text:
Weather front
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Approaching weather fronts are often visible from the ground, but are not always as well defined as this.
A weather front is a boundary separating two masses of air of different densities, and is the principal cause of meteorological phenomena outside the tropics. In surface weather analyses, fronts are depicted using various colored triangles and half-circles, depending on the type of front. The air masses separated by a front usually differ in temperature and humidity. Cold fronts may feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather, and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines. Warm fronts are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog. The weather usually clears quickly after a front's passage. Some fronts produce no precipitation and little cloudiness, although there is invariably a wind shift.[1]
Cold fronts and occluded fronts generally move from west to east, while warm fronts move poleward. Because of the greater density of air in their wake, cold fronts and cold occlusions move faster than warm fronts and warm occlusions. Mountains and warm bodies of water can slow the movement of fronts.[2] When a front becomes stationary, and the density contrast across the frontal boundary vanishes, the front can degenerate into a line which separates regions of differing wind velocity, known as a shearline. This is most common over the open ocean.
Contents
[hide]
1 Bergeron classification of air masses
2 Surface weather analysis
3 Front Types
3.1 Cold front
3.2 Warm front
3.3 Occluded front
3.4 Stationary front
3.5 Dry line
3.6 Squall line
4 Precipitation produced
5 Movement
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
Bergeron classification of air masses[edit]
Main article: Air mass
The Bergeron classification is the most widely accepted form of air mass classification. Air mass classifications are indicated by three letters. The first letter describes its moisture properties, with c used for continental air masses (dry) and m for maritime air masses (moist). The second letter describes the thermal characteristic of its source region: T for tropical, P for polar, A for arctic or Antarctic, M for monsoon, E for equatorial, and S for superior air (dry air formed by significant upward motion in the atmosphere). The third letter designates the stability of the atmosphere. If the air mass is colder than the ground below it, it is labeled k. If the air mass is warmer than the ground below it, it is labeled w.[3] Fronts separate air masses of different types or origins, and are located along troughs of lower pressure.[4]
Different air masses which affect North America, as well as other continents, tend to be separated by frontal boundaries. In this illustration, the Arctic front separates Arctic from Polar air masses, while the Polar front separates Polar air from warm air masses. (cA is continental arctic; cP is continental polar; mP is maritime polar; cT is continental tropic; and mT is maritime tropic.)
Surface weather analysis[edit]
Weather map symbols:
1. cold front;
2. warm front;
3. stationary front;
4. occluded front;
5. surface trough;
6. squall/shear line;
7. dry line;
8. tropical wave;
9. trowal
Main articles: Surface weather analysis, Low-pressure area, and High-pressure area
A surface weather analysis is a special type of weather map which provides a view of weather elements over a geographical area at a specified time based on information from ground-based weather stations.[5] Weather maps are created by plotting or tracing the values of relevant quantities such as sea-level pressure, temperature, and cloud cover onto a geographical map to help find synoptic scale features such as weather fronts. Surface weather analyses have special symbols which show frontal systems, cloud cover, precipitation, or other important information. For example, an H may represent high pressure, implying fair weather. An L on the other hand may represent low pressure, which frequently accompanies precipitation. Low pressure also creates surface winds deriving from high pressure zones. Various symbols are used not just for frontal zones and other surface boundaries on weather maps, but also to depict the present weather at various locations on the weather map. In addition, areas of precipitation help determine the frontal type and location.[5]
Front Types[edit]
There are two different meanings used within meteorology to describe weather around a frontal zone. The term "anafront" describes boundaries which show instability, meaning air rises rapidly along and over the boundary to cause significant weather changes. A "katafront" is weaker, bringing smaller changes in temperature and moisture, as well as limited rainfall.[6]
Cold front[edit]
Main article: Cold front
A cold front is located at the leading edge of the temperature drop off, which in an isotherm analysis shows up as the leading edge of the isotherm gradient, and it normally lies within a sharp surface trough. Cold fronts often bring heavy thunderstorms, rain and hail. Cold fronts can produce sharper changes in weather and move up to twice as quickly as warm fronts, since cold air is denser than warm air and rapidly replaces the warm air preceding the boundary. On weather maps, the surface position of the cold front is marked with the symbol of a blue line of triangle-shaped pips pointing in the direction of travel, and it is placed at the leading edge of the cooler air mass.[2] Cold fronts come in association with a low-pressure area. The concept of colder, dense air "wedging" under the less dense warmer air is often used to depict how air is lifted along a frontal boundary. The cold air wedging underneath warmer air creates the strongest winds just above the ground surface, a phenomenon often associated with property-damaging wind gusts. This lift would then form a narrow line of showers and thunderstorms if enough moisture were present. However, this concept isn't an accurate description of the physical processes;[7] upward motion is not produced because of warm air "ramping up" cold, dense air, rather, frontogenetical circulation is behind the upward forcing.
Warm front[edit]
Main article: Warm front
Warm fronts are at the leading edge of a homogeneous warm air mass, which is located on the equatorward edge of the gradient in isotherms, and lie within broader troughs of low pressure than cold fronts. A warm front moves more slowly than the cold front which usually follows because cold air is denser and harder to remove from the Earth's surface.[2] This also forces temperature differences across warm fronts to be broader in scale. Clouds ahead of the warm front are mostly stratiform, and rainfall gradually increases as the front approaches. Fog can also occur preceding a warm frontal passage. Clearing and warming is usually rapid after frontal passage. If the warm air mass is unstable, thunderstorms may be embedded among the stratiform clouds ahead of the front, and after frontal passage thundershowers may continue. On weather maps, the surface location of a warm front is marked with a red line of semicircles pointing in the direction of travel.[2]
Occluded front[edit]
Main article: Occluded front
Occluded front depiction for the Northern Hemisphere
An occluded front is formed when a cold front overtakes a warm front,[8] and usually forms around mature low-pressure areas.[2] The cold and warm fronts curve naturally poleward into the point of occlusion, which is also known as the triple point.[9] It lies within a sharp trough, but the air mass behind the boundary can be either warm or cold. In a cold occlusion, the air mass overtaking the warm front is cooler than the cool air ahead of the warm front and plows under both air masses. In a warm occlusion, the air mass overtaking the warm front is warmer than the cold air ahead of the warm front and rides over the colder air mass while lifting the warm air.[2]
A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front, with thunderstorms possible, but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass. Within the occlusion of the front, a circulation of air brings warm air upward and sends drafts of cold air downward, or vice versa depending on the occlusion the front is experiencing. Precipitations and clouds are associated with the trowal, the projection on the Earth's surface of the tongue of warm air aloft formed during the occlusion process of the depression.[10]
Occluded fronts are indicated on a weather map by a purple line with alternating half-circles and triangles pointing in direction of travel.[2] The trowal is indicated by a series of blue and red junction lines.
Stationary front[edit]
Main article: Stationary front
A stationary front is a non-moving (or stalled) boundary between two air masses, neither of which is strong enough to replace the other. They tend to remain essentially in the same area for extended periods of time, usually moving in waves.[11] There is normally a broad temperature gradient behind the boundary with more widely spaced isotherm packing.
A wide variety of weather can be found along a stationary front, but usually clouds and prolonged precipitation are found there. Stationary fronts either dissipate after several days or devolve into shear lines, but they can transform into a cold or warm front if conditions aloft change. Stationary fronts are marked on weather maps with alternating red half-circles and blue spikes pointing in opposite directions, indicating no significant movement.
When stationary fronts become smaller in scale, degenerating to a narrow zone where wind direction changes significantly over a relatively short distance, they become known as shearlines.[12] A shearline is depicted as a line of red dots and dashes.[2] Stationary fronts may bring snow or rain for a long period of time.
