ask her the reason, because of his promise, lest she would leave him. One by one, seven sons were born to them and were drowned by Ganga. When Ganga was about to drown the eighth son, Shantanu, devastated, could not restrain himself and confronted her. Finally, Ganga explained to King Shantanu about Brahma's curse given to Mahabhisha and her. Then she told him that their eight children were Eight Vasus who were cursed by Vasishtha to be born on earth as mortal humans however when they pacified him, he limited his curse and told them that they would be freed from this curse within a year of their birth as humans. So she released the seven of them from this life by drowning them all. However the Vasu Dyaus was cursed to live a long life and to never have a wife or have children. But the sage also gave a boon to him that he would be virtuous, conversant with all the holy scriptures and will be an obedient son to his father. that she will take him to the heavens to train him properly for the King's throne and status. With these words she disappeared along with the child while Shantanu was struck with grief thinking about spending the rest of his life without her.
Shantanu Reunites With His Son[edit]
Painting depicting presentation by Ganga of her son Devavrata (the future Bhishma) to his father, Shantanu
Shantanu, filled with grief from the loss of his wife and son, began to practise Brahmacharya and ruled his kingdom extremely well. By merely adopting virtuous behaviour, Shantanu was easily able to conquer the entire world without lifting weapons. All the kings declared Shantanu as Emperor and his reign was a peaceful one. Shantanu gave up hunting and gained popularity from his subjects.
One day, while walking along the banks of the Ganga, Shantanu saw that the river had become shallow. While searching for the cause of this phenomenon, he came across a handsome young boy who had checked the river's flow with his celestial weapon. The young boy was his son however he didn't recognize this because of only having seen him for a few moments after his birth. The boy recognized that he was his father however didn't reveal it to him instead disappearing in his very sight using his powers of illusion. Shantanu upon seeing this wondered whether the boy was actually his son and called upon Ganga to show the boy to him. Ganga thus appeared. She then revealed to him that the boy was actually his son Devavrata and that he was taught the knowledge of the holy scriptures by the sage Vasishtha and the art of warfare by Parshurama. After revealing the truth about Devavrata she told Shantanu to take him back with to Hastinapura. Upon reaching the capital Shantanu crowned Devavrata as the heir-apparent to the throne.[citation needed]
Shantanu & Satyavati[edit]
A painting by Raja Ravi Varma depicting Shantanu wooing the fisherwoman Satyavati
Devavrata taking the Bhishma Pratigya
Four years later, Shantanu while travelling near the banks of Yamuna smelled a sweet scent coming from an unknown direction. While searching for the cause of the scent, he came across Satyavati from whom the smell of scent was coming. Satyavati was an adopted daughter of the chief of the fishermen of her village. Upon seeing her, Shantanu fell in love with her and desired to her. Upon asking for his consent, her father agreed to the marriage on condition that Satyavati's son would inherit the throne of Hastinapura.
King Shantanu was unable to give his word on accession as his eldest son Devavrata was the heir to the throne. However, Devavrata came to know about this and for the sake of his father, gave his word to the chief that he would renounce all his claims to the throne, in favour of Satyavati's children. To reassure the skeptical chief, further he also vowed lifelong celibacy to ensure that future generations borne of Satyavati would also not be challenged by his offsprings. Upon hearing this vow he immediately agreed to the marriage of Satyavati and Shantanu. Devavrata was named as Bhishma (one who has taken a terrible vow) by the celestials because of the terrible oath he took. Upon returning with Satyavati to Hastinapura he told about his vow to his father. Upon hearing about this Shantanu became highly impressed and gave him a boon that he will only die if he chooses so. Shantanu and Satyavati went on to have two sons, Chitrāngada and Vichitravirya. After Shantanu's death, Vichitravirya became the king of Hastinapura because Chitrangada was killed by a gandharva of same name when Shantanu was still alive.[citation needed]
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text:
Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses"
Single by U2
from the album Achtung Baby
B-side
"Paint It Black"
"Fortunate Son"
Released
August 1992
Format
CD, cassette, 7" and 12" vinyl
Recorded
1991
Genre
Rock
Length
3:54 (Temple Bar edit)
5:16 (Album version)
Label
Island
Songwriter(s)
U2 (music), Bono (lyrics)
Producer(s)
Steve Lillywhite, Daniel Lanois and Brian Eno
U2 singles chronology
"Even Better Than the Real Thing"
(1992) "Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses"
(1992) "Numb"
(1993)
"Even Better Than the Real Thing"
(1992) "Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses"
(1992) "Numb"
(1993)
Achtung Baby track listing
"Until the End of the World"
(4) "Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses"
(5) "So Cruel"
(6)
"Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses" is the fifth track on U2's 1991 album, Achtung Baby. It was released as the album's fifth and final single in 1992.
