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List of oldest trees
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Pando, an 80,000-year-old colony of quaking aspen, is the oldest-known clonal tree, located in Utah, United States
This is a list of the oldest-known trees, as reported in reliable sources. Definitions of what constitutes an individual tree vary. In addition, tree ages are derived from a variety of sources, including documented "tree-ring" count core samples, and from estimates. For these reasons, this article presents three lists of "oldest trees," each using varying criteria.
There are three tables of trees, which are listed by age and species. The first table includes trees for which a minimum age has been directly determined, either through counting or cross-referencing tree rings or through radiocarbon dating. Many of these trees may be even older than their listed ages, but the oldest wood in the tree has rotted away. For some old trees, so much of the centre is missing that their age cannot be directly determined. Instead, estimates are made based on the tree's size and presumed growth rate. The second table includes trees with these estimated ages. The last table lists clonal colonies in which no individual tree trunks may be remarkably old but in which the organism as a whole is thought to be very old.
The current record-holders for individual, non-clonal trees are the Great Basin bristlecone pine trees from California and Nevada, in the United States. Through tree-ring cross-referencing, they have been shown to be more than five millennia old.
A clonal colony can survive for much longer than an individual tree. A colony of 47,000 quaking aspen trees (nicknamed Pando), covering 106 acres (43 ha) in the Fishlake National Forest of Utah, is considered one of the oldest and largest organisms in the world. The colony has been estimated to be 80,000 years old, although tree ring samples date individual, above-ground, trees at only an average of about 130 years.[1][2][3][4] A colony of Huon pine trees covering 2.5 acres (1.0 ha) on Mount Read, Tasmania is estimated to be around 10,000 years old, as determined by DNA samples taken from pollen collected from the sediment of a nearby lake. Individual trees in this group date to no more than 4,000 years old, as determined by tree ring samples.[5]
Contents
1 Individual trees with verified ages
2 Old trees with estimated ages
3 Clonal trees
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
Individual trees with verified ages[edit]
Name
Age
(years)
Species
Location
Country
Notes
?[nb 1] 7006185110900000000♠5,068 Great Basin bristlecone pine
Pinus longaeva White Mountains, California United States Oldest-known currently living tree. Tree cored by Edmund Schulman, age determined by Tom Harlan.[6]
Methuselah 7006177151200000000♠4,850[nb 2] Great Basin bristlecone pine
Pinus longaeva White Mountains, California United States Until 2012, it was the oldest-known living tree in the world.[8]
Prometheus
(WPN-114) 4,844 Great Basin bristlecone pine
Pinus longaeva Wheeler Peak, Nevada United States Cut down by Donald Rusk Currey in 1964.[6]
Gran Abuelo 7006133226100000000♠3,647 Patagonian cypress
Fitzroya cupressoides Cordillera Pelada, Los Ríos Chile Alive.[6][9] Located within Alerce Costero National Park.[10]
CBR26 3,266 Giant sequoia
Sequoiadendron giganteum Sierra Nevada, California United States Dead.[6]
D-21 3,220 Giant sequoia
Sequoiadendron giganteum Sierra Nevada, California United States Dead.[6]
D-23 3,075 Giant sequoia
Sequoiadendron giganteum Sierra Nevada, California United States Dead.[6]
CMC 3 3,033 Giant sequoia
Sequoiadendron giganteum Sierra Nevada, California United States Dead.[6]
Scofield Juniper 2,675 Western Juniper
Juniperus occidentalis Sierra Nevada, California United States Dead.[6]
CB-90-11 7005898922000000000♠2,461 Rocky Mountain Bristlecone Pine
Pinus aristata central Colorado United States [6][11]
Panke Baobab 2,419 African Baobab
Adansonia digitata Matabeleland North Zimbabwe Dead in 2011; the oldest non-clonal angiosperm ever documented.[12]
Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi 2,305 Sacred fig
Ficus religiosa Anuradhapura, North Central Province Sri Lanka A sapling from the historical Bodhi tree under which the Buddha became enlightened. It was planted in 288 BC and is the oldest living human-planted tree in the world with a known planting date.[6]
? 2,200 Coast Redwood
Sequoia sempervirens northern California United States Dead.[6]
Bennett Juniper 2,200 Western Juniper
Juniperus occidentalis Sierra Nevada, California United States [6]
SHP 7 2,110 Foxtail Pine
Pinus balfouriana Sierra Nevada California United States [6]
? 7005710395000000000♠1,944 Subalpine Larch
Larix lyallii Kananaskis, Alberta Canada [6][13]
CRE 175 1,889 Rocky Mountain Juniper
Juniperus scopulorum northern New Mexico United States [6]
Miles Juniper 7005668528000000000♠1,830 Western Juniper
Juniperus occidentalis Sierra Nevada, California United States [6][14]
? 7005660024000000000♠1,807 Sugi
Cryptomeria japonica Yakushima Island Japan [15]
KET 3996 7005628520000000000♠1,720 Limber Pine
Pinus flexilis Ketchum, Idaho United States [6][16]
BFR-46 1,697 Limber Pine
Pinus flexilis Wasatch Mountains, Utah United States [6]
FL117 7005613699000000000♠1,680 Northern Whitecedar
Thuja occidentalis Ontario Canada [6][17]
ERE 1,670 Limber Pine
Pinus flexilis northern New Mexico United States [6]
RCR 1 1,666 Foxtail Pine
Pinus balfouriana Sierra Nevada, California United States [6]
? 1,661 Limber Pine
Pinus flexilis South Park, Colorado United States [6]
BBL 2 1,649 Foxtail Pine
Pinus balfouriana Sierra Nevada, California United States [6]
BCK 69 7005603503000000000♠1,652 Baldcypress
Taxodium distichum Bladen County, North Carolina United States [6][18]
? 1,636 Nootka Cypress
Callitropsis nootkatensis Vancouver Island Canada [6]
FL101 1,567 Northern Whitecedar
Thuja occidentalis Ontario Canada [6]
? 1,542 Limber Pine
Pinus flexilis central Colorado United States [6]
Old trees with estimated ages[edit]
Note: The ages of the trees in this list are speculative and probably unreliable.
Name
Age
(years)
Species
Location
Country
Notes
? 4,112 Yew
Taxus baccata Zonguldak Turkey Alive, found in 2016.[19]
Llangernyw Yew 4,000–5,000 Common Yew
Taxus baccata Llangernyw, Conwy Wales Girth of 10.75 m. Situated in the churchyard of St Dygain's Church in Llangernyw village. One of the 50 Great British Trees.
Sarv-e Abarkuh 4,500 Mediterranean cypress
Cupressus sempervirens Abarkuh, Yazd Iran Also called "Zoroastrian Sarv",[20][21]
The Senator 3,500 Pond cypress
Taxodium ascendens Longwood, Florida United States Destroyed by fire on January 16, 2012[22][23]
Oliveira do Mouchão (KNJ1/601) 3,350 European olive tree
Olea europea L. var. europaea
Mouriscas, Abrantes Portugal Alive.[24][25]
The President 3,200 Giant sequoia
Sequoiadendron giganteum Sierra Nevada, California United States Alive.
