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Biomass
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This article is about biomass as a renewable energy source. For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology).
Biomass briquettes are an example fuel for production of dendrothermal energy
Biomass is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and other organic matter. Burning biomass releases carbon emissions, but has been classed as a renewable energy source in the EU and UN legal frameworks, because plant stocks can be replaced with new growth.[1] It has become popular among coal power stations, which switch from coal to biomass in order to convert to renewable energy generation without wasting existing generating plant and infrastructure. Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, and are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass.[2] As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods.
Contents
[hide]
1 Biomass sources
2 Comparison of total plant biomass yields (dry basis)
2.1 World resources
2.2 Common commodity food crops
2.3 Woody crops
2.4 Not yet in commercial planting
2.5 Genetically modified varieties
3 Biomass conversion
3.1 Thermal conversions
3.2 Chemical conversion
3.3 Biochemical conversion
3.4 Electrochemical conversion
3.5 In the United States
3.6 Second-generation biofuels
4 Environmental damage
5 Supply chain issues
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Biomass sources[edit]
A cogeneration plant in Metz, France. The station uses waste wood biomass as an energy source, and provides electricity and heat for 30,000 dwellings.
Stump harvesting increases the recovery of biomass from a forest.
Sugarcane plantation in Brazil. Sugarcane bagasse is a type of biomass.
Eucalyptus in Brazil. Remains of the tree are reused for power generation.
Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time when people began burning wood to make fire.[3] Even today, biomass is the only source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The estimated biomass production in the world is 104.9 petagrams (104.9 × 1015 g – about 105 billion metric tons) of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land.[4]
Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today;[3] examples include forest residues (such as dead trees, branches and tree stumps), yard clippings, wood chips and even municipal solid waste. Wood energy is derived by using lignocellulosic biomass (second-generation biofuels) as fuel. Harvested wood may be used directly as a fuel or collected from wood waste streams to be processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or "black liquor," a waste product from processes of the pulp, paper and paperboard industry.[citation needed] In the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of plants, including miscanthus,[5] switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo,[6] and a variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm oil).
Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories. First-generation biofuels are derived from sources such as sugarcane and corn starch. Sugars present in this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol, an alcohol fuel which can be used directly in a fuel cell to produce electricity or serve as an additive to gasoline. However, utilizing food-based resources for fuel production only aggravates the food shortage problem.[7] Second-generation biofuels, on the other hand, utilize non-food-based biomass sources such as agriculture and municipal waste. These biofuels mostly consist of lignocellulosic biomass, which is not edible and is a low-value waste for many industries. Despite being the favored alternative, economical production of second-generation biofuel is not yet achieved due to technological issues. These issues arise mainly due to chemical inertness and structural rigidity of lignocellulosic biomass.[8][9][10]
Plant energy is produced by crops specifically grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy. Some examples of these plants are wheat, which typically yields 7.5–8 tonnes of grain per hectare, and straw, which typically yields 3.5–5 tonnes per hectare in the UK.[11] The grain can be used for liquid transportation fuels while the straw can be burned to produce heat or electricity. Plant biomass can also be degraded from cellulose to glucose through a series of chemical treatments, and the resulting sugar can then be used as a first-generation biofuel.
The main contributors of waste energy are municipal solid waste, manufacturing waste, and landfill gas. Energy derived from biomass is projected to be the largest non-hydroelectric renewable resource of electricity in the US between 2000 and 2020.[12]
Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, all release methane gas, also called landfill gas or biogas. Crops such as corn and sugarcane can be fermented to produce the transportation fuel ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from leftover food products like vegetable oils and animal fats.[13] Several biodiesel companies simply collect used restaurant cooking oil and convert it into biodiesel.[14] Also, biomass-to-liquids (called "BTLs") and cellulosic ethanol are still under research.[15][16]
There is research involving algae or algae-derived biomass, as this non-food resource can be produced at rates five to ten times those of other types of land-based agriculture, such as corn and soy. Once harvested, it can be fermented to produce biofuels such as ethanol, butanol, and methane, as well as biodiesel and hydrogen. Efforts are being made to identify which species of algae are most suitable for energy production. Genetic engineering approaches could also be utilized to improve microalgae as a source of biofuel.[17]
The biomass used for electricity generation varies by region. Forest by-products, such as wood residues, are common in the US. Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius (sugar cane residue) and Southeast Asia (rice husks). Animal husbandry residues, such as poultry litter, are common in the UK.[18]
Sewage sludge can be another source of biomass. For example, the Omni Processor is a process which uses sewage sludge as fuel in a process of sewage sludge treatment, with surplus electrical energy being generated for export.[19][20]
Comparison of total plant biomass yields (dry basis)[edit]
World resources[edit]
If the total annual primary production of biomass is just over 100 billion (1.0E+11) tonnes of carbon /yr,[21] and the energy reserve per tonne of biomass is between about 1.5×103 and 3×103 kilowatt hours (5×106 and 10×106 BTU),[22] or 24.8 TW average, then biomass could in principle provide 1.4 times the approximate annual 150×103 terawatt-hours required for current world energy consumption.[23] For reference, the total solar power on Earth is 174 PW. The biomass equivalent to solar energy ratio is 143 ppm (parts per million), given current living system coverage on Earth. The best currently attainable solar cell efficiency is 20–40%. Additionally, Earth's internal radioactive energy production, largely the driver for volcanic activity, continental drift, etc., is in the same range of power, 20 TW. At around 50% carbon mass content in biomass, annual production, this corresponds to about 6% atmospheric carbon content in the form of CO2 (for the current 400 ppm).
