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Jonah
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For other uses, see Jonah (disambiguation).
Jonah
Jonah, as depicted by Michelangelo on the Sistine Chapel ceiling
Prophet
Born
9th century BCE
Died
8th century BCE[1]
Venerated in
Judaism
Islam
Christianity
Major shrine
Tomb of Jonah (destroyed), Mosul, Iraq
Feast
September 21 – Roman Catholicism
July 31
Jonah or Jonas[a] is the name given in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh/Old Testament) to a prophet of the northern kingdom of Israel in about the 8th century BCE. He is the eponymous central figure of the Book of Jonah, in which he is called upon by God to travel to Nineveh and warn its residents to repent of their sins or face divine wrath. Instead, Jonah boards a ship to Tarshish. Caught in a storm, he orders his shipmates to cast him overboard, whereupon he is swallowed by a giant fish. Three days later, after Jonah agrees to go to Nineveh, the fish vomits him out onto the shore. Jonah successfully convinces the entire city of Nineveh to repent, but waits outside the city to await its destruction. God shields Jonah from the sun with a plant, but later sends a worm to cause it to wither. When Jonah complains of the bitter heat, God rebukes him.
In Judaism, the story of Jonah represents the teaching of teshuva, which is the ability to repent and be forgiven by God. In the New Testament, Jesus calls himself "greater than Jonah" and promises the Pharisees "the sign of Jonah", which is his resurrection. Early Christian interpreters viewed Jonah as a type for Jesus. Later, during the Reformation, Jonah came to be seen instead as an archetype for the "envious Jew". Jonah is regarded as a prophet in Islam and the biblical narrative of Jonah is repeated, with a few notable differences, in the Quran. Mainstream Bible scholars generally regard the Book of Jonah as fictional and at least partially satirical, but the character of Jonah may have been based on a historical prophet.
Although the word "whale" is often used in English versions of the Jonah story, the Hebrew text actually uses the phrase dag gadol, which means "giant fish". In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the species of the fish that swallowed Jonah was the subject of speculation for naturalists, who interpreted the story as an account of a historical incident. Some modern scholars of folklore have noted similarities between Jonah and other legendary figures, such as Gilgamesh and the Greek hero Jason.
Contents
[hide]
1 Book of Jonah
2 Religious views
2.1 In Judaism
2.2 In Christianity
2.2.1 In the Book of Tobit
2.2.2 In the New Testament
2.2.3 Post-Biblical views
2.3 In Islam
2.3.1 In the Quran
2.3.2 In Hadith
2.3.3 Tomb at Nineveh
3 Scholarly interpretations
3.1 Historicity
3.2 Parodic elements
4 The fish
4.1 Translation
4.2 Scientific speculation
5 Cultural influence
6 Suggested connections to legends
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
9.1 Bibliography
10 External links
Book of Jonah[edit]
Jonah and the Whale (1621) by Pieter Lastman
Jonah is the central character in the Book of Jonah, in which God commands him to go to the city of Nineveh to prophesy against it "for their great wickedness is come up before me,"[2] but Jonah instead attempts to flee from "the presence of the Lord" by going to Jaffa (sometimes transliterated as Joppa or Joppe), and sailing to Tarshish.[3] A huge storm arises and the sailors, realizing that it is no ordinary storm, cast lots and discover that Jonah is to blame.[4] Jonah admits this and states that if he is thrown overboard, the storm will cease.[5] The sailors refuse to do this and continue rowing, but all their efforts fail and they are eventually forced to throw Jonah overboard.[6] As a result, the storm calms and the sailors then offer sacrifices to God.[7] Jonah is miraculously saved by being swallowed by a large fish, in whose belly he spends three days and three nights.[8] While in the great fish, Jonah prays to God in his affliction and commits to thanksgiving and to paying what he has vowed.[9] God then commands the fish to vomit Jonah out.[10]
Jonah Preaching to the Ninevites (1866) by Gustave Doré
God again commands Jonah to travel to Nineveh and prophesy to its inhabitants.[11] This time he goes and enters the city, crying, "In forty days Nineveh shall be overthrown."[12] After Jonah has walked across Nineveh, the people of Nineveh begin to believe his word and proclaim a fast.[13] The king of Nineveh puts on sackcloth and sits in ashes, making a proclamation which decrees fasting, the wearing of sackcloth, prayer, and repentance.[14] God sees their repentant hearts and spares the city at that time.[15] The entire city is humbled and broken with the people (and even the animals)[16][17] in sackcloth and ashes.[18]
Displeased by this, Jonah refers to his earlier flight to Tarshish while asserting that, since God is merciful, it was inevitable that God would turn from the threatened calamities.[19] He then leaves the city and makes himself a shelter, waiting to see whether or not the city will be destroyed.[20] God causes a plant (in Hebrew a kikayon) to grow over Jonah's shelter to give him some shade from the sun.[21] Later, God causes a worm to bite the plant's root and it withers.[22] Jonah, now being exposed to the full force of the sun, becomes faint and pleads for God to kill him.[23]
And God said to Jonah: "Art thou greatly angry for the Kikayon?" And he said: "I am greatly angry, even unto death."
And the LORD said: "Thou hast had pity on the gourd, for which thou hast not laboured, neither madest it grow, which came up in a night, and perished in a night;
and should not I have pity on Nineveh, that great city, wherein are more than sixscore thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their left hand, and also much cattle?"
—  Book of Jonah, chapter 4, verses 9-11
Religious views[edit]
Illustration of Jonah being swallowed by the fish from the Kennicott Bible, folio 305r (1476).
In Judaism[edit]
See also: Jonah in rabbinic literature
The Book of Jonah (Yonah יונה) is one of the twelve minor prophets included in the Tanakh. According to one tradition, Jonah was the boy brought back to life by Elijah the prophet in 1 Kings 17.[24] Another tradition holds that he was the son of the woman of Shunem brought back to life by Elisha in 2 Kings 4[25] and that he is called the "son of Amittai" (Truth) due to his mother's recognition of Elisha's identity as a prophet in 2 Kings 17:24.[25] The Book of Jonah is read every year, in its original Hebrew and in its entirety, on Yom Kippur – the Day of Atonement, as the Haftarah at the afternoon mincha prayer. According to Rabbi Eliezer, the fish that swallowed Jonah was created in the primordial era[26] and the inside of its mouth was like a synagogue;[26] the fish's eyes were like windows[26] and a pearl inside its mouth provided further illumination.[26]
According to the Midrash, while Jonah was inside the fish, it told him that its life was nearly over because soon the Leviathan would eat them both.[26] Jonah promised the fish that he would save them.[26] Following Jonah's directions, the fish swam up alongside the Leviathan[26] and Jonah threatened to leash the Leviathan by its tongue and let the other fish eat it.[26] The Leviathan heard Jonah's threats, saw that he was circumcized, and realized that he was protected by the Lord,[26] so it fled in terror, leaving Jonah and the fish alive.[26]
Teshuva – the ability to repent and be forgiven by God – is a prominent idea in Jewish thought. This concept is developed in the Book of Jonah: Jonah, the son of truth (the name of his father "Amitai" in Hebrew means truth), refuses to ask the people of Nineveh to repent. He seeks the truth only, and not forgiveness. When forced to go, his call is heard loud and clear. The people of Nineveh repent ecstatically, "fasting, including the sheep," and the Jewish scripts are critical of this.[27] The Book of Jonah also highlights the sometimes unstable relationship between two religious needs: comfort and truth.[28]
In Christianity[edit]
In his fresco The Last Judgment, Michelangelo depicted Christ below Jonah (IONAS) to qualify the prophet as his precursor.
In the Book of Tobit[edit]
Jonah is mentioned twice in the fourteenth chapter of the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit,[29] the conclusion of which finds Tobit's son, Tobias, at the extreme age of 127 years, rejoicing at the news of Nineveh's destruction by Nebuchadnezzar and Ahasuerus in apparent fulfillment of Jonah's prophecy against the Assyrian capital.[29]
In the New Testament[edit]
In the New Testament, Jonah is mentioned in Matthew 12:38–41 and 16:4 and in Luke 11:29–32.[30] In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus makes a reference to Jonah when he is asked for a sign by some of the scribes and the Pharisees.[31] Jesus says that the sign will be the sign of Jonah:[31] Jonah's restoration after three days inside the great fish prefigures His own resurrection.[31]
39He answered, "A wicked and adulterous generation asks for a sign! But none will be given it except the sign of the prophet Jonah. 40For as Jonah was three days and three nights in the belly of a huge fish, so the Son of Man will be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth. 41The men of Nineveh will stand up at the judgment with this generation and condemn it; for they repented at the preaching of Jonah, and now something greater than Jonah is here."
