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Development theory
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Development theory is a collection of theories about how desirable change in society is best achieved. Such theories draw on a variety of social science disciplines and approaches. In this article, multiple theories are discussed, as are recent developments with regard to these theories. Depending on which theory that is being looked at, there are different explanations to the process of development and their inequalities.
Contents
[hide]
1 Modernization theory
1.1 Sociological and anthropological modernization theory
1.2 Linear stages of growth model
1.3 Critics of modernization theory
2 Structuralism
3 Dependency theory
4 Basic needs
5 Neoclassical theory
5.1 Structural adjustment
6 Recent trends
6.1 Post-development theory
6.2 Sustainable development
6.3 Human development theory
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
Modernization theory[edit]
Main article: Modernization theory
Modernization theory is used to analyze the processes in which modernization in societies take place. The theory looks at which aspects of countries are beneficial and which constitute obstacles for economic development. The idea is that development assistance targeted at those particular aspects can lead to modernization of 'traditional' or 'backward' societies. Scientists from various research disciplines have contributed to modernization theory.
Sociological and anthropological modernization theory[edit]
The earliest principles of modernization theory can be derived from the idea of progress, which stated that people can develop and change their society themselves. Marquis de Condorcet was involved in the origins of this theory. This theory also states that technological advancements and economic changes can lead to changes in moral and cultural values. The French sociologist Émile Durkheim stressed the interdependence of institutions in a society and the way in which they interact with cultural and social unity. His work ‘The Division of Labor in Society’ was very influential. It described how social order is maintained in society and ways in which primitive societies can make the transition to more advanced societies.[1]
Other scientists who have contributed to the development of modernization theory are: David Apter, who did research on the political system and history of democracy; Seymour Martin Lipset, who argued that economic development leads to social changes which tend to lead to democracy; David McClelland, who approached modernization from the psychological side with his motivations theory; and Talcott Parsons who used his pattern variables to compare backwardness to modernity.
Linear stages of growth model[edit]
The linear stages of growth model is an economic model which is heavily inspired by the Marshall Plan which was used to revitalize Europe’s economy after World War II. It assumes that economic growth can only be achieved by industrialization. Growth can be restricted by local institutions and social attitudes, especially if these aspects influence the savings rate and investments. The constraints impeding economic growth are thus considered by this model to be internal to society.[2]
According to the linear stages of growth model, a correctly designed massive injection of capital coupled with intervention by the public sector would ultimately lead to industrialization and economic development of a developing nation.[3]
The Rostow's stages of growth model is the most well-known example of the linear stages of growth model.[3] Walt W. Rostow identified five stages through which developing countries had to pass to reach an advanced economy status: (1) Traditional society, (2) Preconditions for take-off, (3) Take-off, (4) Drive to maturity, (5) Age of high mass consumption. He argued that economic development could be led by certain strong sectors; this is in contrast to for instance Marxism which states that sectors should develop equally. According to Rostow’s model, a country needed to follow some rules of development to reach the take-off: (1) The investment rate of a country needs to be increased to at least 10% of its GDP, (2) One or two manufacturing sectors with a high rate of growth need to be established, (3) An institutional, political and social framework has to exist or be created in order to promote the expansion of those sectors.[4]
The Rostow model has serious flaws, of which the most serious are: (1) The model assumes that development can be achieved through a basic sequence of stages which are the same for all countries, a doubtful assumption; (2) The model measures development solely by means of the increase of GDP per capita; (3) The model focuses on characteristics of development, but does not identify the causal factors which lead development to occur. As such, it neglects the social structures that have to be present to foster development.[4]
Economic modernization theories such as Rostow's stages model have been heavily inspired by the Harrod-Domar model which explains in a mathematical way the growth rate of a country in terms of the savings rate and the productivity of capital.[5] Heavy state involvement has often been considered necessary for successful development in economic modernization theory; Paul Rosenstein-Rodan, Ragnar Nurkse and Kurt Mandelbaum argued that a big push model in infrastructure investment and planning was necessary for the stimulation of industrialization, and that the private sector would not be able to provide the resources for this on its own.[6] Another influential theory of modernization is the dual-sector model by Arthur Lewis. In this model Lewis explained how the traditional stagnant rural sector is gradually replaced by a growing modern and dynamic manufacturing and service economy.[7]
Because of the focus on the need for investments in capital, the Linear Stages of Growth Models are sometimes referred to as suffering from ‘capital fundamentalism’.[8]
Critics of modernization theory[edit]
Modernization theory observes traditions and pre-existing institutions of so-called "primitive" societies as obstacles to modern economic growth. Modernization which is forced from outside upon a society might induce violent and radical change, but according to modernization theorists it is generally worth this side effect. Critics point to traditional societies as being destroyed and slipping away to a modern form of poverty without ever gaining the promised advantages of modernization.