Alishan Sacred Tree 3,000 Formosan cypress
Chamaecyparis formosensis Alishan National Scenic Area, Chiayi Taiwan Collapsed on July 1, 1997, following heavy rainstorms.[26]
S’Ozzastru 3,000–4,000 Olive
Olea europaea Luras, Sardinia Italy [27]
Patriarca da Floresta (pt) 3,020 Jequitibá-rosa
Cariniana legalis
Santa Rita do Passa Quatro, São Paulo Brazil Alive. Probably the oldest non-conifer in Brazil. Its name translates as "Patriarch of the Forest". Located at the Vassununga State Park. [28]
Raintree 3,000 Great Basin bristlecone pine Spring Mountains, Nevada United States Great Basin Bristlecone Pine located near Kyle Canyon in the Spring Mountain range in Southern Nevada, USA. Estimated 3000 years old but never cored.
Oliveira de Santa Iria de Azóia (Wikidata) 2,850 Olive
Olea europaea Santa Iria de Azóia (pt), Loures, Lisbon Portugal Magnificent Olive tree, probably the last one from a large olive grove. Studied by UTAD University and now classified "Public interest tree" by the Portuguese National Forest Authority ; Tree ID [29]
Mother of the Forest 2,520 Giant sequoia
Sequoiadendron giganteum Calaveras Big Trees State Park, California United States Dead.
General Sherman 2,300–2,700 Giant sequoia
Sequoiadendron giganteum Giant Forest, Sequoia National Park, California United States Alive with a height of 83.8 meters (275 ft), a diameter of 11 m (36 ft) at its base, and an estimated bole volume of 1,487 m3 (52,513 cu ft), it is among the tallest, widest, and longest-lived of all trees on the planet.[30]
Kayano Ōsugi 2,300 Japanese cedar
Cryptomeria japonica Yamanaka Onsen, Ishikawa Japan Girth of 9.6 m. One of the four trees believed to be sacred in the precincts in a Shinto shrine. Its name translates as "Great Sugi of Kayano".
Jōmon Sugi 2,170–7,200 Japanese cedar
Cryptomeria japonica Yakushima Japan Girth of 16.4 m. Exact dating is made difficult by the rotten core of the trunk. Its name is a reference to the Jōmon period of Japanese prehistory.[31][32][33]
Koca Katran 2,022 Lebanon Cedar
Cedrus libani Antalya Turkey Alive.[34]
Ballyconnell Yew 2,000–5,000 Yew
Taxus baccata Ballyconnell, Annagh Ireland Oldest tree in Ireland and possibly in Europe.[citation needed]
Fortingall Yew 2,000–3,000 Yew
Taxus baccata Fortingall, Perthshire Scotland Possibly the oldest tree in Britain[35]
Elia Vouvon 2,000–5,000 Olive
Olea europaea Kolymvari, Crete Greece Its name translates as "Olive Tree of Vouves".[36]
Castagnu dê Centu Cavaddi 2,000–4,000 Sweet chestnut
Castanea sativa Sicily Italy Its name translates as the "Hundred Horse Chestnut".
Ulleungdo Hyangnamu 2,000–3,000 Chinese Juniper
Juniperus chinensis Ulleung-gun, Gyeongbuk South Korea Girth of 4.5 m. One of the main branch was broken in 1985 by typhoon "Brenda".
Lady Liberty 2,000 Bald cypress
Taxodium distichum Longwood, Florida United States Sometimes called the "Companion Tree" to 'Senator".
Tnjri 2,000 Oriental plane
Platanus orientalis Martuni Region Artsakh Oldest tree in Artsakh. Its trunk is hollow. Also known as "Sose's Tree".
Stara Maslina 2,000 Olive
Olea europaea Stari Bar, Bar Montenegro
The Pechanga Great Oak Tree 2,000 Coast live oak
Quercus agrifolia Temecula, California United States Oldest oak tree in the United States, possibly in the world.
? 2,000 Olive
Olea europaea Tavira, Algarve Portugal Possibly oldest olive tree in Portugal.[37]
? 2,000 Olive
Olea europaea Exo Hora, Zakynthos Greece [38]
? 2,000 Yew
Taxus Sochi, Krasnodar Krai Russia A grove known to possess several 2,000-year-old specimens.[39]
Houkisugi at Nakagawa 2,000 Japanese cedar
Cryptomeria japonica Nakagawa Settlement, Yamakita town, Ashigarakami District, Kanagawa Prefecture Japan
Methuselah 1,800 Coast redwood
Sequoia sempervirens Woodside, California United States [40]
Araucaria Madre 1,800 Araucaria Araucana Araucanía Chile Located in Parque Nacional Conguillío. 1,800 rings account for at least 1,800 years.[41]
Granit oak 1,700 Pedunculate oak
Quercus robur Granit Bulgaria
Kongeegen 1,500–2,000 Pedunculate oak
Quercus robur Jægerspris Nordskov, Zealand Denmark [42]
Stelmužė Oak 1,500-2,000 Pedunculate oak
Quercus robur Stelmužė, Zarasai Lithuania Oldest tree in the Baltic states. Supposedly oldest oak in Europe.
Aubépines 1,500 Common hawthorn
Crataegus monogyna Saint-Mars-sur-la-Futaie, Mayenne France Oldest tree in France.[citation needed]
Seven Sisters Oak 1,500 Southern live oak
Quercus virginiana Mandeville, Louisiana United States Highly speculative; live oaks are extremely difficult to age, and rarely live more than 500 years.[43]
Jardine Juniper 1,500 Rocky Mountain juniper
Juniperus scopulorum Logan Canyon, Utah United States [44]
Árbol del Tule 1,433–1,600 Montezuma cypress
Taxodium mucronatum Santa María del Tule, Oaxaca Mexico Stoutest tree trunk in the world. Its name translates as the "Tule Tree".
Cedars of God 1000+ Cedrus libani
Cedars of Lebanon Mount Lebanon Lebanon Oldest forest of cedars in Lebanon[45]
Te Matua Ngahere 1,200–4,000 Kauri
Agathis australis Waipoua Forest, Northland New Zealand Oldest tree in New Zealand. Its name translates as "Father of the Forest".
Algarrobo Abuelo + 1,200 Algarrobo blanco
Prosopis chilensis Merlo Forest, Merlo, San Luis Argentina Oldest tree in Central Argentina.
Clonal trees[edit]
As with all long-lived plant and fungal species, no individual part of a clonal colony is alive (in the sense of active metabolism) for more than a very small fraction of the life of the entire clone. Some clonal colonies may be fully connected via their root systems, while most are not actually interconnected, but are genetically identical clones which populated an area through vegetative reproduction. Ages for clonal colonies, often based on current growth rates, are estimates.[citation needed]
Name
Age
(years)
Species
Location
Country
Notes
Pando 80,000[46]–1,000,000[47] Quaking aspen
Populus tremuloides Fishlake National Forest, Utah United States Covers 107 acres (0.43 km2) and has around 47,000 stems (average age 130 years), which continually die and are renewed by its roots. Is also the heaviest-known organism, weighing 6,000 tonnes.
Jurupa Oak[48] 13,000[49] Palmer oak
Quercus palmeri Jurupa Mountains, California United States Quercus palmeri Engelm. = Quercus dunnii Kellogg.[49]
Old Tjikko 9,550 Norway spruce
Picea abies Fulufjället National Park, Dalarna Sweden The tree's stems live no more than 600 years, but its root system's age[50][51] was established using carbon dating and genetic matching.[52] Elsewhere in the Fulu mountains, 20 spruces have been found older than 8,000 years.[53]
Old Rasmus 9,500 Norway spruce
Picea abies Sonfjället, Härjedalen Sweden [54]
unknown 3,000[55]–10,000[56] Huon Pine
Lagarostrobos franklinii Mount Read, Tasmania Australia Several genetically identical males that have reproduced vegetatively. Although single trees in this stand may be around 3 to 4 thousand years old, the stand itself as a single organism has existed for 10,000 years.[5]
See also[edit]
Ecology portal
Trees portal
King Clone
List of largest giant sequoias
List of longest-living organisms
List of old-growth forests
List of notable trees
List of superlative trees
Oldest viable seed
Veteran tree
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Not named yet
Jump up ^ It is uncertain when Methuselah's age was determined, but "it seems likely the tree had 4,789 rings (crossdated) in the summer of 1957".[7] The age given here is based on this reference point.
