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Antigen
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An illustration that shows how antigens induce the immune system response by interacting with an antibody that matches the antigen's molecular structure.
In immunology, an antigen is a molecule capable of inducing an immune response (to produce an antibody) in the host organism.[1] Sometimes antigens are part of the host itself in an autoimmune disease.[2]
Antigens are "targeted" by antibodies. Each antibody (immune response) is specifically produced by the immune system to match an antigen after cells in the immune system come into contact with it; this allows a precise identification/matching of the antigen and the initiation of a tailored response. The antibody is said to "match" the antigen in the sense that it can bind to it due to an adaptation performed to a region of the antibody; because of this, many different antibodies are produced, each with specificity to bind a different antigen while sharing the same basic structure. In most cases, an adapted antibody can only react to and bind one specific antigen; in some instances, however, antibodies may cross-react to and bind more than one antigen.
Also, an antigen is a molecule that binds to Ag-specific receptors, but cannot necessarily induce an immune response in the body by itself.[3] Antigens are usually peptides (amino acid chains), polysaccharides (chains of monosaccharides/simple sugars) or lipids. In general, saccharides and lipids (as opposed to peptides) qualify as antigens but not as immunogens since they cannot elicit an immune response on their own. Furthermore, for a peptide to induce an immune response (activation of T-cells by antigen-presenting cells) it must be a large enough size, since peptides too small will also not elicit an immune response. The term antigen originally described a structural molecule that binds specifically to an antibody. It was expanded to refer to any molecule or a linear molecular fragment that can be recognized by highly variable antigen receptors (B-cell receptor or T-cell receptor) of the adaptive immune system.
The antigen may originate from within the body ("self-antigen") or from the external environment ("non-self"). The immune system usually does not react to self-antigens under normal homeostatic conditions due to negative selection of T cells in the thymus and is supposed to identify and attack "non-self" invaders from the outside world or modified/harmful substances present in the body under distressed conditions.[4]
Antigen presenting cells present antigens in the form of peptides on histocompatibility molecules. The T cell/T lymphocyte (a subtype of white blood cell), of the adaptive immune system, selectively recognize the antigens. Depending on the antigen and the type of the histocompatibility molecule, different types of T cells will be activated. For T-Cell Receptor (TCR) recognition, the peptide must be processed into small fragments inside the cell and presented by a major histocompatibility complex (MHC).[5] The antigen cannot elicit the immune response without the help of an immunologic adjuvant.[3] Similarly, the adjuvant component of vaccines plays an essential role in the activation of the innate immune system.[6][7]
An immunogen is an antigen substance (or adduct) that is able to trigger a humoral (innate) or cell-mediated immune response.[8] It first initiates an innate immune response, which then causes the activation of the adaptive immune response. An antigen binds the highly variable immunoreceptor products (B-cell receptor or T-cell receptor) once these have been generated. Immunogens are those antigens, termed immunogenic, capable of inducing an immune response.[9]
At the molecular level, an antigen can be characterized by its ability to bind to an antibody's variable Fab region. Different antibodies have the potential to discriminate among specific epitopes present on the antigen surface. A hapten is a small molecule that changes the structure of an antigenic epitope. In order to induce an immune response, it needs to be attached to a large carrier molecule such as a protein (a complex of peptides). Antigens are usually carried by proteins and polysaccharides, and less frequently, lipids. This includes parts (coats, capsules, cell walls, flagella, fimbrae, and toxins) of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. Lipids and nucleic acids are antigenic only when combined with proteins and polysaccharides.[citation needed] Non-microbial non-self antigens can include pollen, egg white and proteins from transplanted tissues and organs or on the surface of transfused blood cells. Vaccines are examples of antigens in an immunogenic form, which are intentionally administered to a recipient to induce the memory function of adaptive immune system toward the antigens of the pathogen invading that recipient.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Terminology
3 Sources
3.1 Exogenous antigens
3.2 Endogenous antigens
3.3 Autoantigens
3.4 Neoantigens
3.4.1 Viral antigens
3.4.2 Tumor antigens
3.4.2.1 Process
3.5 Nativity
4 Antigenic specificity
5 See also
6 Notes
7 External links
Etymology[edit]
Paul Ehrlich coined the term antibody (in German Antikörper) in his side-chain theory at the end of 19th century.[10] In 1899, Ladislas Deutsch (Laszlo Detre) (1874–1939) named the hypothetical substances halfway between bacterial constituents and antibodies "substances immunogenes ou antigenes" (antigenic or immunogenic substances). He originally believed those substances to be precursors of antibodies, just as zymogen is a precursor of an enzyme. But, by 1903, he understood that an antigen induces the production of immune bodies (antibodies) and wrote that the word antigen is a contraction of antisomatogen (Immunkörperbildner). The Oxford English Dictionary indicates that the logical construction should be "anti(body)-gen".[11]
Terminology[edit]
Epitope – The distinct surface features of an antigen, its antigenic determinant. Antigenic molecules, normally "large" biological polymers, usually present surface features that can act as points of interaction for specific antibodies. Any such feature constitutes an epitope. Most antigens have the potential to be bound by multiple antibodies, each of which is specific to one of the antigen's epitopes. Using the "lock and key" metaphor, the antigen can be seen as a string of keys (epitopes) each of which matches a different lock (antibody). Different antibody idiotypes, each have distinctly formed complementarity determining regions.
Allergen – A substance capable of causing an allergic reaction. The (detrimental) reaction may result after exposure via ingestion, inhalation, injection, or contact with skin.
Superantigen – A class of antigens that cause non-specific activation of T-cells, resulting in polyclonal T cell activation and massive cytokine release.
Tolerogen – A substance that invokes a specific immune non-responsiveness due to its molecular form. If its molecular form is changed, a tolerogen can become an immunogen.
Immunoglobulin-binding protein – Proteins such as Protein A, protein G, and protein L that are capable of binding to antibodies at positions outside of the antigen-binding site. While antigens are the "target" of antibodies, immunoglobulin-binding proteins "attack" antibodies. .
T-dependent antigen – Antigens that require the assistance of T cells to induce the formation of specific antibodies.
