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River
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For other uses, see River (disambiguation).
"Rivers" redirects here. For other uses, see Rivers (disambiguation).
Samur River in Azerbaijan – In the natural landscape
Daugava river, Riga in Latvia – In the urban landscape
A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water. Small rivers can be referred to using names such as stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill. There are no official definitions for the generic term river as applied to geographic features,[1] although in some countries or communities a stream is defined by its size. Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location; examples are "run" in some parts of the United States, "burn" in Scotland and northeast England, and "beck" in northern England. Sometimes a river is defined as being larger than a creek,[2] but not always: the language is vague.[3]
Rivers are part of the hydrological cycle. Water generally collects in a river from precipitation through a drainage basin from surface runoff and other sources such as groundwater recharge, springs, and the release of stored water in natural ice and snowpacks (e.g., from glaciers). Potamology is the scientific study of rivers, while limnology is the study of inland waters in general.
Contents
[hide]
1 Topography
1.1 Subsurface streams
1.2 Permanence of flow
2 Classification
2.1 Topographical classification
2.2 Biotic classification
2.3 Whitewater classification
2.4 Stream order classification
3 Uses
4 Ecosystem
5 Chemistry
6 Brackish water
7 Flooding
8 Flow
8.1 Direction
8.2 Rate
9 Fluvial erosion
10 Sediment yield
11 Management
12 See also
13 References
14 Further reading
Topography
Melting toe of Athabasca Glacier, Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada
The Loboc River in Bohol, Philippines
The Colorado River at Horseshoe Bend, Arizona
A river begins at a source (or more often several sources), follows a path called a course, and ends at a mouth or mouths. The water in a river is usually confined to a channel, made up of a stream bed between banks. In larger rivers there is often also a wider floodplain shaped by flood-waters over-topping the channel. Floodplains may be very wide in relation to the size of the river channel. This distinction between river channel and floodplain can be blurred, especially in urban areas where the floodplain of a river channel can become greatly developed by housing and industry.
Rivers can flow down mountains, through valleys (depressions) or along plains, and can create canyons or gorges.
The term upriver (or upstream) refers to the direction towards the source of the river, i.e. against the direction of flow. Likewise, the term downriver (or downstream) describes the direction towards the mouth of the river, in which the current flows.
The term left bank refers to the left bank in the direction of flow, right bank to the right.
The river channel typically contains a single stream of water, but some rivers flow as several interconnecting streams of water, producing a braided river.[4] Extensive braided rivers are now found in only a few regions worldwide,[citation needed] such as the South Island of New Zealand. They also occur on peneplains and some of the larger river deltas. Anastamosing rivers are similar to braided rivers and are quite rare. They have multiple sinuous channels carrying large volumes of sediment. There are rare cases of river bifurcation in which a river divides and the resultant flows ending in different seas. An example is the bifurcation of Nerodime River in Kosovo.
The River Cam from the Green Dragon Bridge, Cambridge (Britain)
A river flowing in its channel is a source of energy which acts on the river channel to change its shape and form. In 1757, the German hydrologist Albert Brahms empirically observed that the submerged weight of objects that may be carried away by a river is proportional to the sixth power of the river flow speed.[5] This formulation is also sometimes called Airy's law.[6] Thus, if the speed of flow is doubled, the flow would dislodge objects with 64 times as much submerged weight. In mountainous torrential zones this can be seen as erosion channels through hard rocks and the creation of sands and gravels from the destruction of larger rocks. A river valley that was created from a U-shaped glaciated valley, can often easily be identified by the V-shaped channel that it has carved. In the middle reaches where a river flows over flatter land, meanders may form through erosion of the river banks and deposition on the inside of bends. Sometimes the river will cut off a loop, shortening the channel and forming an oxbow lake or billabong. Rivers that carry large amounts of sediment may develop conspicuous deltas at their mouths. Rivers whose mouths are in saline tidal waters may form estuaries.
Throughout the course of the river, the total volume of water transported downstream will often be a combination of the free water flow together with a substantial volume flowing through sub-surface rocks and gravels that underlie the river and its floodplain (called the hyporheic zone). For many rivers in large valleys, this unseen component of flow may greatly exceed the visible flow.
Subsurface streams
Most but not all rivers flow on the surface. Subterranean rivers flow underground in caves or caverns. Such rivers are frequently found in regions with limestone geologic formations. Subglacial streams are the braided rivers that flow at the beds of glaciers and ice sheets, permitting meltwater to be discharged at the front of the glacier. Because of the gradient in pressure due to the overlying weight of the glacier, such streams can even flow uphill.
Permanence of flow
Main article: Intermittent river
An intermittent river (or ephemeral river) only flows occasionally and can be dry for several years at a time. These rivers are found in regions with limited or highly variable rainfall, or can occur because of geologic conditions such as a highly permeable river bed. Some ephemeral rivers flow during the summer months but not in the winter. Such rivers are typically fed from chalk aquifers which recharge from winter rainfall. In England these rivers are called bournes and give their name to places such as Bournemouth and Eastbourne. Even in humid regions, the location where flow begins in the smallest tributary streams generally moves upstream in response to precipitation and downstream in its absence or when active summer vegetation diverts water for evapotranspiration. Normally-dry rivers in arid zones are often identified as arroyos or other regional names.
The meltwater from large hailstorms can create a slurry of water, hail and sand or soil, forming temporary rivers.[7]
Classification
Nile River delta, as seen from Earth orbit. The Nile is an example of a wave-dominated delta that has the classic Greek letter delta (Δ) shape after which river deltas were named.
