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Civil rights movement
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This article is about the movement for equal rights for African-Americans in the United States between 1954 and 1964. For other uses, see Civil rights movement (disambiguation).
Civil rights movement
The March on Washington participants and leaders marching from the Washington Monument to the Lincoln Memorial
Date
1954–1968[a]
Location
United States
Resulted in
Rulings by federal judiciary:
"Separate but equal" doctrine overturned by Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
Bus segregation ruled unconstitutional by Browder v. Gayle (1956)
Interracial marriages legalized by Loving v. Virginia (1967)
Passage of federal laws:
Civil Rights Act of 1957
Civil Rights Act of 1960
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Civil Rights Act of 1968 (Fair Housing Act)
Ratification of a federal constitutional amendment:
24th Amendment (1964)
Formation of federal agencies:
Civil Rights Division within US Department of Justice (1957)
US Commission on Civil Rights (1957)
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (1965)
Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity within US Department of Housing and Urban Development (1968)
The civil rights movement (also known as the African-American civil rights movement, American civil rights movement and other terms)[b] was a decades-long movement with the goal of securing legal rights for African Americans that other Americans already held. With roots starting in the Reconstruction era during the late 19th century, the movement resulted in the largest legislative impacts after the direct actions and grassroots protests organized from the mid-1950s until 1968. Encompassing strategies, various groups, and organized social movements to accomplish the goals of ending legalized racial segregation and discrimination in the United States, the movement, using major nonviolent campaigns, eventually secured new recognition in federal law and federal protection of all Americans.
After the American Civil War and the abolition of slavery in the 1860s, the Reconstruction Amendments to the United States Constitution sought to secure the rights of African Americans. While for a short time, African Americans voted and held political office, they were soon deprived of civil rights, often under Jim Crow laws, and subjected to discrimination and sustained violence. Over the following century, various efforts were made by African Americans to secure their legal rights. Between 1955 and 1968, acts of nonviolent protest and civil disobedience produced crisis situations and productive dialogues between activists and government authorities. Federal, state, and local governments, businesses, and communities often had to respond immediately to these situations, which highlighted the inequities faced by African Americans. The lynching of Emmett Till and the visceral response to his mother's decision to have an open-casket funeral mobilized the African-American community nationwide.[1] Forms of protest and/or civil disobedience included boycotts such as the successful Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–56) in Alabama; "sit-ins" such as the influential Greensboro sit-ins (1960) in North Carolina and successful Nashville sit-ins in Tennessee; marches, such as the 1963 Birmingham Children's Crusade and 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches (1965) in Alabama; and a wide range of other nonviolent activities.
Moderates in the movement worked with Congress to achieve the passage of several significant pieces of federal legislation overturning discriminatory practices. The Civil Rights Act of 1964[2] expressly banned discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment practices; ended unequal application of voter registration requirements; and prohibited racial segregation in schools, at the workplace, and in public accommodations. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 restored and protected voting rights for minorities by authorizing federal oversight of registration and elections in areas with a historic under-representation of minorities as voters. The Fair Housing Act of 1968 banned discrimination in the sale or rental of housing. African Americans re-entered politics in the South, and across the country young people were inspired to take action.
From 1964 through 1970, a wave of inner-city riots in black communities undercut support from the white middle class, but increased support from private foundations.[3] The emergence of the Black Power movement, which lasted from about 1965 to 1975, challenged the established black leadership for its cooperative attitude and its practice of nonviolence, and instead demanding that, in addition to the new laws gained through the nonviolent movement, political and economic self-sufficiency be built in the black community.
Many popular representations of the movement are centered on the charismatic leadership and philosophy of Martin Luther King Jr., who won the 1964 Nobel Peace Prize for his role in the movement. However, some scholars note that the movement was too diverse to be credited to any one person, organization, or strategy.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 The beginnings of direct action (1950s)
3 History
3.1 Brown v. Board of Education, 1954
3.2 Emmett Till's murder, 1955
3.3 Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955–1956
3.4 Desegregating Little Rock Central High School, 1957
3.5 The method of Nonviolence and Nonviolence Training
3.6 Robert F. Williams and the debate on nonviolence, 1959–1964
3.7 Sit-ins, 1958–1960
3.8 Freedom Rides, 1961
3.9 Voter registration organizing
3.10 Integration of Mississippi universities, 1956–1965
3.11 Albany Movement, 1961–62
3.12 Birmingham campaign, 1963
3.13 "Rising tide of discontent" and Kennedy's response, 1963
3.14 March on Washington, 1963
3.15 Malcolm X joins the movement, 1964–1965
3.16 St. Augustine, Florida, 1963–64
3.17 Freedom Summer, 1964
3.18 Civil Rights Act of 1964
3.19 Harlem riot of 1964
3.20 Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, 1964
3.21 Selma Voting Rights Movement
3.22 Voting Rights Act, 1965
3.23 Watts riot of 1965
3.24 Fair housing movements, 1966–1968
3.25 Nationwide riots of 1967
3.26 Memphis, King assassination and the Poor People's March 1968
3.27 Civil Rights Act of 1968
4 Movements, politics, and white reactions
4.1 Grassroots leadership
4.2 Black power (1966–1968)
4.3 Black conservatism
4.4 Avoiding the "Communist" label
4.5 Kennedy administration, 1961–1963
4.6 American Jewish community and the civil rights movement
4.6.1 Profile
4.7 White backlash
4.8 African-American women in the movement
4.8.1 Discrimination
5 Johnson administration: 1963–1968
6 Prison reform
6.1 Gates v. Collier
7 Cold War
8 In popular culture
9 Activist organizations
10 Individual activists
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 Bibliography
15 Further reading
15.1 Historiography and memory
15.2 Autobiographies and memoirs
16 External links
Background[edit]
Further information: Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era, Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, and Jim Crow laws
Before the American Civil War, almost four million blacks were enslaved in the South, only white men of property could vote, and the Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U.S. citizenship to whites only.[5][6][7] Following the Civil War, three constitutional amendments were passed, including the 13th Amendment (1865) that ended slavery; the 14th Amendment (1868) that gave African-Americans citizenship, adding their total population of four million to the official population of southern states for Congressional apportionment; and the 15th Amendment (1870) that gave African-American males the right to vote (only males could vote in the U.S. at the time). From 1865 to 1877, the United States underwent a turbulent Reconstruction Era trying to establish free labor and civil rights of freedmen in the South after the end of slavery. Many whites resisted the social changes, leading to insurgent movements such as the Ku Klux Klan, whose members attacked black and white Republicans to maintain white supremacy. In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant, the U.S. Army, and U.S. Attorney General Amos T. Akerman, initiated a campaign to repress the KKK under the Enforcement Acts.[8] Some states were reluctant to enforce the federal measures of the act; by the early 1870s, other white supremacist and paramilitary groups arose that violently opposed African-American legal equality and suffrage.[9][10] However, if the states failed to implement the acts, the laws allowed the Federal Government to get involved.[10] Many Republican governors were afraid of sending black militia troops to fight the Klan for fear of war.[10]
After the disputed election of 1876 resulted in the end of Reconstruction and federal troops were withdrawn, whites in the South regained political control of the region's state legislatures by the end of the century, after having intimidated and violently attacked blacks before and during elections.
From 1890 to 1908, southern states passed new constitutions and laws to disenfranchise African Americans and many poor whites by creating barriers to voter registration; voting rolls were dramatically reduced as blacks and poor whites were forced out of electoral politics. After the landmark court case of Smith v. Allwright progress was made in increasing black political participation in the Rim South and Acadiana – although almost entirely in urban areas[11] and a few rural localities where most blacks worked outside plantations.[12] The status quo ante of excluding African Americans from the political system lasted in the remainder of the South, especially North Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama, until national civil rights legislation was passed in the mid-1960s to provide federal enforcement of constitutional voting rights. For more than sixty years, blacks in the South were not able to elect anyone to represent their interests in Congress or local government.[10] Since they could not vote, they could not serve on local juries.
