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Earth's rotation
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For the duration of daylight and night, see Daytime and Night.
An animation of Earth's rotation around the planet's axis
This long-exposure photo of the northern night sky over the Nepali Himalayas shows the apparent paths of the stars as Earth rotates.
Earth's rotation is the rotation of Planet Earth around its own axis. Earth rotates eastward, in prograde motion. As viewed from the north pole star Polaris, Earth turns counter clockwise.
The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is the point in the Northern Hemisphere where Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. This point is distinct from Earth's North Magnetic Pole. The South Pole is the other point where Earth's axis of rotation intersects its surface, in Antarctica.
Earth rotates once in about 24 hours with respect to the Sun, but once every 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds with respect to the stars (see below). Earth's rotation is slowing slightly with time; thus, a day was shorter in the past. This is due to the tidal effects the Moon has on Earth's rotation. Atomic clocks show that a modern day is longer by about 1.7 milliseconds than a century ago,[1] slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds. Analysis of historical astronomical records shows a slowing trend of about 2.3 milliseconds per century since the 8th century BCE.[2]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Empirical tests
2 Periods
2.1 True solar day
2.2 Mean solar day
2.3 Stellar and sidereal day
2.4 Angular speed
3 Changes
3.1 In rotational axis
3.2 In rotational velocity
3.2.1 Tidal interactions
3.2.2 Resonant stabilization
3.2.3 Global events
3.3 Measurement
3.4 Ancient observations
4 Origin
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Among the ancient Greeks, several of the Pythagorean school believed in the rotation of the earth rather than the apparent diurnal rotation of the heavens. Perhaps the first was Philolaus (470–385 BCE), though his system was complicated, including a counter-earth rotating daily about a central fire.[3]
A more conventional picture was that supported by Hicetas, Heraclides and Ecphantus in the fourth century BCE who assumed that the earth rotated but did not suggest that the earth revolved about the sun. In the third century BCE, Aristarchus of Samos suggested the sun's central place.
However, Aristotle in the fourth century BCE criticized the ideas of Philolaus as being based on theory rather than observation. He established the idea of a sphere of fixed stars that rotated about the earth.[4] This was accepted by most of those who came after, in particular Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century CE), who thought the earth would be devastated by gales if it rotated.[5]
In 499 CE, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata wrote that the spherical earth rotates about its axis daily, and that the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the rotation of the Earth. He provided the following analogy: "Just as a man in a boat going in one direction sees the stationary things on the bank as moving in the opposite direction, in the same way to a man at Lanka the fixed stars appear to be going westward."[6][7]
In the 10th century, some Muslim astronomers accepted that the Earth rotates around its axis.[8] According to al-Biruni, Abu Sa'id al-Sijzi (d. circa 1020) invented an astrolabe called al-zūraqī based on the idea believed by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky."[9][10] The prevalence of this view is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th century which states: "According to the geometers [or engineers] (muhandisīn), the earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the earth and not the stars."[9] Treatises were written to discuss its possibility, either as refutations or expressing doubts about Ptolemy's arguments against it.[11] At the Maragha and Samarkand observatories, the Earth's rotation was discussed by Tusi (b. 1201) and Qushji (b. 1403); the arguments and evidence they used resemble those used by Copernicus.[12]
In medieval Europe, Thomas Aquinas accepted Aristotle's view[13] and so, reluctantly, did John Buridan[14] and Nicole Oresme[15] in the fourteenth century. Not until Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 adopted a heliocentric world system did the contemporary understanding of earth's rotation begin to be established. Copernicus pointed out that if the movement of the earth is violent, then the movement of the stars must be very much more so. He acknowledged the contribution of the Pythagoreans and pointed to examples of relative motion. For Copernicus this was the first step in establishing the simpler pattern of planets circling a central sun.[16]
Tycho Brahe, who produced accurate observations on which Kepler based his laws, used Copernicus's work as the basis of a system assuming a stationary earth. In 1600, William Gilbert strongly supported the earth's rotation in his treatise on the earth's magnetism[17] and thereby influenced many of his contemporaries.[18] Those like Gilbert who did not openly support or reject the motion of the earth about the sun are often called "semi-Copernicans".[19] A century after Copernicus, Riccioli disputed the model of a rotating earth due to the lack of then-observable eastward deflections in falling bodies;[20] such deflections would later be called the Coriolis effect. However, the contributions of Kepler, Galileo and Newton gathered support for the theory of the rotation of the Earth.
