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Biomass (ecology)
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Apart from bacteria, the total global live biomass has been estimated as 560 billion tonnes C,[1] most of which is found in forests.[2]
Shallow aquatic environments, such as wetlands, estuaries and coral reefs, can be as productive as forests, generating similar amounts of new biomass each year on a given area.[3]
Biomass is the mass of living biological organisms in a given area or ecosystem at a given time. Biomass can refer to species biomass, which is the mass of one or more species, or to community biomass, which is the mass of all species in the community. It can include microorganisms, plants or animals.[4] The mass can be expressed as the average mass per unit area, or as the total mass in the community.
How biomass is measured depends on why it is being measured. Sometimes, the biomass is regarded as the natural mass of organisms in situ, just as they are. For example, in a salmon fishery, the salmon biomass might be regarded as the total wet weight the salmon would have if they were taken out of the water. In other contexts, biomass can be measured in terms of the dried organic mass, so perhaps only 30% of the actual weight might count, the rest being water. For other purposes, only biological tissues count, and teeth, bones and shells are excluded. In some applications, biomass is measured as the mass of organically bound carbon (C) that is present.
Apart from bacteria, the total live biomass on Earth is about 560 billion tonnes C,[1] and the total annual primary production of biomass is just over 100 billion tonnes C/yr.[5] The total live biomass of bacteria may be as much as that of plants and animals[6] or may be much less.[7] The total amount of DNA base pairs on Earth, as a possible approximation of global biodiversity, is estimated at 5.0 x 1037, and weighs 50 billion tonnes.[8] In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 x 1012 tonnes of carbon.[9]
Contents
[hide]
1 Ecological pyramids
2 Terrestrial biomass
3 Ocean biomass
4 Bacterial biomass
5 Global biomass
6 Global rate of production
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Ecological pyramids[edit]
Main article: Ecological pyramid
An ecological pyramid.
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation that shows, for a given ecosystem, the relationship between biomass or biological productivity and trophic levels.
A biomass pyramid shows the amount of biomass at each trophic level.
A productivity pyramid shows the production or turn-over in biomass at each trophic level.
An ecological pyramid provides a snapshot in time of an ecological community.
The bottom of the pyramid represents the primary producers (autotrophs). The primary producers take energy from the environment in the form of sunlight or inorganic chemicals and use it to create energy-rich molecules such as carbohydrates. This mechanism is called primary production. The pyramid then proceeds through the various trophic levels to the apex predators at the top.
When energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, typically only ten percent is used to build new biomass. The remaining ninety percent goes to metabolic processes or is dissipated as heat. This energy loss means that productivity pyramids are never inverted, and generally limits food chains to about six levels. However, in oceans, biomass pyramids can be wholly or partially inverted, with more biomass at higher levels.
Terrestrial biomass[edit]
Terrestrial biomass generally decreases markedly at each higher trophic level (plants, herbivores, carnivores). Examples of terrestrial producers are grasses, trees and shrubs. These have a much higher biomass than the animals that consume them, such as deer, zebras and insects. The level with the least biomass are the highest predators in the food chain, such as foxes and eagles.
In a temperate grassland, grasses and other plants are the primary producers at the bottom of the pyramid. Then come the primary consumers, such as grasshoppers, voles and bison, followed by the secondary consumers, shrews, hawks and small cats. Finally the tertiary consumers, large cats and wolves. The biomass pyramid decreases markedly at each higher level.
Ocean biomass[edit]
The marine food chain
predatory fish
↑
filter feeders
↑
predatory zooplankton
↑
zooplankton
↑
phytoplankton
See also: Marine life
Ocean or marine biomass, in a reversal of terrestrial biomass, can increase at higher trophic levels. In the ocean, the food chain typically starts with phytoplankton, and follows the course:
Phytoplankton → zooplankton → predatory zooplankton → filter feeders → predatory fish
Phytoplankton are the main primary producers at the bottom of the marine food chain. Phytoplankton use photosynthesis to convert inorganic carbon into protoplasm. They are then consumed by microscopic animals called zooplankton.
Zooplankton comprise the second level in the food chain, and includes small crustaceans, such as copepods and krill, and the larva of fish, squid, lobsters and crabs.
In turn, small zooplankton are consumed by both larger predatory zooplankters, such as krill, and by forage fish, which are small, schooling, filter-feeding fish. This makes up the third level in the food chain.
An ocean food web showing a network of food chains
The fourth trophic level consists of predatory fish, marine mammals and seabirds that consume forage fish. Examples are swordfish, seals and gannets.
Apex predators, such as orcas, which can consume seals, and shortfin mako sharks, which can consume swordfish, make up the fifth trophic level. Baleen whales can consume zooplankton and krill directly, leading to a food chain with only three or four trophic levels.
Marine environments can have inverted biomass pyramids. In particular, the biomass of consumers (copepods, krill, shrimp, forage fish) is larger than the biomass of primary producers. This happens because the ocean's primary producers are tiny phytoplankton that grow and reproduce rapidly, so a small mass can have a fast rate of primary production. In contrast, terrestrial primary producers grow and reproduce slowly.
There is an exception with cyanobacteria. Marine cyanobacteria are the smallest known photosynthetic organisms; the smallest of all, Prochlorococcus, is just 0.5 to 0.8 micrometres across.[10] Prochlorococcus is possibly the most plentiful species on Earth: a single millilitre of surface seawater may contain 100,000 cells or more. Worldwide, there are estimated to be several octillion (~1027) individuals.[11] Prochlorococcus is ubiquitous between 40°N and 40°S and dominates in the oligotrophic (nutrient poor) regions of the oceans.[12] The bacterium accounts for an estimated 20% of the oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere, and forms part of the base of the ocean food chain.[13]
Bacterial biomass[edit]
There are typically 50 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. In a much-cited study from 1998[6] the world bacterial biomass was calculated to be 350 to 550 billions of tonnes of carbon, equal to between 60% and 100% of the carbon in plants. More recent studies of seafloor microbes have cast considerable doubt on that, one study in 2012[7] reduced the calculated microbial biomass on the seafloor from the original 303 billions of tonnes of C to just 4.1 billions of tonnes of C, reducing the global biomass of prokaryotes to 50 to 250 billions of tonnes of C. Further, if the average per cell biomass of prokaryotes is reduced from 86 to 14 femtograms C[7] then the global biomass of prokaryotes is reduced to 13 to 44.5 billions of tonnes of C, equal to between 2.4% and 8.1% of the carbon in plants.
