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Mosaic authorship
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Moses by José de Ribera (1638)
Mosaic authorship is the Jewish and Christian tradition that Moses was the author of the Torah, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament.[1] The books do not name any author, as authorship was not considered important by the society that produced them,[2][3] and it was only after Jews came into intense contact with author-centric Hellenistic culture in the late Second Temple period that the rabbis began to find authors for their scriptures.[2] The tradition probably began with the law-code of Deuteronomy, and was then gradually extended until Moses, as the central character, came to be regarded not just as the mediator of law but as author of both laws and narrative.[4][5]
By the 1st century CE it was already common practice to refer to the five books as the "Law of Moses", but the first unequivocal expression of the idea that this meant authorship appears in the Babylonian Talmud, an encyclopedia of Jewish tradition and scholarship composed between 200-500 CE.[6][7] There the rabbis noticed and addressed such issues as how Moses had received the divine revelation,[8] how it was curated and transmitted to later generations, and how difficult passages such as the last verses of Deuteronomy, which describe his death, were to be explained.[9] This culminated in the 8th of Maimonides' 13 Principles of Faith, establishing belief in Mosaic authorship as an article of Jewish belief.[10]
Mosaic authorship of the Torah was unquestioned by both Jews and Christians until the European Enlightenment, when the systematic study of the five books led the majority of scholars to conclude that they are the product of many hands and many centuries.[11] Despite this, the role of Moses is an article of faith in traditional Jewish circles and for some Christian Evangelical scholars, for whom it remains crucial to their understanding of the unity and authority of Scripture.[12]
Contents
[hide]
1 Torah, authorship, and the development of the tradition
2 Mosaic authorship in rabbinic tradition to the modern period
3 Mosaic authorship in the Christian tradition
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
7 Bibliography
Torah, authorship, and the development of the tradition[edit]
The Torah (or Pentateuch, as biblical scholars sometimes call it) is the collective name for the first five books of the Bible - Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.[13][Notes 1] It forms the charter myth of Israel, the story of the people's origins and the foundations of their culture and institutions,[14] and it is a fundamental principle of Judaism that the relationship between God and his chosen people was set out on Mount Sinai through the Torah.[15]
The development of the Torah began by around 600 BCE when previously unconnected material began to be drawn together; by around 400 BCE these books, the fore-runners of the Torah, had reached their modern form and began to be recognised as complete, unchangeable, and sacred; and by around 200 BCE the five books were accepted as the first section of the Jewish canon.[16][Notes 2] It seems that the tradition of Mosaic authorship began with Deuteronomy,[5] which scholars generally agree was composed in Jerusalem during the reform program of King Josiah in the late 7th century;[17] it is this law-code that books such as Joshua and Kings (completed in the mid 500s[18]) mean when they speak of the "torah of Moses."[5] In later books such as Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah the meaning had expanded to include the other laws such as Leviticus, and by Hellenistic times Jewish writers referred to the entirety of the five books, narrative and laws, as the Book (or books) of Moses.[5]
Authorship was not considered important by the society that produced the Hebrew Bible (the Protestant Old Testament), and the Torah never names an author.[2][3] According to many scholars it was only after c. 300 BCE, when Jews came into intense contact with author-centric Greek culture, that the rabbis began to feel compelled to find authors for their books,[2][Notes 3] and the process which led to Moses becoming identified as the author of the Torah may have been influenced by three factors: first, by a number of passages in which he is said to write something, frequently at the command of God, although these passages never appear to apply to the entire five books; second, by his key role in four of the five books (Genesis is the exception); and finally, by the way in which his authority as lawgiver and liberator of Israel united the story and laws of the Pentateuch.[19][Notes 4]
Mosaic authorship in rabbinic tradition to the modern period[edit]
Main article: Moses in rabbinic literature
The Babylonian Talmud, an encyclopedia of Jewish scholarship composed between 200-500 CE, states that "Moses wrote his own book and the section concerning Balaam."[9][Notes 5] The medieval sage Maimonides (c.1135-1204) enshrined this in his Thirteen Principles of Faith (a summary of the required beliefs of Judaism), the 8th of which states: "I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah presently in our possession is the one given to Moses."[10] The rabbis explained that God wrote the Torah in heaven before the world was created, in letters of black fire on parchment of white fire, and that Moses received it by divine dictation, writing the exact words spoken to him by God.[20] The rabbis also explained how the Torah was handed down to later generations: "Moses received the Torah from Sinai and transmitted it to Joshua, Joshua to the Elders, the Elders to the Prophets, and the Prophets transmitted it to the men of the Great Assembly," who in turn transmitted it to the rabbis.[1] (The Great Assembly, according to Jewish tradition, was called by Ezra to ensure the accurate transmission of the Torah of Moses when the Jews returned from exile).[21] Orthodox rabbis therefore say that thanks to this chain of custodians the Torah of today is identical with that received by Moses, not varying by a single letter.[1]
The rabbis were aware that some phrases in the Torah do not seem to fit with divine dictation of a pre-existent text, and this awareness accounts for a second tradition of how the divine word was transmitted: God spoke and Moses remembered the divine words and wrote them down afterwards, together with some explanatory phrases of his own.[8] This explanation is a minority one, but it explains, for example, why every step in the description of the construction of the Tabernacle is followed by the phrase, "As the Lord commanded Moses."[22]
