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List of members of the Universal Postal Union
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The 192 members of the Universal Postal Union are listed below in alphabetical order, with the date of membership.[1] Members are the Vatican City and the 193 UN members except Andorra, Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau. The newest member is South Sudan, which joined on 4 October 2011.
Before 10 July 1964, states became members of the UPU by ratifying the latest version of the Treaty of Bern. After this date, states become members by ratifying the Constitution of the Universal Postal Union, which incorporated the Treaty of Bern and added provisions to it. Three states which were party to the Treaty of Bern in 1964, and hence members of the UPU, and which have signed but never ratified the Constitution are members of the UPU Dominican Republic, Honduras, Sudan.[2] These states are deemed to have "tacitly ratified" the agreement due to their continued participation in the UPU.[3] Also included as members are two "joint memberships" for dependent territories (one for the British overseas territories and one for the Caribbean constituent countries (Dutch: landen) of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten), originally as Netherlands Antilles). Dependent territories are not permitted to ratify the UPU Constitution, but because the Treaty of Bern allowed for dependencies to join the UPU,[3] listing these members separately as "Colonies, Protectorates, etc.",[4] the Constitution of the Universal Postal Union grandfathered them when membership was restricted to sovereign states.[3][5] However, neither the British nor the Dutch entities ratified the Treaty of Bern separate from the ratifications of the United Kingdom and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, respectively.
By virtue of article 23 of the UPU Constitution, other dependencies of UPU member states are covered by its membership. Territories covered by a sovereign member state are listed under that country.
Contents
1 A
2 B
3 C
4 D
5 E
6 F
7 G
8 H
9 I
10 J
11 K
12 L
13 M
14 N
15 O
16 P
17 Q
18 R
19 S
20 T
21 U
22 V
23 Y
24 Z
25 Observer states and territories
26 States, territories and entities not participating in UPU activities
27 Former member countries of the UPU
28 See also
29 Notes
30 References
31 Further reading
A[edit]
UPU member states, including dependencies covered by their membership
UPU member state dependencies with separate membership
state represented in UPU by another state
special observer status
Afghanistan - 1 April 1928
Albania - 1 March 1922
Algeria - 1 October 1907
Angola - 1 March 1977
Antigua and Barbuda - 20 January 1994
Argentina - 1 April 1878
Armenia - 14 October 1992
Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten - 1 July 1875[Note 1][Note 2]
Aruba
Curaçao
Sint Maarten
Australia - 1 October 1907
Norfolk Island
Austria - 1 July 1875[Note 3]
Azerbaijan - 1 April 1993
B[edit]
Bahamas - 24 April 1974
Bahrain - 21 December 1973
Bangladesh - 7 February 1973
Barbados - 11 November 1967
Belarus - 13 May 1947[Note 4]
Belgium - 1 July 1875
Belize - 1 October 1982
Benin - 27 April 1961
Bhutan - 7 March 1969
Bolivia - 1 April 1886
Bosnia and Herzegovina - 26 January 1993
Botswana - 12 January 1968
Brazil - 1 July 1877[Note 5]
Brunei - 15 January 1985
British overseas territories - 1 April 1877[Note 1]
Anguilla
Bermuda
British Indian Ocean Territory
British Virgin Islands
Cayman Islands
Falkland Islands
Gibraltar
Montserrat
Pitcairn Islands
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
Dependencies of St Helena
Ascension
Tristan da Cunha
Turks and Caicos Islands
Bulgaria - 1 July 1879
Burkina Faso - 29 March 1963[Note 6]
Burundi - 6 April 1963
C[edit]
Cambodia - 21 December 1951
Cameroon - 26 July 1960
Canada - 1 July 1878
Cape Verde - 30 September 1976
Central African Republic - 28 June 1961
Chad - 23 June 1961
Chile - 1 April 1881
China - 1 March 1914[Note 7]
Hong Kong [Note 8] - 1 April 1877
Macao
Colombia - 1 July 1881
Comoros - 29 July 1976
Congo, Democratic Republic of the - 1 January 1886[Note 9]
Congo, Republic of - 5 July 1961
Costa Rica - 1 January 1883
Ivory Coast - 23 May 1961
Croatia - 20 July 1992
Cuba - 4 October 1902
Cyprus - 23 November 1961
Czech Republic - 18 March 1993
D[edit]
Denmark - 1 July 1875
Faroe Islands
Greenland
Djibouti - 6 June 1978
Dominica - 31 January 1980
Dominican Republic - 1 October 1880[Note 10]
E[edit]
Ecuador - 1 July 1880
Egypt - 1 July 1875[Note 11]
El Salvador - 1 April 1879
Equatorial Guinea - 24 July 1970
Eritrea - 19 August 1993
Estonia - 30 April 1992[Note 12]
Ethiopia - 1 November 1908
F[edit]
Fiji - 18 June 1971
Finland - 12 February 1918
Åland Islands
France - 1 January 1876
French Overseas Departments
French Guiana
Guadeloupe (including Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin)
Martinique
Réunion
Mayotte
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Territories coming within the UPU's jurisdiction by virtue of article 23 of the UPU Constitution
French Polynesia (including Clipperton Island)
French Southern and Antarctic Lands
New Caledonia
Wallis and Futuna
G[edit]
Gabon - 17 July 1961
Gambia - 9 October 1974
Georgia - 1 April 1993
Germany - 1 July 1875[Note 13]
Ghana - 10 October 1957
Greece - 1 July 1875
Grenada - 30 January 1978
Guatemala - 1 August 1881
Guinea - 6 May 1959
Guinea-Bissau - 30 May 1974
Guyana - 22 March 1967
H[edit]
Haiti - 1 July 1881
Honduras - 1 April 1879[Note 10]
Hungary - 1 July 1875[Note 14]
I[edit]
Iceland - 15 November 1919
India - 1 July 1876
Indonesia - 1 May 1877
Iran - 1 September 1877
Iraq - 22 April 1929
Ireland - 6 September 1923[Note 15]
Israel - 24 December 1949
Italy - 1 July 1875
J[edit]
Jamaica - 29 August 1963
Japan - 1 June 1877
Jordan - 16 May 1947
K[edit]
Kazakhstan - 27 August 1992
Kenya - 27 October 1964
Kiribati - 14 August 1984
Korea, Democratic People's Republic of - 6 June 1974
Korea, Republic of - 1 January 1900[Note 16]
Kuwait - 16 February 1960
Kyrgyzstan - 26 January 1993
L[edit]
Laos - 20 May 1952
Latvia - 17 June 1992[Note 17]
Lebanon - 15 May 1946
Lesotho - 6 September 1967
Liberia - 1 April 1879
Libya - 4 June 1952
Liechtenstein - 13 April 1962
Lithuania - 10 January 1992[Note 18]
Luxembourg - 1 July 1875
M[edit]
Macedonia - 12 July 1993
Madagascar - 2 November 1961
Malawi - 25 October 1966
Malaysia - 17 January 1958[Note 19]
Maldives - 15 August 1967
Mali - 21 April 1961
Malta - 21 May 1965
Mauritania - 22 March 1967
Mauritius - 29 August 1969
Mexico - 1 April 1879
Moldova - 16 November 1992
Monaco - 12 October 1955
Mongolia - 24 August 1963
Montenegro - 26 July 2006
Morocco - 1 October 1920
Mozambique - 11 October 1978
Myanmar - 4 October 1949
N[edit]
Namibia - 30 April 1992
Nauru - 17 April 1969
Nepal - 11 October 1956
Netherlands - 1 July 1875
New Zealand (including the Ross Dependency) - 1 October 1907
Cook Islands (Free Association with New Zealand)
Niue (Free Association with New Zealand)
Tokelau
Nicaragua - 1 May 1882
Niger - 12 June 1961
Nigeria - 10 July 1961
Norway - 1 July 1875[Note 20]
O[edit]
Oman - 17 August 1971
P[edit]
Pakistan - 10 November 1947
Panama - 11 June 1904
Papua New Guinea - 4 June 1976
Paraguay - 1 July 1881
Peru - 1 April 1879
Philippines - 1 January 1922
Poland - 1 May 1919
Portugal - 1 July 1875
Q[edit]
Qatar - 31 January 1969
R[edit]
Romania - 1 July 1875
Russia - 1 July 1875[Note 21]
Rwanda - 6 April 1963
S[edit]
Saint Kitts and Nevis - 11 January 1988
Saint Lucia - 10 July 1980
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines - 3 February 1981
Samoa - 9 August 1989
San Marino - 1 July 1915
São Tomé and Príncipe - 22 August 1977
Saudi Arabia - 1 January 1927[Note 22]
Senegal - 14 June 1961
Serbia - 18 June 2001[Note 23]