—  Gospel of Matthew, 12:39–41 (New International Version)
Matthew 12:41-42 and Luke 11:31–32 assert in parallel wording that Jesus is greater than Jonah and greater than Solomon.[31]
Post-Biblical views[edit]
Russian Orthodox icon of Jonah, 16th century (Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia)
Oh Jonah!
"Oh Jonah!", a gospel summary of the Book of Jonah, sung by the Golden Jubilee Quartet.
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Jonah is regarded as a saint by a number of Christian denominations. He is commemorated as a prophet in the Calendar of Saints of the Missouri Synod of the Lutheran Church on September 22. On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar his feast day is also September 22 (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian calendar; September 22 currently falls in October on the modern Gregorian calendar). In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Book of Jonah is chanted in its entirety at the Divine Liturgy on Holy Saturday before Pascha. He is commemorated as one of the Twelve Minor Prophets in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 31. Jonah's mission to the Ninevites is commemorated by the Fast of Nineveh in Syriac and Oriental Orthodox Churches.[32]
Christian theologians have traditionally interpreted Jonah as a type for Jesus Christ.[33] Jonah being in swallowed by the giant fish was regarded as a foreshadowing of Jesus's crucifixion[34] and the fish vomiting Jonah out onto the beach was seen as a parallel for Jesus's resurrection.[34] Saint Jerome equates Jonah with Jesus's more nationalistic side,[35] and justifies Jonah's actions by arguing that "Jonah acts thus as a patriot, not so much that he hates the Ninevites, as that he does not want to destroy his own people."[35]
Other Christian interpreters, including Saint Augustine and Martin Luther, have taken a directly opposite approach,[36] regarding Jonah as the epitome of envy and jealousness, which they regarded as inherent characteristics of the Jewish people.[37] Luther likewise concludes that the kikayon represents Judaism,[38] and that the worm which devours it represents Christ.[39] Luther's antisemitic interpretation of Jonah remained the prevailing interpretation among German Protestants throughout early modern history.[40] J. D. Michaelis comments that "the meaning of the fable hits you right between the eyes",[37] and concludes that the Book of Jonah is a polemic against "the Israelite people's hate and envy towards all the other nations of the earth."[37] Albert Eichhorn was a strong supporter of Michaelis's interpretation.[41]
John Calvin and John Hooper regarded the Book of Jonah as a warning to all those who might attempt to flee from the wrath of God.[42] While Luther had been careful to maintain that the Book of Jonah was not written by Jonah,[43] Calvin declared that the Book of Jonah was Jonah's personal confession of guilt.[43] Calvin sees Jonah's time inside the fish's belly as equivalent to the fires of Hell, intended to correct Jonah and set him on the path of righteousness.[44] Also unlike Luther, Calvin finds fault with all the characters in the story,[43] describing the sailors on the boat as "hard and iron-hearted, like Cyclops",[43] the penitence of the Ninevites as "untrained",[43] and the king of Nineveh as a "novice".[43] Hooper, on the other hand, sees Jonah as the archetypal dissident[45] and the ship he is cast out from as a symbol of the state.[45] Hooper deplores such dissidents,[45] decrying: "Can you live quietly with so many Jonasses? Nay then, throw them into the sea!"[46]
In Islam[edit]
Jonah and the giant fish in the Jami' al-tawarikh (c. 1400), Metropolitan Museum of Art
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In the Quran[edit]
Jonah (Yunus in Arabic) is highly important in Islam as a prophet who was faithful to Allah and delivered His messages. Jonah is mentioned four times in the Quran[47] and is the only one of the Twelve Minor Prophets to be mentioned by name.[48] In Surah 68:48, Jonah is called Dhul-Nun (Arabic: ذو النون; meaning The One of the Fish).[47] In 4:163 and 6:86, he is referred to as "an apostle of Allah".[47] Surah 37:139-148 retells the full story of Jonah:[47]
So also was Jonah among those sent (by Us).
When he ran away (like a slave from captivity) to the ship (fully) laden,
He (agreed to) cast lots, and he was condemned:
Then the big Fish did swallow him, and he had done acts worthy of blame.
Had it not been that he (repented and) glorified Allah,
He would certainly have remained inside the Fish till the Day of Resurrection.
But We cast him forth on the naked shore in a state of sickness,
And We caused to grow, over him, a spreading plant of the gourd kind.
And We sent him (on a mission) to a hundred thousand (men) or more.
And they believed; so We permitted them to enjoy (their life) for a while.
—  Quran, chapter 37 (As-Saaffat), verses 139–148[49]
The Quran never mentions Jonah's father,[47] but Muslim tradition teaches that Jonah was from the tribe of Benjamin and that his father was Amittai.[48]
In Hadith[edit]
Jonah trying to hide his nakedness in the midst of bushes; Jeremiah in the wilderness (top left); Uzeyr awakened after the destruction of Jerusalem. Ottoman Turkish miniature, 16th century.[50]
Jonah is also mentioned in a few incidents during the lifetime of Muhammad. In some instances, Jonah's name is spoken of with praise and reverence by Muhammad. According to historical narrations about Muhammad's life, after ten years of receiving revelations, Muhammad went to the city of Ta’if to see if its leaders would allow him to preach his message from there rather than Mecca, but he was cast from the city by the people. He took shelter in the garden of Utbah and Shaybah, two members of the Quraysh tribe. They sent their servant, Addas, to serve him grapes for sustenance. Muhammad asked Addas where he was from and the servant replied Nineveh. "The town of Jonah the just, son of Amittai!" Muhammad exclaimed. Addas was shocked because he knew that the pagan Arabs had no knowledge of the prophet Jonah. He then asked how Muhammad knew of this man. "We are brothers" Muhammad replied. "Jonah was a Prophet of God and I, too, am a Prophet of God." Addas immediately accepted Islam and kissed the hands and feet of Muhammad.[51]
One of the sayings of Muhammad, in the collection of Imam Bukhari, says that Muhammad said "One should not say that I am better than Jonah".[52][53][54][55] A similar statement occurs in a hadith written by Yunus bin Yazid, the second caliph of the Umayyad Dynasty.[55] Umayya ibn Abi al-Salt, an older contemporary of Muhammad, taught that, had Jonah not prayed to Allah, he would have remained trapped inside the fish until Judgement Day,[55] but, because of his prayer, Jonah "stayed only a few days within the belly of the fish".[55]
The ninth-century Persian historian Al-Tabari records that, while Jonah was inside the fish, "none of his bones or members were injured".[55] Al-Tabari also writes that Allah made the body of the fish transparent, allowing Jonah to see the "wonders of the deep"[56] and that Jonah heard all the fish singing praises to Allah.[56] Kisai Marvazi, a tenth-century poet, records that Jonah's father was seventy years old when Jonah was born[55] and that he died soon afterwards,[55] leaving Jonah's mother with nothing but a wooden spoon, which turned out to be a cornucopia.[55]
Tomb at Nineveh[edit]
Photograph of the ruins of the mosque of Yunus, following its destruction by ISIL
See also: Mosques and shrines of Mosul § The Mosque of the Prophet Yunus (Jonah)
Nineveh's current location is marked by excavations of five gates, parts of walls on four sides, and two large mounds: the hill of Kuyunjik and hill of Nabi Yunus (see map link in footnote).[57] A mosque atop Nabi Yunus was dedicated to the prophet Jonah and contained a shrine, which was revered by both Muslims and Christians as the site of Jonah's tomb.[58] The tomb was a popular pilgrimage site[59] and a symbol of unity to Jews, Christians, and Muslims across the Middle East.[59] On July 24, 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) destroyed the mosque containing the tomb as part of a campaign to destroy religious sanctuaries it deemed to be idolatrous.[60][59][61] After Mosul was taken back from ISIL in January 2017, an ancient Assyrian palace dating to around 600 BCE was discovered beneath the ruined mosque.[59][62] ISIL had plundered the palace of items to sell on the black market,[59][62] but some of the artifacts that were more difficult to transport still remained in place.[59][62]
Other reputed locations of Jonah's tomb include the Arab village of Meshed, located on the ancient site of Gath-hepher,[30] the Palestinian West Bank town of Halhul, 5 km (3.1 mi) north of Hebron,[63] and a sanctuary near the city of Sarafand (Sarepta) in Lebanon.[64]
Scholarly interpretations[edit]
Historicity[edit]
The consensus of mainstream Biblical scholars holds that the Book of Jonah is an intentional work of parody or satire,[65][66][67][68][69][70] and that its contents are entirely ahistorical.[71][72][73] Although the prophet Jonah allegedly lived in the eighth century BCE,[1] the Book of Jonah was written centuries later during the time of the Achaemenid Empire.[1][74] The Hebrew used in the Book of Jonah shows strong influences from Aramaic[1] and the cultural practices described in it match those of the Achaemenid Persians.[1][17] The Book of Jonah was probably admitted into the canon of the Hebrew Bible by sages who misunderstood its satirical nature[75][69][70] and mistakenly interpreted it as a serious prophetic work.[75][69][70]
While the Book of Jonah itself is considered fiction,[71][72][73] Jonah himself may have been a historical prophet;[76] he is briefly mentioned in the Second Book of Kings:[77][73]
He restored the border of Israel from the entrance of Hamath unto the sea of the Arabah, according to the word of the LORD, the God of Israel, which He spoke by the hand of His servant Jonah the son of Amittai, the prophet, who was of Gath-hepher.