There were also passages which seemed impossible for Moses to have written, notably the account of his own death and burial in last verses of Deuteronomy: the Talmud's answer is that "Joshua wrote ... [the last] eight verses of the Torah,"[6] yet this implied that the Torah was incomplete when Moses handed it to Israel; the explanation of the rabbis was that the verses were indeed by Moses, but written "with tears in his eyes" as God dictated to him this description of his end.[6]
More serious were a few passages which implied an author long after the time of Moses, such as Genesis 12:6, "The Canaanite was then in the land," implying a time when the Canaanites were no longer in the land.[23] Abraham ibn Ezra (c.1092-1167) made a celebrated comment on this phrase, writing that it contains "a great secret, and the person who understands it will keep quiet;"[23] the 14th century rabbi Joseph ben Samuel Bonfils responded that Moses had written this and similar passages, as he was a prophet, but that it made no difference whether they were by him or some later prophet, "since the words of all of them are true and inspired."[24]
Finally, there were a few passages which implied that Moses had used pre-existing sources: a section of the Book of Numbers (Numbers 10:35 — 36) is surrounded in the Hebrew by inverted nuns (the equivalent of brackets) which the rabbis said indicated that these verses were from a separate book, the Book of Eldad and Medad.[25][Notes 6]
Biblical scholars today agree almost unanimously that the Torah is the work of many authors over many centuries.[11] A major factor in this rejection of the tradition of Mosaic authorship was the development of the documentary hypothesis, which understood the Pentateuch as a composite work made up of four "sources," or documents, compiled over centuries in a process that was not concluded until long after Moses' death.[26] The documentary hypothesis aroused understandable opposition from traditional scholars. One of the most significant was David Zvi Hoffmann (1843-1921), who attempted to defend Mosaic authorship by demonstrating that the sources identified by the documentary hypothesis were, in fact, pre-exilic; if this were proven, he believed, then the hypothesis itself was dis-proven.[27] The most he would concede to the proponents of the hypothesis was that Moses may have written various scrolls over his career and that these may have been collated and united before his death.[28] Another important Jewish scholar, and one still active, is David Weiss Halivni (b.1927): he has developed a theory of Chate'u Yisrael, literally, "Israel has sinned", which states that the originally monotheistic Israelites adopted pagan practices from their neighbours and neglected the Torah of Moses, with the result that it became "blemished and maculated;" only on the return from Babylon did the people once again accept the Torah, which was then recompiled and edited by Ezra as evidenced in Ezra–Nehemiah and Talmudic and Midrashic sources which indicate that Ezra played a role in editing the Torah.[29] He further states that while the text of the Torah was corrupted, oral tradition was preserved intact, which is why the Oral Law appears to contradict the Biblical text in certain details.[29] Menachem Mendel Kasher (1895-1983), taking a different approach, accepted the documentary hypothesis but adapted it to the Mosaic tradition, pointing to certain traditions of the Oral Torah which show Moses quoting Genesis prior to the epiphany at Sinai; based on a number of Bible verses and rabbinic statements, he therefore suggested that Moses made use of documents authored by the Patriarchs when redacting that book.[30] This view is supported by some rabbinical sources and medieval commentaries which recognize that the Torah incorporates written texts and divine messages from before and after the time of Moses;[31]
Mosaic authorship in the Christian tradition[edit]
The Christian scriptures showed Jesus himself recognised Moses as the author of at least some portions of the Pentateuch (e.g., the Gospel of John, verses 5:46-47), and the early Christians therefore followed the rabbis.[32][33] Like them, they addressed those passages which seemed to cast doubt on the Mosaic tradition: Saint Jerome, for example, felt that "unto this day" implied an author long after the time of Moses, presumably the 5th century BCE sage Ezra,[34] and Martin Luther similarly concluded that the description of Moses' death was by Joshua – but believed that the question itself was of no great importance.[35]
Jerome and Luther and others still believed that the bulk of the Pentateuch was by Moses, even if a few phrases were not, but in the 17th century scholars began to seriously question its origins, leading Benedict Spinoza to declare that "the Pentateuch was not written by Moses but by someone else."[36] This conclusion had major implications, for as the 18th century Jewish scholar David Levi pointed out to his Christian colleagues, "if any part [of the Torah] is once proved spurious, a door will be opened for another and another without end."[33]
By the 19th century scholars almost universally accepted that the Book of Deuteronomy dated not from the time of Moses but from the 7th century BCE, and that the Pentateuch as a whole had been compiled by unknown editors from various originally distinct source-documents.[37] As David Levi had feared, the questioning of Mosaic authorship had led to a profound skepticism towards the very idea of revealed religion.[38] Gradually the various Christian churches came to accept the conclusions of scholarship, and when in the 1940s the Vatican lifted a ban on Catholic scholars investigating the origins of the Pentateuch, it left support for Mosaic authorship limited largely to conservative Evangelical circles.[39] This is tied to the way Evangelicals view the unity and authority of scripture: in the words of the Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible, "Faith in Christ and faith in the books of the OT canon stand or fall together [because] Christ and the apostles ... took the Pentateuch as Mosaic [and] put their seal on it as Holy Scripture."[12] Nevertheless, the majority of contemporary Evangelicals, while accepting that some or much of the Pentateuch can be traced to Moses or traditions about him, pay little attention to the question of authorship.[40]
See also[edit]
Bible portal
Authorship of the Bible
Dating the Bible
Documentary hypothesis
The Exodus
Oral Torah
Wiseman hypothesis
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Jews believe that God also revealed an oral Torah to Moses, but this article deals only with the written Torah, the first five books of the Bible.