Seychelles - 7 October 1977
Sierra Leone - 29 January 1962
Singapore - 8 January 1966
Slovakia - 18 March 1993
Slovenia - 27 August 1992
Solomon Islands - 4 May 1984
Somalia - 1 April 1959
South Africa - 22 August 1994
South Sudan - 4 October 2011[10]
Spain - 1 July 1875
Sri Lanka - 13 July 1949
Sudan - 28 July 1956[Note 10]
Suriname - 20 April 1976
Swaziland - 7 November 1969
Sweden - 1 July 1875[Note 24]
Switzerland - 1 July 1875
Syria - 15 May 1946
T[edit]
Tajikistan - 9 June 1994
Tanzania - 29 March 1963[Note 25]
Thailand - 1 July 1885
Timor-Leste - 28 November 2003
Togo - 21 March 1962
Tonga (including Niuafo'ou) - 26 January 1972
Trinidad and Tobago - 15 June 1963
Tunisia - 1 July 1888
Turkey - 1 July 1875[Note 26]
Turkmenistan - 26 January 1993
Tuvalu - 3 February 1981
U[edit]
Uganda - 13 February 1964
Ukraine - 13 May 1947[Note 27]
United Arab Emirates - 30 March 1973
United Kingdom - 1 July 1875
Acceded automatically as Crown dependencies of the United Kingdom
Guernsey
Isle of Man
Jersey
United States - 1 July 1875
Territories coming within the UPU's jurisdiction by virtue of article 23 of the UPU Constitution
Guam
Puerto Rico
American Samoa
United States Virgin Islands
Northern Mariana Islands
Uruguay - 1 July 1880
Uzbekistan - 24 February 1994
V[edit]
Vanuatu - 16 July 1982
Vatican City - 1 June 1929
Venezuela - 1 January 1880
Vietnam - 20 October 1951
Y[edit]
Yemen - 1 January 1930[Note 28]
Z[edit]
Zambia - 22 March 1967
Zimbabwe - 31 July 1981
Observer states and territories[edit]
Palestine - special observer status to the UPU since 1999, West Bank mail delivered through Jordan since 2008.[11][12] From[when?] up to 2010 Gaza strip mail was delivered through Israel.[13]
States, territories and entities not participating in UPU activities[edit]
In general areas governed by organizations that are not members of the UPU, must have their international mail handled by a member state.[14]
Andorra[15] - mail routed through France or Spain.
Marshall Islands (mail transportation handled by the United States Postal Service)
Federated States of Micronesia (mail transportation handled by the United States Postal Service)
Palau (mail transportation handled by the United States Postal Service)
Order of Malta mail routed through Italy and additionally its stamps are accepted by 56 UPU members[16]
The states with limited recognition need to have their mail routed through third countries as the UPU will not allow direct international deliveries.[14]
Somaliland mail routed through Ethiopia[17]
Northern Cyprus mail routed through Turkey[14]
Kosovo mail routed through Serbia[14]
Abkhazia mail routed through Russia[14]
South Ossetia mail routed through Russia[14]
Nagorno-Karabakh mail routed through Armenia[14]
Transnistria mail routed through Moldova[14]
Sahrawi Republic mail routed through Algeria[14]
Taiwan (Republic of China) participated as member between 1 March 1914 and 13 April 1972.[Note 29] Mail addressed to Taiwan is routed through Japan, the United States, and formerly Hong Kong[18]
Former member countries of the UPU[edit]
In the course of history a number of member countries of the UPU saw their membership lapse, due to political changes. Where there was an immediate successor state, membership would normally devolve on that state. In other cases membership lapsed.
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Kingdom of Hawaii - 21 March 1885 – July 4, 1898/August 21, 1959[citation needed]
Orange Free State - 1 January 1898 – 31 May 1902[Note 30]
South African Republic - 1 January 1895 – 31 May 1902[Note 31]
Gold Coast - January 1879[21] – 1957 (Became Ghana)
Czechoslovakia - Slovakia and the Czech Republic ratified the treaty after Czechoslovakia dissolved in 1993.
Yugoslavia
Independent State of Croatia 1941-1945. Country ceased to exist
Korean Empire - January 1, 1900 – August 29, 1910
South Vietnam Country ceased to exist in 1975
East Germany Country ceased to exist in 1990
South Yemen Country ceased to exist in 1990
See also[edit]
List of postal entities, a list of the postal authorities and operators of UPU members.
Notes[edit]
^ a b Dependent territory whose membership was grandfathered in by the Constitution.[3]
^ These three entities are constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, but have a joint UPU membership separate of that of the Netherlands. Prior to the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles on 10 October 2010, Aruba and the then-Netherlands Antilles shared a common UPU membership. Upon dissolution, Curaçao and Sint Maarten became constituent countries within the Kingdom of the Netherlands; Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba, now collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands, became parts of the Netherlands proper.
^ Ratified as Austria-Hungary.
^ Ratified as the Byelorussian SSR.
^ Ratified as the Empire of Brazil.
^ Ratified as the Upper Volta.
^ China was originally represented by the government of the Republic of China from 1914 to 1972. Since 13 April 1972, UPU has shifted its recognition to the government of People's Republic of China.
^ Hong Kong was part of the British Overseas Territories joint membership from 1 April 1877 to 1 July 1997.[6] Hong Kong continues to participate in the Universal Postal Union after the transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom to China on 1 July 1997.[7]
^ Ratified as the Congo Free State.
^ a b c State which became a UPU member by ratifying the Treaty of Bern and which signed the Constitution, but which has not ratified it.[2] These states are deemed to have "tacitly ratified" the agreement due to their continued participation in the UPU.[3]
^ Ratified as the Khedivate of Egypt.
^ Originally joined on 7 July 1922 prior to Soviet occupation[8]
^ Ratified as the German Empire.
^ Ratified as Austria-Hungary.
^ Ratified as the Irish Free State.
^ Ratified as the Korean Empire.
^ Originally joined on 1 October 1921 prior to Soviet occupation[8]
^ Originally joined on 1 January 1922 prior to Soviet occupation[8][9]
^ Ratified as the Federation of Malaya.
^ Ratified as the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway.
^ Ratified as the Russian Empire. Continued membership as the Soviet Union from 1922–1991.
^ Ratified as the Saudi Arabia (1926) Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz.
^ Ratified as the Serbia and Montenegro Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
^ Ratified as the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway.
^ Ratified as Tanganyika.
^ Ratified as the Ottoman Empire.
^ Ratified as the Ukrainian SSR.
^ Ratified as the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen.
^ The Republic of China joined the UPU on 1 March 1914. After the People's Republic of China was founded, the Republic of China continued to represent China in the UPU, until the UPU decided on 13 April 1972 to recognize the People's Republic of China as the only legitimate Chinese representative. This results in International Reply Coupons not being available for Taiwan.
^ The Orange Free State acceded to the Postal Convention of Vienna in 1898, and a year later also acceded to that of Washington. [19] The state was dissolved at the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging. Membership did not lapse but was absorbed into the British South African membership.
^ The South African Republic was a member from 1895[20] until its dissolution at the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging. Membership did not lapse but was absorbed into the British South African membership.
References[edit]
^ "Member countries". Universal Postal Union. Retrieved 2013-02-16.
^ a b "List of member countries of the Universal Postal Union" (PDF). Universal Postal Union. 2014-07-31. Retrieved 2014-10-14.
