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Winter solstice
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This article is about the astronomical phenomenon. For other uses, see Winter solstice (disambiguation).
"Midwinter" redirects here. For other uses, see Midwinter (disambiguation).
Winter solstice
Lawrence Hall of Science visitors observe sunset on the day of the winter solstice using the Sunstones II.
Also called
Midwinter, Yule, the Longest Night, Jól
Observed by
Various cultures
Type
Cultural, astronomical
Significance
Astronomically marks the beginning of shortening nights and lengthening days
Celebrations
Festivals, spending time with loved ones, feasting, singing, dancing, fires
Date
about December 21 (NH)
about June 21 (SH)
Frequency
Twice a year (once in the northern hemisphere, once in the southern hemisphere, six months apart)
Related to
Winter festivals and the solstice
The winter solstice (or hibernal solstice), also known as midwinter, is an astronomical phenomenon marking the day with the shortest period of daylight and the longest night of the year. It occurs when one of the Earth's poles has its maximum tilt away from the Sun. It happens twice yearly, once in each hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere this is the December solstice and in the Southern Hemisphere this is the June solstice.
The axial tilt of Earth and gyroscopic effects of its daily rotation mean that the two opposite points in the sky to which the Earth's axis of rotation points (axial precession) change very slowly (at the current rate it would take just under 26,000 years to make a complete circle). As the Earth follows its orbit around the Sun, the polar hemisphere that faced away from the Sun, experiencing winter, will, in half a year, face towards the Sun and experience summer. This is because the two hemispheres face opposite directions along Earth's axis, and so as one polar hemisphere experiences winter, the other experiences summer.
More evident from high latitudes, a hemisphere's winter solstice occurs on the day with the shortest period of daylight and longest night of the year, when the sun's daily maximum elevation in the sky is at its lowest.[1] Although the winter solstice itself lasts only a moment in time, the term sometimes refers to the day on which it occurs. Other names are "midwinter", the "extreme of winter" (Dongzhi), or the "shortest day". In some cultures it is seen as the middle of winter, while in others it is seen as the beginning of winter.[2] In meteorology, winter in the Northern Hemisphere spans the entire period of December through February. The seasonal significance of the winter solstice is in the reversal of the gradual lengthening of nights and shortening hours of daylight during the day. The earliest sunset and latest sunrise dates differ from winter solstice, however, and these depend on latitude, due to the variation in the solar day throughout the year caused by the Earth's elliptical orbit (see earliest and latest sunrise and sunset).
Worldwide, interpretation of the event has varied across cultures, but many have held a recognition of rebirth, involving holidays, festivals, gatherings, rituals or other celebrations around that time.[3]
Contents
1 History and cultural significance
1.1 Iranian
1.2 Pagan
1.3 Roman cult of Sol
1.4 East Asian
2 Observances
3 Holidays celebrated on the winter solstice
3.1 Other related festivals
4 Length of the day on the northern winter solstice
5 See also
6 Further reading
7 References
8 External links
History and cultural significance[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Japanese Sun goddess Amaterasu emerging from a cave (by Kunisada)
Winter solstice occurs in December for the northern hemisphere, and June for the southern hemisphere.
The solstice may have been a special moment of the annual cycle for some cultures even during neolithic times. Astronomical events were often used to guide activities such as the mating of animals, the sowing of crops and the monitoring of winter reserves of food. Many cultural mythologies and traditions are derived from this. This is attested by physical remains in the layouts of late Neolithic and Bronze Age archaeological sites, such as Stonehenge in England and Newgrange in Ireland. The primary axes of both of these monuments seem to have been carefully aligned on a sight-line pointing to the winter solstice sunrise (Newgrange) and the winter solstice sunset (Stonehenge). It is significant that at Stonehenge the Great Trilithon was oriented outwards from the middle of the monument, i.e. its smooth flat face was turned towards the midwinter Sun.[4] The winter solstice was immensely important because the people were economically dependent on monitoring the progress of the seasons. Starvation was common during the first months of the winter, January to April (northern hemisphere) or July to October (southern hemisphere), also known as "the famine months". In temperate climates, the midwinter festival was the last feast celebration, before deep winter began. Most cattle were slaughtered so they would not have to be fed during the winter, so it was almost the only time of year when a plentiful supply of fresh meat was available. The majority of wine and beer made during the year was finally fermented and ready for drinking at this time. The concentration of the observances were not always on the day commencing at midnight or at dawn, but at the beginning of the pagan day, which in many cultures fell on the previous eve.[5]
Because the event was seen as the reversal of the Sun's ebbing presence in the sky, concepts of the birth or rebirth of sun gods have been common and, in cultures which used cyclic calendars based on the winter solstice, the "year as reborn" was celebrated with reference to life-death-rebirth deities or "new beginnings" such as Hogmanay's redding, a New Year cleaning tradition. Also "reversal" is yet another frequent theme, as in Saturnalia's slave and master reversals.
Iranian[edit]
Main article: Yaldā Night
Iranian people celebrate the night of the Northern Hemisphere's winter solstice as, "Yalda night", which known to be the "longest and darkest night of the year". In this night all the family gather together, usually at the house of the oldest, and celebrate it by eating, drinking and reading poems (esp. Hafez). Nuts, pomegranates and watermelons are particularly served during this festival.
Pagan[edit]
Main article: Yule
The pagan Scandinavian and Germanic people of northern Europe celebrated a twelve-day "midwinter" (winter solstice) holiday called Yule (also called Jul, Julblot, jólablót, midvinterblot, julofferfest). Many modern Christmas traditions, such as the Christmas tree, the Christmas wreath, the Yule log, and others, are direct descendents of Yule customs. Scandinavians still call Yule "Jul". In English, the word "Yule" is often used in combination with the season "yuletide" [6] a usage first recorded in 900. It is believed that the celebration of this day was a worship of these peculiar days, interpreted as the reawakening of nature. The Yule (Jul) particular god was Jólner, which is one of Odin's many names.
The concept of Yule occurs in a tribute poem to Harold Hårfager from about AD 900, where someone said "drinking Jul". Julblot is the most solemn sacrifice feast. At the "julblotet", sacrifices were given to the gods to earn blessing on the forthcoming germinating crops. Julblotet was eventually integrated into the Christian Christmas. As a remainder from this Viking era, the Midsummer is still important in Scandinavia, and hence vividly celebrated.
Roman cult of Sol[edit]
Main article: Dies Natalis Solis Invicti
Sol Invictus ("The Unconquered Sun") was originally a Syrian god who was later adopted as the chief god of the Roman Empire under Emperor Aurelian. His holiday is traditionally celebrated on December 25, as are several gods associated with the winter solstice in many pagan traditions.[7] It have been speculated to be the reason behind Christmas' proximity to the solstice.[8]
East Asian[edit]
In East Asia (except in the Philippines), the winter solstice has been celebrated as one of the Twenty-four Solar Terms, called Dongzhi in Chinese. In Japan, in order not to catch cold in the winter, there is a custom to soak oneself in the yuzu hot bath (Japanese: 柚子湯 = Yuzuyu). [9]
Observances[edit]
Although the instant of the solstice can be calculated,[10] direct observation of the solstice by amateurs is impossible because the sun moves too slowly or appears to stand still (the meaning of "solstice"). However, by use of astronomical data tracking, the precise timing of its occurrence is now public knowledge. One cannot directly detect the precise instant of the solstice (by definition, one cannot observe that an object has stopped moving until one later observes that it has not moved further from the preceding spot, or that it has moved in the opposite direction)[citation needed]. Further, to be precise to a single day, one must be able to observe a change in azimuth or elevation less than or equal to about 1/60 of the angular diameter of the sun. Observing that it occurred within a two-day period is easier, requiring an observation precision of only about 1/16 of the angular diameter of the sun. Thus, many observations are of the day of the solstice rather than the instant. This is often done by observing the sunrise and sunset or using an astronomically aligned instrument that allows a ray of light to be cast on a certain point around that time.
Neolithic site of Goseck circle. The yellow lines are the direction the Sun rises and sets at winter solstice.