The mob-style lynching of Will James, Cairo, Illinois, 1909
During this period, the white-dominated Democratic Party maintained political control of the South. With whites controlling all the seats representing the total population of the South, they had a powerful voting block in Congress. The Republican Party—the "party of Lincoln" and the party to which most blacks had belonged—shrank to insignificance as black voter registration was suppressed except in remote Unionist areas of Appalachia and the Ozarks. Until 1965, the "Solid South" was a one-party system under the Democrats, and excepting previously-noted historic Unionist strongholds the Democratic Party nomination was tantamount to election for state and local office.[13] In 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to dine at the White House, making him the first African American to attend an official dinner there. "The invitation was roundly criticized by southern politicians and newspapers." Washington persuaded the president to appoint more blacks to federal posts in the South and to try to boost African-American leadership in state Republican organizations. However, this was resisted by both white Democrats and white Republicans as an unwanted federal intrusion into state politics.[14]
Lynching victim Will Brown who was mutilated and burned during the Omaha, Nebraska race riot of 1919. Postcards and photographs of lynchings were popular souvenirs in the U.S.[15]
During the same time as African Americans were being disenfranchised, white southerners imposed racial segregation by law. Violence against blacks increased, with numerous lynchings through the turn of the century. The system of de jure state-sanctioned racial discrimination and oppression that emerged from the post-Reconstruction South became known as the "Jim Crow" system. The United States Supreme Court, made up almost entirely of Northerners, upheld the constitutionality of those state laws that required racial segregation in public facilities in its 1896 decision Plessy v. Ferguson, legitimizing them through the "separate but equal" doctrine.[16] Segregation, which began with slavery, continued with Jim Crow laws, with signs used to show blacks where they could legally walk, talk, drink, rest, or eat.[17] For those places that were racially mixed, non-whites had to wait until all white customers were dealt with.[17] Elected in 1912, President Woodrow Wilson ordered segregration throughout the federal government.[18]
Segregation remained intact into the mid-1950s, when many states began to gradually integrate their schools following the unanimous Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education that overturned Plessy v. Ferguson. The early 20th century is a period often referred to as the "nadir of American race relations". While tensions and civil rights violations were most intense in the South, social discrimination affected African Americans in other regions as well.[19] At the national level, the Southern block controlled important committees in Congress, defeated passage of laws against lynching, and exercised considerable power beyond the number of whites in the South.
Characteristics of the post-Reconstruction period:
Racial segregation. By law, public facilities and government services such as education were divided into separate "white" and "colored" domains.[20] Characteristically, those for colored were underfunded and of inferior quality.
Disenfranchisement. When white Democrats regained power, they passed laws that made voter registration more restrictive, essentially forcing black voters off the voting rolls. The number of African-American voters dropped dramatically, and they were no longer able to elect representatives. From 1890 to 1908, Southern states of the former Confederacy created constitutions with provisions that disfranchised tens of thousands of African Americans, and U.S. states such as Alabama disenfranchised poor whites as well.
Exploitation. Increased economic oppression of blacks through the convict lease system, Latinos, and Asians, denial of economic opportunities, and widespread employment discrimination.
Violence. Individual, police, paramilitary, organizational, and mob racial violence against blacks (and Latinos in the Southwest and Asians in California).
KKK night rally in Chicago, c. 1920
African Americans and other ethnic minorities rejected this regime. They resisted it in numerous ways and sought better opportunities through lawsuits, new organizations, political redress, and labor organizing (see the African-American civil rights movement (1896–1954)). The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded in 1909. It fought to end race discrimination through litigation, education, and lobbying efforts. Its crowning achievement was its legal victory in the Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 when the Court rejected separate white and colored school systems and, by implication, overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson of 1896.
The integration of Southern public libraries involved many of the same characteristics seen in the larger civil rights movement.[21] This includes sit-ins, beatings, and white resistance.[21] For example, in 1963 in the city of Anniston, Alabama, two black ministers were brutally beaten for attempting to integrate the public library.[21] Though there was resistance and violence, the integration of libraries was generally quicker than integration of other public institutions.[21]
Colored Sailors room in World War I
The situation for blacks outside the South was somewhat better (in most states they could vote and have their children educated, though they still faced discrimination in housing and jobs). From 1910 to 1970, African Americans sought better lives by migrating north and west out of the South. Nearly seven million blacks left the South in what was known as the Great Migration. So many people migrated that the demographics of some previously black-majority states changed to white majority (in combination with other developments). The rapid influx of blacks disturbed the racial balance within Northern cities, exacerbating hostility between both black and white Northerners. The Red Summer of 1919 was marked by hundreds of deaths and higher casualties across the U.S. as a result of race riots that occurred in more than three dozen cities, such as the Chicago race riot of 1919 and the Omaha race riot of 1919. Stereotypic schemas of Southern blacks were used to attribute issues in urban areas, such as crime and disease, to the presence of African-Americans. Overall, African Americans in Northern cities experienced systemic discrimination in a plethora of aspects of life. Within employment, economic opportunities for blacks were routed to the lowest-status and restrictive in potential mobility. Within the housing market, stronger discriminatory measures were used in correlation to the influx, resulting in a mix of "targeted violence, restrictive covenants, redlining and racial steering".[22] The increased urbanism brought about by the great migration also began to lead to a realignment among African American's from Republican to Democrat, which was later sealed by the New Deal during the Great Depression in the 1930's.[23] Substantially, under pressure from African American supporters who began the March on Washington Movement, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued the first federal order banning discrimination and created the Fair Employment Practice Committee. Black veterans of the military after both World Wars pressed for full civil rights and often led activist movements. In 1948, they gained integration in the military under President Harry Truman, who issued Executive Order 9981 to accomplish it.
White tenants seeking to prevent blacks from moving into the housing project erected this sign, Detroit, 1942.
Housing segregation was a nationwide problem, persistent well outside the South. Although the federal government had become increasingly involved in mortgage lending and development in the 1930s and 1940s, it did not reject the use of race-restrictive covenants until 1950.[24] Suburbanization was already connected with white flight by this time, a situation perpetuated by real estate agents' continuing discrimination. In particular, from the 1930s to the 1960s the National Association of Real Estate Boards (NAREB) issued guidelines that specified that a realtor "should never be instrumental in introducing to a neighborhood a character or property or occupancy, members of any race or nationality, or any individual whose presence will be clearly detrimental to property values in a neighborhood." The result was the creation of all-black ghettos in the North as well as South.[25]
Invigorated by the victory of Brown and frustrated by the lack of immediate practical effect, private citizens increasingly rejected gradualist, legalistic approaches as the primary tool to bring about desegregation. They were faced with "massive resistance" in the South by proponents of racial segregation and voter suppression. In defiance, African-American activists adopted a combined strategy of direct action, nonviolence, nonviolent resistance, and many events described as civil disobedience, giving rise to the civil rights movement of 1954 to 1968.
The beginnings of direct action (1950s)[edit]
The strategy of public education, legislative lobbying, and litigation that had typified the civil rights movement during the first half of the 20th century broadened after Brown to a strategy that emphasized "direct action": boycotts, sit-ins, Freedom Rides, marches or walks, and similar tactics that relied on mass mobilization, nonviolent resistance, standing in line, and, at times, civil disobedience.[citation needed]
Churches, local grassroots organizations, fraternal societies, and black-owned businesses mobilized volunteers to participate in broad-based actions. This was a more direct and potentially more rapid means of creating change than the traditional approach of mounting court challenges used by the NAACP and others.
In 1952, the Regional Council of Negro Leadership (RCNL), led by T. R. M. Howard, a black surgeon, entrepreneur, and planter, organized a successful boycott of gas stations in Mississippi that refused to provide restrooms for blacks. Through the RCNL, Howard led campaigns to expose brutality by the Mississippi state highway patrol and to encourage blacks to make deposits in the black-owned Tri-State Bank of Nashville which, in turn, gave loans to civil rights activists who were victims of a "credit squeeze" by the White Citizens' Councils.[26]
Although considered and rejected after Claudette Colvin's arrest for not giving up her seat on a Montgomery, Alabama, bus in March 1955, after Rosa Parks' arrest in December Jo Ann Gibson-Robinson of the Montgomery Women's Political Council put a long-considered Bus Boycott protest in motion. Late that night, she, John Cannon (chairman of the Business Department at Alabama State University) and others mimeographed and distributed thousands of leaflets calling for a boycott.[27][28] The eventual success of the boycott made its spokesman Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. a nationally known figure. It also inspired other bus boycotts, such as the successful Tallahassee, Florida, boycott of 1956–57.[29]
In 1957, Dr. King and Rev. Ralph Abernathy, the leaders of the Montgomery Improvement Association, joined with other church leaders who had led similar boycott efforts, such as Rev. C. K. Steele of Tallahassee and Rev. T. J. Jemison of Baton Rouge; and other activists such as Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth, Ella Baker, A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin and Stanley Levison, to form the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The SCLC, with its headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia, did not attempt to create a network of chapters as the NAACP did. It offered training and leadership assistance for local efforts to fight segregation. The headquarters organization raised funds, mostly from Northern sources, to support such campaigns. It made nonviolence both its central tenet and its primary method of confronting racism.
In 1959, Septima Clarke, Bernice Robinson, and Esau Jenkins, with the help of Myles Horton's Highlander Folk School in Tennessee, began the first Citizenship Schools in South Carolina's Sea Islands. They taught literacy to enable blacks to pass voting tests. The program was an enormous success and tripled the number of black voters on Johns Island. SCLC took over the program and duplicated its results elsewhere.