^ a b c d e "Constitution General Regulations" (PDF). Universal Postal Union. 2010. pp. XII.
^ "Universal Postal Convention". Universal Postal Union. 1952-07-11. Retrieved 2012-08-11.
^ "Constitution of the Universal Postal Union". Universal Postal Union. 1964-07-10. Retrieved 2012-08-11.
^ Information page for British Overseas Territories on the UPU web site
^ Information page for Hong Kong on the UPU web site
^ a b c "CONSTITUTION & GENERAL REGULATIONS". Universal Postal Union. ICANN. October 11, 2000. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
^ Žalimas, Dainius (2002). "Legal Issues on the Continuity of the Republic of Lithuania". Baltic yearbook of international law: 2001. Volume 1. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 17.
^ "South Sudan (Rep.)". Member countries. UPU. 2011-10-04. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
^ "Palestinian parcel post gets a boost". Universal Postal Union (UPU). Retrieved 2010-09-26.
^ "Israel and Palestinians to boost postal services with help from UN agency". United Nations. 2008-08-07. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
^ "Statement regarding mail destined for the Gaza Strip". Canada Post. 2010-08-20. Archived from the original on 2010-08-20. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
^ a b c d e f g h i "Members of the Universal Postal Union and Their Join Dates" (PDF). United Postal Stationery Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 November 2017.
^ "Andorra führt Postleitzahlen ein" (in German). Andorra Intern. 2004-02-27. Retrieved 2009-04-19.
^ [1] Sovereign Order of Malta — Associate Countries (Postal Agreements)
^ "Postal Power". One Radio Network. Archived from the original on 25 November 2017.
^ Chen, Longzhi (8 October 2008). 萬國郵政聯盟與世界郵政日 [Universal Postal Union and World Post Day]. Taiwan New Century Culture and Education Foundation. Archived from the original on 16 October 2014.
^ Spies, F.J. du Toit (1946). 'n Nederlander in diens van die Oranje-Vrystaat. Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger. p. 67.
^ Spies. 'n Nederlander in diens van die Oranje-Vrystaat. p. 66.
^ Rossiter, Stuart & John Flower. The Stamp Atlas. London: Macdonald, 1986. ISBN 0-356-10862-7
Further reading[edit]
List of member countries of the Universal Postal Union: showing their contribution class, geographical group and legal situation with regard to the Acts of the Union. Bern: International Bureau of the Universal Postal Union, 2005 13p.
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text:
History of the British Raj
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Colonial India
Imperial entities of India
Dutch India
1605–1825
Danish India
1620–1869
French India
1668–1954
Portuguese India
(1505–1961)
Casa da Índia
1434–1833
Portuguese East India Company
1628–1633
British India
(1612–1947)
East India Company
1612–1757
Company rule in India
1757–1858
British Raj
1858–1947
British rule in Burma
1824–1948
Princely states
1721–1949
Partition of India
1947
v
t
e
The history of the British Raj refers to the period of British rule on the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The system of governance was instituted in 1858 when the rule of the East India Company was transferred to the Crown in the person of Queen Victoria (who in 1876 was proclaimed Empress of India). It lasted until 1947, when the British provinces of India were partitioned into two sovereign dominion states: the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan, leaving the princely states to choose between them. The two new dominions later became the Republic of India and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (the eastern half of which, still later, became the People's Republic of Bangladesh). The province of Burma in the eastern region of the Indian Empire had been made a separate colony in 1937 and became independent in 1948.
Contents
[hide]
1 Prelude
2 Effects on the economy
3 Beginnings of self-government
4 World War I and its causes
4.1 Montagu-Chelmsford Report 1919
4.2 Round Table Conferences 1930-31-32
4.3 Willingdon imprisons leaders of Congress
4.4 Communal Award: 1932
5 Government of India Act (1935)
6 World War II
6.1 Quit India movement or the Bharat Chodo Andolan
6.2 Bose and the Indian National Army (INA)
6.3 Finances
7 Transfer of Power
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Surveys and reference books
10.2 Monographs and Collections
10.3 Articles in journals or collections
10.4 Classic Histories and Gazetteers
10.5 Tertiary Sources
11 External links
Prelude[edit]
For the earlier history of India, see Company rule in India and Indian Rebellion of 1857.
Effects on the economy[edit]
In the third half of the 19th century, both the direct administration of India by the British crown and the technological change ushered in by the industrial revolution, had the effect of closely intertwining the economies of India and Great Britain.[1] In fact many of the major changes in transport and communications (that are typically associated with Crown Rule of India) had already begun before the Mutiny. Since Dalhousie had embraced the technological change then rampant in Great Britain, India too saw rapid development of all those technologies. Railways, roads, canals, and bridges were rapidly built in India and telegraph links equally rapidly established in order that raw materials, such as cotton, from India's hinterland could be transported more efficiently to ports, such as Bombay, for subsequent export to England.[2] Likewise, finished goods from England were transported back just as efficiently, for sale in the burgeoning Indian markets.[3] However, unlike Britain itself, where the market risks for the infrastructure development were borne by private investors, in India, it was the taxpayers—primarily farmers and farm-labourers—who endured the risks, which, in the end, amounted to £50 million.[4] In spite of these costs, very little skilled employment was created for Indians. By 1920, with a history of 60 years of its construction, only ten per cent of the "superior posts" in the railways were held by Indians.[5]
The rush of technology was also changing the agricultural economy in India: by the last decade of the 19th century, a large fraction of some raw materials—not only cotton, but also some food-grains—were being exported to faraway markets.[6] Consequently, many small farmers, dependent on the whims of those markets, lost land, animals, and equipment to money-lenders.[6] More tellingly, the latter half of the 19th century also saw an increase in the number of large-scale famines in India. Although famines were not new to the subcontinent, these were particularly severe, with tens of millions dying,[7] and with many critics, both British and Indian, laying the blame at the doorsteps of the lumbering colonial administrations.[6]
Lord Ripon, the Liberal Viceroy of India, who instituted the Famine Code
The Agra canal (c. 1873), a year away from completion. The canal was closed to navigation in 1904 to increase irrigation and aid in famine-prevention.
Railway map of India in 1909. Railway construction in India had began in 1853.
A 1903 stereographic image of Victoria Terminus, Bombay, by Underwood and Underwood. The station was completed in 1888.
Beginnings of self-government[edit]
The first steps were taken toward self-government in British India in the late 19th century with the appointment of Indian counsellors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils with the Indian Councils Act 1892. Municipal Corporations and District Boards were created for local administration; they included elected Indian members.
The Indian Councils Act 1909 – also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms (John Morley was the secretary of state for India, and Gilbert Elliot, fourth earl of Minto, was viceroy) – gave Indians limited roles in the central and provincial legislatures, known as legislative councils. Indians had previously been appointed to legislative councils, but after the reforms some were elected to them. At the centre, the majority of council members continued to be government-appointed officials, and the viceroy was in no way responsible to the legislature. At the provincial level, the elected members, together with unofficial appointees, outnumbered the appointed officials, but responsibility of the governor to the legislature was not contemplated. Morley made it clear in introducing the legislation to the British Parliament that parliamentary self-government was not the goal of the British government.
The Morley-Minto Reforms were a milestone. Step by step, the elective principle was introduced for membership in Indian legislative councils. The "electorate" was limited, however, to a small group of upper-class Indians. These elected members increasingly became an "opposition" to the "official government". The Communal electorates were later extended to other communities and made a political factor of the Indian tendency toward group identification through religion.
John Morley, the Secretary of State for India from 1905 to 1910, and Gladstonian Liberal. The Indian Councils Act 1909, also known as the Minto-Morley Reforms allowed Indians to be elected to the Legislative Council.
Picture post card of the Gordon Highlanders marching past King George V and Queen Mary at the Delhi Durbar on December 12, 1911, when the King was crowned Emperor of India.
Indian medical orderlies attending to wounded soldiers with the Mesopotamian Expeditionary Force in Mesopotamia during World War I.