Sunrise at Stonehenge on the winter solstice
Holidays celebrated on the winter solstice[edit]
Alban Arthan (Welsh)
Blue Christmas (holiday) (Western Christian)
Brumalia (Ancient Rome)
Dongzhi Festival (East Asia)
Korochun (Slavic)
Sanghamitta Day (Theravada Buddhism)
Shalako (Zuni)
Yaldā (Iran)
Yule in the Northern Hemisphere (Neopagan)
Ziemassvētki (ancient Latvia)
Other related festivals[edit]
Saturnalia(Ancient Rome) - Celebrated shortly before winter solstice
Saint Lucy's Day (Christian) - Used to coincide with the winter solstice day
Christmas - Take place shortly after winter solstice, absorbed tradition from winter solstice celebration. Speculated to origin from solstice date, see Christmas#Solstice date and Dies Natalis Solis Invicti
Cold Food Festival (Korea, Greater China) - 105 days after winter solstice
Length of the day on the northern winter solstice[edit]
The following tables contain information on the length of the day on the winter solstice of the Northern Hemisphere and the summer solstice of the Southern Hemisphere (i.e. December solstice). The data was collected from the website of the Finnish Meteorological Institute on 22 December 2015, as well as from certain other websites.[11][12][13][14]
The data is arranged geographically and within the tables from the shortest day to the longest one.
The Nordic countries and the Baltic states
City
Sunrise
22 Dec 2015
Sunset
22 Dec 2015
Length of the day
Bodø 11:36 12:25 0 h 49 min
Rovaniemi 11:08 13:22 2 h 14 min
Luleå 9:55 13:04 3 h 09 min
Reykjavík 11:22 15:29 4 h 07 min
Trondheim 10:01 14:31 4 h 30 min
Tórshavn 9:51 14:59 5 h 08 min
Helsinki 9:24 15:13 5 h 49 min
Oslo 9:18 15:12 5 h 54 min
Tallinn 9:17 15:20 6 h 02 min
Stockholm 8:43 14:48 6 h 04 min
Riga 9:00 15:43 6 h 43 min
Copenhagen 8:37 15:38 7 h 01 min
Vilnius 8:40 15:54 7 h 14 min
Europe
City
Sunrise
22 Dec 2015
Sunset
22 Dec 2015
Length of the day
Edinburgh 8:42 15:40 6 h 57 min
Moscow 8:57 15:58 7 h 00 min
Berlin 8:15 15:54 7 h 39 min
London 8:04 15:53 7 h 49 min
Kiev 7:56 15:56 8 h 00 min
Paris 8:41 16:56 8 h 14 min
Rome 7:34 16:42 9 h 07 min
Madrid 8:34 17:51 9 h 17 min
Lisbon 7:51 17:18 9 h 27 min
Athens 7:37 17:09 9 h 31 min
Africa
City
Sunrise
22 Dec 2015
Sunset
22 Dec 2015
Length of the day
Cairo 6:47 16:59 10 h 12 min
Dakar 7:30 18:46 11 h 15 min
Addis Ababa 6:35 18:11 11 h 36 min
Nairobi 6:25 18:37 12 h 11 min
Kinshasa 5:45 18:08 12 h 22 min
Dar es Salaam 6:05 18:36 12 h 31 min
Luanda 5:46 18:24 12 h 38 min
Antananarivo 5:10 18:26 13 h 16 min
Windhoek 6:04 19:35 13 h 31 min
Johannesburg 5:12 18:59 13 h 47 min
Cape Town 5:32 19:57 14 h 25 min
Americas
City
Sunrise
22 Dec 2015
Sunset
22 Dec 2015
Length of the day
Fairbanks 10:58 14:40 3 h 41 min
Anchorage 10:14 15:42 5 h 27 min
Vancouver 8:05 16:16 8 h 11 min
Seattle 7:55 16:20 8 h 25 min
Ottawa 7:39 16:22 8 h 42 min
Toronto 7:48 16:43 8 h 55 min
New York City 7:16 16:32 9 h 15 min
Washington, D.C. 7:23 16:49 9 h 26 min
Los Angeles 6:55 16:48 9 h 53 min
Dallas 7:25 17:25 9 h 59 min
Miami 7:03 17:35 10 h 31 min
Honolulu 7:04 17:55 10 h 50 min
Mexico City 7:06 18:03 10 h 57 min
Managua 6:01 17:26 11 h 24 min
Bogotá 5:59 17:50 11 h 51 min
Quito 6:08 18:16 12 h 08 min
Recife 5:00 17:35 12 h 35 min
Lima 5:41 18:31 12 h 50 min
La Paz 5:57 19:04 13 h 06 min
Rio de Janeiro 6:04 19:37 13 h 33 min
São Paulo 6:17 19:52 13 h 35 min
Porto Alegre 6:20 20:25 14 h 05 min
Santiago 6:29 20:52 14 h 22 min
Buenos Aires 5:37 20:06 14 h 28 min
Ushuaia 4:51 22:11 17 h 19 min
Asia and Oceania
City
Sunrise
22 Dec 2015
Sunset
22 Dec 2015
Length of the day
Magadan 8:54 14:55 6 h 00 min
Petropavlovsk 9:36 17:10 7 h 33 min
Khabarovsk 8:48 17:07 8 h 18 min
Ulaanbaatar 8:39 17:02 8 h 22 min
Vladivostok 8:40 17:40 8 h 59 min
Beijing 7:32 16:52 9 h 20 min
Seoul 7:44 17:17 9 h 34 min
Tokyo 6:47 16:31 9 h 44 min
Shanghai 6:48 16:55 10 h 07 min
Lhasa 8:46 19:01 10 h 14 min
Delhi 7:09 17:28 10 h 19 min
Hong Kong 6:58 17:44 10 h 46 min
Manila 6:16 17:32 11 h 15 min
Bangkok 6:36 17:55 11 h 19 min
Singapore 7:01 19:04 12 h 03 min
Jakarta 5:36 18:05 12 h 28 min
Denpasar 5:58 18:36 12 h 37 min
Darwin 6:19 19:10 12 h 51 min
Papeete 5:21 18:32 13 h 10 min
Brisbane 4:49 18:42 13 h 52 min
Perth 5:07 19:22 14 h 14 min
Sydney 5:41 20:05 14 h 24 min
Auckland 5:58 20:39 14 h 41 min
Melbourne 5:54 20:42 14 h 47 min
Invercargill 5:50 21:39 15 h 48 min
Length of day increases from the equator towards the South Pole in the Southern Hemisphere in December (around the summer solstice there), but decreases towards the North Pole in the Northern Hemisphere at the time of the northern winter solstice.
See also[edit]
Holidays portal
Burning the Clocks
Christmas in July
December solstice
Effect of sun angle on climate
Equinox
Festival of Lights (disambiguation)
Festive ecology
Festivus
Halcyon days
Hanukkah
HumanLight
June solstice
Koliada
Kwanzaa
Lohri
Makar Sankranti
Magneto Dayo - Winter Solstice (Sounds Of A Cold Winter)
Midsummer
Summer solstice
Thai Pongal
Tekufah
Tiregān
Yaldā Night
Further reading[edit]
Macphail, Cameron (20 December 2015). "Winter solstice 2015: Everything you need to know about the shortest day of the year". The Telegraph. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
Handwerk, Brian (2015-12-21). "Everything You Need to Know About the Winter Solstice". National Geographic. Retrieved 2015-12-21.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ An Introduction to Physical Science, 12th Ed., James Ship-man, Jerry D. Wilson, Aaron Todd, Section 15.5, p 423, ISBN 978-0-618-92696-1, 2007.
Jump up ^ "When does spring start?". Met Office. June 3, 2016. Retrieved December 22, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Winter Solstice celebrations: a.k.a. Christmas, Saturnalia, Yule, the Long Night, start of Winter, etc". Religious Tolerance.org. December 3, 1999. Retrieved December 22, 2011.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Anthony (2008). Solving Stonehenge: The New Key to an Ancient Enigma. Thames & Hudson. pp. 252–253. ISBN 9780500051559.
Jump up ^ "History of Christmas". History.com. Retrieved January 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ Yule. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved December 3, 2006.
Jump up ^ Capoccia, Kathryn (2002). "Christmas Traditions". Retrieved 2008-12-27.
Jump up ^ Bishop Jacob Bar-Salabi (cited in Christianity and Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries, Ramsay MacMullen. Yale:1997, p. 155)
Jump up ^ Goin’ Japanesque!: Japanese Winter Solstice Traditions; A Day for Kabocha and Yuzuyu
Jump up ^ Meeus, Jean (2009). Astronomical Algorithms (2nd English Edition with corrections as of August 10, 2009 ed.). Richmond, Virginia: Willmann-Bell, Inc. ISBN 0-943396-61-1.