History[edit]
Main article: Timeline of the African-American civil rights movement
Brown v. Board of Education, 1954[edit]
Main article: Brown v. Board of Education
In the spring of 1951, black students in Virginia protested their unequal status in the state's segregated educational system. Students at Moton High School protested the overcrowded conditions and failing facility.[30] Some local leaders of the NAACP had tried to persuade the students to back down from their protest against the Jim Crow laws of school segregation. When the students did not budge, the NAACP joined their battle against school segregation. The NAACP proceeded with five cases challenging the school systems; these were later combined under what is known today as Brown v. Board of Education.[30]
On May 17, 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, that mandating, or even permitting, public schools to be segregated by race was unconstitutional. The Court stated that the
segregation of white and colored children in public schools has a detrimental effect upon the colored children. The impact is greater when it has the sanction of the law; for the policy of separating the races is usually interpreted as denoting the inferiority of the Negro group.[31]
The lawyers from the NAACP had to gather plausible evidence in order to win the case of Brown vs. Board of Education. Their method of addressing the issue of school segregation was to enumerate several arguments. One pertained to having exposure to interracial contact in a school environment. It was argued that interracial contact would, in turn, help prepare children to live with the pressures that society exerts in regards to race and thereby afford them a better chance of living in democracy. In addition, another argument emphasized how "'education' comprehends the entire process of developing and training the mental, physical and moral powers and capabilities of human beings".[32]
Risa Goluboff wrote that the NAACP's intention was to show the Courts that African American children were the victims of school segregation and their futures were at risk. The Court ruled that both Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which had established the "separate but equal" standard in general, and Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education (1899), which had applied that standard to schools, were unconstitutional.
The federal government filed a friend of the court brief in the case urging the justices to consider the effect that segregation had on America's image in the Cold War. Secretary of State Dean Acheson was quoted in the brief stating that "The United States is under constant attack in the foreign press, over the foreign radio, and in such international bodies as the United Nations because of various practices of discrimination in this country." [33][34]
The following year, in the case known as Brown II, the Court ordered segregation to be phased out over time, "with all deliberate speed".[35] Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954) did not overturn Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). Plessy v. Ferguson was segregation in transportation modes. Brown v. Board of Education dealt with segregation in education. Brown v. Board of Education did set in motion the future overturning of 'separate but equal'.
School integration, Barnard School, Washington, D.C., 1955
On May 18, 1954, Greensboro, North Carolina, became the first city in the South to publicly announce that it would abide by the Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education ruling. "It is unthinkable,' remarked School Board Superintendent Benjamin Smith, 'that we will try to [override] the laws of the United States."[36] This positive reception for Brown, together with the appointment of African American Dr. David Jones to the school board in 1953, convinced numerous white and black citizens that Greensboro was heading in a progressive direction. Integration in Greensboro occurred rather peacefully compared to the process in Southern states such as Alabama, Arkansas, and Virginia where "massive resistance" was practiced by top officials and throughout the states. In Virginia, some counties closed their public schools rather than integrate, and many white Christian private schools were founded to accommodate students who used to go to public schools. Even in Greensboro, much local resistance to desegregation continued, and in 1969, the federal government found the city was not in compliance with the 1964 Civil Rights Act. Transition to a fully integrated school system did not begin until 1971.[36]
Many Northern cities also had de facto segregation policies, which resulted in a vast gulf in educational resources between black and white communities. In Harlem, New York, for example, neither a single new school was built since the turn of the century, nor did a single nursery school exist – even as the Second Great Migration was causing overcrowding. Existing schools tended to be dilapidated and staffed with inexperienced teachers. Brown helped stimulate activism among New York City parents like Mae Mallory who, with support of the NAACP, initiated a successful lawsuit against the city and state on Brown's principles. Mallory and thousands of other parents bolstered the pressure of the lawsuit with a school boycott in 1959. During the boycott, some of the first freedom schools of the period were established. The city responded to the campaign by permitting more open transfers to high-quality, historically-white schools. (New York's African-American community, and Northern desegregation activists generally, now found themselves contending with the problem of white flight, however.)[37][38]
Emmett Till's murder, 1955[edit]
Main article: Emmett Till
Emmett Till before and after the lynching on August 28, 1955. He was a fourteen-year-old boy in Chicago who went to spend the summer together with his uncle Moses Wright in Money, Mississippi, and was massacred by white men for allegedly whistling at Carolyn Bryant.
Emmett Till, a 14-year old African American from Chicago, visited his relatives in Money, Mississippi, for the summer. He allegedly had an interaction with a white woman, Carolyn Bryant, in a small grocery store that violated the norms of Mississippi culture, and Bryant's husband Roy and his half-brother J. W. Milam brutally murdered young Emmett Till. They beat and mutilated him before shooting him in the head and sinking his body in the Tallahatchie River. Three days later, Till's body was discovered and retrieved from the river. Mamie Till, Emmett's Mother, "brought him home to Chicago and insisted on an open casket. Tens of thousands filed past Till's remains, but it was the publication of the searing funeral image in Jet, with a stoic Mamie gazing at her murdered child's ravaged body, that forced the world to reckon with the brutality of American racism."[39] Vann R. Newkirk wrote: "The trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of white supremacy".[1] The state of Mississippi tried two defendants, but they were speedily acquitted by an all-white jury.[40]
"Emmett's murder," historian Tim Tyson writes, "would never have become a watershed historical moment without Mamie finding the strength to make her private grief a public matter."[41] The visceral response to his mother's decision to have an open-casket funeral mobilized the black community throughout the U.S.[1] "Young black people such as Julian Bond, Joyce Ladner and others who were born around the same time as Till were galvanized into action by the murder and trial."[41] They often see themselves as the "Emmett Till Generation." One hundred days after Emmett Till's murder, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on the bus in Alabama—indeed, Parks told Mamie Till that "the photograph of Emmett's disfigured face in the casket was set in her mind when she refused to give up her seat on the Montgomery bus."[42] Decades later, Bryant disclosed that she had fabricated her story in 1955.[43][44]
Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955–1956[edit]
Main articles: Rosa Parks and Montgomery Bus Boycott
Rosa Parks being fingerprinted by Deputy Sheriff D.H. Lackey after being arrested for not giving up her seat on a bus to a white person
On December 1, 1955, nine months after a 15-year-old high school student, Claudette Colvin, refused to give up her seat to a white passenger on a public bus in Montgomery, Alabama, and was arrested, Rosa Parks did the same thing. Parks soon became the symbol of the resulting Montgomery Bus Boycott and received national publicity. She was later hailed as the "mother of the civil rights movement".
Parks was secretary of the Montgomery NAACP chapter and had recently returned from a meeting at the Highlander Folk School in Tennessee where nonviolence as a strategy was taught by Myles Horton and others. After Parks' arrest, African Americans gathered and organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott to demand a bus system in which passengers would be treated equally.[45] The organization was led by Jo Ann Robinson, a member of the Women's Political Council who had been waiting for the opportunity to boycott the bus system. Following Rosa Park's arrest, Jo Ann Robinson mimeographed 52,500 leaflets calling for a boycott. They were distributed around the city and helped gather the attention of civil rights leaders. After the city rejected many of their suggested reforms, the NAACP, led by E. D. Nixon, pushed for full desegregation of public buses. With the support of most of Montgomery's 50,000 African Americans, the boycott lasted for 381 days, until the local ordinance segregating African Americans and whites on public buses was repealed. Ninety percent of African Americans in Montgomery partook in the boycotts, which reduced bus revenue significantly, as they comprised the majority of the riders. In November 1956, the United State Supreme Court upheld a district court ruling in the case of Browder v. Gayle and ordered Montgomery's buses desegregated, ending the boycott.[45]
Local leaders established the Montgomery Improvement Association to focus their efforts. Martin Luther King Jr. was elected President of this organization. The lengthy protest attracted national attention for him and the city. His eloquent appeals to Christian brotherhood and American idealism created a positive impression on people both inside and outside the South.[28]
Desegregating Little Rock Central High School, 1957[edit]
Main article: Little Rock Nine
Troops from the 327th Regiment, 101st Airborne escorting the Little Rock Nine African-American students up the steps of Central High
A crisis erupted in Little Rock, Arkansas, when Governor of Arkansas Orval Faubus called out the National Guard on September 4 to prevent entry to the nine African-American students who had sued for the right to attend an integrated school, Little Rock Central High School.[46] Under the guidance of Daisy Bates, the nine students had been chosen to attend Central High because of their excellent grades.
On the first day of school, 15 year old Elizabeth Eckford was the only one of the nine students who showed up because she did not receive the phone call about the danger of going to school. A photo was taken of Eckford being harassed by white protesters outside the school, and the police had to take her away in a patrol car for her protection. Afterward, the nine students had to carpool to school and be escorted by military personnel in jeeps.