World War I and its causes[edit]
World War I would prove to be a watershed in the imperial relationship between Britain and India. 1.4 million Indian and British soldiers of the British Indian Army would take part in the war and their participation would have a wider cultural fallout: news of Indian soldiers fighting and dying with British soldiers, as well as soldiers from dominions like Canada and Australia, would travel to distant corners of the world both in newsprint and by the new medium of the radio.[8] India's international profile would thereby rise and would continue to rise during the 1920s.[8] It was to lead, among other things, to India, under its own name, becoming a founding member of the League of Nations in 1920 and participating, under the name, "Les Indes Anglaises" (The British Indies), in the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp.[9] Back in India, especially among the leaders of the Indian National Congress, it would lead to calls for greater self-government for Indians.[8]
In 1916, in the face of new strength demonstrated by the nationalists with the signing of the Lucknow Pact and the founding of the Home Rule leagues, and the realisation, after the disaster in the Mesopotamian campaign, that the war would likely last longer, the new Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford, cautioned that the Government of India needed to be more responsive to Indian opinion.[10] Towards the end of the year, after discussions with the government in London, he suggested that the British demonstrate their good faith – in light of the Indian war role – through a number of public actions, including awards of titles and honours to princes, granting of commissions in the army to Indians, and removal of the much-reviled cotton excise duty, but most importantly, an announcement of Britain's future plans for India and an indication of some concrete steps.[10] After more discussion, in August 1917, the new Liberal Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, announced the British aim of "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration, and the gradual development of self-governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire."[10] This envisioned reposing confidence in the educated Indians, so far disdained as an unrepresentative minority, who were described by Montague as "Intellectually our children".[11] The pace of the reforms where to be determined by Britain as and when the Indians were seen to have earned it.[11] However, although the plan envisioned limited self-government at first only in the provinces – with India emphatically within the British Empire – it represented the first British proposal for any form of representative government in a non-white colony.
Earlier, at the onset of World War I, the reassignment of most of the British army in India to Europe and Mesopotamia had led the previous Viceroy, Lord Harding, to worry about the "risks involved in denuding India of troops."[8] Revolutionary violence had already been a concern in British India; consequently in 1915, to strengthen its powers during what it saw was a time of increased vulnerability, the Government of India passed the Defence of India Act, which allowed it to intern politically dangerous dissidents without due process and added to the power it already had – under the 1910 Press Act – both to imprison journalists without trial and to censor the press.[12] Now, as constitutional reform began to be discussed in earnest, the British began to consider how new moderate Indians could be brought into the fold of constitutional politics and simultaneously, how the hand of established constitutionalists could be strengthened.[12] However, since the reform plan was devised during a time when extremist violence had ebbed as a result of increased war-time governmental control and it now feared a revival of revolutionary violence,[11] the government also began to consider how some of its war-time powers could be extended into peace time.[12][12]
Edwin Montagu, left, the Secretary of State for India, whose report led to the Government of India Act 1919, also known as the Montford Reforms or the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms.
Consequently, in 1917, even as Edwin Montagu announced the new constitutional reforms, a sedition committee chaired by a British judge, Mr. S. A. T. Rowlatt, was tasked with investigating war-time revolutionary conspiracies and the German and Bolshevik links to the violence in India,[13][14][15] with the unstated goal of extending the government's war-time powers.[10] The Rowlatt committee presented its report in July 1918 and identified three regions of conspiratorial insurgency: Bengal, the Bombay presidency, and the Punjab.[10] To combat subversive acts in these regions, the committee recommended that the government use emergency powers akin to its war-time authority, which included the ability to try cases of sedition by a panel of three judges and without juries, exaction of securities from suspects, governmental overseeing of residences of suspects,[10] and the power for provincial governments to arrest and detain suspects in short-term detention facilities and without trial.[16]
With the end of World War I, there was also a change in the economic climate. By year's end 1919, 1.5 million Indians had served in the armed services in either combatant or non-combatant roles, and India had provided £146 million in revenue for the war.[17] The increased taxes coupled with disruptions in both domestic and international trade had the effect of approximately doubling the index of overall prices in India between 1914 and 1920.[17] Returning war veterans, especially in the Punjab, created a growing unemployment crisis[18] and post-war inflation led to food riots in Bombay, Madras, and Bengal provinces,[18] a situation that was made only worse by the failure of the 1918–19 monsoon and by profiteering and speculation.[17] The global influenza epidemic and the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 added to the general jitters; the former among the population already experiencing economic woes,[18] and the latter among government officials, fearing a similar revolution in India.[19]
To combat what it saw as a coming crisis, the government now drafted the Rowlatt committee's recommendations into two Rowlatt Bills.[16] Although the bills were authorised for legislative consideration by Edwin Montagu, they were done so unwillingly, with the accompanying declaration, "I loathe the suggestion at first sight of preserving the Defence of India Act in peace time to such an extent as Rowlatt and his friends think necessary."[10] In the ensuing discussion and vote in the Imperial Legislative Council, all Indian members voiced opposition to the bills. The Government of India was nevertheless able to use of its "official majority" to ensure passage of the bills early in 1919.[10] However, what it passed, in deference to the Indian opposition, was a lesser version of the first bill, which now allowed extrajudicial powers, but for a period of exactly three years and for the prosecution solely of "anarchical and revolutionary movements," dropping entirely the second bill involving modification of the Indian Penal Code.[10] Even so, when it was passed the new Rowlatt Act aroused widespread indignation throughout India and brought Mohandas Gandhi to the forefront of the nationalist movement.[16]
Montagu-Chelmsford Report 1919[edit]
Meanwhile, Montagu and Chelmsford themselves finally presented their report in July 1918 after a long fact-finding trip through India the previous winter.[20] After more discussion by the government and parliament in Britain, and another tour by the Franchise and Functions Committee for the purpose of identifying who among the Indian population could vote in future elections, the Government of India Act 1919 (also known as the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) was passed in December 1919.[20] The new Act enlarged the provincial councils and converted the Imperial Legislative Council into an enlarged Central Legislative Assembly. It also repealed the Government of India's recourse to the "official majority" in unfavourable votes.[20] Although departments like defence, foreign affairs, criminal law, communications and income-tax were retained by the Viceroy and the central government in New Delhi, other departments like public health, education, land-revenue and local self-government were transferred to the provinces.[20] The provinces themselves were now to be administered under a new dyarchical system, whereby some areas like education, agriculture, infrastructure development, and local self-government became the preserve of Indian ministers and legislatures, and ultimately the Indian electorates, while others like irrigation, land-revenue, police, prisons, and control of media remained within the purview of the British governor and his executive council.[20] The new Act also made it easier for Indians to be admitted into the civil service and the army officer corps.
A greater number of Indians were now enfranchised, although, for voting at the national level, they constituted only 10% of the total adult male population, many of whom were still illiterate.[20] In the provincial legislatures, the British continued to exercise some control by setting aside seats for special interests they considered cooperative or useful. In particular, rural candidates, generally sympathetic to British rule and less confrontational, were assigned more seats than their urban counterparts.[20] Seats were also reserved for non-Brahmins, landowners, businessmen, and college graduates. The principal of "communal representation", an integral part of the Minto-Morley Reforms, and more recently of the Congress-Muslim League Lucknow Pact, was reaffirmed, with seats being reserved for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and domiciled Europeans, in both provincial and Imperial legislative councils.[20] The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms offered Indians the most significant opportunity yet for exercising legislative power, especially at the provincial level; however, that opportunity was also restricted by the still limited number of eligible voters, by the small budgets available to provincial legislatures, and by the presence of rural and special interest seats that were seen as instruments of British control.[20]
British Prime Minister MacDonald to the right of Gandhi at the Second Round Table Conference in London, October 1931.