Jump up ^ "Paikallissää Helsinki" [‘Local weather in Helsinki’] (in Finnish). Finnish Meteorological Institute. 2015-12-22. Retrieved 2015-12-22.
Jump up ^ "Perth, Australia". Retrieved 2015-12-22.
Jump up ^ "São Paulo, Brazil". Retrieved 2015-12-22.
Jump up ^ "Denpasar, Indonesia". Retrieved 2015-12-22.
External links[edit]
Table of times/dates from 1600–2400
show
v
t
e
Winter solstice and midwinter festivals
Africa
Goru: Mali (Dogon)
Dzon'ku Nu†: West Africa (Papaws)
Americas
Inti Raymi°: Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador (Inca†)
Jonkonnu°: Caribbean° (African American)
Soyal: US (Zuni, Hopi)
We Tripantu: Chile (Mapuche)
Asia
Amaterasu†: Japan
Choimus
Deygān, Maidyarem°: (Zoroastrian)
Dōngzhì, Tōji: (East Asian)
Lohri, Pongal, Makar Sankranti°: India (Hindu)
Sanghamitta Day: Sri Lanka (Buddhist)
Şeva Zistanê: (Kurdish)
Yalda: Iran (Persian)
Europe
Beiwe: (Saami)
Brumalia†: Ancient Greece
Christmas: Roman Empire° (Christian)
Dies Natalis Solis Invicti†: Roman Empire
Deuorius Riuri†: Gaul
Hogmanay°: Scotland
Korochun°: (Slavs)
Malkh-Festival°: (Nakh peoples)
Mōdraniht†: Western Germany (Matres and Matrones)
Midvinterblót†: Sweden (Norse)
Montol Festival, Mummer's Day°: Cornwall (Celts)
Saturnalia†: Rome
Wren's Day°: Ireland, Isle of Man, Wales (Celts)
Yule, Jul°: (Germanic)
Ziemassvētki: Baltic (Romuva)
Oceania
Matariki°: New Zealand (Māori)
† dagger indicates extinction. ° degree symbol indicates changes in date, name or location. ( ) indicate demographic
show
v
t
e
Wheel of the Year
Midwinter/Yule
Imbolc/Gŵyl Fair
Vernal equinox/Ostara
Beltane/Calan Mai
Midsummer
Lughnasadh/Calan Awst
Autumnal equinox/Mabon
Samhain/Calan Gaeaf
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Flying Tigers
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Flying Tigers (disambiguation).
1st American Volunteer Group
Active
20 December 1941 – 4 July 1942
Country
China United States
Allegiance
China United States
Type
Fighter pilot group
Size
3 squadrons;
60 aircraft average
Nickname(s)
"The Flying Tigers"
Commanders
Notable
commanders
Claire Chennault
Play media
US Air Forces video: Flying Tigers Bite Back
The First American Volunteer Group (AVG) of the Chinese Air Force in 1941–1942, nicknamed the Flying Tigers, was composed of pilots from the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC), Navy (USN), and Marine Corps (USMC), recruited under presidential authority and commanded by Claire Lee Chennault.
The group consisted of three fighter squadrons of around 30 aircraft each. It trained in Burma before the American entry into World War II with the mission of defending China against Japanese forces. The group of volunteers were officially members of the Chinese Air Force. The members of the group had contracts with salaries ranging from $250 a month for a mechanic to $750 for a squadron commander, roughly three times what they had been making in the U.S. forces. While it accepted some civilian volunteers for its headquarters and ground crew, the AVG recruited most of its staff from the U.S. military.
The group first saw combat on 20 December 1941, 12 days after Pearl Harbor (local time). It demonstrated innovative tactical victories when the news in the U.S. was filled with little more than stories of defeat at the hands of the Japanese forces, and achieved such notable success during the lowest period of the war for both the U.S. and the Allied Forces as to give hope to America that it might eventually defeat the Japanese. AVG pilots earned official credit, and received combat bonuses, for destroying 296 enemy aircraft, while losing only 14 pilots in combat.[1] The combat records of the AVG still exist and researchers have found them credible.[2] On 4 July 1942 the AVG was disbanded. It was replaced by the 23rd Fighter Group of the United States Army Air Forces, which was later absorbed into the U.S. Fourteenth Air Force with General Chennault as commander. The 23rd FG went on to achieve similar combat success, while retaining the nose art on the left-over P-40s.
However this may not have been the first group of American volunteer combat aviators in China.[3] See Gloster Gladiator#China.
Contents
1 Origin
1.1 Original American Volunteer Group
1.2 Chennault fighter doctrine
1.3 Curtiss P-40
2 Combat history
2.1 Defense of Rangoon
2.2 Retreat into China
3 Assessment of the AVG
4 Members of the AVG
4.1 Aces
5 Legacy
5.1 Transition to the USAAF
5.2 Tributes and memorials
5.3 Flying Tigers wrecks
5.4 Recognition by the United States
5.5 Popular culture
6 See also
6.1 About China
6.2 About American volunteers
7 References
7.1 Citations
7.2 Sources
8 External links
Origin[edit]
Chennault in his Kunming office, May 1942. He wears a US Army brigadier general's star on his left shoulder but Chinese insignia otherwise.
The American Volunteer Group was largely the creation of Claire L. Chennault, a retired U.S. Army Air Corps officer who had worked in China since August 1937, first as military aviation advisor to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in the early months of the Sino-Japanese War, then as director of a Chinese Air Force flight school centered in Kunming. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union supplied fighter and bomber squadrons to China, but these units were mostly withdrawn by the summer of 1940. Chiang then asked for American combat aircraft and pilots, sending Chennault to Washington as an adviser to China's ambassador and Chiang's brother-in-law, T. V. Soong.
Since the U.S. was not at war, the "Special Air Unit" could not be organized overtly, but the request was approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt himself. The resulting clandestine operation was organized in large part by Lauchlin Currie, a young economist in the White House, and by Roosevelt intimate Thomas G. Corcoran. (Currie's assistant was John King Fairbank, who later became America's preeminent Asian scholar.) Financing was handled by China Defense Supplies – primarily Tommy Corcoran's creation – with money loaned by the U.S. government. Purchases were then made by the Chinese under the "Cash and Carry" provision of the Neutrality Act of 1939.[1] Previously in the 1930s, a number of American pilots including Annapolis graduate Frank Tinker had flown combat during the Spanish Civil War on the Republican side. Members were organized into the Yankee Squadron.
Chennault spent the winter of 1940–1941 in Washington, supervising the purchase of 100 Curtiss P-40 fighters and the recruiting of 100 pilots and some 200 ground crew and administrative personnel that would constitute the 1st AVG. He also laid the groundwork for a follow-on bomber group and a second fighter group, though these would be aborted after the Pearl Harbor attack.
Original American Volunteer Group[edit]
3rd Squadron Hell's Angels, Flying Tigers, over China, photographed in 1942 by AVG pilot Robert T. Smith
P-40 Warhawk painted with Flying Tigers shark face at the National Museum of the United States Air Force
Of the pilots, 60 came from the Navy and Marine Corps and 40 from the Army Air Corps. (One army pilot was refused a passport because he had earlier flown as a mercenary in Spain, so only 99 actually sailed for Asia. Ten more army flight instructors were hired as check pilots for Chinese cadets, and several of these would ultimately join the AVG's combat squadrons.) The volunteers were discharged from the armed services, to be employed for "training and instruction" by a private military contractor, the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company (CAMCO), which paid them $600 a month for pilot officers, $675 a month for flight leaders, $750 for squadron leaders (no pilot was recruited at this level), and about $250 for skilled ground crewmen.[4]
Some of the pilots were also orally promised a bounty of $500 for each enemy aircraft shot down, but no one knew if that would actually happen until they returned home and found the funds deposited in their bank.[citation needed]
Resignation letter from the U.S. Marine Corps, used to accept a position with the Central Aircraft Manufacturing Co.
Although sometimes considered a mercenary unit, the AVG was closely associated with the U.S. military. Most histories of the Flying Tigers say that on 15 April 1941, President Roosevelt signed a "secret executive order" authorizing servicemen on active duty to resign in order to join the AVG. However, Flying Tigers historian Daniel Ford could find no evidence that such an order ever existed, and he argued that "a wink and a nod" was more the president's style.[5] In any event, the AVG was organized and in part directed out of the White House, and by the spring of 1942 had effectively been brought into the U.S. Army chain of command.