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "Botanical Record-Breakers". W.P Armstrong. Archived from the original on 19 December 2010. Retrieved 7 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Quaking Aspen". National Park Service - Bryce Canyon. Retrieved 7 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "SPECIES: Populus tremuloides". USDA - United States Forest Service. Retrieved 8 May 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "Native Conifers of Tasmania". Paks and Wildlife Service, Tasmania. Retrieved 6 May 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa "Rocky Mountain Tree-Ring Research, OLDLIST". Retrieved January 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Pinus longaeva". Gymnosperm Database. March 15, 2007. Retrieved 2008-06-20.
Jump up ^ "RMTRR OLDLIST". www.rmtrr.org. Retrieved 2017-09-14.
Jump up ^ Lara, Antonio; Villalba, Ricardo (21 May 1993). "A 3620-Year Temperature Record from Fitzroya cupressoides Tree Rings in Southern South America". Science. 260 (5111): 1104–1106. Bibcode:1993Sci...260.1104L. doi:10.1126/science.260.5111.1104. PMID 17806339.
Jump up ^ "Parque Nacional Alerce Costero". Conaf.cl (in Spanish). National Forest Corporation. Retrieved 16 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Brunstein, F. Craig; Yamaguchi, David K. (Aug 1992). "The Oldest Known Rocky Mountain Bristlecone Pines (Pinus aristata Engelm.)". Arctic and Alpine Research. 24 (3): 253–256. doi:10.2307/1551666. JSTOR 1551666.
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Jump up ^ Botosso, Paulo Cesar (November 2002). "Conhecer a Idade das Árvores: Importância e Aplicação" (PDF). Embrapa Florestas. Documentos 75: 25.
Jump up ^ "UTAD classificou oliveira com 2.850 anos!" (in Portuguese). CienciaPT. 2011-07-08. Archived from the original on 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
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Jump up ^ Hobson, Jake (2007). Niwaki: Pruning, Training and Shaping Trees the Japanese Way. Timber Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-88192-835-8. Retrieved 25 August 2008.
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Jump up ^ Cite error: The named reference urbanforestrysouth.org was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
Jump up ^ "Jardine Juniper Trail". Utahmountainbiking.com. 2001-08-31. Retrieved 2013-01-11.
Jump up ^ The Gymnosperm Database - Cedrus libani (December, 2011) http://www.conifers.org/pi/Cedrus_libani.php
Jump up ^ Quaking Aspen by the Bryce Canyon National Park Service
Jump up ^ Genetic Variation and the Natural History of Quaking Aspen, Mitton, J. B. & Grant, M. C. (1996). BioScience 46 (1): 25-31.
Jump up ^ Connor, Steve (Science Editor), "At 13,000 years, tree is world's oldest organism", The Independent (newspaper), United Kingdom, December 23, 2009, online article December 22, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b May, Michael R.; Provance, Mitchell C.; Sanders, Andrew C.; Ellstrand, Norman C.; and Ross-Ibarra, Jeffrey, "A Pleistocene Clone of Palmer's Oak Persisting in Southern California", PLoS ONE, Vol. 4, Issue 12, December, 2009.
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Revolutions of 1848
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Series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848
Revolutions of Europe
Barricade on the rue Soufflot,[1][2] an 1848 painting by Horace Vernet. The Panthéon is shown in the background.
Date
23 February 1848 – early 1849
Location
Western and Central Europe
Also known as
Spring of Nations, Springtime of the Peoples, Year of Revolution
Participants
People of France, the German states, the Austrian Empire, the Kingdom of Hungary, the Italian states, Denmark, Wallachia, Poland, and others
Outcome
Little political change
Significant social and cultural change
Part of a series on
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The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations, People's Spring, Springtime of the Peoples,[3] or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history.
The revolutions were essentially democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation states. The first revolution began in January in Sicily.[clarification needed] Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in France in February. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no significant coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries. According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces.[4]
The uprisings were led by ad hoc coalitions of reformers, the middle classes and workers, which did not hold together for long. Tens of thousands of people were killed, and many more were forced into exile. Significant lasting reforms included the abolition of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of absolute monarchy in Denmark, and the introduction of representative democracy in the Netherlands. The revolutions were most important in France, the Netherlands, the states of the German Confederation that would make up the German Empire in the late 19th and early 20th century, Italy, and the Austrian Empire.
Contents
1 Origins
1.1 Urban workers
1.2 Rural areas
1.3 Role of ideas
2 Events by country or region
2.1 Italian states
2.2 France
2.3 German states
2.4 Denmark
2.4.1 Schleswig
2.5 Habsburg Empire
2.5.1 Hungary
2.5.2 Galicia
2.6 Sweden
2.7 Switzerland
2.8 Greater Poland
2.9 Danubian Principalities
2.10 Belgium
2.11 Ireland
2.12 Other European states
2.13 Other English-speaking countries
2.14 South America
3 Legacy
3.1 In popular culture
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
6.1 Surveys
6.2 France
6.3 Germany and Austria
6.4 Italy
6.5 Other
6.6 Historiography
7 External links
Origins[edit]
Map of Europe in 1848–1849 depicting the main revolutionary centres, important counter-revolutionary troop movements and states with abdications
The revolutions arose from such a wide variety of causes that it is difficult to view them as resulting from a coherent movement or set of social phenomena. Numerous changes had been taking place in European society throughout the first half of the 19th century. Both liberal reformers and radical politicians were reshaping national governments.
Technological change was revolutionizing the life of the working classes. A popular press extended political awareness, and new values and ideas such as popular liberalism, nationalism and socialism began to emerge. Some historians emphasize the serious crop failures, particularly those of 1846, that produced hardship among peasants and the working urban poor.
Large swaths of the nobility were discontented with royal absolutism or near-absolutism. In 1846, there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia, which was only countered when peasants, in turn, rose up against the nobles.[5] Additionally, an uprising by democratic forces against Prussia, planned but not actually carried out, occurred in Greater Poland.[clarification needed]
Next, the middle classes began to agitate. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, working in Brussels, had written Manifesto of the Communist Party (published in German in London on February 21, 1848) at the request of the Communist League (an organization consisting principally of German workers). Following the March insurrection in Berlin, they began agitating in Germany. They issued their "Demands of the Communist Party in Germany" from Paris in March;[6] the pamphlet urged unification of Germany, universal suffrage, abolition of feudal duties, and similar middle-class goals.
The middle and working classes thus shared a desire for reform, and agreed on many of the specific aims. Their participations in the revolutions, however, differed. While much of the impetus came from the middle classes, much of the cannon fodder came from the lower classes. The revolts first erupted in the cities.
Urban workers[edit]
Galician slaughter (Polish: Rzeź galicyjska) by Jan Lewicki (1795–1871), depicting the massacre of Polish nobles by Polish peasants in Galicia in 1846.