—  2 Kings 14:25, JPS (1917)
Most scholars believe that the anonymous author of the Book of Jonah may have seized upon this obscure prophet from 2 Kings and used him as the basis for the fictional character of Jonah,[78] but some have contended that the figure of Jonah himself is entirely legendary.[72] Nonetheless, some conservative scholars argue that the Book of Jonah is based on historical events.[79]
Parodic elements[edit]
Modern restoration of the Adad gate at Nineveh in a photograph taken prior to the gate's total destruction by ISIL in April 2016.[80] The Book of Jonah exaggerates the size of Nineveh far beyond what it actually was historically.[1][17]
The views expressed by Jonah in the Book of Jonah are a parody of views held by members of Jewish society at the time when it was written.[66][81][68] The primary target of the satire may have been a faction whom Morton Smith calls "Separationists",[82] who believed that God would destroy those who disobeyed him,[68] that sinful cities would be obliterated,[68] and that God's mercy did not extend to those outside the Abrahamic covenant.[82] McKenzie and Graham remark that "Jonah is in some ways the most 'orthodox' of Israelite theologians – to make a theological point."[68] Jonah's statements throughout the book are characterized by their militancy,[68][83] but his name ironically means "dove",[68][83] a bird which the ancient Israelites associated with peace.[68]
Jonah's rejection of God's commands is a parody of the obedience of the prophets described in other Old Testament writings.[84] The king of Nineveh's instant repentance parodies the rulers throughout the other writings of the Old Testament who disregard prophetic warnings, such as Ahab and Zedekiah.[70] The readiness to worship God displayed by the sailors on the ship and the people of Nineveh contrasts ironically with Jonah's own reluctance,[85] as does Jonah's greater love for kikayon providing him shade than for all the people in Nineveh.[85]
The Book of Jonah also employs elements of literary absurdism;[17] it exaggerates the size of the city of Nineveh to an implausible degree[1][17] and incorrectly refers to the administrator of the city as a "king".[1][17] According to scholars, no human being could realistically survive for three days inside a fish,[1] and the description of the livestock in Nineveh fasting alongside their owners is "silly".[17] The motif of a protagonist being swallowed by a giant fish or whale became a stock trope of later satirical writings.[86] Similar incidents are recounted in Lucian of Samosata's A True Story, which was written in the second century CE,[87] and in the novel Baron Munchausen's Narrative of his Marvellous Travels and Campaigns in Russia, published by Rudolf Erich Raspe in 1785.[88] The story of a man surviving after being swallowed by a whale or giant fish is classified as ATU 1889G.[89]
The fish[edit]
Translation[edit]
Depiction of Jonah and the "great fish" on the south doorway of the Gothic-era Dom St. Peter, in Worms, Germany
Though it is often called a whale today, the Hebrew, as throughout scripture, refers to no species in particular, simply saying "great fish" or "big fish" (whales are today classified as mammals and not fish, but no such distinction was made in antiquity). While some biblical scholars suggest the size and habits of the great white shark correspond better to the representations given of Jonah's being swallowed, normally an adult human is too large to be swallowed whole.[90] The development of whaling from the 18th century onwards made it clear that most or all species of whale were incapable of swallowing a man, leading to much controversy about the veracity of the biblical story of Jonah.[91]
In Jonah 2:1 (1:17 in English translations), the Hebrew text reads dag gadol[92] (דג גדול) or, in the Hebrew Masoretic Text, dāḡ gā·ḏō·wl (דָּ֣ג גָּד֔וֹל), which means "great fish."[92][93] The Septuagint translates this phrase into Greek as kētei megalōi (κήτει μεγάλῳ), meaning "huge fish".[94] In Greek mythology, the same word meaning "fish" (kêtos) is used to describe the sea monster slain by the hero Perseus that nearly devoured the Princess Andromeda.[95] Jerome later translated this phrase as piscem grandem in his Latin Vulgate. He translated kétos, however, as ventre ceti in Matthew 12:40: this second case occurs only in this verse of the New Testament.[96][97]
At some point cetus became synonymous with "whale" (the study of whales is now called cetology). In his 1534 translation, William Tyndale translated the phrase in Jonah 2:1 as "greate fyshe" and the word kétos (Greek) or cetus (Latin) in Matthew 12:40 as "whale". Tyndale's translation was later incorporated into the Authorized Version of 1611. Since then, the "great fish" in Jonah 2 has been most often interpreted as a whale. In English some translations use the word "whale" for Matthew 12:40, while others use "sea creature" or "big fish".[98]
Scientific speculation[edit]
Photograph of a whale shark, the largest known species of fish[99]
Depiction of Jonah in a champlevé enamel (1181) by Nicholas of Verdun in the Verduner altar at Klosterneuburg abbey, Austria.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, naturalists, interpreting the Jonah story as a historical account, became obsessed with trying to identify the exact species of the fish that swallowed Jonah.[100] In the late nineteenth century, Edward Bouverie Pusey, a professor at Oxford University, claimed that the Book of Jonah must have been authored by Jonah himself[101] and argued that the fish story must be historically true, or else it would not have been included in the Bible.[101] Pusey attempted to scientifically catalogue the fish,[102] hoping to "shame those who speak of the miracle of Jonah's preservation in the fish as a thing less credible than any of God's other miraculous doings".[103]
The debate over the fish in the Book of Jonah played a major role during Clarence Darrow's cross-examination of William Jennings Bryan at the Scopes Trial in 1925.[104][105] Darrow asked Bryan "When you read that... the whale swallowed Jonah... how do you literally interpret that?"[104] Bryan replied that "a God who can make a whale and can make a man and make both of them do what He pleases."[104] Bryan ultimately admitted that it was necessary to interpret the Bible,[104] and is generally regarded as having come off looking like a "buffoon".[105]
The largest whales—baleen whales, a group which includes the blue whale—eat plankton and "it is commonly said that this species would be choked if it attempted to swallow a herring."[106] As for the whale shark, Dr. E. W. Gudger, an Honorary Associate in Ichthyology at the American Museum of Natural History, notes that, while the whale shark does have a large mouth,[107] its throat is only four inches wide, with a sharp elbow or bend behind the opening,[107] meaning that not even a human arm would be able to pass through it.[107] He concludes that "the whale shark is not the fish that swallowed Jonah."[107]
Cultural influence[edit]
In Turkish, "Jonah fish" (in Turkish yunus baligi) is the term used for dolphins.[108] A long-established expression among sailors uses the term, "a Jonah", to mean a sailor or a passenger whose presence on board brings bad luck and endangers the ship.[109] Later, this meaning was extended to mean, "a person who carries a jinx, one who will bring bad luck to any enterprise."[110]
Despite its brevity, the Book of Jonah has been adapted numerous times by popular culture.[111][112] In Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851), Father Mapple delivers a sermon on the Book of Jonah. Mapple asks why Jonah does not show remorse for disobeying God while he is inside of the fish. He comes to the conclusion that Jonah admirably understands that "his dreadful punishment is just."[113] Carlo Collodi's The Adventures of Pinocchio (1883) features the title character and his father Geppetto being swallowing by a whale, an allusion to the story of Jonah.[114] Walt Disney's 1940 film adaptation of the novel retains this allusion.[115] The story of Jonah was adapted into Phil Vischer and Mike Nawrocki's animated film Jonah: A VeggieTales Movie (2002). In the film, Jonah is swallowed by a gargantuan whale.[116] The film was Big Idea Entertainment's first full-length theatrical release[117] and, on its first weekend, it earned approximately $6.5 million.[118]
Suggested connections to legends[edit]
Jonah being swallowed by a great toothed sea-monster. Sculpted column capital from the nave of the abbey-church in Mozac, 12th century.