White parents rally against integrating Little Rock's schools
Faubus was not a proclaimed segregationist. The Arkansas Democratic Party, which then controlled politics in the state, put significant pressure on Faubus after he had indicated he would investigate bringing Arkansas into compliance with the Brown decision. Faubus then took his stand against integration and against the Federal court ruling. Faubus' resistance received the attention of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was determined to enforce the orders of the Federal courts. Critics had charged he was lukewarm, at best, on the goal of desegregation of public schools. But, Eisenhower federalized the National Guard in Arkansas and ordered them to return to their barracks. Eisenhower deployed elements of the 101st Airborne Division to Little Rock to protect the students.
The students attended high school under harsh conditions. They had to pass through a gauntlet of spitting, jeering whites to arrive at school on their first day, and to put up with harassment from other students for the rest of the year. Although federal troops escorted the students between classes, the students were teased and even attacked by white students when the soldiers were not around. One of the Little Rock Nine, Minnijean Brown, was suspended for spilling a bowl of chili on the head of a white student who was harassing her in the school lunch line. Later, she was expelled for verbally abusing a white female student.[47]
Only Ernest Green of the Little Rock Nine graduated from Central High School. After the 1957–58 school year was over, Little Rock closed its public school system completely rather than continue to integrate. Other school systems across the South followed suit.
The method of Nonviolence and Nonviolence Training[edit]
During the time period considered to be the "African-American civil rights" era, the predominant use of protest was nonviolent, or peaceful.[48] Often referred to as pacifism, the method of nonviolence is considered to be an attempt to impact society positively. Although acts of racial discrimination have occurred historically throughout the United States, perhaps the most violent regions have been in the former Confederate states. During the 1950s and 1960s, the nonviolent protesting of the civil rights movement caused definite tension, which gained national attention.
In order to prepare for protests physically and psychologically, demonstrators received training in nonviolence. According to former civil rights activist Bruce Hartford, there are two main branches of nonviolence training. There is the philosophical method, which involves understanding the method of nonviolence and why it is considered useful, and there is the tactical method, which ultimately teaches demonstrators "how to be a protestor—how to sit-in, how to picket, how to defend yourself against attack, giving training on how to remain cool when people are screaming racist insults into your face and pouring stuff on you and hitting you" (Civil Rights Movement Veterans). The philosophical method of nonviolence, in the American civil rights movement, was largely inspired by Mahatma Gandhi's "non-cooperation" with the British colonists in India, which was intended to gain attention so that the public would either "intervene in advance," or "provide public pressure in support of the action to be taken" (Erikson, 415). As Hartford explains it, philosophical nonviolence training aims to "shape the individual person's attitude and mental response to crises and violence" (Civil Rights Movement Veterans). Hartford and activists like him, who trained in tactical nonviolence, considered it necessary in order to ensure physical safety, instill discipline, teach demonstrators how to demonstrate, and form mutual confidence among demonstrators (Civil Rights Movement Veterans).[48][49]
For many, the concept of nonviolent protest was a way of life, a culture. However, not everyone agreed with this notion. James Forman, former SNCC (and later Black Panther) member and nonviolence trainer, was among those who did not. In his autobiography, The Making of Black Revolutionaries, Forman revealed his perspective on the method of nonviolence as "strictly a tactic, not a way of life without limitations." Similarly, Robert Moses, who was also an active member of SNCC, felt that the method of nonviolence was practical. When interviewed by author Robert Penn Warren, Moses said "There's no question that he [Martin Luther King Jr.] had a great deal of influence with the masses. But I don't think it's in the direction of love. It's in a practical direction . . ." (Who Speaks for the Negro? Warren).[50][51]
Robert F. Williams and the debate on nonviolence, 1959–1964[edit]
The Jim Crow system employed "terror as a means of social control,"[52] with the most organized manifestations being the Ku Klux Klan and their collaborators in local police departments. This violence played a key role in blocking the progress of the civil rights movement in the late 1950s. Some black organizations in the South began practicing armed self-defense. The first to do so openly was the Monroe, North Carolina, chapter of the NAACP led by Robert F. Williams. Williams had rebuilt the chapter after its membership was terrorized out of public life by the Klan. He did so by encouraging a new, more working-class membership to arm itself thoroughly and defend against attack.[53] When Klan nightriders attacked the home of NAACP member Dr. Albert Perry in October 1957, Williams' militia exchanged gunfire with the stunned Klansmen, who quickly retreated. The following day, the city council held an emergency session and passed an ordinance banning KKK motorcades.[54] One year later, Lumbee Indians in North Carolina would have a similarly successful armed stand-off with the Klan (known as the Battle of Hayes Pond) which resulted in KKK leader James W. "Catfish" Cole being convicted of incitement to riot.[55]
After the acquittal of several white men charged with sexually assaulting black women in Monroe, Williams announced to United Press International reporters that he would "meet violence with violence" as a policy. Williams' declaration was quoted on the front page of The New York Times, and The Carolina Times considered it "the biggest civil rights story of 1959."[56] NAACP National chairman Roy Wilkins immediately suspended Williams from his position, but the Monroe organizer won support from numerous NAACP chapters across the country. Ultimately, Wilkins resorted to bribing influential organizer Daisy Bates to campaign against Williams at the NAACP national convention and the suspension was upheld. The convention nonetheless passed a resolution which stated: "We do not deny, but reaffirm the right of individual and collective self-defense against unlawful assaults."[57] Martin Luther King Jr. argued for Williams' removal,[58] but Ella Baker[59] and WEB Dubois[4] both publicly praised the Monroe leader's position.
Williams—along with his wife, Mabel Williams—continued to play a leadership role in the Monroe movement, and to some degree, in the national movement. The Williamses published The Crusader, a nationally circulated newsletter, beginning in 1960, and the influential book Negroes With Guns in 1962. Williams did not call for full militarization in this period, but "flexibility in the freedom struggle."[60] Williams was well-versed in legal tactics and publicity, which he had used successfully in the internationally known "Kissing Case" of 1958, as well as nonviolent methods, which he used at lunch counter sit-ins in Monroe—all with armed self-defense as a complementary tactic.
Williams led the Monroe movement in another armed stand-off with white supremacists during an August 1961 Freedom Ride; he had been invited to participate in the campaign by Ella Baker and James Forman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). The incident (along with his campaigns for peace with Cuba) resulted in him being targeted by the FBI and prosecuted for kidnapping; he was cleared of all charges in 1976.[61] Meanwhile, armed self-defense continued discreetly in the Southern movement with such figures as SNCC's Amzie Moore,[61] Hartman Turnbow,[62] and Fannie Lou Hamer[63] all willing to use arms to defend their lives from nightrides. Taking refuge from the FBI in Cuba, the Willamses broadcast the radio show "Radio Free Dixie" throughout the eastern United States via Radio Progresso beginning in 1962. In this period, Williams advocated guerilla warfare against racist institutions, and saw the large ghetto riots of the era as a manifestation of his strategy.
University of North Carolina historian Walter Rucker has written that "the emergence of Robert F Williams contributed to the marked decline in anti-black racial violence in the U.S....After centuries of anti-black violence, African Americans across the country began to defend their communities aggressively—employing overt force when necessary. This in turn evoked in whites real fear of black vengeance..." This opened up space for African Americans to use nonviolent demonstration with less fear of deadly reprisal.[64] Of the many civil rights activists who share this view, the most prominent was Rosa Parks. Parks gave the eulogy at Williams' funeral in 1996, praising him for "his courage and for his commitment to freedom," and concluding that "The sacrifices he made, and what he did, should go down in history and never be forgotten."[65]
Sit-ins, 1958–1960[edit]
See also: Greensboro sit-ins, Nashville sit-ins, and Sit-in movement
In July 1958, the NAACP Youth Council sponsored sit-ins at the lunch counter of a Dockum Drug Store in downtown Wichita, Kansas. After three weeks, the movement successfully got the store to change its policy of segregated seating, and soon afterward all Dockum stores in Kansas were desegregated. This movement was quickly followed in the same year by a student sit-in at a Katz Drug Store in Oklahoma City led by Clara Luper, which also was successful.[66]
Mostly black students from area colleges led a sit-in at a Woolworth's store in Greensboro, North Carolina.[67] On February 1, 1960, four students, Ezell A. Blair Jr., David Richmond, Joseph McNeil, and Franklin McCain from North Carolina Agricultural & Technical College, an all-black college, sat down at the segregated lunch counter to protest Woolworth's policy of excluding African Americans from being served food there.[68] The four students purchased small items in other parts of the store and kept their receipts, then sat down at the lunch counter and asked to be served. After being denied service, they produced their receipts and asked why their money was good everywhere else at the store, but not at the lunch counter.[69]
The protesters had been encouraged to dress professionally, to sit quietly, and to occupy every other stool so that potential white sympathizers could join in. The Greensboro sit-in was quickly followed by other sit-ins in Richmond, Virginia;[70] Nashville, Tennessee; and Atlanta, Georgia.[71][72] The most immediately effective of these was in Nashville, where hundreds of well organized and highly disciplined college students conducted sit-ins in coordination with a boycott campaign.[73][74] As students across the south began to "sit-in" at the lunch counters of local stores, police and other officials sometimes used brutal force to physically escort the demonstrators from the lunch facilities.