During the summer and fall 1941, some 300 men carrying civilian passports boarded ships destined for Burma. They were initially based at a British airfield in Toungoo for training while their aircraft were assembled and test flown by CAMCO personnel at Mingaladon Airport outside Rangoon. Chennault set up a schoolhouse that was made necessary because many pilots had "lied about their flying experience, claiming pursuit experience when they had flown only bombers and sometimes much less powerful aeroplanes."[6] They called Chennault "the Old Man" due to his much older age and leathery exterior obtained from years flying open cockpit pursuit aircraft in the Army Air Corps. Most believed that he had flown as a fighter pilot in China, although stories that he was a combat ace are probably apocryphal.[7]
Of the 300 original members of the CAMCO personnel, 9 were Chinese-Americans recruited from America's Chinatowns. All 9 were trained at Allison Engineworks in Indianapolis, Indiana: all were P-40 mechanics. Upon arrival in Kunming, 2 other Chinese-Americans were hired, a Ford Motor truck specialist and a doctor. Total original Chinese-Americans were 11. Prior to July 4, 1942, 3 of the P-40 mechanics resigned. The official AVG roster lists the original 8.[citation needed]
The AVG was created by an executive order of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. He did not speak English, however, and Chennault never learned to speak Chinese. As a result, all communications between the two men were routed through Soong Mei-ling, "Madame Chiang" as she was known to Americans, and she was designated the group's "honorary commander."
Chennault fighter doctrine[edit]
Chennault preached a radically different approach to air combat based on his study of Japanese tactics and equipment, his observation of the tactics used by Soviet pilots in China, and his judgment of the strengths and weaknesses of his own aircraft and pilots. The actual average strength of the AVG was never more than 62 combat-ready pilots and fighters. Chennault faced serious obstacles since many AVG pilots were inexperienced and a few quit at the first opportunity. However, he made a virtue out of these disadvantages, shifting unsuitable pilots to staff jobs and always ensuring that he had a squadron or two in reserve. (The AVG had no ranks, so no division between officers and enlisted soldiers existed.[8])
Chennault and the Flying Tigers benefited from the country's warning network, called "the best air-raid warning system in existence":[8]
Starting from areas in Free China, in hundreds of small villages, in lonely outposts, in hills and caves, stretching from near Canton through all Free China to the capital in Chungking and to Lanchow, far northwest, are a maze of alarm stations equipped with radios and telephones that give instant warning of the approach of Japanese planes.[8]
When Japanese aircraft attacked, Chennault's doctrine called for pilots to take on enemy aircraft in teams from an altitude advantage, since their aircraft were not as manoeuvrable or as numerous as the Japanese fighters they would encounter. He prohibited his pilots from entering into a turning fight with the nimble Japanese fighters, telling them to execute a diving or slashing attack and to dive away to set up for another attack. This "dive-and-zoom" technique was contrary to what the men had learned in U.S. service as well as what the Royal Air Force (RAF) pilots in Burma had been taught; it had been used successfully, however, by Soviet units serving with the Chinese Air Force.[9]
Curtiss P-40[edit]
Main article: Curtiss P-40
1943: A Kittyhawk Mark III of 112 Squadron, taxiing through scrub at Medenine, Tunisia. The ground crewman on the wing is directing the pilot, whose view ahead is hindered by the aircraft's nose.
A ZG 76 Bf 110C with "sharks mouth" nose paint
AVG fighter aircraft came from a Curtiss assembly line producing Tomahawk IIB models for the Royal Air Force in North Africa. The Tomahawk IIB was similar to the U.S. Army's earlier P-40B model, and there is some evidence that Curtiss actually used leftover components from that model in building the fighters intended for China.[10] The fighters were purchased without "government-furnished equipment" such as reflector gunsights, radios and wing guns; the lack of these items caused continual difficulties for the AVG in Burma and China.
The 100 P-40 aircraft were crated and sent to Burma on third country freighters during spring 1941. At Rangoon, they were unloaded, assembled and test flown by personnel of Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company (CAMCO) before being delivered to the AVG training unit at Toungoo.[11] One crate was dropped into the water and a wing assembly was ruined by salt water immersion, so CAMCO was able to deliver only 99 Tomahawks before war broke out. (Many of those were destroyed in training accidents.) The 100th fuselage was trucked to a CAMCO plant in Loiwing, China, and later made whole with parts from damaged aircraft. Shortages in equipment with spare parts almost impossible to obtain in Burma along with the slow introduction of replacement fighter aircraft were continual impediments although the AVG did receive 50 replacement P-40E fighters from USAAF stocks toward the end of its combat tour.
AVG fighter aircraft were painted with a large shark face on the front of the aircraft. This was done after pilots saw a photograph of a P-40 of No. 112 Squadron RAF in North Africa,[12] which in turn had adopted the shark face from German pilots of the Luftwaffe's ZG 76 heavy fighter wing, flying Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighters in Crete. (The AVG nose-art is variously credited to Charles Bond[13] and Erik Shilling.) About the same time, the AVG was dubbed "The Flying Tigers" by its Washington support group, called China Defense Supplies.[14] The P-40's good qualities included pilot armor, self-sealing fuel tanks, sturdy construction, heavy armament, and a higher diving speed than most Japanese aircraft – qualities that could be used to advantage in accordance with Chennault's combat tactics.[15] Chennault created an early warning network of spotters that would give his fighters time to take off and climb to a superior altitude where this tactic could be executed.[16]
Combat history[edit]
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The port of Rangoon in Burma and the Burma Road leading from there to China were of crucial importance. Eastern China was under Japanese occupation, so all military supplies for China arrived via the Burma route. By November 1941, when the pilots were trained and most of the P-40s had arrived in Asia, the Flying Tigers were divided into three squadrons: 1st Squadron ("Adam & Eves"); 2nd Squadron ("Panda Bears") and 3rd Squadron ("Hell's Angels").[6] They were assigned to opposite ends of the Burma Road to protect this vital line of communications. Two squadrons were based at Kunming in China, and a third at Mingaladon Airport near Rangoon. When the United States officially entered the war, the AVG had 82 pilots and 79 aircraft, although not all were combat-ready. Tiger Erik Shilling, part of the third squadron commented:. "This was the beginning of the greatest adventure I would ever hope to experience. It wasn't until years later that I fully realized the magnitude and significance of this first step, to be a lifelong adventure in the mystic Far East." [17]
The AVG's first combat mission was on 20 December 1941, when aircraft of the 1st and 2nd squadrons intercepted 10 unescorted Kawasaki Ki-48 "Lily" bombers of the 21st Hikōtai attacking Kunming. The bombers jettisoned their loads before reaching Kunming. Three of the Japanese bombers were shot down near Kunming and a fourth was damaged so severely that it crashed before returning to its airfield at Hanoi. Later, Chinese intelligence intercepted Japanese communications indicating that only 1 out of the 10 bombers ultimately returned to base. Furthermore, the Japanese discontinued their raids on Kunming while the AVG was based there. One P-40 crash-landed; it was salvaged for parts. This mission was one of the earliest American aerial victories in the Pacific War.
Defense of Rangoon[edit]
A "blood chit" issued to the American Volunteer Group Flying Tigers. The Chinese characters read, "This foreign person has come to China to help in the war effort. Soldiers and civilians, one and all, should rescue and protect him." (R. E. Baldwin Collection)
The first squadron had flown up to Kunming to defend the terminus of the Burma Road and saw some combat action on 20 December 1941 while defending Rangoon from Japanese bombers, taking down four of them and disrupting their attack on Burma Road.[18]
At this time, the focus of Japan's offensive efforts in the AVG's coverage area was southern Burma. The 3rd Squadron – 18 aircraft strong – defended Rangoon from 23–25 December. On 23 December, Mitsubishi Ki-21 "Sally" heavy bombers of the 60th, 62nd and 98th Sentai, along with single-engined Mitsubishi Ki-30 "Ann" attack bombers of the 31st Sentai, sortied against Rangoon. They were escorted by Nakajima Ki-27 "Nate" fighters of 77th Sentai. The Imperial Japanese Army Air Force (JAAF) formation was intercepted by the AVG and RAF Brewster Buffalos of 67 Squadron. Eight Ki-21s were shot down for the loss of three AVG P-40s. The 60th Sentai was particularly hard hit – it lost five out of the 15 bombers it had dispatched. Nevertheless, Rangoon and Mingaladon airfield were successfully bombed, with the city suffering more than 1,000 dead. Two Buffalos and two P-40s were destroyed on the ground, and one P-40 crashed when it attempted to land on a bomb-damaged runway.