Joseph Campbell suggests that the story of Jonah parallels a scene from the Epic of Gilgamesh, in which Gilgamesh obtains a plant from the bottom of the sea.[119] In the Book of Jonah, a worm (in Hebrew tola'ath, "maggot") bites the shade-giving plant's root causing it to wither;[119] whereas in the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh ties stones to his feet and plucks his plant from the floor of the sea.[119][120] Once he returns to the shore, the rejuvenating plant is eaten by a serpent.[119][121]
Campbell also noted several similarities between the story of Jonah and that of Jason in Greek mythology.[119] The Greek rendering of the name Jonah is Jonas, which differs from Jason only in the order of sounds—both os are omegas suggesting that Jason may have been confused with Jonah.[119] Gildas Hamel, drawing on the Book of Jonah and Greco-Roman sources — including Greek vases and the accounts of Apollonius of Rhodes, Gaius Valerius Flaccus and Orphic Argonautica — identifies a number of shared motifs, including the names of the heroes, the presence of a dove, the idea of "fleeing" like the wind and causing a storm, the attitude of the sailors, the presence of a sea-monster or dragon threatening the hero or swallowing him, and the form and the word used for the "gourd" (kikayon).[122] Hamel takes the view that it was the Hebrew author who reacted to and adapted this mythological material to communicate his own, quite different message.[123]
See also[edit]
Biblical and Quranic narratives
Jonah on the Sistine Chapel ceiling
Legends and the Quran
Prophets of Islam
Qisas Al-Anbiya
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Hebrew: יוֹנָה, Modern Yona, Biblically transliterated Yonah, Tiberian Yônā, dove; Arabic: يونس Yūnus, Yūnis or يونان Yūnān; Latin: Ionas
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Levine 2000, p. 71.
Jump up ^ Jonah 1:2
Jump up ^ Jonah 1:3
Jump up ^ Jonah 1:4-7
Jump up ^ Jonah 1:8-12
Jump up ^ Jonah 1:13-15
Jump up ^ Jonah 1:15-16
Jump up ^ Jonah 1:17
Jump up ^ Jonah 2:1-9
Jump up ^ Jonah 2:10
Jump up ^ Jonah 3:1-2
Jump up ^ Jonah 3:2-4
Jump up ^ Jonah 3:5
Jump up ^ Jonah 3:6-9
Jump up ^ Jonah 3:10
Jump up ^ Jonah 3:8
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Gaines 2003, p. 25.
Jump up ^ Jonah 3:
Jump up ^ Jonah 4:1-4
Jump up ^ Jonah 4:5
Jump up ^ Jonah 4:6
Jump up ^ Jonah 4:7
Jump up ^ Jonah 4:8
Jump up ^ Green 2005, pp. 126–127.
^ Jump up to: a b Green 2005, p. 127.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Green 2005, p. 128.
Jump up ^ "Sanhedrin", Babylonian Talmud, 61a .
Jump up ^ Bashevkin, Dovid. "Jonah and the Varieties of Religious Motivation." Archived 2016-10-12 at the Wayback Machine. Lehrhaus. 9 October 2016. 11 October 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Bredin 2006, pp. 47–50.
^ Jump up to: a b Limburg 1993, p. 39.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Stein 1994, p. 3.
Jump up ^ "Three Day Fast of Nineveh". Syrian orthodox Church. Archived from the original on 25 October 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Sherwood 2000, pp. 11–20.
^ Jump up to: a b Sherwood 2000, pp. 11–13.
^ Jump up to: a b Sherwood 2000, p. 20.
Jump up ^ Sherwood 2000, pp. 23–25.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sherwood 2000, p. 25.
Jump up ^ Sherwood 2000, pp. 23–24.
Jump up ^ Sherwood 2000, p. 24.
Jump up ^ Sherwood 2000, pp. 24–26.
Jump up ^ Sherwood 2000, pp. 25–26.
Jump up ^ Sherwood 2000, pp. 32–33.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Sherwood 2000, p. 33.
Jump up ^ Sherwood 2000, pp. 34–36.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sherwood 2000, pp. 39–40.
Jump up ^ Sherwood 2000, p. 40.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Vicchio 2008, p. 67.
^ Jump up to: a b Encyclopedia of Islam, Yunus, pg. 348
Jump up ^ Quran 37:139–148
Jump up ^ G’nsel Renda (1978). "The Miniatures of the Zubdat Al- Tawarikh". Turkish Treasures Culture /Art / Tourism Magazine. Archived from the original on 2016-09-04.
Jump up ^ Summarized from The Life of the Prophet by Ibn Hisham Volume 1 pp. 419–421
Jump up ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:55:608
Jump up ^ Wheeler 2002, p. 172.
Jump up ^ Graham 1977, p. 167.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Vicchio 2008, p. 73.
^ Jump up to: a b Vicchio 2008, p. 74.
Jump up ^ "Link to Google map with Nineveh markers at gates, wall sections, hills and mosque". Goo.gl. 2013-03-19. Retrieved 2014-06-29.
Jump up ^ "ISIS destroys 'Jonah's tomb' in Mosul". Al Arabiya. 25 July 2014. Archived from the original on 27 July 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2014. The radical Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) group has destroyed shrines belonging to two prophets, highly revered by both Christians and Muslims, in the northern city of Mosul, al-Sumaria News reported Thursday. "ISIS militants have destroyed the Prophet Younis (Jonah) shrine east of Mosul city after they seized control of the mosque completely," a security source, who kept his identity anonymous, told the Iraq-based al-Sumaria News.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Farhan, Lawandow & Samuel 2017.
Jump up ^ Ford & Tawfeeq 2014.
Jump up ^ ISIS militants blow up Prophet Jonas’ tomb in Iraq – video Archived 2015-03-09 at the Wayback Machine. RT. July 25, 2014
^ Jump up to: a b c Ensor 2017.
Jump up ^ Friedman 2006, p. 64.
Jump up ^ Costa 2013, p. 97.
Jump up ^ Band 2003, pp. 105–107.
^ Jump up to: a b Ben Zvi 2003, pp. 18–19.
Jump up ^ Ingram 2012, pp. 140–142.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h McKenzie & Graham 1998, p. 113.
^ Jump up to: a b c Person 1996, p. 155.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gaines 2003, pp. 22–23.
^ Jump up to: a b Ingram 2012, p. 140.
^ Jump up to: a b c Levine 2000, pp. 71–72.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kripke 1980, p. 67.
Jump up ^ Ben Zvi 2003, pp. 15–16.
^ Jump up to: a b Band 2003, pp. 106–107.
Jump up ^ Kripke 1980, pp. 67–68.
Jump up ^ Doyle 2005, p. 124.
Jump up ^ Doyle 2005, pp. 124–125.
Jump up ^ Walton, Armerding & Walker 2017, pp. 458–463.
Jump up ^ Romey 2016.
Jump up ^ Band 2003, p. 106.
^ Jump up to: a b Band 2003, p. 105.
^ Jump up to: a b Ingram 2012, p. 142.
Jump up ^ Gaines 2003, p. 22.
^ Jump up to: a b Gaines 2003, p. 23.
Jump up ^ Ziolkowski 2007, pp. 74–81.
Jump up ^ Ziolkowski 2007, p. 76-77.
Jump up ^ Ziolkowski 2007, pp. 77–78.
Jump up ^ Ziolkowski 2007, p. 78.
Jump up ^ Theological Topic Search Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Kemp, Peter Kemp (1979). The Oxford Companion to Ships & the Sea. Oxford University Press. p. 434. ISBN 978-0-586-08308-6. Archived from the original on 2017-02-17.