Structuralism[edit]
Main article: Structuralist economics
Structuralism is a development theory which focuses on structural aspects which impede the economic growth of developing countries. The unit of analysis is the transformation of a country’s economy from, mainly, a subsistence agriculture to a modern, urbanized manufacturing and service economy. Policy prescriptions resulting from structuralist thinking include major government intervention in the economy to fuel the industrial sector, known as import substitution industrialization (ISI). This structural transformation of the developing country is pursued in order to create an economy which in the end enjoys self-sustaining growth. This can only be reached by ending the reliance of the underdeveloped country on exports of primary goods (agricultural and mining products), and pursuing inward-oriented development by shielding the domestic economy from that of the developed economies. Trade with advanced economies is minimized through the erection of all kinds of trade barriers and an overvaluation of the domestic exchange rate; in this way the production of domestic substitutes of formerly imported industrial products is encouraged. The logic of the strategy rests on the infant industry argument, which states that young industries initially do not have the economies of scale and experience to be able to compete with foreign competitors and thus need to be protected until they are able to compete in the free market.[9] The Prebisch–Singer hypothesis states that over time the terms of trade for commodities deteriorate compared to those for manufactured goods, because the income elasticity of demand of manufactured goods is greater than that of primary products. If true, this would also support the ISI strategy.
Structuralists argue that the only way Third World countries can develop is through action by the state. Third world countries have to push industrialization and have to reduce their dependency on trade with the First World, and trade among themselves.
The roots of structuralism lie in South America, and particularly Chile. In 1950, Raul Prebisch went to Chile to become the first director of the Economic Commission for Latin America. In Chile, he cooperated with Celso Furtado, Anibal Pinto, Osvaldo Sunkel, and Dudley Seers, who all became influential structuralists.
Dependency theory[edit]
Main article: Dependency theory
Dependency theory is essentially a follow up to structuralist thinking, and shares many of its core ideas. Whereas structuralists did not consider that development would be possible at all unless a strategy of delinking and rigorous ISI was pursued, dependency thinking could allow development with external links with the developed parts of the globe. However, this kind of development is considered to be "dependent development", i.e., it does not have an internal domestic dynamic in the developing country and thus remains highly vulnerable to the economic vagaries of the world market. Dependency thinking starts from the notion that resources flow from the ‘periphery’ of poor and underdeveloped states to a ‘core’ of wealthy countries, which leads to accumulation of wealth in the rich states at the expense of the poor states. Contrary to modernization theory, dependency theory states that not all societies progress through similar stages of development. Periphery states have unique features, structures and institutions of their own and are considered weaker with regards to the world market economy, while the developed nations have never been in this colonized position in the past. Dependency theorists argue that underdeveloped countries remain economically vulnerable unless they reduce their connections to the world market.[10][11]
Dependency theory states that poor nations provide natural resources and cheap labor for developed nations, without which the developed nations could not have the standard of living which they enjoy. When underdeveloped countries try to remove the Core's influence, the developed countries hinder their attempts to keep control. This means that poverty of developing nations is not the result of the disintegration of these countries in the world system, but because of the way in which they are integrated into this system.
In addition to its structuralist roots, dependency theory has much overlap with Neo-Marxism and World Systems Theory, which is also reflected in the work of Immanuel Wallerstein, a famous dependency theorist. Wallerstein rejects the notion of a Third World, claiming that there is only one world which is connected by economic relations (World Systems Theory). He argues that this system inherently leads to a division of the world in core, semi-periphery and periphery. One of the results of expansion of the world-system is the commodification of things, like natural resources, labor and human relationships.[12][13]
Basic needs[edit]
Main article: Basic needs
The basic needs model was introduced by the International Labour Organization in 1976, mainly in reaction to prevalent modernization- and structuralism-inspired development approaches, which were not achieving satisfactory results in terms of poverty alleviation and combating inequality in developing countries. It tried to define an absolute minimum of resources necessary for long-term physical well-being. The poverty line which follows from this, is the amount of income needed to satisfy those basic needs. The approach has been applied in the sphere of development assistance, to determine what a society needs for subsistence, and for poor population groups to rise above the poverty line. Basic needs theory does not focus on investing in economically productive activities. Basic needs can be used as an indicator of the absolute minimum an individual needs to survive.
Proponents of basic needs have argued that elimination of absolute poverty is a good way to make people active in society so that they can provide labor more easily and act as consumers and savers.[14] There have been also many critics of the basic needs approach. It would lack theoretical rigour, practical precision, be in conflict with growth promotion policies, and run the risk of leaving developing countries in permanent.
Neoclassical theory[edit]
Neoclassical development theory has it origins in its predecessor: classical economics. Classical economics was developed in the 18th and 19th centuries and dealt with the value of products and on which production factors it depends. Early contributors to this theory are Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Classical economists argued – as do the neoclassical ones – in favor of the free market, and against government intervention in those markets. The 'invisible hand' of Adam Smith makes sure that free trade will ultimately benefit all of society. John Maynard Keynes was a very influential classical economist as well, having written his General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money in 1936.
Neoclassical development theory became influential towards the end of the 1970s, fired by the election of Margaret Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the USA. Also, the World Bank shifted from its Basic Needs approach to a neoclassical approach in 1980. From the beginning of the 1980s, neoclassical development theory really began to roll out.
Structural adjustment[edit]
One of the implications of the neoclassical development theory for developing countries were the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) which the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund wanted them to adapt. Important aspects of those SAPs include:
Fiscal austerity (reduction in government spending)
Privatization (which should both raise money for governments and improve efficiency and financial performance of the firms involved)
Trade liberalization, currency devaluation and the abolition of marketing boards (to maximize the static comparative advantage the developing country has on the global market)
Retrenchment of the government and deregulation (in order to stimulate the free market)
These measures are more or less reflected by the themes which were identified by the Institute of International Economics which were believed to be necessary for the recovery of Latin America from the economic and financial crises of the 1980s. These themes are known as the Washington consensus, a termed coined in 1989 by the economist John Williamson.