Empirical tests[edit]
Earth's rotation implies that the Equator bulges and the geographical poles are flattened. In his Principia, Newton predicted this flattening would occur in the ratio of 1:230, and pointed to the 1673 pendulum measurements by Richer as corroboration of the change in gravity,[21] but initial measurements of meridian lengths by Picard and Cassini at the end of the 17th century suggested the opposite. However, measurements by Maupertuis and the French Geodesic Mission in the 1730s established the oblateness of Earth, thus confirming the positions of both Newton and Copernicus.[22]
In the Earth's rotating frame of reference, a freely moving body follows an apparent path that deviates from the one it would follow in a fixed frame of reference. Because of the Coriolis effect, falling bodies veer slightly eastward from the vertical plumb line below their point of release, and projectiles veer right in the Northern Hemisphere (and left in the Southern) from the direction in which they are shot. The Coriolis effect is mainly observable at a meteorological scale, where it is responsible for the opposite directions of cyclone rotation in the Northern and Southern hemispheres (anticlockwise and clockwise, respectively).
Hooke, following a 1679 suggestion from Newton, tried unsuccessfully to verify the predicted eastward deviation of a body dropped from a height of 8.2 meters, but definitive results were only obtained later, in the late 18th and early 19th century, by Giovanni Battista Guglielmini in Bologna, Johann Friedrich Benzenberg in Hamburg and Ferdinand Reich in Freiberg, using taller towers and carefully released weights.[n 1] A ball dropped from a height of 158.5 m (520 ft) departed by 27.4 mm (1.08 in) from the vertical compared with a calculated value of 28.1 mm (1.11 in).
The most celebrated test of Earth's rotation is the Foucault pendulum first built by physicist Léon Foucault in 1851, which consisted of a lead-filled brass sphere suspended 67 m from the top of the Panthéon in Paris. Because of the Earth's rotation under the swinging pendulum, the pendulum's plane of oscillation appears to rotate at a rate depending on latitude. At the latitude of Paris the predicted and observed shift was about 11 degrees clockwise per hour. Foucault pendulums now swing in museums around the world.
Periods [edit]
Starry circles arc around the south celestial pole, seen overhead at ESO's La Silla Observatory.[23]
True solar day[edit]
Main article: Solar time
Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (solar noon to solar noon) is its true solar day or apparent solar day. It depends on the Earth's orbital motion and is thus affected by changes in the eccentricity and inclination of Earth's orbit. Both vary over thousands of years, so the annual variation of the true solar day also varies. Generally, it is longer than the mean solar day during two periods of the year and shorter during another two.[n 2] The true solar day tends to be longer near perihelion when the Sun apparently moves along the ecliptic through a greater angle than usual, taking about 10 seconds longer to do so. Conversely, it is about 10 seconds shorter near aphelion. It is about 20 seconds longer near a solstice when the projection of the Sun's apparent motion along the ecliptic onto the celestial equator causes the Sun to move through a greater angle than usual. Conversely, near an equinox the projection onto the equator is shorter by about 20 seconds. Currently, the perihelion and solstice effects combine to lengthen the true solar day near 22 December by 30 mean solar seconds, but the solstice effect is partially cancelled by the aphelion effect near 19 June when it is only 13 seconds longer. The effects of the equinoxes shorten it near 26 March and 16 September by 18 seconds and 21 seconds, respectively.[24][25][26]
Mean solar day[edit]
Main article: Solar time § Mean solar time
The average of the true solar day during the course of an entire year is the mean solar day, which contains 86,400 mean solar seconds. Currently, each of these seconds is slightly longer than an SI second because Earth's mean solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal friction. The average length of the mean solar day since the introduction of the leap second in 1972 has been about 0 to 2 ms longer than 86,400 SI seconds.[27][28][29] Random fluctuations due to core-mantle coupling have an amplitude of about 5 ms.[30][31] The mean solar second between 1750 and 1892 was chosen in 1895 by Simon Newcomb as the independent unit of time in his Tables of the Sun. These tables were used to calculate the world's ephemerides between 1900 and 1983, so this second became known as the ephemeris second. In 1967 the SI second was made equal to the ephemeris second.[32]
The apparent solar time is a measure of the Earth's rotation and the difference between it and the mean solar time is known as the equation of time.