A radar image of a 400-kilometre (250 mi) river of methane and ethane near the north pole of Saturn's moon Titan
Rivers have been classified by many criteria including their topography, their biotic status, and their relevance to white water rafting or canoeing activities.
Topographical classification
Rivers can generally be classified as either alluvial, bedrock, or some mix of the two. Alluvial rivers have channels and floodplains that are self-formed in unconsolidated or weakly consolidated sediments. They erode their banks and deposit material on bars and their floodplains. Bedrock rivers form when the river downcuts through the modern sediments and into the underlying bedrock. This occurs in regions that have experienced some kind of uplift (thereby steepening river gradients) or in which a particular hard lithology causes a river to have a steepened reach that has not been covered in modern alluvium. Bedrock rivers very often contain alluvium on their beds; this material is important in eroding and sculpting the channel. Rivers that go through patches of bedrock and patches of deep alluvial cover are classified as mixed bedrock-alluvial.
Alluvial rivers can be further classified by their channel pattern as meandering, braided, wandering, anastomose, or straight. The morphology of an alluvial river reach is controlled by a combination of sediment supply, substrate composition, discharge, vegetation, and bed aggradation.
At the start of the 20th century William Morris Davis devised the "cycle of erosion" method of classifying rivers based on their "age". Although Davis's system is still found in many books today, after the 1950s and 1960s it became increasingly criticized and rejected by geomorphologists. His scheme did not produce testable hypotheses and was therefore deemed non-scientific.[8] Examples of Davis's river "ages" include:
Youthful river: A river with a steep gradient that has very few tributaries and flows quickly. Its channels erode deeper rather than wider. Examples are the Brazos, Trinity and Ebro rivers.
Mature river: A river with a gradient that is less steep than those of youthful rivers and flows more slowly. A mature river is fed by many tributaries and has more discharge than a youthful river. Its channels erode wider rather than deeper. Examples are the Mississippi, Saint Lawrence, Danube, Ohio, Thames and Paraná rivers.
Old river: A river with a low gradient and low erosive energy. Old rivers are characterized by flood plains. Examples are the Yellow, lower Ganges, Tigris, Euphrates, Indus and lower Nile rivers.
Rejuvenated river: A river with a gradient that is raised by tectonic uplift. Examples are the Rio Grande and Colorado River.
The ways in which a river's characteristics vary between its upper and lower course are summarized by the Bradshaw model. Power-law relationships between channel slope, depth, and width are given as a function of discharge by "river regime".
Biotic classification
There are several systems of classification based on biotic conditions typically assigning classes from the most oligotrophic or unpolluted through to the most eutrophic or polluted.[9] Other systems are based on a whole eco-system approach such as developed by the New Zealand Ministry for the Environment.[10] In Europe, the requirements of the Water Framework Directive has led to the development of a wide range of classification methods including classifications based on fishery status[11] A system of river zonation used in francophone communities[12][13] divides rivers into three primary zones:
The crenon is the uppermost zone at the source of the river. It is further divided into the eucrenon (spring or boil zone) and the hypocrenon (brook or headstream zone). These areas have low temperatures, reduced oxygen content and slow moving water.
The rhithron is the upstream portion of the river that follows the crenon. It has relatively cool temperatures, high oxygen levels, and fast, turbulent, swift flow.
The potamon is the remaining downstream stretch of river. It has warmer temperatures, lower oxygen levels, slow flow and sandier bottoms.
Whitewater classification
The International Scale of River Difficulty is used to rate the challenges of navigation—particularly those with rapids. Class I is the easiest and Class VI is the hardest.
Stream order classification
The Strahler Stream Order ranks rivers based on the connectivity and hierarchy of contributing tributaries. Headwaters are first order while the Amazon River is twelfth order. Approximately 80% of the rivers and streams in the world are of the first and second order.
In certain languages, distinctions are made among rivers based on their stream order. In French, for example, rivers that run to the sea are called fleuve, while other rivers are called rivière. For example, in Canada, the Churchill River in Manitoba is called la rivière Churchill as it runs to Hudson Bay, but the Churchill River in Labrador is called le fleuve Churchill as it runs to the Atlantic Ocean. As most rivers in France are known by their names only without the word rivière or fleuve (e.g. la Seine, not le fleuve Seine, even though the Seine is classed as a fleuve), one of the most prominent rivers in the Francophonie commonly known as fleuve is le fleuve Saint-Laurent (the Saint Lawrence River).
Since many fleuves are large and prominent, receiving many tributaries, the word is sometimes used to refer to certain large rivers that flow into other fleuves; however, even small streams that run to the sea are called fleuve (e.g. fleuve côtier, "coastal fleuve").
Uses
Leisure activities on the River Avon at Avon Valley Country Park, Keynsham, United Kingdom. A boat giving trips to the public passes a moored private boat.
Rivers have been used as a source of water, for obtaining food, for transport, as a defensive measure, as a source of hydropower to drive machinery, for bathing, and as a means of disposing of waste.
Rivers have been used for navigation for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of navigation is found in the Indus Valley Civilization, which existed in northwestern India around 3300 BC.[14] Riverine navigation provides a cheap means of transport, and is still used extensively on most major rivers of the world like the Amazon, the Ganges, the Nile, the Mississippi, and the Indus. Since river boats are often not regulated, they contribute a large amount to global greenhouse gas emissions, and to local cancer due to inhaling of particulates emitted by the transports.[15][16]
In some heavily forested regions such as Scandinavia and Canada, lumberjacks use the river to float felled trees downstream to lumber camps for further processing, saving much effort and cost by transporting the huge heavy logs by natural means.