The population in French rural areas had risen rapidly, causing many peasants to seek a living in the cities. Many in the bourgeoisie feared and distanced themselves from the working poor. Many unskilled labourers toiled from 12 to 15 hours per day when they had work, living in squalid, disease-ridden slums. Traditional artisans felt the pressure of industrialization, having lost their guilds. Revolutionaries such as Karl Marx built up a following.[7]
The liberalisation of trade laws and the growth of factories had increased the gulf among master tradesmen, and journeymen and apprentices, whose numbers increased disproportionately by 93% from 1815 to 1848 in Germany. Significant proletarian unrest had occurred in Lyon in 1831 and 1834, and Prague in 1844. Jonathan Sperber has suggested that in the period after 1825, poorer urban workers (particularly day labourers, factory workers and artisans) saw their purchasing power decline relatively steeply: urban meat consumption in Belgium, France and Germany stagnated or declined after 1830, despite growing populations.[8] The economic crisis of 1847 increased urban unemployment: 10,000 Viennese factory workers were made redundant and 128 Hamburg firms went bankrupt over the course of 1847.[9] With the exception of the Netherlands, there was a strong correlation among the countries that were most deeply affected by the industrial shock of 1847 and those that underwent a revolution in 1848.[10]
The situation in the German states was similar. Parts of Prussia were beginning to industrialize. During the decade of the 1840s, mechanized production in the textile industry brought about inexpensive clothing that undercut the handmade products of German tailors.[11] Reforms ameliorated the most unpopular features of rural feudalism, but industrial workers remained dissatisfied with these and pressed for greater change.
Urban workers had no choice but to spend half of their income on food, which consisted mostly of bread and potatoes. As a result of harvest failures, food prices soared and the demand for manufactured goods decreased, causing an increase in unemployment. During the revolution, to address the problem of unemployment, workshops were organized for men interested in construction work. Officials also set up workshops for women when they felt they were excluded. Artisans and unemployed workers destroyed industrial machines when they threatened to give employers more power over them.[12][13]
Rural areas[edit]
Rural population growth had led to food shortages, land pressure, and migration, both within and from Europe, especially to the Americas. Peasant discontent in the 1840s grew in intensity: peasant occupations of lost communal land increased in many areas: those convicted of wood theft in the Rhenish Palatinate increased from 100,000 in 1829–30 to 185,000 in 1846–47.[14] In the years 1845 and 1846, a potato blight caused a subsistence crisis in Northern Europe, and encouraged the raiding of manorial potato stocks in Silesia in 1847. The effects of the blight were most severely manifested in the Great Irish Famine,[15] but also caused famine-like conditions in the Scottish Highlands and throughout continental Europe. Harvests of rye in the Rhineland were 20% of previous levels, while the Czech potato harvest was reduced by a half.[16] These reduced harvests were accompanied by a steep rise in prices (the cost of wheat more than doubled in France and Habsburg Italy. There were 400 French food riots during 1846 to 1847, while German socio-economic protests increased from 28 during 1830 to 39, to 103 during 1840 to 1847.[17] Central to long-term peasant grievances were the loss of communal lands, forest restrictions (such as the French Forest Code of 1827), and remaining feudal structures, notably the robot (labour obligations) that existed among the serfs and oppressed peasantry of the Habsburg lands.[18]
Aristocratic wealth (and corresponding power) was synonymous with the ownership of farm lands and effective control over the peasants. Peasant grievances exploded during the revolutionary year of 1848, yet were often disconnected from urban revolutionary movements: the revolutionary Sándor Petőfi's popular nationalist rhetoric in Budapest did not translate into any success with the Magyar peasantry, while the Viennese democrat Hans Kudlich reported that his efforts to galvanise the Austrian peasantry had 'disappeared in the great sea of indifference and phlegm'.[19]
Role of ideas[edit]
Despite forceful and often violent efforts of established and reactionary powers to keep them down, disruptive ideas gained popularity: democracy, liberalism, nationalism, and socialism.[20] They demanded a constitution, press freedom, freedom of expression and other democratic rights, the establishment of civilian militia, liberation of peasants, liberalization of the economy, abolition of tariff barriers and the abolition of monarchical power structures in favor of the establishment of republican states, or at least the restriction of the prince power in the form of constitutional monarchies.
In the language of the 1840s, 'democracy' meant universal male suffrage. 'Liberalism' fundamentally meant consent of the governed and the restriction of church and state power, republican government, freedom of the press and the individual. The 1840s had seen the emergence of a number of radical liberal publications such as the Rheinische Zeitung (1842); Le National and La Réforme (1843) in France; Ignaz Kuranda's Grenzboten (1841) in Austria; Lajos Kossuth's Pesti Hírlap (1841) in Hungary, as well as the increased popularity of the older Morgenbladet in Norway and the Aftonbladet in Sweden.[21]
'Nationalism' believed in uniting people bound by (some mix of) common languages, culture, religion, shared history, and of course immediate geography; there were also irredentist movements. Nationalism had developed a broader appeal during the pre-1848 period, as seen in the František Palacký's 1836 History of the Czech Nation, which emphasised a national lineage of conflict with the Germans, or the popular patriotic Liederkranz (song-circles) that were held across Germany: patriotic and belligerent songs about Schleswig had dominated the Würzburg national song festival in 1845.[22]
'Socialism' in the 1840s was a term without a consensus definition, meaning different things to different people, but was typically used within a context of more power for workers in a system based on worker ownership of the means of production.
Events by country or region[edit]
Italian states[edit]
Main article: Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states
Episode from the Five Days of Milan, painting by Baldassare Verazzi
Although little noticed at the time, the first major outbreak came in Sicily, starting in January 1848. There had been several previous revolts against Bourbon rule; this one produced an independent state that lasted only 16 months before the Bourbons came back. During those months, the constitution was quite advanced for its time in liberal democratic terms, as was the proposal of an Italian confederation of states.[citation needed] The revolt's failure was reversed a dozen years later as the Bourbon kingdom of the Two Sicilies collapsed in 1860–61 with the Risorgimento.
France[edit]
Main article: French Revolution of 1848
The "February Revolution" in France was sparked by the suppression of the campagne des banquets. This revolution was driven by nationalist and republican ideals among the French general public, who believed the people should rule themselves. It ended the constitutional monarchy of Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation of the French Second Republic. This government was headed by Louis-Napoleon, who, after only four years, established the Second French Empire in 1852.
Alexis de Tocqueville remarked in his Recollections of the period, "society was cut in two: those who had nothing united in common envy, and those who had anything united in common terror."[23]
German states[edit]
Main article: German revolutions of 1848–49
Revolutionaries in Berlin in March 1848, waving the revolutionary flags
The "March Revolution" in the German states took place in the south and the west of Germany, with large popular assemblies and mass demonstrations. Led by well-educated students and intellectuals,[24] they demanded German national unity, freedom of the press, and freedom of assembly. The uprisings were not well coordinated, but had in common a rejection of traditional, autocratic political structures in the 39 independent states of the German Confederation. The middle-class and working-class components of the Revolution split, and in the end, the conservative aristocracy defeated it, forcing many liberals into exile.[25]
Denmark[edit]
Main article: History of Denmark § Nationalism and liberalism
Danish soldiers parade through Copenhagen in 1849 after victories in the First Schleswig War
Denmark had been governed by a system of absolute monarchy since the 17th century. King Christian VIII, a moderate reformer but still an absolutist, died in January 1848 during a period of rising opposition from farmers and liberals. The demands for constitutional monarchy, led by the National Liberals, ended with a popular march to Christiansborg on March 21. The new king, Frederick VII, met the liberals' demands and installed a new Cabinet that included prominent leaders of the National Liberal Party.[26]
The national-liberal movement wanted to abolish absolutism, but retain a strongly centralized state. The king accepted a new constitution agreeing to share power with a bicameral parliament called the Rigsdag. It is said that the Danish king's first words after signing away his absolute power were, "that was nice, now I can sleep in the mornings".[27] Although army officers were dissatisfied, they accepted the new arrangement which, in contrast to the rest of Europe, was not overturned by reactionaries.[26] The liberal constitution did not extend to Schleswig, leaving the Schleswig-Holstein Question unanswered.