Round Table Conferences 1930-31-32[edit]
The three Round Table Conferences of 1930–32 were a series of conferences organised by the British Government to discuss constitutional reforms in India. They were conducted according to the recommendation of Muslim leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah to the Viceroy Lord Irwin and the Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald,[21][22] and by the report submitted by the Simon Commission in May 1930. Demands for swaraj, or self-rule, in India had been growing increasingly strong. By the 1930s, many British politicians believed that India needed to move towards dominion status. However, there were significant disagreements between the Indian and the British leaders that the Conferences could not resolve.[23]
A cartoon from 1932 depicting Viscount Willingdon on a hunger strike against Gandhi
Willingdon imprisons leaders of Congress[edit]
In 1932 the Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, after the failure of the three Round Table Conferences (India) in London, now confronted Gandhi's Congress in action. The India Office told Willingdon that he should conciliate only those elements of Indian opinion that were willing to work with the Raj. That did not include Gandhi and the Indian National Congress, which launched its Civil Disobedience Movement on 4 January 1932. Therefore, Willingdon took decisive action.[24] He imprisoned Gandhi. He outlawed the Congress; he rounded up all members of the Working Committee and the Provincial Committees and imprisoned them; and he banned Congress youth organisations. In total he imprisoned 80,000 Indian activists. Without most of their leaders, protests were uneven and disorganised, boycotts were ineffective, illegal youth organisations proliferated but were ineffective, more women became involved, and there was terrorism, especially in the North-West Frontier Province. Gandhi remained in prison until 1933.[25][26] Willingdon relied on his military secretary, Hastings Ismay, for his personal safety.[27]
Communal Award: 1932[edit]
MacDonald, trying to resolve the critical issue of how Indians would be represented, on 4 August 1932 granting separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, and Europeans in India and increased the number of provinces that offered separate electorates to Anglo-Indians and Indian Christians. Untouchables (now known as the Dalits) obtained a separate electorate. That outraged Gandhi because he firmly believed they had to be treated as Hindus. He and Congress rejected the peoposal, but it went into effect anyway.[28]
Government of India Act (1935)[edit]
In 1935, after the failure of the Round Table Conferences, the British Parliament approved the Government of India Act 1935, which authorised the establishment of independent legislative assemblies in all provinces of British India, the creation of a central government incorporating both the British provinces and the princely states, and the protection of Muslim minorities.[3] The future Constitution of independent India would owe a great deal to the text of this act.[29] The act also provided for a bicameral national parliament and an executive branch under the purview of the British government. Although the national federation was never realised, nationwide elections for provincial assemblies were held in 1937. Despite initial hesitation, the Congress took part in the elections and won victories in seven of the eleven provinces of British India,[30] and Congress governments, with wide powers, were formed in these provinces. In Great Britain, these victories were to later turn the tide for the idea of Indian independence.[30]
World War II[edit]
Main article: India in World War II
India played a major role in the Allied war effort against both Japan and Germany. It provided over 2 million soldiers, who fought numerous campaigns in the Middle East, and in the India-Burma front. It supplied billions of pounds to the British war effort, which was eventually repaid. The Muslim and Sikh populations were strongly supportive of the British war effort, but the Hindu population was divided. Congress opposed the war, and tens of thousands of its leaders were imprisoned in 1942–45.[31][32][33] A major famine in eastern India led to hundreds of thousands of deaths by starvation, and remains a highly controversial issue regarding Churchill's reluctance to provide emergency food relief.[34]
With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, declared war on India's behalf without consulting Indian leaders, leading the Congress provincial ministries to resign in protest. The Muslim League, in contrast, supported Britain in the war effort; however, it now took the view that Muslims would be unfairly treated in an independent India dominated by the Congress. Hindus not affiliated with the Congress typically supported the war. The two major Sikh factions, the Unionists and the Akali Dal, supported Britain and successfully urged large numbers of Sikhs to volunteer for the army.[35]
Quit India movement or the Bharat Chodo Andolan[edit]
The British sent a high level Cripps' mission in 1942 to secure Indian nationalists' co-operation in the war effort in exchange for postwar independence and dominion status. Congress demanded immediate independence and the mission failed. Gandhi then launched the "Quit India" movement in August 1942, demanding the immediate withdrawal of the British from India or face nationwide civil disobedience. Along with thousands of other Congress leaders, Gandhi was immediately imprisoned, and the country erupted in violent local episodes led by students and later by peasant political groups, especially in Eastern United Provinces, Bihar, and western Bengal. According to John F. Riddick, from 9 August 1942 to 21 September 1942, the Quit India movement:
attacked 550 post offices, 250 railway stations, damaged many rail lines, destroyed 70 police stations, and burned or damaged 85 other government buildings. There were about 2,500 instances of telegraph wires being cut....The Government of India deployed 57 battalions of British troops to restore order.[36]
The police and Army crushed the resistance in a little more than six weeks; nationalist leaders were imprisoned for the duration.[37]
Bose and the Indian National Army (INA)[edit]
With Congress leaders in jail, attention also turned to Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been ousted from the Congress in 1939 following differences with the more conservative high command;[38] Bose now turned to Germany and Japan for help with liberating India by force.[39] With Japanese support, he organised the Indian National Army, composed largely of Indian soldiers of the British Indian army who had been captured at Singapore by the Japanese, including many Sikhs as well as Hindus and Muslims. Japan secret service had promoted unrest in South east Asia to destabilise the British War effort,[40] and came to support a number of puppet and provisional governments in the captured regions, including those in Burma, the Philippines and Vietnam, the Provisional Government of Azad Hind (Free India), presided by Bose.[41] Bose's effort, however, was short lived; after the reverses of 1944, the reinforced British Indian Army in 1945 first halted and then reversed the Japanese U Go offensive, beginning the successful part of the Burma Campaign. Bose's Indian National Army surrendered with the recapture of Singapore; Bose died in a plane crash soon thereafter. The British demanded trials for INA officers, but public opinion—including Congress and even the Indian Army—saw the IRA as fighting for Indian independence and demanded a termination. Yasmin Khan says, "The INA became the real heroes of the war in India." After a wave of unrest and nationalist violence the trials were stopped.[42][43][44][45]
Finances[edit]
Britain borrowed everywhere it could and made heavy purchases of munitions and supplies in India during the war.[46] Previously India owed Britain large sums; now it was reversed.[47] Britain's sterling balances around the world amounted to £3.4 billion in 1945; India's share was £1.3 billion (equivalent to $US 74 billion in 2016 dollars.)[48][49] In this way the Raj treasury accumulated very large sterling reserves of British pounds that was owed to it by the British treasury. However, Britain treated this as a long-term loan with no interest and no specified repayment date. Just when the money would be made available by London was an issue, for the British treasury was nearly empty by 1945. India's balances totalled to Rs. 17.24 billion in March 1946; of that sum Rs. 15.12 billion [£1.134 billion] was split between India and Pakistan when they became independent in August 1947. They finally got the money and India spent all its share by 1957.[50]
Transfer of Power[edit]
1909 Prevailing Religions, Map of British Indian Empire, 1909, showing the prevailing majority religions of the population for different districts.
In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain.[51] The mutinies came to a head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. Although the mutinies were rapidly suppressed, they found much public support in India and had the effect of spurring the new Labour government in Britain to action, and leading to the Cabinet Mission to India led by the Secretary of State for India, Lord Pethick Lawrence, and including Sir Stafford Cripps, who had visited four years before.[51]
Also in early 1946, new elections were called in India in which the Congress won electoral victories in eight of the eleven provinces.[52] The negotiations between the Congress and the Muslim League, however, stumbled over the issue of the partition. Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946, Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India. The following day Hindu-Muslim riots broke out in Calcutta and quickly spread throughout India. Although the Government of India and the Congress were both shaken by the course of events, in September, a Congress-led interim government was installed, with Jawaharlal Nehru as united India's prime minister.
Later that year, the Labour government in Britain, its exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948.
As independence approached, the violence between Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of Punjab and Bengal continued unabated. With the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, advanced the date for the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for independence. In June 1947, the nationalist leaders, including Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad on behalf of the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, B. R. Ambedkar representing the Untouchable community, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs, agreed to a partition of the country along religious lines. The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas to the new nation of Pakistan; the plan included a partition of the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab and Bengal.