Rivers have been a source of food since pre-history.[17] They are often a rich source of fish and other edible aquatic life, and are a major source of fresh water, which can be used for drinking and irrigation. Most of the major cities of the world are situated on the banks of rivers. Rivers help to determine the urban form of cities and neighbourhoods and their corridors often present opportunities for urban renewal through the development of foreshoreways such as river walks. Rivers also provide an easy means of disposing of waste water and, in much of the less developed world, other wastes.
Watermill in Belgium
Fast flowing rivers and waterfalls are widely used as sources of energy, via watermills and hydroelectric plants. Evidence of watermills shows them in use for many hundreds of years, for instance in Orkney at Dounby Click Mill. Prior to the invention of steam power, watermills for grinding cereals and for processing wool and other textiles were common across Europe. In the 1890s the first machines to generate power from river water were established at places such as Cragside in Northumberland and in recent decades there has been a significant increase in the development of large scale power generation from water, especially in wet mountainous regions such as Norway.
The coarse sediments, gravel, and sand, generated and moved by rivers are extensively used in construction. In parts of the world this can generate extensive new lake habitats as gravel pits re-fill with water. In other circumstances it can destabilise the river bed and the course of the river and cause severe damage to spawning fish populations which rely on stable gravel formations for egg laying.
In upland rivers, rapids with whitewater or even waterfalls occur. Rapids are often used for recreation, such as whitewater kayaking.[18]
Rivers have been important in determining political boundaries and defending countries. For example, the Danube was a long-standing border of the Roman Empire, and today it forms most of the border between Bulgaria and Romania. The Mississippi in North America and the Rhine in Europe are major east-west boundaries in those continents. The Orange and Limpopo Rivers in southern Africa form the boundaries between provinces and countries along their routes.
Ecosystem
Main article: River ecosystem
The organisms in the riparian zone respond to changes in river channel location and patterns of flow. The ecosystem of rivers is generally described by the river continuum concept, which has some additions and refinements to allow for dams and waterfalls and temporary extensive flooding. The concept describes the river as a system in which the physical parameters, the availability of food particles and the composition of the ecosystem are continuously changing along its length. The food (energy) that remains from the upstream part is used downstream.
The general pattern is that the first order streams contain particulate matter (decaying leaves from the surrounding forests) which is processed there by shredders like Plecoptera larvae. The products of these shredders are used by collectors, such as Hydropsychidae, and further downstream algae that create the primary production become the main food source of the organisms. All changes are gradual and the distribution of each species can be described as a normal curve, with the highest density where the conditions are optimal. In rivers succession is virtually absent and the composition of the ecosystem stays fixed in time.
Chemistry
Main article: River chemistry
The chemistry of rivers is complex and depends on inputs from the atmosphere, the geology through which it travels and the inputs from man's activities. The chemical composition of the water has a large impact on the ecology of that water for both plants and animals and it also affects the uses that may be made of the river water. Understanding and characterising river water chemistry requires a well designed and managed sampling and analysis.
Brackish water
Further information: Brackish water
Some rivers generate brackish water by having their river mouth in the ocean. This, in effect creates a unique environment in which certain species are found.
Flooding
Main article: Flood
Flash flooding caused by a large amount of rain falling in a short amount of time
Flooding is a natural part of a river's cycle. The majority of the erosion of river channels and the erosion and deposition on the associated floodplains occur during the flood stage. In many developed areas, human activity has changed the form of river channels, altering magnitudes and frequencies of flooding. Some examples of this are the building of levees, the straightening of channels, and the draining of natural wetlands. In many cases human activities in rivers and floodplains have dramatically increased the risk of flooding. Straightening rivers allows water to flow more rapidly downstream, increasing the risk of flooding places further downstream. Building on flood plains removes flood storage, which again exacerbates downstream flooding. The building of levees only protects the area behind the levees and not those further downstream. Levees and flood-banks can also increase flooding upstream because of the back-water pressure as the river flow is impeded by the narrow channel banks.
Flow
Studying the flows of rivers is one aspect of hydrology.[19]
Direction
River meandering course
Rivers flow downhill with their power derived from gravity. The direction can involve all directions of the compass and can be a complex meandering path.[20][21][22]
Rivers flowing downhill, from river source to river mouth, do not necessarily take the shortest path. For alluvial streams, straight and braided rivers have very low sinuosity and flow directly down hill, while meandering rivers flow from side to side across a valley. Bedrock rivers typically flow in either a fractal pattern, or a pattern that is determined by weaknesses in the bedrock, such as faults, fractures, or more erodible layers.
Rate
Main article: Streamflow
Volumetric flow rate, also known as discharge, volume flow rate, and rate of water flow, is the volume of water which passes through a given cross-section of the river channel per unit time. It is typically measured in cubic metres per second (cumec) or cubic feet per second (cfs), where 1 m3/s = 35.51 ft3/s; it is sometimes also measured in litres or gallons per second.
Volumetric flow rate can be thought of as the mean velocity of the flow through a given cross-section, times that cross-sectional area. Mean velocity can be approximated through the use of the Law of the Wall. In general, velocity increases with the depth (or hydraulic radius) and slope of the river channel, while the cross-sectional area scales with the depth and the width: the double-counting of depth shows the importance of this variable in determining the discharge through the channel.
Fluvial erosion
In the youthful stage;
V-shaped valleys: example. River Liffey, Dublin, Ireland.
When the river is subject to vertical erosion, deepening the valley. Hydraulic action loosens and dislodges the rock. The rivers load further erodes its banks and the river bed. Over time, this will deepen the river bed and create steeper sides which are then weathered.
The steepened nature of the banks causes the sides of the valley to move downslope causing the valley to become V-Shaped.
Waterfalls also form in the youthful river valley. example. Powerscourt Waterfall, County Wicklow, Ireland.
