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Liquefied petroleum gas
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Not to be confused with Liquefied natural gas.
Two 45 kg (99 lb) LPG cylinders in New Zealand used for domestic supply.
LPG minibuses in Hong Kong
LPG Ford Falcon taxicab in Perth
Liquefied petroleum gas or liquid petroleum gas (LPG or LP gas), also referred to as simply propane or butane, are flammable mixtures of hydrocarbon gases used as fuel in heating appliances, cooking equipment, and vehicles.
It is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant[1] and a refrigerant,[2] replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer. When specifically used as a vehicle fuel it is often referred to as autogas.
Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are mostly propane (C
3H
8), mostly butane (C
4H
10) and, most commonly, mixes including both propane and butane. In the northern hemisphere winter, the mixes contain more propane, while in summer, they contain more butane.[3][4] In the United States, mainly two grades of LPG are sold: commercial propane and HD-5. These specifications are published by the Gas Processors Association (GPA)[5] and the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM).[6] Propane/butane blends are also listed in these specifications.
Propylene, butylenes and various other hydrocarbons are usually also present in small concentrations. HD-5 limits the amount of propylene that can be placed in LPG to 5%, and is utilized as an autogas specification. A powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can be detected easily. The internationally recognized European Standard is EN 589. In the United States, tetrahydrothiophene (thiophane) or amyl mercaptan are also approved odorants,[7] although neither is currently being utilized.
LPG is prepared by refining petroleum or "wet" natural gas, and is almost entirely derived from fossil fuel sources, being manufactured during the refining of petroleum (crude oil), or extracted from petroleum or natural gas streams as they emerge from the ground. It was first produced in 1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and the first commercial products appeared in 1912. It currently provides about 3% of all energy consumed, and burns relatively cleanly with no soot and very few sulfur emissions. As it is a gas, it does not pose ground or water pollution hazards, but it can cause air pollution. LPG has a typical specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for fuel oil and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium grade petrol (gasoline).[8] However, its energy density per volume unit of 26 MJ/L is lower than either that of petrol or fuel oil, as its relative density is lower (about 0.5–0.58 kg/L, compared to 0.71–0.77 kg/L for gasoline).
As its boiling point is below room temperature, LPG will evaporate quickly at normal temperatures and pressures and is usually supplied in pressurised steel vessels. They are typically filled to 80–85% of their capacity to allow for thermal expansion of the contained liquid. The ratio between the volumes of the vaporized gas and the liquefied gas varies depending on composition, pressure, and temperature, but is typically around 250:1. The pressure at which LPG becomes liquid, called its vapour pressure, likewise varies depending on composition and temperature; for example, it is approximately 220 kilopascals (32 psi) for pure butane at 20 °C (68 °F), and approximately 2,200 kilopascals (320 psi) for pure propane at 55 °C (131 °F). LPG is heavier than air, unlike natural gas, and thus will flow along floors and tend to settle in low spots, such as basements. There are two main dangers from this. The first is a possible explosion if the mixture of LPG and air is within the explosive limits and there is an ignition source. The second is suffocation due to LPG displacing air, causing a decrease in oxygen concentration.
Contents
[hide]
1 Uses
1.1 Cooking
1.2 Rural heating
1.3 Motor fuel
1.4 Conversion to gasoline
1.5 Refrigeration
2 Global production
3 Security of supply
4 Comparison with natural gas
5 Environmental effects
6 Fire/explosion risk and mitigation
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Uses[edit]
LPG has a very wide variety of uses, mainly used for cylinders across many different markets as an efficient fuel container in the agricultural, recreation, hospitality, calefaction, construction, sailing and fishing sectors. It can serve as fuel for cooking, central heating and to water heating and is a particularly cost-effective and efficient way to heat off-grid homes.
Cooking[edit]
LPG is used for cooking in many countries for economic reasons, for convenience or because it is the preferred fuel source.
In India, nearly 8.9 million tons LPG was consumed during April to September 2016 (six months) in domestic sector mainly for cooking. The number of domestic connections are 215 million (i.e. one connection for every six people) with a circulation of more than 350 million LPG cylinders.[9] Most of the LPG requirement is imported. Piped city gas supply in India is not yet developed on major scale. LPG is subsidised by the government in India for domestic users. Increase in LPG prices has been a politically sensitive matter in India as it potentially affects the middle class voting pattern.
LPG was once a standard cooking fuel in Hong Kong; however, the continued expansion of town gas to newer buildings has reduced LPG usage to less than 24% of residential units. However, other than electric, induction or infrared stove; LPG-fueled stove is the only type available in most suburban villages and many public housing estates.
LPG is the most common cooking fuel in Brazilian urban areas, being used in virtually all households, with the exception of the cities of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, which have a natural gas pipeline infrastructure. Poor families receive a government grant ("Vale Gás") used exclusively for the acquisition of LPG.