Geographic location
Number of cells (×1029)
Billions of tonnes of carbon
Ocean floor
2.9[7] to 50[14]
4.1[7] to 303[6]
Open ocean
1.2[6]
1.7[6][7] to 10[6]
Terrestrial soil
2.6[6]
3.7[6][7] to 22[6]
Subsurface terrestrial
2.5 to 25[6]
3.5[6][7] to 215[6]
Global biomass[edit]
Estimates for the global biomass of species and higher level groups are not always consistent across the literature. Apart from bacteria, the total global biomass has been estimated at about 560 billion tonnes C.[1] Most of this biomass is found on land, with only 5 to 10 billion tonnes C found in the oceans.[1] On land, there is about 1,000 times more plant biomass (phytomass) than animal biomass (zoomass). About 18% of this plant biomass is eaten by the land animals.[15] However, in the ocean, the animal biomass is nearly 30 times larger than the plant biomass.[16] Most ocean plant biomass is eaten by the ocean animals.[15]
name
number of species
date of estimate
individual count
mean living mass of individual
percent biomass (dried)
total number of carbon atoms
global dry biomass in million tonnes
global wet (fresh) biomass in million tonnes
Terrestrial
Humans
1
2012[17]
7.0 billion
50 kg
(incl children)
30%
4.015 x 1036 [18]
105
350
2005
4.63 billion
62 kg
(excl children)[19]
287[19]
Cattle
1
1.3 billion[20]
400 kg
30%
156
520
Sheep and goats
2
2002
1.75 billion[21]
60 kg
30%
31.5
105
Chickens
1
24 billion
2 kg
30%
14.4
48
Ants
12,649[22]
107 - 108 billion [23]
3 x 10−6 kg
(0.003 grams)
30%
10–100
30-300
Earthworms
>7,000
1881
Darwin
1.3 x 10 6 billion [24]
3 g
30% [25]
1,140-2,280[24]
3,800-7,600[24]
Termites
>2,800
1996
445[26]
Marine
Blue whales[27]
1
Pre-whaling
340,000
40%[28]
36
2001
4,700
40%[28]
0.5
Fish
>10,000
2009
800-2,000[29]
Antarctic krill
1
1924–2004
7.8 x 1014
0.486 g
379[30]
Copepods
(a zooplankton)
13,000
10−6 - 10−9 kg
1x1037 [31]
Cyanobacteria
(a picoplankton)
?
2003
1,000[32]
Global
Prokaryotes
(bacteria)
?
1998
4–6 x 1030 cells[6]
1.76-2.76 x 1040 [6]
350,000-550,000[6]
Humans comprise about 100 million tonnes of the Earth's dry biomass,[33] domesticated animals about 700 million tonnes, earthworms over 1,100 million tonnes,[24] and annual cereal crops about 2.3 billion tonnes.[34]
The most successful animal species, in terms of biomass, may well be Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, with a fresh biomass approaching 500 million tonnes,[30][35][36] although domestic cattle may also reach these immense figures.[citation needed] However, as a group, the small aquatic crustaceans called copepods may form the largest animal biomass on earth.[37] A 2009 paper in Science estimates, for the first time, the total world fish biomass as somewhere between 0.8 and 2.0 billion tonnes.[38][39] It has been estimated that about 1% of the global biomass is due to phytoplankton,[40] and 25% is due to fungi.[41][42]
Grasses, trees and shrubs have a much higher biomass than the animals that consume them
The total biomass of bacteria may equal that of plants.[6]
Copepods may form the largest biomass of any animal species group.[37]
Antarctic krill form one of the largest biomasses of any individual animal species.[35]
It has been claimed that fungi make up 25% of the global biomass
Global rate of production[edit]
Globally, terrestrial and oceanic habitats produce a similar amount of new biomass each year (56.4 billion tonnes C terrestrial and 48.5 billion tonnes C oceanic).
Net primary production is the rate at which new biomass is generated, mainly due to photosynthesis. Global primary production can be estimated from satellite observations. Satellites scan the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) over terrestrial habitats, and scan sea-surface chlorophyll levels over oceans. This results in 56.4 billion tonnes C/yr (53.8%), for terrestrial primary production, and 48.5 billion tonnes C/yr for oceanic primary production.[5] Thus, the total photoautotrophic primary production for the Earth is about 104.9 billion tonnes C/yr. This translates to about 426 gC/m²/yr for land production (excluding areas with permanent ice cover), and 140 gC/m²/yr for the oceans.
However, there is a much more significant difference in standing stocks—while accounting for almost half of total annual production, oceanic autotrophs account for only about 0.2% of the total biomass. Autotrophs may have the highest global proportion of biomass, but they are closely rivaled or surpassed by microbes.[43][44]
Terrestrial freshwater ecosystems generate about 1.5% of the global net primary production.[45]
Some global producers of biomass in order of productivity rates are
Producer
Biomass productivity
(gC/m²/yr)
Ref
Total area
(million km²)
Ref
Total production
(billion tonnes C/yr)
Swamps and Marshes 2,500 [3]
Tropical rainforests 2,000 [46] 8 16
Coral reefs 2,000 [3] 0.28 [47] 0.56
Algal beds 2,000 [3]
River estuaries 1,800 [3]
Temperate forests 1,250 [3] 19 24
Cultivated lands 650 [3][48] 17 11
Tundras 140 [3][48]
Open ocean 125 [3][48] 311 39
Deserts 3 [48] 50 0.15
See also[edit]
Biomass (as in bioproducts)
Natural organic matter
Productivity (ecology)
Primary nutritional groups
Standing stock
Lake Pohjalampi - a biomass manipulation study
List of harvested aquatic animals by weight
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ The Most Important Microbe You've Never Heard Of
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^ Jump up to: a b Hartley, Sue (2010) The 300 Million Years War: Plant Biomass v Herbivores Royal Institution Christmas Lecture.