(1×1011 tonnes biomass annually produced approximately 25 TW·h)
Annual world biomass energy equivalent =16.7–33.4 TW·h.
Annual world energy consumption =17.7 TW·h. On average, biomass production is 1.4 times larger than world energy consumption.
Common commodity food crops[edit]
Agave: 1–21 tons/acre[24]
Alfalfa: 4–6 tons/acre[25]
Barley: grains – 1.6–2.8 tons/acre, straw – 0.9–2.5 tons/acre, total – 2.5–5.3 tons/acre[26]
Corn: grains – 3.2–4.9 tons/acre, stalks and stovers – 2.3–3.4 tons/acre, total – 5.5–8.3 tons/acre[25]
Jerusalem artichokes: tubers 1–8 tons/acre, tops 2–13 tons/acre, total 9–13 tons/acre[27]
Oats: grains – 1.4–5.4 tons/acre, straw – 1.9–3.2 tons/acre, total – 3.3–8.6 tons/acre[26]
Rye: grains – 2.1–2.4 tons/acre, straw – 2.4–3.4 tons/acre, total – 4.5–5.8 tons/acre[26]
Wheat: grains – 1.2–4.1 tons/acre, straw – 1.6–3.8 tons/acre, total – 2.8–7.9 tons/acre[26]
Woody crops[edit]
Oil palm: fronds 11 ton/acre, whole fruit bunches 1 ton/acre, trunks 30 ton/acre[28]
Not yet in commercial planting[edit]
Giant miscanthus: 5–15 tons/acre [29]
Sunn hemp: 4.5 tons/acre[30]
Switchgrass: 4–6 tons/acre[25]
Genetically modified varieties[edit]
Energy Sorghum
Biomass conversion[edit]
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Thermal conversions[edit]
Trends in the top five countries generating electricity from biomass
Thermal conversion processes use heat as the dominant mechanism to convert biomass into another chemical form. Also known as thermal oil heating, it is a type of indirect heating in which a liquid phase heat transfer medium is heated and circulated to one or more heat energy users within a closed loop system.[31] The basic alternatives of combustion (torrefaction, pyrolysis, and gasification) are separated principally by the extent to which the chemical reactions involved are allowed to proceed (mainly controlled by the availability of oxygen and conversion temperature).
Energy created by burning biomass is particularly suited for countries where the fuel wood grows more rapidly, e.g. tropical countries. There are a number of other less common, more experimental or proprietary thermal processes that may offer benefits such as hydrothermal upgrading (HTU) and hydroprocessing. Some have been developed for use on high moisture content biomass, including aqueous slurries, and allow them to be converted into more convenient forms. Some of the applications of thermal conversion are combined heat and power (CHP) and co-firing. In a typical dedicated biomass power plant, efficiencies range from 20–27% (higher heating value basis).[32] Biomass cofiring with coal, by contrast, typically occurs at efficiencies near those of the coal combustor (30–40%, higher heating value basis).[33]
Chemical conversion[edit]
A range of chemical processes may be used to convert biomass into other forms, such as to produce a fuel that is more conveniently used, transported or stored, or to exploit some property of the process itself. Many of these processes are based in large part on similar coal-based processes, such as Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, methanol production, olefins (ethylene and propylene), and similar chemical or fuel feedstocks. In most cases, the first step involves gasification, which step generally is the most expensive and involves the greatest technical risk.[34] Biomass is more difficult to feed into a pressure vessel than coal or any liquid. Therefore, biomass gasification is frequently done at atmospheric pressure and causes combustion of biomass to produce a combustible gas consisting of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and traces of methane. This gas mixture, called a producer gas, can provide fuel for various vital processes, such as internal combustion engines, as well as substitute for furnace oil in direct heat applications.[35] Because any biomass material can undergo gasification, this process is far more attractive than ethanol or biomass production, where only particular biomass materials can be used to produce a fuel. In addition, biomass gasification is a desirable process due to the ease at which it can convert solid waste (such as wastes available on a farm) into producer gas, which is a very usable fuel.[35]
Conversion of biomass to biofuel can also be achieved via selective conversion of individual components of biomass.[36] For example, cellulose can be converted to intermediate platform chemical such a sorbitol,[37] glucose,[38] hydroxymethylfurfural[39] etc. These chemical are then further reacted to produce hydrogen or hydrocarbon fuels.[40]
Biomass also has the potential to be converted to multiple commodity chemicals. Halomethanes have successfully been by produced using a combination of A. fermentans and engineered S. cerevisiae.[41] This method converts NaX salts and unprocessed biomass such as switchgrass, sugarcane, corn stover, or poplar into halomethanes. S-adenosylmethionine which is naturally occurring in S. cerevisiae allows a methyl group to be transferred. Production levels of 150 mg L-1H-1 iodomethane were achieved. At these levels roughly 173000 L of capacity would need to be operated just to replace the United States’ need for iodomethane.[41] However, an advantage of this method is that it uses NaI rather than I2; NaI is significantly less hazardous than I2. This method may be applied to produce ethylene in the future.
Other chemical processes such as converting straight and waste vegetable oils into biodiesel is transesterification.[42]
Biochemical conversion[edit]
As biomass is a natural material, many highly efficient biochemical processes have developed in nature to break down the molecules of which biomass is composed, and many of these biochemical conversion processes can be harnessed.
Biochemical conversion makes use of the enzymes of bacteria and other microorganisms to break down biomass into gaseous or liquid fuels, such a biogas or bioethanol.[43] In most cases, microorganisms are used to perform the conversion process: anaerobic digestion, fermentation, and composting.