Stellar and sidereal day[edit]
On a prograde planet like the Earth, the stellar day is shorter than the solar day. At time 1, the Sun and a certain distant star are both overhead. At time 2, the planet has rotated 360° and the distant star is overhead again but the Sun is not (1→2 = one stellar day). It is not until a little later, at time 3, that the Sun is overhead again (1→3 = one solar day).
Earth's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is 86,164.098 903 691 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.098 903 691s, 0.997 269 663 237 16 mean solar days).[33][n 3] Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing mean vernal equinox, named sidereal day, is 86,164.090 530 832 88 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.090 530 832 88s, 0.997 269 566 329 08 mean solar days).[33] Thus, the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.[35]
Both the stellar day and the sidereal day are shorter than the mean solar day by about 3 minutes 56 seconds. The mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005[36] and 1962–2005.[37]
Recently (1999–2010) the average annual length of the mean solar day in excess of 86,400 SI seconds has varied between 0.25 ms and 1 ms, which must be added to both the stellar and sidereal days given in mean solar time above to obtain their lengths in SI seconds (see Fluctuations in the length of day).
Angular speed[edit]
Plot of latitude vs tangential speed. The dashed line shows that the Kennedy Space Center example. The dot-dash line denotes typical airliner cruise speed.
The angular speed of Earth's rotation in inertial space is (7.2921150 ± 0.0000001)×10−5 radians per SI second (mean solar second).[33] Multiplying by (180°/π radians) × (86,400 seconds/mean solar day) yields 360.9856°/mean solar day, indicating that Earth rotates more than 360° relative to the fixed stars in one solar day. Earth's movement along its nearly circular orbit while it is rotating once around its axis requires that Earth rotate slightly more than once relative to the fixed stars before the mean Sun can pass overhead again, even though it rotates only once (360°) relative to the mean Sun.[n 4] Multiplying the value in rad/s by Earth's equatorial radius of 6,378,137 m (WGS84 ellipsoid) (factors of 2π radians needed by both cancel) yields an equatorial speed of 465.1 m/s (1,526 ft/s), or 1,674.4 km/h (1,040.4 mph).[38] Some sources state that Earth's equatorial speed is slightly less, or 1,669.8 km/h.[39] This is obtained by dividing Earth's equatorial circumference by 24 hours. However, the use of only one circumference unwittingly implies only one rotation in inertial space, so the corresponding time unit must be a sidereal hour. This is confirmed by multiplying by the number of sidereal days in one mean solar day, 1.002 737 909 350 795,[33] which yields the equatorial speed in mean solar hours given above of 1,674.4 km/h.
The tangential speed of Earth's rotation at a point on Earth can be approximated by multiplying the speed at the equator by the cosine of the latitude.[40] For example, the Kennedy Space Center is located at latitude 28.59° N, which yields a speed of: cos 28.59° × 1,674.4 km/h (1,040.4 mph; 465.1 m/s) = 1,470.23 km/h (913.56 mph; 408.40 m/s)
Changes[edit]
Main articles: Fluctuations in the length of day and ΔT
Earth's axial tilt is about 23.4°. It oscillates between 22.1° and 24.5° on a 41,000-year cycle and is currently decreasing.
In rotational axis[edit]
The Earth's rotation axis moves with respect to the fixed stars (inertial space); the components of this motion are precession and nutation. It also moves with respect to the Earth's crust; this is called polar motion.
Precession is a rotation of the Earth's rotation axis, caused primarily by external torques from the gravity of the Sun, Moon and other bodies. The polar motion is primarily due to free core nutation and the Chandler wobble.
In rotational velocity[edit]
Tidal interactions[edit]
Over millions of years, the Earth's rotation slowed significantly by tidal acceleration through gravitational interactions with the Moon. In this process, angular momentum is slowly transferred to the Moon at a rate proportional to r − 6 {\displaystyle r^{-6}} , where r {\displaystyle r} is the orbital radius of the Moon. This process gradually increased the length of day to its current value and resulted in the Moon being tidally locked with the Earth.