Recent trends[edit]
Post-development theory[edit]
Main article: Postdevelopment theory
Postdevelopment theory is a school of thought which questions the idea of national economic development altogether. According to postdevelopment scholars, the goal of improving living standards leans on arbitrary claims as to the desirability and possibility of that goal. Postdevelopment theory arose in the 1980s and 1990s.
According to postdevelopment theorists, the idea of development is just a 'mental structure' (Wolfgang Sachs) which has resulted in an hierarchy of developed and underdeveloped nations, of which the underdeveloped nations desire to be like developed nations.[15] Development thinking has been dominated by the West and is very ethnocentric, according to Sachs. The Western lifestyle may neither be a realistic nor a desirable goal for the world's population, postdevelopment theorists argue. Development is being seen as a loss of a country's own culture, people's perception of themselves and modes of life. According to Majid Rahnema, another leading postdevelopment scholar, things like notions of poverty are very culturally embedded and can differ a lot among cultures. The institutes which voice the concern over underdevelopment are very Western-oriented, and postdevelopment calls for a broader cultural involvement in development thinking.
Postdevelopment proposes a vision of society which removes itself from the ideas which currently dominate it. According to Arturo Escobar, postdevelopment is interested instead in local culture and knowledge, a critical view against established sciences and the promotion of local grassroots movements. Also, postdevelopment argues for structural change in order to reach solidarity, reciprocity, and a larger involvement of traditional knowledge.
Sustainable development[edit]
Main article: Sustainable development
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. (Brundtland Commission) There exist more definitions of sustainable development, but they all have to do with the carrying capacity of the earth and its natural systems and the challenges faced by humanity. Sustainable development can be broken up into environmental sustainability, economic sustainability and sociopolitical sustainability. The book 'Limits to Growth', commissioned by the Club of Rome, gave huge momentum to the thinking about sustainability.[16] Global warming issues are also problems which are emphasized by the sustainable development movement. This led to the 1997 Kyoto Accord, with the plan to cap greenhouse-gas emissions.
Opponents of the implications of sustainable development often point to the environmental Kuznets curve. The idea behind this curve is that, as an economy grows, it shifts towards more capital and knowledge-intensive production. This means that as an economy grows, its pollution output increases, but only until it reaches a particular threshold where production becomes less resource-intensive and more sustainable. This means that a pro-growth, not an anti-growth policy is needed to solve the environmental problem. But the evidence for the environmental Kuznets curve is quite weak. Also, empirically spoken, people tend to consume more products when their income increases. Maybe those products have been produced in a more environmentally friendly way, but on the whole the higher consumption negates this effect. There are people like Julian Simon however who argue that future technological developments will resolve future problems.
Human development theory[edit]
Main article: Human development theory
Human development theory is a theory which uses ideas from different origins, such as ecology, sustainable development, feminism and welfare economics. It wants to avoid normative politics and is focused on how social capital and instructional capital can be deployed to optimize the overall value of human capital in an economy.
Amartya Sen and Mahbub ul Haq are the most well-known human development theorists. The work of Sen is focused on capabilities: what people can do and be. It is these capabilities, rather than the income or goods that they receive (as in the Basic Needs approach), that determine their well being. This core idea also underlies the construction of the Human Development Index, a human-focused measure of development pioneered by the UNDP in its Human Development Reports; this approach has become popular the world over, with indexes and reports published by individual counties, including the American Human Development Index and Report in the United States. The economic side of Sen's work can best be categorized under welfare economics, which evaluates the effects of economic policies on the well-being of peoples. Sen wrote the influential book 'Development as freedom' which added an important ethical side to development economics [17]
See also[edit]
Development (disambiguation)
Ecological modernization theory
Economic development
International development
World-systems theory
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Division of Labor in Society (1893)". Durkheim.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2013-05-24.
Jump up ^ Khun, Alex (2008-08-06). "Inform Educate Action: Critical Review of Modernisation Theory". Ourdevelopment.blogspot.nl. Retrieved 2013-05-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Cairncross, A. K. (1961). "The Stages of Economic Growth". The Economic History Review. 13 (3): 450–458. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1959.tb01829.x.
^ Jump up to: a b "W.W. Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960), Chapter 2, "The Five Stages of Growth-A Summary," pp. 4-16". Mtholyoke.edu. Retrieved 2013-05-24.
Jump up ^ http://www.econ.washington.edu/user/thornj/Harrod-Domar06.pdf
Jump up ^ "'Big". Professor-frithjof-kuhnen.de. Retrieved 2013-05-24.
Jump up ^ "The Lewis Theory of Development". Scribd.com. 2010-06-29. Retrieved 2013-05-24.
Jump up ^ "Trade Research – Report Details". Econ.worldbank.org. 1994-04-30. Retrieved 2013-05-24.
Jump up ^ http://eugeniomiravete.com/papers/Infant_Industry_Argument_Miravete01.pdf
Jump up ^ [1] Archived March 24, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ ""Dependency Theory: An Introduction," Vincent Ferraro, Mount Holyoke College, July 1966". Mtholyoke.edu. Retrieved 2013-05-24.