Glycoside hydrolases are the enzymes involved in the degradation of the major fraction of biomass, such as polysaccharides present in starch and lignocellulose. Thermostable variants are gaining increasing roles as catalysts in biorefining applications in the future bioeconomy, since recalcitrant biomass often needs thermal treatment for more efficient degradation. Some examples in today´s processing include production of monosaccharides for food applications as well as use as carbon source for microbial conversion into metabolites such as bioethanol and chemical intermediates, oligocaccharide production for prebiotic (nutrition) applications and production of surfactants alkyl glycoside type.[44]
Electrochemical conversion[edit]
In addition to combustion, biomass/biofuels can be directly converted to electrical energy via electrochemical (electrocatalytic) oxidation of the material. This can be performed directly in a direct carbon fuel cell,[45] direct liquid fuel cells such as direct ethanol fuel cell, a direct methanol fuel cell, a direct formic acid fuel cell, a L-ascorbic Acid Fuel Cell (vitamin C fuel cell),[46] and a microbial fuel cell.[47] The fuel can also be consumed indirectly via a fuel cell system containing a reformer which converts the biomass into a mixture of CO and H2 before it is consumed in the fuel cell.[48]
In the United States[edit]
The biomass power generating industry in the United States consists of approximately 11,000 MW of summer operating capacity actively supplying power to the grid, and produces about 1.4 percent of the U.S. electricity supply.[49]
Public Service of New Hampshire (later merged with other companies into Eversource) in 2006 replaced a 50 MW coal boiler with a new 50 MW biomass boiler at its Schiller Station facility in Portsmouth, NH.[50] The boiler's biomass fuel is from sources in NH, Massachusetts and Maine.
Currently, the New Hope Power Partnership is the largest biomass power plant in the U.S. The 140 MW facility uses sugarcane fiber (bagasse) and recycled urban wood as fuel to generate enough power for its large milling and refining operations as well as to supply electricity for nearly 60,000 homes.[51][52]
In Vermont in 2017, biomass cost $85 per megawatt, and wholesale electricity was about $25 a megawatt, making biomass more expensive, particularly when compared to fracked natural gas.[53]
Second-generation biofuels[edit]
Second-generation biofuels were not (in 2010) produced commercially, but a considerable number of research activities were taking place mainly in North America, Europe and also in some emerging countries. These tend to use feedstock produced by rapidly reproducing enzymes or bacteria from various sources including excrement[54] grown in cell cultures or hydroponics.[55][56] There is huge potential for second generation biofuels but non-edible feedstock resources are highly under-utilized.[57]
Environmental damage[edit]
Using biomass as a fuel produces air pollution in the form of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, NOx (nitrogen oxides), VOCs (volatile organic compounds), particulates and other pollutants at levels above those from traditional fuel sources such as coal or natural gas in some cases (such as with indoor heating and cooking).[58][59][60] Use of wood biomass as a fuel can also produce fewer particulate and other pollutants than open burning as seen in wildfires or direct heat applications.[61] Black carbon – a pollutant created by combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass – is possibly the second largest contributor to global warming.[62]:56–57 In 2009 a Swedish study of the giant brown haze that periodically covers large areas in South Asia determined that it had been principally produced by open burning of biomass, and to a lesser extent by fossil-fuel burning.[63] Researchers measured a significant concentration of 14C (Carbon-14), which is associated with recent plant life rather than with fossil fuels.[64]
Biomass power plant size is often driven by biomass availability in close proximity as transport costs of the (bulky) fuel play a key factor in the plant's economics. Rail and especially shipping on waterways can reduce transport costs significantly, which has led to a global biomass market.[65] To make small plants of 1 MWel economically profitable those power plants need to be equipped with technology that is able to convert biomass to useful electricity with high efficiency such as ORC technology, a cycle similar to the water steam power process just with an organic working medium. Such small power plants can be found in Europe.[66][67][68][69]
On combustion, the carbon from biomass is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2). The amount of carbon stored in dry wood is approximately 50% by weight.[70] However, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, plant matter used as a fuel can be replaced by planting for new growth. When the biomass is from forests, the time to recapture the carbon stored is generally longer, and the carbon storage capacity of the forest may be reduced overall if destructive forestry techniques are employed.[71][72][73][74]
Industry professionals claim that a range of issues can affect a plant's ability to comply with emissions standards. Some of these challenges, unique to biomass plants, include inconsistent fuel supplies and age. The type and amount of the fuel supply are completely reliant factors; the fuel can be in the form of building debris or agricultural waste (such as removal of invasive species or orchard trimmings). Furthermore, many of the biomass plants are old, use outdated technology and were not built to comply with today’s stringent standards. In fact, many are based on technologies developed during the term of U.S. President Jimmy Carter, who created the United States Department of Energy in 1977.[3]
The U.S. Energy Information Administration projected that by 2017, biomass is expected to be about twice as expensive as natural gas, slightly more expensive than nuclear power, and much less expensive than solar panels.[75] In another EIA study released, concerning the government’s plan to implement a 25% renewable energy standard by 2025, the agency assumed that 598 million tons of biomass would be available, accounting for 12% of the renewable energy in the plan.[76]
The adoption of biomass-based energy plants has been a slow but steady process. Between the years of 2002 and 2012 the production of these plants has increased 14%.[77] In the United States, alternative electricity-production sources on the whole generate about 13% of power; of this fraction, biomass contributes approximately 11% of the alternative production.[78] According to a study conducted in early 2012, of the 107 operating biomass plants in the United States, 85 have been cited by federal or state regulators for the violation of clean air or water standards laws over the past 5 years. This data also includes minor infractions.[77]
Despite harvesting, biomass crops may sequester carbon. For example, soil organic carbon has been observed to be greater in switchgrass stands than in cultivated cropland soil, especially at depths below 30 cm (12 in).[79] The grass sequesters the carbon in its increased root biomass. Typically, perennial crops sequester much more carbon than annual crops due to much greater non-harvested living biomass, both living and dead, built up over years, and much less soil disruption in cultivation.