^ Jump up to: a b "Yonah - Strong's Hebrew Lexicon (LXX)". Blue Letter Bible. Archived from the original on 11 September 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Interlinear Bible: Greek, Hebrew, Transliterated, English ... Bible Hub. Archived from the original on 11 September 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Robertson, A. T. (197x). Word Pictures in the New Testament – Matthew. CCEL. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-610-25188-4. ISBN 1-61025188-1. Archived from the original on 2016-12-06.
Jump up ^ Bremmer 2014, p. 28.
Jump up ^ Ziolkowski 2007, p. 81.
Jump up ^ Parris, David Paul (2015). Reading the Bible with Giants. How 2000 Years of Biblical Interpretation Can Shed New Light on Old Texts. Second Edition (2 ed.). Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-625-64728-3. ISBN 1-62564728-X. Archived from the original on 2016-12-06. What is interesting...is the way that Jerome...translated the references to the big fish in Jonah and Matthew. [...] In translating Matt 12:40, however, he follows the Greek text and says that Jonah was in the ventre ceti—the belly of the whale/sea monster" (p. 40).
Jump up ^ Huber, Walt; Huber, Rose (2013). How Did God Do It? A Symphony of Science and Scripture. Victoria, British Columbia: Friesen Press. ISBN 978-1-460-21127-4. ISBN 1-46021127-8. The word whale is never used in the book of Jonah. The only biblical reference to "Jonah and the whale" appears in the New Testament in Matthew 12:40 (KJV & RSV). [...] Whale is not used in the other translations: TEV uses big fish; NLT, great fish; and TNIV, huge fish" (p. 216).
Jump up ^ Wood, Gerald L. (1976). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. Guinness Superlatives. ISBN 978-0-900424-60-1.
Jump up ^ Sherwood 2000, pp. 42–45.
^ Jump up to: a b Green 2011, p. 48.
Jump up ^ Sherwood 2000, pp. 47–48.
Jump up ^ Sherwood 2000, p. 48.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Smolla 1997.
^ Jump up to: a b Lidz 2016.
Jump up ^ Lydekker's New Natural History, Vol, III, p. 6
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gudger 1940, p. 227.
Jump up ^ Sevket Turet; Ali Bayram (1 May 1996). Practical English-Turkish handbook. Hippocrene Books. p. 361. Archived from the original on 13 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "Afflicted with a Jonah; The Sea Captain's Fear of Parsons' Sons". The New York Times. March 6, 1885.
Jump up ^ "Jonah". Collins English Dictionary (Complete & Unabridged 11th ed.). Archived from the original on June 27, 2012. Retrieved October 6, 2012.
Jump up ^ Green 2005, p. xv.
Jump up ^ Sherwood 2000, pp. 71–72.
Jump up ^ Lewis, John (2017-07-21). "The Problem with Herman Melville's Reading of the Book of Jonah". Mosaic. Archived from the original on 2018-02-13. Retrieved 2018-01-03.
Jump up ^ Marrone 2007, p. 486.
Jump up ^ Pinsky 2004, p. 31.
Jump up ^ Deming, Mark. "Jonah: A VeggieTales Movie (2002)". AllMovie. Archived from the original on November 10, 2017. Retrieved November 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ Dunlap & Warren 2013, p. 238.
Jump up ^ Dunlap & Warren 2013, p. 240.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Campbell 1988, pp. 90–95.
Jump up ^ Dalley 1989, pp. 118–119.
Jump up ^ Dalley 1989, p. 119.
Jump up ^ Hamel 2015, pp. 1–20.
Jump up ^ Hamel 2015, pp. 18–20.
Bibliography[edit]
Band, Arnold J. (2003), Studies in Modern Jewish Literature, JPS Scholar of Distinction Series, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The Jewish Publication Society, ISBN 0-8276-0762-8
Ben Zvi, Ehud (2003), The Signs of Jonah: Reading and Rereading in Ancient Yehud, Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, ISBN 0-8264-6268-5
Bredin, Mark (2006), Studies in the Book of Tobit: A Multiple Disciplinary Approach, New York City, New York and London, England: T&T Clark, ISBN 0-567-08229-6
Bremmer, Jan M. (2014) [1987], Interpretations of Greek Mythology, New York City, New York and London, England: Routledge, ISBN 978-1-315-81300-4
Campbell, Joseph (1988), The Hero With A Thousand Faces, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, pp. 90–95, ISBN 0-586-08571-8
Costa, Nicholas (2013), Adam to Apophis: Asteroids, Millenarianism and Climate Change, Lemona, Cyprus: D'Aleman Publishing, ISBN 978-9963-2917-0-0
Dalley, Stephanie (1989), Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-283589-0
Doyle, Brian (2005), Martínez, F. García; Vervenne, M., eds., Interpreting Translation: Studies on the LXX and Ezekiel in Honour of Johan Lust, Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, ISBN 90-429-1689-3
Dunlap, Janine W.; Warren, Hillary (2013), "VeggieTales", in Woods, Robert H., Evangelical Christians and Popular Culture: Pop Goes the Gospel, 1, Film, Radio, and the Internet, Santa Barbara, California: Praeger: An Imprint of ABC Clio, ISBN 978-0313386541
Ensor, Josie (28 February 2017), "Previously Untouched 600 BC Palace Discovered Under Shrine Demolished by ISIL in Mosul", The Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group
Farhan, Sara; Lawandow, Atoor; Samuel, Sigal (24 July 2017), "ISIS Destroyed Jonah's Tomb, but Not Its Message", The Atlantic, The Atlantic
Ford, Dana; Tawfeeq, Mohammed (25 July 2014), Extremists Destroy Jonah's Tomb, Officials Say, CNN.com
Friedman, Saul S. (2006), A History of the Middle East, Jefferson, North Carolina: MacFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, ISBN 0-7864-2356-0
Gaines, Janet Howe (2003), Forgiveness in a Wounded World: Jonah's Dilemma, Atlanta, Georgia: Society of Biblical Literature, ISBN 1-58983-077-6
Graham, William Albert (1977), Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam: A Reconsideration of the Sources with Special Reference to the Ḥadîth Qudsî, The Hague, The Netherlands: Mouton & Co., ISBN 90-279-7612-0
Green, Barbara (2005) [2005], Jonah's Journeys, Interfaces, Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, ISBN 0-8146-5038-4
Green, Barbara (2011), "The Old Testament in Christian Spirituality", in Holder, Arthur, The Blackwell Companion to Christian Spirituality, Chichester, England: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4501-0247-6
Gudger, E. W. (March 1940), "Twenty-Five Years' Quest of the Whale Shark", The Scientific Monthly, Washington D.C., United States: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 50 (3): 225–233, Bibcode:1940SciMo..50..225G
Hamel, Gildas (25 April 2015) [1995], "Taking the Argo to Nineveh: Jonah and Jason in a Mediterranean Context" (PDF), Judaism, 44 (3)
Ingram, Virginia (2012), Ellens, J. Harold, ed., Psychological Hermeneutics for Biblical Themes and Texts: A Festschrift in Honor of Wayne G. Rollins, New York City, New York and London, England: T&T Clark, ISBN 978-0-567-56602-7
Kripke, Saul A. (1980) [1972], Naming and Necessity, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-59846-6
Levine, Étan (2000), Heaven and Earth, Love and Law: Studies in Biblical Thought, Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-016952-5
Lidz, Franz (April 2016), "How Much Has the Town Where the Scopes Trial Took Place Evolved Since the 1920s?", Smithsonian, The Smithsonian Institution
Limburg, James (1993), Jonah: A Commentary, Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster Knox Publishers, ISBN 0-664-21296-4
Marrone, Gaetana (2007), Encyclopedia of Italian Literary Studies: A-J, New York City, New York and London, England: Routledge, ISBN 1-57958-390-3
McKenzie, Stepehn L.; Graham, Matt Patrick (1998), The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues, Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster Knox Press, ISBN 0-664-25652-X
Person, Raymond (1996), In Conversation with Jonah: Conversation Analysis, Literary Criticism, and the Book of Jonah, Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, ISBN 1-85075-619-8
Pinsky, Mark I. (2004), The Gospel According to Disney, Louisville, London: Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 0-664-22591-8
Romey, Kristin (19 April 2016), "Exclusive Photos Show Destruction of Nineveh Gates by ISIS", National Geographic, The National Geographical Society
Sherwood, Yvonne (2000), A Biblical Text and Its Afterlives: The Survival of Jonah in Western Culture, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-79561-3
Smolla, Rodney A. (5 October 1997), "Monkey Business", The New York Times, The New York Times
Stein, Robert H. (1994), The Method and Message of Jesus' Teachings, Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, ISBN 0-664-25513-2
Vicchio, Stephen J. (2008), Biblical Figures in the Islamic Faith, Eugene, Oregon: Wipf & Stock, ISBN 978-1-55635-304-8
Walton, John H.; Armerding, Carl E.; Walker, Larry L. (2017) [1985], Jonah, Nahum, Habukkuk, Zephaniah, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, ISBN 978-0-310-53196-8
Wheeler, Brannon M. (2002), Prophets in the Quran: An Introduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis, New York City, New York and London, England, ISBN 0-8264-4957-3
Ziolkowski, Jan M. (2007), Fairy Tales from Before Fairy Tales: The Medieval Latin Past of Wonderful Lies, Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, ISBN 978-0-472-03379-9
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jonah.