Many millions of Muslim, Sikh, and Hindu refugees trekked across the newly drawn borders. In Punjab, where the new border lines divided the Sikh regions in half, massive bloodshed followed; in Bengal and Bihar, where Gandhi's presence assuaged communal tempers, the violence was more limited. In all, anywhere between 250,000 and 500,000 people on both sides of the new borders died in the violence.[53] On 14 August 1947, the new Dominion of Pakistan came into being, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah sworn in as its first Governor General in Karachi. The following day, 15 August 1947, India, now a smaller Union of India, became an independent country with official ceremonies taking place in New Delhi, and with Jawaharlal Nehru assuming the office of the prime minister, and the viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, staying on as its first Governor General.
See also[edit]
British Raj
Company rule in India
British East India Company
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ (Stein 2001, p. 259), (Oldenburg 2007)
Jump up ^ (Oldenburg 2007), (Stein 2001, p. 258)
^ Jump up to: a b (Oldenburg 2007)
Jump up ^ (Stein 2001, p. 258)
Jump up ^ (Stein 2001, p. 159)
^ Jump up to: a b c (Stein 2001, p. 260)
Jump up ^ (Bose & Jalal 2003, p. 117)
^ Jump up to: a b c d Brown 1994, pp. 197–198
Jump up ^ Olympic Games Antwerp 1920: Official Report Archived 5 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine., Nombre de bations representees, p. 168. Quote: "31 Nations avaient accepté l'invitation du Comité Olympique Belge: ... la Grèce – la Hollande Les Indes Anglaises – l'Italie – le Japon ..."
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Brown 1994, pp. 203–204
^ Jump up to: a b c Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 166
^ Jump up to: a b c d Brown 1994, pp. 201–203
Jump up ^ Lovett 1920, pp. 94, 187–191
Jump up ^ Sarkar 1921, p. 137
Jump up ^ Tinker 1968, p. 92
^ Jump up to: a b c Spear 1990, p. 190
^ Jump up to: a b c Brown 1994, pp. 195–196
^ Jump up to: a b c Stein 2001, p. 304
Jump up ^ Ludden 2002, p. 208
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Brown 1994, pp. 205–207
Jump up ^ Wolpert, Stanley (2013). Jinnah of Pakistan (15 ed.). Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-19-577389-7. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Wolpert, Stanley (2012). Shameful Flight (1st ed.). Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-19-906606-3. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Students' Britannica India. 2000. p. 309.
Jump up ^ John F. Riddick (2006). The History of British India: A Chronology. Greenwood. p. 110.
Jump up ^ Brian Roger Tomlinson, The Indian National Congress and the Raj, 1929–1942: the penultimate phase (Springer, 1976).
Jump up ^ Rosemary Rees. India 1900–47 (Heineman, 2006) p 122
Jump up ^ Ismay, Hastings (1960). The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay. New York: Viking Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-8371-6280-5.
Jump up ^ Helen M. Nugent, "The communal award: The process of decision‐making." South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 2#1–2 (1979): 112–129.
Jump up ^ (Low 1993, pp. 40, 156)
^ Jump up to: a b (Low 1993, p. 154)
Jump up ^ Srinath Raghavan, India's War: World War II and the Making of Modern South Asia (2016).
Jump up ^ Yasmin Khan, India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War (2015).
Jump up ^ Lawrence James, Raj: the making and remaking of British India (1997) pp 545–85
Jump up ^ Madhusree Mukerjee, Churchill's Secret War: The British Empire and the Ravaging of India during World War II (2010).
Jump up ^ Robin Jeffrey (2016). What's Happening to India?: Punjab, Ethnic Conflict, and the Test for Federalism. Springer. pp. 68–69.
Jump up ^ John F. Riddick, The History of British India: A Chronology (2006) p 115
Jump up ^ Srinath Raghavan, India's War: World War II and the Making of Modern South Asia (2016) pp 233–75.
Jump up ^ Nehru 1942, p. 424
Jump up ^ (Low 1993, pp. 31–31)
Jump up ^ Lebra 1977, p. 23
Jump up ^ Lebra 1977, p. 31, (Low 1993, pp. 31–31)
Jump up ^ Khan, Raj at War pp 304–5.
Jump up ^ Chaudhuri 1953, p. 349
Jump up ^ Sarkar 1983, p. 411
Jump up ^ Hyam 2007, p. 115
Jump up ^ Dharma Kumar, ed., The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 2, c.1751–c.1970 Edited by Dharma Kumar, The Cambridge Economic History of India The Cambridge Economic History of India Volume 2, c. 1751–c. 1970 (1983) pp 640–42, 942–44.
Jump up ^ Srinath Raghavan, India's War: World War II and the Making of Modern South Asia (2016) pp 339–47 .
Jump up ^ See "Pounds Sterling to Dollars: Historical Conversion of Currency"
Jump up ^ Marcelo de Paiva Abreu, "India as a creditor: sterling balances, 1940–1953." (Department of Economics, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, 2015) online
Jump up ^ Uma Kapila (2005). Indian Economy. Academic Foundation. p. 23.
^ Jump up to: a b (Judd 2004, pp. 172–173)
Jump up ^ (Judd 2004, p. 172)
Jump up ^ (Khosla 2001, p. 299)
References[edit]
This article has an unclear citation style. The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of citation, footnoting, or external linking. The 79 sources listed in the References section were copied wholesale from British Raj without regard to whether or not they were sources for this text. There are inline citations to only 20. Inline citations should be added to any of the other 59 needed to support the text; the remainder should be moved to a Further reading section or removed. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Surveys and reference books[edit]
Bandyopadhyay, Sekhar (2004), From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India, New Delhi and London: Orient Longmans. Pp. xx, 548., ISBN 81-250-2596-0 .
Bose, Sugata; Jalal, Ayesha (2003), Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy, London and New York: Routledge, 2nd edition. Pp. xiii, 304, ISBN 0-415-30787-2 .
Brown, Judith M. (1994), Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiii, 474, ISBN 0-19-873113-2 .
Buckland, C.E. Dictionary of Indian Biography (1906) 495pp full text
Copland, Ian (2001), India 1885–1947: The Unmaking of an Empire (Seminar Studies in History Series), Harlow and London: Pearson Longmans. Pp. 160, ISBN 0-582-38173-8 .
Judd, Dennis (2004), The Lion and the Tiger: The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600–1947, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiii, 280, ISBN 0-19-280358-1 .
Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004), A History of India, 4th edition. Routledge, Pp. xii, 448, ISBN 0-415-32920-5 .
Ludden, David (2002), India And South Asia: A Short History, Oxford: Oneworld Publications. Pp. xii, 306, ISBN 1-85168-237-6
Markovits, Claude (ed) (2005), A History of Modern India 1480–1950 (Anthem South Asian Studies), Anthem Press. Pp. 607, ISBN 1-84331-152-6 CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link).
Metcalf, Barbara; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006), A Concise History of Modern India (Cambridge Concise Histories), Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. Pp. xxxiii, 372, ISBN 0-521-68225-8 .
Peers, Douglas M. (2006), India under Colonial Rule 1700–1885, Harlow and London: Pearson Longmans. Pp. xvi, 163, ISBN 0-582-31738-X .
Rees, Rosemary. India 1900–47 (Heineman, 2006), textbook.
Riddick, John F. The History of British India: A Chronology (2006) excerpt
Riddick, John F. Who Was Who in British India (1998); 5000 entries excerpt
Robb, Peter (2004), A History of India (Palgrave Essential Histories), Houndmills, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Pp. xiv, 344, ISBN 0-333-69129-6 .
Sarkar, Sumit (1983), Modern India: 1885–1947, Delhi: Macmillan India Ltd. Pp. xiv, 486, ISBN 0-333-90425-7 .
Spear, Percival (1990), A History of India, Volume 2, New Delhi and London: Penguin Books. Pp. 298, ISBN 0-14-013836-6 .
Stein, Burton (2001), A History of India, New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiv, 432, ISBN 0-19-565446-3 .