LPG is commonly used in North America for domestic cooking and outdoor grilling.
Rural heating[edit]
Cylinders with LP gas in India
Predominantly in Europe and rural parts of many countries, LPG can provide an alternative to electric heating, heating oil, or kerosene. LPG is most often used in areas that do not have direct access to piped natural gas.
LPG can be used as a power source for combined heat and power technologies (CHP). CHP is the process of generating both electrical power and useful heat from a single fuel source. This technology has allowed LPG to be used not just as fuel for heating and cooking, but also for decentralized generation of electricity.
LPG can be stored in a variety of manners. LPG, as with other fossil fuels, can be combined with renewable power sources to provide greater reliability while still achieving some reduction in CO2 emissions. However, as opposed to wind and solar renewable energy sources, LPG can be used as a standalone energy source without the prohobotive expense of electrical energy storage. In many climates renewable sources such as solar and wind power would still require the construction, installation and maintenance of reliable baseload power sources such as LPG fueled generation to provide electrical power during the entire year. 100% wind/solar is possible, the caveat being that even in 2018 the expense of the additional generation capacity necessary to charge batteries, plus the cost of battery electrical storage, still makes this option economically feasible in only a minority of situations.
Motor fuel[edit]
LPG filling connector on a car
Main article: Autogas
White bordered green diamond symbol used on LPG-powered vehicles in China
When LPG is used to fuel internal combustion engines, it is often referred to as autogas or auto propane. In some countries, it has been used since the 1940s as a petrol alternative for spark ignition engines. In some countries, there are additives in the liquid that extend engine life and the ratio of butane to propane is kept quite precise in fuel LPG. Two recent studies have examined LPG-fuel-oil fuel mixes and found that smoke emissions and fuel consumption are reduced but hydrocarbon emissions are increased.[10][11] The studies were split on CO emissions, with one finding significant increases,[10] and the other finding slight increases at low engine load but a considerable decrease at high engine load.[11] Its advantage is that it is non-toxic, non-corrosive and free of tetraethyllead or any additives, and has a high octane rating (102–108 RON depending on local specifications). It burns more cleanly than petrol or fuel-oil and is especially free of the particulates present in the latter.
LPG has a lower energy density per liter than either petrol or fuel-oil, so the equivalent fuel consumption is higher. Many governments impose less tax on LPG than on petrol or fuel-oil, which helps offset the greater consumption of LPG than of petrol or fuel-oil. However, in many European countries this tax break is often compensated by a much higher annual tax on cars using LPG than on cars using petrol or fuel-oil. Propane is the third most widely used motor fuel in the world. 2013 estimates are that over 24.9 million vehicles are fueled by propane gas worldwide. Over 25 million tonnes (over 9 billion US gallons) are used annually as a vehicle fuel.
Not all automobile engines are suitable for use with LPG as a fuel. LPG provides less upper cylinder lubrication than petrol or diesel, so LPG-fueled engines are more prone to valve wear if they are not suitably modified. Many modern common rail diesel engines respond well to LPG use as a supplementary fuel. This is where LPG is used as fuel as well as diesel. Systems are now available that integrate with OEM engine management systems.
Conversion to gasoline[edit]
LPG can be converted into alkylate which is a premium gasoline blending stock because it has exceptional anti-knock properties and gives clean burning.
Refrigeration[edit]
LPG is instrumental in providing off-the-grid refrigeration, usually by means of a gas absorption refrigerator.