Jump up ^ The Jewish canon is made up of three parts, the Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings.
Jump up ^ The earliest Jewish text to identify its author is a work called Ben Sirach, dating from the early 2nd century BCE - pronouncements such as "These are the prophecies of Isaiah" identify bodies of tradition rather than authors. See Schniedewind, p.7-10.
Jump up ^ See McEntire, 2008, pp.8-9, for some of the passages in which Moses is said to write (this list is not exhaustive):
Exodus 17:14: God commands Moses: "Write this, a remembrance..." The context indicates that God is commanding Moses to record Joshua's battle with Amalek described in Exodus 7:8-13.
Exodus 24:4: "Moses wrote all the words of the Lord." This apparently refers to the laws which God has just given in Exodus 20:21-23:33.
Exodus 34:28: Moses "wrote upon the tablets the words of the covenant, ten words." The identity of these "ten words" is not made clear, but probably is a reference to the Ten Commandments given several chapters previously, in Exodus 20.
Numbers 33:1-2: "Here are the stages in the journey of the Israelites when they came out of Egypt ... at the Lord’s command Moses recorded the stages in their journey; this is their journey by stages:" There follows a list of the places where the Israelites camped in the wilderness.
Deuteronomy 31:9: "Moses wrote this law and gave it to the priests, the sons of Levi, the ones carrying the Ark of the Covenant of the Lord" and Deuteronomy 31:24: "Moses ... finished writing the words of this law on a scroll." It is not clear just what Moses wrote, but it is usually taken to be the collection of laws that make up Deuteronomy 5-30.
Deuteronomy 31:22: "Moses wrote down this song on that day." The "song" is presumably Deuteronomy 32, the Song of Moses.
Jump up ^ The episode of Balaam, found in the Book of Numbers, tells how the Canaanite prophet Balaam was asked by Israel's enemies to curse Israel, but blessed them instead.
Jump up ^ Eldad and Medad prophesied among the Israelites despite not having received the gift of prophesy from God.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Robinson 2008, p. 97.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Schniedewind 2005, p. 6-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Carr 2000, p. 492.
Jump up ^ McEntire 2008, p. 11.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Collins 2014, p. 50.
^ Jump up to: a b c Robinson 2008, p. 98.
Jump up ^ McEntire 2008, p. 10.
^ Jump up to: a b Heschel 2005, p. 539-540.
^ Jump up to: a b Robinson 2008, p. 97-98.
^ Jump up to: a b Levenson 1993, p. 63.
^ Jump up to: a b McDermott 2002, p. 21.
^ Jump up to: a b Tenney 2010, p. unpaginated.
Jump up ^ McDermott 2002, p. 1.
Jump up ^ Dozeman 2010, p. 73.
Jump up ^ Tigay 2004, p. 106.
Jump up ^ McEntire 2008, p. 7-8.
Jump up ^ Rofé 2002, p. 4-5.
Jump up ^ Bandstra 2008, p. 191.
Jump up ^ McEntire 2008, p. 8-11.
Jump up ^ Heschel 2005, p. 539-540,546.
Jump up ^ Edelman & Ben Zvi 2013, p. 160.
Jump up ^ Heschel 2005, p. 540.
^ Jump up to: a b Levenson 1993, p. 66.
Jump up ^ Levenson 1993, p. 67.
Jump up ^ Edelman & Ben Zvi 2013, p. 208, fn.37.
Jump up ^ Ross 2004, p. 185-186.
Jump up ^ Shavit & Eran 2007, p. 143-144.
Jump up ^ Shavit & Eran 2007, p. 143.
^ Jump up to: a b Ross 2004, p. 192.
Jump up ^ Ross 2004, p. 297, fn.19.
Jump up ^ Ross 2004, p. 97.
Jump up ^ Enns 2012, p. 153.
^ Jump up to: a b Wolf 2007, p. 60.
Jump up ^ Young 1984, p. 115.
Jump up ^ Garrett 1996, p. 387.
Jump up ^ Enns 2012, p. 17.
Jump up ^ Whybray 1995, p. 15.