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Jump up ^ US world population clock Archived 1 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
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^ Jump up to: a b Atkinson, A.; Siegel, V.; Pakhomov, E.A.; Jessopp, M.J.; Loeb, V. (2009). "A re-appraisal of the total biomass and annual production of Antarctic krill" (PDF). Deep-Sea Research Part I. 56 (5): 727–740. Bibcode:2009DSRI...56..727A. doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2008.12.007.
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Jump up ^ The world human population was 6.6 billion in January 2008. At an average weight of 100 pounds (30 lbs of biomass), that equals 100 million tonnes.[clarification needed]
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^ Jump up to: a b Biology of Copepods Archived 1 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine. at Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg
Jump up ^ Wilson, RW; Millero, FJ; Taylor, JR; Walsh, PJ; Christensen, V; Jennings, S; Grosell, M (2009). "Contribution of Fish to the Marine Inorganic Carbon Cycle". Science. 323 (5912): 359–362. Bibcode:2009Sci...323..359W. doi:10.1126/science.1157972. PMID 19150840.
Jump up ^ Researcher gives first-ever estimate of worldwide fish biomass and impact on climate change PhysOrg.com, 15 January 2009.
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Jump up ^ Whitman, W. B.; Coleman, D. C.; Wieb, W. J. (1998). "Prokaryotes: The unseen majority" (PDF). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95 (12): 6578–6583. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95.6578W. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.12.6578. PMC 33863  . PMID 9618454.
Jump up ^ Groombridge, B.; Jenkins, M. (2002). World Atlas of Biodiversity: Earth's Living Resources in the 21st Century. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, United Nations Environment Programme. ISBN 0-520-23668-8. PMC 3408371  .
Jump up ^ Alexander, David E. (1 May 1999). Encyclopedia of Environmental Science. Springer. ISBN 0-412-74050-8.
Jump up ^ Ricklefs, Robert E.; Miller, Gary Leon (2000). Ecology (4th ed.). Macmillan. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-7167-2829-0.
Jump up ^ Spalding, Mark, Corinna Ravilious, and Edmund Green. 2001. World Atlas of Coral Reefs. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press and UNEP/WCMC.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Park, Chris C. (2001). The environment: principles and applications (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 564. ISBN 978-0-415-21770-5.
Further reading[edit]
Foley, JA; Monfreda, C; Ramankutty, N and Zaks, D (2007) Our share of the planetary pie Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 104(31): 12585–12586. Download
Haberl, H; Erb, KH; Krausmann, F; Gaube, V; Bondeau, A; Plutzar, C; Gingrich, S; Lucht, W and Fischer-Kowalski, M (2007) Quantifying and mapping the human appropriation of net primary production in earth's terrestrial ecosystems Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 104(31):12942-12947. Download
Purves, William K and Orians, Gordon H (2007) Life: The Science of Biology, 8th Ed. W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-1-4292-0877-2
External links[edit]
Look up biomass in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Counting bacteria
Trophic levels
Biomass distributions for high trophic-level fishes in the North Atlantic, 1900–2000
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Great Pacific garbage patch
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The area of increased plastic particles is located within the North Pacific Gyre, one of the five major ocean gyres.
Play media
Visualisation showing ocean garbage patches.
The Great Pacific garbage patch, also described as the Pacific trash vortex, is a gyre of marine debris particles in the central North Pacific Ocean discovered between 1985 and 1988. It is located roughly between 135°W to 155°W and 35°N to 42°N.[1] The patch extends over an indeterminate area of widely varying range depending on the degree of plastic concentration used to define the affected area.
The patch is characterized by exceptionally high relative pelagic concentrations of plastic, chemical sludge, and other debris that have been trapped by the currents of the North Pacific Gyre.[2] Its low density (4 particles per cubic meter) prevents detection by satellite imagery, or even by casual boaters or divers in the area. It consists primarily of a small increase in suspended, often microscopic, particles in the upper water column.
Contents
[hide]
1 Discovery
2 Information
3 Estimates of size
4 Photodegradation of plastics
5 Effect on marine life and humans
5.1 Direct harm to species
5.2 Indirect harm to species via the food chain
5.3 Spreading invasive species
6 Misconception
7 Cleanup research
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Discovery[edit]
The Patch is created in the gyre of the North Pacific Subtropical Convergence Zone
The great Pacific garbage patch was described in a 1988 paper published by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the United States. The description was based on results obtained by several Alaska-based researchers in 1988 that measured neustonic plastic in the North Pacific Ocean.[3] Researchers found relatively high concentrations of marine debris accumulating in regions governed by ocean currents. Extrapolating from findings in the Sea of Japan, the researchers hypothesized that similar conditions would occur in other parts of the Pacific where prevailing currents were favorable to the creation of relatively stable waters. They specifically indicated the North Pacific Gyre.[4]
Charles J. Moore, returning home through the North Pacific Gyre after competing in the Transpacific Yacht Race in 1997, claimed to have come upon an enormous stretch of floating debris. Moore alerted the oceanographer Curtis Ebbesmeyer, who subsequently dubbed the region the "Eastern Garbage Patch" (EGP).[5] The area is frequently featured in media reports as an exceptional example of marine pollution.[6]
The patch is not easily visible, because it consists of tiny pieces almost invisible to the naked eye.[7] Most of its contents are suspended beneath the surface of the ocean,[8] and the relatively low density of the plastic debris is, according to one scientific study, 5.1 kilograms per square kilometer of ocean area (5.1 kg/km2).[9]
A similar patch of floating plastic debris is found in the Atlantic Ocean, called the North Atlantic garbage patch.[10][11]
Information[edit]
The north Pacific Garbage Patch on a continuous ocean map
It is thought that, like other areas of concentrated marine debris in the world's oceans, the Great Pacific garbage patch formed gradually as a result of ocean or marine pollution gathered by ocean currents.[12] The garbage patch occupies a large and relatively stationary region of the North Pacific Ocean bound by the North Pacific Gyre (a remote area commonly referred to as the horse latitudes). The gyre's rotational pattern draws in waste material from across the North Pacific Ocean, including coastal waters off North America and Japan. As material is captured in the currents, wind-driven surface currents gradually move floating debris toward the center, trapping it in the region.