T-independent antigen – Polysaccharides (usually) that stimulate B cells directly.
Immunodominant antigens – Antigens that dominate (over all others from a pathogen) in their ability to produce an immune response. T cell responses typically are directed against a relatively few immunodominant epitopes, although in some cases (e.g., infection with the malaria pathogen Plasmodium spp.) it is dispersed over a relatively large number of parasite antigens.[12]
Sources[edit]
Antigens can be classified according to their source.
Exogenous antigens[edit]
Exogenous antigens are antigens that have entered the body from the outside, for example by inhalation, ingestion or injection. The immune system's response to exogenous antigens is often subclinical. By endocytosis or phagocytosis, exogenous antigens are taken into the antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and processed into fragments. APCs then present the fragments to T helper cells (CD4+) by the use of class II histocompatibility molecules on their surface. Some T cells are specific for the peptide:MHC complex. They become activated and start to secrete cytokines, substances that activate cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), antibody-secreting B cells, macrophages and other particles.
Some antigens start out as exogenous, and later become endogenous (for example, intracellular viruses). Intracellular antigens can be returned to circulation upon the destruction of the infected cell.
Endogenous antigens[edit]
Endogenous antigens are generated within normal cells as a result of normal cell metabolism, or because of viral or intracellular bacterial infection. The fragments are then presented on the cell surface in the complex with MHC class I molecules. If activated cytotoxic CD8+ T cells recognize them, the T cells secrete various toxins that cause the lysis or apoptosis of the infected cell. In order to keep the cytotoxic cells from killing cells just for presenting self-proteins, the cytotoxic cells (self-reactive T cells) are deleted as a result of tolerance (negative selection). Endogenous antigens include xenogenic (heterologous), autologous and idiotypic or allogenic (homologous) antigens.
Autoantigens[edit]
An autoantigen is usually a normal protein or protein complex (and sometimes DNA or RNA) that is recognized by the immune system of patients suffering from a specific autoimmune disease. Under normal conditions, these antigens should not be the target of the immune system, but in autoimmune diseases, their associated T cells are not deleted and instead attack.
Neoantigens[edit]
Neoantigens are those that are entirely absent from the normal human genome. As compared with nonmutated self-antigens, neoantigens are of relevance to tumor control, as the quality of the T cell pool that is available for these antigens is not affected by central T cell tolerance. Technology to systematically analyze T cell reactivity against neoantigens became available only recently.[13]
Viral antigens[edit]
For virus-associated tumors, such as cervical cancer and a subset of head and neck cancers, epitopes derived from viral open reading frames contribute to the pool of neoantigens.[13]
Tumor antigens[edit]
Tumor antigens are those antigens that are presented by MHC class I or MHC class II molecules on the surface of tumor cells. Antigens found only on such cells are called tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) and generally result from a tumor-specific mutation. More common are antigens that are presented by tumor cells and normal cells, called tumor-associated antigens (TAAs). Cytotoxic T lymphocytes that recognize these antigens may be able to destroy tumor cells.[13]
Tumor antigens can appear on the surface of the tumor in the form of, for example, a mutated receptor, in which case they are recognized by B cells.[13]
For human tumors without a viral etiology, novel peptides (neo-epitopes) are created by tumor-specific DNA alterations.[13]
Process[edit]
A large fraction of human tumor mutations are effectively patient-specific. Therefore, neoantigens may also be based on individual tumor genomes. Deep-sequencing technologies can identify mutations within the protein-coding part of the genome (the exome) and predict potential neoantigens. In mice models, for all novel protein sequences, potential MHC-binding peptides were predicted. The resulting set of potential neoantigens was used to assess T cell reactivity. Exome–based analyses were exploited in a clinical setting, to assess reactivity in patients treated by either tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) cell therapy or checkpoint blockade. Neoantigen identification was successful for multiple experimental model systems and human malignancies.[13]
The false-negative rate of cancer exome sequencing is low—i.e.: the majority of neoantigens occur within exonic sequence with sufficient coverage. However, the vast majority of mutations within expressed genes do not produce neoantigens that are recognized by autologous T cells.[13]
As of 2015 mass spectroscopy resolution is insufficient to exclude many false positives from the pool of peptides that may be presented by MHC molecules. Instead, algorithms are used to identify the most likely candidates. These algorithms consider factors such as the likelihood of proteasomal processing, transport into the endoplasmic reticulum, affinity for the relevant MHC class I alleles and gene expression or protein translation levels.[13]
The majority of human neoantigens identified in unbiased screens display a high predicted MHC binding affinity. Minor histocompatibility antigens, a conceptually similar antigen class are also correctly identified by MHC binding algorithms. Another potential filter examines whether the mutation is expected to improve MHC binding. The nature of the central TCR-exposed residues of MHC-bound peptides is associated with peptide immunogenicity.[13]
Nativity[edit]
A native antigen is an antigen that is not yet processed by an APC to smaller parts. T cells cannot bind native antigens, but require that they be processed by APCs, whereas B cells can be activated by native ones.
Antigenic specificity[edit]
Antigenic specificity is the ability of the host cells to recognize an antigen specifically as a unique molecular entity and distinguish it from another with exquisite precision. Antigen specificity is due primarily to the side-chain conformations of the antigen. It is measurable and need not be linear or of a rate-limited step or equation.[14]
See also[edit]
Antitoxin
Conformational epitope
Epitope
Linear epitope
Magnetic immunoassay
Neutralizing antibody
Original antigenic sin
Paul Ehrlich: Magic Bullet
Polyclonal B cell response
Priming (immunology)
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ harbour B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. (2002). "24. The Adaptive Immune System". Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). New York: Garland Science.
Jump up ^ "Antigen". US National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 2015-07-30.
^ Jump up to: a b Gavin, AL; Hoebe, K; Duong, B; Ota, T; Martin, C; Beutler, B; Nemazee, D (22 December 2006). "Adjuvant-enhanced antibody responses in the absence of toll-like receptor signaling.". Science. 314 (5807): 1936–8. PMC 1868398  . PMID 17185603. doi:10.1126/science.1135299.