Dry line[edit]
Main article: Dry line
A similar phenomenon to a weather front is the dry line, which is the boundary between air masses with significant moisture differences. When the westerlies increase on the north side of surface highs, areas of lowered pressure will form downwind of north–south oriented mountain chains, leading to the formation of a lee trough. Near the surface during daylight hours, warm moist air is denser than dry air of greater temperature, and thus the warm moist air wedges under the drier air like a cold front. At higher altitudes, the warm moist air is less dense than the dry air and the boundary slope reverses. In the vicinity of the reversal aloft, severe weather is possible, especially when a triple point is formed with a cold front.[13] A weaker form of the dry line seen more commonly is the lee trough, which displays weaker differences in moisture. When moisture pools along the boundary during the warm season, it can be the focus of diurnal thunderstorms.[14]
The dry line may occur anywhere on earth in regions intermediate between desert areas and warm seas. The southern plains west of the Mississippi River in the United States are a particularly favored location. The dry line normally moves eastward during the day and westward at night. A dry line is depicted on National Weather Service (NWS) surface analyses as an orange line with scallops facing into the moist sector. Dry lines are one of the few surface fronts where the pips indicated do not necessarily reflect the direction of motion.[15]
Squall line[edit]
Main article: Squall line
A shelf cloud such as this one can be a sign that a squall is imminent
Organized areas of thunderstorm activity not only reinforce pre-existing frontal zones, but can outrun cold fronts in a pattern where the upper level jet splits apart into two streams, with the resultant Mesoscale Convective System (MCS) forming at the point of the upper level split in the wind pattern running southeast into the warm sector parallel to low-level thickness lines. When the convection is strong and linear or curved, the MCS is called a squall line, with the feature placed at the leading edge of the significant wind shift and pressure rise.[16] Even weaker and less organized areas of thunderstorms lead to locally cooler air and higher pressures, and outflow boundaries exist ahead of this type of activity, which can act as foci for additional thunderstorm activity later in the day.[17]
These features are often depicted in the warm season across the United States on surface analyses and lie within surface troughs. If outflow boundaries or squall lines form over arid regions, a haboob may result.[18] Squall lines are depicted on NWS surface analyses as an alternating pattern of two red dots and a dash labelled SQLN or SQUALL LINE, while outflow boundaries are depicted as troughs with a label of OUTFLOW BOUNDARY.
Precipitation produced[edit]
Main article: Precipitation
Convective precipitation
Fronts are the principal cause of significant weather. Convective precipitation (showers, thundershowers, and related unstable weather) is caused by air being lifted and condensing into clouds by the movement of the cold front or cold occlusion under a mass of warmer, moist air. If the temperature differences of the two air masses involved are large and the turbulence is extreme because of wind shear and the presence of a strong jet stream, "roll clouds" and tornadoes may occur.[19]
In the warm season, lee troughs, breezes, outflow boundaries and occlusions can lead to convection if enough moisture is available. Orographic precipitation is precipitation created through the lifting action of air moving over terrain such as mountains and hills, which is most common behind cold fronts that move into mountainous areas. It may sometimes occur in advance of warm fronts moving northward to the east of mountainous terrain. However, precipitation along warm fronts is relatively steady, as in rain or drizzle. Fog, sometimes extensive and dense, often occurs in pre-warm-frontal areas.[20] Although, not all fronts produce precipitation or even clouds because moisture must be present in the air mass which is being lifted.[1]
Movement[edit]
Fronts are generally guided by winds aloft, but do not move as quickly. Cold fronts and occluded fronts in the Northern Hemisphere usually travel from the northwest to southeast, while warm fronts move more poleward with time. In the Northern Hemisphere a warm front moves from southwest to northeast. In the Southern Hemisphere, the reverse is true; a cold front usually moves from southwest to northeast, and a warm front moves from northwest to southeast. Movement is largely caused by the pressure gradient force (horizontal differences in atmospheric pressure) and the Coriolis effect, which is caused by Earth's spinning about its axis. Frontal zones can be slowed down by geographic features like mountains and large bodies of warm water.[2]
See also[edit]
Weather portal
Atmospheric sciences portal
Cyclogenesis
Extratropical cyclone
Norwegian cyclone model
Surface weather analysis
Trough (meteorology)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Samuel Miller. "Lesson 7: Clouds and Precipitation". Archived from the original on 2005-01-11. Retrieved 2011-07-08.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i David Roth. "Unified Surface Analysis Manual" (PDF). Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. Retrieved 2006-10-22.
Jump up ^ Glossary of Meteorology. Airmass Classification. Retrieved on 2008-05-22.
Jump up ^ C. Donald Ahrens (2007). Meteorology today: an introduction to weather, climate, and the environment. Cengage Learning. p. 296. ISBN 978-0-495-01162-0. Retrieved 2010-12-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Monmonier, Mark. Air Apparent: How Meteorologists Learned to Map, Predict, and Dramatize Weather. University of Chicago Press. Chicago: 1999.
Jump up ^ Chris C. Park (2001). The environment: principles and applications. Psychology Press. p. 309. ISBN 978-0-415-21771-2. Retrieved 2010-12-17.
Jump up ^ "Overrunning". NWS Glossary. National Weather Service. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Occluded Front". University of Illinois Department of Atmospheric Sciences. Retrieved 2006-10-22.
Jump up ^ National Weather Service Office, Norman, Oklahoma. "Triple Point". NOAA. Retrieved 2006-10-22. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Trowal". World Meteorological Organisation. Eumetcal. Archived from the original on 2014-03-31. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
Jump up ^ Stationary Front. University of Illinois Department of Atmospheric Sciences. Retrieved on 2006-10-22.
Jump up ^ "Shear Line". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 2007-03-14. Retrieved 2006-10-22.
Jump up ^ Huaqing Cai. "Dryline cross section". Archived from the original on 2008-01-20. Retrieved 2006-12-05.
Jump up ^ "Lee Trough". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 2012-05-16. Retrieved 2006-10-22.
Jump up ^ "Dry Line: A Moisture Boundary". University of Illinois Department of Atmospheric Science. Retrieved 2006-10-22.
Jump up ^ Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology. "Chapter 2: Definitions" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-05-06. Retrieved 2006-10-22.
Jump up ^ Michael Branick. "A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather". American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2006-10-22.
Jump up ^ Western Region Climate Center. "H". Retrieved 2006-10-22.
Jump up ^ "Convection". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2006-10-22.
Jump up ^ "Orographic Lifting". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2006-10-22.
Bibliography[edit]
(1999). Air Apparent: How Meteorologists Learned to Map, Predict, and Dramatize Weather. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Atmospheric fronts.
Surface Analysis Manual
Cold Fronts
Warm Fronts
Fronts: the boundaries between air masses
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text:
List of Honorary Freemen of the City of London
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This list needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Contents
1 Honorary Freedom
2 The Freedom of the City of London
3 References
4 Further reading
Honorary Freedom[edit]
The granting of the Honorary Freedom (or Freedom Honoris Causa) of the City of London is extremely rare and only generally awarded today to Royalty, Heads of State or to figures of genuine global standing. It is the highest honour which is in the power of the City of London to bestow on someone and usually takes place in Guildhall in the presence of the Common Council and with Lord Mayor, Sheriffs and Aldermen present, along with invited guests. The most recent recipient after a gap of some 11 years was Archbishop Desmond Tutu with the ceremony taking place at Mansion House on 25 November 2013. Nelson Mandela received the same honour as President of South Africa in 1996. The presentation on these occasions is made by the Chamberlain of London, and is often followed by a Guildhall or Mansion House banquet. The first historically to be so honoured was William Pitt the Elder in 1757. For many years, it was the custom to present the Freedom in specially commissioned and unique gold or silver caskets, the design of which was inspired by the background and the achievements of the individual to which it was given. More normal today would be a presentation of a scroll in an inscribed box.[citation needed]
The Freedom of the City of London[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Whilst the Honorary Freedom is indeed a recognition of lifetime achievement or high international standing, the Freedom of the City of London is open to a much wider section of society, and include many who have achieved success, recognition or celebrity in their chosen field. Whilst undoubtedly a privilege, strict instructions are given that the Freedom of the City of London should not be presented to others as being an honour or award. The Freedom of the City of London can be gained through membership of a livery company or by direct application supported by a suitably qualified proposer and seconder. About 1800 Freemen are admitted each year by the Clerk to the Chamberlain of the City of London at a simple but formal ceremony at Guildhall to which friends and family can accompany. A certificate is presented which will be framed on request for a small payment.