This gradual rotational deceleration is empirically documented with estimates of day lengths obtained from observations of tidal rhythmites and stromatolites; a compilation of these measurements[41] found the length of day to increase steadily from about 21 hours at 600Myr ago[42] to the current 24 hour value. By counting the microscopic lamina that form at higher tides, tidal frequencies (and thus day lengths) can be estimated, much like counting tree rings, though these estimates can be increasingly unreliable at older ages.[43]
Resonant stabilization[edit]
A simulated history of Earth's day length, depicting a resonant-stabilizing event throughout the Precambrian era.[44]
The current rate of tidal deceleration is anomalously high, implying the Earth's rotational velocity must have decreased more slowly in the past. Empirical data[41] tentatively shows a sharp increase in rotational deceleration about 600Myr ago. Some models suggest that the Earth maintained a constant day length of 21 hours throughout much of the Precambrian.[42] This day length corresponds to the semidiurnal resonant period of the thermally-driven atmospheric tide; at this day length, the decelerative lunar torque could have been canceled by an accelerative torque from the atmospheric tide, resulting in no net torque and a constant rotational period. This stabilizing effect could have been broken by a sudden change in global temperature. Recent computational simulations support this hypothesis and suggest the Marinoan or Sturtian glaciations broke this stable configuration about 600Myr ago, citing the resemblance of simulated results and existing paleorotational data.[45]
Global events[edit]
Deviation of day length from SI based day
Additionally, some large-scale events, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, have caused the length of a day to shorten by 3 microseconds by affecting the Earth's moment of inertia.[46] Post-glacial rebound, ongoing since the last Ice age, is also changing the distribution of the Earth's mass thus affecting the moment of inertia of the Earth and, by the conservation of angular momentum, the Earth's rotation period.[47]
Measurement[edit]
The primary monitoring of the Earth's rotation is performed with very-long-baseline interferometry coordinated with the Global Positioning System, satellite laser ranging, and other satellite techniques. This provides an absolute reference for the determination of universal time, precession, and nutation.[48]
Ancient observations[edit]
There are recorded observations of solar and lunar eclipses by Babylonian and Chinese astronomers beginning in the 8th century BCE, as well as from the medieval Islamic world and elsewhere. These observations can be used to determine changes in the Earth's rotation over the last 27 centuries, since the length of the day is a critical parameter in the calculation of the place and time of eclipses. A change in day length of milliseconds per century shows up as a change of hours and thousands of kilometers in eclipse observations. The ancient data is consistent with a shorter day, meaning the Earth was turning faster throughout the past.[49][50]
Origin[edit]
An artist's rendering of the protoplanetary disk.
The Earth's original rotation was a vestige of the original angular momentum of the cloud of dust, rocks, and gas that coalesced to form the Solar System. This primordial cloud was composed of hydrogen and helium produced in the Big Bang, as well as heavier elements ejected by supernovas. As this interstellar dust is heterogeneous, any asymmetry during gravitational accretion resulted in the angular momentum of the eventual planet.[51]
However, if the giant-impact hypothesis for the origin of the Moon is correct, this primordial rotation rate would have been reset by the Theia impact 4.5 billion years ago. Regardless of the speed and tilt of the Earth's rotation before the impact, it would have experienced a day some five hours long after the impact.[52] Tidal effects would then have slowed this rate to its modern value.
See also[edit]
Allais effect
Axial precession
Diurnal cycle
Earth's orbit
Formation and evolution of the Solar System
Geodesic (in mathematics)
Geodesics in general relativity
Geodesy
Giant-impact hypothesis
History of Earth
History of geodesy, Space techniques
List of important publications in geology
Newcomb's Tables of the Sun
Nychthemeron
Spherical Earth
World Geodetic System
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ See Fallexperimente zum Nachweis der Erdrotation (German Wikipedia article).
Jump up ^ When Earth's eccentricity exceeds 0.047 and perihelion is at an appropriate equinox or solstice, only one period with one peak balances another period that has two peaks.[24]
Jump up ^ Aoki, the ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of "seconds of mean solar time".[34]
Jump up ^ In astronomy, unlike geometry, 360° means returning to the same point in some cyclical time scale, either one mean solar day or one sidereal day for rotation on Earth's axis, or one sidereal year or one mean tropical year or even one mean Julian year containing exactly 365.25 days for revolution around the Sun.