Jump up ^ "Internet History Sourcebooks". Fordham.edu. Retrieved 2013-05-24.
Jump up ^ http://www.faculty.rsu.edu/users/f/felwell/www/Theorists/Wallerstein/Presentation/Wallerstein.pdf
Jump up ^ Stewart, Frances (1 January 1989). "Basic Needs Strategies, Human Rights, and the Right to Development". Human Rights Quarterly. 11 (3): 347–374. doi:10.2307/762098. JSTOR 762098 – via JSTOR.
Jump up ^ Sachs, Wolfgang (1992). The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowledge as Power. Zed Books. ISBN 1-85649-044-0.
Jump up ^ Meadows et al. (1972), The Limits to Growth, Universe Books, ISBN 0-87663-165-0
Jump up ^ Development as Freedom – Amartya Sen – Google Boeken. Books.google.nl. 2001-01-18. ISBN 978-0-19-289330-7. Retrieved 2013-05-24.
Further reading[edit]
M. P. Cowen and R. W. Shenton, Doctrines of Development, Routledge (1996), ISBN 978-0-415-12516-1.
Peter W. Preston, Development Theory: An Introduction to the Analysis of Complex Change, Wiley-Blackwell (1996), ISBN 978-0-631-19555-9.
Peter W. Preston, Rethinking Development, Routledge & Kegan Paul Books Ltd (1988), ISBN 978-0-7102-1263-4.
Richard Peet with Elaine Hartwick, "Theories of Development", The Guilford Press (1999) ISBN 1-57230-489-8
Walt Whitman Rostow, (1959), The stages of economic growth. The Economic History Review, 12: 1–16. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1959.tb01829.x
Tourette, J. E. L. (1964), Technological change and equilibrium growth in the Harrod-Domar model. Kyklos, 17: 207–226. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6435.1964.tb01832.x
Durkheim, Emile. The Division of Labor in Society. Trans. Lewis A. Coser. New York: Free Press, 1997, pp. 39, 60, 108.
John Rapley (2007), Understanding Development. Boulder, London: Lynne Rienner Publishers
Meadows et al. (1972), The Limits to Growth, Universe Books, ISBN 0-87663-165-0
Hunt, D. (1989), Economic Theories of Development: An Analysis of Competing Paradigms. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf
Greig, A., D. Hulme and M. Turner (2007). "Challenging Global Inequality. Development Theory and Practice in the 21st century". Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
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Daylight saving time in the United States
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Ohio Clock in the U.S. Capitol being turned forward for the country's first daylight saving time in 1918
Daylight saving time in the United States is the practice of setting the clock forward by one hour during the warmer part of the year, so that evenings have more daylight and mornings have less. Most areas of the United States observe daylight saving time (DST), the exceptions being Arizona (except for the Navajo, who do observe daylight saving time on tribal lands),[1] Hawaii,[2] and the overseas territories of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the United States Virgin Islands.
In general, daylight saving time is not observed in lower-latitude regions, as summer days are not much longer than winter ones as in higher latitudes.
Daylight saving time starts on the second Sunday in March and ends on the first Sunday in November, with the time changes taking place at 2:00 a.m. local time. With a mnemonic word play referring to seasons, clocks "spring forward, fall back" —that is, in springtime the clocks are moved forward from 2:00 a.m. to 3:00 a.m. and in fall they are moved back from 2:00 a.m. to 1:00 a.m. Daylight saving time lasts for a total of 34 weeks (238 days) every year, about 65% of the entire year.
The following table lists recent past and near future starting and ending dates of daylight saving time in the United States:
Year
Start
End
2015 March 8 November 1
2016 March 13 November 6
2017 March 12 November 5
2018 March 11 November 4
2019 March 10 November 3
2020 March 8 November 1
2021 March 14 November 7
2022 March 13 November 6
2023 March 12 November 5
2024 March 10 November 3
Contents
[hide]
1 History of DST in the United States
1.1 1916–1966: Early, inconsistent use
1.2 1966–1972: Federal standard established
1.3 1973–1975: Year-round experiment
1.4 1975–1986: Extension of daylight saving time
1.5 2005–2009: Second extension
2 Procedure for modifications
2.1 Changing an area's time zone
2.2 Moving an area on or off DST
3 Local DST observance
3.1 Alaska
3.2 Arizona
3.2.1 Reservations in Arizona
3.3 California
3.4 Florida
3.5 Hawaii
3.6 Indiana
3.7 Michigan
3.8 Nevada
3.9 Washington
3.10 Other U.S. locations
4 Time zones
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History of DST in the United States[edit]
Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. His essay, “An Economical Project for Diminishing the Cost of Light”, written to the editor of The Journal of Paris, observed that Parisians could save on candles by getting out of bed earlier in the morning, making use of the natural morning light instead. Franklin's suggestion seems to have been more of a joke than a real proposal, and nothing came of it.[3]
1916–1966: Early, inconsistent use[edit]
During World War I, in an effort to conserve fuel, Germany began observing DST on May 1, 1916. The rest of Europe soon followed. The plan was not adopted in the United States until the Standard Time Act of March 19, 1918, which confirmed the existing standard time zone system and set summer DST to begin on March 31, 1918 (reverting October 27).[4] The idea was unpopular and Congress abolished DST after the war, overriding President Woodrow Wilson's veto.[5] DST became a local option and was observed in some states until World War II, when President Franklin Roosevelt instituted year-round DST, called "War Time", on February 9, 1942.[6] It lasted until the last Sunday (the 30th) in September 1945. After 1945 many states and cities east of the Mississippi River (and mostly north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers) adopted summer DST.[7]
From 1945 to 1966 there was no federal law on daylight saving time, so localities could choose when it began and ended or drop it entirely. As of 1954, only California and Nevada had statewide DST west of the Mississippi, and only a few cities between Nevada and St. Louis. In the 1964 Official Railway Guide, 21 of the 48 states had no DST anywhere.