There is a long-standing tradition of the City admitting women to the Freedom. Although nowadays usually called Freemen as well, the historically correct way of referring to them is: Free Sisters.
The mixed list below contains just some of the names of people who have received the Freedom or Honorary Freedom over the years:
Peter Ackroyd (awarded on 15 December 2006)[1]
George Arthur
Robert Baden-Powell
Gerard Francis Claude Basset OBE, MS, MW, MBA, OIV (awarded on 1 September 2016)
Raymond Baxter (awarded in 1978)
David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty (awarded on 16 June 1919)[2]
Sylvie Bermann (awarded on 26 July 2017)
Sir Tim Berners-Lee (awarded on 24 September 2014)
Edward Berry
William Booth (awarded on 26 October 1906)[3][4]
Robert Borden (awarded on 29 July 1915)[5]
Louis Botha (awarded on 16 April 1907)[6]
Bartholomew Broadbent (awarded on 17 January 1985)
James Brooke (awarded in 1847)
Arnold Brown (General of The Salvation Army)
Angela Burdett-Coutts (awarded on 18 July 1872). She was the first woman to be awarded the honorary Freedom.
Noel Byrne (Awarded on 20 December 2017) - A dedicated servant to the City and its people.
Michael Caine (awarded on 8 March 2013)[7][8]
Roy Chadwick (awarded in 1943)
Austen Chamberlain (awarded on 25 March 1926)[9]
Joseph Chamberlain (awarded on 13 February 1902)[10]
Datu Dr Cheong Ming Lam (awarded on 3rd Oct 2009)[citation needed]
Jimmy Choo (awarded on 14 November 2006)[11]
Imran Ahmed Chowdhury ( Awarded on 2013)
Winston Churchill (awarded on 30 June 1943)[12]
Shaw Clifton (awarded on 13 September 2007)[13]
Sir Alexander Cockburn, 12th Baronet (awarded on 9 March 1876)[14]
Joan Collins (awarded on 18 September 2014)
Alastair Cook[15]
Frederick Cook (awarded on 15 October 1909)[16]
Tom Cox[citation needed] (Awarded April 2017)
Crista Cullen (awarded on 23 August 2013)[17]
Nigel Cumberland[18][19]
Randall Davidson (awarded in 1928)
Dame Judi Dench[15]
Princess Diana[15]
Benjamin Disraeli (awarded on 3 March 1878)[20]
Plácido Domingo (awarded on 16 April 2013)[21]
Alexander Downer, Sr. (awarded in 1965)
Robin Dunster (awarded on 13 September 2007)[13]
Xohan Duran (awarded on 27 April 2016)
Dwight D. Eisenhower (awarded on 12 June 1945)[22]
Massimo Ellul (awarded on 26 September 2005)
Morgan Freeman (awarded on 12 November 2014[23][24]
Stephen Fry[15]
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury (awarded on 3 August 1878)[20]
Bill Gates
Bob Geldof (awarded on 16 September 2013)[25]
George, Duke of Cambridge, Prince (awarded on 4 November 1857)
Ron Goodwin
Ulysses S. Grant (awarded on 15 June 1877)[26]
Alan Greenspan (awarded on December 2005)
Albert Grey, 4th Earl Grey (awarded on 23 January 1912)[27]
Otto von Habsburg (awarded on 11 July 2007)[28]
Liam Hackett (firefighter) (awarded 15 September 2010)[29][30]
Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig (awarded on 16 June 1919)[2]
George William Helon, JP (awarded on 3 March 2016 [31][32] and presented on 12 September 2016)
Julia Houghton (Awarded on 13 November 2008)
Paul Humphreys (awarded in 1996)
Marjorie Jackson-Nelson (awarded on 24 June 2005)[33]
Edward Jenner
Stephen Jolly
Digby Jones
Salar Jung I
Teriy Keys (awarded on 18 September 2014)
Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener (awarded on 4 November 1898)[34]
Helmut Kohl (awarded on 18 February 1998 'as the first European leader').[35]
Lee Kuan Yew
Wilfrid Laurier (awarded on 16 April 1907)[6]
Lance Corporal Joshua Leakey, VC (awarded on 5 May 2016)[36]
Lasse Lehtinen (awarded on 21 September 2007)[37]
Annie Lennox[15]
Ferdinand de Lesseps
Damian Lewis (awarded on 20 March 2013)[38]
William Lidderdale (awarded in 1891)
Charles Lindbergh
David Lloyd George (awarded on 27 April 1917)[39]
Francis Leopold McClintock (awarded in May 1860)
Ian McKellen (awarded 30 October 2014)[40]
Nelson Mandela (awarded 10 July 1996)[41]
Renato Martino (awarded on 6 May 2013)[42]
Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner (awarded on 23 July 1901)[43]
Ed Mirvish
Prince David Bagration of Mukhrani, Head of the Royal House of Georgia.
Cormac Murphy-O'Connor
Angelo Musa awarded on 19 April 2016.[44]
Robert Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala
Jawaharlal Nehru
Florence Nightingale (awarded 16 August 1908). She was the second woman who was awarded honorary Freedom.
Dr. Zenobia Nadirshaw (Awarded on 16 November 2017) - She has been a practicing psychologist for 40 years. She has also served as Governor of London Metropolitan University, as an advisor to the minister of Health and as Trustee of three charitable organizations.
Ari Norman (awarded on 6 November 1992) for services to the British Silver Industry[45]
Luciano Pavarotti (awarded on 12 November 2005)[46]
Chris Pavlou
George Peabody (awarded 10 July 1862, in recognition of his financial contribution to London's poor)[47]
Frederick Penny, 1st Viscount Marchwood
William Pitt the Elder (received the first honorary Freedom in 1757)
William Pitt the Younger
John-Paul Preston (awarded on 3 January 2018)
William Reid (VC)
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt (awarded on 31 May 1910)[48]
John Ross (Arctic explorer) (awarded in March 1834)
J.K. Rowling (awarded on 8 May 2012)[49]
Audrey Russell, broadcaster.[50]
Kigeli V of Rwanda (awarded on 28 June 2016) [51]
James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez
John Francis Scott (16 Oct 1796 - 16 Dec 1854)(Awarded 1823) - Son of Warrant Officer John Scott R.N., Purser, Secretary & close friend to Viscount Admiral Horatio Nelson. Warrant Officer Scott was killed on the 21 Oct 1805 whilst standing next to Admiral Nelson on the deck of the HMS Victory during the Battle of Trafalgar[url=http://garypatton.net/scott_family/scott.htm]
Lloyd Searson (awarded on 27 September 2017)
Fredrick Smallbone (Awarded on 31 October 2017)
Jan Smuts (awarded on 1 May 1917)[52]
Right Honourable V. S. Srinivasa Sastri (1921)
Henry Morton Stanley (awarded on 13 January 1887)
Eric Sykes
Margaret Thatcher (awarded on 26 May 1989)[53]
Leonard Alexander Thirkettle (Chief Petty Officer Instructor, Sea Cadet Corps - awarded 2006)
Robin Tilbrook (awarded on 27 September 2011)[54]
Keiron J Trebilcoe (awarded 22 January 2015)
George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham
Bernard Weatherill
David Weir (awarded on 3 December 2012)[55]
General Sir James Willcocks (awarded 11 July 1901). Awarded Freedom of the City of London with sword of honour.[56]
William Fenwick Williams
Woodrow Wilson (awarded on 28 December 1918)[57]
Bob Winter (awarded on 10 September 2007)[58]
Garnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley
Adrian Yeandle (awarded on 8 December 2017)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Famous London historian honoured by the City of London" (Press release). City of London. 2006-12-14. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
^ Jump up to: a b "Haig and Beatty made freemen of the City of London". ITN Source. 16 June 1919.
Jump up ^ "London Honors Gen. Booth" (PDF). The New York Times. 1905-10-27. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
Jump up ^ See also: Report on Salvation Army website
Jump up ^ "London's Freedom Given to Premier". The Toronto World. July 30, 1915. p. 5.