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Stephenson, F. Richard (2003). "Historical eclipses and Earth's rotation". Astronomy & Geophysics. 44 (2). pp. 2.22–2.27. Bibcode:2003A&G....44b..22S. doi:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2003.44222.x.
Jump up ^ Burch, George Bosworth (1954). "The Counter-Earth". Osiris. 11: 267–294. doi:10.1086/368583. JSTOR 301675.
Jump up ^ Aristotle. Of the Heavens. Book II, Ch 13. 1.
Jump up ^ Ptolemy. Almagest Book I, Chapter 8.
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^ Jump up to: a b Young, M. J. L., ed. (2 November 2006). Religion, Learning and Science in the 'Abbasid Period. Cambridge University Press. p. 413. ISBN 9780521028875.
Jump up ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1 January 1993). An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. SUNY Press. p. 135. ISBN 9781438414195.
Jump up ^ Ragep, Sally P. (2007). "Ibn Sīnā: Abū ʿAlī al‐Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbdallāh ibn Sīnā". In Thomas Hockey; et al. The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 570–2. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. (PDF version)
Jump up ^ Ragep, F. Jamil (2001a), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context", Science in Context, Cambridge University Press, 14 (1–2): 145–163, doi:10.1017/s0269889701000060
Jump up ^ Aquinas, Thomas. Commentaria in libros Aristotelis De caelo et Mundo. Lib II, cap XIV. trans in Grant, Edward, ed. (1974). A Source Book in Medieval Science. Harvard University Press. pages 496–500
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Jump up ^ Oresme, Nicole. Le livre du ciel et du monde. pp. 519–539. in Grant 1974, pp. 503–510
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Jump up ^ Gilbert, William. De Magnete, On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth. pp. 313–347.
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Jump up ^ "Equation of time in red and true solar day in blue". Jgiesen.de. Retrieved 22 September 2018.
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Jump up ^ IERS Excess of the duration of the day to 86,400s … since 1623 Archived 3 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Graph at end.
Jump up ^ "Excess to 86400s of the duration day, 1995-1997". Web.archive.org. 13 August 2007. Retrieved 22 September 2018.
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Jump up ^ Butterworth & Palmer. "Speed of the turning of the Earth". Ask an Astrophysicist. NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center.
^ Jump up to: a b Williams, George E. (1 February 2000). "Geological constraints on the Precambrian history of Earth's rotation and the Moon's orbit". Reviews of Geophysics. 38 (1): 37–59. Bibcode:2000RvGeo..38...37W. doi:10.1029/1999RG900016. ISSN 1944-9208.
^ Jump up to: a b Zahnle, K.; Walker, J. C. (1 January 1987). "A constant daylength during the Precambrian era?". Precambrian Research. 37: 95–105. Bibcode:1987PreR...37...95Z. doi:10.1016/0301-9268(87)90073-8. ISSN 0301-9268. PMID 11542096.
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Jump up ^ Sumatran earthquake sped up Earth's rotation, Nature, 30 December 2004.
Jump up ^ Wu, P.; W.R.Peltier (1984). "Pleistocene deglaciation and the earth's rotation: a new analysis". Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 76 (3): 753–792. Bibcode:1984GeoJ...76..753W. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1984.tb01920.x.
Jump up ^ "Permanent monitoring". Hpiers.obspm.fr. Retrieved 22 September 2018.
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External links[edit]
USNO Earth Orientation new site, being populated
USNO IERS old site, to be abandoned
IERS Earth Orientation Center: Earth rotation data and interactive analysis
International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS)
If the Earth's rotation period is less than 24 hours, why don't our clocks fall out of sync with the Sun?
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text:
List of largest employers
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The largest employers in the world include companies, militaries, and governments.