Wolpert, Stanley (2003), A New History of India, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 544, ISBN 0-19-516678-7 .
Monographs and Collections[edit]
Bayly, C. A. (1990), Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire (The New Cambridge History of India), Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 248, ISBN 0-521-38650-0 .
Bayly, C. A. (2000), Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870 (Cambridge Studies in Indian History and Society), Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 426, ISBN 0-521-66360-1
Brown, Judith M. (ed.); Louis (ed.), Wm. Roger (2001), Oxford History of the British Empire: The Twentieth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 800, ISBN 0-19-924679-3 CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Chandavarkar, Rajnarayan (1998), Imperial Power and Popular Politics: Class, Resistance and the State in India, 1850–1950, (Cambridge Studies in Indian History & Society). Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 400, ISBN 0-521-59692-0 .
Copland, Ian (2002), Princes of India in the Endgame of Empire, 1917–1947, (Cambridge Studies in Indian History & Society). Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 316, ISBN 0-521-89436-0 .
Gilmartin, David. 1988. Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan. Berkeley: University of California Press. 258 pages. ISBN 0-520-06249-3.
Gould, William (2004), Hindu Nationalism and the Language of Politics in Late Colonial India, (Cambridge Studies in Indian History and Society). Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 320, ISBN 0-521-83061-3 .
Hyam, Ronald (2007), Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation 1918–1968., Cambridge University Press., ISBN 0-521-86649-9 .
Jalal, Ayesha (1993), The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 334 pages, ISBN 0-521-45850-1 .
Khan, Yasmin (2007), The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 250 pages, ISBN 0-300-12078-8
Khosla, G. D. (2001), "Stern Reckoning", in Page, David; Inder Singh, Anita; Moon, Penderal; Khosla, G. D.; Hasan, Mushirul, The Partition Omnibus: Prelude to Partition/the Origins of the Partition of India 1936-1947/Divide and Quit/Stern Reckoning, Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-565850-7
Low, D. A. (1993), Eclipse of Empire, Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. xvi, 366, ISBN 0-521-45754-8 .
Low, D. A. (2002), Britain and Indian Nationalism: The Imprint of Amibiguity 1929–1942, Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 374, ISBN 0-521-89261-9 .
Low, D. A. (ed.) (2004) [1977], Congress & the Raj: Facets of the Indian Struggle 1917–47, New Delhi and Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. xviii, 513, ISBN 0-19-568367-6 CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link).
Metcalf, Thomas R. (1991), The Aftermath of Revolt: India, 1857–1870, Riverdale Co. Pub. Pp. 352, ISBN 81-85054-99-1
Metcalf, Thomas R. (1997), Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press, Pp. 256, ISBN 0-521-58937-1
Porter, Andrew (ed.) (2001), Oxford History of the British Empire: Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 800, ISBN 0-19-924678-5 CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Ramusack, Barbara (2004), The Indian Princes and their States (The New Cambridge History of India), Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 324, ISBN 0-521-03989-4
Shaikh, Farzana. 1989. Community and Consensus in Islam: Muslim Representation in Colonial India, 1860—1947. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 272 pages. ISBN 0-521-36328-4.
Wainwright, A. Martin (1993), Inheritance of Empire: Britain, India, and the Balance of Power in Asia, 1938–55, Praeger Publishers. Pp. xvi, 256, ISBN 0-275-94733-5 .
Wolpert, Stanley (2006), Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Pp. 272, ISBN 0-19-515198-4 .
Articles in journals or collections[edit]
Banthia, Jayant; Dyson, Tim (December 1999), "Smallpox in Nineteenth-Century India", Population and Development Review, Population Council, 25 (4): 649–689, JSTOR 172481, doi:10.2307/172481
Brown, Judith M. (2001), "India", in Brown, Judith M.; Louis, Wm. Roger, Oxford History of the British Empire: The Twentieth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 421–446, ISBN 0-19-924679-3
Derbyshire, I. D. (1987), "Economic Change and the Railways in North India, 1860–1914", Population Studies, Cambridge University Press, 21 (3): 521–545, JSTOR 312641, doi:10.2307/312641
Dyson, Tim (March 1991), "On the Demography of South Asian Famines: Part I", Population Studies, Taylor & Francis, 45 (1): 5–25, JSTOR 2174991, doi:10.1080/0032472031000145056
Dyson, Tim (July 1991), "On the Demography of South Asian Famines: Part II", Population Studies, Taylor & Francis, 45 (2): 279–297, JSTOR 2174784, doi:10.1080/0032472031000145446
Gilmartin, David (November 1994), "Scientific Empire and Imperial Science: Colonialism and Irrigation Technology in the Indus Basin", The Journal of Asian Studies, Association for Asian Studies, 53 (4): 1127–1149, JSTOR 2059236, doi:10.2307/2059236
Goswami, Manu (October 1998), "From Swadeshi to Swaraj: Nation, Economy, Territory in Colonial South Asia, 1870 to 1907", Comparative Studies in Society and History, Cambridge University Press, 40 (4): 609–636, JSTOR 179304, doi:10.1017/s0010417598001674
Harnetty, Peter (July 1991), "'Deindustrialization' Revisited: The Handloom Weavers of the Central Provinces of India, c. 1800–1947", Modern Asian Studies, Cambridge University Press, 25 (3): 455–510, JSTOR 312614, doi:10.1017/S0026749X00013901
Klein, Ira (1988), "Plague, Policy and Popular Unrest in British India", Modern Asian Studies, Cambridge University Press, 22 (4): 723–755, JSTOR 312523, doi:10.2307/312523
Klein, Ira (July 2000), "Materialism, Mutiny and Modernization in British India", Modern Asian Studies, Cambridge University Press, 34 (3): 545–580, JSTOR 313141
Moore, Robin J. (2001a), "Imperial India, 1858–1914", in Porter, Andrew, Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 422–446, ISBN 0-19-924678-5
Moore, Robin J. (2001b), "India in the 1940s", in Winks, Robin, Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 231–242, ISBN 0-19-924680-7
Ray, Rajat Kanta (July 1995), "Asian Capital in the Age of European Domination: The Rise of the Bazaar, 1800–1914", Modern Asian Studies, Cambridge University Press, 29 (3): 449–554, JSTOR 312868, doi:10.1017/S0026749X00013986
Raychaudhuri, Tapan (2001), "India, 1858 to the 1930s", in Winks, Robin, Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 214–230, ISBN 0-19-924680-7
Robb, Peter (May 1997), "The Colonial State and Constructions of Indian Identity: An Example on the Northeast Frontier in the 1880s", Modern Asian Studies, Cambridge University Press, 31 (2): 245–283, JSTOR 313030, doi:10.1017/s0026749x0001430x
Roy, Tirthankar (Summer 2002), "Economic History and Modern India: Redefining the Link", The Journal of Economic Perspectives, American Economic Association, 16 (3): 109–130, JSTOR 3216953, doi:10.1257/089533002760278749
Simmons, Colin (1985), "'De-Industrialization', Industrialization and the Indian Economy, c. 1850–1947", Modern Asian Studies, Cambridge University Press, 19 (3): 593–622, JSTOR 312453, doi:10.1017/s0026749x00007745
Talbot, Ian (2001), "Pakistan's Emergence", in Winks, Robin, Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 253–263, ISBN 0-19-924680-7
Tinker, Hugh (1968), "India in the First World War and after.", Journal of Contemporary History, Sage Publications, 3 (4): 89–107, ISSN 0022-0094 .
Tomlinson, B. R. (2001), "Economics and Empire: The Periphery and the Imperial Economy", in Porter, Andrew, Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 53–74, ISBN 0-19-924678-5
Washbrook, D. A. (2001), "India, 1818–1860: The Two Faces of Colonialism", in Porter, Andrew, Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 395–421, ISBN 0-19-924678-5
Watts, Sheldon (November 1999), "British Development Policies and Malaria in India 1897-c. 1929", Past & Present, Oxford University Press, 165 (165): 141–181, JSTOR 651287, doi:10.1093/past/165.1.141
Wylie, Diana (2001), "Disease, Diet, and Gender: Late Twentieth Century Perspectives on Empire", in Winks, Robin, Oxford History of the British Empire: Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 277–289, ISBN 0-19-924680-7
Classic Histories and Gazetteers[edit]
Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV (1907), The Indian Empire, Administrative, Published under the authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press. Pp. xxx, 1 map, 552.