^ Jump up to: a b "London lionizing Botha" (PDF). The New York Times. 1907-04-17. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
Jump up ^ "Sir Michael Caine given Freedom of City of London". Evening Standard. 8 March 2013. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013.
Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7lQ0wGuC1cY
Jump up ^ "Chamberlain gets Freedom of London". The New York Times. 1926-03-26.
Jump up ^ "Mr. Chamberlain Honored" (PDF). The New York Times. 1902-02-14. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
Jump up ^ "World-famous shoe designer receives Freedom of the City of London" (Press release). City of London. 2006-11-15. Archived from the original on 2007-06-24. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
Jump up ^ "Churchill's Title Has Ancient Roots; Includes Right to Enter City Almhouses". The New York Times. 1943-07-01.
^ Jump up to: a b "Salvation Army Leaders Receive Freedom of the City of London" (Press release). The Salvation Army. 2007-09-13. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
Jump up ^ "The Chief Justice in London" (PDF). The New York Times. 1876-03-10. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Freedom of the City". City of London. Archived from the original on August 6, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Freedom of the City" (PDF). The New York Times. 1910-12-04. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
Jump up ^ "Crista Cullen receives Freedom of the City of London". England Hockey. 30 August 2013. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013.
Jump up ^ http://democracy.cityoflondon.gov.uk/mgAi.aspx?ID=31012
Jump up ^ http://democracy.cityoflondon.gov.uk/documents/s54485/ITEM%206%20-%20FREEDOMS.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b "Honors to Beaconsfield" (PDF). The New York Times. 1878-08-04. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
Jump up ^ Vincent, Alice (16 April 2013). "Opera singer Placido Domingo to receive freedom of the City of London". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 6 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Eisenhower to get honor". The New York Times. 1945-06-10.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2015-09-21. Retrieved 2016-01-13.
Jump up ^ http://www.dailymail.co.uk/wires/ap/article-2831704/City-London-makes-Morgan-Freeman-freeman.html
Jump up ^ Tolhurst, Alain (16 September 2013). "Geldof given freedom of City of London for charity work and contribution to music". London24. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Gen. Grant at Guildhall" (PDF). The New York Times. 1877-06-30. Retrieved 2007-11-16.
Jump up ^ "London Honors Earl Grey" (PDF). The New York Times. 1912-01-24. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
Jump up ^ "Last Crown Prince of Austria receives the Freedom of the City of London" (Press release). City of London. 2007-07-11. Archived from the original on 2008-12-08. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
Jump up ^ Simpson, Colin. "Welcome | The Worshipful Company of Firefighters". www.firefighterscompany.org. Retrieved 2016-09-16.
Jump up ^ Bonham, Martin (November 2010). "Members News" (PDF). Worshipful Company of Firefighters. Retrieved 9 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Freedom of the City". City of London. Retrieved 21 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "List of Applicants for the Freedom of the City of London". City of London. Retrieved 21 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Governor of South Australia receives the Freedom of the City of London" (Press release). City of London. 2005-06-24. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
Jump up ^ "London Honors Kitchener" (PDF). The New York Times. 1898-11-05. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
Jump up ^ "Kohl to be given honorary freedom of the City of London". BBC news website. 1998-02-18. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
Jump up ^ https://www.armedforcesday.org.uk/who-youre-saluting-corporal-joshua-leakey-vc/
Jump up ^ "Leading Finnish cultural figure awarded Freedom of the City" (Press release). City of London. 2007-09-21. Archived from the original on 2010-12-26. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
Jump up ^ "Damian Lewis awarded freedom of the City of London". BBC News. 20 March 2013. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Must win Ireland, says Lloyd George" (PDF). The New York Times. 1917-04-28. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
Jump up ^ "Ian McKellen given freedom of the City of London - BBC News". Bbc.com. Retrieved 2016-01-23.
Jump up ^ See: Acceptance Speech Archived 2007-11-09 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Cardinal Martino awarded Freedom of the City of London". Independent Catholic News. 6 May 2013. Archived from the original on 6 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Speech by Lord Milner" (PDF). The New York Times. 1901-07-24. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
Jump up ^ http://www.academiasanctiambrosii.it (President)
Jump up ^ Krieger, Candice (20 December 2007). "Ari Norman designs the ultimate family Chanucah gift". The Jewish Chronicle. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Pavarotti receives freedom of the City of London" (Press release). British Red Cross. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
Jump up ^ "London People: George Peabody". Retrieved 24 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Freedom of London for Col. Roosevelt" (PDF). The New York Times. 1910-03-04. Retrieved 2007-11-15.
Jump up ^ Rowling, J.K. "J.K. Rowling". TM Warner Bros and J.K. Rowling. Archived from the original on 30 December 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Pimlott Baker, Anne (2004). "Audrey Russell". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 26 July 2014.
Jump up ^ http://king-kigeli.org/royal-news-and-events/item/42-the-royal-trip-to-the-united-kingdom-of-great-britain-and-northern-ireland-june-28
Jump up ^ "London Honors Gen. Smuts" (PDF). The New York Times. 1917-05-02. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
Jump up ^ See: Acceptance Speech
Jump up ^ See
Jump up ^ "London 2012 athlete David Weir given City of London freedom". BBC News. 3 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "The city and Sir James Willcocks". The Times (36505). London. 12 July 1901. p. 11.
Jump up ^ "President Wilson's Speech At the Guildhall in London" (PDF). The New York Times. 1918-12-29. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
Jump up ^ "Lord Provost of Glasgow to receive Freedom of City of London" (Press release). City of London. 2007-09-05. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
John Scott England Freedom of the City Admission Papers
Further reading[edit]
London's Roll of Fame: Being Complimentary Notes and Addresses from the City of London, on Presentation of the Honorary Freedom of that City, and on Other Occasions, to Royal Personages, Statesmen etc. The City of London Corporation, Benjamin Scott (ed.), 1884
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Dust Bowl
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Dust Bowl (disambiguation).
Map of states and counties affected by the Dust Bowl between 1935 and 1938 originally prepared by the Soil Conservation Service. The most severely affected counties are colored .
A farmer and his two sons during a dust storm in Cimarron County, Oklahoma, April 1936. Iconic photo taken by Arthur Rothstein.
The Dust Bowl, also known as the Dirty Thirties, was a period of severe dust storms that greatly damaged the ecology and agriculture of the American and Canadian prairies during the 1930s; severe drought and a failure to apply dryland farming methods to prevent wind erosion (the Aeolian processes) caused the phenomenon. The drought came in three waves, 1934, 1936, and 1939–1940, but some regions of the high plains experienced drought conditions for as many as eight years.[1] With insufficient understanding of the ecology of the plains, farmers had conducted extensive deep plowing of the virgin topsoil of the Great Plains during the previous decade; this had displaced the native, deep-rooted grasses that normally trapped soil and moisture even during periods of drought and high winds. The rapid mechanization of farm equipment, especially small gasoline tractors, and widespread use of the combine harvester contributed to farmers' decisions to convert arid grassland (much of which received no more than 10 inches (250 mm) of precipitation per year) to cultivated cropland.[2]
During the drought of the 1930s, the unanchored soil turned to dust, which the prevailing winds blew away in huge clouds that sometimes blackened the sky. These choking billows of dust – named "black blizzards" or "black rollers" – traveled cross country, reaching as far as the East Coast and striking such cities as New York City and Washington, D.C. On the Plains, they often reduced visibility to 3 feet (1 m) or less. Associated Press reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in Boise City, Oklahoma, to witness the "Black Sunday" black blizzards of April 14, 1935; Edward Stanley, Kansas City news editor of the Associated Press coined the term "Dust Bowl" while rewriting Geiger's news story.[3][4] While the term "the Dust Bowl" was originally a reference to the geographical area affected by the dust, today it is usually used to refer to the event, as in "It was during the Dust Bowl".