The proposal that biomass is carbon-neutral put forward in the early 1990s has been superseded by more recent science that recognizes that mature, intact forests sequester carbon more effectively than cut-over areas. When a tree's carbon is released into the atmosphere in a single pulse, it contributes to climate change much more than woodland timber rotting slowly over decades. Current studies indicate that "even after 50 years the forest has not recovered to its initial carbon storage" and "the optimal strategy is likely to be protection of the standing forest".[80][not in citation given][81][82]
The pros and cons of biomass usage regarding carbon emissions may be quantified with the ILUC factor. There is controversy surrounding the usage of the ILUC factor.[83]
Forest-based biomass has recently come under fire from a number of environmental organizations, including Greenpeace and the Natural Resources Defense Council, for the harmful impacts it can have on forests and the climate. Greenpeace recently released a report entitled "Fuelling a BioMess"[84] which outlines their concerns around forest-based biomass. Because any part of the tree can be burned, the harvesting of trees for energy production encourages whole-tree harvesting, which removes more nutrients and soil cover than regular harvesting, and can be harmful to the long-term health of the forest. In some jurisdictions, forest biomass removal is increasingly involving elements essential to functioning forest ecosystems, including standing trees, naturally disturbed forests and remains of traditional logging operations that were previously left in the forest. Environmental groups also cite recent scientific research which has found that it can take many decades for the carbon released by burning biomass to be recaptured by regrowing trees, and even longer in low productivity areas; furthermore, logging operations may disturb forest soils and cause them to release stored carbon.[citation needed] In light of the pressing need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the short term in order to mitigate the effects of climate change, a number of environmental groups are opposing the large-scale use of forest biomass in energy production.[84][85]
Supply chain issues[edit]
With the seasonality of biomass supply and a great variability in sources, supply chains play a key role in cost-effective delivery of bioenergy. There are several potential challenges unique to bioenergy supply chains:[86]
Technical issues
Inefficiencies of the conversion processes
Storage methods for seasonal availability
Complex multi-component constituents incompatible with maximizing efficiency of single purpose use
High water content of many biomass feedstock
Conflicting decisions (technologies, locations, and routes)
Complex location analysis (source points, inventory facilities, and production plants)
Logistic issues
Seasonal availability leading to storage challenges and/or seasonally idle facilities
Low bulk-density and/or high water content making transportation of biomass less economical
Finite productivity per area and/or time incompatible with conventional approach to economy of scale focusing on maximizing facility size
Financial issues
The limits for the traditional approach to economy of scale which focuses on maximizing single facility size
Unavailability and complexity of life cycle costing data
Lack of required transport infrastructure
Limited flexibility or inflexibility to energy demand
Risks associated with new technologies (insurability, performance, rate of return)
Extended market volatilities (conflicts with alternative markets for biomass)
Difficult or impossible to use financial hedging methods to control cost
Social issues
Lack of participatory decision making
Lack of public/community awareness
Local supply chain impacts vs. global benefits
Health and safety risks
Extra pressure on transport sector
Decreasing the esthetics of rural areas
Policy and regulatory issues
Impact of fossil fuel tax on biomass transport
Lack of incentives to create competition among bioenergy producers
Focus on technology options and less attention to selection of biomass materials
Lack of support for sustainable supply chain solutions
Institutional and organizational issues
Varied ownership arrangements and priorities among supply chain parties
Lack of supply chain standards
Impact of organizational norms and rules on decision making and supply chain coordination
Immaturity of change management practices in biomass supply chains
See also[edit]
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Jump up ^ Linares-Pastén, J. A.; Andersson, M; Nordberg karlsson, E (2014). "Thermostable glycoside hydrolases in biorefinery technologies". Current Biotechnology. 3 (1): 26–44. doi:10.2174/22115501113026660041.
Jump up ^ Munnings, C.; Kulkarni, A.; Giddey, S.; Badwal, S.P.S. (August 2014). "Biomass to power conversion in a direct carbon fuel cell". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 39 (23): 12377–12385. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2014.03.255.
Jump up ^ Kim, Ye Eun (17 May 2011). "Surface Modifications of a Carbon Anode Catalyst by Control of Functional Groups for Vitamin C Fuel Cells". Electrocatalysis. 2: 200–206. doi:10.1007/s12678-011-0055-0.
Jump up ^ Knight, Chris (2013). "Chapter 6 – Application of Microbial Fuel Cells to Power Sensor Networks for Ecological Monitoring". Wireless Sensor Networks and Ecological Monitoring. Smart Sensors, Measurement and Instrumentation. 3. pp. 151–178. ISBN 978-3-642-36364-1. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-36365-8_6.
Jump up ^ Badwal, Sukhvinder P. S.; Giddey, Sarbjit S.; Munnings, Christopher; Bhatt, Anand I.; Hollenkamp, Anthony F. (24 September 2014). "Emerging electrochemical energy conversion and storage technologies (open access)". Frontiers in Chemistry. 2. PMC 4174133  . PMID 25309898. doi:10.3389/fchem.2014.00079.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Electric Net Summer Capacity". U.S. Energy Information Administration. July 2001. Retrieved 2010-01-25.
Jump up ^ The tenth anniversary of Northern Wood Power - November 22, 2016
Jump up ^ Agreement for Generating Balancing Service. (PDF). Retrieved on 2012-02-28.