Jump up ^ Gallucci, S; Lolkema, M; Matzinger, P (November 1999). "Natural adjuvants: endogenous activators of dendritic cells.". Nature Medicine. 5 (11): 1249–55. PMID 10545990. doi:10.1038/15200.
Jump up ^ Parham, Peter. (2009). The Immune System, 3rd Edition, pg. G:2, Garland Science, Taylor and Francis Group, LLC.
Jump up ^ Janeway CA, Jr (1 November 2013). "Pillars article: approaching the asymptote? Evolution and revolution in immunology. Cold spring harb symp quant biol. 1989. 54: 1–13.". Journal of Immunology. 191 (9): 4475–87. PMID 24141854.
Jump up ^ Gayed, PM (June 2011). "Toward a modern synthesis of immunity: Charles A. Janeway Jr. and the immunologist's dirty little secret.". The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 84 (2): 131–8. ISSN 1551-4056. PMC 3117407  . PMID 21698045.
Jump up ^ Parham, Peter. (2009). The Immune System, 3rd Edition, pg. G:11, Garland Science, Taylor and Francis Group, LLC.
Jump up ^ Kuby Immunology (6th ed.). Macmillan. 2006. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-4292-0211-4.
Jump up ^ Strebhardt, Klaus; Ullrich, Axel (Jun 2008). "Paul Ehrlich's magic bullet concept: 100 years of progress". Nature Reviews Cancer. 8 (6): 473–480. ISSN 1474-1768. PMID 18469827. doi:10.1038/nrc2394.
Jump up ^ Lindenmann, Jean (1984). "Origin of the Terms 'Antibody' and 'Antigen'". Scand. J. Immunol. 19 (4): 281–5. PMID 6374880. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3083.1984.tb00931.x. Retrieved 2008-10-31.
Jump up ^ Doolan DL, Southwood S, Freilich DA, Sidney J, Graber NL, Shatney L, Bebris L, Florens L, Dobano C, Witney AA, Appella E, Hoffman SL, Yates JR 3rd, Carucci DJ, Sette A (August 19, 2003). "Identification of Plasmodium falciparum antigens by antigenic analysis of genomic and proteomic data" (PDF). Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 100 (17): 9952–9957. doi:10.1073/pnas.1633254100. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Schumacher1, Ton N.; Schreiber, Robert D. (April 3, 2015). "Neoantigens in cancer immunotherapy". Science. 348 (6230): 69–74. PMID 25838375. doi:10.1126/science.aaa4971.
Jump up ^ "Antigen specificity – Medical Terms". Steadyhealth.com. 2010-12-17. Archived from the original on 2011-09-30. Retrieved 2012-07-08.
External links[edit]
Antigen Retrieval Protocol
National Library of Medicine/Medline (National Institute of Health) website
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Tarapur Atomic Power Station
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Tarapur Atomic Power Station
Model of the Tarapur Atomic Power Station
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Tarapur, Palghar district, Maharashtra
Coordinates
19°49′44.33″N 72°39′40.34″E / 19.8289806°N 72.6612056°E / 19.8289806; 72.6612056Coordinates: 19°49′44.33″N 72°39′40.34″E / 19.8289806°N 72.6612056°E / 19.8289806; 72.6612056
Status
Operational
Construction began
1961
Commission date
28 October 1969
Operator(s)
Nuclear Power Corporation of India
Nuclear power station
Reactor type
2 × BWR
2 × PHWR
Power generation
Units operational
2 × 160 MW
2 × 540 MW
Nameplate capacity
1400 MW
Capacity factor
39.4%
Annual net output
4,829 GW·h
Tarapur Atomic Power Station (T.A.P.S.) is located in Tarapur, Palghar, India. It was constructed initially with two boiling water reactor (BWR) units by Bechtel and GE under the 1963 123 Agreement between India, the United States, and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Units 1 and 2 were brought online for commercial operation on 28 October 1969 with an initial power of 210 MW of electricity, later on this was reduced to 160 MW due to technical difficulties.[1] These were the first of their kind in Asia. More recently, an additional two pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR) units of 540 MW each were constructed by L&T and Gammon India, seven months ahead of schedule and well within the original cost estimates. Unit 3 was brought online for commercial operation on 18 August 2006, and unit 4 on 12 September 2005.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Safety concerns
3 See also
4 References
History[edit]
The facility is operated by the NPCIL (Nuclear Power Corporation of India).
The personnel operating the power plant live in a residential complex called T. A. P. S. colony, 19°48′58″N 72°44′35″E / 19.816°N 72.743°E / 19.816; 72.743 which is a fifteen-minute drive from Boisar, the nearest railway station. The residential complex was also constructed by Bechtel to house both Indian and American employees. Due to this, the residential complex had a very Indian small-town look, with neat sidewalks, spacious houses, a club with tennis courts, swimming pool, a commissary etc. While the original American residents have long gone, the colony continues to thrive.
In 1974 after India conducted Smiling Buddha, its first nuclear weapons test the USA chose to no longer honor its agreement to supply the plant with enriched uranium. Nuclear fuel for TAPS has subsequently been delivered from France, China and Russia under IAEA safeguards.[2]
The residential colony now features 3 central schools run under Atomic Energy Education Society (AEES). The local beach at Chinchani is approximately 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) from the colony.
Safety concerns[edit]
The Boiling water reactors (BWRs) at Tarapur 1 and 2 units are similar to the reactors involved in the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. The reactors' age and old design have raised safety concerns and according to one local leader, the two reactors had in 2011 already been in operation for 16 years more than their design lives.[3]
In 2007, Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) evaluated seismic safety features at Tarapur 1 and 2 and reported many shortfalls, following which NPCIL installed seismic sensors.[4] In 2011, AERB formed a 10-member committee, consisting of experts from Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT) and India Meteorological Department (IMD), to assess the vulnerability of the Tarapur to earthquakes and tsunamis.[5] A. Gopalakrishnan, former director of AERB, said that Tarapur 1 and 2 reactors are much older than the reactors involved in the Fukushima nuclear accident and argued that they should be immediately decommissioned.[6]
See also[edit]
Maharashtra portal
Energy portal
Nuclear technology portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tarapur Atomic Power Station.