Lovett, Sir Verney (1920), A History of the Indian Nationalist Movement, New York, Frederick A. Stokes Company, ISBN 81-7536-249-9
Majumdar, R. C.; Raychaudhuri, H. C.; Datta, Kalikinkar (1950), An Advanced History of India, London: Macmillan and Company Limited. 2nd edition. Pp. xiii, 1122, 7 maps, 5 coloured maps. .
Smith, Vincent A. (1921), India in the British Period: Being Part III of the Oxford History of India, Oxford: At the Clarendon Press. 2nd edition. Pp. xxiv, 316 (469–784) .
Tertiary Sources[edit]
Oldenburg, Philip (2007), "India: Movement for Freedom", Encarta Encyclopedia, archived from the original on 31 October 2009 .
Wolpert, Stanley (2007), "India: British Imperial Power 1858–1947 (Indian nationalism and the British response, 1885–1920; Prelude to Independence, 1920–1947)", Encyclopædia Britannica .
External links[edit]
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Tudor rose
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the heraldic element. For the 1946 film, see Tudor Rose (film). For other uses, see Tudor rose (disambiguation).
The Tudor rose is a combination of the red rose of Lancaster and the white rose of York.
The Tudor rose (sometimes called the Union rose) is the traditional floral heraldic emblem of England and takes its name and origins from the House of Tudor, which united the House of York and House of Lancaster.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
1.1 Historical uses
1.2 Contemporary uses
2 See also
3 Notes
4 References
5 External links
Origins[edit]
The white rose of the House of York
The red rose of the House of Lancaster
When Henry VII took the crown of England from Richard III in battle (1485), he brought the end of the retrospectively dubbed "Wars of the Roses" between the House of Lancaster (one monarch of which had sometimes used the badge of a red or gold rose) and the House of York (which had lately used a white-rose badge). Henry's father was Edmund Tudor from the House of Richmond (maternally), and his mother was Margaret Beaufort from the House of Lancaster; in January 1486 he married Elizabeth of York to bring all factions together. (In battle, Richard III fought under the banner of the boar, and Henry under the banner of the dragon of his native Wales.) The white rose versus red rose juxtaposition was Henry's invention.[1] The historian Thomas Penn writes:
The "Lancastrian" red rose was an emblem that barely existed before Henry VII. Lancastrian kings used the rose sporadically, but when they did it was often gold rather than red; Henry VI, the king who presided over the country's descent into civil war, preferred his badge of the antelope. Contemporaries certainly did not refer to the traumatic civil conflict of the 15th century as the "Wars of the Roses". For the best part of a quarter-century, from 1461 to 1485, there was only one royal rose, and it was white: the badge of Edward IV. The roses were actually created after the war by Henry VII.[1]
On his marriage, Henry VII adopted the Tudor rose badge conjoining the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster. The Tudor rose is occasionally seen divided in quarters (heraldically as "quartered") and vertically (in heraldic terms per pale) red and white.[2] More often, the Tudor rose is depicted as a double rose,[3] white on red and is always described, heraldically, as "proper".
Historical uses[edit]
16th century woodcut of the coronation of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon showing them with their respective badges: the Tudor rose and the pomegranate
During his reign, Henry VIII had the legendary "Round Table" at Winchester Castle – then believed to be genuine[4] – repainted. The new paint scheme included a Tudor rose in the centre. Though previous to this, his father Henry VII had built a chapel at Westminster Abbey dedicated to himself (it was later used for the site of his tomb) and it was decorated principally with the Tudor rose and the Beaufort portcullis – as a form of propaganda to define his claim to the throne.
The Tudor rose badge may appear slipped and crowned: shown as a cutting with a stem and leaves beneath a crown; this badge appears in Nicholas Hilliard's "Pelican Portrait" of Elizabeth I and since an Order in Council (dated 5 November 1800), has served as the Royal Floral emblem of England.
The Tudor rose may also appear dimidiated (cut in half and combined with half another emblem) to form a compound badge. The Westminster Tournament Roll includes a badge of Henry and his first wife Catherine of Aragon with a slipped Tudor rose conjoined with Catherine's personal badge, the pomegranate;[5] their daughter Mary I bore the same badge.[6] James I of England and VI of Scotland used a badge consisting of a Tudor rose dimidiated with a thistle and surmounted by a royal crown.[7]
Contemporary uses[edit]
The crowned and slipped Tudor Rose is used as the plant badge of England, as Scotland uses the thistle, Ireland uses the shamrock, and Wales uses the leek. As such, it is seen on the dress uniforms of the Yeomen Warders at the Tower of London, and of the Yeomen of the Guard. It features in the design of the British Twenty Pence coin minted between 1982 and 2008, and in the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. It also features on the coat of arms of Canada.
The Tudor rose makes up part of the cap badge of the Intelligence Corps of the British Army. It is also notably used (albeit in a monochromatic form) as the symbol of the English Tourist Board.[8] and as part of the badge of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.
The Tudor Rose is used as the emblem of the Nautical Training Corps, a uniformed youth organisation founded in Brighton in 1944 with 20 units in South East England. The Corps badge has the Tudor Rose on the shank of an anchor with the motto "For God, Queen and Country". It is also used as part of the Corps' cap badge.
The borough of Queens in New York City uses a Tudor Rose on its flag and seal.
The Tudor rose is also used in the badges of some Portuguese Army units, after William, Count of Schaumburg-Lippe, namely Lisbon Classification and Selection Cabinet[9] and Graça Fort.[10]
The city of York, South Carolina is nicknamed "The White Rose City", and the nearby city of Lancaster, South Carolina is nicknamed "The Red Rose City".
Tudor rose "slipped and crowned" from the Pelican Portrait of Elizabeth I
Contemporary badge of the Yeomen of the Guard
Tudor rose badge, used by every English and British Monarch since Henry VII
The Tudor rose used on the chain in the portrait of Sir Thomas More by Hans Holbein the Younger
Tudor rose on a twenty pence piece of 1982
Tudor rose on a demi-cannon from the Mary Rose on display at the Mary Rose Museum
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tudor rose.
Flag of England
Red Rose of Lancaster
Tudor dynasty
Wars of the Roses
White Rose of York
Royal Badges of England
Floral emblem
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Penn, Thomas. "How Henry VII branded the Tudors", The Guardian, 2 March 2012
Jump up ^ Wise, p. 22
Jump up ^ Fox-Davies, The Complete Guide to Heraldry, p. 270
Jump up ^ Starkey, p. 41
Jump up ^ Fox-Davies (1909), p. 276
Jump up ^ Boutell, p. 229
Jump up ^ Fox-Davies (1907), p. 117.
Jump up ^ http://www.enjoyengland.com/
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 13 August 2010. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
Jump up ^ [1][permanent dead link] (disbanded unit)
References[edit]
Boutell, Charles; A.C. Fox-Davies; R B Utting (1914). The Handbook to English Heraldry (11th ed.). London: Reeves and Turner. OCLC 2034334.
Fox-Davies, A.C. (1904). The Art of Heraldry. London and Edinburgh: T C and E C Jack https://archive.org/details/artofheraldryenc00foxd |url= missing title (help).
Fox-Davies, A.C. (1907). Heraldic Badges|. London: John Lane. OCLC 4897294.
Fox-Davies, A.C. (1909). A Complete Guide to Heraldry. London and Edinburgh: T C and E C Jack. OCLC 474004850.
Starkey, David (2008). Henry – Virtuous Prince. London: Harper. ISBN 0-00-729263-5.
Wise, Terence; Richard Hook; William Walker (1980). Medieval Heraldry. Osprey. ISBN 0-85045-348-8.
External links[edit]
Tudor Rose in SF Presidio, CH+D Magazine
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