On 25 December, the JAAF returned, reinforced by Ki-21s of 12th Sentai and Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusas (Oscars) of the 64th Sentai (Colonel Tateo Katō's Flying Squadron). A total of 63 bombers escorted by 25 fighters were committed. These were intercepted by 14 P-40s of the AVG's 3rd Squadron and 15 Buffalos of 67 Squadron. In the two encounters, 35 Japanese bombers and fighters were shot down. The Allies lost two pilots and five P-40s.[17] Mingaladon airfield was once again damaged, and eight Buffalos were destroyed on the ground.
After its losses in the 23–25 December battles, the 3rd Squadron was relieved by the 2nd Squadron "Panda Bears", which carried out a series of raids on JAAF airbases in Thailand. The Japanese had moved aircraft to Malaya to finish off Singapore, and its remaining aircraft in the area (the 77th, 31st and 62nd Sentai) launched fighter sweeps and counter raids on the Allied airfield at Mingaladon.
On 12 January, the Japanese launched their Burma Campaign. Significantly outnumbered, the AVG was gradually reduced through attrition, but often exacted a disproportionate toll of their attackers. On 24 January, six Ki-21s of the 14th Sentai escorted by Ki-27s attacked Mingaladon. All the Ki-21s were shot down by the AVG and RAF defenders. On 28 January, a fighter sweep of 37 Ki-27s was engaged by 16 AVG P-40s and two RAF fighters. Three "Nates" were shot down for the loss of two P-40s. The next day, another sweep of 20 Ki-27s of the 70th Sentai was met by 10 Allied fighters (eight P-40s and two Hawker Hurricanes). Four were shot down for the loss of no Allied aircraft.
Despite these minor victories and Chennault's reinforcement of the "Panda Bears" with pilots from the "Adam and Eves", by mid-February, only 10 P-40s were still operational at Mingaladon. Commonwealth troops retreated before the Japanese onslaught, and the AVG was pressed into the ground attack role to support them. One unfortunate result of these missions was a prolonged air attack on a suspected Japanese column on 21 February that turned out to consist of Commonwealth troops. More than 100 Allied lives were lost in this friendly fire incident. On 27 February, after hearing that the RAF was retreating and pulling out its radar equipment, the AVG withdrew to bases in northern Burma.
By 24 January, the Flying Tigers had destroyed 73 Japanese aircraft while losing only five themselves — a notable performance, considering the AVG was outnumbered and faced experienced and fully trained Japanese pilots. The main disadvantage of JAAF fighter pilots of this period was the near-obsolescence of their predominant fighter type in the theater, the Ki-27. Though more maneuverable than the P-40, its armament and performance was inferior. Lightly constructed and armed, it could not withstand frontal attacks nor could it out-dive Allied fighters such as the P-40; if it attempted to, it often came apart in the air. In fact, its cruising speed was less than that of the Ki-21 bombers it was intended to escort.[18]
Retreat into China[edit]
After Rangoon was lost to the Japanese at the end of February, the AVG relocated to Magwe, a small British airfield more than 300 miles north of Rangoon. Chennault started moving elements of the now reconstituted 3rd Squadron to Magwe as reinforcement to his worn down 1st and 2nd squadrons. Aircraft attrition became so high that at this point, individual squadron distinctions became meaningless, and all three squadrons had elements based there, along with a number of RAF aircraft. In total, the Allies had 38 aircraft, including eight P-40s and 15 Hawker Hurricanes. Opposing them were 271 Japanese aircraft, including 115 fighters. Although the AVG and the RAF scored some successes against the JAAF, Magwe was continuously bombed, including a very heavy raid on 21 March by 151 bombers and fighters. On 23 March with only four aircraft left, the AVG was forced to relocate to Loiwing, just across the Chinese border. The Tigers crossed into China on a rickety suspension bridge over a deep gorge. A few months later, they came back to destroy the bridge so no Japanese soldiers could come across that way into China.[19]
The Nakajima Ki-43 Hayabusa was a single-engined land-based fighter used by the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force in World War II
Reinforced by new P-40E "Kittyhawks" and by repaired aircraft from the AVG's excellent maintenance group, 12 P-40s were based at Loiwing on 8 April. Despite the long retreats, their losses and incessant air combat, the AVG still retained their abilities. That day, 12 Oscars from the 64th Sentai raided the base. In the ensuing series of dogfights, four Ki-43s were downed in exchange for one P-40E destroyed on the ground. During this period, Chinese and American commanders pressured Chennault to order his pilots to undertake so-called "morale missions". These were overflights and ground attacks intended to raise the morale of hard-pressed Chinese soldiers by showing they were getting air support. The AVG's pilots seethed with resentment at these dangerous missions (which some considered useless), a feeling which culminated in the so-called "Pilot's Revolt" of mid-April. Chennault suppressed the "revolt" and ordered the ground attack missions to continue. But despite their efforts, the Allied situation in Burma continued to deteriorate. On 29 April the AVG was ordered to evacuate Loiwing and relocate to Baoshan in China.
Like the AVG's other bases, Baoshan was repeatedly bombed by the Japanese Army Air Force. Still, the AVG scored against their JAAF tormentors, bringing down four "Nates" of the 11th Sentai on 5 May and two "Anns". By 4 May, the successful Japanese Burma offensive was winding down, except for mopping up actions. One of these was an attempt by a regiment of the Japanese 56th Division to drive for Kunming, an effort that was stopped by the Chinese army operating with strong air support from the AVG. On 7 May the Japanese Army began building a pontoon bridge across the upper Salween River, which would allow them to move troops and supplies into China and drive towards Kunming. To stem this tide, 2nd Squadron Leader David Lee "Tex" Hill led a flight of four new P-40Es bombing and strafing into the mile deep Salween River Gorge. During the next four days, the AVG pilots flew continuous missions into the gorge, effectively neutralizing the Japanese forces. This prevented a Japanese advance on Kunming and Chungking; the Japanese never advanced farther than the west bank of the upper Salween. Claire Chennault later wrote of these critical missions, "The American Volunteer Group had staved off China's collapse on the Salween." Despite being on the defensive thereafter, the AVG continued to harass the JAAF with raids on their Vietnamese bases.
With the Burma campaign over, Chennault redeployed his squadrons to provide air protection for China. The Doolittle Raid had prompted the Japanese to launch an offensive to seize AVG air bases that could be used for attacks on the Japanese homeland. By 1 June, personnel that would form the nucleus of the new USAAF 23rd Fighter Group (the AVG's replacement) were beginning to trickle into the theater. Some of the last missions the AVG flew were defending Guilin against raids by JAAF Nates, Lilys, and new Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu ("Nick") heavy fighters. The AVG's last combat was over Hengyang on the day it was disbanded, 4 July 1942. In this final action, the AVG shot down four Ki-27s with no AVG losses.
Assessment of the AVG[edit]
Flight leader and fighter ace Robert "R.T." Smith stands next to his P-40 fighter at Kunming, China. The "Flying Tiger" insignia was created by the Walt Disney Company.[20]
The AVG lacked many resources. Despite its location in areas with malaria and cholera, it had only "four doctors, three nurses and a bottle of iodine." Pilots found the food disgusting, and the slow mail from home and lack of women hurt morale. A squadron had 45 maintenance personnel compared to the normal more than 100, and only one base could perform major repairs.[8] Nonetheless, the AVG was officially credited with 297 enemy aircraft destroyed, including 229 in the air.[21] Fourteen AVG pilots were killed in action, captured, or disappeared on combat missions. Two died of wounds sustained in bombing raids, and six were killed in accidents during the Flying Tigers' existence as a combat force.
The AVG's kill ratio was superior to that of contemporary Allied air groups in Malaya, the Philippines, and elsewhere in the Pacific theater. The AVG's success is all the more remarkable since they were outnumbered by Japanese fighters in almost all their engagements. The AVG's P-40s were superior to the JAAF's Ki-27s, but the group's kill ratio against modern Ki-43s was still in its favor. In Flying Tigers: Claire Chennault and His American Volunteers, 1941–1942, Daniel Ford attributes the AVG's success to morale and group esprit de corps. He notes that its pilots were "triple volunteers" who had volunteered for service with the U.S. military, the AVG, and brutal fighting in Burma. The result was a corps of experienced and skilled volunteer pilots who wanted to fight.
During their service with the Nationalist Chinese air force, 33 AVG pilots and three ground crew received the Order of the Cloud and Banner, and many AVG pilots received the Chinese Air Force Medal. Each AVG ace and double ace was awarded the Five Star or Ten Star Wing Medal.