Waterfalls usually form where a band of hard rock lies next to a layer of soft rock (easier to erode). Differential erosion occurs as the river can erode the soft rock easier than the hard rock, this leaves the hard rock more elevated and stands out from the river below. Hydraulic action and abrasion are what erodes the soft rock and the water to fall down to the river bed. A plunge pool forms at the bottom and deepens as a result of hydraulic action and abrasion.[23]
Sediment yield
Sediment yield is the total quantity of particulate matter (suspended or bedload) reaching the outlet of a drainage basin over a fixed time frame. Yield is usually expressed as kilograms per square kilometre per year. Sediment delivery processes are affected by a myriad of factors such as drainage area size, basin slope, climate, sediment type (lithology), vegetation cover, and human land use / management practices. The theoretical concept of the 'sediment delivery ratio' (ratio between yield and total amount of sediment eroded) captures the fact that not all of the sediment is eroded within a certain catchment that reaches out to the outlet (due to, for example, deposition on floodplains). Such storage opportunities are typically increased in catchments of larger size, thus leading to a lower yield and sediment delivery ratio.
Frozen river in Alaska
Management
River bank repair
Main article: River engineering
Rivers are often managed or controlled to make them more useful, or less disruptive, to human activity.
Dams or weirs may be built to control the flow, store water, or extract energy.
Levees, known as dikes in Europe, may be built to prevent river water from flowing on floodplains or floodways.
Canals connect rivers to one another for water transfer or navigation.
River courses may be modified to improve navigation, or straightened to increase the flow rate.
River management is a continuous activity as rivers tend to 'undo' the modifications made by people. Dredged channels silt up, sluice mechanisms deteriorate with age, levees and dams may suffer seepage or catastrophic failure. The benefits sought through managing rivers may often be offset by the social and economic costs of mitigating the bad effects of such management. As an example, in parts of the developed world, rivers have been confined within channels to free up flat flood-plain land for development. Floods can inundate such development at high financial cost and often with loss of life.
Rivers are increasingly managed for habitat conservation, as they are critical for many aquatic and riparian plants, resident and migratory fishes, waterfowl, birds of prey, migrating birds, and many mammals.
See also
Environment portal
Ecology portal
See also: geography, water cycle, and drainage basin
Arts, entertainment, and media
"Old Man River"
The Riverkeepers (book)
General
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Transport
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References
Jump up ^ "GNIS FAQ". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
Jump up ^ "WordNet Search: River". The Trustees of Princeton University. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
Jump up ^ "Domestic Names: Frequently Asked Question (FAQs), #17". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
Jump up ^ Walther, John V. (15 February 2013). Earth's Natural Resources. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4496-3234-2.
Jump up ^ Garde, R. J. (1995). History of fluvial hydraulics. New Age Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 81-224-0815-X. OCLC 34628134.
Jump up ^ Garde, R. J. (1995). History of fluvial hydraulics. New Age Publishers. p. 19. ISBN 81-224-0815-X. OCLC 34628134.
Jump up ^ "Sand River" in Iraq is actually a rapid movement of ice blocks. Tampabayreview.com. Retrieved on 14 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Castree, Noel (2006). Questioning geography: fundamental debates. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 84–85. ISBN 978-1-4051-0192-9.
Jump up ^ River Classification scheme. sepa.org.uk
Jump up ^ NZ’s River Environment Classification system (REC). maf.govt.nz
Jump up ^ Noble, Richard and Cowx, Ian et al. (May 2002) Compilation and harmonisation of fish species classification. University of Hull, UK. A project under the 5th Framework Programme Energy, Environment and Sustainable Management. Key Action 1: Sustainable Management and Quality of Water
Jump up ^ Illies, J.; Botosaneanu, L. (1963). "Problémes et méthodes de la classification et de la zonation éologique des eaux courantes, considerées surtout du point de vue faunistique". Mitt. int. Ver. theor. angew. Limnol. 12: 1–57.
Jump up ^ Hawkes, H.A. (1975). River zonation and classification. River ecology. Blackwell. pp. 312–374.
Jump up ^ "WWF – The World's Rivers". panda.org.
Jump up ^ Meybeck, Michel (1993). "Riverine transport of atmospheric carbon: Sources, global typology and budget". Water, Air, & Soil Pollution. 70 (1–4): 443–463. doi:10.1007/BF01105015.
Jump up ^ Albrecht, Achim (2003). "Validating riverine transport and speciation models using nuclear reactor-derived radiocobalt". Journal of Environmental Radioactivity. Elsevier Science Ltd. 66 (3): 295–307. doi:10.1016/S0265-931X(02)00133-9. PMID 12600761.
Jump up ^ "National Museum of Prehistory-The Peinan Site-Settlements of the Prehistoric Times". nmp.gov.tw.
Jump up ^ Draper, Nick; Hodgson, Christopher (2008-11-20). Adventure Sport Physiology. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-31913-0.
Jump up ^ Cave, Cristi. "How a River Flows". Stream Biology and Ecology. Archived from the original on 1 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Matt (8 June 2006). "Do All Rivers Flow South?". About.com.
Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Matt. "Rivers Flowing North: Rivers Only Flow Downhill; Rivers Do Not Prefer to Flow South". About.com.
Jump up ^ Rydell, Nezette (16 March 1997). "Re: What determines the direction of river flow? Elevation, Topography, Gravity??". Earth Sciences.
Jump up ^ "Landforms of the upper valley -". www.coolgeography.co.uk. Retrieved 2 December 2016.
Further reading
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Rivers
Find more aboutriverat Wikipedia's sister projects
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Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Jeffrey W. Jacobs. "Rivers, Major World". Water Encyclopaedia.