The drought and erosion of the Dust Bowl affected 100,000,000 acres (400,000 km2) that centered on the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma and touched adjacent sections of New Mexico, Colorado, and Kansas.[5]
The Dust Bowl forced tens of thousands of poverty-stricken families to abandon their farms, unable to pay mortgages or grow crops, and losses reached US$25 million per day by 1936 (equivalent to US$440,000,000 in 2017).[6][7] Many of these families, who were often known as "Okies" because so many of them came from Oklahoma, migrated to California and other states to find that the Great Depression had rendered economic conditions there little better than those they had left.
The Dust Bowl has been the subject of many cultural works, notably the novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939) by John Steinbeck, the folk music of Woody Guthrie, and photographs depicting the conditions of migrants by Dorothea Lange.
Contents
[hide]
1 Geographic characteristics and early history
2 Drought and dust storms
3 Human displacement
3.1 United States
3.2 Characteristics of migrants
4 U.S. government response
5 Long-term economic impact
6 Influence on the arts and culture
7 Aggregate changes in agriculture and population on the Plains
8 See also
8.1 Notable documentaries
8.2 International
8.3 General
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Geographic characteristics and early history
A dust storm approaches Stratford, Texas, in 1935.
The Dust Bowl area lies principally west of the 100th meridian on the High Plains, characterized by plains which vary from rolling in the north to flat in the Llano Estacado. Elevation ranges from 2,500 feet (760 m) in the east to 6,000 feet (1,800 m) at the base of the Rocky Mountains. The area is semiarid, receiving less than 20 inches (510 mm) of rain annually; this rainfall supports the shortgrass prairie biome originally present in the area. The region is also prone to extended drought, alternating with unusual wetness of equivalent duration.[8] During wet years, the rich soil provides bountiful agricultural output, but crops fail during dry years. The region is also subject to high winds.[9] During early European and American exploration of the Great Plains, this region was thought unsuitable for European-style agriculture; explorers called it the Great American Desert. The lack of surface water and timber made the region less attractive than other areas for pioneer settlement and agriculture.
The federal government encouraged settlement and development of the Plains for agriculture via the Homestead Act of 1862, offering settlers 160-acre (65 ha) plots. With the end of the Civil War in 1865 and the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, waves of new migrants and immigrants reached the Great Plains, and they greatly increased the acreage under cultivation.[10][11] An unusually wet period in the Great Plains mistakenly led settlers and the federal government to believe that "rain follows the plow" (a popular phrase among real estate promoters) and that the climate of the region had changed permanently.[12] While initial agricultural endeavors were primarily cattle ranching, the adverse effect of harsh winters on the cattle, beginning in 1886, a short drought in 1890, and general overgrazing, led many landowners to increase the amount of land under cultivation.
Recognizing the challenge of cultivating marginal arid land, the United States government expanded on the 160 acres (65 ha) offered under the Homestead Act—granting 640 acres (260 ha) to homesteaders in western Nebraska under the Kinkaid Act (1904) and 320 acres (130 ha) elsewhere in the Great Plains under the Enlarged Homestead Act (1909). Waves of European settlers arrived in the plains at the beginning of the 20th century. A return of unusually wet weather seemingly confirmed a previously held opinion that the "formerly" semiarid area could support large-scale agriculture. At the same time, technological improvements such as mechanized plowing and mechanized harvesting made it possible to operate larger properties without increasing labor costs.
The combined effects of the disruption of the Russian Revolution, which decreased the supply of wheat and other commodity crops, and World War I increased agricultural prices; this demand encouraged farmers to dramatically increase cultivation. For example, in the Llano Estacado of eastern New Mexico and northwestern Texas, the area of farmland was doubled between 1900 and 1920, then tripled again between 1925 and 1930.[11] The agricultural methods favored by farmers during this period created the conditions for large-scale erosion under certain environmental conditions.[1] The widespread conversion of the land by deep plowing and other soil preparation methods to enable agriculture eliminated the native grasses which held the soil in place and helped retain moisture during dry periods. Furthermore, cotton farmers left fields bare during winter months, when winds in the High Plains are highest, and burned the stubble as a means to control weeds prior to planting, thereby depriving the soil of organic nutrients and surface vegetation.
Drought and dust storms
A dust storm; Spearman, Texas, April 14, 1935
"Heavy black clouds of dust rising over the Texas Panhandle, Texas", c. 1936.
After fairly favourable climatic conditions in the 1920s with good rainfall and relatively moderate winters,[13] which permitted increased settlement and cultivation in the Great Plains, the region entered an unusually dry era in the summer of 1930.[14] During the next decade, the northern plains suffered four of their seven driest calendar years since 1895, Kansas four of its twelve driest,[15] and the entire region south to West Texas[16] lacked any period of above-normal rainfall until record rains hit in 1941.[17] When severe drought struck the Great Plains region in the 1930s, it resulted in erosion and loss of topsoil because of farming practices at the time. The drought dried the topsoil and over time it became friable, reduced to a powdery consistency in some places. Without the indigenous grasses in place, the high winds that occur on the plains picked up the topsoil and created the massive dust storms that marked the Dust Bowl period.[18] The persistent dry weather caused crops to fail, leaving the plowed fields exposed to wind erosion. The fine soil of the Great Plains was easily eroded and carried east by strong continental winds.
On November 11, 1933, a very strong dust storm stripped topsoil from desiccated South Dakota farmlands in just one of a series of severe dust storms that year. Beginning on May 9, 1934, a strong, two-day dust storm removed massive amounts of Great Plains topsoil in one of the worst such storms of the Dust Bowl.[19] The dust clouds blew all the way to Chicago, where they deposited 12 million pounds of dust (~ 5500 tonnes).[20] Two days later, the same storm reached cities to the east, such as Cleveland, Buffalo, Boston, New York City, and Washington, D.C.[21] That winter (1934–1935), red snow fell on New England.
On April 14, 1935, known as "Black Sunday", 20 of the worst "black blizzards" occurred across the entire sweep of the Great Plains, from Canada south to Texas. The dust storms caused extensive damage and turned the day to night; witnesses reported that they could not see five feet in front of them at certain points. Denver-based Associated Press reporter Robert E. Geiger happened to be in Boise City, Oklahoma that day. His story about Black Sunday marked the first appearance of the term Dust Bowl; it was coined by Edward Stanley, Kansas City news editor of the Associated Press, while rewriting Geiger's news story.[3][4]
Spearman and Hansford County have been literaly [sic] in a cloud of dust for the past week. Ever since Friday of last week, there hasn't been a day pass but what the county was beseieged [sic] with a blast of wind and dirt. On rare occasions when the wind did subside for a period of hours, the air has been so filled with dust that the town appeared to be overhung by a fog cloud. Because of this long seige of dust and every building being filled with it, the air has become stifling to breathe and many people have developed sore throats and dust colds as a result."
—  Spearman Reporter, 21 March 1935
[22]
Much of the farmland was eroded in the aftermath of the Dust Bowl. In 1941, a Kansas agricultural experiment station released a bulletin that suggested reestablishing native grasses by the "hay method". Developed in 1937 to speed up the process and increase returns from pasture, the "hay method" was originally supposed to occur in Kansas naturally over 25–40 years.[23] After much data analysis, the causal mechanism for the droughts can be linked to ocean temperature anomalies. Specifically, Atlantic Ocean sea surface temperatures appear to have had an indirect effect on the general atmospheric circulation, while Pacific sea surface temperatures seem to have had the most direct influence.[24]
Human displacement
This catastrophe intensified the economic impact of the Great Depression in the region.
United States
Buried machinery in a barn lot; Dallas, South Dakota, May 1936
In 1935, many families were forced to leave their farms and travel to other areas seeking work because of the drought (which at that time had already lasted four years).[25] The abandonment of homesteads and financial ruin resulting from catastrophic topsoil loss led to widespread hunger and poverty.[26] Dust Bowl conditions fomented an exodus of the displaced from Texas, Oklahoma, and the surrounding Great Plains to adjacent regions. More than 500,000 Americans were left homeless. Over 350 houses had to be torn down after one storm alone.[27] The severe drought and dust storms had left many homeless; others had their mortgages foreclosed by banks, or felt they had no choice but to abandon their farms in search of work.[28] Many Americans migrated west looking for work. Parents packed up "jalopies" with their families and a few personal belongings, and headed west in search of work.[29] Some residents of the Plains, especially in Kansas and Oklahoma, fell ill and died of dust pneumonia or malnutrition.[20]
"Broke, baby sick, and car trouble!" - Dorothea Lange's 1937 photo of a Missouri migrant family's jalopy stuck near Tracy, California.