Members of the AVG[edit]
Gregory "Pappy" Boyington broke his contract with the AVG[22] in the spring of 1942 and returned to active duty with the U.S. Marine Corps. He went on to command the "Black Sheep" Squadron and was one of two AVG veterans (the other being James H. Howard of the USAAF) to be awarded the Medal of Honor.
David Lee "Tex" Hill later commanded the USAAF 23rd Fighter Group.[23]
Charles Older earned a law degree postwar, became a California Superior Court judge, and presided at the murder trial of Charles Manson.[24]
Kenneth Jernstedt was a long-time Oregon legislator and mayor of his home town of Hood River.[25]
Robert William Prescott [26], founder of the first scheduled cargo airline in America named Flying Tiger Line.
Allen "Bert" Christman, who bailed out at Rangoon, was strafed and killed while parachuting to the ground in January 1942, had earlier scripted and drawn the Scorchy Smith and Sandman comic strips.[27]
Journalist Joseph Alsop served as Chennault's "staff secretary" while the AVG trained at Rangoon; he was interned at Hong Kong on Christmas Day, 1941.
Aces[edit]
See also List of Flying Tigers pilots, which includes their victories and bonuses paid.
Nineteen pilots were credited by the AVG with five or more air-to-air victories:[21]
Robert Neale: 13 victories
Ed Rector: 10.5 victories
David Lee "Tex" Hill: 10.25 victories
George Burgard: 10 victories
Robert Little: 10 victories
Charles Older: 10 victories
Robert T. Smith: 8.9 victories
William McGarry: 8 victories
Charles Bond: 7 victories
Frank Lawlor: 7 victories
John V. "Scarsdale Jack" Newkirk: 7 victories
Robert Hedman: 6 victories
C. Joseph Rosbert: 6 victories
J. Richard Rossi: 6.25 victories
Robert Prescott: 5.5 victories
Percy Bartelt: 5 victories
William Bartling: 5 victories
John Garrity: 5 victories
Edmund Overend: 5 victories
Robert Sandell: 5 victories
Robert H. Smith: 5 victories
Legacy[edit]
Transition to the USAAF[edit]
The success of the AVG led to negotiations in spring 1942 to induct it into the USAAF. Chennault was reinstated as a colonel and immediately promoted to brigadier general commanding U.S. Army air units in China (initially designated China Air Task Force and later the 14th Air Force), while continuing to command the AVG by virtue of his position in the Chinese Air Force. On 4 July 1942, the AVG was replaced by the 23rd Fighter Group. Most AVG pilots refused to remain with the unit as a result of the strong arm tactics by the USAAF general sent to negotiate with them. However, five pilots accepted commissions in China including "Tex" Hill, one of Chennault's most loyal devotees, with others remaining for a two-week transition period. (U.S. airmen and the press continued to use the "Flying Tiger" name to refer to USAAF units in China to the end of the war, and the name continues to be applied to certain air force and army aviation squadrons.) Most AVG pilots became transport pilots in China, went back to America into civilian jobs, or rejoined the military services and fought elsewhere in the war.[28]
One of the pilots drawn to the success of the AVG was Robert Lee Scott, Jr. who was flying supplies into Kunming over the Hump from India. He convinced Chennault to loan him a P-40 which he flew to protect the supply route; his aggressiveness led to Chennault's recruiting him as commander of the 23rd Fighter Group. Scott brought recognition to his exploits and those of the Flying Tigers with his 1943 best-selling autobiography God is My Co-Pilot that was then made by Warner Bros. into a popular film in 1945.
Tributes and memorials[edit]
Flying Tigers Monument Ocala, Florida Memorial Park
Restored P-40 on display at the National World War II Museum
There are several museum displays in the United States honoring the Flying Tigers. The National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio, has an extensive display dedicated to the AVG, including an A-2 jacket worn by an AVG pilot in China, a banner presented to the AAF by the Chinese government, and a P-40E. The National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola, Florida also has a Flying Tiger display. The Chennault Aviation Museum in Monroe, Louisiana has an extensive collection of Flying Tigers and AVG memorabalia. The AVG monument in the National Museum of the United States Air Force Memorial Garden features a marble sculpture of a pagoda crowned with a brass model of a P-40; the monument stands nearly 14 feet tall. The Palm Springs Air Museum has a display of memorabilia inside a mockup of AVG ground facilities, with a P-40N painted in AVG markings. Finally, a memorial to the AVG and 14th AF is located at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California, depicting a P-40 in AVG markings with a bronze plaque describing the unit's history and Vandenberg's role as headquarters for the 14th AF.
There are also several memorials to the AVG in Asia. In Chiang Mai, Thailand, a marble obelisk was dedicated on 11 November 2003, inscribed to Chennault; to Jack Newkirk, who was killed in North Thailand on 24 March 1942; and to Charles Mott and William McGarry, who were shot down and captured in Thailand. In Taiwan, Madame Chiang Kai-Shek requested a statue of Chennault in the New Park of Taipei to commemorate this wartime friend after his death (the statue has since been relocated to Hualian AFB). A Flying Tigers Memorial is located in the village of Zhijiang, Hunan Province, China and there is a museum dedicated exclusively to the Flying Tigers. The building is a steel and marble structure, with wide sweeping steps leading up to a platform with columns holding up the memorial's sweeping roof; on its back wall, etched in black marble, are the names of all members of the AVG, 75th Fighter Squadron, and 14th Air Force who died in China. In 2005, the city of Kunming held a ceremony memorializing the history of the Flying Tigers in China, and on 20 December 2012, the Flying Tigers Museum opened in Kunming. The date is the 71st anniversary of the first combat from Kunming of the Flying Tigers. The Memorial Cemetery to Anti-Japanese Aviator Martyrs in Nanjing, China features a wall listing the names of Flying Tiger pilots and other pilots who defended China in World War II, and has several unmarked graves for such American pilots.[29]
The largest private museum in China, Chengdu Jianchuan Museum, devotes a wing in its military section to the history of the Flying Tigers, including a tribute wall featuring a thousand porcelain photos of members of the Flying Tigers as well as many historical artifacts from the era.[30]
In March 2015, the Flying Tiger Heritage Park was opened in Guilin in collaboration with the Flying Tiger Historical Organization. The park is built on the site of Yangtang Airfield and includes a museum, aircraft shelters, and relics of a command post located in a cave.[31]
Flying Tigers wrecks[edit]
The wreckage of a P-40 with CAF serial number P-8115 is on display in Chiang Mai, Thailand. The aircraft is believed to be that flown by William "Mac" McGarry when he was hit by anti-aircraft fire while flying top cover over Chiang Mai on 24 March 1942. The aircraft crashed into the rain forest in northern Thailand. McGarry was captured and interrogated, and spent most of the war in a Thai prison. Toward the end of the war the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) arranged for the Free Thai Movement to spirit him out of the prison to a PBY Catalina in the Gulf of Thailand. The wreck of his P-40 was discovered in 1991, and consists of the P-40's Allison engine, Hamilton Standard propeller and parts of the airframe. Today the wreckage is displayed at the Tango Squadron Wing 41 Museum in Chiang Mai, Thailand.[32][33]
The wreck of another AVG P-40 is believed to be in Lake Dianchi (Lake Kunming). The fighter is believed to be a P-40E piloted by John Blackburn when it crashed into the lake on a gunnery training flight on 28 April 1942, killing the pilot. His body was recovered from the aircraft, which was submerged in 20 feet of water. In 1997 a U.S.-Chinese group called the Sino-American Aviation Heritage Foundation was formed to locate the aircraft and possibly raise and restore it. In March 1998, they contacted the China Expedition Association about conducting the recovery operation. Over 300 aircraft are believed to have crashed into Lake Dianchi (including a second AVG P-40) so locating the aircraft proved difficult. In 2003, an aircraft believed to be Blackburn's was found embedded in nine feet of bottom silt. An effort was made in September 2005 to raise the aircraft, but the recovery was plagued with difficulties and it remains deep under the lake bottom. Since the aircraft was complete and relatively undamaged when John Blackburn's body was removed from it in 1942, it is hoped that the aircraft will be in good condition and capable of being restored, possibly to flying condition.