Blended of pure, dry propane (refrigerant designator R-290) and isobutane (R-600a) the blend "R-290a" has negligible ozone depletion potential and very low global warming potential and can serve as a functional replacement for R-12, R-22, R-134a and other chlorofluorocarbon or hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants in conventional stationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems.[12]
Such substitution is widely prohibited or discouraged in motor vehicle air conditioning systems, on the grounds that using flammable hydrocarbons in systems originally designed to carry non-flammable refrigerant presents a significant risk of fire or explosion.[13][14]
Vendors and advocates of hydrocarbon refrigerants argue against such bans on the grounds that there have been very few such incidents relative to the number of vehicle air conditioning systems filled with hydrocarbons.[15][16] One particular test, conducted by a professor at the University of New South Wales, unintentionally tested the worst-case scenario of a sudden and complete refrigerant expulsion into the passenger compartment followed by subsequent ignition. He and several others in the car sustained minor burns to their face, ears, and hands, and several observers received lacerations from the burst glass of the front passenger window. No one was seriously injured.[17]
Global production[edit]
Global LPG production reached over 292 million metric tons/yr in 2015, while global LPG consumption to over 284 mn t/yr.[18] 62% LPG is extracted from natural gas while the rest is produced by the petrochemical refineries from crude oil.[19] 44% of global consumption is in domestic sector. USA is the leading producer and exporter of LPG.[20]
Security of supply[edit]
Because of the natural gas and the oil-refining industry, Europe is almost self-sufficient in LPG. Europe's security of supply is further safeguarded by:
a wide range of sources, both inside and outside Europe;
a flexible supply chain via water, rail and road with numerous routes and entry points into Europe;
According to 2010–12 estimates, proven world reserves of natural gas, from which most LPG is derived, stand at 300 trillion cubic meters (10,600 trillion cubic feet). Added to the LPG derived from cracking crude oil, this amounts to a major energy source that is virtually untapped and has massive potential. Production continues to grow at an average annual rate of 2.2%, virtually assuring that there is no risk of demand outstripping supply in the foreseeable future.[citation needed]
Comparison with natural gas[edit]
LPG is composed mainly of propane and butane, while natural gas is composed of the lighter methane and ethane. LPG, vaporised and at atmospheric pressure, has a higher calorific value (94 MJ/m3 equivalent to 26.1kWh/m3) than natural gas (methane) (38 MJ/m3 equivalent to 10.6 kWh/m3), which means that LPG cannot simply be substituted for natural gas. In order to allow the use of the same burner controls and to provide for similar combustion characteristics, LPG can be mixed with air to produce a synthetic natural gas (SNG) that can be easily substituted. LPG/air mixing ratios average 60/40, though this is widely variable based on the gases making up the LPG. The method for determining the mixing ratios is by calculating the Wobbe index of the mix. Gases having the same Wobbe index are held to be interchangeable.
LPG-based SNG is used in emergency backup systems for many public, industrial and military installations, and many utilities use LPG peak shaving plants in times of high demand to make up shortages in natural gas supplied to their distributions systems. LPG-SNG installations are also used during initial gas system introductions, when the distribution infrastructure is in place before gas supplies can be connected. Developing markets in India and China (among others) use LPG-SNG systems to build up customer bases prior to expanding existing natural gas systems.
LPG-based SNG or natural gas with localized storage and piping distribution network to the house holds for catering to each cluster of 5000 domestic consumers can be planned under initial phase of city gas network system. This would eliminate the last mile LPG cylinders road transport which is a cause of traffic and safety hurdles in Indian cities. These localized natural gas networks are successfully operating in Japan with feasibility to get connected to wider networks in both villages and cities.
Environmental effects[edit]
Commercially available LPG is currently derived mainly from fossil fuels. Burning LPG releases carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. The reaction also produces some carbon monoxide. LPG does, however, release less CO
2 per unit of energy than does coal or oil. It emits 81% of the CO
2 per kWh produced by oil, 70% of that of coal, and less than 50% of that emitted by coal-generated electricity distributed via the grid.[citation needed] Being a mix of propane and butane, LPG emits less carbon per joule than butane but more carbon per joule than propane.
LPG burns more cleanly than higher molecular weight hydrocarbons because it releases less particulates.[21]
Fire/explosion risk and mitigation[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A spherical gas container typically found in refineries
In a refinery or gas plant, LPG must be stored in pressure vessels. These containers are either cylindrical and horizontal or spherical. Typically, these vessels are designed and manufactured according to some code. In the United States, this code is governed by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).
LPG containers have pressure relief valves, such that when subjected to exterior heating sources, they will vent LPGs to the atmosphere or a flare stack.
If a tank is subjected to a fire of sufficient duration and intensity, it can undergo a boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE). This is typically a concern for large refineries and petrochemical plants that maintain very large containers. In general, tanks are designed so that the product will vent faster than pressure can build to dangerous levels.
One remedy that is utilized in industrial settings is to equip such containers with a measure to provide a fire-resistance rating. Large, spherical LPG containers may have up to a 15 cm steel wall thickness. They are equipped with an approved pressure relief valve. A large fire in the vicinity of the vessel will increase its temperature and pressure, following the basic gas laws. The relief valve on the top is designed to vent off excess pressure in order to prevent the rupture of the container itself. Given a fire of sufficient duration and intensity, the pressure being generated by the boiling and expanding gas can exceed the ability of the valve to vent the excess. If that occurs, an overexposed container may rupture violently, launching pieces at high velocity, while the released products can ignite as well, potentially causing catastrophic damage to anything nearby, including other containers.
People can be exposed to LPG in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact, and eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (Permissible exposure limit) for LPG exposure in the workplace as 1000 ppm (1800 mg/m3) over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 1000 ppm (1800 mg/m3) over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 2000 ppm, 10% of the lower explosive limit, LPG is considered immediately dangerous to life and health (due solely to safety considerations pertaining to risk of explosion).[22]
See also[edit]
Energy portal
Compressed natural gas (CNG)
Filling carousel
Gasoline gallon equivalent
Industrial gas
Intumescent
World LP Gas Association
POL valve
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Alvi, Moin ud-Din. "Aerosol Propellant | Aerosol Propellant Gas | Aerosol Supplies Dubai – Brothers Gas". www.brothersgas.com. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved 14 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Performance and Safety of LPG Refrigerants" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-03-10.