Contents
[hide]
1 Writing and recording
2 Single release
3 Live performances
4 Cover versions
5 Formats and track listings
6 Charts
6.1 Weekly charts
6.2 Year-end charts
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Writing and recording[edit]
"Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses" began as a demo that the band recorded at STS Studios in 1990.[1] The band worked on it during the formal Achtung Baby sessions, including several failed attempts at Hansa Studios in Berlin.[2] This produced several versions of the song and about a dozen mixes.[3] However, the original demo remained their preferred version.[1] Producer Jimmy Iovine, in particular, expressed his preference for the demo version when lead vocalist Bono played it for him.[1] During the group's time recording in Dublin in 1991, producer Steve Lillywhite was brought on to provide a "fresh pair of ears" and mix the song.[3] The album version most closely resembles the original demo.
Lillywhite recalls that, "They hated that song. I spent a month on it and I still don't think it was as realised as it could've been. The Americans had heard it and said, 'That's your radio song there', because they were having trouble with some of the more industrial elements [of the album]. It's almost like a covers band doing a U2 moment. Maybe we tried too hard."[2] Bono said, "It's a song I feel we didn't quite nail on the record because there was another whole set of lyrics that were dumped and I wrote those quickly and off we went."[3] The band later released an alternately arranged "Temple Bar Remix" as the single, the version of the song they most prefer.[3] The band also has claimed they find the song difficult to perform in concert. Bassist Adam Clayton said, "It's a great torch song, with melody and emotion, but I don't think we ever captured it again and we have never really been able to play the song live."[1]
Single release[edit]
When the covers to "Even Better Than the Real Thing," "The Fly," "Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses," and "Mysterious Ways" are arranged, a picture of the band members driving a Trabant is formed.
The single included Bono's solo version of "Can't Help Falling in Love," which was recorded in STS studios in Dublin on 29 June 1992 for the movie Honeymoon in Vegas.[4]
Live performances[edit]
The song was performed in full during the first two legs and the first show of the third leg during the Zoo TV Tour in 1992. It made a few appearances during the rest of the tour in a shorter, solo acoustic form. Lines from the song were added at the end of their song "Bad" during the final leg of the Elevation Tour. During the Vertigo Tour, the song has appeared on several occasions, first in an electric version similar to the album version, and later in an acoustic version somewhat reminiscent of the "Temple Bar Remix" used for the single.[5]
Cover versions[edit]
Garbage reworked the song for the 2011 tribute album AHK-toong BAY-bi Covered. "Achtung Baby was a huge influence on the first Garbage album," remarked Butch Vig. "It's groovy and gritty, hi-fi and lo-fi, industrial and orchestral. We picked this song because we love the lyrics. We stripped the verses down and changed the major chord to minor chord, which makes the lyrics more bittersweet. We were in the studio making the new Garbage album at the time; this was a good distraction."[6]
Formats and track listings[edit]
7" release
No.
Title
Length
1. "Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses" (Temple Bar edit) 3:54
2. "Paint It Black" 3:22
Cassette release
No.
Title
Length
1. "Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses" (Temple Bar edit) 3:54
2. "Paint It Black" 3:22
3. "Fortunate Son" 2:39
12" and CD release
No.
Title
Length
1. "Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses" (Temple Bar edit) 3:54
2. "Paint It Black" 3:22
3. "Fortunate Son" 2:39
4. "Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses" (Temple Bar remix) 4:49
CD release (UK, France, and Australia)
No.
Title
Length
1. "Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses" (Temple Bar edit) 3:54
2. "Paint It Black" 3:22
3. "Salomé" (Zooromancer remix) 8:02
4. "Can't Help Falling in Love" (Triple Peaks remix) 4:34
Charts[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1992)
Peak
Position
Australia (ARIA)[7] 9
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[8] 20
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[9] 32
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[10] 5
Finland (Suomen virallinen lista)[11] 8
Germany (Official German Charts)[12] 48
Ireland (IRMA)[13] 4
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[14] 14
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[15] 13
Norway (VG-lista)[16] 10
Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[17] 19
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[18] 5
UK Singles (The Official Charts Company)[19] 14
US Billboard Hot 100[20] 35
US Mainstream Rock Tracks[20] 2
US Modern Rock Tracks[20] 7
US Top 40 Mainstream[20] 28
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1993)
Position
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[21] 41
See also[edit]
List of covers of U2 songs - Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d McCormick, Neil (ed), (2006). U2 by U2. HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 0-00-719668-7. p. 228.
^ Jump up to: a b Doyle, Tom (2002-10-10). "10 Years of Turmoil Inside U2". Q.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Stokes, Niall (1996). Into The Heart: The Stories Behind Every U2 Song. London: HarperCollinsPublishers. p. 105. ISBN 0-00-719668-7.