The "sit-in" technique was not new—as far back as 1939, African-American attorney Samuel Wilbert Tucker organized a sit-in at the then-segregated Alexandria, Virginia, library.[75] In 1960 the technique succeeded in bringing national attention to the movement.[76] On March 9, 1960, an Atlanta University Center group of students released An Appeal for Human Rights as a full page advertisement in newspapers, including the Atlanta Constitution, Atlanta Journal, and Atlanta Daily World.[77] Known as the Committee on Appeal for Human Rights (COAHR), the group initiated the Atlanta Student Movement and began to lead sit-ins starting on March 15, 1960.[72][78] By the end of 1960, the process of sit-ins had spread to every southern and border state, and even to facilities in Nevada, Illinois, and Ohio that discriminated against blacks.
Demonstrators focused not only on lunch counters but also on parks, beaches, libraries, theaters, museums, and other public facilities. In April 1960 activists who had led these sit-ins were invited by SCLC activist Ella Baker to hold a conference at Shaw University, a historically black university in Raleigh, North Carolina. This conference led to the formation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).[79] SNCC took these tactics of nonviolent confrontation further, and organized the freedom rides. As the constitution protected interstate commerce, they decided to challenge segregation on interstate buses and in public bus facilities by putting interracial teams on them, to travel from the North through the segregated South.[80]
Freedom Rides, 1961[edit]
Main article: Freedom Rider
Freedom Rides were journeys by civil rights activists on interstate buses into the segregated southern United States to test the United States Supreme Court decision Boynton v. Virginia, (1960) 364 U.S., which ruled that segregation was unconstitutional for passengers engaged in interstate travel. Organized by CORE, the first Freedom Ride of the 1960s left Washington D.C. on May 4, 1961, and was scheduled to arrive in New Orleans on May 17.[81]
During the first and subsequent Freedom Rides, activists traveled through the Deep South to integrate seating patterns on buses and desegregate bus terminals, including restrooms and water fountains. That proved to be a dangerous mission. In Anniston, Alabama, one bus was firebombed, forcing its passengers to flee for their lives.[82]
A mob beats Freedom Riders in Birmingham. This picture was reclaimed by the FBI from a local journalist who also was beaten and whose camera was smashed.
In Birmingham, Alabama, an FBI informant reported that Public Safety Commissioner Eugene "Bull" Connor gave Ku Klux Klan members fifteen minutes to attack an incoming group of freedom riders before having police "protect" them. The riders were severely beaten "until it looked like a bulldog had got a hold of them." James Peck, a white activist, was beaten so badly that he required fifty stitches to his head.[82]
In a similar occurrence in Montgomery, Alabama, the Freedom Riders followed in the footsteps of Rosa Parks and rode an integrated Greyhound bus from Birmingham. Although they were protesting interstate bus segregation in peace, they were met with violence in Montgomery as a large, white mob attacked them for their activism. They caused an enormous, 2-hour long riot which resulted in 22 injuries, five of whom were hospitalized.[83]
Mob violence in Anniston and Birmingham temporarily halted the rides. SNCC activists from Nashville brought in new riders to continue the journey from Birmingham to New Orleans. In Montgomery, Alabama, at the Greyhound Bus Station, a mob charged another bus load of riders, knocking John Lewis unconscious with a crate and smashing Life photographer Don Urbrock in the face with his own camera. A dozen men surrounded James Zwerg, a white student from Fisk University, and beat him in the face with a suitcase, knocking out his teeth.[82]
On May 24, 1961, the freedom riders continued their rides into Jackson, Mississippi, where they were arrested for "breaching the peace" by using "white only" facilities. New Freedom Rides were organized by many different organizations and continued to flow into the South. As riders arrived in Jackson, they were arrested. By the end of summer, more than 300 had been jailed in Mississippi.[81]
.. When the weary Riders arrive in Jackson and attempt to use "white only" restrooms and lunch counters they are immediately arrested for Breach of Peace and Refusal to Obey an Officer. Says Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett in defense of segregation: "The Negro is different because God made him different to punish him." From lockup, the Riders announce "Jail No Bail"—they will not pay fines for unconstitutional arrests and illegal convictions—and by staying in jail they keep the issue alive. Each prisoner will remain in jail for 39 days, the maximum time they can serve without loosing [sic] their right to appeal the unconstitutionality of their arrests, trials, and convictions. After 39 days, they file an appeal and post bond...[84]
The jailed freedom riders were treated harshly, crammed into tiny, filthy cells and sporadically beaten. In Jackson, some male prisoners were forced to do hard labor in 100 °F heat. Others were transferred to the Mississippi State Penitentiary at Parchman, where they were treated to harsh conditions. Sometimes the men were suspended by "wrist breakers" from the walls. Typically, the windows of their cells were shut tight on hot days, making it hard for them to breathe.
Public sympathy and support for the freedom riders led John F. Kennedy's administration to order the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to issue a new desegregation order. When the new ICC rule took effect on November 1, 1961, passengers were permitted to sit wherever they chose on the bus; "white" and "colored" signs came down in the terminals; separate drinking fountains, toilets, and waiting rooms were consolidated; and lunch counters began serving people regardless of skin color.
The student movement involved such celebrated figures as John Lewis, a single-minded activist; James Lawson, the revered "guru" of nonviolent theory and tactics; Diane Nash, an articulate and intrepid public champion of justice; Bob Moses, pioneer of voting registration in Mississippi; and James Bevel, a fiery preacher and charismatic organizer, strategist, and facilitator. Other prominent student activists included Charles McDew, Bernard Lafayette, Charles Jones, Lonnie King, Julian Bond, Hosea Williams, and Stokely Carmichael.
Voter registration organizing[edit]
After the Freedom Rides, local black leaders in Mississippi such as Amzie Moore, Aaron Henry, Medgar Evers, and others asked SNCC to help register black voters and to build community organizations that could win a share of political power in the state. Since Mississippi ratified its new constitution in 1890 with provisions such as poll taxes, residency requirements, and literacy tests, it made registration more complicated and stripped blacks from voter rolls and voting. In addition, violence at the time of elections had earlier suppressed black voting.
By the mid-20th century, preventing blacks from voting had become an essential part of the culture of white supremacy. In the fall of 1961, SNCC organizer Robert Moses began the first voter registration project in McComb and the surrounding counties in the Southwest corner of the state. Their efforts were met with violent repression from state and local lawmen, the White Citizens' Council, and the Ku Klux Klan. Activists were beaten, there were hundreds of arrests of local citizens, and the voting activist Herbert Lee was murdered.[85]
White opposition to black voter registration was so intense in Mississippi that Freedom Movement activists concluded that all of the state's civil rights organizations had to unite in a coordinated effort to have any chance of success. In February 1962, representatives of SNCC, CORE, and the NAACP formed the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO). At a subsequent meeting in August, SCLC became part of COFO.[86]
In the Spring of 1962, with funds from the Voter Education Project, SNCC/COFO began voter registration organizing in the Mississippi Delta area around Greenwood, and the areas surrounding Hattiesburg, Laurel, and Holly Springs. As in McComb, their efforts were met with fierce opposition—arrests, beatings, shootings, arson, and murder. Registrars used the literacy test to keep blacks off the voting roles by creating standards that even highly educated people could not meet. In addition, employers fired blacks who tried to register, and landlords evicted them from their rental homes.[87] Despite these actions, over the following years, the black voter registration campaign spread across the state.
Similar voter registration campaigns—with similar responses—were begun by SNCC, CORE, and SCLC in Louisiana, Alabama, southwest Georgia, and South Carolina. By 1963, voter registration campaigns in the South were as integral to the Freedom Movement as desegregation efforts. After passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964,[2] protecting and facilitating voter registration despite state barriers became the main effort of the movement. It resulted in passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which had provisions to enforce the constitutional right to vote for all citizens.
Integration of Mississippi universities, 1956–1965[edit]
This section contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. (May 2010)
Beginning in 1956, Clyde Kennard, a black Korean War-veteran, wanted to enroll at Mississippi Southern College (now the University of Southern Mississippi) under the G.I. Bill at Hattiesburg. Dr. William David McCain, the college president, used the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission, in order to prevent his enrollment by appealing to local black leaders and the segregationist state political establishment.[88]
The state-funded organization tried to counter the civil rights movement by positively portraying segregationist policies. More significantly, it collected data on activists, harassed them legally, and used economic boycotts against them by threatening their jobs (or causing them to lose their jobs) to try to suppress their work.