1966–1972: Federal standard established[edit]
By 1962, the transportation industry found the lack of consistency confusing enough to push for federal regulation. The result was the Uniform Time Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-387). Beginning in 1967, the act mandated standard time within the established time zones and provided for advanced time: clocks would be advanced one hour beginning at 2:00 a.m. on the last Sunday in April and turned back one hour at 2:00 a.m. on the last Sunday in October. States were allowed to exempt themselves from DST as long as the entire state did so. If a state chose to observe DST, the time changes were required to begin and end on the established dates. In 1967, Arizona and Michigan became the first states to exempt themselves from DST (Michigan would begin observing DST in 1972). In 1972, the act was amended (P.L. 92-267), allowing those states split between time zones to exempt either the entire state or that part of the state lying within a different time zone. The newly created Department of Transportation (DOT) was given power to enforce the law. As of 2014, the following states and territories are not observing DST: Arizona, Hawaii, American Samoa, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.[7]
1973–1975: Year-round experiment[edit]
During the 1973 oil embargo by the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), in an effort to conserve fuel, Congress enacted a trial period of year-round DST (P.L. 93-182), beginning January 6, 1974, and ending April 27, 1975.[8] The trial was hotly debated. Those in favor pointed to increased daylight hours in the winter evening: more time for recreation, reduced lighting and heating demands, reduced crime, and reduced automobile accidents. The opposition was concerned about children leaving for school in the dark. The act was amended in October 1974 (P.L. 93-434) to return to standard time for the period beginning October 27, 1974, and ending February 23, 1975, when DST resumed. When the trial ended in 1975, the country returned to observing summer DST (with the aforementioned exceptions).[7]
1975–1986: Extension of daylight saving time[edit]
The DOT, evaluating the plan of extending DST into March, reported in 1975 that "modest overall benefits might be realized by a shift from the historic six-month DST (May through October) in areas of energy conservation, overall traffic safety and reduced violent crime." However, DOT also reported that these benefits were minimal and difficult to distinguish from seasonal variations and fluctuations in energy prices.[7]
Congress then asked the National Bureau of Standards (NBS, today NIST) to evaluate the DOT report. Its report, "Review and Technical Evaluation of the DOT Daylight Saving Time Study" (April 1976), found no significant energy savings or differences in traffic fatalities.[9] It did find statistically significant evidence of increased fatalities among school-age children in the mornings during the four-month period January–April 1974 as compared with the same period (non-DST) of 1973. NBS stated that it was impossible to determine, what, if any, of this increase was due to DST. When these data were compared between 1973 and 1974 for the months of March and April, no significant difference was found in fatalities among school-age children in the mornings.[7]
In 1986 Congress enacted P.L. 99-359, amending the Uniform Time Act by changing the beginning of DST to the first Sunday in April and having the end remain the last Sunday in October.[7] These start and end dates were in effect from 1987 to 2006. The time was adjusted at 2:00 a.m. local time.
2005–2009: Second extension[edit]
By the Energy Policy Act of 2005, daylight saving time (DST) was extended in the United States beginning in 2007.[10] As from that year, DST begins on the second Sunday of March and ends on the first Sunday of November. In years when April 1 falls on Monday through Wednesday, these changes result in a DST period that is five weeks longer; in all other years the DST period is instead four weeks longer.[11] In 2008 daylight saving time ended at 2:00 a.m. DST (0200) (1:00 a.m. ST) on Sunday, November 2, and in 2009 it began at 2:00 a.m. (3:00 a.m. DST) on Sunday, March 8.[12] Wyoming Senator Michael Enzi and Michigan Representative Fred Upton advocated the extension from October into November especially to allow children to go trick-or-treating in more daylight.[13]
Under Section 110 of the Act, the U.S. Department of Energy was required to study the impact of the 2007 DST extension no later than nine months after the change took effect. The report, released in October 2008, reported a nationwide electricity savings of 0.03% for the year of 2007.[14]
An October 2008 study conducted by the University of California at Santa Barbara for the National Bureau of Economic Research found that the 2006 DST adoption in Indiana increased energy consumption in Indiana by an average of 1%. Although consumption for lighting dropped as a result of the DST adoption, consumption for heating and cooling increased by 2% to 4%. The cost to the average Indiana household of the DST adoption was determined to be $3.29 per year, for an aggregate cost of $1.7 million to $5.5 million per year.[15]
Procedure for modifications[edit]
Changing an area's time zone[edit]
Under the Standard Time Act of 1918, as amended by the Uniform Time Act of 1966, moving a state or an area within a state from one time zone to another requires a regulation issued by DOT. The governor or state legislature may initiate a request for the state or any part of the state; the highest elected officials in the county may make a request for that county. The standard in the statute for such decisions is the convenience of commerce in that area. The convenience of commerce is defined broadly to consider such circumstances as the shipment of goods within the community; the origin of television and radio broadcasts; the areas where most residents work, attend school, worship, or receive health care; the location of airports, railway, and bus stations; and the major elements of the community's economy.[7]