The Dust Bowl exodus was the largest migration in American history within a short period of time. Between 1930 and 1940, approximately 3.5 million people moved out of the Plains states; of those, it is unknown how many moved to California.[30] In just over a year, over 86,000 people migrated to California. This number is more than the number of migrants to that area during the 1849 Gold Rush.[31] Migrants abandoned farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, Colorado, and New Mexico, but were often generally referred to as "Okies", "Arkies", or "Texies".[27] Terms such as "Okies" and "Arkies" came to be known in the 1930s as the standard terms for those who had lost everything and were struggling the most during the Great Depression.[32]
Not all migrants traveled long distances; some simply went to the next town or county. So many families left their farms and were on the move that the proportion between migrants and residents was nearly equal in the Great Plains states.[30]
Characteristics of migrants
A migratory family from Texas living in a trailer in an Arizona cotton field
Historian James N. Gregory examined Census Bureau statistics and other records to learn more about the migrants. Based on a 1939 survey of occupation by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics of about 116,000 families who arrived in California in the 1930s, he learned that only 43 percent of southwesterners were doing farm work immediately before they migrated. Nearly one-third of all migrants were professional or white-collar workers.[33] The poor economy displaced more than just farmers as refugees to California; many teachers, lawyers, and small business owners moved west with their families during this time. After the Great Depression ended, some moved back to their original states. Many others remained where they had resettled. About one-eighth of California's population is of Okie heritage.[34]
U.S. government response
The greatly expanded participation of government in land management and soil conservation was an important outcome from the disaster. Different groups took many different approaches to responding to the disaster. To identify areas that needed attention, groups such as the Soil Conservation Service generated detailed soil maps and took photos of the land from the sky. To create shelterbelts to reduce soil erosion, groups such as the United States Forestry Service’s Prairie States Forestry Project planted trees on private lands. Finally, groups like the Resettlement Administration, which later became the Farm Security Administration, encouraged small farm owners to resettle on other lands, if they lived in dryer parts of the Plains.[24]
During President Franklin D. Roosevelt's first 100 days in office in 1933, his administration quickly initiated programs to conserve soil and restore the ecological balance of the nation. Interior Secretary Harold L. Ickes established the Soil Erosion Service in August 1933 under Hugh Hammond Bennett. In 1935, it was transferred and reorganized under the Department of Agriculture and renamed the Soil Conservation Service. It is now known as the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).[35]
As part of New Deal programs, Congress passed the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act in 1936, requiring landowners to share the allocated government subsidies with the laborers who worked on their farms. Under the law, "benefit payments were continued as measures for production control and income support, but they were now financed by direct Congressional appropriations and justified as soil conservation measures. The Act shifted the parity goal from price equality of agricultural commodities and the articles that farmers buy to income equality of farm and non-farm population."[36] Thus, the parity goal was to re-create the ratio between the purchasing power of the net income per person on farms from agriculture and that of the income of persons not on farms that prevailed during 1909–1914.
To stabilize prices, the government paid farmers and ordered more than six million pigs to be slaughtered. It paid to have the meat packed and distributed to the poor and hungry. The Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) was established to regulate crop and other surpluses. FDR in an address on the AAA commented,
Let me make one other point clear for the benefit of the millions in cities who have to buy meats. Last year the Nation suffered a drought of unparalleled intensity. If there had been no Government program, if the old order had obtained in 1933 and 1934, that drought on the cattle ranges of America and in the corn belt would have resulted in the marketing of thin cattle, immature hogs and the death of these animals on the range and on the farm, and if the old order had been in effect those years, we would have had a vastly greater shortage than we face today. Our program – we can prove it – saved the lives of millions of head of livestock. They are still on the range, and other millions of heads are today canned and ready for this country to eat."
The FSRC diverted agricultural commodities to relief organizations. Apples, beans, canned beef, flour and pork products were distributed through local relief channels. Cotton goods were later included, to clothe the needy.[37]
In 1935, the federal government formed a Drought Relief Service (DRS) to coordinate relief activities. The DRS bought cattle in counties which were designated emergency areas, for $14 to $20 a head. Animals determined unfit for human consumption were killed; at the beginning of the program, more than 50 percent were so designated in emergency areas. The DRS assigned the remaining cattle to the Federal Surplus Relief Corporation (FSRC) to be used in food distribution to families nationwide. Although it was difficult for farmers to give up their herds, the cattle slaughter program helped many of them avoid bankruptcy. "The government cattle buying program was a blessing to many farmers, as they could not afford to keep their cattle, and the government paid a better price than they could obtain in local markets."[38]
President Roosevelt ordered the Civilian Conservation Corps to plant a huge belt of more than 200 million trees from Canada to Abilene, Texas to break the wind, hold water in the soil, and hold the soil itself in place. The administration also began to educate farmers on soil conservation and anti-erosion techniques, including crop rotation, strip farming, contour plowing, terracing, and other improved farming practices.[39][40] In 1937, the federal government began an aggressive campaign to encourage farmers in the Dust Bowl to adopt planting and plowing methods that conserved the soil. The government paid reluctant farmers a dollar an acre to practice the new methods. By 1938, the massive conservation effort had reduced the amount of blowing soil by 65%.[41] The land still failed to yield a decent living. In the fall of 1939, after nearly a decade of dirt and dust, the drought ended when regular rainfall finally returned to the region. The government still encouraged continuing the use of conservation methods to protect the soil and ecology of the Plains.
At the end of the drought, the programs which were implemented during these tough times helped to sustain a positive relationship between America's farmers and the federal government.[42]
The President's Drought Committee issued a report in 1935 covering the government's assistance to agriculture during 1934 through mid-1935: it discussed conditions, measures of relief, organization, finances, operations, and results of the government's assistance.[43] Numerous exhibits are included in this report.
Long-term economic impact
In many regions, more than 75% of the topsoil was blown away by the end of the 1930s. Land degradation varied widely. Aside from the short-term economic consequences caused by erosion, there were severe long-term economic consequences caused by the Dust Bowl.
By 1940, counties that had experienced the most significant levels of erosion had a greater decline in agricultural land values. The per-acre value of farmland declined by 28% in high-erosion counties and 17% in medium-erosion counties, relative to land value changes in low-erosion counties.[23]:3 Even over the long-term, the agricultural value of the land often failed to recover to pre-Dust Bowl levels. In highly eroded areas, less than 25% of the original agricultural losses were recovered. The economy adjusted predominantly through large relative population declines in more-eroded counties, both during the 1930s and through the 1950s.[44]:1500
The economic effects persisted, in part, because of farmers' failure to switch to more appropriate crops for highly eroded areas. Because the amount of topsoil had been reduced, it would have been more productive to shift from crops and wheat to animals and hay. During the Depression and through at least the 1950s, there was limited relative adjustment of farmland away from activities that became less productive in more-eroded counties.
Some of the failure to shift to more productive agricultural products may be related to ignorance about the benefits of changing land use. A second explanation is a lack of availability of credit, caused by the high rate of failure of banks in the Plains states. Because banks failed in the Dust Bowl region at a higher rate than elsewhere, farmers could not get the credit they needed to buy capital to shift crop production.[45] In addition, profit margins in either animals or hay were still minimal, and farmers had little incentive in the beginning to change their crops.