Jump up ^ ed, ed. by George E. Totten, (2003). Fuels and lubricants handbook : technology, properties, performance, and testing (2nd printing. ed.). West Conshohocken, Pa.: ASTM International. ISBN 9780803120969. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Unipetrol. "Analysis of seasonal mixtures - Propane-butane Fuel Mixture (Summer, Winter)". Archived from the original on 9 August 2010. Retrieved 29 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Liquefied Petroleum Gas Specifications and Test Methods". Gas Processors Association. Archived from the original on 21 June 2013. Retrieved 18 May 2012.
Jump up ^ "ASTM D1835 - 11 Standard Specification for Liquefied Petroleum (LP) Gases". American Society for Testing & Materials. Archived from the original on 22 May 2012.
Jump up ^ 49 C.F.R. 173.315(b)(1) Note 2
Jump up ^ Horst Bauer, ed. (1996). Automotive Handbook (4th ed.). Stuttgart: Robert Bosch GmbH. pp. 238–239. ISBN 0-8376-0333-1.
Jump up ^ "LPG Profile" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 April 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Zhang, Chunhua; Bian, Yaozhang; Si, Lizeng; Liao, Junzhi; Odbileg, N (2005). "A study on an electronically controlled liquefied petroleum gas-diesel dual-fuel automobile". Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering. 219 (2): 207. doi:10.1243/095440705X6470.
^ Jump up to: a b Qi, D; Bian, Y; Ma, Z; Zhang, C; Liu, S (2007). "Combustion and exhaust emission characteristics of a compression ignition engine using liquefied petroleum gas–fuel-oil blended fuel". Energy Conversion and Management. 48 (2): 500. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2006.06.013.
Jump up ^ "European Commission on retrofit refrigerants for stationary applications" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 August 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "U.S. EPA hydrocarbon-refrigerants FAQ". United States Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original on 7 August 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "Society of Automotive Engineers hydrocarbon refrigerant bulletin". Sae.org. 27 April 2005. Archived from the original on 5 May 2005. Retrieved 30 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "New South Wales (Australia) Parliamentary record, 16 October 1997". Parliament.nsw.gov.au. 16 October 1997. Archived from the original on 1 July 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2009.
Jump up ^ "New South Wales (Australia) Parliamentary record, 29 June 2000". Parliament.nsw.gov.au. Archived from the original on 22 May 2005. Retrieved 30 July 2009.
Jump up ^ VASA news report on hydrocarbon refrigerant demonstrations (from the Internet Archive; retrieved 24 May 2012)
Jump up ^ "Statistical Review of Global LPG 2016" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 April 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "WLPGA Annual Report 2015" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 April 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "BPN Butane - Propane news". Archived from the original on 30 December 2017. Retrieved 10 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Shah, Yatish T. (2017-03-16). Chemical Energy from Natural and Synthetic Gas. CRC Press. ISBN 9781315302348.
Jump up ^ "CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - L.P.G." www.cdc.gov. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
External links[edit]
Propane 101 Explaining propane and LP Gas fundamentals
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
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text:
Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam
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Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam
US Extended Edition DVD cover
Based on
Characters by
Karin Gist
Regina Hicks
Julie Brown
Paul Brown
Written by
Dan Berendsen
Karin Gist
Regina Hicks
Directed by
Paul Hoen
Starring
Demi Lovato
Joe Jonas
Nick Jonas
Kevin Jonas
Maria Canals-Barrera
Meaghan Martin
Alyson Stoner
Music by
Christopher Lennertz
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
Production
Producer(s)
Kevin Lafferty
Cinematography
David A. Makin
Editor(s)
Girish Bhargava
Running time
104 minutes
Distributor
Disney-ABC Domestic Television
Release
Original network
Disney Channel
Original release
September 3, 2010 (2010-09-03)
Chronology
Preceded by
Camp Rock
Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam is a 2010 Disney Channel Original Movie and the sequel to the 2008 film Camp Rock. The film premiered on Disney Channel on September 3, 2010 (2010-09-03).[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Filming
4 Soundtrack
5 Reception
5.1 Ratings
5.2 Home media
6 Awards and nominations
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
A year after the events of the previous film, Mitchie Torres returns to Camp Rock for another summer year, along with her friends and her love-interest Shane Gray and his brothers of the rock band "Connect 3" (Nate and Jason). Along the way, she and her mother Connie notice that a new camp Camp Star, has opened across the lake. Mitchie and her friends also notice that there are fewer campers than last year, and attempt to lift everyone's spirits at the Opening Jam ("Brand New Day"). Camp Star sends parachutes to Camp Rock with chocolates and marshmallows, inviting them to a bonfire at their camp, but Brown Cesario is less than enthusiastic, as Camp Star's director is Axel Turner, whom he once kicked out of his rock band, the "White Crows".