Jump up ^ McGee, Matt (2008). U2: A Diary. Omnibus Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-1-84772-108-2.
Jump up ^ U2tours.com, http://www.u2tours.com (Accessed May 3, 2007)
Jump up ^ "What's On Your Free CD?". Q: 6–7. December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Australian-charts.com – U2 – Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses". ARIA Top 50 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Austriancharts.at – U2 – Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – U2 – Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50.
Jump up ^ "Search Results: Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses". RPM. 1992-12-26. Retrieved 2009-11-24.
Jump up ^ Nyman, Jake (2005). Suomi soi 4: Suuri suomalainen listakirja (in Finnish) (1st ed.). Helsinki: Tammi. ISBN 951-31-2503-3.
Jump up ^ "Musicline.de – U2 Single-Chartverfolgung" (in German). Media Control Charts. PhonoNet GmbH.
Jump up ^ "Irish Singles Chart". The Irish Charts. Retrieved 2009-11-23. Note: U2 must be searched manually.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – U2 – Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses" (in Dutch). Single Top 100.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – U2 – Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses". Top 40 Singles.
Jump up ^ "Norwegiancharts.com – U2 – Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses". VG-lista.
Jump up ^ "Swedishcharts.com – U2 – Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses". Singles Top 100.
Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – U2 – Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses". Swiss Singles Chart.
Jump up ^ "EveryHit.com search results: U2". Everyhit.com. Retrieved 2009-11-22. Note: U2 must be searched manually.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "U2: Charts & Awards: Billboard Singles". Allmusic. Retrieved 2009-12-14.
Jump up ^ "RPM 100 Hit Tracks of 1993". RPM. Archived from the original on August 24, 2017. Retrieved November 23, 2017.
External links[edit]
Lyrics and list of performances at U2.com
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[show]
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e
Achtung Baby
Tracks
"Zoo Station"
"Even Better Than the Real Thing"
"One"
"Until the End of the World"
"Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses"
"So Cruel"
"The Fly"
"Mysterious Ways"
"Tryin' to Throw Your Arms Around the World"
"Ultraviolet (Light My Way)"
"Acrobat"
"Love Is Blindness"
Related articles
Brian Eno
Daniel Lanois
Flood
Zoo TV Tour
Live from Sydney
Zoo TV Live
From the Sky Down
AHK-toong BAY-bi Covered
Rattle and Hum
Zooropa
[show]
v
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e
U2 singles discography
1980s
1980
"Another Day"
"11 O'Clock Tick Tock"
"A Day Without Me"
"I Will Follow"
1981
"Fire"
"Gloria"
1982
"A Celebration"
"I Will Follow" (live recorded by Veronica's Countdown)
1983
"New Year's Day"
"Two Hearts Beat as One"
"Sunday Bloody Sunday"
1984
"I Will Follow" (live, from Under a Blood Red Sky)
"Pride (In the Name of Love)"
1985
"The Unforgettable Fire"
1987
"With or Without You"
"I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For"
"Where the Streets Have No Name"
"In God's Country"
1988
"One Tree Hill"
"Desire"
"Angel of Harlem"
1989
"When Love Comes to Town" (feat. B.B. King)
"All I Want Is You"
1990s
1991
"The Fly"
"Mysterious Ways"
1992
"One"
"Even Better Than the Real Thing"
"Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses"
1993
"Numb"
"Lemon"
"Stay (Faraway, So Close!)"
1995
"Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me"
"Miss Sarajevo" (as Passengers)
1997
"Discothèque"
"Staring at the Sun"
"Last Night on Earth"
"Please"
"If God Will Send His Angels"
"Mofo"
1998
"Sweetest Thing"
2000s
2000
"Beautiful Day"
2001
"Stuck in a Moment You Can't Get Out Of"
"Elevation"
"Walk On"
2002
"Electrical Storm"
2004
"Vertigo"
2005
"All Because of You"
"Sometimes You Can't Make It on Your Own"
"City of Blinding Lights"
"Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" (live, with Paul McCartney)
2006
"One" (with Mary J. Blige)
"The Saints Are Coming" (feat. Green Day)
2007
"Window in the Skies"
2008
"The Ballad of Ronnie Drew" (with The Dubliners, Kíla, and A Band of Bowsies)
2009
"Get On Your Boots"
"Magnificent"
"I'll Go Crazy If I Don't Go Crazy Tonight"
2010s
2011
"I Will Follow" (live from Glastonbury)
2013
"Ordinary Love"
2014
"Invisible"
"The Miracle (Of Joey Ramone)"
"Every Breaking Wave"
2015
"Song for Someone"
2017
"The Blackout"
"You're The Best Thing About Me"
"American Soul"
2018
"Get Out Of Your Own Way"
"Lights Of Home"
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Categories:
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