There is no strong scientific data concerning the origins of pelagic plastics.[dubious – discuss][citation needed] In a study published in 2014,[13] researchers sampled 1571 locations throughout the worlds oceans, and determined that discarded fishing gear such as buoys, lines, and nets accounted for more than 60%[14] of the mass of plastic marine debris. According to a 2011 EPA report, "The primary source of marine debris is the improper waste disposal or management of trash and manufacturing products, including plastics (e.g., littering, illegal dumping) ... Debris is generated on land at marinas, ports, rivers, harbors, docks, and storm drains. Debris is generated at sea from fishing vessels, stationary platforms, and cargo ships."[15] Pollutants range in size from abandoned fishing nets to micro-pellets used in abrasive cleaners.[16] Currents carry debris from the west coast of North America to the gyre in about six years,[5] and debris from the east coast of Asia in a year or less.[17][18]
A 2017 study conducted by scientists from the University of California, Santa Barbara, and the University of Georgia, concluded that of the 9.1 billion tons of plastic produced since 1950, close to 7 billion tons are no longer in use.[19] The authors estimate that only 9 percent got recycled over the years, while another 12 percent was incinerated, leaving 5.5 billion tons of plastic waste littering the oceans and land.[19]
Another recent Australian study focused on the high rate of seafloor plastic pollution, thereby highlighting an often overlooked aspect of oceanic plastic pollution. The researchers from the Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies at the University of Tasmania stated that "while the huge volume of plastic debris accumulating in the world's oceans and on beaches has received global attention, the amount of plastic accumulating on the seafloor is relatively unknown."[20][21]
Estimates of size[edit]
The size of the patch is unknown, as is the precise distribution of debris, because large items readily visible from a boat deck are uncommon.[22] Most debris consists of small plastic particles suspended at or just below the surface, making it difficult to accurately detect by aircraft or satellite. Instead, the size of the patch is determined by sampling. Estimates of size range from 700,000 square kilometres (270,000 sq mi) (about the size of Texas) to more than 15,000,000 square kilometres (5,800,000 sq mi) (0.4% to 8% of the size of the Pacific Ocean). Such estimates, however, are conjectural given the complexities of sampling and the need to assess findings against other areas. Further, although the size of the patch is determined by a higher-than-normal degree of concentration of pelagic debris, there is no standard for determining the boundary between "normal" and "elevated" levels of pollutants to provide a firm estimate of the affected area.
Net-based surveys are less subjective than direct observations but are limited regarding the area that can be sampled (net apertures 1–2 m and ships typically have to slow down to deploy nets, requiring dedicated ship's time). The plastic debris sampled is determined by net mesh size, with similar mesh sizes required to make meaningful comparisons among studies. Floating debris typically is sampled with a neuston or manta trawl net lined with 0.33 mm mesh. Given the very high level of spatial clumping in marine litter, large numbers of net tows are required to adequately characterize the average abundance of litter at sea. Long-term changes in plastic meso-litter have been reported using surface net tows: in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre in 1999, plastic abundance was 335 000 items/km2 and 5.1 kg/km2, roughly an order of magnitude greater than samples collected in the 1980s. Similar dramatic increases in plastic debris have been reported off Japan. However, caution is needed in interpreting such findings, because of the problems of extreme spatial heterogeneity, and the need to compare samples from equivalent water masses, which is to say that, if an examination of the same parcel of water a week apart is conducted, an order of magnitude change in plastic concentration could be observed.[23]
In August 2009, the Scripps Institution of Oceanography/Project Kaisei SEAPLEX survey mission of the Gyre found that plastic debris was present in 100 consecutive samples taken at varying depths and net sizes along a 1,700 miles (2,700 km) path through the patch. The survey also confirmed that, although the debris field does contain large pieces, it is on the whole made up of smaller items that increase in concentration toward the Gyre's centre, and these 'confetti-like' pieces are clearly visible just beneath the surface. Although many media and advocacy reports have suggested that the patch extends over an area larger than the continental U.S., recent research sponsored by the National Science Foundation suggests the affected area may be much smaller.[23][24][25] Recent data collected from Pacific albatross populations suggest there may be two distinct zones of concentrated debris in the Pacific.[26]
Photodegradation of plastics[edit]
Main article: Photodegradation
Washed up plastic waste on a beach in Singapore.
The Great Pacific garbage patch has one of the highest levels known of plastic particulate suspended in the upper water column. As a result, it is one of several oceanic regions where researchers have studied the effects and impact of plastic photodegradation in the neustonic layer of water.[27] Unlike organic debris, which biodegrades, the photodegraded plastic disintegrates into ever smaller pieces while remaining a polymer. This process continues down to the molecular level.[28] As the plastic flotsam photodegrades into smaller and smaller pieces, it concentrates in the upper water column. As it disintegrates, the plastic ultimately becomes small enough to be ingested by aquatic organisms that reside near the ocean's surface. In this way, plastic may become concentrated in neuston, thereby entering the food chain.