Nuclear power in India
Template:India nuke plant map
List of Indian Nuclear Reactors
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Plants Under Operation - Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited". Retrieved 20 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Tarapur Atomic Power Station (TAPS)". Nuclear Threat Initiative. 2003-09-01. Retrieved 2017-02-18.
Jump up ^ O'Halloran, Julian (2011-04-27). "Fears rise in India of Fukushima-style nuclear disaster". BBC News. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Atomic Energy Regulatory Board not quite subatomic". timesofindia-economictimes. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "AERB committee forms sub-group to carry Tarapur plant audit". Retrieved 20 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Doubts raised on Tarapur nuclear plant’s safety[dead link]
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Related topics
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You Never Give Me Your Money
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"You Never Give Me Your Money"
Song by the Beatles
from the album Abbey Road
Released
26 September 1969
Recorded
6 May 1969
Olympic Sound Studios, Barnes, London
1, 15, 30, 31 July, 5 August 1969
Abbey Road Studios studios 2 and 3, London
Length
4:02
Label
Apple Records
Songwriter(s)
Lennon–McCartney
Producer(s)
George Martin
"You Never Give Me Your Money" is a song by the Beatles, appearing as the first element in the B-side medley of their 1969 album Abbey Road. It was written by Paul McCartney (though credited to Lennon–McCartney) and documented the financial and personal difficulties facing the band. The song is the first part of the medley on side two of Abbey Road and was recorded in stages between May and August 1969.
The song was the first one to be recorded for the medley, which was conceived by McCartney and producer George Martin as a finale for the Beatles' career. The backing track was recorded at Olympic Sound Studios in Barnes, London, but the remainder of overdubs occurred at Abbey Road Studios. Musically, the song is made up of a suite of various segments, ranging from a piano ballad at the beginning through to guitar arpeggios at the end.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Recording
3 Personnel
4 Covers
5 Notes
6 External links
Background[edit]
The song was written by McCartney when he was staying with new wife Linda in New York in March 1969,[1] shortly after the Get Back sessions that ultimately resulted in Let It Be.[2] John Lennon and McCartney were at risk of losing overall control of Northern Songs, the company that published their songs, after ATV Music bought a majority share.[3] McCartney had been largely responsible for the group's direction and projects since the death of manager Brian Epstein in 1967, but began to realise that the group dynamic of the Beatles was coming to an end. He was particularly unhappy at the others wanting to draft in manager Allen Klein to help sort out their finances.[4] McCartney later said that the song was written with Klein in mind, saying "it's basically a song about no faith in the person".[1] He added that the line "One sweet dream, pack up the bags, get in the limousine" was based on his trips in the country with Linda to get away from the tense atmosphere with the Beatles,[1] though author Walter Everett thought the line was also a nostalgic look at the Beatles' touring years, which had ended in 1966.[5]
The musical structure came from several song fragments, beginning with a piano ballad and moving to a number of different styles, including boogie-woogie piano, arpeggiated guitars and nursery rhyme.[6][7] Beatles author Ian MacDonald speculated that the guitar arpeggios at the end of the track were influenced by "I Want You (She's So Heavy)" and the middle section of "Here Comes the Sun", and the overall structure was inspired by Lennon's "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" from the previous year's The Beatles, which also joined unrelated song fragments together.[6]
Realising that Abbey Road could be the group's last album, McCartney and Martin decided to combine various portions of tracks into a medley, which would act as a climactic finale of the group's career.[4] McCartney later said that the idea of a song suite was inspired by Keith West's "Excerpt from A Teenage Opera". Some musical segments of "You Never Give Me Your Money" were reused for the "Golden Slumbers" / "Carry That Weight" portion of the medley, including the opening verses and later guitar arpeggios.[8]
Recording[edit]
The basic backing track was recorded at Olympic Sound Studios in Barnes on 6 May 1969. Recording started at 3pm and went on until 4am the next morning.[7] McCartney sang lead and played piano, Lennon played an Epiphone Casino guitar, George Harrison played a Fender Telecaster guitar fed through a Leslie speaker, and Ringo Starr played drums.[5] The group recorded 36 takes, selecting take 30 as the best, which was made into a rough stereo mix.[7] The basic structure of the song as it appeared on Abbey Road had not been worked out at this stage, and the original recording ran onto a loose jam session, ending up as a fast rock-and-roll instrumental towards the end.[6]
The track was completed in Abbey Road Studios. McCartney overdubbed a lead vocal onto the basic track on 1 July,[9] and further vocals and sound effects were added on 15 July.[10] On 30 July, a reduction mix was made of the original eight track tape, so further overdubs could be made, and a rough mix of the Abbey Road medley was put together. The cross-fade from "You Never Give Me Your Money" into the next track, "Sun King", proved to be problematic, and the group made several attempts before deciding to merge the songs via an organ note.[11] McCartney completed the instrumental overdubs the next day, on 31 July, by adding a bass guitar part and additional piano overdubs,[12] including some punched-in honky-tonk piano in place of the original.[13]
The final recording session occurred on 5 August, when McCartney made a number of tape loops at Abbey Road, including bells, birds, bubbles and chirping crickets.[14] Martin mixed the track into stereo on 13 August, and made 11 attempts at a final mix, combining the tape loops with the cross-fade into "Sun King", replacing the earlier organ note.[15] He made another attempt at a final mix on 21 August, and this was used for the finished master.[16]
Personnel[edit]
According to Ian MacDonald:[2]
Paul McCartney – lead and backing vocals, piano, bass, wind chimes, tape loops
John Lennon – guitar, backing vocal
George Harrison – guitar, backing vocal
Ringo Starr – drums, tambourine
Covers[edit]
The track has been used on some albums featuring Beatles' songs covered by other artists. In 2009, Nine Below Zero with Glenn Tilbrook covered the song on Abbey Road Now!, a CD of Abbey Road covers accompanying the October 2009 issue of Mojo magazine.[17]
Notes[edit]
Citations
^ Jump up to: a b c Miles 1997, p. 556.
^ Jump up to: a b MacDonald 1997, p. 308.
Jump up ^ Shepherd & Horn 2003, p. 590.
^ Jump up to: a b MacDonald 1997, p. 309.