Luna B. Leopold (1994). A View of the River. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-93732-5. OCLC 28889034. — a non-technical primer on the geomorphology and hydraulics of water.
Middleton, Nick (2012). Rivers: a very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199588671.
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text:
Bantu expansion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Bantu expansion is the name for a postulated millennia-long series of migrations of speakers of the original proto-Bantu language group.[1][2] The primary evidence for this expansion has been linguistic, namely that the languages spoken in Sub-Equatorial Africa are remarkably similar to each other. Attempts to trace the exact route of the expansion, to correlate it with archaeological evidence and genetic evidence, have not been conclusive; thus many aspects of the expansion remain in doubt or are highly contested.[3] The Bantu traveled in two waves, the first across the Congo forest region.[4]
Bantu belongs to a Negroid race and originally came from West Africa, in the modern day Cameroon. The linguistic core of the Bantu family of languages, a branch of the Niger–Congo language family, was located in the adjoining region of Cameroon and Nigeria. From this core, expansion began about 3,000 years ago, with one stream going into East Africa, and other streams going south along the African coast of Gabon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Angola, or inland along the many south-to-north flowing rivers of the Congo River system. The expansion eventually reached South Africa, probably as early as 300 AD.[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]
1 = 2000–1500 BC origin
2 = ca.1500 BC first migrations
2.a = Eastern African, 2.b = Western African
3 = 1000–500 BC Urewe nucleus of Eastern African
4–7 = southward advance
9 = 500 BC–0 Congo nucleus
10 = AD 0–1000 last phase[13][14][15]
Contents
[hide]
1 Theories on expansion
2 Niger–Congo languages
3 Pre-expansion-era demography
3.1 Central Africa
3.2 Southern Africa
3.3 South Eastern Africa
4 Expansion
4.1 c. 1000 BC to c. A.D 500
4.2 From the 13th century to 17th century
4.3 Rise of the Zulu Empire (18th–19th centuries)
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Theories on expansion[edit]
Initially archaeologists believed that they could find archaeological similarities in the ancient cultures of the region that the Bantu-speakers were held to have traversed; while linguists, classifying the languages and creating a genealogical table of relationships believed they could reconstruct material culture elements. They believed that the expansion was caused by the development of agriculture, the making of ceramics, and the use of iron, which permitted new ecological zones to be exploited. In 1966 Roland Oliver published an article presenting these correlations as a reasonable hypothesis.[16]
The hypothesized Bantu expansion pushed out or assimilated the hunter-forager proto-Khoisan, who formerly inhabited Southern Africa. In Eastern and Southern Africa, Bantu speakers may have adopted livestock husbandry from other unrelated Cushitic- and Nilotic-speaking peoples they encountered. Herding practices reached the far south several centuries before Bantu-speaking migrants did. Archaeological, linguistic, genetic, and environmental evidence all support the conclusion that the Bantu expansion was a significant human migration.
Niger–Congo languages[edit]
The Niger–Congo family comprises a huge group of languages spread throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. The Benue–Congo branch includes the Bantu languages, which are found throughout Central, Southern, and Eastern Africa.
A characteristic feature of most Niger–Congo languages, including the Bantu languages, is their use of tone. They generally lack case inflection, but grammatical gender is characteristic, with some languages having two dozen genders (noun classes). The root of the verb tends to remain unchanged, with either particles or auxiliary verbs expressing tenses and moods. For example, in a number of languages the infinitival is the auxiliary designating the future.
A typical trait in the Niger-Kordofanian family as a group is the division of nouns. This has been juxtaposed with the gender system of the Indo-European languages.[17]
Pre-expansion-era demography[edit]
Before the expansion of farming and pastoralist African peoples, Southern Africa was populated by hunter-gatherers and earlier pastoralists.
Central Africa[edit]
It is thought that Central African Pygmies and Bantus branched out from a common ancestral population c. 70,000 years ago.[18] Many Batwa groups speak Bantu languages; however, a considerable portion of their vocabulary is not Bantu in origin. Much of this vocabulary is botanical, deals with honey collecting, or is otherwise specialised for the forest and is shared between western Batwa groups. It has been proposed that this is the remnant of an independent western Batwa (Mbenga or "Baaka") language.[19]
Southern Africa[edit]
Proto-Khoisan-speaking peoples, whose descendants have largely mixed with other peoples and taken up other languages; a few still live by foraging (often supplemented by working for neighbouring farmers) in the arid regions around the Kalahari desert, while a larger number of Nama continue their traditional subsistence by raising livestock in Namibia and adjacent South Africa.
South Eastern Africa[edit]
Historically south east Africa was once inhabited by southern Cushites and the most predominant one were the Azania who dominated from Kenya towards Tanzania. They were also other Cushitic tribes who were native to Tanzania whom were Iraqw , Gorowa, Alagwa, Burunge, Asa, and Kw'adza. These southern Cushites were native and ruled south east Africa until the wave of Bantu expansion that wiped them out and assimilated the rest and today they are extremely tiny in their own ancestral land. Also, there are an existing southern Cushites who are known as Tutsi native to Rwanda and Burundi, although they share a nation with the Hutus who are not native in the lands they are living today.[20]
Parts of what is now Kenya and Tanzania were also primarily inhabited by agropastoralist southern Cushitic speakers from the Horn of Africa followed by a later wave of Nilo-Saharan herders.[21][22][23][24]
Expansion[edit]
San rock art depicting a shield-carrying Bantu warrior. The movement of Bantu settlers, who migrated southwards and settled in the summer rainfall regions of Southern Africa within the last 2000 years, established a range of relationships with the indigenous San people from bitter conflict to ritual interaction and intermarriage.