Some plastics decompose within a year of entering the water, leaching potentially toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A, PCBs, and derivatives of polystyrene.[29]
The process of disintegration means that the plastic particulate in much of the affected region is too small to be seen. In a 2001 study, researchers (including Charles Moore) found concentrations of plastic particles at 334,721 pieces per km2 with a mean mass of 5,114 grams (11.27 lbs) per km2, in the neuston. Assuming each particle of plastic averaged 5 mm × 5 mm × 1 mm, this would amount to only 8 m2 per km2 due to small particulates. Nonetheless, this represents a high amount with respect to the overall ecology of the neuston. In many of the sampled areas, the overall concentration of plastics was seven times greater than the concentration of zooplankton. Samples collected at deeper points in the water column found much lower concentrations of plastic particles (primarily monofilament fishing line pieces).[9]
Effect on marine life and humans[edit]
The United Nations Ocean Conference estimated that the oceans might contain more weight in plastics than fish by the year 2050.[30] Some long-lasting plastics end up in the stomachs of marine animals, mature and immature.[5][31][32] Plastics harm life in multiple ways.
Direct harm to species[edit]
Affected species include sea turtles and the black-footed albatross. Midway Atoll receives substantial amounts of marine debris from the patch. Of the 1.5 million Laysan albatrosses that inhabit Midway, nearly all are likely to have plastic in their digestive system.[33] Approximately one-third of their chicks die, and many of those deaths are due to being fed plastic by their parents.[34][35] Twenty tons of plastic debris washes up on Midway every year with five tons of that debris being fed to albatross chicks.[36]
Indirect harm to species via the food chain[edit]
Besides the particles' danger to wildlife, on the microscopic level the floating debris can absorb organic pollutants from seawater, including PCBs, DDT, and PAHs.[37] Aside from toxic effects,[38] when ingested, some of these are mistaken by the endocrine system as estradiol, causing hormone disruption in the affected animal.[35] These toxin-containing plastic pieces are also eaten by jellyfish, which are then eaten by fish. Many of these fish are then consumed by humans, resulting in their ingestion of toxic chemicals.[39] While eating their normal sources of food, plastic ingestion can be unavoidable or the animal may mistake the plastic as a food source.[40][41][42][43][44]
Spreading invasive species[edit]
Marine plastics also facilitate the spread of invasive species that attach to floating plastic in one region and drift long distances to colonize other ecosystems.[16] Research has shown that this plastic marine debris affects at least 267 species worldwide.[45]
Misconception[edit]
There has been some controversy surrounding the use of the term "garbage patch" and photos taken off the coast of Manila in the Philippines in attempts to portray the patch in the media often misrepresenting the true scope of the problem and what could be done to solve it. Angelicque White, Associate Professor at Oregon State University, who has studied the "garbage patch" in depth, warns that "the use of the phrase 'garbage patch' is misleading. ... It is not visible from space; there are no islands of trash; it is more akin to a diffuse soup of plastic floating in our oceans." In the article Dr. White and Professor Tamara Galloway, from the University of Exeter, call for regulation and cleanup and state that the focus should be on stemming the flow of plastic into the ocean from coastal sources.[46]
The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) agrees, saying:
While "Great Pacific Garbage Patch" is a term often used by the media, it does not paint an accurate picture of the marine debris problem in the North Pacific Ocean. The name "Pacific Garbage Patch" has led many to believe that this area is a large and continuous patch of easily visible marine debris items such as bottles and other litter—akin to a literal island of trash that should be visible with satellite or aerial photographs. This is not the case.
—  Ocean Facts, National Ocean Service[47]
Cleanup research[edit]
In April 2008, Richard Sundance Owen, a building contractor and scuba dive instructor, formed the Environmental Cleanup Coalition (ECC) to address the issue of North Pacific pollution. ECC collaborates with other groups to identify methods to safely remove plastic and persistent organic pollutants from the oceans.[48][49] The JUNK Raft Project was a trans-Pacific sailing voyage from June to August 2008 made to highlight the plastic in the patch, organized by the Algalita Marine Research Foundation.[50][51][52]
Project Kaisei, a project to study and clean up the garbage patch, launched in March 2009. In August 2009, two project vessels, the New Horizon and the Kaisei, embarked on a voyage to research the patch and determine the feasibility of commercial scale collection and recycling.[53] The SEAPLEX expedition, a group of researchers from Scripps Institution of Oceanography, spent 19 days on the ocean in August, 2009 researching the patch. Their primary goal was to describe the abundance and distribution of plastic in the gyre in the most rigorous study to date. Researchers were also looking at the impact of plastic on mesopelagic fish, such as lanternfish.[54][55] This group utilized a dedicated oceanographic research vessel, the 170 ft (52 m) long New Horizon.[56][57]
In 2012, Miriam C. Goldstein, Marci Rosenberg, and Lanna Cheng wrote:
Plastic pollution in the form of small particles (diameter less than 5 mm)—termed "microplastic"—has been observed in many parts of the world ocean. They are known to interact with biota on the individual level, e.g. through ingestion, but their population-level impacts are largely unknown. One potential mechanism for microplastic-induced alteration of pelagic ecosystems is through the introduction of hard-substrate habitat to ecosystems where it is naturally rare. Here, we show that microplastic concentrations in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre (NPSG) have increased by two orders of magnitude in the past four decades, and that this increase has released the pelagic insect Halobates sericeus from substrate limitation for oviposition. High concentrations of microplastic in the NPSG resulted in a positive correlation between H. sericeus and microplastic, and an overall increase in H. sericeus egg densities. Predation on H. sericeus eggs and recent hatchlings may facilitate the transfer of energy between pelagic- and substrate-associated assemblages. The dynamics of hard-substrate-associated organisms may be important to understanding the ecological impacts of oceanic microplastic pollution.[58]