After receiving a request for altering a time zone, DOT determines whether it meets the requirement of minimum statutory criteria before issuing a notice of proposed rulemaking, soliciting public comment and scheduling a public hearing. Usually the hearing is held in the area requesting the change so that all affected parties can be represented. After the close of the comment period, the comments are reviewed and appropriate final action taken. If the Secretary agrees that the statutory requirement has been met, the change is instituted, usually at the next changeover to or from DST.[7]
Moving an area on or off DST[edit]
Under the Uniform Time Act, moving an area on or off DST is accomplished through legal action at the state level. Some states require legislation while others require executive action such as a governor's executive order. Information on procedures required in a specific state may be obtained from that state's legislature or governor's office. Although it may exempt itself, if a state decides to observe DST, the dates of observance must comply with federal legislation.[7]
Local DST observance[edit]
Alaska[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2017)
Alaska observes DST. Due to its high latitude, Alaska has nearly round-the-clock daylight during summer, and DST is seen by some Alaskans as unnecessary and a nuisance. Another issue is that the Alaskan mainland's single time zone, which approximates solar time in the capital, Juneau, leads to a large disparity between civil time and solar time for much of the state, with solar noon occurring as late as 2:00 p.m. in the population centers of Anchorage and Fairbanks, and as late as 3:00 p.m. in places such as Nome. In Fairbanks, for example, sunset occurs well after civil midnight in the summer. Others argue that ending daylight saving time will place Alaska as much as five hours from Eastern Daylight Time, making coordination of travel and phone conversations more difficult.
In March 2015 the Alaska Senate passed a bill, introduced by state senator Anna MacKinnon, to end daylight saving time. The Alaska House formed a sub-committee that was due to look into the issue during the 2016 legislative session.[16]
Arizona[edit]
Arizona observed DST in 1967 under the Uniform Time Act because the state legislature did not enact an exemption statute that year. In March 1968 the DST exemption statute was enacted and the state of Arizona has not observed DST since 1967. This is in large part due to an effort to conserve energy. Phoenix and Tucson are among the hottest U.S. metropolitan areas during the summer, resulting in more power usage from air conditioning units and evaporative coolers in homes and businesses. An extra hour of sunlight while people are active would cause people to run their cooling systems longer, thereby using more energy.[17]
Reservations in Arizona[edit]
The Navajo Indian Reservation extends into Utah and New Mexico and does observe daylight saving time.[18] The Hopi Reservation is entirely within the state of Arizona and is an enclave within the Navajo Indian Reservation, but does not observe DST.
California[edit]
California voters passed Proposition 12[19] in 1949, approving DST in the state.[20] In February 2017, California Assembly member Kansen Chu introduced A.B. 807,[21] which, if enacted and approved by voters, would enable the legislature to eliminate DST in the state, or, if federal law allows, to adopt DST for the entire year..[22]
Florida[edit]
Daylight time is less useful in Florida compared to other states because its southern location leads to less variations in day length between winter and summer. Without DST, Miami, for instance, would experience similar sunrise and sunset times throughout the year to cities including Honolulu or Hong Kong, which have both abandoned DST for decades. There is opposition to DST in Florida.[23] State senator Bill Posey introduced a bill in March 2008 to abolish daylight time in the state and keep Florida on year-round standard time.[24] Because Florida straddles two time zones, the Florida legislature has the option of returning all or part of the state to standard time along time zone boundaries (i.e. placing the portion of the state in the Eastern time zone on standard time, while leaving the portion in the Central time zone on DST, so that the whole state had a common time).
Hawaii[edit]
Hawaii has never observed daylight saving time under the Uniform Time Act, having opted out of the Act's provisions in 1967.[25]
Because of Hawaii's tropical latitude, there is not a large variation in daylight length between winter and summer. Advancing the clock in Hawaii would make sunrise times close to 7:00 a.m. even in June.[26] Most of the inhabited islands are located close to the west end of the Hawaii-Aleutian time zone, but Oahu, Kauai, and Niihau are located more than 7 degrees west of the Hawaii-Aleutian time zone's meridian and should, theoretically, be located in the next time zone to the west. (Until about 1946 Hawaiian standard time was based on longitude 157.5 degrees west rather than 150 degrees.)
On April 26, 1933, the Territorial Legislature enacted a bill placing Hawaii on daylight saving time from the last Sunday in April (April 30 in that year) to the last Sunday in September, but the law was repealed three weeks later on May 21, 1933.[27] During World War II between February 9, 1942 and September 30, 1945, Hawaiian Standard Time was advanced one hour to so-called "Hawaiian War Time," effectively placing the territory on year-round daylight saving time.[28]
Indiana[edit]
See also: Time in Indiana
From 1970 until 2006, most of Indiana in the Eastern Time Zone did not observe daylight saving time, but the entire state started to do so in April 2006 after eight counties in western Indiana were shifted from the Central Time Zone to the Eastern Time Zone.[29] One goal for observing DST was to get more Indiana counties observing the same time zone; formerly, 77 counties observed EST, 5 observed EST/EDT (the EDT usage being unofficial only), and 10 observed CST/CDT. As of 2016[update], Indiana has 12 counties observing Central Daylight Time while the remaining 80 counties observe Eastern Daylight Time. Those counties observing CST are in two groups: one near or in the Chicago metropolitan area, and the other around Evansville in the southwest corner of the state.