c. 1000 BC to c. A.D 500 [edit]
It seems likely that the expansion of the Bantu-speaking people from their core region in West Africa began around 1000 BC. Although early models posited that the early speakers were both iron-using and agricultural, archaeology has shown that they did not use iron until as late as 400 BC, though they were agricultural.[25] The western branch, not necessarily linguistically distinct, according to Christopher Ehret, followed the coast and the major rivers of the Congo system southward, reaching central Angola by around 500 BC.[26]
It is clear that there were human populations in the region at the time of the expansion, and pygmies are their purer descendants. However, mtDNA genetic research from Cabinda suggests that only haplogroups that originated in West Africa are found there today, and the distinctive L0 of the pre-Bantu population is missing, suggesting that there was a complete population replacement. In South Africa, however, a more complex intermixing could have taken place.[27]
Further east, Bantu-speaking communities had reached the great Central African rainforest, and by 500 BC, pioneering groups had emerged into the savannas to the south, in what are now the Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, and Zambia.
Another stream of migration, moving east by 3,000 years ago (1000 BC), was creating a major new population center near the Great Lakes of East Africa, where a rich environment supported a dense population. Movements by small groups to the southeast from the Great Lakes region were more rapid, with initial settlements widely dispersed near the coast and near rivers, due to comparatively harsh farming conditions in areas further from water. Pioneering groups had reached modern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa by A.D 300 along the coast, and the modern Limpopo Province (formerly Northern Transvaal) by A.D 500.[28][29][30]
From the 13th century to 17th century[edit]
Between the 13th and 15th centuries, the relatively powerful Bantu-speaking states on a scale larger than local chiefdoms began to emerge, in the Great Lakes region, in the savanna south of the Central African rainforest, and on the Zambezi river where the Monomatapa kings built the famous Great Zimbabwe complex. Such processes of state-formation occurred with increasing frequency from the 16th century onward. They were probably due to denser population, which led to more specialised divisions of labour, including military power, while making outmigration more difficult. Other factors were increased trade among African communities and with European, and Arab traders on the coasts; technological developments in economic activity, and new techniques in the political-spiritual ritualisation of royalty as the source of national strength and health.[31]
Rise of the Zulu Empire (18th–19th centuries)[edit]
By the time Great Zimbabwe had ceased being the capital of a large trading empire, speakers of Bantu languages were present throughout much of southern Africa. Two main groups developed, the Nguni (Xhosa, Zulu, Swazi), who occupied the eastern coastal plains, and the Sotho–Tswana who lived on the interior plateau.
In the late 18th and early 19th century, two major events occurred. The Trekboers were colonizing new areas of southern Africa, moving northeast from the Cape Colony, and they came into contact with the Xhosa, the Southern Nguni. At the same time major events were taking place further north in modern-day KwaZulu-Natal. At that time the area was populated by dozens of small clans, one of which was the Zulu, then a particularly small clan of no local distinction whatsoever. In 1816 Shaka acceded to the Zulu throne. Within a year he had conquered the neighboring clans, and had made the Zulu into the most important ally of the large Mtetwa clan, which was in competition with the Ndwandwe clan for domination of the northern part of modern-day KwaZulu-Natal.
See also[edit]
Bantu peoples
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Clark, John Desmond; Brandt, Steven A. (1984). From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa. University of California Press. p. 33. ISBN 0-520-04574-2.
Jump up ^ Adler, Philip J.; Pouwels, Randall L. (2007). World Civilizations: Since 1500. Cengage Learning. p. 169. ISBN 0-495-50262-6.
Jump up ^ Berniell-Lee, Gemma; Calafell, Francesc; Bosch, Elena; et al. (2006). "Genetic and Demographic Implications of the Bantu Expansion: Insights from Human Paternal Lineages". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 26 (7): 1581–1589. PMID 19369595. doi:10.1093/molbev/msp069.
Jump up ^ Pollard, Elizabeth; Rosenberg, Clifford; Tignor, Robert (2011). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart: A History of the World: From the Beginnings of Humankind to the Present. New York: Norton. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-3939-1847-2.
Jump up ^ Vansina, J. (1995). "New Linguistic Evidence and ‚The Bantu Expansion‘". Journal of African History. 36 (2): 173–195. JSTOR 182309. doi:10.1017/S0021853700034101.
Jump up ^ Tishkoff, S. A.; Reed, F. A.; Friedlaender, F. R.; et al. (2009). "The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans". Science. 324 (5930): 1035–44. PMC 2947357  . PMID 19407144. doi:10.1126/science.1172257.
Jump up ^ Plaza, S; Salas, A; Calafell, F; Corte-Real, F; Bertranpetit, J; Carracedo, A; Comas, D (2004). "Insights into the western Bantu dispersal: MtDNA lineage analysis in Angola". Human Genetics. 115 (5): 439–47. PMID 15340834. doi:10.1007/s00439-004-1164-0.
Jump up ^ Coelho, M; Sequeira, F; Luiselli, D; Beleza, S; Rocha, J (2009). "On the edge of Bantu expansions: MtDNA, Y chromosome and lactase persistence genetic variation in southwestern Angola". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 9: 80. PMC 2682489  . PMID 19383166. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-9-80.
Jump up ^ De Filippo, C; Barbieri, C; Whitten, M; et al. (2011). "Y-chromosomal variation in sub-Saharan Africa: Insights into the history of Niger–Congo groups". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 28 (3): 1255–69. PMC 3561512  . PMID 21109585. doi:10.1093/molbev/msq312.