Jump up ^ Biomass: Can Renewable Power Grow on Trees?. Scientificamerican.com. Retrieved on 2012-02-28.
Jump up ^ Starr, Tena (August 2, 2017). "Blek outlook for forestry industry". The Chronicle. Barton, Vermont. pp. 1A, 20A, 21A. Retrieved August 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ free fatty acid pools in Escherichia coli
Jump up ^ Biomass-to-Fuel Conversion (Princeton University USA)
Jump up ^ The Nocera lab
Jump up ^ Kosinkova, Jana; Doshi, Amar; Maire, Juliette; Ristovski, Zoran; Brown, Richard; Rainey, Thomas (September 2015). "Measuring the regional availability of biomass for biofuels and the potential for microalgae". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 49: 1271–1285. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.084.
Jump up ^ Eartha Jane Melzer (January 26, 2010). "Proposed biomass plant: Better than coal?". The Michigan Messenger. Archived from the original on 2010-02-05.
Jump up ^ Zhang, J.; Smith, K. R. (2007). "Household Air Pollution from Coal and Biomass Fuels in China: Measurements, Health Impacts, and Interventions". Environmental Health Perspectives. 115 (6): 848–855. PMC 1892127  . PMID 17589590. doi:10.1289/ehp.9479.
Jump up ^ "Announcement". Archives of Virology. 130: 225. 1993. doi:10.1007/BF01319012.
Jump up ^ Springsteen, Bruce; Christofk, Tom; Eubanks, Steve; Mason, Tad; Clavin, Chris; Storey, Brett (2011). "Emission Reductions from Woody Biomass Waste for Energy as an Alternative to Open Burning". Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association. 61 (1): 6. doi:10.3155/1047-3289.61.1.63.
Jump up ^ Starke, Linda (2009). State Of The World 2009: Into a Warming World: a WorldWatch Institute Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society. WW Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-33418-0.
Jump up ^ Gustafsson, O.; Krusa, M.; Zencak, Z.; Sheesley, R. J.; Granat, L.; Engstrom, E.; Praveen, P. S.; Rao, P. S. P.; et al. (2009). "Brown Clouds over South Asia: Biomass or Fossil Fuel Combustion?". Science. 323 (5913): 495–8. PMID 19164746. doi:10.1126/science.1164857.
Jump up ^ Biomass burning leads to Asian brown cloud, Chemical & Engineering News, 87, 4, 31
Jump up ^ Heinimö, J.; Junginger, M. (2009). "Production and trading of biomass for energy – an overview of the global status" (PDF). Biomass and Bioenergy. 33 (9): 1310. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2009.05.017.
Jump up ^ Use of biomass by help of the ORC process Archived July 21, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.. Gmk.info. Retrieved on 2012-02-28.
Jump up ^ How False Solutions to Climate Change Will Worsen Global Warming. globaljusticeecology.org
Jump up ^ Biofuel crops may worsen global warming: study. Ctv.ca (2008-02-09). Retrieved on 2012-02-28.
Jump up ^ Biodiesel Will Not Drive Down Global Warming. Energy-daily.com (2007-04-24). Retrieved on 2012-02-28.
Jump up ^ Forest volume-to-biomass models and estimates of mass for live and standing dead trees of U.S. forests Archived July 11, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2012-02-28.
Jump up ^ Prasad, Ram. "SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT FOR DRY FORESTS OF SOUTH ASIA". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 11 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Treetrouble: Testimonies on the Negative Impact of Large-scale Tree Plantations prepared for the sixth Conference of the Parties of the Framework Convention on Climate Change". Friends of the Earth International. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Laiho, Raija; Sanchez, Felipe; Tiarks, Allan; Dougherty, Phillip M.; Trettin, Carl C. "Impacts of intensive forestry on early rotation trends in site carbon pools in the southeastern US". United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 11 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "THE FINANCIAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FEASIBILITY OF SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 11 August 2010.
Jump up ^ U.S. Energy Information Administration (April 2010). Annual Energy Outlook 2010 (PDF) (report no. DOE/EIA-0383(2010)). Washington, DC. National Energy Information Center. Retrieved September 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ "How Biomass Energy Works". Union of Concerned Scientists. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Scheck, Justin; et al. (July 23, 2012). "Wood-Fired Plants Generate Violations". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved September 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Learning About Renewable Energy". NREL's vision is to develop technology. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Soil Carbon under Switchgrass Stands and Cultivated Cropland (Interpretive Summary and Technical Abstract). USDA Agricultural Research Service, April 1, 2005
Jump up ^ Jobs and Energy. Jobs and Energy. Retrieved on 2012-02-28.
Jump up ^ Edmunds, Joe; Richard Richets; Marshall Wise, "Future Fossil Fuel Carbon Emissions without Policy Intervention: A Review". In T. M. L. Wigley, David Steven Schimel, The Carbon Cycle. Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp.171–189
Jump up ^ Luyssaert, Sebastiaan; -Detlef Schulze, E.; Börner, Annett; Knohl, Alexander; Hessenmöller, Dominik; Law, Beverly E.; Ciais, Philippe; Grace, John (11 September 2008). "Old-growth forests as global carbon sinks". Nature. 455 (7210): 213–215. PMID 18784722. doi:10.1038/nature07276.
Jump up ^ "Biofuel Companies Question ARB's Inclusion of Indirect Effects in Low Carbon Fuel Standard". Green Car Congress. 2008-10-24. Retrieved 2009-04-28.
^ Jump up to: a b "Fuelling a BioMess" (PDF). Greenpeace. October 2011. Retrieved 2015-06-14.