Recognition by the United States[edit]
Just before their 50th reunion in 1992, the AVG veterans were retroactively recognized as members of the U.S. military services during the seven months the group was in combat against the Japanese. The AVG was then awarded a Presidential Unit Citation for "professionalism, dedication to duty, and extraordinary heroism." In 1996, the U.S. Air Force awarded the pilots the Distinguished Flying Cross and the ground crew were all awarded the Bronze Star Medal.[34]
Popular culture[edit]
A number of feature films have referenced the AVG directly or indirectly, the most famous being Flying Tigers, a 1942 black-and-white film from Republic, starring John Wayne and John Carroll as fighter pilots. Other wartime films with an AVG angle included The Sky's the Limit (1943, starring Fred Astaire as a Flying Tiger ace on leave); Hers to Hold (1943, with Joseph Cotten); God is My Co-Pilot, (1945, with Dennis Morgan as Robert Lee Scott, Raymond Massey as Chennault, and John Ridgely as Tex Hill); and China's Little Devils (1945).
Similarly, the Flying Tigers have been the focus of several novels, including Tonya, by Pappy Boyington; Remains, by Daniel Ford; Spies in the Garden, by Bob Bergin and Tiger Ten by William D Blankenship. A novel for younger readers was Tiger, Lion, Hawk by Earle Rice Jr.
In the Star Wars guidebook The Essential Guide to Warfare, an X-wing Starfighter squadron named the "Lightspeed Panthers" was mentioned in the book. Warfare co-author Paul R. Urquhart confirmed in Warfare's endnotes that the squadron was intended to be a direct reference to the Flying Tigers.[35]
The Air Force Falcons football team saluted the Chinese military and the United States Navy and Marine Corps by wearing special Flying Tigers uniforms, including sharktooth designs on the helmets, for two games during the 2016 college football season.[36] The team first wore the uniform for its September 10 game against Georgia State, and again for the Arizona Bowl against South Alabama.[37]
See also[edit]
About China[edit]
Arthur Chin – America's first ace in World War II
Development of Chinese Nationalist air force (1937–1945)
Second Sino-Japanese War
Chiang Kai-shek
Madame Chiang Kai-shek
History of the Republic of China
James H. Howard—Flying Tigers pilot later awarded the Medal of Honor
Pappy Boyington—Flying Tigers pilot later awarded the Medal of Honor
Military of the Republic of China
National Revolutionary Army
Republic of China Air Force
Soviet Volunteer Group
Whampoa Military Academy
Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign
About American volunteers[edit]
Lafayette Escadrille—American volunteers in the French Air Service during World War I
Kościuszko Squadron—American volunteers fighting for Poland in the Polish-Soviet War (1919–1921).
Yankee Squadron – American volunteers fighting in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) on the Republican side.
Eagle Squadron—American volunteers in the RAF during World War II
23d Fighter Group—USAF group descended from Flying Tigers
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Ford 1991, pp. 30–34.
Jump up ^ "American Volunteer Group: Claire L. Chennault and the Flying Tigers - HistoryNet". 12 June 2007.
Jump up ^ Gustavsson, Håkan. "Chinese biplane fighter aces – 'Buffalo' Wong Sun-Shui" Håkans Aviation page, 2 July 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2009.
Jump up ^ Ford 2007, pp. 45–45.
Jump up ^ Ford 2007, pp. 85–86.
^ Jump up to: a b Feltus, Pamela. "Claire Chennault and the Flying Tigers of World War II." Archived 6 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine. U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission, 2003. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Scott 1973, p. 7.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Belden, Jack. "Chennault Fights to Hold the China Front." Life, 20 August 1942, Retrieved: 19 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Scott 1973, p. 21.
Jump up ^ Ford 2007, p. 36.
Jump up ^ Howard 1991, p. 65.
Jump up ^ Rossi, J. R. "A Flying Tigers Story by Dick Rossi, Pilot." AFG: American Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Rossi, J. R. "Charles Bond biography." AFG: American Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Ford 2007, pp. 82–83, 107.
Jump up ^ Smith, Robert T. "Tale of a Tiger – From The Diary Of Robert T. Smith, Flying Tiger, part 4." Planes and Pilots Of World War Two, 1986. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Scott 1973, pp. 61–65.
^ Jump up to: a b "History of the Flying Tigers." Retrieved: 26 April 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Sherman, Steven. "The Flying Tigers" Claire Chennault and the American Volunteer Group." Acepilots.com, 27 June 2011. Retrieved: 26 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Wambold Jr., Donald A.. "A Flying Tiger's War." World War II 20, no. 2, 2005, pp. 22–25.
Jump up ^ Rossi, J. R. "The Flying Tigers, American Volunteer Group – Chinese Air Force, A Brief History with Recollections and Comments by General Claire Lee Chennault." AFG: American Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Olynk 1986[page needed]
Jump up ^ Rossi, J. R. "Complete Roster of the American Volunteer Group, 1941–'42." AFG: American Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Rossi, J. R. "David Lee Hill biography." AFG: American Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Rossi, J. R. "Charles Older biography." AFG: American Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Rossi, J. R. "Kenneth Jernstedt biography." AFG: American Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Rossi, J. R. "Robert Prescott biography." AFG: American Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Rossi, J. R. "Allen Christman biography." AFG: American Volunteer Group, The Flying Tigers, 1998. Retrieved: 5 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Ford 2007, ch. 17.
Jump up ^ Former 'Flying Tigers' Visit Nanjing Memorial Cemetery. china.org (Xinhua News Agency), 25 August 2005. Retrieved: 17 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "JianChuan Museum – Baidu Baike." baike.baidu.com. Retrieved: 30 November 2010.
Jump up ^ "Heritage park honoring U.S. 'Flying Tigers' opens in China". news.xinhuanet.com, 29 March 2015. Retrieved: 26 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Flying Tigers Curtiss P40." thaiaviation.com. Retrieved: 27 October 2007.
Jump up ^ Lednicer, David. "Photo of P-8115 wreck." myaviation.net, 10 January 2007. Retrieved: 12 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Ford 2007, p. 349.
Jump up ^ Fry, Jason and Paul R. Urquhart. "EG to Warfare: Endnotes, pt. 10." Jason Fry's Dorkery, 2010. Retrieved: 17 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "Air Force's new helmets dip into World War II history".
Jump up ^ Kirshner, Alex (December 30, 2016). "Air Force finally got to wear awesome fighter plane shark teeth helmets". SB Nation. Retrieved July 9, 2017.
Sources[edit]
Ayling, Keith. Old Leatherface of the Flying Tigers: The Story of General Chennault. New York: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1945. OCLC 527511
Baisden, Chuck. Flying Tiger to Air Commando. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 1999. ISBN 0-7643-0690-1.
Bishop, Lewis S. and Shiela Bishop-Irwin. Escape From Hell: An AVG Flying Tiger's Journey. New York: Tiger Eye Press, 2005. ISBN 0-9763037-0-1.
Bond, Maj. Gen. Charles and Terry Anderson. A Flying Tiger's Diary. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-89096-178-6.
Boyington, "Pappy" (Col. Gregory Boyington, USMC, Ret.).Baa Baa Black Sheep. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1958. OCLC 2124961
Byrd, Martha. Chennault: Giving Wings to the Tiger. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8173-0322-7.
Chennault, Anna. Chennault and the Flying Tigers. New York: Paul S. Eriksson, 1963. OCLC 1294226
Chennault, Claire Lee. Way of a Fighter. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1949. OCLC 1314119
Clements, Terrill. American Volunteer Group Colours and Markings. London: Osprey Publishing, 2001. ISBN 978-1-84176-224-1.
Dumas, Jim. Longburst and the Flying Tigers. Tollhouse, California: Scrub Jay Press (www.Scrubjay.net), 2004. ISBN 0-9646851-5-9.
Ford, Daniel. Flying Tigers: Claire Chennault and His American Volunteers, 1941–1942. Washington, D.C.: HarperCollins-Smithsonian Books, 2007. ISBN 0-06-124655-7.
Frillmann, Paul and Graham Peck. China: The Remembered Life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1968. OCLC 712357
Greenlaw, Olga S. The Lady and the Tigers. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1943. OCLC 1337748
Hill, David Lee and Regan Schaupp. Tex Hill: Flying Tiger. Spartanburg, South Carolina: Honoribus Press, 2003. ISBN 1-885354-15-0.
Hotz, Robert B. et al. With General Chennault: The Story of the Flying Tigers. New York: Coward-McCann, 1943. OCLC 385646
Howard, James H. Roar Of The Tiger: From Flying Tigers to Mustangs, A Fighter Ace's Memoir. New York: Crown, 1991. ISBN 0-517-57323-7.