Mitchie and the rest of the campers arrive at Camp Star, which seems to be much more flashy and sophisticated than Camp Rock. The bonfire starts and Luke Williams from Camp Star performs with several backup dancers ("Fire"). As the song ends, Dana Turner's bracelet flies from her hand and hits Nate Gray in the eye. Nate returns it after the bonfire and the two instantly feel a connection. Axel then offers the Camp Rock counselors jobs at Camp Star, doubling their salary, and encourages the Camp Rock campers to move to Camp Star. Very few campers switch, including Tess Tyler, but many counselors move to Camp Star. Left with no staff, Brown decides to close Camp Rock, but Mitchie persuades everyone to not give up, and she and her friends take on the newly vacant counseling roles ("Can't Back Down").
Although things are tough at first, Mitchie and the rest of the counselors settle into their roles, and become determined to save the camp. They revisit Camp Star, and the two camps face off ("It's On"). Axel sees the showdown and suggests a televised competition game show between the two camps for Camp Wars; Mitchie is reluctant at first, but eventually agrees after some persuasion from her friends, realizing it could gain Camp Rock the publicity it needs to stay open. However, Brown is angry, and tells Connie that he thinks that the competition is a trap in order for Axel to get back at him. Overhearing their conversation, Mitchie pours herself into making sure that they win the game, which frustrates Shane, who has only returned to Camp Rock in order to spend more time with her ("Wouldn't Change a Thing").
The next day, Mitchie wakes up to find everyone rehearsing for Camp Wars, thanks to Shane. He and his brothers motivate everyone to work harder ("Heart and Soul"). Mitchie and Shane then spend the day together ("You're My Favorite Song"), but Nate has trouble trying to tell Dana how he feels. He decides to sing instead and goes to Camp Star to serenade her ("Introducing Me"), gaining her affection, before being caught by Axel, who is her father. Later that night, Jason Gray and the junior campers sneak into Camp Star, and spy on Luke and Tess performing. As the night of Camp Wars begins and Camp Star deliver a slick, stylish performance ("Tear It Down"); Brown finds out that Axel has been encouraging the public to vote for Camp Star through text messaging. All the members of Camp Rock then perform together, accompanied by a video montage of their summer ("What We Came Here For"), but Camp Star ends up winning Camp Wars. Back at Camp Rock, everyone gathers at the bonfire for one last time ("This Is Our Song") before leaving, but many members of Camp Star, including Tess and Dana came to join Camp Rock, ensuring they have enough campers to continue for another summer.
Cast[edit]
Camp Rock
Demi Lovato as Mitchie Torres
Joe Jonas as Shane Gray
Nick Jonas as Nate Gray
Kevin Jonas as Jason Gray
Alyson Stoner as Caitlyn Gellar
Anna Maria Perez de Tagle as Ella Pador
Jasmine Richards as Margaret "Peggy" Dupree
Roshon Fegan as Sander Loyer
Jordan Francis as Barron "Barry" James
Daniel Fathers as Brown Cesario
Camp Star
Daniel Kash as Axel Turner
Matthew "Mdot" Finley as Luke Williams
Meaghan Martin as Tess Tyler
Chloe Bridges as Dana Turner
Other cast
Maria Canals-Barrera as Connie Torres
Frankie Jonas as Trevor Kendall (Junior Rocker)
Arisa Cox as Georgina Farlow
Robert "Big Rob" Feggans as Oliver (Bus Driver)
Production[edit]
Filming[edit]
The film was shot in Toronto, Ontario, from September 3, 2009 to October 16, 2009, filming the scenes at the French River, Camp Kilcoo, The Kingbridge Centre and Earl Bales Park.[2]
Soundtrack[edit]
Main article: Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam (soundtrack)
Reception[edit]
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 40% based on 5 reviews and an average of 6.1/10.[3] Some critics said that the film is the dance version of High School Musical and it did not compare to the previous film.[citation needed] Jennifer Armstrong from Entertainment Weekly enjoyed the film and called the performance of Demi Lovato, "dependently appealing".[4]
Ratings[edit]
The film garnered 7.9 million viewers on its premiere night, behind the predecessor's 8.9 million. However, it became the most watched cable television of the week, as well as the number 1 scripted cable television.
Home media[edit]
The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray on September 7, 2010 in the United States and Canada and was later available in worldwide. The film also includes the Extended Edition, the special feature Rock Along Edition and the Combo Pack, all available in DVD.