Michigan[edit]
In 1967, the Michigan Legislature adopted a statute, Act 6 of the Public Acts of 1967, exempting the state from the observance of DST. The exemption statute was suspended on June 14, 1967, however, when the referendum was invoked. From June 14, 1967 until the last Sunday in October 1967, Michigan observed DST, and did so in 1968 as well. The exemption statute was submitted to the voters at the General Election held in November 1968, and, in a close vote, the exemption statute was sustained. As a result, Michigan did not observe DST in 1969, 1970, 1971, or 1972. (Radio station CKLW in Windsor, Ontario, just across the river from Detroit, was popular on both sides of the border and would often give both times on the air, e.g. "It's 4:30 in Detroit and 5:30 in Windsor!") In November 1972, an initiative measure, repealing the exemption statute, was approved by the voters. Michigan again observed DST in 1973, and has continued to do so since then.
The vast majority of Michigan is in the Eastern Time Zone. Only the Upper Peninsula counties that border Wisconsin (Gogebic, Iron, Dickinson, and Menominee) are in the Central Time Zone.
Nevada[edit]
In 2015, the Nevada Senate passed Nevada Assembly Joint Resolution 4[30], which urged Congress to enact legislation allowing individual states to establish daylight saving time as the standard time in their respective states throughout the calendar year. This would mean that Nevada is on the same time as Arizona all year, but would be an hour ahead of California in the winter.[31] The United States Congress has not yet enacted any enabling legislation in this regard.
Washington[edit]
In 2015, Rep. Elizabeth Scott (R-Monroe) filed a House bill to end DST in Washington, and a companion bill was filed in the Senate.[32] She told a House committee that the semiannual time switches are not only inconvenient but lead to health problems and accidents due to lost sleep.[33] She added that the bill to drop daylight saving time would reduce heart attacks, car wrecks, and work accidents found to increase with the sleep-schedule disruptions.[32] A different Senate Bill would petition the federal government for year-round DST.[32] The bills were defeated.[34]
Other U.S. locations[edit]
All U.S. insular territories with civilian government (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands) lie in the tropics and do not observe DST.
While neighboring Samoa began observing DST in September 2010, the smaller American Samoa cannot legally follow because of the DST observation period mandated by the Uniform Time Act. This period is actually wintertime in this Southern Hemisphere territory.
Time zones[edit]
Many computer operating systems (such as Microsoft Windows, Linux, UNIX, and macOS) and programming languages (such as Java, perl, and most shell languages) allow a local time zone setting in the format of (standard time zone abbreviation)(UTC hour difference)(daylight saving time zone abbreviation). This allows programs and programming languages that must do calculations based on local time to more easily calculate differences between local time and UTC, as well as knowing whether calculations should be changed during daylight saving time. For example, a time zone setting of EST5EDT indicates that local time on the computer is 5 hours behind UTC and should be adjusted for daylight saving time.
Time Zone
Standard Time
Daylight Saving Time
TZ
Atlantic Time Zone AST (UTC-4) ADT (UTC-3) AST4ADT
Eastern Time Zone EST (UTC-5) EDT (UTC-4) EST5EDT
Central Time Zone CST (UTC-6) CDT (UTC-5) CST6CDT
Mountain Time Zone MST (UTC-7) MDT (UTC-6) MST7MDT
Pacific Time Zone PST (UTC-8) PDT (UTC-7) PST8PDT
Alaska Time Zone AKST (UTC-9) AKDT (UTC-8) AKST9AKDT
Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone HAST (UTC-10) HADT (UTC-9)
Aleutian Islands only HAST10HADT
See also[edit]
General topic
Daylight saving time
Daylight saving time by country
CHU distributes official time in Canada
History of time in the United States includes a list of historical daylight saving dates back to 1918
Official civil time distribution
WWV and WWVH (NIST Shortwave)
WWVB (NIST Longwave)
Quasi-governmental time distribution systems
CDMA cellphone stratum 2 time distribution system
GNSS global navigation stratum 1 time distribution system
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Most of Exempt from Daylight Saving Time", timeanddate.com. Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Daylight Time". United States Naval Observatory. Retrieved October 18, 2012.
Jump up ^ History of Daylight Saving Time, timeanddate.com; accesses 2017.03.05.