The Book of Jonah (Hebrew and English)
The Book of Jonah (NIV)
Jewish Encyclopedia: Jonah
Catholic Encyclopedia: Jonah
Prophet Jonah Orthodox icon and synaxarion
Animated Retelling of the Jonah Story
The Prophet Jonah at the Christian Iconography web site
Works by Jonah at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
[show]
v
t
e
Prophets in the Hebrew Bible
Pre-Patriarchal
Abel
Kenan
Enoch
Noah (in rabbinic literature)
Patriarchs / Matriarchs
Abraham
Isaac
Jacob
Levi
Joseph
Sarah
Rebecca
Rachel
Leah
Israelite prophets
in the Torah
Moses (in rabbinic literature)
Aaron
Miriam
Eldad and Medad
Phinehas
Mentioned in the
Former Prophets
Joshua
Deborah
Gideon
Eli
Elkanah
Hannah
Abigail
Samuel
Gad
Nathan
David
Solomon
Jeduthun
Ahijah
Shemaiah
Elijah
Elisha
Iddo
Hanani
Jehu
Micaiah
Jahaziel
Eliezer
Zechariah ben Jehoiada
Huldah
Major
Isaiah (in rabbinic literature)
Jeremiah
Ezekiel
Daniel (in rabbinic literature)
Minor
Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah (in rabbinic literature)
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
Noahide
Beor
Balaam
Job (in rabbinic literature)
Other
Amoz
Beeri
Baruch
Agur
Uriah
Buzi
Mordecai
Esther (in rabbinic literature)
Oded
Azariah
Italics indicate persons whose status as prophets is not universally accepted.
[show]
v
t
e
Prophets in the Quran
آدم إدريس نوح هود صالح إبراهيم لوط إسماعيل
Adam
Adam
Idris
Enoch (?)
Nuh
Noah
Hud
Eber (?)
Saleh
Salah (?)
Ibrahim
Abraham
Lut
Lot
Ismail
Ishmael
إسحاق يعقوب يوسف أيوب شُعيب موسى هارون ذو الكفل داود
Is'haq
Isaac
Yaqub
Jacob
Yusuf
Joseph
Ayyub
Job
Shuayb
Jethro (?)
Musa
Moses
Harun
Aaron
Dhul-Kifl
Ezekiel (?)
Daud
David
سليمان إلياس إليسع يونس زكريا يحيى عيسى مُحمد
Sulaiman
Solomon
Ilyas
Elijah
Al-Yasa
Elisha
Yunus
Jonah
Zakaria
Zechariah
Yahya
John
Isa
Jesus
Muhammad
Muhammad
Note: Muslims believe that there were many prophets sent by God to mankind. The Islamic prophets above are only the ones mentioned by name in the Quran.
[show]
v
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e
People and things in the Quran
[hide]
Characters
Non-humans
Allâh ("The God")
Names of Allah found in the Quran
Beings in Paradise
Ghilmān or Wildān
Ḥūr
Animals
Related
The baqarah (cow) of Israelites
The dhi’b (wolf) that Jacob feared could attack Joseph
The fīl (elephant) of the Abyssinians)
Ḥimār (Domesticated donkey)
The hud-hud (hoopoe) of Solomon
The kalb (dog) of the sleepers of the cave
The nāqaṫ (she-camel) of Saleh
The nūn (fish or whale) of Jonah
Non-related
Ḥimār (Wild ass)
Qaswarah ('Lion', 'Beast of prey' or 'Hunter')
Jinns
‘Ifrîṫ ("Strong one")
Mârid ("Rebellious one")
Iblīs the Shayṭān (Devil)
Qarīn
Prophets
Mentioned
Ādam (Adam)
Al-Yasa‘ (Elisha)
Ayyūb (Job)
Dāwūd (David)
Dhūl-Kifl (Ezekiel?)
Hārūn (Aaron)
Hūd (Eber?)
Idrīs (Enoch?)
Ilyās (Elijah)
‘Imrān (Joachim the father of Maryam)
Is-ḥāq (Isaac)
Ismā‘īl (Ishmael)
Dhabih Ullah
Isma'il Ṣādiq al-Wa‘d (Fulfiller of the Promise)
Lūṭ (Lot)
Ṣāliḥ
Shu‘ayb (Jethro, Reuel or Hobab?)
Sulaymān ibn Dāwūd (Solomon son of David)
‘Uzair (Ezra?)
Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyā (John the Baptist the son of Zechariah)
Ya‘qūb (Jacob)
Isrâ’îl (Israel)
Yūnus (Jonah)
Dhūn-Nūn ("He of the Fish (or Whale)" or "Owner of the Fish (or Whale)")
Ṣāḥib al-Ḥūṫ ("Companion of the Whale")
Yūsuf ibn Ya‘qūb (Joseph son of Jacob)
Zakariyyā (Zechariah)
Ulu-l-‘Azm
Muḥammad
Aḥmad
Other names and titles of Muhammad
ʿĪsā (Jesus)
Al-Masīḥ (The Messiah)
Ibn Maryam (Son of Mary)
Mūsā Kalīmullāh (Moses He who spoke to God)
Ibrāhīm Khalīlullāh (Abraham Friend of God)
Nūḥ (Noah)
Debatable ones
Dhūl-Qarnain (Cyrus the Great?)
Luqmân
Maryam (Mary)
Ṭâlûṫ (Saul or Gideon?)
Implied
Irmiyā (Jeremiah)
Ṣamû’îl (Samuel)
Yūsha‘ ibn Nūn (Joshua, companion and successor of Moses)
People of Prophets
Evil ones
Āzar (possibly Terah)
Fir‘awn (Pharaoh of Moses' time)
Hāmān
Jâlûṫ (Goliath)
Qārūn (Korah, cousin of Moses)
As-Sāmirī
Abî Lahab
Slayers of Saleh's she-camel (Qaddar ibn Salif and Musda' ibn Dahr)
Good ones
Adam's immediate relatives
Martyred son
Wife
Believer of Ya-Sin
Family of Noah
Father Lamech
Mother Shamkhah bint Anush or Betenos
Luqman's son
People of Aaron and Moses
Believer of Fir'aun Family (Hizbil/Hizqil ibn Sabura)
Imra’aṫ Fir‘awn (Âsiyá bint Muzâḥim or Bithiah)
Khidr
Magicians of the Pharaoh
Moses' wife
Moses' sister-in-law
Mother
Sister
People of Abraham
Mother Abiona or Amtelai the daughter of Karnebo
Ishmael's mother
Isaac's mother
People of Jesus
Disciples (including Peter)
Mary's mother
Zechariah's wife
People of Joseph
Brothers (including Binyāmin (Benjamin) and Simeon)
Egyptians
‘Azîz (Potiphar, Qatafir or Qittin)
Malik (King Ar-Rayyân ibn Al-Walîd))
Wife of ‘Azîz (Zulaykhah)
Mother
People of Solomon
Mother
Queen of Sheba
Vizier
Zayd
Implied or not specified
Abrahah
Bal'am/Balaam
Barsisa
Caleb or Kaleb the companion of Joshua
Luqman's son
Nebuchadnezzar II
Nimrod
Rahmah the wife of Ayyub
Shaddad
Groups
Mentioned
Aş-ḥāb al-Jannah
People of Paradise
People of the Burnt Garden
Aş-ḥāb as-Sabṫ (Companions of the Sabbath)
Christian apostles
Ḥawāriyyūn (Disciples of Jesus)
Companions of Noah's Ark
Aş-ḥāb al-Kahf war-Raqīm (Companions of the Cave and Al-Raqaim?