Schleswig[edit]
Main article: First Schleswig War
Schleswig, a region containing both Danes (a North Germanic population) and Germans (a West Germanic population), was a part of the Danish monarchy, but remained a duchy separate from the Kingdom of Denmark. Spurred by pan-German sentiment, the Germans of Schleswig took up arms to protest a new policy announced by Denmark's National Liberal government, which would have fully integrated the duchy into Denmark.
The German population in Schleswig and Holstein revolted, inspired by the Protestant clergy. The German states sent in an army, but Danish victories in 1849 led to the Treaty of Berlin (1850) and the London Protocol (1852). They reaffirmed the sovereignty of the King of Denmark, while prohibiting union with Denmark. The violation of the latter provision led to renewed warfare in 1863 and the Prussian victory in 1864.
Habsburg Empire[edit]
Main article: Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas
Proclamation of the Serbian Vojvodina in May 1848
From March 1848 through July 1849, the Habsburg Austrian Empire was threatened by revolutionary movements, which often had a nationalist character. The empire, ruled from Vienna, included Austrians, Hungarians, Slovenes, Poles, Czechs, Croats, Slovaks, Ukrainians/Ruthenians, Romanians, Serbs and Italians, all of whom attempted in the course of the revolution to achieve either autonomy, independence, or even hegemony over other nationalities.[citation needed] The nationalist picture was further complicated by the simultaneous events in the German states, which moved toward greater German national unity.
Hungary[edit]
Main article: Hungarian Revolution of 1848
The Battle of Buda in May 1849 by Mór Than
Hungarian hussars in battle during the Hungarian Revolution
The Hungarian revolution of 1848 was the longest in Europe, crushed in August 1849 by Austrian and Russian armies. Nevertheless, it had a major impact in freeing the serfs.[28] It started on 15 March 1848, when Hungarian patriots organized mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda (today Budapest) which forced the imperial governor to accept their 12 points of demands, which included the demand for freedom of press, an independent Hungarian ministry residing in Buda-Pest and responsible to a popularly elected parliament, the formation of a National Guard, complete civil and religious equality, trial by jury, a national bank, a Hungarian army, the withdrawal of foreign troops from Hungary (Austrian troops), the freeing of political prisoners, and the union with Transylvania. On that morning, the demands were read aloud along with poetry by Sándor Petőfi with the simple lines of "We swear by the God of the Hungarians. We swear, we shall be slaves no more".[29] Lajos Kossuth and some other liberal nobility that made up the Diet appealed to the Habsburg court with demands for representative government and civil liberties.[30] These events resulted in Klemens von Metternich, the Austrian prince and foreign minister, resigning. The demands of the Diet were agreed upon on March 18 by Emperor Ferdinand. Even though Hungary would remain part of the Empire through personal union with the emperor, a constitutional government would be founded. The Diet then passed the April laws that established equality before the law, a legislature, a hereditary constitutional monarchy, and an end to the transfer and restrictions of land use.[30]
The revolution grew into a war for independence from the Austrian Empire when Josip Jelačić, Ban of Croatia, crossed the border to restore Habsburg control.[31] The new government, led by Lajos Kossuth, was initially successful against the Habsburg forces. Although Hungary took a national united stand for its freedom, some minorities of the Kingdom of Hungary, including the Serbs of Vojvodina, the Romanians of Transylvania and some Slovaks of Upper Hungary supported the Habsburg Emperor and fought against the Hungarian Revolutionary Army. Eventually, after one and a half years of fighting, the revolution was crushed when Russian Tsar Nicholas I marched into Hungary with over 300,000 troops. Hungary was thus placed under brutal martial law, with the Austrian government restored. The leading rebels like Kossuth fled into exile or were executed. In the long run, the passive resistance following the revolution led to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise (1867), which marked the birth of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Galicia[edit]
The center of the Ukrainian national movement was in Galicia, which is today divided between Ukraine and Poland. On April 19, 1848, a group of representatives led by the Greek Catholic clergy launched a petition to the Austrian Emperor. It expressed wishes that in those regions of Galicia where the Ruthenian (Ukrainian) population represented majority, the Ukrainian language should be taught at schools and used to announce official decrees for the peasantry; local officials were expected to understand it and the Ruthenian clergy was to be equalized in their rights with the clergy of all other denominations.[32]
On May 2, 1848, the Supreme Ruthenian (Ukrainian) Council was established. The Council (1848–1851) was headed by the Greek-Catholic Bishop Gregory Yakhimovich and consisted of 30 permanent members. Its main goal was the administrative division of Galicia into Western (Polish) and Eastern (Ruthenian/Ukrainian) parts within the borders of the Habsburg Empire, and formation of a separate region with a political self-governance.[33]
Sweden[edit]
Main article: March Unrest
During 18–19 March, a series of riots known as the March Unrest (Marsoroligheterna) took place in the Swedish capital of Stockholm. Declarations with demands of political reform were spread in the city and a crowd were dispersed by the military, leading to 18 casualties.
Switzerland[edit]
Main article: Sonderbund War
Switzerland, already an alliance of republics, also saw an internal struggle. The attempted secession of seven Swiss cantons to form an alliance known as the Sonderbund ("separate alliance") in 1845 led to a short civil conflict in November 1847 in which around 100 people were killed. The Sonderbund was decisively defeated, and a new constitution of 1848 ended the almost-complete independence of the cantons, transforming Switzerland into a federal state.
Greater Poland[edit]
Main article: Greater Poland Uprising (1848)
Polish people mounted a military insurrection against the Prussians in the Grand Duchy of Posen (or the Greater Poland region), a part of Prussia since its annexation in 1815.
Danubian Principalities[edit]
Main articles: Moldavian Revolution of 1848 and Wallachian Revolution of 1848
Romanian revolutionaries in Bucharest in 1848, carrying the Romanian tricolor
A Romanian liberal and Romantic nationalist uprising began in June in the principality of Wallachia. Closely connected with the 1848 unsuccessful revolt in Moldavia, it sought to overturn the administration imposed by Imperial Russian authorities under the Regulamentul Organic regime, and, through many of its leaders, demanded the abolition of boyar privilege. Led by a group of young intellectuals and officers in the Wallachian military forces, the movement succeeded in toppling the ruling Prince Gheorghe Bibescu, whom it replaced with a provisional government and a regency, and in passing a series of major liberal reforms, first announced in the Proclamation of Islaz.
Belgium[edit]
A depiction of Leopold I of Belgium's symbolic offer to resign the crown in 1848
Belgium did not see major unrest in 1848, although numerous small-scale confrontations did occur. A number of local riots broke out, concentrated in the sillon industriel industrial region of the provinces of Liège and Hainaut. The most serious threat of revolutionary contagion was posed by Belgian émigré groups from France. Shortly after the revolution in France, Belgian migrant workers living in Paris were encouraged to return to Belgium to overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic.[34] Karl Marx was himself expelled from Brussels in early March on accusations of having used part of his inheritance to arm Belgian revolutionaries.