The Goldstein et al. study compared changes in small plastic abundance between 1972–1987 and 1999–2010 by using historical samples from the Scripps Pelagic Invertebrate Collection and data from SEAPLEX, a NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer cruise in 2010, information from the Algalita Marine Research Foundation as well as various published papers.[59]
At TEDxDelft2012,[60][61] Dutch Aerospace Engineering student Boyan Slat unveiled a concept for removing large amounts of marine debris from the five oceanic gyres. Calling his project The Ocean Cleanup, he proposed to use surface currents to let debris drift to specially designed arms and collection platforms. Operating costs would be minimal and the operation would be so efficient that it might even be profitable. The concept makes use of floating booms, that divert rather than catch the debris. This way bycatch would be avoided, although even the smallest particles would be extracted. According to Slat's calculations, a gyre could be cleaned up in five years' time, collecting at least 7.25 million tons of plastic across all gyres.[62] He also advocated "radical plastic pollution prevention methods" to prevent gyres from reforming.[62][63]
The 2012 Algalita/5 Gyres Asia Pacific Expedition began in the Marshall Islands on 1 May, investigated the little-studied Western Pacific garbage patch, collecting samples for the 5 Gyres Institute, Algalita Marine Research Foundation and several other colleagues, including NOAA, SCRIPPS, IPRC, and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute. From 4 October to 9 November 2012, the Sea Education Association (SEA) conducted a research expedition to study plastic pollution in the North Pacific gyre. A similar research expedition was conducted by SEA in the North Atlantic Ocean in 2010. During the Plastics at SEA 2012 North Pacific Expedition, a total of 118 net tows were conducted and nearly 70,000 pieces of plastic were counted to estimate the density of plastics, map the distribution of plastics in the gyre, and examine the effects of plastic debris on marine life. [64]
On 11 April 2013, in order to create awareness, artist Maria Cristina Finucci founded The Garbage Patch State at UNESCO—Paris[65] in front of Director General Irina Bokova. It was the first of a series of events under the patronage of UNESCO and of the Italian Ministry of the Environment.[66] In 2015, The Ocean Cleanup project was a category winner in the Design Museum's 2015 Designs of the Year awards.[67] A fleet of 30 vessels, including a 32 metres (105 ft) mothership, took part in a month-long voyage to determine how much plastic is present using trawls and aerial surveys.[67]
In 2016, plans are in the concept stage to create floating Oceanscrapers, made from the plastic found in the Great Pacific garbage patch.[68] In June, The Ocean Cleanup project launched a prototype boom off the coast of the Netherlands in the North Sea, with the intention that if tests with the 100 meter prototype go well plans to develop a 100 kilometer long scaled-up version that would then be deployed in the Pacific would go forward.[69]
See also[edit]
Environment portal
Water portal
Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre
Indian Ocean garbage patch
Marine debris
North Atlantic garbage patch
Plastic pollution
Plastic resin pellet pollution
Plastisphere
South Pacific garbage patch
References[edit]
Jump up ^ See the relevant sections below for specific references concerning the discovery and history of the patch. A general overview is provided in Dautel, Susan L. "Transoceanic Trash: International and United States Strategies for the Great Pacific Garbage Patch", 3 Golden Gate U. Envtl. L.J. 181 (2009)
Jump up ^ For this and what follows, see Moore (2004) and Moore (2009), which includes photographs taken from the patch,
Jump up ^ Day, Robert H.; Shaw, David G.; Ignell, Steven E. (1988). "Quantitative distribution and characteristics of neustonic plastic in the North Pacific Ocean. Final Report to US Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service, Auke Bay Laboratory. Auke Bay, AK" (PDF). pp. 247–266.
Jump up ^ "After entering the ocean, however, neuston plastic is redistributed by currents and winds. For example, plastic entering the ocean in Japan is moved eastward by the Subarctic Current (in Subarctic Water) and the Kuroshio (in Transitional Water, Kawai 1972; Favorite et al. 1976; Nagata et al. 1986). In this way, the plastic is transported from high-density areas to low-density areas. In addition to this eastward movement, Ekman stress from winds tends to move surface waters from the subarctic and the subtropics toward the Transitional Water mass as a whole (see Roden 1970: fig. 5). Because of the convergent nature of this Ekman flow, densities tend to be high in Transitional Water. In addition, the generally convergent nature of water in the North Pacific Central Gyre (Masuzawa 1972) should result in high densities there also." Day, etc... 1988, p. 261 (Emphasis added)
^ Jump up to: a b c Moore, Charles (November 2003). "Across the Pacific Ocean, plastics, plastics, everywhere". Natural History Magazine.
Jump up ^ Berton, Justin (19 October 2007). "Continent-size toxic stew of plastic trash fouling swath of Pacific Ocean". San Francisco Chronicle. San Francisco: Hearst. pp. W–8. Retrieved 22 October 2007.
Jump up ^ Cecil Adams Why don't we ever see pictures of the floating island of garbage? Straight Dope / Chicago Reader
Jump up ^ Steve Gorman Scientists study huge plastic patch in Pacific Reuters
^ Jump up to: a b Moore, C.J; Moore, S.L; Leecaster, M.K; Weisberg, S.B (2001). "A Comparison of Plastic and Plankton in the North Pacific Central Gyre". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 42 (12): 1297–300. doi:10.1016/S0025-326X(01)00114-X. PMID 11827116.
Jump up ^ Lovett, Richard A. (2 March 2010). "Huge Garbage Patch Found in Atlantic Too". National Geographic News. National Geographic Society.
Jump up ^ Victoria Gill (24 February 2010). "Plastic rubbish blights Atlantic Ocean". BBC. Retrieved 16 March 2010.
Jump up ^ For this and what follows, see David M. Karl, "A Sea of Change: Biogeochemical Variability in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre", Ecosystems, Vol. 2, No. 3 (May – Jun., 1999), pp. 181–214 and, for gyres generally, Sverdrup HU, Johnson MW, Fleming RH. 1946. The oceans, their physics, chemistry and general biology. New York: Prentice-Hall.
Jump up ^ Eriksen, Marcus; Lebreton, Laurent C. M.; Carson, Henry S.; Thiel, Martin; Moore, Charles J.; Borerro, Jose C.; Galgani, Francois; Ryan, Peter G.; Reisser, Julia (2014-12-10). "Plastic Pollution in the World's Oceans: More than 5 Trillion Plastic Pieces Weighing over 250,000 Tons Afloat at Sea". PLOS One. 9 (12): e111913. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k1913E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111913. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4262196  . PMID 25494041.