Jump up ^ Popkin 2003, p. 195-196.
Jump up ^ Davies 2007, p. 19-20.
Jump up ^ Sailhamer 2010, p. 181.
Bibliography[edit]
Bandstra, Barry L (2008). Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Wadsworth. ISBN 0495391050.
Brettler, Marc Zvi (2010). "Torah". In Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Michael D.; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha: New Revised Standard Version. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199370504.
Carr, David (2000). "Genesis, Book of". In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 9789053565032.
Collins, John J. (2014). Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Augsburg Fortress Publishers. ISBN 9781451469233.
Davies, G.I. (2007). "Introduction to the Pentateuch". In Barton, John; Muddiman, John. The Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199277186.
Dozeman, Thomas B. (2010). Methods for Exodus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139487382.
Edelman, Diana V.; Ben Zvi, Ehud (2013). Remembering Biblical Figures in the Late Persian and Early Hellenistic Periods: Social Memory and Imagination. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199664160.
Enns, Peter (2012). The Evolution of Adam. Baker Books. ISBN 9781587433153.
Garrett, Don (1996). The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521398657.
Greifenhagen, Franz V. (2003). Egypt on the Pentateuch's Ideological Map: Constructing Biblical Israel's Identity. Bloomsbury. ISBN 9780826462114.
Heschel, Abraham Joshua (2005). Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations. A&C Black. ISBN 9780826408020.
Kugler, Robert; Hartin, Patrick (2009). The Old Testament between theology and history: a critical survey. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802846365.
Levenson, Jon Douglas (1993). The Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament, and Historical Criticism: Jews and Christians in Biblical Studies. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664254070.
Levin, Christoph L (2005). The Old testament: a brief introduction. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691113947.
Longman, Tremper (2009). An Introduction to the Old Testament. Zondervan. ISBN 9780310539629.
McDermott, John J. (2002). Reading the Pentateuch: a historical introduction. Pauline Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4082-4.
McEntire, Mark (2008). Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch. Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780881461015.
Popkin, Richard S. (2003). The History of Scepticism : From Savonarola to Bayle. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198026716.
Robinson, George (2008). Essential Torah: A Complete Guide to the Five Books of Moses. Knopf Doubleday. ISBN 9780307484376.
Rofé, Alexander (2002). Deuteronomy: issues and interpretation. T&T Clark. ISBN 9780567087546.
Ross, Tamar (2004). Expanding the Palace of Torah: Orthodoxy and Feminism. UPNE.
Sailhamer, John D. (2010). The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition and Interpretation. InterVarsity Press.
Schniedewind, William M. (2005). How the Bible Became a Book: The Textualization of Ancient Israel. Cambridge University Press.
Shavit, Yaacov; Eran, Mordacai (2007). The Hebrew Bible Reborn: From Holy Scripture to the Book of Books. Walter de Gruyter.
Ska, Jean-Louis (2006). Introduction to reading the Pentateuch. Eisenbrauns.
Tenney, Merrill C. (2010). The Zondervan Encyclopedia of the Bible. (volume 4). Zondervan.
Tigay, Jeffrey H. (2004). "Exodus". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi. The Jewish study Bible. Oxford University Press.
Van Seters, John (1998). "The Pentateuch". In Steven L. McKenzie, Matt Patrick Graham. The Hebrew Bible today: an introduction to critical issues. Westminster John Knox Press.
Whybray, R. Norman (1995). Introduction to the Pentateuch. Eerdmans.
Wolf, Herbert (2007). An Introduction to the Old Testament Pentateuch. Moody Publishers. ISBN 9781575674421.
Young, Edward J. (1984). An Introduction to the Old Testament. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802803399.
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text:
List of countries by HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (October 2017)
AIDS and HIV prevalence 2009
No data
< 0.1%
0.1–0.5%
0.5–1%
1–5%
5–15%
15–50%
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes AIDS, varies in prevalence from nation to nation. Listed here are the prevalence rates among adults in various countries, based on data from various sources, largely the CIA World Factbook. [1][2][3] As of 2015, it is estimated that there are 36.7 million people worldwide infected with HIV.[4]
The HIV pandemic is most severe in South Africa. Over 10% of all people living with HIV/AIDS reside within the region. Adult HIV prevalence exceeds 20% in Swaziland, Botswana, and Lesotho, while an additional six countries report adult HIV prevalence of at least 10%. Outside Africa, the highest prevalence rate is found in the Bahamas (3.3%).[5]
In absolute numbers, South Africa (7.1 million), followed by Nigeria (3.2 million), and India (2.1 million) had the highest HIV/AIDS number of cases by the end of 2016.[6][7] While South Africa's large population of HIV-positive people is attributable to its high disease prevalence (18.9%, one of the highest in the world), Nigeria's is lower at 2.9%, and India's prevalence at 0.3% is comparable to Canada and the UK, and is lower than the United States.[1]
On the other end of the spectrum, Svalbard is reported as having no cases of HIV/AIDS, while Bhutan has a much larger population but still only an estimated 246 cases through 2011.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 HIV/AIDS prevalence estimates table
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
HIV/AIDS prevalence estimates table[edit]
This data was sourced from the CIA's world factbook[9] unless referenced otherwise. A horizontal dash - indicates the data was not published. Adult prevalence describes ages between 15-49.