Jump up ^ Editors (25 October 1918). "Clocks Change Tomorrow" (PDF). The New York Times Company. The New York Times. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
Jump up ^ 66th U.S. Congress. "CHAP. 51. An Act For the repeal of the daylight-saving law" (pdf). Legis Works. Retrieved November 3, 2013. (Pub.L. 66–40, 41 Stat. 280, enacted August 20, 1919)
Jump up ^ 77th U.S. Congress. "AN ACT To promote the national security and defense by establishing daylight saving time" (pdf). Legis Works. Retrieved November 3, 2013. (Pub.L. 77–403, 56 Stat. 9, enacted January 20, 1942)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Source: CRS Report to Congress s:Congressional Research Service Report RS22284 Daylight Saving Time
Jump up ^ 93rd U.S. Congress. "AN ACT To provide for daylight saving time on a year-round basis for a two-year trial period, .." (pdf). United States Government Printing Office. Retrieved 2 November 2013. (Pub.L. 93–182, 87 Stat. 707, enacted December 15, 1973)
Jump up ^ Dunning, Brian. "Skeptoid #172: Daylight Saving Time Myths". Skeptoid. Retrieved June 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ 109th U.S. Congress. "Sec. 110. Daylight Savings" (PDF). An Act To ensure jobs for our future with secure, affordable, and reliable energy. United States Government Printing Office. Retrieved November 3, 2013. (Pub.L. 109–58, 119 Stat. 594, enacted August 8, 2005)
Jump up ^ Douma, Michael (2008). "Daylight Saving Time — When do we change our clocks?". Institute for Dynamic Educational Advancement. Retrieved March 8, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Time and Frequency Division FAQ". National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Jump up ^ Ast, William F. III (October 30, 2009). "Time shifts backward early Sunday morning". The Herald-Palladium. Retrieved October 30, 2009.
Jump up ^ Belzer, David B. (October 2008). "Impact of Extended Daylight Saving Time on National Energy Consumption" (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-18.
Jump up ^ Lotchen, Matthew (October 2008). "Does Daylight Saving Time Save Energy? Evidence from a Natural Experiment in Indiana" (PDF). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Jump up ^ Moritz, Katie (April 10, 2015). "Clock Stopped on Daylight Saving Time Repeal – For Now". Juneau Empire. Retrieved May 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Shimoda, Yoshiyuki; Asahi, Takahiro; Taniguchi, Ayako; Mizuno, Minoru (2007). "Evaluation of city-scale impact of residential energy conservation measures using the detailed end-use simulation model". Energy. 32 (9): 1617. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2007.01.007.
Jump up ^ "Navajo Nation". Wwp.greenwichmeantime.com. Retrieved June 25, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Proposition 12: Daylight Saving Time". UC Hastings Scholarship Repository. University of California Hastings. 1949. Retrieved March 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "California Wants To Ban Daylight Saving Time". The Huffington Post. March 11, 2016. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ A.B. 807, 2017–2018 Reg. Sess. (Cal. 2017). An act to add Section 6808 to the Government Code, and to repeal Sections 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 of the Daylight Saving Time Act, an initiative measure approved at the November 8, 1949, special election, relating to daylight saving time.
Jump up ^ Murphy, Katy (March 10, 2017). "California debates daylight saving time — again". San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved March 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "HB 701 – Daylight Saving Time". Retrieved May 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ Colavecchio-Van Sickler, Shannon (March 27, 2008). "Posey's daylight savings bill moves". Tampa Bay Times.
Jump up ^ "Hawaii Revised Statutes, § 1-31". Capitol.hawaii.gov. Retrieved June 25, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Astronomical Data Applications". U.S. Naval Meteorology & Oceanography Command. Retrieved June 25, 2010.
Jump up ^ Session Laws of Hawaii, 933, enacted by Act 90 (approved April 26, 1933) and repealed by Act 163 (approved May 21, 1933). Cited in Schmitt, Robert; Cox, Doak (1992). "Hawaiian Time". The Hawaiian Journal of History. 26: 220. Archived from the original on November 5, 2013. Retrieved November 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Schmitt and Cox, p. 221.
Jump up ^ Standard Time Zone Boundary in the State of Indiana (a 139 KB PDF file)
Jump up ^ Assembly Joint Resolution No. 4 (PDF) (Report). Nevada Legislature. 2015-05-25.
Jump up ^ Chereb, Sandra (2015-05-18). "Nevada lawmakers urge Congress to allow state to stay on daylight savings time". Las Vegas Review-Journal.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Bill would end daylight saving time in Washington state". The Oregonian. AP. February 3, 2015. Retrieved November 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ Nunnally, Derrick (February 3, 2015). "Lawmakers want to end Daylight Saving Time in Washington". AP. Retrieved November 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Senate bill to end Daylight Saving Time in Washington dies". Retrieved February 12, 2018.
External links[edit]
Washington Post: Overview of anti-DST initiatives by states in 2015
Steverman, Ben (March 10, 2017). "Proof daylight saving time is dumb, dangerous, and costly". Boston Globe. Bloomberg News. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
[hide]
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text:
List box
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A generic list box
A list box is a graphical control element that allows the user to select one or more items from a list contained within a static, multiple line text box. The user clicks inside the box on an item to select it, sometimes in combination with the ⇧ Shift or Ctrl in order to make multiple selections. "Control-clicking" an item that has already been selected, unselects it.
A list box is called select or select1 in the XForms standard. Select is used for allowing the user to select many items from a list whereas select1 only allows the user to select a single item from a list.
See also[edit]
Drop down list - Like a list box, but not permanently expanded to show the elements of the list.
Combo box - Like a drop down list, but users also can make entries not on the list.
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This graphical user interface article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_box&oldid=648353117"
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List box – Italian
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