^ Jump up to: a b Everett 1999, p. 260.
^ Jump up to: a b c MacDonald 1997, p. 310.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lewisohn 1988, p. 176.
Jump up ^ MacDonald 1997, p. 312.
Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1988, p. 177.
Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1988, p. 180.
Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1988, p. 183.
Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1988, p. 184.
Jump up ^ Winn 2009, p. 312.
Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1988, p. 185.
Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1988, p. 187.
Jump up ^ Lewisohn 1988, p. 195.
Jump up ^ "Abbey Road Now". Mojo (191). October 2009. Archived from the original on 23 August 2014.
Sources
Everett, Walter (1999). The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver Through the Anthology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512941-0.
MacDonald, Ian (1997). Revolution in the Head : The Beatles' Records and the Sixties. Pimlico / Random House. ISBN 978-0-7126-6697-8.
Miles, Barry (1997). Paul McCartney : Many Years From Now. Seeker & Warburg. ISBN 978-0-436-28022-1.
Lewisohn, Mark (1988). The Complete Beatles Recording Sessions. Hamlyn / EMI. ISBN 978-0-600-55784-5.
Shepherd, John; Horn, John (2003). Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World: Media, Industry and Society v.1: Media, Industry and Society Vol 1. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-8264-6321-0.
Winn, John C. (2009). That Magic Feeling: The Beatles' Recorded Legacy, Volume Two, 1966–1970. Random House. ISBN 978-0-307-45240-5.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Abbey Road
Alan W. Pollack's Notes on "You Never Give Me Your Money"
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[hide]
v
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Abbey Road
Songs
Side one
"Come Together"
"Something"
"Maxwell's Silver Hammer"
"Oh! Darling"
"Octopus's Garden"
"I Want You (She's So Heavy)"
Side two
"Here Comes the Sun"
"Because"
"You Never Give Me Your Money"
"Sun King"
"Mean Mr. Mustard"
"Polythene Pam"
"She Came In Through the Bathroom Window"
"Golden Slumbers"
"Carry That Weight"
"The End"
"Her Majesty"
Non-album single
"The Ballad of John and Yoko"
"Old Brown Shoe"
Outtakes
"All Things Must Pass"
"Come and Get It"
"Ain't She Sweet"
Related articles
Abbey Road, London
The Beatles discography
Break-up of the Beatles
Iain Macmillan
McLemore Avenue
The Other Side of Abbey Road
Please Please Me
With the Beatles
A Hard Day's Night
Beatles for Sale
Help!
Rubber Soul
Revolver
Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band
Magical Mystery Tour
The Beatles (White Album)
Yellow Submarine
Abbey Road
Let It Be
Past Masters
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Equinox
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about an astronomical event. For the celestial coordinates, see Equinox (celestial coordinates). For the article about a specific equinox, see March equinox and September equinox. For other uses, see Equinox (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with solstice.
UT date and time of
equinoxes and solstices on Earth[1]
event
equinox
solstice
equinox
solstice
month
March
June
September
December
year
day
time
day
time
day
time
day
time
2010
20 17:32 21 11:28 23 03:09 21 23:38
2011
20 23:21 21 17:16 23 09:04 22 05:30
2012
20 05:14 20 23:09 22 14:49 21 11:12
2013
20 11:02 21 05:04 22 20:44 21 17:11
2014
20 16:57 21 10:51 23 02:29 21 23:03
2015
20 22:45 21 16:38 23 08:21 22 04:48
2016
20 04:30 20 22:34 22 14:21 21 10:44
2017
20 10:28 21 04:24 22 20:02 21 16:28
2018
20 16:15 21 10:07 23 01:54 21 22:23
2019
20 21:58 21 15:54 23 07:50 22 04:19
2020
20 03:50 20 21:44 22 13:31 21 10:02
An equinox is commonly regarded as the moment the plane of Earth's equator passes through the center of the Sun's disk,[2] which occurs twice each year, around 20 March and 22-23 September. In other words, it is the point in which the center of the visible sun is directly over the equator. This simplified, but incorrect, understanding of Earth's orbital motion can lead to errors of up to 69 seconds from the actual time of equinox.
The instants of the equinoxes are currently defined to occur when the ecliptic longitude of the Sun is either 0° or 180°.[3] As the true motion of the Earth is affected by the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon (and to lesser extent the other planets), there are tiny (up to 1¼ arcsecond) variations of the Sun's ecliptic latitude (discussed in section below) that may mean the Sun's center is not precisely over the equator at the moment of equinox.
On the day of an equinox, daytime and nighttime are of approximately equal duration all over the planet. They are not exactly equal, however, due to the angular size of the Sun and atmospheric refraction. The word is derived from the Latin aequinoctium, from aequus (equal) and nox (genitive noctis) (night).
The Sun on the equinox as seen from the site of Pizzo Vento, Fondachelli-Fantina, Sicily
Contents
[hide]
1 Equinoxes on Earth
1.1 General
1.2 Date
1.3 Names
1.4 Length of equinoctial day and night
1.5 Geocentric view of the astronomical seasons
1.5.1 Day arcs of the Sun
1.6 Celestial coordinate systems
1.7 Cultural aspects
2 Effects on satellites
3 Equinoxes on other planets
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Equinoxes on Earth[edit]
General[edit]
The equinoxes are the only times when the solar terminator (the "edge" between night and day) is perpendicular to the equator. As a result, the northern and southern hemispheres are equally illuminated. The word comes from Latin aequus, meaning "equal", and nox, meaning "night".
In other words, the equinoxes are the only times when the subsolar point is on the equator, meaning that the Sun is exactly overhead at a point on the equatorial line. The subsolar point crosses the equator moving northward at the March equinox and southward at the September equinox.
The equinoxes, along with solstices, are directly related to the seasons of the year. In the northern hemisphere, the vernal equinox (March) conventionally marks the beginning of spring in most cultures and is considered the start of the New Year in Hindu calendar and the Persian calendar or Iranian calendars as Nowruz (means new day), while the autumnal equinox (September) marks the beginning of autumn.[4]
Illumination of Earth by the Sun at the March equinox
The Earth in its orbit around the Sun causes the Sun to appear on the celestial sphere moving over the ecliptic (red), which is tilted on the equator (white).