Companions of the Elephant
People of al-Ukhdūd
People of a township in Surah Ya-Sin
People of Yathrib or Medina
Qawm Lûṭ (People of Sodom and Gomorrah)
Nation of Noah
Tribes, ethnicities or families
A‘rāb (Arabs or Bedouins)
ʿĀd (people of Hud)
Companions of the Rass
Qawm Tubba‘ (People of Tubba)
People of Saba’ or Sheba
Quraysh
Thamûd (people of Saleh)
Aṣ-ḥâb al-Ḥijr ("Companions of the Stoneland")
Ajam
Ar-Rûm (literally "The Romans")
Banî Isrâ’îl (Children of Israel)
Mu’ṫafikāṫ (The overthrown cities of Sodom and Gomorrah)
People of Ibrahim
People of Ilyas
People of Nuh
People of Shuaib
Ahl Madyan People of Madyan)
Aṣ-ḥāb al-Aykah ("Companions of the Wood")
Qawm Yûnus (People of Jonah)
Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and Magog
Ahl al-Bayṫ ("People of the Household")
Household of Abraham
Brothers of Yūsuf
Daughters of Abraham's nephew Lot (Ritha, Za'ura, et al.)
Progeny of Imran
Household of Moses
Household of Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim
Daughters of Muhammad
Wives of Muhammad
Household of Salih
People of Fir'aun
Current Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad)
Aṣ-ḥāb Muḥammad (Companions of Muhammad)
Muhajirun (Emigrants)
Anṣār Muslims of Medina who helped Muhammad and his Meccan followers, literally 'Helpers')
People of Mecca
Umm Jamil (wife of Abu Lahab)
Children of Ayyub
Dead son of Sulaiman
Qabil/Cain (son of Adam)
Wali'ah or Wa'ilah/Waala (wife of Nuh)
Walihah or Wahilah (wife of Lut)
Ya’jūj wa Ma’jūj (Gog and Magog)
Yam or Kan'an (son of Nuh)
Implicitly
mentioned
Amalek
Ahl al-Suffa (People of the Verandah)
Banu Nadir
Banu Qaynuqa
Banu Qurayza
Iranian people
Umayyad Dynasty
Aus & Khazraj
People of Quba
Religious groups
Ahl al-dhimmah (Dhimmi)
Kâfirûn (Infidels)
Zoroastrians
Munāfiqūn (Hypocrites)
Muslims
People of the Book (Ahl al-Kiṫāb)
Naṣārā (Christian(s) or People of the Injil)
Ruhban (Christian monks)
Qissis (Christian priest)
Yahūd (Jews)
Ahbār (Jewish scholars)
Rabbani/Rabbi
Sabians
Polytheists
Meccan polytheists at the time of Muhammad
Mesopotamian polytheists at the time of Abraham and Lot
Locations
Mentioned
Al-Arḍ Al-Mubārakah ("The Land The Blessed")
Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah ("The Land The Holy")
In the Arabian Peninsula (excluding Madyan)
Al-Aḥqāf ("The Sandy Plains," or "the Wind-curved Sand-hills")
Iram dhāṫ al-‘Imād (Iram of the Pillars)
Al-Madīnah (formerly Yathrib)
‘Arafāṫ
Al-Ḥijr (Hegra)
Badr
Ḥunayn
Makkah (Mecca)
Bakkah
Ka‘bah (Kaaba)
Maqām Ibrāhīm (Station of Abraham)
Safa and Marwah
Saba’ (Sheba)
‘Arim Saba’ (Dam of Sheba)
Rass
Jahannam (Hell)
Jannah (Paradise, literally 'Garden')
In Mesopotamia:
Al-Jūdiyy
Munzalanm-Mubārakan ("Place-of-Landing Blessed")
Bābil (Babylon)
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VIAF: 64800775
LCCN: n79026841
GND: 118639951
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jonah&oldid=826343891"
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Mantoux test
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The Mantoux skin test consists of an intradermal injection of one-tenth of a milliliter (ml) of PPD tuberculin.
The size of induration is measured 48–72 hours later. Erythema (redness) should not be measured.
Mantoux test injection site in a subject without chronic conditions or in a high-risk group clinically diagnosed as negative at 50 hours
The Mantoux test or Mendel-Mantoux test (also known as the Mantoux screening test, tuberculin sensitivity test, Pirquet test, or PPD test for purified protein derivative) is a tool for screening for tuberculosis (TB) and for tuberculosis diagnosis. It is one of the major tuberculin skin tests used around the world, largely replacing multiple-puncture tests such as the tine test. The Heaf test, a form of tine test, was used until 2005 in the UK, when it was replaced by the Mantoux test. The Mantoux test is endorsed by the American Thoracic Society and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It was also used in the USSR and is now prevalent in most of the post-Soviet states.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Procedure
3 Classification of tuberculin reaction
4 False positive result
5 False negative result
6 BCG vaccine and the Mantoux test
7 Anergy testing
8 Two-step testing
9 Recent developments
10 Heaf test
11 See also
12 References
History[edit]
Tuberculin is a glycerol extract of the tubercle bacillus. Purified protein derivative (PPD) tuberculin is a precipitate of species-nonspecific molecules obtained from filtrates of sterilized, concentrated cultures. The tuberculin reaction was first described by Robert Koch in 1890. The test was first developed and described by the German physician Felix Mendel in 1908 [1] It is named after Charles Mantoux, a French physician who built on the work of Koch and Clemens von Pirquet to create his test in 1907. However, the test was unreliable due to impurities in tuberculin which tended to cause false results.[2]
Esmond R. Long and Florence B. Seibert identified the active agent in tuberculin as a protein. Seibert then spent a number of years developing methods for separating and purifying the protein from Mycobacterium tuberculosis, obtaining purified protein derivative (PPD) and enabling the creation of a reliable test for tuberculosis.[2] Her first publication on the purification of tuberculin appeared in 1934.[3] By the 1940s, Seibert's PPD was the international standard for tuberculin tests.[4] In 1939, M. A. Linnikova in the USSR created a modified version of PPD. In 1954, the Soviet Union started mass production of PPD-L, named after Linnikova.[citation needed]
Procedure[edit]
A standard dose of 5 tuberculin units (TU - 0.1 ml), according to the CDC,[5] or 2 TU of Statens Serum Institute (SSI) tuberculin RT23 in 0.1 ml solution, according to the NHS,[6] is injected intradermally (between the layers of dermis) and read 48 to 72 hours later. This intradermal injection is termed the Mantoux technique. A person who has been exposed to the bacteria is expected to mount an immune response in the skin containing the bacterial proteins.
The reaction is read by measuring the diameter of induration (palpable raised, hardened area) across the forearm (perpendicular to the long axis) in millimeters. If there is no induration, the result should be recorded as "0 mm". Erythema (redness) should not be measured.[citation needed]
Classification of tuberculin reaction[edit]
The results of this test must be interpreted carefully. The person's medical risk factors determine at which increment (5 mm, 10 mm, or 15 mm) of induration the result is considered positive.[7] A positive result indicates TB exposure.
5 mm or more is positive in
An HIV-positive person
Persons with recent contacts with a TB patient
Persons with nodular or fibrotic changes on chest X-ray consistent with old healed TB
Patients with organ transplants, and other immunosuppressed patients
10 mm or more is positive in
Recent arrivals (less than five years) from high-prevalence countries
Injection drug users
Residents and employees of high-risk congregate settings (e.g., prisons, nursing homes, hospitals, homeless shelters, etc.)
Mycobacteriology lab personnel
Persons with clinical conditions that place them at high risk (e.g., diabetes, prolonged corticosteroid therapy, leukemia, end-stage renal disease, chronic malabsorption syndromes, low body weight, etc.)
Children less than four years of age, or children and adolescents exposed to adults in high-risk categories
15 mm or more is positive in
Persons with no known risk factors for TB[8]
(Note: Targeted skin testing programs should be conducted only among high-risk groups)
A tuberculin test conversion is defined as an increase of 10 mm or more within a two-day period, regardless of age. Alternative criteria include increases of 6, 12, 15 or 18 mm.[9]
False positive result[edit]
TST (tuberculin skin test) positive is measured by size of induration. The size of the induration considered to be a positive result depends on risk factors. For example, a low-risk patient must have a larger induration for a positive result than a high-risk patient. High-risk groups include recent contacts, those with HIV, those with chest radiograph with fibrotic changes, organ transplant recipients, and those with immunosuppression.