Kennard was twice arrested on trumped-up charges, and eventually convicted and sentenced to seven years in the state prison.[89] After three years at hard labor, Kennard was paroled by Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett. Journalists had investigated his case and publicized the state's mistreatment of his colon cancer.[89]
McCain's role in Kennard's arrests and convictions is unknown.[90][91][92][93] While trying to prevent Kennard's enrollment, McCain made a speech in Chicago, with his travel sponsored by the Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission. He described the blacks' seeking to desegregate Southern schools as "imports" from the North. (Kennard was a native and resident of Hattiesburg.) McCain said:
We insist that educationally and socially, we maintain a segregated society...In all fairness, I admit that we are not encouraging Negro voting...The Negroes prefer that control of the government remain in the white man's hands.[90][92][93]
Note: Mississippi had passed a new constitution in 1890 that effectively disfranchised most blacks by changing electoral and voter registration requirements; although it deprived them of constitutional rights authorized under post-Civil War amendments, it survived U.S. Supreme Court challenges at the time. It was not until after passage of the 1965 Voting Rights Act that most blacks in Mississippi and other southern states gained federal protection to enforce the constitutional right of citizens to vote.
James Meredith walking to class accompanied by U.S. marshals
In September 1962, James Meredith won a lawsuit to secure admission to the previously segregated University of Mississippi. He attempted to enter campus on September 20, on September 25, and again on September 26. He was blocked by Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett, who said, "[N]o school will be integrated in Mississippi while I am your Governor." The Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals held Barnett and Lieutenant Governor Paul B. Johnson Jr. in contempt, ordering them arrested and fined more than $10,000 for each day they refused to allow Meredith to enroll.[94]
U.S. Army trucks loaded with U.S. Marshals on the University of Mississippi campus
Attorney General Robert Kennedy sent in a force of U.S. Marshals. On September 30, 1962, Meredith entered the campus under their escort. Students and other whites began rioting that evening, throwing rocks and firing on the U.S. Marshals guarding Meredith at Lyceum Hall. Two people, including a French journalist, were killed; 28 marshals suffered gunshot wounds; and 160 others were injured. President John F. Kennedy sent regular U.S. Army forces to the campus to quell the riot. Meredith began classes the day after the troops arrived.[95]
Kennard and other activists continued to work on public university desegregation. In 1965 Raylawni Branch and Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong became the first African-American students to attend the University of Southern Mississippi. By that time, McCain helped ensure they had a peaceful entry.[96] In 2006, Judge Robert Helfrich ruled that Kennard was factually innocent of all charges for which he had been convicted in the 1950s.[89]
Albany Movement, 1961–62[edit]
Main article: Albany Movement
The SCLC, which had been criticized by some student activists for its failure to participate more fully in the freedom rides, committed much of its prestige and resources to a desegregation campaign in Albany, Georgia, in November 1961. King, who had been criticized personally by some SNCC activists for his distance from the dangers that local organizers faced—and given the derisive nickname "De Lawd" as a result—intervened personally to assist the campaign led by both SNCC organizers and local leaders.
The campaign was a failure because of the canny tactics of Laurie Pritchett, the local police chief, and divisions within the black community. The goals may not have been specific enough. Pritchett contained the marchers without violent attacks on demonstrators that inflamed national opinion. He also arranged for arrested demonstrators to be taken to jails in surrounding communities, allowing plenty of room to remain in his jail. Prichett also foresaw King's presence as a danger and forced his release to avoid King's rallying the black community. King left in 1962 without having achieved any dramatic victories. The local movement, however, continued the struggle, and it obtained significant gains in the next few years.[97]
Birmingham campaign, 1963[edit]
Main article: Birmingham campaign
The Albany movement was shown to be an important education for the SCLC, however, when it undertook the Birmingham campaign in 1963. Executive Director Wyatt Tee Walker carefully planned the early strategy and tactics for the campaign. It focused on one goal—the desegregation of Birmingham's downtown merchants, rather than total desegregation, as in Albany.
The movement's efforts were helped by the brutal response of local authorities, in particular Eugene "Bull" Connor, the Commissioner of Public Safety. He had long held much political power, but had lost a recent election for mayor to a less rabidly segregationist candidate. Refusing to accept the new mayor's authority, Connor intended to stay in office.
The campaign used a variety of nonviolent methods of confrontation, including sit-ins, kneel-ins at local churches, and a march to the county building to mark the beginning of a drive to register voters. The city, however, obtained an injunction barring all such protests. Convinced that the order was unconstitutional, the campaign defied it and prepared for mass arrests of its supporters. King elected to be among those arrested on April 12, 1963.[98]
While in jail, King wrote his famous "Letter from Birmingham Jail"[99] on the margins of a newspaper, since he had not been allowed any writing paper while held in solitary confinement.[100] Supporters appealed to the Kennedy administration, which intervened to obtain King's release. King was allowed to call his wife, who was recuperating at home after the birth of their fourth child, and was released early on April 19.
The campaign, however, faltered as it ran out of demonstrators willing to risk arrest. James Bevel, SCLC's Director of Direct Action and Director of Nonviolent Education, then came up with a bold and controversial alternative: to train high school students to take part in the demonstrations. As a result, in what would be called the Children's Crusade, more than one thousand students skipped school on May 2 to meet at the 16th Street Baptist Church to join the demonstrations. More than six hundred marched out of the church fifty at a time in an attempt to walk to City Hall to speak to Birmingham's mayor about segregation. They were arrested and put into jail.[citation needed]
In this first encounter the police acted with restraint. On the next day, however, another one thousand students gathered at the church. When Bevel started them marching fifty at a time, Bull Connor finally unleashed police dogs on them and then turned the city's fire hoses water streams on the children. National television networks broadcast the scenes of the dogs attacking demonstrators and the water from the fire hoses knocking down the schoolchildren.
Widespread public outrage led the Kennedy administration to intervene more forcefully in negotiations between the white business community and the SCLC. On May 10, the parties announced an agreement to desegregate the lunch counters and other public accommodations downtown, to create a committee to eliminate discriminatory hiring practices, to arrange for the release of jailed protesters, and to establish regular means of communication between black and white leaders.
Not everyone in the black community approved of the agreement—the Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth was particularly critical, since he was skeptical about the good faith of Birmingham's power structure from his experience in dealing with them. Parts of the white community reacted violently. They bombed the Gaston Motel, which housed the SCLC's unofficial headquarters, and the home of King's brother, the Reverend A. D. King. In response, thousands of blacks rioted, burning numerous buildings and one of them stabbed and wounded a police officer.[101]
Congress of Racial Equality march in Washington D.C. on September 22, 1963, in memory of the children killed in the Birmingham bombings
Kennedy prepared to federalize the Alabama National Guard if the need arose. Four months later, on September 15, a conspiracy of Ku Klux Klan members bombed the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, killing four young girls.