Diagram of the Earth's seasons as seen from the north. Far right: December solstice.
Diagram of the Earth's seasons as seen from the south. Far left: June solstice.
Date[edit]
When Julius Caesar established the Julian calendar in 45 BC, he set 25 March as the date of the spring equinox. Because the Julian year is longer than the tropical year by about 11.3 minutes on average (or 1 day in 128 years), the calendar "drifted" with respect to the two equinoxes — such that in AD 300 the spring equinox occurred on about 21 March, and by AD 1500 it had drifted backwards to 11 March.
This drift induced Pope Gregory XIII to create a modern Gregorian calendar. The Pope wanted to continue to conform with the edicts concerning the date of Easter of the Council of Nicaea of AD 325, which means he wanted to move the vernal equinox to the date on which it fell at that time (21 March is the day allocated to it in the Easter table of the Julian calendar). However, the leap year intervals in his calendar were not smooth (400 is not an exact multiple of 97). This causes the equinox to oscillate by about 53 hours around its mean position. This in turn raised the possibility that it could fall on 22 March, and thus Easter Day might theoretically commence before the equinox. The astronomers chose the appropriate number of days to omit so that the equinox would swing from 19 to 21 March but never fall on the 22nd (although it can in a handful of years fall early in the morning of that day in the Far East).
Names[edit]
Vernal equinox and autumnal equinox: these classical names are direct derivatives of Latin (ver = spring and autumnus = autumn). These are the historically universal and still most widely used terms for the equinoxes, but are potentially confusing because in the southern hemisphere the vernal equinox does not occur in spring and the autumnal equinox does not occur in autumn. The equivalent common language English terms spring equinox and autumn (or fall) equinox are even more ambiguous.[5][6][7] It has become increasingly common for people to mistakenly refer to the September equinox in the southern hemisphere as the Vernal equinox.[8][9]
March equinox and September equinox: names referring to the months of the year they occur, with no ambiguity as to which hemisphere is the context. They are still not universal, however, as not all cultures use a solar-based calendar where the equinoxes occur every year in the same month (as they do not in the Islamic calendar and Hebrew calendar, for example).[10] Although the terms have become very common in the 21st century, they were sometimes used at least as long ago as the mid-20th century.[11]
Northward equinox and southward equinox: names referring to the apparent direction of motion of the Sun. The northward equinox occurs in March when the sun crosses the equator from south to north, and the southward equinox occurs in September when the sun crosses the equator from north to south. These terms can be used unambiguously for other planets. They are rarely seen, although were first proposed over 100 years ago.[12]
First Point of Aries and first point of Libra: names referring to the astrological signs the sun is entering. Due to the precession of the equinoxes, however, the constellations where the equinoxes are currently located are Pisces and Virgo, respectively.[13]
Length of equinoctial day and night[edit]
Contour plot of the hours of daylight as a function of latitude and day of the year, showing approximately 12 hours of daylight at all latitudes during the equinoxes
Day is usually defined as the period when sunlight reaches the ground in the absence of local obstacles.[citation needed] On the day of the equinox, the center of the Sun spends a roughly equal amount of time above and below the horizon at every location on the Earth, so night and day are about the same length. Sunrise and sunset can be defined in several ways, but a widespread definition is the time that the top limb of the sun is level with the horizon.[14] With this definition, the day is longer than the night at the equinoxes:[2]
From the Earth, the Sun appears as a disc rather than a point of light, so when the centre of the Sun is below the horizon, its upper edge is visible. Sunrise, which begins daytime, occurs when the top of the Sun's disk rises above the eastern horizon. At that instant, the disk's centre is still below the horizon.
The Earth's atmosphere refracts sunlight. As a result, an observer sees daylight before the top of the Sun's disk rises above the horizon.
In sunrise/sunset tables, the assumed semidiameter (apparent radius) of the Sun is 16 arcminutes and the atmospheric refraction is assumed to be 34 arcminutes. Their combination means that when the upper limb of the Sun is on the visible horizon, its centre is 50 arcminutes below the geometric horizon, which is the intersection with the celestial sphere of a horizontal plane through the eye of the observer.[15]
These effects make the day about 14 minutes longer than the night at the equator and longer still towards the poles. The real equality of day and night only happens in places far enough from the equator to have a seasonal difference in day length of at least 7 minutes,[16] actually occurring a few days towards the winter side of each equinox.
The times of sunset and sunrise vary with the observer's location (longitude and latitude), so the dates when day and night are equal also depend upon the observer's location.
A third correction for the visual observation of a sunrise (or sunset) is the angle between the apparent horizon as seen by an observer and the geometric (or sensible) horizon. This is known as the dip of the horizon and varies from 3 arcminutes for a viewer standing on the sea shore to 160 arcminutes for a mountaineer on Everest.[17] The effect of a larger dip on taller objects (reaching over 2½° of arc on Everest) accounts for the phenomenon of snow on a mountain peak turning gold in the sunlight long before the lower slopes are illuminated.
At the equinoxes, the rate of change for the length of daylight and night-time is the greatest. At the poles, the equinox marks the transition from 24 hours of nighttime to 24 hours of daylight (or vice versa).[citation needed]
The word equilux is sometimes (but rarely) used to mean a day when the durations of light and darkness are equal.[18][note 1]
Geocentric view of the astronomical seasons[edit]
Main article: Sun path
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In the half-year centered on the June solstice, the Sun rises north of east and sets north of west, which means longer days with shorter nights for the northern hemisphere and shorter days with longer nights for the southern hemisphere. In the half-year centered on the December solstice, the Sun rises south of east and sets south of west and the durations of day and night are reversed.
Also on the day of an equinox, the Sun rises everywhere on Earth (except at the poles) at about 06:00 and sets at about 18:00 (local solar time). These times are not exact for several reasons:
The Sun is much larger in diameter than the Earth, so that more than half of the Earth could be in sunlight at any one time (due to unparallel rays creating tangent points beyond an equal-day-night line).
Most places on Earth use a time zone which differs from the local solar time by minutes or even hours. For example, if a location uses a time zone with reference meridian 15° to the east, the Sun will rise around 07:00 on the equinox and set 12 hours later around 19:00.