Jump up ^ Eriksen, Marcus; Lebreton, Laurent C. M.; Carson, Henry S.; Thiel, Martin; Moore, Charles J.; Borerro, Jose C.; Galgani, Francois; Ryan, Peter G.; Reisser, Julia (2014-12-10). "Plastic Pollution in the World's Oceans: More than 5 Trillion Plastic Pieces Weighing over 250,000 Tons Afloat at Sea". PLOS One. 9 (12): e111913. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k1913E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111913. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4262196  . PMID 25494041.
Jump up ^ Marine Debris in the North Pacific (2011)
^ Jump up to: a b Ferris, David (May–June 2009). "Message in a bottle". Sierra. San Francisco: Sierra Club. Retrieved 13 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Faris, J.; Hart, K. (1994). "Seas of Debris: A Summary of the Third International Conference on Marine Debris". N.C. Sea Grant College Program and NOAA.
Jump up ^ "Garbage Mass Is Growing in the Pacific". National Public Radio. 28 March 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b "Plastic pollution threatens to smother our planet". NewsComAu. Retrieved 2017-07-21.
Jump up ^ "Australian research uncovers high rate of plastic seafloor pollution – Xinhua | English.news.cn". news.xinhuanet.com. Retrieved 2017-07-21.
Jump up ^ "Microplastic pollution of seafloor widespread along Australia's south-east coast: study". ABC News. 2017-07-14. Retrieved 2017-07-21.
Jump up ^ Brassey, Dr Charlotte (2017-07-16). "A mission to the Pacific plastic patch". BBC News. Retrieved 2017-07-21.
^ Jump up to: a b Ryan, P. G.; Moore, C. J.; Van Franeker, J. A.; Moloney, C. L. (2009). "Monitoring the abundance of plastic debris in the marine environment". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 364 (1526): 1999–2012. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0207. JSTOR 40485978. PMC 2873010  . PMID 19528052.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived 14 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Oceanic "garbage patch" not nearly as big as portrayed in media – News & Research Communications – Oregon State University". oregonstate.edu.
Jump up ^ Young, Lindsay C.; Vanderlip, Cynthia; Duffy, David C.; Afanasyev, Vsevolod; Shaffer, Scott A. (2009). Ropert-Coudert, Yan, ed. "Bringing Home the Trash: Do Colony-Based Differences in Foraging Distribution Lead to Increased Plastic Ingestion in Laysan Albatrosses?". PLOS One. 4 (10): e7623. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.7623Y. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007623. PMC 2762601  . PMID 19862322.
Jump up ^ Thompson, R. C.; Olsen, Y; Mitchell, RP; Davis, A; Rowland, SJ; John, AW; McGonigle, D; Russell, AE (2004). "Lost at Sea: Where is All the Plastic?". Science. 304 (5672): 838. doi:10.1126/science.1094559. PMID 15131299.
Jump up ^ Barnes, D. K. A.; Galgani, F.; Thompson, R. C.; Barlaz, M. (2009). "Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 364 (1526): 1985–98. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0205. JSTOR 40485977. PMC 2873009  . PMID 19528051.
Jump up ^ Barry, Carolyn (20 August 2009). "Plastic Breaks Down in Ocean, After All – And Fast". National Geographic News. National Geographic Society. Retrieved 30 August 2009.
Jump up ^ “UN Ocean Conference: Plastics Dumped In Oceans Could Outweigh Fish by 2050, Secretary-General Says.” The Weather Channel, weather.com/science/environment/news/united-nations-ocean-conference-antonio-guterres-plastics.
Jump up ^ "Harbour snow dumping dangerous to environment: biologist". cbc.ca. 18 January 2014.
Jump up ^ "Beached whale in Spain dies from ingesting plastic waste" Agence France-Presse 7 March 2013 Archived 6 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Chris Jordan (11 November 2009). "Midway: Message from the Gyre". Retrieved 2009-11-13.
Jump up ^ "Q&A: Your Midway questions answered". BBC News. 28 March 2008. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Moore, Charles (2 October 2002). "Great Pacific Garbage Patch". Santa Barbara News-Press.
Jump up ^ Plastic-Filled Albatrosses Are Pollution Canaries in New Doc. Wired. 29 June 2012. Accessed 6-11-13
Jump up ^ Rios, Lorena M.; Moore, Charles; Jones, Patrick R. (2007). "Persistent organic pollutants carried by synthetic polymers in the ocean environment". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 54 (8): 1230–7. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2007.03.022. PMID 17532349.
Jump up ^ Tanabe, Shinsuke; Watanabe, Mafumi; Minh, Tu Binh; Kunisue, Tatsuya; Nakanishi, Shigeyuki; Ono, Hitoshi; Tanaka, Hiroyuki (2004). "PCDDs, PCDFs, and Coplanar PCBs in Albatross from the North Pacific and Southern Oceans: Levels, Patterns, and Toxicological Implications". Environmental Science & Technology. 38 (2): 403–13. Bibcode:2004EnST...38..403T. doi:10.1021/es034966x. PMID 14750714.
Jump up ^ Rogers, Paul. ci_13258216?nclick_check=1 "'Pacific Garbage Patch' expedition finds plastic, plastic everywhere." The Contra Costa Times [Walnut Creek, CA] 1 Sep 2009: n. pag. Web. 4 Oct 2009.
Jump up ^ "Marine biologists discover rubbish haul in stomach of dead whale in Taiwan" ABC news. October 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Most seabirds have plastic in their guts" CBC news. Aug 31, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Ocean plastic is the new DDT, Canadian scientist warns" CBC news. Sep 11, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Pacific sea birds dine on trash: researchers" CBC news. October 27, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Whales are starving – their stomachs full of our plastic waste" author Philip Hoare. 30 March 2016
Jump up ^ Greenpeace Plastic Ocean Report[full citation needed]
Jump up ^ Knapton, Sarah; Pearlman, Jonathan. "'Great Pacific Garbage Patch' Is a Myth, Warn Experts, as Survey Shows There Is No 'Rubbish Island'". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved August 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ "What is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch?". National Ocean Service. Retrieved August 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Bradshaw, Kate (29 January 2009). "The Great Garbage Swirl". Maui Time Weekly. Maui: Linear Publishing. Archived from the original on 7 February 2009. Retrieved 26 April 2009.