Country
Adult prevalence
of HIV/AIDS [1]
Number of people
with HIV/AIDS [2]
Annual deaths
from HIV/AIDS [3]
Year of estimate
Swaziland 27.20% 220,000 3,900 2016
Lesotho 25.00% 330,000 9,900 2016
Botswana 21.90% 360,000 3,900 2016
South Africa 18.90% 7,100,000 110,000 2016
Namibia 13.80% 230,000 4,300 2016
Zimbabwe 13.50% 1,300,000 30,000 2016
Zambia 12.40% 1,200,000 21,000 2016
Mozambique 12.30% 1,800,000 62,000 2016
Malawi 9.20% 1,000,000 24,000 2016
Uganda 6.50% 1,400,000 28,000 2016
Equatorial Guinea 6.20% 35,000 - 2016
Kenya 5.40% 1,600,000 36,000 2016
Tanzania 4.70% 1,400,000 33,000 2016
Central African Republic 4.00% 130,000 7,300 2016
Cameroon 3.80% 560,000 29,000 2016
Gabon 3.60% 48,000 1,500 2016
Bahamas, The 3.30% 8,200 - 2016
Rwanda 3.10% 220,000 3,300 2016
Congo, Republic of the 3.10% 91,000 3,800 2016
Guinea-Bissau 3.10% 36,000 2,000 2016
Nigeria 2.90% 3,200,000 160,000 2016
Cote d'Ivoire 2.70% 460,000 25,000 2016
South Sudan 2.70% 200,000 13,000 2016
Haiti 2.10% 150,000 4,600 2016
Togo 2.10% 100,000 5,100 2016
Angola 1.90% 280,000 11,000 2016
Belize 1.80% 4,300 - 2016
Sierra Leone 1.70% 67,000 2,800 2016
Gambia, The 1.70% 20,000 1,100 2016
Jamaica 1.70% 30,000 1,300 2016
Liberia 1.60% 43,000 2,800 2016
Guyana 1.60% 8,500 - 2016
Ghana 1.60% 290,000 15,000 2016
Guinea 1.50% 120,000 5,800 2016
Suriname 1.40% 4,900 - 2016
Barbados 1.30% 2,600 - 2016
Djibouti 1.30% 8,600 - 2016
Chad 1.30% 110,000 2,800 2016
Trinidad and Tobago 1.20% 11,000 - 2016
Thailand 1.10% 450,000 16,000 2016
Ethiopia 1.10% 710,000 20,000 2016
Burundi 1.10% 84,000 2,900 2016
Benin 1.00% 67,000 2,400 2016
Mali 1.00% 110,000 6,100 2016
Dominican Republic 1.00% 67,000 2,200 2016
Ukraine 0.90% 240,000 8,500 2016
Papua New Guinea 0.90% 46,000 1,100 2016
Cabo Verde 0.80% 2,800 - 2016
Panama 0.80% 21,000 - 2016
Burma 0.80% 230,000 7,800 2016
Burkina Faso 0.80% 95,000 3,100 2016
Latvia 0.70% 6,600 - 2016
Congo, Democratic Republic of 0.70% 370,000 19,000 2016
Cambodia 0.60% 71,000 1,800 2016
Venezuela 0.60% 120,000 2,500 2016
Moldova 0.60% 15,000 - 2016
Eritrea 0.60% 15,000 - 2016
El Salvador 0.60% 24,000 - 2016
Uruguay 0.60% 12,000 - 2016
Brazil 0.60% 830,000 14,000 2016
Georgia 0.50% 12,000 - 2016
Mauritania 0.50% 11,000 - 2016
Chile 0.50% 61,000 - 2016
Guatemala 0.50% 46,000 1,600 2016
Paraguay 0.50% 19,000 - 2016
Niger 0.40% 48,000 3,400 2016
Malaysia 0.40% 97,000 7,000 2016
Indonesia 0.40% 620,000 38,000 2016
Honduras 0.40% 21,000 - 2016
Canada 0.40% 180,000 - 2016
Cuba 0.40% 25,000 - 2016
Costa Rica 0.40% 13,000 - 2016
Colombia 0.40% 120,000 2,800 2016
Vietnam 0.40% 250,000 8,000 2016
Argentina 0.40% 120,000 2,400 2016
Belarus 0.40% 19,000 - 2016
USA 0.30% 1,100,000 - 2015[10]
Somalia 0.90% 2016
Senegal 0.40% 41,000 1,900 2016
India 0.30% 2,100,000 62,000 2016
Ecuador 0.30% 33,000 - 2016
Bolivia 0.30% 19,000 - 2016
Tajikistan 0.30% 14,000 - 2016
Peru 0.30% 70,000 2,200 2016
Italy 0.30% 130,000 - 2016
Laos 0.30% 11,000 - 2016
Mexico 0.30% 220,000 4,200 2016
Armenia 0.20% 3,300 - 2016
Ireland 0.20% 6,200 - 2016
Kazakhstan 0.20% 26,000 - 2016
Kyrgyzstan 0.20% 8,500 - 2016
Lithuania 0.20% 2,900 - 2016
Madagascar 0.20% 31,000 1,600 2016
Nepal 0.20% 32,000 1,700 2016
Netherlands 0.20% 23,000 - 2016
Nicaragua 0.20% 8,900 - 2016
Sudan 0.20% 56,000 3,000 2016
Sweden 0.20% 11,000 - 2016
Albania 0.10% 1,700 - 2016
Australia 0.10% 25,000 - 2016
Fiji 0.10% - - 2016
Taiwan [11] 0.10% 31,620 - 2016
Azerbaijan 0.10% 9,200 - 2016
Iran 0.10% 66,000 4,000 2016
Romania 0.10% 16,000 - 2016
Montenegro 0.10% - - 2016