Patrick Allitt recounts how fellow historian Donald Worster responded to his return visit to the Dust Bowl in the mid-1970s when he revisited some of the worst afflicted counties:
Capital-intensive agribusiness had transformed the scene; deep wells into the aquifer, intensive irrigation, the use of artificial pesticides and fertilizers, and giant harvesters were creating immense crops year after year whether it rained or not. According to the farmers he interviewed, technology had provided the perfect answer to old troubles, such of the bad days would not return. In Worster's view, by contrast, the scene demonstrated that America's capitalist high-tech farmers had learned nothing. They were continuing to work in an unsustainable way, devoting far cheaper subsidized energy to growing food than the energy could give back to its ultimate consumers.[46]
In contrast with Worster’s pessimism, historian Mathew Bonnifield argued that the long-term significance of the Dust Bowl was "the triumph of the human spirit in its capacity to endure and overcome hardships and reverses."[47]
Influence on the arts and culture
Florence Owens Thompson seen in the photo Destitute Pea Pickers in California. Mother of Seven Children. by Dorothea Lange
The crisis was documented by photographers, musicians, and authors, many hired during the Great Depression by the federal government. For instance, the Farm Security Administration hired numerous photographers to document the crisis. Artists such as Dorothea Lange were aided by having salaried work during the Depression.[48] She captured what have become classic images of the dust storms and migrant families. Among her most well-known photographs is Destitute Pea Pickers in California. Mother of Seven Children,[48] which depicted a gaunt-looking woman, Florence Owens Thompson, holding three of her children. This picture expressed the struggles of people caught by the Dust Bowl and raised awareness in other parts of the country of its reach and human cost. Decades later, Thompson disliked the boundless circulation of the photo and resented the fact she did not receive any money from its broadcast. Thompson felt it gave her the perception as a Dust Bowl "Okie."[49]
The work of independent artists was also influenced by the crises of the Dust Bowl and the Depression. Author John Steinbeck, borrowing closely from field notes taken by Farm Security Administration worker and author Sanora Babb,[citation needed] wrote The Grapes of Wrath (1939) about migrant workers and farm families displaced by the Dust Bowl. Babb's own novel about the lives of the migrant workers, Whose Names Are Unknown, was written in 1939 but was eclipsed and shelved in response to the success of the Steinbeck's work, and was finally published in 2004.[50][51][52] Many of the songs of folk singer Woody Guthrie, such as those on his 1940 album Dust Bowl Ballads, are about his experiences in the Dust Bowl era during the Great Depression when he traveled with displaced farmers from Oklahoma to California and learned their traditional folk and blues songs, earning him the nickname the "Dust Bowl Troubadour".[53]
Migrants also influenced musical culture wherever they went. Oklahoma migrants, in particular, were rural Southwesterners who carried their traditional country music to California. Today, the "Bakersfield Sound" describes this blend, which developed after the migrants brought country music to the city. Their new music inspired a proliferation of country dance halls as far south as Los Angeles.
The 2014 science fiction film Interstellar features a ravaged 21st-century America which is again scoured by dust storms (caused by a worldwide pathogen affecting all crops). Along with inspiration from the 1930s crisis, director Christopher Nolan features interviews from the 2012 documentary The Dust Bowl to draw further parallels.[54]
In 2017, Americana recording artist Grant Maloy Smith released the album Dust Bowl – American Stories, which was inspired by the history of the Dust Bowl.[55] In a review, the music magazine No Depression wrote that the album’s lyrics and music are “as potent as Woody Guthrie, as intense as John Trudell and dusted with the trials and tribulations of Tom Joad – Steinbeck and The Grapes of Wrath.”[56]
Aggregate changes in agriculture and population on the Plains
The change in the total value of agricultural land and revenue was quite similar over the twentieth century. Agricultural land and revenue boomed during World War I, but fell during the Great Depression and the 1930s. The land and revenue began increasing again in 1940, and has been increasing since then. From 1910 to the 1940s, total farmland increased and remained constant until 1970 when it slightly declined. During this time, total population increased steadily, but there was a slight dip in trend from 1930 to 1960.[44][clarify][verification needed]
See also
U.S. Route 66 – notable Dust Bowl migration route to California
1936 North American heat wave
Great Plains Shelterbelt
Ogallala Aquifer
Notable documentaries
The Dust Bowl – 2012 documentary by Ken Burns
The Plow That Broke the Plains – 1936 documentary
International
Palliser's Triangle – semiarid area of Canada
Goyder's Line – semiarid area of Australia
General
Desertification
Monoculture
Semi-arid climate
Global warming
References
^ Jump up to: a b "Drought: A Paleo Perspective – 20th Century Drought". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved April 5, 2009.
Jump up ^ "The American Experience: Drought". PBS. Retrieved March 15, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Black Sunday Dust Storm of 14 April 1935". National Weather Service: Norman, Oklahoma. August 24, 2010. Retrieved November 23, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Mencken, H. L. (1979). Raven I. McDavid, Jr., ed. The American Language (One-Volume Abridged ed.). New York: Alfred A Knopf. p. 206. ISBN 0-394-40075-5.
Jump up ^ Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6. [page needed]
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
Jump up ^ Bust: America - The Story of Us. A&E Television Networks. 2010. OCLC 783245601.
Jump up ^ "A History of Drought in Colorado: lessons learned and what lies ahead" (PDF). Colorado Water Resources Research Institute. February 2000. Retrieved December 6, 2007.
Jump up ^ "A Report of the Great Plains Area Drought Committee". Hopkins Papers, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library. August 27, 1936. Retrieved December 6, 2007.
Jump up ^ "The Great Plains: from dust to dust". Planning Magazine. December 1987. Archived from the original on October 6, 2007. Retrieved December 6, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Regions at Risk: a comparison of threatened environments. United Nations University Press. 1995. Retrieved December 6, 2007.
Jump up ^ Drought in the Dust Bowl Years. US: National Drought Mitigation Center. 2006. Retrieved December 6, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Northern Rockies and Plains Average Temperature – October to March". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Northern Rockies and Plains Precipitation, 1895–2013". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Kansas Precipitation 1895 to 2013". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Texas Climate Division 1 (High Plains): Precipitation 1895–2013". National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ "THE WEATHER OF 1941 IN THE UNITED STATES" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved September 17, 2014.
Jump up ^ Cronin, Francis D; Beers, Howard W (January 1937). "Areas of Intense Drought Distress, 1930–1936" (PDF). Research Bulletin. U.S. Works Progress Administration / Federal Reserve Archival System for Economic Research (FRASER). pp. 1–23. Retrieved October 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ Murphy, Philip G. (July 15, 1935). "The Drought of 1934" (PDF). A Report of The Federal Government's Assistance to Agriculture. U.S. Drought Coordinating Committee / Federal Reserve Archival System for Economic Research (FRASER). Retrieved October 15, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Surviving the Dust Bowl". 1998. Retrieved September 19, 2011.
Jump up ^ Stock, Catherine McNicol (1992). Main Street in Crisis: The Great Depression and the Old Middle Class on the Northern Plains, p. 24. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-4689-9.
Jump up ^ Miller, Bill (March 21, 1935). "Nearly week seige of dust storm in county". Spearman Reporter. Spearman, Texas. Retrieved March 24, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Hornbeck, Richard (December 2009). "The Enduring Impact of the American Dust Bowl: Short and Long-run Adjustments to Environmental Catastrophe" (PDF). US: National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved March 6, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b McLeman, Robert A; Dupre, Juliette; Berrang Ford, Lea; Ford, James; Gajewski, Konrad; Marchildon, Gregory (June 2014). "What we learned from the Dust Bowl: lessons in science, policy, and adaptation". Population and Environment. 35 (4): 417–440. doi:10.1007/s11111-013-0190-z.
Jump up ^ A Cultural History of the United States – The 1930s. San Diego, California: Lucent Books, Inc., 1999, p. 39.
Jump up ^ Schama, Simon; Hobkinson, Sam (2008). American Plenty. BBC. OCLC 884893188.
^ Jump up to: a b "First Measured Century: Interview:James Gregory". PBS. Retrieved March 11, 2007.
Jump up ^ Babb, Sanora, Dorothy Babb, and Douglas Wixson. On the Dirty Plate Trail. Edited by Douglas Wixson. Autin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 2007, p. 20.