Around 6,000 armed émigrés of the "Belgian Legion" attempted to cross the Belgian frontier. There were two divisions which were formed. The first group, travelling by train, were stopped and quickly disarmed at Quiévrain on 26 March 1848.[35] The second group crossed the border on 29 March and headed for Brussels.[34] They were confronted by Belgian troops at the hamlet of Risquons-Tout and defeated.[34] Several smaller groups managed to infiltrate Belgium, but the reinforced Belgian border troops were successful and the defeat at Risquons-Tout effectively ended the revolutionary threat to Belgium. The situation in Belgium began to recover that summer after a good harvest, and fresh elections returned a strong majority to the governing party.[34]
Ireland[edit]
The Young Irelander Rebellion was a failed Irish nationalist uprising led by the Young Ireland movement, part of the wider Revolutions of 1848 that affected most of Europe. It took place on 29 July 1848 in the village of Ballingarry, South Tipperary. After being chased by a force of Young Irelanders and their supporters, an armed Irish Constabulary unit of nearly 50 men took refuge in a house and held those inside as hostages. A several-hour gunfight followed, but the rebels fled after a large group of Constabulary reinforcements arrived.
It is sometimes called the Famine Rebellion (since it took place during the Great Famine in Ireland) or the Battle of Ballingarry, or the Battle of the Widow McCormack’s Cabbage Plot.
As with the earlier United Irishmen's mass Rebellion in 1798, who sought to emulate the American Revolution, and Robert Emmet's Rising in 1803, the Young Irelanders were inspired by republicanism in the United States and (to a lesser extent) Europe.
Other European states[edit]
Illustration of the "March troubles" in Stockholm, Sweden in 1848
Great Britain, Belgium, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, the Russian Empire (including Poland and Finland), and the Ottoman Empire did not encounter major national revolutions over this period. Sweden and Norway were also little affected. Serbia, though formally unaffected by the revolt as it was a part of the Ottoman state, actively supported Serbian revolutionaries in the Habsburg Empire.[36]
Russia's relative stability was attributed to the revolutionary groups' inability to communicate with each other.[citation needed] In the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, uprisings took place in 1830–31 (the November Uprising) and 1846 (the Kraków Uprising, notable for being quelled by the anti-revolutionary Galician slaughter). A final revolt took place in 1863–65 (the January Uprising), but none occurred in 1848.
Switzerland and Portugal were also unaffected in 1848, though both had gone through civil wars in the preceding years (the Sonderbund War in Switzerland and the Liberal Wars in Portugal). The introduction of the Swiss Federal Constitution in 1848 was a revolution of sorts, laying the foundation of Swiss society as it is today.
In the Netherlands, no major unrests appeared because the king, William II, decided to alter the Dutch constitution to reform elections and effectively reduce the power of the monarchy.
While no major political upheavals occurred in the Ottoman Empire as such, political unrest did occur in some of its vassal states. In Serbia, feudalism was abolished and the power of the Serbian prince was reduced with the Turkish Constitution of Serbia in 1838.
Other English-speaking countries[edit]
Chartist meeting on Kennington Common 10 April 1848
In Britain, the middle classes had been pacified by general enfranchisement in the Reform Act 1832; the consequent agitations, violence, and petitions of the Chartist movement came to a head with their peaceful petition to Parliament of 1848. The repeal in 1846 of the protectionist agricultural tariffs – called the "Corn Laws" – had defused some proletarian fervour.[37]
In the Isle of Man, there were ongoing efforts to reform the self-elected House of Keys, but no revolution took place. Some of the reformers were encouraged by events in France in particular.[38]
In the United States, the main impact of the revolutions and their failure was substantially increased immigration, especially from Germany. This, in turn, fuelled the nativist "Know Nothing" movement in the years preceding the American Civil War. The "Know Nothings" were opposed to Catholic immigration, especially immigration of German and Irish Catholics, and held Pope Pius IX responsible for the 1848 revolutions' failure.
1848 in Canada saw the establishment of responsible government in Nova Scotia and The Canadas, the first such governments in the British Empire outside of Great Britain itself. John Ralston Saul has argued that this development is tied to the revolutions in Europe, but described the Canadian approach to the revolutionary year of 1848 as "talking their way...out of the empire's control system and into a new democratic model", a stable democratic system which has lasted to the present day.[39] Tory and Orange Order in Canada opposition to responsible government came to a head in riots triggered by the Rebellion Losses Bill in 1849. They succeeded in the burning of the Parliament Buildings in Montreal, but, unlike their counterrevolutionary counterparts in Europe, they were ultimately unsuccessful.[citation needed]
South America[edit]
In Spanish Latin America, the Revolution of 1848 appeared in New Granada, where Colombian students, liberals, and intellectuals demanded the election of General José Hilario López. He took power in 1849 and launched major reforms, abolishing slavery and the death penalty, and providing freedom of the press and of religion. The resulting turmoil in Colombia lasted four decades; from 1851 to 1885, the country was ravaged by four general civil wars and 50 local revolutions.[40]
In Chile, the 1848 revolutions inspired the 1851 Chilean Revolution.[41]
In Brazil, the "Praieira Revolt," a movement in Pernambuco, lasted from November 1848 to 1852.[citation needed] Unresolved conflicts left over from the period of the regency and local resistance to the consolidation of the Brazilian Empire that had been proclaimed in 1822 helped to plant the seeds of the revolution.
Legacy[edit]
We have been beaten and humiliated ... scattered, imprisoned, disarmed and gagged. The fate of European democracy has slipped from our hands.
—  Pierre-Joseph Proudhon[42]
Democrats looked to 1848 as a democratic revolution, which in the long run ensured liberty, equality, and fraternity. For nationalists, 1848 was the springtime of hope, when newly emerging nationalities rejected the old multinational empires. But the end results were not as comprehensive as many had hoped.
A caricature by Ferdinand Schröder on the defeat of the revolutions of 1848/49 in Europe (published in Düsseldorfer Monatshefte, August 1849)
Many governments engaged in a partial reversal of the revolutionary reforms of 1848–1849, as well as heightened repression and censorship. The Hanoverian nobility successfully appealed to the Confederal Diet in 1851 over the loss of their noble privileges, while the Prussian Junkers recovered their manorial police powers from 1852 to 1855.[43][44] In the Austrian Empire, the Sylvester Patents (1851) discarded Franz Stadion's constitution and the Statute of Basic Rights, while the number of arrests in Habsburg territories increased from 70,000 in 1850 to one million by 1854.[45] Nicholas I's rule in Russia after 1848 was particularly repressive, marked by an expansion of the secret police (the Tretiye Otdeleniye) and stricter censorship; there were more Russians working for censorship organs than actual books published in the period immediately after 1848.[46][47] In France, the works of Ledru-Rollin, Hugo, Baudelaire and Proudhon were confiscated.[48]
In the post-revolutionary decade after 1848, little had visibly changed, and many historians considered the revolutions a failure, given the seeming lack of permanent structural changes. More recently, Christopher Clark has characterised the period that followed 1848 as one dominated by a 'revolution in government'. Karl Marx expressed disappointment at the bourgeois character of the revolutions.[49] The Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Manteuffel declared that the state could no longer be run 'like the landed estate of a nobleman'. In Prussia, August von Bethmann-Hollweg's Preußisches Wochenblatt newspaper (founded 1851) acted as a popular outlet for modernising Prussian conservative statesmen and journalists against the reactionary Kreuzzeitung faction. The revolutions of 1848 were followed by new centrist coalitions dominated by liberals nervous of the threat of working-class socialism, as seen in the Piedmontese Connubio under Cavour.[50][51][52]
Governments after 1848 were forced into managing the public sphere and popular sphere with more effectiveness, resulting in the increased prominence of the Prussian Zentralstelle für Pressangelegenheiten (Central Press Agency, established 1850), the Austrian Zensur-und polizeihofstelle, and the French Direction Générale de la Librairie (1856).[53]
Nevertheless, there were a few immediate successes for some revolutionary movements, notably in the Habsburg lands. Austria and Prussia eliminated feudalism by 1850, improving the lot of the peasants. European middle classes made political and economic gains over the next 20 years; France retained universal male suffrage. Russia would later free the serfs on February 19, 1861. The Habsburgs finally had to give the Hungarians more self-determination in the Ausgleich of 1867. The revolutions inspired lasting reform in Denmark, as well as the Netherlands.