Morocco 0.10% 22,000 - 2016
Pakistan 0.10% 130,000 5,500 2016
Malta 0.10% - - 2016
Philippines <0.10% 24,936 - April 2015 (Department of Health)
Algeria - 13,000 - 2016
Bangladesh - 12,000 1,000 2016
Egypt - 11,000 - 2016
Yemen - 9,900 - 2016
Saudi Arabia - 8,200 - 2016
Afghanistan - 7,500 - 2016
Sri Lanka - 4,000 - 2016
Bulgaria - 3,500 - 2016
Czech Republic - 3,400 - 2016
Tunisia - 2,900 - 2016
Serbia - 2,700 - 2016
Lebanon - 2,200 - 2016
Croatia - 1,500 - 2016
Bosnia 0.009% 350 - 2017
See also[edit]
AIDS pandemic
HIV and men who have sex with men
By region:
HIV/AIDS in Africa
HIV/AIDS in Asia
HIV/AIDS in Europe
HIV/AIDS in North America
HIV/AIDS in South America
References[edit]
This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook website https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html.
^ Jump up to: a b c "CIA world factbook - HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate".
^ Jump up to: a b "CIA world factbook - HIV/AIDS people living with".
^ Jump up to: a b "CIA world factbook - HIV/AIDS deaths".
Jump up ^ "GLOBAL HIV AND AIDS STATISTICS". AVERT. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
Jump up ^ http://factbook.lincon.com/geos/print/country/countrypdf_bf.pdf
Jump up ^ "UNAIDS.org - HIV and AIDS estimates (2013)".
Jump up ^ "The Hindu - India has 3rd-highest number of HIV-infected people: UN".
Jump up ^ "The Ministry of Health has Detected…". Bhutan Observer online. 2011-08-01. Archived from the original on 2011-10-28. Retrieved 2011-11-21.
Jump up ^ "CIA world factbook - country comparison".
Jump up ^ https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/statistics/overview/index.html
Jump up ^ https://www.cdc.gov.tw/downloadfile.aspx?fid=40CE068DC7A0F111
External links[edit]
HIV/AIDS Survey Indicators Database
World Health Organisation; Prevalence of HIV among adults aged 15 to 49 (%) by country
World Health Organisation; Number of deaths due to AIDS by country
World Health Organisation; Number of people (all ages) living with HIV by country
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Platinum group
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Platinum group metals (PGMs) in the periodic table
H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba La * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Ac ** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
* Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
** Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Platinum group metals
Other noble metals
The platinum-group metals (abbreviated as the PGMs; alternatively, the platinoids, platinides, platidises, platinum group, platinum metals, platinum family or platinum-group elements (PGEs)) are six noble, precious metallic elements clustered together in the periodic table. These elements are all transition metals in the d-block (groups 8, 9, and 10, periods 5 and 6).[1][1]
The six platinum-group metals are ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum. They have similar physical and chemical properties, and tend to occur together in the same mineral deposits.[2] However they can be further subdivided into the iridium-group platinum-group elements (IPGEs: Os, Ir, Ru) and the palladium-group platinum-group elements (PPGEs: Rh, Pt, Pd) based on their behaviour in geological systems.[3]
The three elements above the platinum group in the periodic table (iron, nickel and cobalt) are all ferromagnetic, these being the only known transition metals with this property.