Contents
[hide]
1 Companies and militaries
2 Largest private and semiprivate employers
3 Notes
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Companies and militaries[edit]
Non-corporate employers are included in this list:
Employees
Employer
2015[1]
2010[2][3]
Headquarters
United States Department of Defense 3.2 million United States
People's Liberation Army 2.3 million China
Walmart 2.1 million United States
McDonald's[note 1] 1.9 million 1.7 million United States
National Health Service 1.7 million 1.4 million United Kingdom
China National Petroleum Corporation 1.6 million 1.7 million China
State Grid Corporation of China 1.5 million 1.6 million China
Indian Railways 1.4 million India
Indian Armed Forces 1.3 million India
Hon Hai Precision Industry (Foxconn) 1.3 million 0.8 million Taiwan[4]
Largest private and semiprivate employers[edit]
The rankings below are the ten private-sector companies providing the most jobs worldwide, according to the 2017 list compiled by Fortune magazine.[5]
Public and semipublic companies with the most employees in the world
Rank
Employer
Country
Employees
1 Walmart United States 2,300,000
5 China National Petroleum China 1,512,048
6 China Post Group China 941,211
6 State Grid China 926,067
5 Hon Hai Precision Industry Taiwan 726,772
6 Sinopec Group China 713,288
7 Volkswagen Germany 626,715
8 United States Postal Service United States 574,349
9 Compass Group United Kingdom 527,180
10 Agricultural Bank of China China 501,368
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ including franchise employees
See also[edit]
Fortune Global 500
Forbes Global 2000
List of multinational corporations
List of largest European manufacturing companies by revenue
List of largest financial services companies by revenue
List of the largest software companies
List of largest Internet companies
List of the largest information technology companies
List of private equity firms
List of largest companies by revenue
List of public corporations by market capitalization
List of companies by profit and loss
List of professions
List of types of tradesman
Lists of companies – company-related list articles on Wikipedia
List of largest employers in the United States
List of wealthiest organizations
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The World's Biggest Employers". Forbes.com. Forbes. Retrieved 31 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Employment: Defending jobs - The Economist". 2011-09-12. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
Jump up ^ IISS 2012, pp. 243–248
Jump up ^ "9 Most Largest Companies – by employee number". most09.com. March 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ http://fortune.com/global500/list/filtered?sortBy=employees
External links[edit]
Fortune Global 500
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_largest_employers&oldid=806523643"
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text:
Moti Masjid (Red Fort)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with Moti Masjid (Agra Fort).
Moti Masjid (Red Fort)
Exterior view of the Pearl Mosque (Moti Masjid) of the Red Fort
Basic information
Location
Delhi
Affiliation
Islam
District
Central Delhi
Territory
Delhi
Country
India
Ecclesiastical or organizational status
Mosque
Architectural description
Architectural type
Mosque
Architectural style
Indo-Islamic
Painting of the mosque in the 1850s, by Ghulam Ali Khan
Painting of the mosque in the late 1880s, by Vasily Vereshchagin
The Moti Masjid (Hindustani: موتی مسجد, मोती मस्जिद) is a white marble mosque inside the Red Fort complex in Delhi, India. The name translates into English as "Pearl Mosque."[1] Located to the west of the Hammam and close to the Diwan-e-Khas, it was built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb from 1659-1660.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Gallery
3 References
4 External links
History[edit]
The mosque was built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb at the Red Fort complex in Delhi, India, from 1659-1660 for his personal use. The mosque was also used by the ladies of the Zenana. The mosque was constructed at a cost of Rs. 160,000.[2]
The prayer hall has three arches, and it is divided into two aisles.[2] It is surmounted with three bulbous domes, which were originally covered in gilded copper.[3][4] The gilded copper was probably lost after the Indian rebellion of 1857.
The outer walls are oriented in symmetry with the outer walls of the fort, while the inner walls are at a slightly different orientation to align with the location of Mecca.[3] The eastern door is provided with copper-plated leaves.
The mosque is plastered in white on the outside. Inside is the white marble courtyard and a prayer hall, which stands on a higher level than the courtyard. The floor of the prayer-hall is inlaid with outlines of small carpets for prayers (musalla) in black marble. In the middle of the courtyard is a small, square ablution fountain. The courtyard measures 40 x 35 feet.[2]
Another small mosque by the same name was built for private prayer by Aurangzeb's son, the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah I (r. 1707-1712), close to the Ajmere Gate of the Dargah of Sufi saint Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, which is located in Mehrauli at the Jahaz Mahal. It is an imitation of the one inside the Red Fort.