Jump up ^ Alves, I; Coelho, M; Gignoux, C; et al. (2011). "Genetic homogeneity across Bantu-speaking groups from Mozambique and Angola challenges early split scenarios between East and West Bantu populations". Human Biology. 83 (1): 13–38. PMID 21453002. doi:10.3378/027.083.0102.
Jump up ^ Castrì, L; Tofanelli, S; Garagnani, P; et al. (2009). "MtDNA variability in two Bantu-speaking populations (Shona and Hutu) from Eastern Africa: Implications for peopling and migration patterns in sub-Saharan Africa". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 140 (2): 302–11. PMID 19425093. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21070.
Jump up ^ "Carte Blanche > M-Net". Beta.mnet.co.za. Archived from the original on 7 January 2012. Retrieved 2011-12-31.
Jump up ^ Bousman, C. Britt (June 1998). "The Chronological Evidence for the Introduction of Domestic Stock into Southern Africa". The African Archaeological Review. 15 (2): 133–150. JSTOR 25130649.
Jump up ^ "A Brief History of Botswana". Thuto.org. 2000-09-19. Retrieved 2011-12-31.
Jump up ^ Andrej, Isabella (1998). Historischer Überblick [Historical overview]. Matrilineal Societies: A study from an anthropological and historical perspective (Thesis) (in German). Vienna, Austria: University of Vienna. Retrieved 2011-12-31.
Jump up ^ Oliver, Roland (1966). "The Problem of the Bantu Expansion". The Journal of African History. 7 (3): 361. JSTOR 180108. doi:10.1017/S0021853700006472.
Jump up ^ Campbell-Dunn, G.J.K. (2004). Comparative Linguistics Indo-European and Niger-Congo (PDF) (Report). Christchurch, New Zealand: Penny Farthing Press. Retrieved 27 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Awad, Elias. "Common Origins of Pygmies and Bantus". CNRS International Magazine. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. Retrieved 27 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Bahuchet, Serge (1993). Hladik, C.M., ed. History of the Inhabitants of the Central African Rain Forest: Perspectives from Comparative Linguistics. Tropical Forests, People, and Food: Biocultural Interactions and Applications to Development. Paris: Unesco/Parthenon. ISBN 978-9-2310-2879-3.
Jump up ^ http://www.enzimuseum.org/after-the-stone-age/early-migrations-into-east-africa
Jump up ^ Ehret, Christopher (1980). The Historical Reconstruction of Southern Cushitic Phonology and Vocabulary. Volume 5 of Kölner Beiträge zur Afrikanistik. Berlin: Reimer. p. 407.
Jump up ^ Ehret, Christopher (1983). Mack, John; Robertshaw, Peter, eds. Culture History in the Southern Sudan. Nairobi, Kenya: British Institute in Eastern Africa. pp. 19–48. ISBN 9781872566047.
Jump up ^ Ambrose, Stanley H. (1982). Ehert, Christopher; Posnansky, Merrick, eds. Archaeological and Linguistic Reconstructions of History in East Africa. The Archaeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-5200-4593-4.
Jump up ^ Ambrose, S.H. (1986). "Hunter-gatherer adaptations to non-marginal environments: an ecological and archaeological assessment of the Dorobo model". Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika (SUGIA). 7 (2): 11.
Jump up ^ Vansina, Jan (1990). Paths in the Rainforest: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-2991-2573-8.
Jump up ^ Ehret, C. (2001). "Bantu Expansions: Re-Envisioning a Central Problem of Early African History". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 34 (1): 5–41. JSTOR 3097285. doi:10.2307/3097285.
Jump up ^ Beleza, Sandra; Gusmao, Leonor; Amorim, Antonio; Caracedo, Angel; Salas, Antonio (August 2005). "The Genetic Legacy of Western Bantu Migrations". Human Genetics. 117 (4): pp 366–375. PMID 15928903. doi:10.1007/s00439-005-1290-3. CS1 maint: Extra text (link)
Jump up ^ Ehret, Christopher (1998). An African Classical Age: Eastern and Southern Africa in World History, 1000 B.C. to A.D. 400. London: James Currey. [page needed]
Jump up ^ Newman, James L. (1995). The Peopling of Africa: A Geographic Interpretation. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07280-5. [page needed]
Jump up ^ Shillington, Kevin (2005). History of Africa (3rd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. [page needed]
Jump up ^ Shillington (2005).
External links[edit]
Genetic and Demographic
Bantu Expansion and Hunter-gatherers
Dispersals and genetic adaptation of Bantu-speaking populations in Africa and North America 05 May 2017
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Will Hayden
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Will Hayden
Born
William Michale Hayden
(1965-06-24) June 24, 1965 (age 53)
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, U.S.
Criminal charge
Aggravated rape, forceable rape
Criminal penalty
Life in Prison plus 40 years
William Michale Hayden (born June 24, 1965)[1] is a current inmate, a former American gunsmith, television personality, U.S. Marine and gun shop owner. He is best known as the star of the 2011–2014 Discovery Channel reality series Sons of Guns. He was convicted of sex crimes in April and July 2017 and received three life sentences.
Contents
1 Early life
2 Career
2.1 Red Jacket Firearms
3 Personal life
3.1 Juvenile rape conviction
4 References
5 External links
Early life[edit]
Hayden was born in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, and is partly of Choctaw descent.[2] From an early age, he was a firearms enthusiast, and often read about weapons and warfare.[2]
Hayden also survived a large house fire as a "three or four year old" child. He stated in a 2011 interview that he remembers, "waking up to fire 'eating me up'... burning the bed... the sheets... the room".[3] Hayden also stated that he was abused by his father in a piece titled Sons of Guns: Straight-Shootin' Stories from the Star of the Hit Discovery Series. He says in the article, "Hell, he put me through a wall with a punch when I was five... From that moment on I realized I had to pick my battles carefully. Very carefully. Any battle I could get up and walk away from was a victory. It didn't matter if me or my psyche looked or felt like it'd been run through a meat grinder. Victory is victory."[4]
By age 12, he began building firearms.[2] When he turned 18, he enlisted in the Marines, serving for six years and achieving the rank of Sergeant.