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Ceremony
Award
Recipient
Result
2011 People's Choice Awards Favorite Family TV Movie Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam Won
Director's Guild of America Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Children's Programs Paul Hoen Won
2013 Motion Picture Sound Editors Best Sound Editing - Long Form Musical in Television Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam Nominated
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Vena, Jocelyn (April 27, 2010). "'Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam' Premieres September 3 On Disney Channel". MTV. Retrieved July 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Ouzounian, Richard (September 1, 2010). "Behind the scenes of Jonas Brothers' Camp Rock 2". Toronto Star. Retrieved July 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam (2010)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved July 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Armstrong, Jennifer (August 25, 2010). "Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved July 30, 2017.
External links[edit]
Disney portal
Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam on IMDb
[show]
v
t
e
Camp Rock
Films
Camp Rock
Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam
Soundtracks
Camp Rock
Camp Rock 2: The Final Jam
Songs
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"This Is Me"
"Wouldn't Change a Thing"
"Introducing Me"
Video games
Disney Sing It
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Disney Channel All Star Party
Other productions
Jonas Brothers Live in Concert World Tour 2010
My Camp Rock
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Camp_Rock_2:_The_Final_Jam&oldid=830411048"
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text:
Cellular respiration
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Typical eukaryotic cell
Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.[1] The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process, as weak so-called "high-energy" bonds are replaced by stronger bonds in the products. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. Cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox reaction which releases heat. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, most of which are redox reactions themselves. Although technically, cellular respiration is a combustion reaction, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a living cell because of the slow release of energy from the series of reactions.
Nutrients that are commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include sugar, amino acids and fatty acids, and the most common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O2). The chemical energy stored in ATP (its third phosphate group is weakly bonded to the rest of the molecule and is cheaply broken allowing stronger bonds to form, thereby transferring energy for use by the cell) can then be used to drive processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes.
Contents
[hide]
1 Aerobic respiration
1.1 Glycolysis
1.2 Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
1.3 Citric acid cycle
1.4 Oxidative phosphorylation
2 Efficiency of ATP production
3 Fermentation
4 Anaerobic respiration
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration (red arrows) is the main means by which both fungi and animals utilize chemical energy in the form of organic compounds that were previously created through photosynthesis (green arrow).
Aerobic respiration requires oxygen (O2) in order to create ATP. Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are consumed as reactants, it is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown in glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondria in order to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The products of this process are carbon dioxide and water, but the energy transferred is used to break bonds in ADP as the third phosphate group is added to form ATP (adenosine triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH2
Simplified reaction: C6H12O6 (s) + 6 O2 (g) → 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l) + heat
ΔG = −2880 kJ per mol of C6H12O6
The negative ΔG indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously.
The potential of NADH and FADH2 is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system).[2] However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose.[2]
Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose). However some anaerobic organisms, such as methanogens are able to continue with anaerobic respiration, yielding more ATP by using other inorganic molecules (not oxygen) as final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain. They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post-glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.
Glycolysis
Out of the cytoplasm it goes into the Krebs cycle with the acetyl CoA. It then mixes with CO2 and makes 2 ATP, NADH, and FADH. From there the NADH and FADH go into the NADH reductase, which produces the enzyme. The NADH pulls the enzyme's electrons to send through the electron transport chain. The electron transport chain pulls H+ ions through the chain. From the electron transport chain, the released hydrogen ions make ADP for an end result of 32 ATP. O2 attracts itself to the left over electron to make water. Lastly, ATP leaves through the ATP channel and out of the mitochondria.
Main article: Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that takes place in the cytosol of cells in all living organisms. This pathway can function with or without the presence of oxygen. In humans, aerobic conditions produce pyruvate and anaerobic conditions produce lactate. In aerobic conditions, the process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced, however, two are consumed as part of the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to increase the reactivity (decrease its stability) in order for the molecule to be cleaved into two pyruvate molecules by the enzyme aldolase. During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the pyruvate are oxidized. The overall reaction can be expressed this way:
Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 Pi + 2 ADP → 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H+ + 2 H2O + heat
Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6-phosphate. Glycogen can be converted into glucose 6-phosphate as well with the help of glycogen phosphorylase. During energy metabolism, glucose 6-phosphate becomes fructose 6-phosphate. An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-disphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase. Fructose 1,6-diphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains which later degrades into pyruvate.
Glycolysis can be literally translated as "sugar splitting". [3]
Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
Main article: Pyruvate decarboxylation
Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA and CO2 by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). The PDC contains multiple copies of three enzymes and is located in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes. In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, one molecule of NADH and one molecule of CO2 is formed.
Citric acid cycle
Main article: Citric acid cycle
This is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetyl-CoA is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis. Once acetyl-CoA is formed, aerobic or anaerobic respiration can occur. [4] When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl-CoA is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and is oxidized to CO2 while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, H2O and CO2, are created during this cycle.