Contents
1 History
2 Properties and uses
3 Occurrence
4 PGM minerals
4.1 Platinum
4.2 Osmium
4.3 Iridium
4.4 Ruthenium
4.5 Rhodium
4.6 Palladium
5 Production
5.1 Production in nuclear reactors
6 See also
7 Notes
8 External links
History[edit]
Naturally occurring platinum and platinum-rich alloys were known by pre-Columbian Americans for many years.[4] Though the metal was used by pre-Columbian peoples, the first European reference to platinum appears in 1557 in the writings of the Italian humanist Julius Caesar Scaliger (1484–1558) as a description of a mysterious metal found in Central American mines between Darién (Panama) and Mexico ("up until now impossible to melt by any of the Spanish arts").[4]
The name platinum is derived from the Spanish word platina “little silver", the name given to the metal by Spanish settlers in Colombia. They regarded platinum as an unwanted impurity in the silver they were mining.[4][5]
Properties and uses[edit]
Replica of the NIST national prototype kilogram standard, made in 90% platinum - 10% iridium alloy
As of 1996, the largest applications of platinum metals were, in thousands of troy ounces/year: Pd for autocatalysts (4470), Pt for jewelry (2370), Pd for electronics (2070), Pt for autocatalysts (1830), Pd for dental (1230), Rh for autocatalysts (490), and Pd for chemical reagents (230).[1]
The platinum metals have many useful catalytic properties. They are highly resistant to wear and tarnish, making platinum, in particular, well suited for fine jewelry. Other distinctive properties include resistance to chemical attack, excellent high-temperature characteristics, and stable electrical properties. All these properties have been exploited for industrial applications.[6]
Occurrence[edit]
Generally, ultramafic and mafic igneous rocks have relatively high, and granites low, PGE trace content. Geochemically anomalous traces occur predominantly in chromian spinels and sulfides. Mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks host practically all primary PGM ore of the world. Mafic layered intrusions, including the Bushveld Complex, outweigh by far all other geological settings of platinum deposits.[7] Other economically significant PGE deposits include mafic intrusions related to flood basalts, and ultramafic complexes of the Alaska, Urals type.[8]
PGM minerals[edit]
Typical ores for PGMs contain ca. 10 g PGM/ton ore, thus the identity of the particular mineral is unknown.[9]
Platinum[edit]
Platinum can occur as a native metal, but it can also occur in various different minerals and alloys.[10][11] That said, Sperrylite (platinum arsenide, PtAs2) ore is by far the most significant source of this metal.[12] A naturally occurring platinum-iridium alloy, platiniridium, is found in the mineral cooperite (platinum sulfide, PtS). Platinum in a native state, often accompanied by small amounts of other platinum metals, is found in alluvial and placer deposits in Colombia, Ontario, the Ural Mountains, and in certain western American states. Platinum is also produced commercially as a by-product of nickel ore processing. The huge quantities of nickel ore processed makes up for the fact that platinum makes up only two parts per million of the ore. South Africa, with vast platinum ore deposits in the Merensky Reef of the Bushveld complex, is the world's largest producer of platinum, followed by Russia.[13][14] Platinum and palladium are also mined commercially from the Stillwater igneous complex in Montana, USA. Leaders of primary platinum production are South Africa and Russia, followed by Canada, Zimbabwe and USA.
Osmium[edit]
Osmiridium is a naturally occurring alloy of iridium and osmium found in platinum-bearing river sands in the Ural Mountains and in North and South America. Trace amounts of osmium also exist in nickel-bearing ores found in the Sudbury, Ontario region along with other platinum group metals. Even though the quantity of platinum metals found in these ores is small, the large volume of nickel ores processed makes commercial recovery possible.[14][15]
Iridium[edit]
Metallic iridium is found with platinum and other platinum group metals in alluvial deposits. Naturally occurring iridium alloys include osmiridium and iridosmine, both of which are mixtures of iridium and osmium. It is recovered commercially as a by-product from nickel mining and processing.[14]
Ruthenium[edit]
Ruthenium is generally found in ores with the other platinum group metals in the Ural Mountains and in North and South America. Small but commercially important quantities are also found in pentlandite extracted from Sudbury, Ontario and in pyroxenite deposits in South Africa.[14]
Rhodium[edit]
The industrial extraction of rhodium is complex, because it occurs in ores mixed with other metals such as palladium, silver, platinum, and gold. It is found in platinum ores and obtained free as a white inert metal which is very difficult to fuse. Principal sources of this element are located in river sands of the Ural Mountains, in North and South America and also in the copper-nickel sulfide mining area of the Sudbury Basin region. Although the quantity at Sudbury is very small, the large amount of nickel ore processed makes rhodium recovery cost effective. However, the annual world production in 2003 of this element is only 7 or 8 tons and there are very few rhodium minerals.[16]
Palladium[edit]
Palladium is preferentially hosted in sulphide minerals, primarily in pyrrhotite.[7] Palladium is found as a free metal and alloyed with platinum and gold with platinum group metals in placer deposits of the Ural Mountains of Eurasia, Australia, Ethiopia, South and North America. However it is commercially produced from nickel-copper deposits found in South Africa and Ontario, Canada. The huge volume of nickel-copper ore processed makes this extraction profitable in spite of its low concentration in these ores.[16][dead link]
Production[edit]
Process flow diagram for the separation of the platinum group metals.
The production of individual platinum group metals normally starts from residues of the production of other metals with a mixture of several of those metals. Purification typically starts with the anode residues of gold, copper, or nickel production. Thus, the extraction process is very energy intensive with environmental consequences. Classical purification methods exploit differences in chemical reactivity and solubility of several compounds of the metals under extraction.[6] These approaches have yielded to new technologies that utilize solvent extraction.