Career[edit]
After returning home from the service, Hayden started his own construction and refrigeration business, while working on guns on the side.
Red Jacket Firearms[edit]
His side business began to take off, and in 1999, he sold his main business and officially opened Red Jacket Firearms. The name of the company is the translation of his mother's name, Osguma, which means "red jacket" in Choctaw.[2] The firm's first commercial order was from a large distributor called Manotick Firearms for twenty rifles.[2]
From 2011 until 2014, Hayden received nationwide fame when Sons of Guns - a reality TV program focusing on the specialized firearm builds at Red Jacket - aired on Discovery Channel.[5] On August 26, 2014, it was announced that Red Jacket Firearms had received a legal separation as an entity from Hayden.[6]
Personal life[edit]
He resided in the Greenwell Springs area of Central, Louisiana.[7]
Hayden's daughter Stephanie and son-in-law Kris Ford also appeared on the show as well as working at Red Jacket.
Juvenile rape conviction[edit]
On August 11, 2014, Hayden was arrested and charged with molestation of a juvenile and aggravated crimes against nature. Hayden said that the allegations are false and were made in retaliation by a vengeful ex-girlfriend, the 12-year-old girl's mother.[8][9] He was subsequently charged with rape of a child based on the statements of the victim.
The charges led to the cancellation of Sons of Guns.[5] Hayden was additionally accused of aggravated rape by his oldest daughter. She told police that she was raped 22 years before when she was 12 by her father, Hayden. She came forward after the allegations were made against Hayden.[10] As a result of this last charge, his bail was raised from $200,000 to $350,000.[11] In January 2015, he pleaded not guilty.[12] In August 2015, the judge relieved Hayden's three private lawyers from the case per the lawyers' request. The lawyers said that confidential conditions for their representation hadn't been met, but that there was "no bitterness" between them and Hayden. Hayden was represented by a public defender at a later court date.[13]
On April 7, 2017, Hayden was convicted of two counts of aggravated rape and one count of forcible rape, of two girls over the course of two decades.[14] On May 11, 2017, Hayden was sentenced to two life sentences (mandatory for aggravated rape), to run concurrently, plus 40 years, to run consecutively, in prison. He is not eligible for any parole, probation, or suspension of sentence, and will spend the rest of his life in custody.[15]
On July 12, 2017, after pleading no contest to the charges facing him, Hayden was sentenced by Livingston Parish Judge Robert Morrison to a third life sentence for rape. Morrison ordered that the new sentence shall run concurrently with Hayden's previously ordered sentences. Hayden has now been sentenced to three life sentences plus 40 years and was transferred to Louisiana State Penitentiary in Angola.[16]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Hayden bio". Bornrich.com. Retrieved 2014-05-17.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Hayden interview". FHM magazine. Retrieved 2014-09-20.
Jump up ^ Dukes, Chad. "Chad Dukes Interviews Will Hayden from 'Sons of Guns'". CBS News. Retrieved 27 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Moyer, Justin. "The scary past of former 'Sons of Guns' star — and alleged rapist — Will Hayden". Washington Post. Retrieved 27 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Gun company cuts ties with reality TV star". Associated Press.
Jump up ^ "Hayden's separation from RJF". Red Jacket Firearms. Retrieved 2014-08-27.
Jump up ^ Gyan, Joe Jr. (2017-05-11). "Will Hayden, ex-'Sons of Guns star, sentenced to life in prison plus 40 years on Baton Rouge rape convictions". The Advocate (Louisiana). Retrieved 2017-05-14.
Jump up ^ "'Sons of Guns' star booked on child molestation in Baton Rouge". The Times Picayune. Retrieved 2014-08-12.
Jump up ^ "Hayden rape accusations". Bearing Arms.com. Retrieved 2014-12-04.
Jump up ^ "Hayden rape accusations". NY Daily News. Retrieved 2014-12-04.
Jump up ^ Hodges, Quincy (2014-09-10). "'Sons of Guns' star bond raised to $350k; Hayden's daughter to appear on Dr. Phil Thursday". The Times-Picayune. Retrieved 2017-10-29.
Jump up ^ "Hayden awaits trial". NOLA.com. Retrieved 2015-01-15.
Jump up ^ Lane, Emily (August 20, 2015). "Ex-lawyer of former 'Sons of Guns' star accused of raping child: 'There's a lot of evidence in this case'". Nola.com. Retrieved August 23, 2015.
Jump up ^ "'Sons of Guns' TV star Will Hayden convicted of rape charges in Baton Rouge". NOLA.com. Retrieved 2018-08-27.
Jump up ^ Staff, WAFB. "Former 'Sons of Guns' reality TV star sentenced to life, plus 40 years". Retrieved 2018-08-27.
Jump up ^ Staff, WAFB. "Former 'Sons of Guns' reality TV star pleads no contest to rape charges in Livingston Parish, sentenced to life again". Retrieved 2018-08-27.
External links[edit]
Red Jacket Firearms official site (Website dead-403 Feb 02 2018)
'Sons of Guns' star Will Hayden ordered to pay ex partners for secret business dealings, Fox News, 21 January 2015
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Will_Hayden&oldid=858704599"
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