Jump up ^ NRDC fact sheet lays out biomass basics, campaign calls for action to tell EPA our forests aren't fuel | Sasha Lyutse's Blog | Switchboard, from NRDC. Switchboard.nrdc.org (2011-05-02). Retrieved on 2012-02-28.
Jump up ^ Mafakheri, F.; Nasiri, F. (2014). "Modeling of biomass-to-energy supply chain operations: Applications, challenges and research directions". Energy Policy. 67: 116. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.11.071.
External links[edit]
Look up biomass in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Biomass.
Forest, Nature and Biomass
GA Mansoori, N Enayati, LB Agyarko (2016), Energy: Sources, Utilization, Legislation, Sustainability, Illinois as Model State, World Sci. Pub. Co., ISBN 978-981-4704-00-7
Solid biomass EurObserv'ER barometer – 2012 PDF
Biomass interactive by PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency
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Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry
Japanese theatrical release poster
Directed by
Tatsuma Minamikawa
Screenplay by
Shōji Yonemura
Based on
Fairy Tail
by Hiro Mashima
Starring
Tetsuya Kakihara
Aya Hirano
Rie Kugimiya
Yuichi Nakamura
Sayaka Ōhara
Satomi Satō
Yui Horie
Makoto Furukawa
Aoi Yūki
Jiro Saito
Chiaki Takahashi
Ryōta Takeuchi
Taku Yashiro
Music by
Yasuharu Takanashi
Production
company
A-1 Pictures
Distributed by
Gaga
Release date
May 6, 2017 (2017-05-06)
Running time
85 minutes
Country
Japan
Language
Japanese
Box office
$478,118 (Japan)
$1.3 million (worldwide)[1]
Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry (劇場版 フェアリーテイル -DRAGON CRY-, Gekijōban Fearī Teiru: Doragon Kurai) is a 2017 Japanese animated fantasy action film based on the shōnen manga and anime series Fairy Tail by Hiro Mashima. It is directed by Tatsuma Minamikawa based on a screenplay by Shōji Yonemura, both of whom worked on the anime series. Mashima is involved as executive producer and storyboard artist.[2]
Set between Fairy Tail's penultimate and final story arcs,[3] the film focuses on the members of the titular wizard guild infiltrating the Kingdom of Stella to recover a stolen staff of cataclysmic power. Tetsuya Kakihara, Aya Hirano, Rie Kugimiya, Yuichi Nakamura, Sayaka Ōhara, Satomi Satō, and Yui Horie all reprise their roles from the television series, with Makoto Furukawa, Aoi Yūki, and Jiro Saito co-starring as new characters designed by Mashima and Yūko Yamada.[2] The film was released in Japan on May 6, 2017. It received limited theatrical screenings worldwide, with Funimation releasing the film in North American theaters in both Japanese and localized English-dubbed formats from August 14 through August 19, 2017.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Promotion
4 Release
5 Reception
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Zash Caine (ザッシュ・ケイン, Zasshu Kein), the Kingdom of Stella's minister of state and a practitioner of black magic, infiltrates the Kingdom of Fiore and steals the Dragon Cry, a mystical staff discovered in the dragon graveyard beneath the capital city. Fiore's royal family enlists Natsu Dragneel and his team from the Fairy Tail guild to recover the staff, detailing that it is imbued with magical power capable of annihilating the kingdom. The wizards follow Zash to Stella, whose ruler, King Animus (アニムス, Animusu), intends to use the staff for a ritual. Upon touching the staff, Natsu triggers an alarm and attracts Zash's attention. After a lengthy pursuit, Fairy Tail is defeated by Zash and the kingdom's elite Three Stars unit – Swan (スワン, Suwan), Doll (ドール, Dōru), and Gapri (ガプリ, Gapuri) – who place them under arrest and take the staff back.
Natsu escapes from his airborne cell and frees the others, stopping Zash from using Lucy Heartfilia as a blood sacrifice for his magic. The wizards evade Zash with the help of his reluctant accomplice, Sonya (ソーニャ, Sōnya), who is also Animus' aide and childhood friend. Sonya pleads with Fairy Tail to leave the staff in Stella, explaining that the king's ritual could prevent a potential magical disaster from destroying her kingdom. However, Natsu rejects her request, sensing that the staff contains the malicious intent of dragons that were killed by Acnologia.
The wizards re-infiltrate the city to retrieve the staff, defeating the Three Stars in the process. Sonya grabs the Dragon Cry and, realizing its true nature, refuses to give the staff to Animus. Natsu arrives and sees Sonya speaking to herself; possessing Sonya, Animus reveals himself to be a dragon who has sealed himself within her body to cheat death, appearing to her in a human guise to manipulate her. Unable to escape Sonya's body on his own, Animus performs the ritual to free himself using the staff's magic, but only manages to emerge in an imperfect form after Zash steals the staff for himself, wanting vengeance against Fiore for exiling him. Summoning an army of artificial soldiers against Fairy Tail, Zash attempts to destroy Fiore with the staff, but he is disintegrated by its magic energy.
In a struggle over the staff, Animus impales Natsu on one of his spikes and finishes absorbing the staff's magic, regaining his full strength. Natsu survives his injury and viciously attacks Animus, half of his body taking on the appearance of a dragon; Animus recognizes Natsu as E.N.D., the "destroyer of all", before Natsu defeats him. Returning to normal, Natsu is deeply shaken by his transformation, but Lucy comforts him, saying he still looks like himself. Meanwhile, Sonya shatters the Dragon Cry, deactivating the soldiers and causing Animus' body to fade away. The broken staff reverts to its original form, a ribbon, which is blown away in the breeze.