Day length is also affected by the variable orbital speed of the Earth around the sun. This combined effect is described as the equation of time. Thus even locations which lie on their time zone's reference meridian will not see sunrise and sunset at 6:00 and 18:00. At the March equinox they are 7–8 minutes later, and at the September equinox they are about 7–8 minutes earlier.
Sunrise and sunset are commonly defined for the upper limb of the solar disk, rather than its center. The upper limb is already up for at least a minute before the center appears, and the upper limb likewise sets later than the center of the solar disk. Also, when the Sun is near the horizon, atmospheric refraction shifts its apparent position above its true position by a little more than its own diameter. This makes sunrise more than two minutes earlier and sunset an equal amount later. These two effects combine to make the equinox day 12 h 7 min long and the night only 11 h 53 min. Note, however, that these numbers are only true for the tropics. For moderate latitudes, the discrepancy increases (e.g., 12 minutes in London); and closer to the poles it becomes very much larger (in terms of time). Up to about 100 km from either pole, the Sun is up for a full 24 hours on an equinox day.
Height of the horizon changes the day's length. For an observer atop a mountain the day is longer, while standing in a valley will shorten the day.
Day arcs of the Sun[edit]
Main article: Sun path
Some of the statements above can be made clearer by picturing the day arc (i.e., the path along which the Sun appears to move across the sky). The pictures show this for every hour on equinox day. In addition, some 'ghost' suns are also indicated below the horizon, up to 18° below it; the Sun in such areas still causes twilight. The depictions presented below can be used for both the northern and the southern hemispheres. The observer is understood to be sitting near the tree on the island depicted in the middle of the ocean; the green arrows give cardinal directions.
In the northern hemisphere, north is to the left, the Sun rises in the east (far arrow), culminates in the south (right arrow), while moving to the right and setting in the west (near arrow).
In the southern hemisphere, south is to the left, the Sun rises in the east (near arrow), culminates in the north (right arrow), while moving to the left and setting in the west (far arrow).
The following special cases are depicted:
Day arc at 0° latitude (equator)
The arc passes through the zenith, resulting in almost no shadows at high noon.
Day arc at 20° latitude
The Sun culminates at 70° altitude and its path at sunrise and sunset occurs at a steep 70° angle to the horizon. Twilight still lasts about one hour.
Day arc at 50° latitude
Twilight lasts almost two hours.
Day arc at 70° latitude
The Sun culminates at no more than 20° altitude and its daily path at sunrise and sunset is at a shallow 20° angle to the horizon. Twilight lasts for more than four hours.
Day arc at 90° latitude (pole)
If it were not for atmospheric refraction, the Sun would be on the horizon all the time.
Celestial coordinate systems[edit]
See also: Equinox (celestial coordinates)
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The March equinox occurs about when the Sun appears to cross the celestial equator northward. In the Northern Hemisphere, the term vernal point is used for the time of this occurrence and for the direction in space where the Sun is seen at that time, which is the origin of some celestial coordinate systems:
in the ecliptic coordinate system, the vernal point is the origin of the ecliptic longitude;
in the equatorial coordinate system, the vernal point is the origin of the right ascension.
Diagram illustrating the difference between the Sun's celestial longitude being zero and the Sun's declination being zero. The Sun's celestial latitude never exceeds 1.2 arcseconds, but is exaggerated in this diagram.
Strictly speaking, at the equinox, the Sun's ecliptic longitude is zero. Its latitude will not be exactly zero, since Earth is not exactly in the plane of the ecliptic. Its declination will not be exactly zero either. (The ecliptic is defined by the barycenter of Earth and the Moon combined.) The modern definition of equinox is the instants when the Sun's apparent geocentric longitude is 0° (northward equinox) or 180° (southward equinox).[19][20][21] See the adjacent diagram.
Because of the precession of the Earth's axis, the position of the vernal point on the celestial sphere changes over time, and the equatorial and the ecliptic coordinate systems change accordingly. Thus when specifying celestial coordinates for an object, one has to specify at what time the vernal point and the celestial equator are taken. That reference time is called the equinox of date.[22]
The autumnal equinox is at ecliptic longitude 180° and at right ascension 12h.
The upper culmination of the vernal point is considered the start of the sidereal day for the observer. The hour angle of the vernal point is, by definition, the observer's sidereal time.
Using the current official IAU constellation boundaries – and taking into account the variable precession speed and the rotation of the celestial equator – the equinoxes shift through the constellations as follows[23] (expressed in astronomical year numbering when the year 0 = 1 BC, −1 = 2 BC, etc.):
The March equinox passed from Taurus into Aries in year −1865, passed into Pisces in year −67, will pass into Aquarius in year 2597, and then into Capricornus in year 4312. In 1489 it came within 10 arcminutes of Cetus without crossing the boundary.
The September equinox passed from Libra into Virgo in year −729, will pass into Leo in year 2439.
Cultural aspects[edit]
Main articles: March equinox § Human culture, and September equinox § Human culture
The equinoxes are sometimes regarded as the start of spring and autumn. A number of traditional (harvest) festivals are celebrated on the date of the equinoxes.
Effects on satellites[edit]
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One effect of equinoctial periods is the temporary disruption of communications satellites. For all geostationary satellites, there are a few days around the equinox when the sun goes directly behind the satellite relative to Earth (i.e. within the beam-width of the ground-station antenna) for a short period each day. The Sun's immense power and broad radiation spectrum overload the Earth station's reception circuits with noise and, depending on antenna size and other factors, temporarily disrupt or degrade the circuit. The duration of those effects varies but can range from a few minutes to an hour. (For a given frequency band, a larger antenna has a narrower beam-width and hence experiences shorter duration "Sun outage" windows.)[citation needed]
Equinoxes on other planets[edit]
When the planet Saturn is at equinox, its rings reflect little sunlight, as seen in this image by Cassini in 2009.