Gallery[edit]
Bronze main door with floral decoration
Interior view today
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Moti Masjid of Red Fort - World Heritage Site - Archaeological Survey of India." Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Feb. 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Murray, John (1911). A handbook for travelers in India, Burma and Ceylon (8th ed.). Calcutta: Thacker, Spink, & Co. p. 198. ISBN 978-1175486417. Retrieved 2014-01-25.
^ Jump up to: a b India. Lonely Planet. 2011. pp. 61, 63. ISBN 9781741797800.
Jump up ^ "Moti Masjid of Red Fort". Archaeological Survey of India. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
External links[edit]
Media related to Moti Masjid (Red Fort) at Wikimedia Commons
[show]
v
t
e
Mosques in India
Jammu and Kashmir
Hazratbal Shrine
Jamia Masjid
Aali Masjid
Khanqah-e-Moula
Pathar Masjid

Punjab
Mubarak Mosque, Qadian
Moorish Mosque, Kapurthala
Delhi
Fatehpuri Masjid
Hijron Ka Khanqah
Humanyun Mosque
Jama Masjid, Delhi
Jamali Kamali Mosque and Tomb
Khirki Masjid
Kotla Mubarakpur Complex
Lal Masjid, Delhi
Moti Masjid (Red Fort)
Nizamuddin Dargah
Moth Ki Masjid
Nizamuddin Markaz Masjeed
Purana Qila
Qila-i-Kuhna Mosque
Qutb complex
Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki
Shia Jama Masjid, Delhi
Sunehri Masjid (Chandni Chowk)
Sunehri Masjid (Red Fort)
Red Mosque, Delhi
Uttar Pradesh
Aasfi Masjid
Atala Masjid, Jaunpur
Babri Masjid
Eidgah, Kheri
Gyanvapi Mosque
Jama Masjid, Agra
Jama Masjid, Dildar Nagar
Jama Masjid, Fatehpur Sikri
Jama Masjid, Jaunpur
Lal Darwaza Masjid, Jaunpur
Sir Syed Masjid
Taj Mahal
Ziarat Shareef
Great Mosque, Budaun
Bihar
Pathar ki Masjid
Sher Shah Suri Masjid
Gujarat
Achut Bibi's Mosque
Ahmed Shah's Mosque
Baba Lului's Mosque
Dastur Khan's Mosque
Haibat Khan's Mosque
Jama Masjid, Ahmedabad
Malik Alam's Mosque
Malik Isan's Mosque
Miya Khan Chishti's Mosque
Mohammed Ghous Mosque
Qutub-e-Alam's Mosque
Qutbuddin Mosque
Rani Rupamati's Mosque
Rani Sipri's Mosque
Saiyad Usman Mosque
Sarkhej Roza's Mosque
Sardar Khan's Mosque
Shahpur Mosque
Shah-e-Alam's Mosque
Sidi Bashir Mosque
Sidi Saiyyed Mosque
Shah Wajihuddin's Mosque
Madhya Pradesh
Taj-ul-Masajid
West Bengal
Adina Mosque
Fauti Masjid
Nizamat Imambara
Madina Mosque
Bari Mosque, Pandua
Furfura Sharif
Hooghly Imambara
Khustigiri
Nakhoda Masjid
Patharchapuri
Kherur Mosque, Sagardighi
Rajnagar
Tipu Sultan Mosque
Katra Masjid
Maniktala Haqqani Masjid of Haqqani Anjuman
Assam
Panbari Mosque
Maharashtra
Haji Ali Dargah
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Coordinates: 28°39′25″N 77°14′35″E / 28.656815°N 77.243142°E / 28.656815; 77.243142
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Skull and crossbones (symbol)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Skull and crossbones
A skull and crossbones warning about dangerous voltage in Mumbai, India
EU standard toxic symbol, as defined by Directive 67/548/EEC
☠
Unicode character
'skull and crossbones' (U+2620)
A skull and crossbones is a symbol consisting of a human skull and two long bones crossed together under or behind the skull.[1] The design originates in the Late Middle Ages as a symbol of death and especially as a memento mori on tombstones.