The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving 18 different enzymes and co-enzymes. [4] During the cycle, acetyl-CoA (2 carbons) + oxaloacetate (4 carbons) yields citrate (6 carbons), which is rearranged to a more reactive form called isocitrate (6 carbons). Isocitrate is modified to become α-ketoglutarate (5 carbons), succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate, and, finally, oxaloacetate.
The net gain of high-energy compounds from one cycle is 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP; the GTP may subsequently be used to produce ATP. Thus, the total yield from 1 glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP.
Oxidative phosphorylation
Main articles: Oxidative phosphorylation, Electron transport chain, Electrochemical gradient, and ATP synthase
In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the boundary of inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesized by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP. The electrons are finally transferred to exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed.
Efficiency of ATP production
The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide. It is assumed that all the reduced coenzymes are oxidized by the electron transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation.
Step
coenzyme yield
ATP yield
Source of ATP
Glycolysis preparatory phase −2 Phosphorylation of glucose and fructose 6-phosphate uses two ATP from the cytoplasm.
Glycolysis pay-off phase 4 Substrate-level phosphorylation
2 NADH 3 or 5 Oxidative phosphorylation : Each NADH produces net 1.5 ATP (instead of usual 2.5) due to NADH transport over the mitochondrial membrane
Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate 2 NADH 5 Oxidative phosphorylation
Krebs cycle 2 Substrate-level phosphorylation
6 NADH 15 Oxidative phosphorylation
2 FADH2 3 Oxidative phosphorylation
Total yield 30 or 32 ATP From the complete oxidation of one glucose molecule to carbon dioxide and oxidation of all the reduced coenzymes.
Although there is a theoretical yield of 38 ATP molecules per glucose during cellular respiration, such conditions are generally not realized because of losses such as the cost of moving pyruvate (from glycolysis), phosphate, and ADP (substrates for ATP synthesis) into the mitochondria. All are actively transported using carriers that utilize the stored energy in the proton electrochemical gradient.
Pyruvate is taken up by a specific, low Km transporter to bring it into the mitochondrial matrix for oxidation by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
The phosphate carrier (PiC) mediates the electroneutral exchange (antiport) of phosphate (H2PO4−; Pi) for OH− or symport of phosphate and protons (H+) across the inner membrane, and the driving force for moving phosphate ions into the mitochondria is the proton motive force.
The ATP-ADP translocase (also called adenine nucleotide translocase, ANT) is an antiporter and exchanges ADP and ATP across the inner membrane. The driving force is due to the ATP (−4) having a more negative charge than the ADP (−3), and thus it dissipates some of the electrical component of the proton electrochemical gradient.
The outcome of these transport processes using the proton electrochemical gradient is that more than 3 H+ are needed to make 1 ATP. Obviously this reduces the theoretical efficiency of the whole process and the likely maximum is closer to 28–30 ATP molecules.[2] In practice the efficiency may be even lower because the inner membrane of the mitochondria is slightly leaky to protons.[5] Other factors may also dissipate the proton gradient creating an apparently leaky mitochondria. An uncoupling protein known as thermogenin is expressed in some cell types and is a channel that can transport protons. When this protein is active in the inner membrane it short circuits the coupling between the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis. The potential energy from the proton gradient is not used to make ATP but generates heat. This is particularly important in brown fat thermogenesis of newborn and hibernating mammals.
Stoichiometry of aerobic respiration and most known fermentation types in eucaryotic cell. [6] Numbers in circles indicate counts of carbon atoms in molecules, C6 is glucose C6H12O6, C1 carbon dioxide CO2. Mitochondrial outer membrane is omitted.
According to some of newer sources the ATP yield during aerobic respiration is not 36–38, but only about 30–32 ATP molecules / 1 molecule of glucose [6], because:
ATP : NADH+H+ and ATP : FADH2 ratios during the oxidative phosphorylation appear to be not 3 and 2, but 2.5 and 1.5 respectively. Unlike in the substrate-level phosphorylation, the stoichiometry here is difficult to establish.
ATP synthase produces 1 ATP / 3 H+. However the exchange of matrix ATP for cytosolic ADP and Pi (antiport with OH− or symport with H+) mediated by ATP–ADP translocase and phosphate carrier consumes 1 H+ / 1 ATP as a result of regeneration of the transmembrane potential changed during this transfer, so the net ratio is 1 ATP : 4 H+.
The mitochondrial electron transport chain proton pump transfers across the inner membrane 10 H+ / 1 NADH+H+ (4 + 2 + 4) or 6 H+ / 1 FADH2 (2 + 4).