Equinoxes occur on any planet with a tilted rotational axis. A dramatic example is Saturn, where the equinox places its ring system edge-on facing the Sun. As a result, they are visible only as a thin line when seen from Earth. When seen from above – a view seen during an equinox for the first time from the Cassini space probe in 2009 – they receive very little sunshine, indeed more planetshine than light from the Sun.[24] This phenomenon occurs once every 14.7 years on average, and can last a few weeks before and after the exact equinox. Saturn's most recent equinox was on 11 August 2009, and its next will take place on 6 May 2025.[25]
Mars's most recent equinox was on 5 May 2017 (northern spring), and the next will be on 22 May 2018 (northern autumn).
See also[edit]
Anjana (Cantabrian mythology) – fairies believed to appear on the spring equinox
Aphelion – occurs around 5 July (see formula)
Kōreisai – days of worship in Japan that began in 1878
Lady Day
Nowruz
Solstice
Songkran
Sun outage – a phenomenon that occurs around the time of an equinox
Tekufah
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This meaning of "equilux" is rather modern (c. 1985 to 1986) and unusual. Technical references since the beginning of the 20th century (c. 1910) use the terms "equilux" and "isophot" to mean "of equal illumination" in the context of curves showing how intensely lighting equipment will illuminate a surface. See for instance John William Tudor Walsh, Textbook of Illuminating Engineering (Intermediate Grade), I. Pitman, 1947. The earliest confirmed use of the modern meaning was in a post on the Usenet group net.astro dated 14 March 1986 net.astro – Spring Equilux Approaches, which refers to "discussion last year exploring the reasons why equilux and equinox are not coincident". Use of this particular pseudo-latin protologism can only be traced to a extremely small (less than six) number of predominently US American people in such online media for the next 20 years until its broader adoption as a neologism (c. 2006), and then its subsequent use by more mainstream organisations (c. 2012) The Equinox and Solstice, UK Meteorological Office.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ United States Naval Observatory (21 September 2015). "Earth's Seasons: Equinoxes, Solstices, Perihelion, and Aphelion, 2000–2025". Retrieved 9 December 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Equinoxes". USNO Astronomical Information Center FAQ. Retrieved 4 September 2015.
Jump up ^ United States Naval Observatory (2006). Astronomical Almanac 2008. Glossary Chapter.
Jump up ^ "March Equinox – Equal Day and Night, Nearly". Time and Date. 2017. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
Jump up ^ Michelle Skye (2007). Goddess Alive!: Inviting Celtic & Norse Goddesses Into Your Life. Llewellyn Worldwide. pp. 69–. ISBN 978-0-7387-1080-8.
Jump up ^ Howard D Curtis (5 October 2013). Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students. Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 188–. ISBN 978-0-08-097748-5.
Jump up ^ Mohinder S. Grewal; Lawrence R. Weill; Angus P. Andrews (5 March 2007). Global Positioning Systems, Inertial Navigation, and Integration. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 459–. ISBN 978-0-470-09971-1.
Jump up ^ Nathaniel Bowditch; National Imagery and Mapping Agency (2002). The American practical navigator : an epitome of navigation. Paradise Cay Publications. pp. 229–. ISBN 978-0-939837-54-0.
Jump up ^ Exploring the Earth. Allied Publishers. pp. 31–. ISBN 978-81-8424-408-3.
Jump up ^ Paula LaRocque (2007). On Words: Insights Into How Our Words Work – And Don't. Marion Street Press. pp. 89–. ISBN 978-1-933338-20-0.
Jump up ^ Popular Astronomy. 1945.
Jump up ^ Notes and Queries. Oxford University Press. 1895.
Jump up ^ Spherical Astronomy. Krishna Prakashan Media. pp. 233–. GGKEY:RDRHQ35FBX7.
Jump up ^ Forsythe, William C; Rykiel, Edward J; Stahl, Randal S; Wu, Hsin-i; Schoolfield, Robert M (1995). "A model comparison for daylength as a function of latitude and day of year". Ecological Modelling. 80: 87. doi:10.1016/0304-3800(94)00034-F.
Jump up ^ Seidelman, P. Kenneth, ed. (1992). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac. Mill Valley, CA: University Science Books. p. 32. ISBN 0-935702-68-7.
Jump up ^ "Sunrise and Sunset". 21 October 2002. Retrieved 22 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Biegert, Mark (21 October 2015). "Correcting Sextant Measurements For Dip". Math Encounters (blog). Retrieved 22 September 2017.
Jump up ^ Owens, Steve (20 March 2010). "Equinox, Equilux, and Twilight Times". Dark Sky Diary (blog). Retrieved 31 December 2010.
Jump up ^ United States Naval Observatory (2006). Astronomical Almanac 2008. Glossary Chapter.
Jump up ^ Meeus, Jean (1997). Mathematical Astronomy Morsels.
Jump up ^ Meeus, Jean (1998). Astronomical Algorithms, Second Edition.
Jump up ^ Montenbruck, Oliver; Pfleger, Thomas. Astronomy on the Personal Computer. Springer-Verlag. p. 17. ISBN 0-387-57700-9.
Jump up ^ J. Meeus; Mathematical Astronomical Morsels; ISBN 0-943396-51-4.
Jump up ^ "PIA11667: The Rite of Spring". Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology. Retrieved 21 March 2014.
Jump up ^ Lakdawalla, Emily (7 July 2016). "Oppositions, conjunctions, seasons, and ring plane crossings of the giant planets". The Planetary Society. Retrieved 31 Jan 2017.
External links[edit]
Look up equinox in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Equinox.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Equinox
Day and Night World Map (night and day map on equinox)
Calculation of Length of Day (Formulas and Graphs)
Equinoctial Points – The Nuttall Encyclopædia
Table of times for Equinoxes, Solstices, Perihelion and Aphelion in 2000–2020
Table of times of Spring Equinox for a thousand years: 1452–2547
Gray, Meghan; Merrifield, Michael. "Solstice and Equinox". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
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Equinox (disambiguation)

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Hemispheres of the Earth

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Northward equinox

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Southward equinox

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Precession of the equinoxes

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Middle Latitudes

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Northern hemisphere

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Southern hemisphere

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Ecliptic longitude

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Celestial longitude

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Celestial latitude

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Precession (astronomy)

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Equinozio – Italian
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