According to the Ohio Department of Health and US Department of Health, the Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine does not protect against TB infection. It does, though, give 80% of children protection against tuberculous meningitis and miliary tuberculosis. Therefore, a positive TST/PPD in a person who has received BCG vaccine is interpreted as latent TB infection (LTBI).[10] Due to the test's low specificity, most positive reactions in low-risk individuals are false positives.[11] A false positive result may be caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria or previous administration of BCG vaccine. Vaccination with BCG may result in a false-positive result for many years after vacination.[12]
False positives can also occur when the injected area is touched, causing swelling and itching.
Another source of false positive results can be allergic reaction or hypersensitivity. Although rare, (about 0.08 reported reactions per million doses of tuberculin), these reactions can be dangerous and precautions should be taken by having epinephrin available.[13]
False negative result[edit]
Reaction to the PPD or tuberculin test is suppressed by the following conditions:
Infectious mononucleosis
Live virus vaccine - The test should not be carried out within 3 weeks of live virus vaccination (e. g. MMR vaccine or Sabin vaccine).
Sarcoidosis
Hodgkin's disease
Corticosteroid therapy/steroid use
Malnutrition
Immunological compromise - Those on immuno-suppressive treatment or those with HIV and low CD4 T cell counts, frequently show negative results from the PPD test.[citation needed]
This is because the immune system needs to be functional to mount a response to the protein derivative injected under the skin. A false negative result may occur in a person who has been recently infected with TB, but whose immune system hasn't yet reacted to the bacteria.
Upper respiratory virus infection
In case a second tuberculin test is necessary it should be carried out in the other arm to avoid hypersensitising the skin.
BCG vaccine and the Mantoux test[edit]
The role of Mantoux testing in people who have been vaccinated is disputed. The US recommends that tuberculin skin testing is not contraindicated for BCG-vaccinated persons, and prior BCG vaccination should not influence the interpretation of the test. The UK recommends that interferon-γ testing should be used to help interpret positive Mantoux tests, and repeated tuberculin skin testing must not be done in people who have had BCG vaccinations. In general, the US recommendation results in a much larger number of people being falsely diagnosed with latent tuberculosis, while the UK approach probably misses patients with latent tuberculosis who should be treated.[citation needed]
According to the US guidelines, latent tuberculosis infection diagnosis and treatment is considered for any BCG-vaccinated person whose skin test is 10 mm or greater, if any of these circumstances are present:
Was in contact with another person with infectious TB
Was born or has lived in a high TB prevalence country
Is continually exposed to populations where TB prevalence is high
Anergy testing[edit]
In cases of anergy, a lack of reaction by the body's defence mechanisms when it comes into contact with foreign substances, the tuberculin reaction will occur weakly, thus compromising the value of Mantoux testing. For example, anergy is present in AIDS, a disease which strongly depresses the immune system. Therefore, anergy testing is advised in cases where there is suspicion that anergy is present. However, routine anergy skin testing is not recommended.[14]
Two-step testing[edit]
Some people who have been infected with TB may have a negative reaction when tested years after infection, as the immune system response may gradually wane. This initial skin test, though negative, may stimulate (boost) the body's ability to react to tuberculin in future tests. Thus, a positive reaction to a subsequent test may be misinterpreted as a new infection, when in fact it is the result of the boosted reaction to an old infection.
Use of two-step testing is recommended for initial skin testing of adults who will be retested periodically (e.g., health care workers). This ensures any future positive tests can be interpreted as being caused by a new infection, rather than simply a reaction to an old infection.
The first test is read 48–72 hours after injection.
If the first test is positive, consider the person infected.
If the first test is negative, give a second test one to three weeks after the first injection.
The second test is read 48–72 hours after injection.
If the second test is positive, consider the person infected in the distant past [15]
If the second test is negative, consider the person uninfected.[16]
A person who is diagnosed as "exposed" on two-step testing is called a "tuberculin reactor".
The US recommendation that prior BCG vaccination be ignored results in almost universal false diagnosis of tuberculosis infection in people who have had BCG (mostly foreign nationals).
Recent developments[edit]
In addition to tuberculin skin tests such as (principally) the Mantoux test, interferon gamma release assays (IGRAs) have become common in clinical use in the 2010s. In some contexts they are used instead of TSTs, whereas in other contexts TSTs and IGRAs both continue to be useful.[17]
The QuantiFERON-TB Gold blood test measures the patient’s immune reactivity to the TB bacterium, and is useful for initial and serial testing of persons with an increased risk of latent or active tuberculosis infection. Guidelines for its use were released by the CDC in December 2005.[18] QuantiFERON-TB Gold is FDA-approved in the United States, has CE Mark approval in Europe and has been approved by the MHLW in Japan. The QuantiFERON-TB Gold blood test give 2% false results in contrast to about 30% of Mantoux test.
T-SPOT.TB is another IGRA; it uses the ELISPOT method.
Heaf test[edit]
Main article: Heaf test
The Heaf tuberculin skin test was used in the United Kingdom, but discontinued in 2005.
The equivalent Mantoux test positive levels done with 10 TU (0.1 ml at 100 TU/ml, 1:1000) are
<5 mm induration (Heaf 0-1)
5–15 mm induration (Heaf 2)
>15 mm induration (Heaf 3-4)
See also[edit]
Tuberculosis
Latent tuberculosis
QuantiFERON
Tine test
References[edit]
Jump up ^ F. Mendel. Therapeutische Monatshefte, Berlin, 1903, 16: 177. Die von Pirquet'sche Hautreaktion und die intravenöse Tuberkulinbehandlung.Medizinische Klinik, München, 1908, 4: 402-404.
^ Jump up to: a b "Esmond R. Long and Florence B. Seibert". Chemical Heritage Foundation. Archived from the original on June 13, 2011. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Florence Seibert, American Biochemist, 1897–1991". Chemistry Explained. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
Jump up ^ Dacso, C. C. (1990). "Chapter 47: Skin Testing for Tuberculosis". In Walker, H. K.; Hall, W. D.; Hurst, J.W. Clinical Methods: The History, Physical, and Laboratory Examinations (3rd ed.). Boston: Butterworths. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "TB Elimination - Tuberculin Skin Testing" (PDF). CDC.gov. CDC - National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention - Division of Tuberculosis Elimination. October 2011. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "The Mantoux test: Administration, reading and interpretation" (PDF). NHS.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2010. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
Jump up ^ From the CDC team of the CDC team at the Saskatchewan Lung Association, photos of a PPD bump.
Jump up ^ Mantoux Test in eac.int.
Jump up ^ Menzies, Dick (1 January 1999). "Interpretation of Repeated Tuberculin Tests". American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 159 (1): 15–21. PMID 9872812. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.159.1.9801120.
Jump up ^ Information also from ODH lecture at the Ohio State University 5/24/2012.
Jump up ^ Starke JR (Jul 1996). "Tuberculosis Skin Testing: New Schools of Thought". Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. 98 (1): 123–125. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 8668383.
Jump up ^ Chaturvedi N, Cockcroft A (1992). "Tuberculosis screening among health service employees: who needs chest X-rays?". J Soc Occup Med. 42 (4): 179–82. doi:10.1093/occmed/42.4.179.
Jump up ^ James E. Froeschle; Frederick L. Ruben; A. Michael Bloh (2002). "Immediate Hypersensitivity Reactions after Use of Tuberculin Skin Testing". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 34 (1): e12–e13. doi:10.1086/324587.
Jump up ^ Markowitz, Norman (1993). "Tuberculin and Anergy Testing in HIV-Seropositive and HIV-Seronegative Persons". Ann Intern Med. 119 (3): 185–193. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-119-3-199308010-00002.
Jump up ^ "Information on Two-Step TB Skin Test" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Office of Health and Human Services. "Booster Phenomenon". Retrieved 2008-07-02.
Jump up ^ Collins, LF; Geadas, C; Ellner, JJ (2016), "Diagnosis of latent tuberculosis infection: too soon to pull the plug on the tuberculin skin test", Ann Intern Med, 164 (2): 122–124, PMID 26642354, doi:10.7326/M15-1522.
Jump up ^ Guidelines for Using the QuantiFERON-TB Gold Test for Detecting Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection, United States
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mantoux test.
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