So the final stoichiometry is
1 NADH+H+ : 10 H+ : 10/4 ATP = 1 NADH+H+ : 2.5 ATP
1 FADH2 : 6 H+ : 6/4 ATP = 1 FADH2 : 1.5 ATP
ATP : NADH+H+ coming from glycolysis ratio during the oxidative phosphorylation is
1.5, as for FADH2, if hydrogen atoms (2H++2e−) are transferred from cytosolic NADH+H+ to mitochondrial FAD by the glycerol phosphate shuttle located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
2.5 in case of malate-aspartate shuttle transferring hydrogen atoms from cytosolic NADH+H+ to mitochondrial NAD+
So finally we have, per molecule of glucose
Substrate-level phosphorylation: 2 ATP from glycolysis + 2 ATP (directly GTP) from Krebs cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation
2 NADH+H+ from glycolysis: 2 × 1.5 ATP (if glycerol phosphate shuttle transfers hydrogen atoms) or 2 × 2.5 ATP (malate-aspartate shuttle)
2 NADH+H+ from the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate and 6 from Krebs cycle: 8 × 2.5 ATP
2 FADH2 from the Krebs cycle: 2 × 1.5 ATP
Altogether this gives 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP per molecule of glucose
The total ATP yield in ethanol or lactic acid fermentation is only 2 molecules coming from glycolysis, because pyruvate is not transferred to the mitochondrion and finally oxidized to the carbon dioxide (CO2), but reduced to ethanol or lactic acid in the cytoplasm.[6]
Fermentation
Main article: Fermentation
Without oxygen, pyruvate (pyruvic acid) is not metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion, but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD+ for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid. This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate-level phosphorylation, which does not require oxygen.
Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose: only 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose nominally produced by aerobic respiration. This is because the waste products of fermentation still contain chemical potential energy that can be released by oxidation. Ethanol, for example, can be burned in an internal combustion engine like gasoline. Glycolytic ATP, however, is created more quickly. For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions. For multicellular organisms, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use fermentation to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so fermentation may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting.
Anaerobic respiration
Main article: Anaerobic respiration
Cellular respiration is the process by which biological fuels are oxidised in the presence of an inorganic electron acceptor (such as oxygen) to produce large amounts of energy, to drive the bulk production of ATP.
Anaerobic respiration is used by some microorganisms in which neither oxygen (aerobic respiration) nor pyruvate derivatives (fermentation) is the final electron acceptor. Rather, an inorganic acceptor such as sulfate or nitrate is used. Such organisms are typically found in unusual places such as underwater caves or near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean.
See also
Maintenance respiration: maintenance as a functional component of cellular respiration
Pasteur point
Respirometry: research tool to explore cellular respiration
Tetrazolium chloride: cellular respiration indicator
Complex 1: NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductes
References
Jump up ^ Bailey, Regina. "Cellular Respiration".
^ Jump up to: a b c Rich, P. R. (2003). "The molecular machinery of Keilin's respiratory chain". Biochemical Society Transactions. 31 (Pt 6): 1095–1105. PMID 14641005. doi:10.1042/BST0311095.
Jump up ^ Reece1 Urry2 Cain3 Wasserman4 Minorsky5 Jackson6, Jane1 Lisa2 Michael3 Steven4 Peter5 Robert6 (2010). Campbell Biology Ninth Edition. Pearson Education, Inc. p. 168.
^ Jump up to: a b "Cellular Respiration" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Porter, R.; Brand, M. (1 September 1995). "Mitochondrial proton conductance and H+/O ratio are independent of electron transport rate in isolated hepatocytes". The Biochemical Journal (Free full text). 310 (Pt 2): 379–382. ISSN 0264-6021. PMC 1135905  . PMID 7654171. doi:10.1042/bj3100379.
^ Jump up to: a b c Stryer, Lubert (1995). Biochemistry (fourth ed.). New York – Basingstoke: W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 978-0716720096.
External links
A detailed description of respiration vs. fermentation
Kimball's online resource for cellular respiration
Cellular Respiration and Fermentation at Clermont College
Library resources about
Cellular respiration
Resources in your library
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Metabolism, catabolism, anabolism
General
Metabolic pathway
Metabolic network
Primary nutritional groups
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Aerobic respiration
Glycolysis → Pyruvate decarboxylation → Citric acid cycle → Oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain + ATP synthase)
Anaerobic respiration
Electron acceptors are other than oxygen
Fermentation
Glycolysis →
Substrate-level phosphorylation
ABE
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Specific
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Protein metabolism
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N-linked
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[show]
v
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genolysis
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Major metabolic pathways in metro-style map. Click any text (name of pathway or metabolites) to link to the corresponding article.
Single lines: pathways common to most lifeforms. Double lines: pathways not in humans (occurs in e.g. plants, fungi, prokaryotes). Orange nodes: carbohydrate metabolism. Violet nodes: photosynthesis. Red nodes: cellular respiration. Pink nodes: cell signaling. Blue nodes: amino acid metabolism. Grey nodes: vitamin and cofactor metabolism. Brown nodes: nucleotide and protein metabolism. Green nodes: lipid metabolism.
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