"Rising tide of discontent" and Kennedy's response, 1963[edit]
Main articles: Gloria Richardson, Stand in the Schoolhouse Door, and Civil Rights Address
Birmingham was only one of over a hundred cities rocked by chaotic protest that spring and summer, some of them in the North. During the March on Washington, Martin Luther King would refer to such protests as "the whirlwinds of revolt." In Chicago, blacks rioted through the South Side in late May after a white police officer shot a fourteen-year-old black boy who was fleeing the scene of a robbery.[102] Violent clashes between black activists and white workers took place in both Philadelphia and Harlem in successful efforts to integrate state construction projects.[103][104] On June 6, over a thousand whites attacked a sit-in in Lexington, North Carolina; blacks fought back and one white man was killed.[105][106] Edwin C. Berry of the National Urban League warned of a complete breakdown in race relations: "My message from the beer gardens and the barbershops all indicate the fact that the Negro is ready for war."[102]
In Cambridge, Maryland, a working‐class city on the Eastern Shore, Gloria Richardson of SNCC led a movement that pressed for desegregation but also demanded low‐rent public housing, job‐training, public and private jobs, and an end to police brutality.[107] On June 11, struggles between blacks and whites escalated into violent rioting, leading Maryland Governor J. Millard Tawes to declare martial law. When negotiations between Richardson and Maryland officials faltered, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy directly intervened to negotiate a desegregation agreement.[108] Richardson felt that the increasing participation of poor and working-class blacks was expanding both the power and parameters of the movement, asserting that "the people as a whole really do have more intelligence than a few of their leaders.ʺ[107]
In their deliberations during this wave of protests, the Kennedy administration privately felt that militant demonstrations were ʺbad for the countryʺ and that "Negroes are going to push this thing too far."[109] On May 24, Robert Kennedy had a meeting with prominent black intellectuals to discuss the racial situation. The blacks criticized Kennedy harshly for vacillating on civil rights, and said that the African-American community's thoughts were increasingly turning to violence. The meeting ended with ill will on all sides.[110][111][112] Nonetheless, the Kennedys ultimately decided that new legislation for equal public accommodations was essential to drive activists "into the courts and out of the streets."[109][113]
Alabama governor George Wallace stands against desegregation at the University of Alabama and is confronted by U.S. Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach in 1963
On June 11, 1963, George Wallace, Governor of Alabama, tried to block[114] the integration of the University of Alabama. President John F. Kennedy sent a military force to make Governor Wallace step aside, allowing the enrollment of Vivian Malone Jones and James Hood. That evening, President Kennedy addressed the nation on TV and radio with his historic civil rights speech, where he lamented "a rising tide of discontent that threatens the public safety." He called on Congress to pass new civil rights legislation, and urged the country to embrace civil rights as "a moral issue...in our daily lives."[115] In the early hours of June 12, Medgar Evers, field secretary of the Mississippi NAACP, was assassinated by a member of the Klan.[116][117] The next week, as promised, on June 19, 1963, President Kennedy submitted his Civil Rights bill to Congress.[118]
March on Washington, 1963[edit]
Main article: March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
Bayard Rustin (left) and Cleveland Robinson (right), organizers of the March, on August 7, 1963
The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom at the National Mall
A. Philip Randolph had planned a march on Washington, D.C., in 1941 to support demands for elimination of employment discrimination in defense industries; he called off the march when the Roosevelt administration met the demand by issuing Executive Order 8802 barring racial discrimination and creating an agency to oversee compliance with the order.[119]
Randolph and Bayard Rustin were the chief planners of the second march, which they proposed in 1962. In 1963, the Kennedy administration initially opposed the march out of concern it would negatively impact the drive for passage of civil rights legislation. However, Randolph and King were firm that the march would proceed.[120] With the march going forward, the Kennedys decided it was important to work to ensure its success. Concerned about the turnout, President Kennedy enlisted the aid of white church leaders and Walter Reuther, president of the UAW, to help mobilize white supporters for the march.[121][122]
The march was held on August 28, 1963. Unlike the planned 1941 march, for which Randolph included only black-led organizations in the planning, the 1963 march was a collaborative effort of all of the major civil rights organizations, the more progressive wing of the labor movement, and other liberal organizations. The march had six official goals:
meaningful civil rights laws
a massive federal works program
full and fair employment
decent housing
the right to vote
adequate integrated education.
Of these, the march's major focus was on passage of the civil rights law that the Kennedy administration had proposed after the upheavals in Birmingham.
Martin Luther King Jr. at a Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C.
National media attention also greatly contributed to the march's national exposure and probable impact. In his section "The March on Washington and Television News,"[123] William Thomas notes: "Over five hundred cameramen, technicians, and correspondents from the major networks were set to cover the event. More cameras would be set up than had filmed the last presidential inauguration. One camera was positioned high in the Washington Monument, to give dramatic vistas of the marchers". By carrying the organizers' speeches and offering their own commentary, television stations framed the way their local audiences saw and understood the event.[123]
"I Have a Dream"
30-second sample from "I Have a Dream" speech by Martin Luther King Jr. at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963
Problems playing this file? See media help.
The march was a success, although not without controversy. An estimated 200,000 to 300,000 demonstrators gathered in front of the Lincoln Memorial, where King delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. While many speakers applauded the Kennedy administration for the efforts it had made toward obtaining new, more effective civil rights legislation protecting the right to vote and outlawing segregation, John Lewis of SNCC took the administration to task for not doing more to protect southern blacks and civil rights workers under attack in the Deep South.
After the march, King and other civil rights leaders met with President Kennedy at the White House. While the Kennedy administration appeared sincerely committed to passing the bill, it was not clear that it had the votes in Congress to do it. However when President Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963,[118] the new President Lyndon Johnson decided to use his influence in Congress to bring about much of Kennedy's legislative agenda.
Malcolm X joins the movement, 1964–1965[edit]
Main articles: Malcolm X, Black Nationalism, and The Ballot or the Bullet
In March 1964, Malcolm X (el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz), national representative of the Nation of Islam, formally broke with that organization, and made a public offer to collaborate with any civil rights organization that accepted the right to self-defense and the philosophy of Black nationalism (which Malcolm said no longer required Black separatism). Gloria Richardson–head of the Cambridge, Maryland, chapter of SNCC, leader of the Cambridge rebellion[124] and an honored guest at The March on Washington – immediately embraced Malcolm's offer. Mrs. Richardson, "the nation's most prominent woman [civil rights] leader," told The Baltimore Afro-American that "Malcolm is being very practical...The federal government has moved into conflict situations only when matters approach the level of insurrection. Self-defense may force Washington to intervene sooner."[125] Earlier, in May 1963, James Baldwin had stated publicly that "the Black Muslim movement is the only one in the country we can call grassroots, I hate to say it...Malcolm articulates for Negroes, their suffering...he corroborates their reality..."[126] On the local level, Malcolm and the NOI had been allied with the Harlem chapter of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) since at least 1962.[127]
Malcolm X meets with Martin Luther King Jr., March 26, 1964
On March 26, 1964, as the Civil Rights Act was facing stiff opposition in Congress, Malcolm had a public meeting with Martin Luther King Jr. at the Capitol building. Malcolm had attempted to begin a dialog with Dr. King as early as 1957, but King had rebuffed him. Malcolm had responded by calling King an "Uncle Tom" who turned his back on black militancy in order to appease the white power structure. However, the two men were on good terms at their face-to-face meeting.[128] There is evidence that King was preparing to support Malcolm's plan to formally bring the U.S. government before the United Nations on charges of human rights violations against African Americans.[129] Malcolm now encouraged Black nationalists to get involved in voter registration drives and other forms of community organizing to redefine and expand the movement.[130]
Civil rights activists became increasingly combative in the 1963 to 1964 period, owing to events such as the thwarting of the Albany campaign, police repression and Ku Klux Klan terrorism in Birmingham, and the assassination of Medgar Evers. Mississippi NAACP Field Director Charles Evers–Medgar Evers' brother–told a public NAACP conference on February 15, 1964, that "non-violence won't work in Mississippi...we made up our minds...that if a white man shoots at a Negro in Mississippi, we will shoot back."[131] The repression of sit-ins in Jacksonville, Florida, provoked a riot that saw black youth throwing Molotov cocktails at police on March 24, 1964.[132] Malcolm X gave extensive speeches in this period warning that such militant activity would escalate further if African Americans' rights were not fully recognized. In his landmark April 1964 speech "The Ballot or the Bullet", Malcolm presented an ultimatum to white America: "There's new strategy coming in. It'll be Molotov cocktails this month, hand grenades next month, and something else next month. It'll be ballots, or it'll be bullets."[133]
As noted in Eyes on the Prize, "Malcolm X had a far reaching effect on the civil rights movement. In the South, there had been a long tradition of self reliance. Malcolm X's ideas now touched that tradition".[134] Self-reliance was becoming paramount in light of the 1964 Democratic National Convention's decision to refuse seating to the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) and to seat the state delegation elected in violation of the party's rules through Jim Crow law instead.[135] SNCC moved in an increasingly militant direction and worked with Malcolm X on two Harlem MFDP fundraisers in December 1964. When Fannie Lou Hamer spoke to Harlemites about the Jim Crow violence that she'd suffered in Mississippi, she linked it directly to the Northern police brutality against blacks that Malcolm protested against;[136] When Malcolm asserted that African Americans should emulate the Mau Mau army of Kenya in efforts to gain their independence, many in SNCC applauded.[137] During the Selma campaign for voting rights in 1965, Malcolm made it known that he'd heard reports of increased threats of lynching around Selma, and responded in late January with an open telegram to George Lincoln Rockwell, the head of the American Nazi Party, stating: "if your present racist agitation against our people there in Alabama causes physical harm to Reverend King or any other black Americans...you and your KKK friends will be met with maximum physical retaliation from those of us who are not handcuffed by the disarming philosophy of nonviolence."[138] The following month, the Selma chapter of SNCC invited Malcolm to speak to a mass meeting there. On the day of Malcolm's appearance, President Johnson made his first public statement in support of the Selma campaign.[139] Paul Ryan Haygood, a co-director of the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, credits Malcolm with a role in stimulating the responsiveness of the federal government. Haygood noted that "shortly after Malcolm's visit to Selma, a federal judge, responding to a suit brought by the Department of Justice, required Dallas County, Alabama, registrars to process at least 100 Black applications each day their offices were open."[140]
St. Augustine, Florida, 1963–64[edit]
Main article: St. Augustine movement
"We Cater to White Trade Only" sign on a restaurant window in Lancaster, Ohio, in 1938. In 1964, Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested and spent a night in jail for attempting to eat at a white-only restaurant in St. Augustine, Florida.
St. Augustine was famous as the "Nation's Oldest City", founded by the Spanish in 1565. It became the stage for a great drama leading up to the passage of the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964. A local movement, led by Dr. Robert B. Hayling, a black dentist and Air Force veteran, and affiliated with the NAACP, had been picketing segregated local institutions since 1963, as a result of which Dr. Hayling and three companions were brutally beaten at a Ku Klux Klan rally in the fall of that year.