Koskodian, Kenneth. K. No Greater Ally: The Untold Story of Poland's Forces in World War II. New York: Osprey Publishing, 2009. ISBN 978-1-8490-8479-6.
Lee, Keith, 'a Chinese in the AVG' - Self-published - ISBN 978-0-9898826-0-6
Losonsky, Frank S. Flying Tiger: A Crew Chief's Story: The War Diary of an AVG Crew Chief. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-7643-0045-8.
Meredith, Kenneth T. Tiger Tenacity: Courage and Determination Forged the Don Rodewald Story. Lake City, Colorado: Golden Stone Press, 2000. ISBN 1-928590-05-5.
Neumann, Gerhard. Herman the German. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1984. ISBN 0-688-01682-0.
Newkirk, John J. The Old Man and the Harley: A Last Ride Through Our Fathers' America. Nashville, Tennessee: Thoman Nelson, 2008. ISBN 978-1-59555-180-1.
Olynyk, Frank J. AVG & USAAF (China-Burma-India Theater) Credits for Destruction of Enemy Aircraft in Air to Air Combat, World War 2. Aurora, Ohio: Privately published, 1986. OCLC 23108588
Samson, Jack. Chennault. New York: Doubleday, 1987. ISBN 0-385-23171-7.
Schramm, Leo J. Leo The Tiger. Charleston, South Carolina: BookSurge Publishing, 2007. ISBN 1-4196-6285-6.
Schultz, Duane. The Maverick War: Chennault and the Flying Tigers. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987. ISBN 0-312-00618-7.
Scott, Robert Lee, Jr. Flying Tiger: Chennault of China. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood-Heinemann Publishing, 1973. ISBN 0-8371-6774-4.
Shilling, Erik. Destiny: A Flying Tigers Rendezvous With Fate. Pomona, California: Ben-Wal Printing, 1993. ISBN 1-882463-02-1.
Smith, Robert M. With Chennault in China: A Flying Tiger's Diary. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 1997. ISBN 0-7643-0287-6.
Smith, R[obert] T. Tale of a Tiger. Van Nuys, California: Tiger Originals, 1986. ISBN 0-9618012-0-4.
Whelan, Russell. The Flying Tigers: The Story of the American Volunteer Group.New York: Viking Press, 1942. OCLC 3531493
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flying Tigers.
Sino-American Aviation Heritage Foundation
Annals of the Flying Tigers
Flying Tigers American Volunteer Group
Flying Tigers Heritage Park
"Flying Tigers In Burma", 30 March 1942 Life magazine article, including numerous photographs
"Wings Over China: The Story of the Flying Tigers" documentary posted by MaxMediaAsia
The short film The Air Force Story – The Drawing of the Battle Lines, December 1941-April 1942 (1953) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
AVG colour schemes and markings
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Ryan Eggold
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Ryan Eggold
Eggold in August 2008
Born
(1984-08-10) August 10, 1984 (age 33)
Lakewood, California, U.S.
Occupation
Actor
Years active
2006–present
Ryan James Eggold (born August 10, 1984)[1] is an American actor. He is known for playing Ryan Matthews on the CW teen drama series 90210 and Tom Keen on the NBC crime drama series The Blacklist and its short-lived spin-off series The Blacklist: Redemption.
Contents
[hide]
1 Personal life
2 Career
3 Filmography
4 References
5 External links
Personal life[edit]
Eggold was born in Lakewood, California, the son of Karen (née Benik) and James Frederick Eggold.[1][2] Eggold graduated from Santa Margarita Catholic High School in 2002, where he participated in many school theater performances, and later from the University of Southern California's theater arts department in 2006.
In 2006, Eggold made his professional television debut by way of a guest appearance on the show Related. He made his film debut the same year in the short film Con: The Corruption of Helm.[3] Besides his success as an actor, Eggold writes music, plays guitar and piano, and sings in the band Eleanor Avenue.[4]
Career[edit]
Eggold had recurring roles on CBS's The Young and the Restless, HBO's Entourage, Cartoon Network's Out of Jimmy's Head, ABC's Brothers & Sisters, and the UPN/CW series Veronica Mars, before obtaining his first series regular role on the FX's Dirt.[citation needed]
In addition to his work in television, Eggold made his professional stage debut in the 2006 Ahmanson Theatre/Center Theatre Group production Dead End, directed by Nick Martin, and has since appeared in productions of Leipzig, the LA Weekly Theater Award-winning production of Marat/Sade, and an original production titled Amy and Elliot which he wrote, directed, and starred in at the Stella Adler Theatre with Alexandra Breckenridge.[5]
Eggold portrayed English teacher Ryan Matthews in 90210, the CW spin-off of FOX's Beverly Hills, 90210,[5] despite the fact that he is less than one year older than several of the other actors who played his students. In January 2012, he played Mischa Barton's love interest in Mark Edwin Robinson's supernatural romance thriller Into the Dark.[6] Since the fall of 2013, he has regularly appeared as Tom Keen, a main character on NBC's hit drama The Blacklist.[7] In January 2015, Eggold appeared on the History Channel's three-night miniseries Sons of Liberty as Dr. Joseph Warren, a friend of Sam Adams and Paul Revere.
Filmography[edit]
Film
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2006 Con: The Corruption of Shawn Helm Shawn Helm Short film
2008 Bloom Doug Short film
2010 First Dates Tom Direct-to-DVD
2011 Driving by Braille Xander West
2011 Queen Nikki Holiday Short film
2011 Trophy Kids Max
2011 Sironia Mason Jones
2012 Into the Dark Adam Hunt
2013 B-Side Mike Zumsteg
2013 Scent of a Woman Dan Short film
2013 Lucky Them Lucas Stone
2013 Beside Still Waters Daniel
2014 Single Moms Club, TheThe Single Moms Club Peter
2014 Disappearance of Eleanor Rigby: Them, TheThe Disappearance of Eleanor Rigby: Them Guy from club
2014 Fathers and Daughters John
2015 Battle Scars Nicky Stephens In post-production
2016 Lovesong Leif
2017 Literally, Right Before Aaron Writer, director and producer
2018 Black Klansman Walter Breachway Filming
Television
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2006 Related Lloyd Episode: "The Cape"
2006 Brothers & Sisters Randy Stewart Episode: "Family Portrait"
2006 Veronica Mars Charlie Stone Episode: "Charlie Don't Surf"
2006 War at Home, TheThe War at Home Bruce Episode: "Gaza Strip"
2007 Young and the Restless, TheThe Young and the Restless Barista 3 episodes
2007 Nick Cannon Presents: Short Circuitz Jerry Episode: "Suge Knight Light"
2007 Out of Jimmy's Head Mike Werewolfowitz 5 episodes
2007 Entourage Five Towns cast member 2 episodes
2008 Dirt Farber Kauffman 7 episodes
2008–2011 90210 Ryan Matthews 44 episodes
2008 Entourage Himself Episode: "Fantasy Island"
2009 United States of Tara Tevin Episode: "Possibility"
2009–2010 Melrose Place (2009) Ryan Matthews 20 episodes
2013–2017 Blacklist, TheThe Blacklist Tom Keen/Jacob Phelps/Christopher Hargrave 88 episodes
2015 Sons of Liberty Joseph Warren 3 episodes
2017 The Blacklist: Redemption Tom Keen/Jacob Phelps/Christopher Hargrave 8 episodes
Web
Year
Title
Role
Notes
2012 Daybreak Ben Wilkins 5 episodes
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Descendants of Joseph Eggold", genealogy.com
Jump up ^ "Eggold" (PDF), genealogy.com
Jump up ^ "Ryan Eggold", buddytv.com, retrieved May 14, 2014
Jump up ^ "Ryan Eggold", tvguide.com, retrieved May 14, 2014
^ Jump up to: a b Brandes, Phillip (January 13, 2011), "Theater review: 'Amy and Elliot' at the Stella Adler Theatre", Los Angeles Times, retrieved May 14, 2014
Jump up ^ "AOT Member Jaz Martin To Star Opposite Mischa Barton!", ActOnThis.tv, January 7, 2012
Jump up ^ Goodman, Jessica (November 24, 2013), "'The Blacklist' Star Ryan Eggold On Tom's Big Secrets & What's Ahead", The Huffington Post
External links[edit]
Ryan Eggold on IMDb
Ryan Eggold at The CW
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ryan_Eggold&oldid=835101038"
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American male film actors
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People from Lakewood, California
USC School of Dramatic Arts alumni
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