Reinhard Rürup has described the 1848 Revolutions as a turning point in the development of modern antisemitism through the development of conspiracies that presented Jews as representative both of the forces of social revolution (apparently typified in Joseph Goldmark and Adolf Fischhof of Vienna) and of international capital, as seen in the 1848 report from Eduard von Müller-Tellering, the Viennese correspondent of Marx's Neue Rheinische Zeitung, which declared: "tyranny comes from money and the money belongs to the Jews".[54]
The Texas Hill Country was settled by German intellectuals fleeing the reactionary purges[55] (German Texans). More widely, many disillusioned and persecuted revolutionaries, in particular (though not exclusively) those from Germany and the Austrian Empire, left their homelands for foreign exile in the New World or in the more liberal European nations: these emigrants were known as the Forty-Eighters.
In popular culture[edit]
Steven Brust and Emma Bull's 1997 epistolary novel Freedom & Necessity is set in England in the aftermath of the Revolutions of 1848.[56]
Mike Duncan's Revolutions Podcast series covered the Revolutions of 1848 starting with episode 7.01.
See also[edit]
Arab Spring
Color Revolutions
Protests of 1968
Revolutions of 1830
Revolutions of 1917–23
Revolutions of 1989
References[edit]
Jump up ^ 1848-06-24 (1848-06-24): "Battle at Soufflot barricades-1848" Location:Rue Soufflot, Paris48°50′48″N 2°20′37″E / 48.846792°N 2.343473°E / 48.846792; 2.343473 (1848-06-24: Battle at Soufflot barricades-1848) (linkback://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848)
Jump up ^ Mike Rapport (2009). 1848: Year of Revolution. Basic Books. p. 201. ISBN 978-0-465-01436-1. The first deaths came at noon on 23 June.
Jump up ^ Merriman, John, A History of Modern Europe: From the French Revolution to the Present, 1996, p. 715
Jump up ^ R.J.W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds., The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849 (2000) pp. v, 4
Jump up ^ Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries, A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change, Routledge, 1998. ISBN 0415161118. pp. 295–96.
Jump up ^ "Demands of the Communist Party in Germany," Marx-Engels Collected Works, vol 7, pp. 3ff (Progress Publishers: 1975–2005)
Jump up ^ Merriman, John (1996). A History of Modern Europe: From the Renaissance to the Present. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 718.
Jump up ^ Siemann, Wolfram, The German Revolution of 1848–1849 (London, 1998), p. 27; Lèvêque, Pierre in Dowe, p. 93; Pech, Stanley Z. The Czech Revolution of 1848 (London, 1969), p. 14
Jump up ^ Siemann (1998); Pech, p. 14
Jump up ^ Berger, Helge, and Mark Spoerer. "Economic Crises and the European Revolutions of 1848." The Journal of Economic History 61.2 (2001), p. 305
Jump up ^ Merriman, 1996, p. 724
Jump up ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=azk7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA101&lpg=PA101&dq=luddites+1848&source=bl&ots=4Bczosb0gp&sig=R_4Amj24YQgcOY2DjwIbHi9Ln1A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiE_vqWjenKAhVEZA8KHX9SBnMQ6AEIKDAC#v=onepage&q=luddites%201848&f=false
Jump up ^ Breuilly, John ed. Parker, David (2000). Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition. New York: Routledge. p. 114. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Sperber, Jonathan. The European Revolutions of 1848 (1994)p.90
Jump up ^ Helen Litton, The Irish Famine: An Illustrated History, Wolfhound Press, 1995, ISBN 0-86327-912-0
Jump up ^ Sperber, Jonathan, Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848 (Princeton, 1991), p. 140; Pech, Stanley Z. The Czech Revolution of 1848 (London, 1969), p. 45
Jump up ^ Siemann, Wolfram, The German Revolution of 1848–1849 (London, 1998), p. 39
Jump up ^ Rath, Reuben J. The Viennese Revolution of 1848 (New York, 1969), p. 12 Sperber, Jonathan. The European Revolutions of 1848 (1994), p. 40
Jump up ^ Sperber, Jonathan. The European Revolutions of 1848 (1994), pp. 152, 232.
Jump up ^ Charles Breunig, The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789–1850 (1977)
Jump up ^ Sperber (1994) pp. 99, 113; Ginsborg, p. 44;
Jump up ^ Stanley Z. Pech, The Czech Revolution of 1848 (1969), p. 25, Wolfram Siemann, The German Revolution of 1848–1849 (London, 1998), p. 47
Jump up ^ Tocqueville, Alexis de. "Recollections," 1893
Jump up ^ Louis Namier, 1848: The Revolution of the Intellectuals (1964)
Jump up ^ Theodote S. Hamerow, Restoration, Revolution, Reaction: Economics and Politics in Germany, 1825–1870 (1958) focuses mainly on artisans and peasants
^ Jump up to: a b Weibull, Jörgen. "Scandinavia, History of." Encyclopædia Britannica 15th ed., Vol. 16, 324.
Jump up ^ Olaf Søndberg; den danske revolution 1830–1866: p. 70, line 47–48
Jump up ^ Gábor Gángó, "1848–1849 in Hungary," Hungarian Studies (2001) 15#1 pp. 39–47. online
Jump up ^ Deak, Istvan. The Lawful Revolution. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979.
^ Jump up to: a b "The US and the 1848 Hungarian Revolution." The Hungarian Initiatives Foundation. Accessed March 26, 2015. http://www.hungaryfoundation.org/history/20140707_US_HUN_1848.
Jump up ^ The Making of the West: Volume C, Lynn Hunt, pp. 683–84
Jump up ^ Kost' Levytskyi, The History of the Political Thought of the Galician Ukrainians, 1848–1914, (Lviv, 1926), 17.
Jump up ^ Kost' Levytskyi, The History of the Political Thought of the Galician Ukrainians, 1848–1914, (Lviv, 1926), 26.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Chastain, James. "Belgium in 1848". Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions. Ohio University. Archived from the original on 2011-08-11.
Jump up ^ Ascherson, Neal (1999). The King Incorporated: Leopold the Second and the Congo (New ed.). London: Granta. pp. 20–21. ISBN 1862072906.
Jump up ^ "Serbia's Role in the Conflict in Vojvodina, 1848–49". Ohiou.edu. 2004-10-25. Archived from the original on 2008-09-25. Retrieved 2013-10-01.