Jump up ^ A Cultural History (1999), p. 19
^ Jump up to: a b Worster, Donald (1979). Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s. Oxford University Press. p. 49.
Jump up ^ Worster, Donald. Dust Bowl – The Southern Plains in the 1930s, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 50
Jump up ^ Worster (2004), Dust Bowl, p. 45,
Jump up ^ Gregory, N. James. (1991) American Exodus: The Dust Bowl Migration and Okie Culture in California. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Babb, et al. (2007), On the Dirty Plate Trail, p. 13
Jump up ^ Steiner, Frederick (2008). The Living Landscape, Second Edition: An Ecological Approach to Landscape Planning, p. 188. Island Press. ISBN 1-59726-396-6.
Jump up ^ Rau, Allan. Agricultural Policy and Trade Liberalization in the United States, 1934–1956; a Study of Conflicting Policies. Genève: E. Droz, 1957. p.81.
Jump up ^ "The American Experience / Surviving the Dust Bowl / Timeline".
Jump up ^ Monthly Catalog, United States Public Documents, By United States Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office, Published by the G.P.O., 1938
Jump up ^ Federal Writers' Project. Texas. Writers' Program (Tex.): Writers' Program Texas. p. 16.
Jump up ^ Buchanan, James Shannon. Chronicles of Oklahoma. Oklahoma Historical Society. p. 224.
Jump up ^ PBS Timeline of Dust Bowl
Jump up ^ A Cultural History (1999), p.45.
Jump up ^ United States. Agricultural Adjustment Administration and Murphy, Philip G., (1935), Drought of 1934: The Federal Government's Assistance to Agriculture". Accessed October 15, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Hornbeck, Richard (June 2012). "The Enduring Impact of the American Dust Bowl: Short- and Long-Run Adjustments to Environmental Catastrophe" (PDF). American Economic Review. 102 (4). pp. 1477–1507. doi:10.1257/aer.102.4.1477. Retrieved March 31, 2016 – via Harvard University, Department of Economics.
Jump up ^ Landon-Lane, John; Rockoff, Hugh; Steckel, Richard (2009). "Droughts, Floods, and Financial Distress in the United States" (PDF). National Bureau of Economic Research. p. 6. Retrieved March 1, 2011.
Jump up ^ Patrick Allitt, A Climate of Crisis: America in the Age of Environmentalism (2014) p 203
Jump up ^ Allitt p 211, paraphrasing William Cronin's evaluation of Mathew Paul Bonnifield, Dust Bowl: Men, Dirt and Depression(1979)
^ Jump up to: a b "Destitute Pea Pickers in California: Mother of Seven Children, Age Thirty-two, Nipomo, California. Migrant Mother". World Digital Library. Retrieved February 10, 2013.
Jump up ^ DuBois, Ellen Carol; Dumenil, Lynn (2012). Through Women's Eyes (Third ed.). Bedford/St. Martin's. p. 583. ISBN 978-0-312-67603-2.
Jump up ^ "Whose Names Are Unknown: Sanora Babb". Harry Ransom Center. Retrieved December 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ Dayton Duncan, preface by Ken Burns (2012). "Biographies: Sanora Babb". The Dust Bowl: An Illustrated History. PBS. Retrieved February 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ See:
Lanzendorfer, Joy, "The forgotten Dust Bowl novel that rivaled "The Grapes of Wrath"," Smithsonian.com, 2016 May 23.
"Sanora Babb," The Dust Bowl: a film by Ken Burns, PBS.org (2012)
For the role of Tom Collins of the Farm Security Administration in Steinbeck's novel, see: John Steinbeck with Robert Demott, ed., Working Days: The Journals of The Grapes of Wrath, 1938–1941 (New York, New York: Penguin Books, 1990), pp. xxvii–xxviii, 33 (journal entry for 1938 June 24).
Jump up ^ Alarik, Scott. Robert Burns unplugged. The Boston Globe, August 7, 2005. Retrieved on December 5, 2007.
Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Alyssa (November 6, 2014). "How Ken Burns' surprise role in 'Interstellar' explains the movie". The Washington Post. Retrieved November 8, 2014.
Jump up ^ Smith, Hubble (June 1, 2017). "Kingman gets a mention on Dust Bowl album". Kingman Daily Miner. Retrieved June 11, 2017.
Jump up ^ Apice, John (May 22, 2017). "Expressive Original Songs Steeped In the Dirt & Reality of the Dust Bowl-Depression Era". No Depression. Retrieved June 11, 2017.
Bibliography
Bonnifield, Mathew Paul. (1979) Dust Bowl: Men, Dirt and Depression
Gregory, James Noble. American exodus: The dust bowl migration and Okie culture in California (Oxford University Press, 1989)
Lassieur, Allison. (2009) The Dust Bowl: An Interactive History Adventure Capstone Press, ISBN 1-4296-3455-3
Reis, Ronald A. (2008) The Dust Bowl Chelsea House ISBN 978-0-7910-9737-3
Sylvester, Kenneth M., and Eric S. A. Rupley, “Revising the Dust Bowl: High above the Kansas Grassland”, Environmental History, 17 (July 2012), 603–33.
Worster, Donald 2004 (1979)Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s (25. anniversary ed) Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517489-5
Woody Guthrie, (1963) The (Nearly) Complete Collection of Woody Guthrie Folk Songs, Ludlow Music, New York.
Alan Lomax, Woody Guthrie, Pete Seeger, (1967) Hard-Hitting Songs for Hard-Hit People, Oak Publications, New York.
Timothy Egan (2006) The Worst Hard Time, Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, hardcover. ISBN 0-618-34697-X.
Katelan Janke, (1935) Survival in the Storm: The Dust Bowl Diary of Grace Edwards, Dalhart, Texas, Scholastic (September 2002). ISBN 0-439-21599-4.
Karen Hesse (paperback January 1999) Out of the Dust, Scholastic Signature. New York First Edition, 1997, hardcover . ISBN 0-590-37125-8.
Sanora Babb (2004) Whose Names Are Unknown, University of Oklahoma Press, ISBN 978-0-8061-3579-3.
Sweeney, Kevin Z. (2016). Prelude to the Dust Bowl: Drought in the Nineteenth-Century Southern Plains Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dust Bowl.
NASA Explains "Dust Bowl" Drought
The Dust Bowl photo collection
"The Dust Bowl", a PBS television series by filmmaker Ken Burns
The Dust Bowl (EH.Net Encyclopedia)
Black Sunday, April 14, 1935, Dodge City, KS
The Bibliography of Aeolian Research
Surviving the Dust Bowl, Black Sunday (April 14, 1935)
Voices from the Dust Bowl: The Charles L. Todd and Robert Sonkin Migrant Worker Collection, 1940–1941 Library of Congress, American Folklife Center Online collection of archival sound recordings, photographs, and manuscripts
YouTube Video: "The Great Depression, Displaced Mountaineers in Shenandoah National Park, and the Civilian Conservation Corps (C.C.C.)"
Farming in the 1930s (Wessels Living History Farm)
Out of the Dust (The Modesto Bee)
Africa Data Dissemination Service, part of the Famine Early Warning Systems Network, U.S. Geological Service
Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Dust Bowl
Oklahoma Digital Maps: Digital Collections of Oklahoma and Indian Territory
Dust Bowl Migration Archive at Sonoma State University Library
Dust, Drought, and Dreams Gone Dry: Oklahoma Women in the Dust Bowl Oral History Project, Oklahoma Oral History Research Program
Voices of Oklahoma interview with Frosty Troy. First person interview conducted on November 30, 2011 with Frosty Troy talking about the Oklahoma Dust Bowl. Original audio and transcript archived with Voices of Oklahoma oral history project.
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Dust Bowl – Catalan
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Dust Bowl – Czech
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Dust Bowl – German
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Dust Bowl – Spanish
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Dust Bowl – French
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Dust Bowl – Icelandic
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Dust Bowl – Italian
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Dust Bowl – Portuguese
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Dust Bowl – Romanian
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values: Пыльный котёл – Russian

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Dust Bowl – Turkish
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Dust Bowl – Vietnamese
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