In modern contexts, it is generally used as a hazard symbol that warns of danger, usually in regard to poisonous substances, such as deadly chemicals.[1]
Unicode uses U+2620 ☠ SKULL AND CROSSBONES (HTML ☠)[2] for the symbol.
Contents
1 History of the symbol
2 Military use
3 Symbol for poison
4 Gallery
5 See also
6 References
History of the symbol[edit]
The skull-and-crossbone symbol depicts the typical arrangement of skulls and humeri in ossuaries, as in the example above from Sedlec (Czech Republic).
The symbol is an ancient one, becoming widespread with the medieval Danse Macabre symbolism. From at least the 12th century, it has been used for military flags or insignia and as a warning of the ferocity of the unit displaying it. It became associated with piracy from the 14th century onwards, possibly even earlier. By the 15th century, the symbol had developed into its familiar form.
The Knights Templar organisation, active from the 12th century until their demise in 1307, adopted a skull-and-crossbones flag to identify ships belonging to their vast fleet. [3] The skull and crossbones as a pirate's flag could well predate the Knights Templar [4]
The symbol came to be used to mark the entrances of many graveyards,[5] particularly Spanish cemeteries and also as an easily identifiable warning on poison and other dangerous liquid and powder containers since the 19th century. The skull and crossbones were also popular on crucifixes made in Northern Europe during the 18th and 19th century, worn on rosaries or as larger wall hangings in religious orders Memento Mori and symbolising Christ's victory over death. These crucifixes were also placed on coffins during a funeral and then later given to the deceased's family [6]
Military use[edit]
Main article: Skull and crossbones (military)
Further information: Totenkopf and Jolly Roger § Military use
The skull and bones are often used in military insignia, e.g. in coats of arms of some military regiments.
Symbol for poison[edit]
In 1829, New York State required the labeling of all containers of poisonous substances.[7] The skull and crossbones symbol appears to have been used for that purpose since the 1850s. Previously a variety of motifs had been used, including the Danish "+ + +" and drawings of skeletons.
In the 1870s poison manufacturers around the world began using bright cobalt bottles with a variety of raised bumps and designs (to enable easy recognition in the dark) to indicate poison, but by the 1880s the skull and cross bones had become ubiquitous, and the brightly coloured bottles lost their association.
As the skull-and-crossbones symbol has also entered popular culture in the context of piracy and is undoubtedly its most well known icon, and since cartoonish pirates have become popular characters with children, there have been concerns that the "poison" symbol might have the effect of attracting the curiosity of small children familiar with "pirates" as depicted as a toy or play theme. For this reason, in the United States there has been a proposal to replace the skull and crossbones by the "Mr. Yuk" symbol. However, Mr. Yuk and his graphic rendering are registered trademarks and service marks of his creator, the UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, and the rendering itself is additionally protected by copyright. This means that the name and graphic image cannot be used without a license from the owner—unlike the Skull and crossbones, which is in the public domain.
Gallery[edit]
Stereotypical cartoon pirate sporting the skull-and-crossbones on his hat
Skull and crossbones as a charge in heraldry on the coat of the 8th Lusitania Cavalry Regiment
An early 17th century "plague panel" from Augsburg.
Danger High Voltage, Saudi Arabia.
See also[edit]
Ossuary
Danse Macabre
Hazard symbol
Human skull symbolism
Jolly Roger
Mr. Yuk
Totenkopf
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Poison warning signs.
^ Jump up to: a b "Dictionary and Thesaurus | Merriam-Webster". Merriam-webster.com.
Jump up ^ "Skull and Crossbones Emoji". Emojipedia. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "Symbolism of the Skull and Crossbones - Otherwise Known as the Deaths Head". Bibliotecapleyades.net. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "History of the Skull & Crossbones Symbol Used in Poison Warning Signs and Labels". Mysafetysign.com. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
Jump up ^ "BLESSED IF I KNOW". Freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Blair, Margot. "Rosary Workshop: Rosary - Museum Crucifixes Europe - (Early Latin American) Skulls". Rosaryworkshop.com. Retrieved 19 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Griffenhagen, George B.; Bogard, Mary (19 November 1999). "History of Drug Containers and Their Labels". Amer. Inst. History of Pharmacy. Retrieved 19 November 2017 – via Google Books.
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