Jump up ^ Henry Weisser, "Chartism in 1848: Reflections on a Non-Revolution," Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies Vol. 13, No. 1 (Spring, 1981), pp. 12–26 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Fyson, Robert (2016). The Struggle for Manx Democracy. Douglas: Culture Vannin. ISBN 9780993157837.
Jump up ^ Saul, J.R. (2012). Louis-Hippolyte LaFontaine & Robert Baldwin. Penguin Group (Canada).
Jump up ^ J. Fred Rippy, Latin America: A Modern History (1958) pp. 253–54
Jump up ^ Gazmuri, Cristián (1999). El "1849" chileno: Igualitarios, reformistas, radicales, masones y bomberos (PDF) (in Spanish). Santiago, Chile: Editorial Universitaria. p. 104. Retrieved June 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ Breunig, Charles (1977), The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789–1850 (ISBN 0-393-09143-0)
Jump up ^ Green, Abigail, Fatherlands: State-Building and Nationhood in Nineteenth-Century Germany (Cambridge, 2001), p. 75
Jump up ^ Barclay, David, Friedrich Wilhelm IV and the Prussian Monarchy 1840–1861 (Oxford, 1995), pp. 190, 231
Jump up ^ Deak, John. Forging a Multinational State: State Making in Imperial Austria from the Enlightenment to the First World War (Stanford, 2015), p. 105
Jump up ^ Westwood, J. N. Endurance and Endeavour: Russian History, 1812–1980. Oxford (2002), p. 32
Jump up ^ Goldfrank, David M. The Origins of the Crimean War. London: Longman, (1994), p. 21
Jump up ^ Price, Roger. The French Second Empire: An Anatomy of Political Power (Cambridge, 2001), p. 327.
Jump up ^ Marx, Karl. Marxists Internet Archive. Labour Monthly https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/12/england-revolution.htm. Retrieved 27 December 2017. More than one of |author1= and |last1= specified (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Brophy, James M. Capitalism, Politics and Railroads in Prussia 1830–1870 (Columbus, 1998), p. 1
Jump up ^ Schroeder, Paul in Blanning, T. C. W. (ed.), The Short Oxford History of Europe: The Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 2000), p. 171
Jump up ^ Smith, Denis Mack. Cavour (Knopf, 1985), p. 91
Jump up ^ Clark, p. 184
Jump up ^ "Progress and Its Limits: The Revolution of 1848 and European Jewry". Reinhard Rürup in Dowe, Dieter ed., Europe in 1848: Revolution and Reform (Oxford, 2001), pp. 758, 761
Jump up ^ Forty-Eighters from the Handbook of Texas Online
Jump up ^ Brust, Steven; Bull, Emma (1997). Freedom and Necessity. New York: Tor Books. ISBN 9780812562613. Retrieved August 2, 2017.
Bibliography[edit]
Surveys[edit]
Breunig, Charles (1977), The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789–1850 (ISBN 0-393-09143-0)
Chastain, James, ed. (2005) Encyclopedia of Revolutions of 1848 online from Ohio State U.
Dowe, Dieter, ed. Europe in 1848: Revolution and Reform (Berghahn Books, 2000)
Evans, R.J.W., and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds. The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849: From Reform to Reaction (2000), 10 essays by scholars excerpt and text search
Pouthas, Charles. "The Revolutions of 1848" in J. P. T. Bury, ed. New Cambridge Modern History: The zenith of European power 1830–70 (1960) pp. 389–415 online excerpts
Langer, William. The Revolutions of 1848 (Harper, 1971), standard overview
Rapport, Mike (2009), 1848: Year of Revolution ISBN 978-0-465-01436-1 online review, a standard survey
Robertson, Priscilla (1952), Revolutions of 1848: A Social History (ISBN 0-691-00756-X), despite the subtitle this is a traditional political narrative
Sperber, Jonathan. The European revolutions, 1848–1851 (1994) online edition
Stearns, Peter N. The Revolutions of 1848 (1974). online edition
Weyland, Kurt. "The Diffusion of Revolution: '1848' in Europe and Latin America," International Organization Vol. 63, No. 3 (Summer, 2009) pp. 391–423 in JSTOR
France[edit]
Duveau, Georges. 1848: The Making of a Revolution (1966)
Fasel, George. "The Wrong Revolution: French Republicanism in 1848," French Historical Studies Vol. 8, No. 4 (Autumn, 1974), pp. 654–77 in JSTOR
Loubère, Leo. "The Emergence of the Extreme Left in Lower Languedoc, 1848–1851: Social and Economic Factors in Politics," American Historical Review (1968), v. 73#4 1019–51 in JSTOR
Germany and Austria[edit]
Deak, Istvan. The Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians, 1848–1849 (1979)
Hahs, Hans J. The 1848 Revolutions in German-speaking Europe (2001)
Hewitson, Mark. "'The Old Forms are Breaking Up, ... Our New Germany is Rebuilding Itself': Constitutionalism, Nationalism and the Creation of a German Polity during the Revolutions of 1848–49," English Historical Review, Oct 2010, Vol. 125 Issue 516, pp. 1173–1214 online
Macartney, C. A. "1848 in the Habsburg Monarchy," European Studies Review, 1977, Vol. 7 Issue 3, pp. 285–309 online
O'Boyle Lenore. "The Democratic Left in Germany, 1848," Journal of Modern History Vol. 33, No. 4 (Dec., 1961), pp. 374–83 in JSTOR
Robertson, Priscilla. Revolutions of 1848: A Social History (1952), pp 105–85 on Germany, pp. 187–307 on Austria
Sked, Alan. The Survival of the Habsburg Empire: Radetzky, the Imperial Army and the Class War, 1848 (1979)
Vick, Brian. Defining Germany The 1848 Frankfurt Parliamentarians and National Identity (Harvard University Press, 2002) ISBN 978-0-674-00911-0).
Italy[edit]
Ginsborg, Paul. "Peasants and Revolutionaries in Venice and the Veneto, 1848," Historical Journal, Sep 1974, Vol. 17 Issue 3, pp. 503–50 in JSTOR
Ginsborg, Paul. Daniele Manin and the Venetian Revolution of 1848–49 (1979)
Robertson, Priscilla (1952). Revolutions of 1848: A Social History (1952) pp. 309–401
Other[edit]
Feyzioğlu, Hamiyet Sezer et al. "Revolutions of 1848 and the Ottoman Empire," Bulgarian Historical Review, 2009, Vol. 37 Issue 3/4, pp. 196–205
Historiography[edit]
Dénes, Iván Zoltán. "Reinterpreting a 'Founding Father': Kossuth Images and Their Contexts, 1848–2009," East Central Europe, April 2010, Vol. 37 Issue 1, pp. 90–117
Hamerow, Theodore S. "History and the German Revolution of 1848," American Historical Review Vol. 60, No. 1 (Oct., 1954), pp. 27–44 in JSTOR
Jones, Peter (1981), The 1848 Revolutions (Seminar Studies in History) (ISBN 0-582-06106-7)
Mattheisen, Donald J. "History as Current Events: Recent Works on the German Revolution of 1848," American Historical Review, Dec 1983, Vol. 88 Issue 5, pp. 1219–37 in JSTOR
Rothfels, Hans. "1848 – One Hundred Years After," Journal of Modern History, Dec 1948, Vol. 20 Issue 4, pp. 291–319 in JSTOR
External links[edit]
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values: الربيع الأوروبي (ثورات 1848) – Arabic

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values: Επαναστάσεις του 1848 – Greek

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values: Революции 1848—1849 годов – Russian

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values: European Revolutions of 1848 – Simple English

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