Separation begins with dissolution of the sample. If aqua regia is used, the chloride complexes are produced. Depending on the details of the process, which are often trade secrets, the individual PGMs are obtained as the following compounds: the poorly soluble (NH4)2IrCl6 and (NH4)2PtCl6, PdCl2(NH3)2, the volatile OsO4 and RuO4, and [RhCl(NH3)5]Cl2.[9]
Production in nuclear reactors[edit]
Main article: Synthesis of precious metals
Significant quantities of the three light platinum group metals—ruthenium, rhodium and palladium—are formed as fission products in nuclear reactors.[17] With escalating prices and increasing global demand, reactor-produced noble metals are emerging as an alternative source. Various reports are available on the possibility of recovering fission noble metals from spent nuclear fuel.[18][19][20]
See also[edit]
Platinum group metals in Africa
Merensky Reef
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Renner, H.; Schlamp, G.; Kleinwächter, I.; Drost, E.; Lüschow, H. M.; Tews, P.; Panster, P.; Diehl, M.; et al. (2002). "Platinum group metals and compounds". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley. doi:10.1002/14356007.a21_075.
Jump up ^ Harris, D. C.; Cabri L. J. (1991). "Nomenclature of platinum-group-element alloys; review and revision". The Canadian Mineralogist. 29 (2): 231&ndash, 237.
Jump up ^ Rollinson, Hugh (1993). Using Geochemical Data: Evaluation, Presentation, Interpretation. Longman Scientific and Technical. ISBN 0-582-06701-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c Weeks, M. E. (1968). Discovery of the Elements (7 ed.). Journal of Chemical Education. pp. 385&ndash, 407. ISBN 0-8486-8579-2. OCLC 23991202.
Jump up ^ Woods, Ian (2004). The Elements: Platinum. Benchmark Books. ISBN 978-0-7614-1550-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Hunt, L. B.; Lever, F. M. (1969). "Platinum Metals: A Survey of Productive Resources to industrial Uses" (PDF). Platinum Metals Review. 13 (4): 126&ndash, 138. Retrieved 2009-10-02.
^ Jump up to: a b Walter L. Pohl, Economic Geology Principles and Practice 2011
Jump up ^ Walter L. Pohl, Economic Geology Principles and Practice 2011, P 230
^ Jump up to: a b Bernardis, F. L.; Grant, R. A.; Sherrington, D. C. "A review of methods of separation of the platinum-group metals through their chloro-complexes" Reactive and Functional Polymers 2005, Vol. 65,, p. 205-217. doi:10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2005.05.011
Jump up ^ "Mineral Profile: Platinum". British Geological Survey. September 2009. Retrieved 6 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "Search Minerals By Chemistry - Platinum". www.mindat.org. Retrieved 2018-02-08.
Jump up ^ Feick, Kathy. "Platinum | Earth Sciences Museum | University of Waterloo". University of Waterloo. Retrieved 6 February 2018.
Jump up ^ Xiao, Z.; Laplante, A. R. (2004). "Characterizing and recovering the platinum group minerals—a review". Minerals Engineering. 17 (9–10): 961&ndash, 979. doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2004.04.001.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Platinum–Group Metals" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries. January 2007. Retrieved 2008-09-09.
Jump up ^ Emsley, J. (2003). "Iridium". Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford, England, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 201–204. ISBN 0-19-850340-7.
^ Jump up to: a b Chevalier, Patrick. "Mineral Yearbook: Platinum Group Metals" (PDF). Natural Resources Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-02-13. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
Jump up ^ R. J. Newman, F. J. Smith (1970). "Platinum Metals from Nuclear Fission – an evaluation of their possible use by the industry" (PDF). Platinum Metals Review. 14 (3): 88.
Jump up ^ Zdenek Kolarik, Edouard V. Renard (2003). "Recovery of Value Fission Platinoids from Spent Nuclear Fuel; PART I: general considerations and basic chemistry" (PDF). Platinum Metals Review. 47 (2): 74.
Jump up ^ Kolarik, Zdenek; Renard, Edouard V. (2005). "Potential Applications of Fission Platinoids in Industry" (PDF). Platinum Metals Review. 49 (2): 79. doi:10.1595/147106705X35263.
Jump up ^ Zdenek Kolarik, Edouard V. Renard (2003). "Recovery of Value Fission Platinoids from Spent Nuclear Fuel; PART II: Separation process" (PDF). Platinum Metals Review. 47 (3): 123.
External links[edit]
Platinum Today: The world's leading authority on platinum group metals
Platinum Group Spot Prices
USGS page on PGM's
Platinum Metals Review: A free, quarterly journal of research on the science and technology of the platinum group metals and developments in their application in industry
Accenture report on platinum group metals from non-terrestrial sources
The PGM Database: Data defining the physical properties and characteristics of the platinum group metals and their alloys
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