In a post-credits scene, the ribbon is picked up by Acnologia in his human form. In a flashback, Sonya loses her ribbon after being mortally wounded by Animus' gang of dragons 400 years in the past, prompting Acnologia to kill them in retaliation; a dying Animus inhabits Sonya's body during this time, enabling their survival. Back in the present, Acnologia callously destroys the ribbon as Zeref observes him from afar alongside Brandish μ and Invel Yura, declaring that his battle with Natsu is imminent.
Cast[edit]
Character
Japanese[2][5]
English[6]
Natsu Dragneel Tetsuya Kakihara Todd Haberkorn
Lucy Heartfilia Aya Hirano Cherami Leigh
Happy Rie Kugimiya Tia Ballard
Gray Fullbuster Yuichi Nakamura Newton Pittman
Erza Scarlet Sayaka Ohara Colleen Clinkenbeard
Wendy Marvell Satomi Satō Brittney Karbowski
Carla Yui Horie Jad Saxton
Gajeel Redfox Wataru Hatano David Wald
Panther Lily Hiroki Tochi Rick Keeling
Juvia Lockser Mai Nakahara Brina Palencia
Levy McGarden Mariya Ise Kristi Kang
Hisui E. Fiore Suzuko Mimori Morgan Mabry
King Animus Makoto Furukawa Michael Sinterniklaas
Sonya Aoi Yūki Erica Mendez
Zash Caine Jiro Saito Ray Chase
Swan Chiaki Takahashi Cristina Vee
Doll Ryōta Takeuchi Bob Carter
Gapri Taku Yashiro Nathan Sharp
Acnologia Kosuke Toriumi J. Michael Tatum
Igneel Hidekatsu Shibata Jim White
Zeref Akira Ishida Joel McDonald
Promotion[edit]
Production of a second Fairy Tail film was first announced in Kodansha's Weekly Shōnen Magazine in May 2015, with key and concept artwork illustrated by Hiro Mashima depicting the character Natsu Dragneel in a half-draconic form seen in the finished film.[7] The film's campaign promotes the climax of the Fairy Tail manga series,[8] which concluded its run on July 26, 2017.
Release[edit]
The film was released in Japan on May 6, 2017,[2] with an international release in select theaters scheduled the same month.[9] Madman Entertainment announced plans to distribute the film theatrically in Australia and New Zealand.[10] Anime Limited distributed and released the film on 17 May 2017 in the United Kingdom, with further screenings scheduled for 19 May 2017.[11] German distributor KAZÉ Anime brought the film on June 27 and July 16 2017 in cinemas in Germany and Austria.[12]
On July 14, 2017, Funimation announced limited theatrical screenings of the film in North America. The film was screened on August 14, 2017 in a subtitled-only format in the United States and Canada, and on August 16 and 19 in a dubbed format in the United States. Screenings for the dub were scheduled for August 17 in Canada.[4]
The film was released on DVD and Blu-Ray in Japan on November 17th, 2017.
Reception[edit]
Sarah Nelkin of Anime Now gave the film a positive review, calling it "a fun romp stuffed with all the elements Fairy Tail is known for that fans can enjoy, from visuals to music to characters". However, she did not recommend the film for newcomers to the franchise, and criticized the brevity of Natsu's character development, despite considering his struggle with his identity "a cool idea".[13] Rebecca Silverman of Anime News Network gave the film an overall "B" rating, saying it "nicely builds up to the finale arc of the story" and praising its action, humor, and emotional effectiveness, while criticizing its underuse of characters such as Lucy, Sonya, Gajeel and Levy. Silverman also noted that the film's plot "absolutely assumes that you're familiar with the later events of the story", warning that it would result in fans being "either be mildly confused or very spoiled".[3]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?page=intl&id=fairytaildragoncry.htm
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry Anime Film Reveals Cast, Staff, New Characters, May 6 Premiere, Visual". Anime News Network. February 21, 2017. Retrieved March 1, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Silverman, Rebecca (August 3, 2017). "Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry - Review". Anime News Network. Retrieved August 3, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b "Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry Film Opens in U.S., Canadian Theaters in August". Anime News Network. July 14, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry Film Casts Makoto Furukawa, Aoi Yūki, Jiro Saito". Anime News Network. March 14, 2017. Retrieved March 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry Film Opens in U.S., Canadian Theaters in August". Anime News Network. July 14, 2017. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Fairy Tail Manga Gets 2nd Anime Film". Anime News Network. May 15, 2015. Retrieved May 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry Film Teases Original Manga's Climax in Trailer". February 28, 2017. Retrieved March 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry Anime Film to Play in U.S., 15 Other Countries in May". Anime News Network. April 26, 2017. Retrieved April 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ Green, Scott (March 5, 2017). ""Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry" And "A Silent Voice" Anime Movies Featured In Official English Subtitled Trailers". Crunchyroll. Retrieved March 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry in U.K. Cinemas May 17". Anime News Network. April 11, 2017. Retrieved April 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry in German and Austrian Cinemas on 27. June". Otaji. June 18, 2017. Retrieved June 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ Nelkin, Sarah (April 28, 2017). "We Saw the New Fairy Tail Movie". Anime Now. Retrieved April 28, 2017.