Jump up ^ "Applicable Technologies". gyrecleanup.org.
Jump up ^ Yap, Britt (28 August 2008). "A raft made of junk crosses Pacific in 3 months". USA Today. Archived from the original on 30 September 2009. Retrieved 30 September 2009.
Jump up ^ "Raft made of junk bottles crosses Pacific". msnbc. 28 August 2008. Archived from the original on 30 September 2009. Retrieved 30 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Jeavans, Christine (20 August 2008). "Mid-ocean dinner date saves rower". BBC News. Archived from the original on 30 September 2009. Retrieved 30 September 2009.
Jump up ^ Walsh, Bryan (1 August 2009). "Expedition Sets Sail to the Great Plastic Vortex". Time. Retrieved 2 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Alison Cawood (12 August 2009). "SEAPLEX Day 11 Part 1: Midwater Fish " SEAPLEX". Archived from the original on 8 October 2009. Retrieved 2 June 2016. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
Jump up ^ "Scientists Find 'Great Pacific Ocean Garbage Patch'" (Press release). National Science Foundation. 27 August 2009. Archived from the original on 28 August 2009. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
Jump up ^ "SHIP OPERATIONS AND MARINE TECHNICAL SUPPORT: SHIPS". ucsd.edu.
Jump up ^ [2] Archived 20 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Goldstein, M. C.; Rosenberg, M.; Cheng, L. (2012). "Increased oceanic microplastic debris enhances oviposition in an endemic pelagic insect". Biology Letters. 8 (5): 817–20. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2012.0298. PMC 3440973  . PMID 22573831.
Jump up ^ Writers, Staff; Report, Innovations. "Plastic trash altering ocean habitats, Scripps study shows". Retrieved 2012-10-12
Jump up ^ "How the oceans can clean themselves – Boyan Slat at TEDxDelft". Retrieved 2012-10-24.
Jump up ^ "Boyan Slat: The Marine Litter Extraction Project – TEDxDelft". Retrieved 2012-10-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Boyan Slat – Marine Litter Extraction (In Depth)". Retrieved 2012-10-24.
Jump up ^ "The Ocean Cleanup". Retrieved 2012-10-24.
Jump up ^ Sea Education Association. "Plastics at SEA North Pacific Expedition". Retrieved 2012-12-09.
Jump up ^ "The garbage patch territory turns into a new state". United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Jump up ^ "RIFIUTI DIVENTANO STATO, UNESCO RICONOSCE 'GARBAGE PATCH' – SITI – PATRIMONIO ITALIANO UNESCO". rivistasitiunesco.it. Archived from the original on 3 November 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Robarts, Stu (August 25, 2015). "Ocean Cleanup project completes Great Pacific Garbage Patch research expedition". www.gizmag.com. Retrieved 2015-08-25.
Jump up ^ "Plans for underwater 'oceanscraper' revealed".
Jump up ^ Neslen, Arthur (2016-06-22). "Dutch prototype clean-up boom brings Pacific plastics solution a step closer". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2016-11-17.
Further reading[edit]
Oliver J. Dameron; Michael Parke; Mark A. Albins; Russell Brainard (April 2007). "Marine debris accumulation in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands: An examination of rates and processes". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 54 (4): 423–433. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2006.11.019. PMID 17217968.
Rei Yamashita; Atsushi Tanimura (2007). "Floating plastic in the Kuroshio Current area, western North Pacific Ocean". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 54 (4): 485–488. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2006.11.012. PMID 17275038.
Masahisa Kubota; Katsumi Takayama; Noriyuki Horii (2000). "Movement and accumulation of floating marine debris simulated by surface currents derived from satellite data" (PDF). School of Marine Science and Technology, Tokai University.
Gregory, M.R.; Ryan, P.G. (1997). "Pelagic plastics and other seaborne persistent synthetic debris: a review of Southern Hemisphere perspectives". In Coe, J.M.; Rogers, D.B. Marine Debris: Sources, Impacts, Solutions. New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 49–66.
Moore, Charles G.; Phillips, Cassandra (2011). Plastic Ocean. Penguin Group. ISBN 9781452601465.
Density of plastic particles found in zooplankton trawls from coastal waters of California to the North Pacific Central Gyre[permanent dead link] – Charles J Moore, Gwen L Lattin and Ann F Zellers (2005)
The quantitative distribution and characteristics of neuston plastic in the North Pacific Ocean, 1984–1988 – R H Day, D G Shaw and S E Ignell (1988)
Thomas Morton, Oh, This is Great, Humans Have Finally Ruined the Ocean, Vice Magazine, Vol. 6, No. 2 (2007), pp. 78–81.
Hohn, Donovan (2011). Moby-Duck: The True Story of 28,800 Bath Toys Lost at Sea. Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-02219-9.
Hoshaw, Lindsey (9 November 2009). "Afloat in the Ocean, Expanding Islands of Trash". New York Times. Retrieved 10 November 2009.
Newman, Patricia (2014). Plastic, Ahoy! Investigating the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. Millbrook Press. (Juvenile Nonfiction).
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
Pacific Garbage Patch – Smithsonian Ocean Portal
"Plastic Surf" The Unhealthful Afterlife of Toys and Packaging: Small remnants of toys, bottles and packaging persist in the ocean, harming marine life and possibly even us by Jennifer Ackerman Scientific American August 2010
Plastic Paradise Movie – independent documentary by Angela Sun uncovering the mystery of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch known as the Plastic Paradise
The source of the garbage patches, pictures
Irish Examiner article
Mega Expedition Departs Honolulu on YouTube
Midway, a plastic island on YouTube
Climate change, meet your apocalyptic twin: oceans poisoned by plastic. Public Radio International. December 13, 2016
By 2050, the oceans could have more plastic than fish. Business Insider. January 27, 2017.
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values: commons:Category:Great Pacific Garbage Patch

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