External links[edit]
Official movie website (in Japanese)
Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry (film) at Anime News Network's encyclopedia
[hide]
v
t
e
Works by Hiro Mashima
Rave Master
Chapters
Episodes
Characters
Fairy Tail
Media
Volumes
1–15
16–30
31–45
46–63
Spin-offs
Fairy Tail Zero
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Zero
Films
Phoenix Priestess
Dragon Cry
Characters
Natsu Dragneel
Lucy Heartfilia
Other series
Monster Soul
Monster Hunter Orage
[show]
v
t
e
Works by A-1 Pictures
Television series
2006–2010
Zenmai Zamurai (2006–2010)
Robby & Kerobby (2007–2008)
Big Windup! (2007)
Persona: Trinity Soul (2008)
Birdy the Mighty: Decode (2008)
Black Butler (2008–2009)
Kannagi: Crazy Shrine Maidens (2008)
Birdy the Mighty: Decode 2 (2009)
Valkyria Chronicles (2009)
Fairy Tail (2009–2016)
Sound of the Sky (2010)
Ōkiku Furikabutte ~Natsu no Taikai-hen~ (2010)
Working!! (2010)
Night Raid 1931 (2010)
Black Butler II (2010)
Occult Academy (2010)
Togainu no Chi (2010)
2011–2015
Fractale (2011)
Anohana: The Flower We Saw That Day (2011)
Blue Exorcist (2011)
Uta no Prince-sama: Maji Love 1000% (2011)
The Idolmaster (2011)
Working'!! (2011)
Space Brothers (2012–2014)
Tsuritama (2012)
Sword Art Online (2012)
From the New World (2012–2013)
Chōsoku Henkei Gyrozetter (2012–2013)
Magi: The Labyrinth of Magic (2012–2013)
Oreshura (2013)
Vividred Operation (2013)
Uta no Prince-sama: Maji Love 2000% (2013)
Ore no Imōto ga Konna ni Kawaii Wake ga Nai. (2013)
Servant × Service (2013)
Silver Spoon (2013)
Magi: The Kingdom of Magic (2013–2014)
Galilei Donna (2013)
Silver Spoon II (2014)
World Conquest Zvezda Plot (2014)
Nanana's Buried Treasure (2014)
Aldnoah.Zero (2014–2015)
Sword Art Online II (2014)
Persona 4: The Golden Animation (2014)
Black Butler: Book of Circus (2014)
Magic Kaito 1412 (2014–2015)
The Seven Deadly Sins (2014–2015)
Your Lie in April (2014–2015)
Saekano: How to Raise a Boring Girlfriend (2015)
The Idolmaster Cinderella Girls (2015)
Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha ViVid (2015)
Gunslinger Stratos: The Animation (2015)
Ultimate Otaku Teacher (2015)
Uta no Prince-sama: Maji Love Revolutions (2015)
Gate (2015–2016)
Working!!! (2015)
The Idolmaster Cinderella Girls: 2nd Season (2015)
The Asterisk War (2015–2016)
Subete ga F ni Naru (2015)
2016–present
Erased (2016)
Fairy Tail Zero (2016)
Grimgar of Fantasy and Ash (2016)
Ace Attorney (2016–2018)
B-Project: Kodō＊Ambitious (2016)
Qualidea Code (2016)
The Seven Deadly Sins: Signs of Holy War (2016)
Persona 5: The Animation -The Day Breakers- (2016)
WWW.Working!! (2016)
Uta no Prince-sama: Maji Love Legend Star (2016)
Occultic;Nine (2016)
Blue Exorcist: Kyoto Saga (2017)
Interviews with Monster Girls (2017)
Granblue Fantasy The Animation (2017)
Eromanga Sensei (2017)
Saekano: How to Raise a Boring Girlfriend Flat (2017)
Fate/Apocrypha (2017)
Blend S (2017)
The Idolmaster SideM (2017)
Record of Grancrest War (2018)
Slow Start (2018)
Darling in the Franxx (2018)
The Seven Deadly Sins: Revival of The Commandments (2018)
Persona 5: The Animation (2018)
Wotakoi: Love is Hard for Otaku (2018)
Sword Art Online: Alicization (2018)
Feature films
Welcome to the Space Show (2010)
Fairy Tail the Movie: Phoenix Priestess (2012)
Blue Exorcist: The Movie (2012)
Saint Young Men (2013)
Anohana: The Flower We Saw That Day (2013)
The Idolmaster Movie: Beyond the Brilliant Future! (2014)
Persona 3 The Movie: #2 Midsummer Knight's Dream (2014)
Space Brothers #0 (2014)
Persona 3 The Movie: #3 Falling Down (2015)
The Anthem of the Heart (2015)
Garakowa: Restore the World (2016)
Persona 3 The Movie: #4 Winter of Rebirth (2016)
Doukyuusei (2016)
Black Butler: Book of the Atlantic (2017)
Sword Art Online The Movie: Ordinal Scale (2017)
Fairy Tail: Dragon Cry (2017)
The Seven Deadly Sins the Movie: Prisoners of the Sky (2018)
High School Fleet (TBA)
OVAs/ONAs
Kannagi: Crazy Shrine Maidens (2009)
Birdy the Mighty: Decode - Cipher (2009)
Night Raid 1931 (2010)
Sound of the Sky (2010)
Fairy Tail (2011–2016)
Valkyria of the Battlefield 3: The Wound Taken for Someone's Sake (2011)
The Idolmaster Shiny Festa (2012)
Saint Young Men (2012–2013)
Ore no Imōto ga Konna ni Kawaii Wake ga Nai. (2013)
Sword Art Online: Extra Edition (2013)
Black Butler: Book of Murder (2014)
Moments (2015)
The Idolmaster Cinderella Girls (2016)
Brotherhood: Final Fantasy XV (2016)
Shelter (2016)
Granblue Fantasy: Zankutinzeru Arc (2017)
Video games
Shin Megami Tensei: Persona 4 (2008)
Valkyria Chronicles II (2010)
Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney − Spirit of Justice (2016)
Radiant Historia: Perfect Chronology (2017)
Layton's Mystery Journey (2017)
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