Nightriders shot into black homes, and teenagers Audrey Nell Edwards, JoeAnn Anderson, Samuel White, and Willie Carl Singleton (who came to be known as "The St. Augustine Four") spent six months in jail and reform school after sitting in at the local Woolworth's lunch counter. It took a special action of the governor and cabinet of Florida to release them after national protests by the Pittsburgh Courier, Jackie Robinson, and others.
In response to the repression, the St. Augustine movement practiced armed self-defense in addition to nonviolent direct action. In June 1963, Dr. Hayling publicly stated that "I and the others have armed. We will shoot first and answer questions later. We are not going to die like Medgar Evers." The comment made national headlines.[141] When Klan nightriders terrorized black neighborhoods in St. Augustine, Hayling's NAACP members often drove them off with gunfire, and in October, a Klansman was killed.[142]
In 1964, Dr. Hayling and other activists urged the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to come to St. Augustine. Four prominent Massachusetts women—Mrs. Mary Parkman Peabody, Mrs. Esther Burgess, Mrs. Hester Campbell (all of whose husbands were Episcopal bishops), and Mrs. Florence Rowe (whose husband was vice president of John Hancock Insurance Company) came to lend their support. The arrest of Mrs. Peabody, the 72-year-old mother of the governor of Massachusetts, for attempting to eat at the segregated Ponce de Leon Motor Lodge in an integrated group, made front page news across the country, and brought the movement in St. Augustine to the attention of the world.
Widely publicized activities continued in the ensuing months. When Dr. King was arrested, he sent a "Letter from the St. Augustine Jail" to a northern supporter, Rabbi Israel Dresner. This resulted, a week later, in the largest mass arrest of rabbis in American history—while conducting a pray-in at the Monson. A well-known photograph taken in St. Augustine shows the manager of the Monson Motel pouring muriatic acid in the swimming pool while blacks and whites are swimming in it. The horrifying photograph was run on the front page of the Washington newspaper the day the Senate went to vote on passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Freedom Summer, 1964[edit]
Main article: Freedom Summer
In the summer of 1964, COFO brought nearly 1,000 activists to Mississippi—most of them white college students—to join with local black activists to register voters, teach in "Freedom Schools," and organize the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP).[143]
Many of Mississippi's white residents deeply resented the outsiders and attempts to change their society. State and local governments, police, the White Citizens' Council and the Ku Klux Klan used arrests, beatings, arson, murder, spying, firing, evictions, and other forms of intimidation and harassment to oppose the project and prevent blacks from registering to vote or achieving social equality.[144]
Missing persons poster created by the FBI in 1964, shows the photographs of Andrew Goodman, James Chaney, and Michael Schwerner
On June 21, 1964, three civil rights workers disappeared: James Chaney, a young black Mississippian and plasterer's apprentice; and two Jewish activists, Andrew Goodman, a Queens College anthropology student; and Michael Schwerner, a CORE organizer from Manhattan's Lower East Side, were found weeks later, murdered by conspirators who turned out to be local members of the Klan, some of them members of the Neshoba County sheriff's department. This outraged the public, leading the U.S. Justice Department along with the FBI (the latter which had previously avoided dealing with the issue of segregation and persecution of blacks) to take action. The outrage over these murders helped lead to the passage of the Civil Rights Act.
From June to August, Freedom Summer activists worked in 38 local projects scattered across the state, with the largest number concentrated in the Mississippi Delta region. At least 30 Freedom Schools, with close to 3,500 students were established, and 28 community centers set up.[145]
Over the course of the Summer Project, some 17,000 Mississippi blacks attempted to become registered voters in defiance of the red tape and forces of white supremacy arrayed against them—only 1,600 (less than 10%) succeeded. But more than 80,000 joined the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP), founded as an alternative political organization, showing their desire to vote and participate in politics.[146]
Though Freedom Summer failed to register many voters, it had a significant effect on the course of the civil rights movement. It helped break down the decades of people's isolation and repression that were the foundation of the Jim Crow system. Before Freedom Summer, the national news media had paid little attention to the persecution of black voters in the Deep South and the dangers endured by black civil rights workers. The progression of events throughout the South increased media attention to Mississippi.[147]
The deaths of affluent northern white students and threats to other northerners attracted the full attention of the media spotlight to the state. Many black activists became embittered, believing the media valued lives of whites and blacks differently. Perhaps the most significant effect of Freedom Summer was on the volunteers, almost all of whom—black and white—still consider it to have been one of the defining periods of their lives.[147]
Civil Rights Act of 1964[edit]
Main article: Civil Rights Act of 1964
Although President Kennedy had proposed civil rights legislation and it had support from Northern Congressmen and Senators of both parties, Southern Senators blocked the bill by threatening filibusters. After considerable parliamentary maneuvering and 54 days of filibuster on the floor of the United States Senate, President Johnson got a bill through the Congress.[148]
Lyndon B. Johnson signs the historic Civil Rights Act of 1964
On July 2, 1964, Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964,[2] that banned discrimination based on "race, color, religion, sex or national origin" in employment practices and public accommodations. The bill authorized the Attorney General to file lawsuits to enforce the new law. The law also nullified state and local laws that required such discrimination.
Harlem riot of 1964[edit]
Main article: Harlem riot of 1964
When police shot an unarmed black teenager in Harlem in July 1964, tensions escalated out of control. Residents were frustrated with racial inequalities. Rioting broke out, and Bedford-Stuyvesant, a major black neighborhood in Brooklyn erupted next. That summer, rioting also broke out in Philadelphia, for similar reasons. The riots were on a much smaller scale than what would occur in 1965 and later.
Washington responded with a pilot program called Project Uplift. Thousands of young people in Harlem were given jobs during the summer of 1965. The project was inspired by a report generated by HARYOU called Youth in the Ghetto.[149] HARYOU was given a major role in organizing the project, together with the National Urban League and nearly 100 smaller community organizations.[150] Permanent jobs at living wages were still out of reach of many young black men.
Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, 1964[edit]
Main article: Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
Blacks in Mississippi had been disfranchised by statutory and constitutional changes since the late 19th century. In 1963 COFO held a Freedom Vote in Mississippi to demonstrate the desire of black Mississippians to vote. More than 80,000 people registered and voted in the mock election, which pitted an integrated slate of candidates from the "Freedom Party" against the official state Democratic Party candidates.[151]
President Lyndon B. Johnson (center) meets with civil rights leaders Martin Luther King Jr., Whitney Young, and James Farmer, January 1964
In 1964, organizers launched the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) to challenge the all-white official party. When Mississippi voting registrars refused to recognize their candidates, they held their own primary. They selected Fannie Lou Hamer, Annie Devine, and Victoria Gray to run for Congress, and a slate of delegates to represent Mississippi at the 1964 Democratic National Convention.[143]
The presence of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party in Atlantic City, New Jersey, was inconvenient, however, for the convention organizers. They had planned a triumphant celebration of the Johnson administration's achievements in civil rights, rather than a fight over racism within the Democratic Party. All-white delegations from other Southern states threatened to walk out if the official slate from Mississippi was not seated. Johnson was worried about the inroads that Republican Barry Goldwater's campaign was making in what previously had been the white Democratic stronghold of the "Solid South", as well as support that George Wallace had received in the North during the Democratic primaries.
Johnson could not, however, prevent the MFDP from taking its case to the Credentials Committee. There Fannie Lou Hamer testified eloquently about the beatings that she and others endured and the threats they faced for trying to register to vote. Turning to the television cameras, Hamer asked, "Is this America?"
Johnson offered the MFDP a "compromise" under which it would receive two non-voting, at-large seats, while the white delegation sent by the official Democratic Party would retain its seats. The MFDP angrily rejected the "compromise."
The MFDP kept up its agitation at the convention, after it was denied official recognition. When all but three of the "regular" Mississippi delegates left because they refused to pledge allegiance to the party, the MFDP delegates borrowed passes from sympathetic delegates and took the seats vacated by the official Mississippi delegates. National party organizers removed them. When they returned the next day, they found convention organizers had removed the empty seats that had been there the day before. They stayed and sang "freedom songs".
The 1964 Democratic Party convention disillusioned many within the MFDP and the civil rights movement, but it did not destroy the MFDP. The MFDP became more radical after Atlantic City. It invited Malcolm X to speak at one of its conventions and opposed the war in Vietnam.
Selma Voting Rights Movement[edit]
Main articles: Selma to Montgomery marches and Voting Rights Act
President Johnson, Martin Luther King Jr. at the signing of the Voting Rights Act on August 6, 1965
"Remarks on the Signing of the Voting Rights Act"
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Statement before the United States Congress by Johnson on August 6, 1965, about the Voting Rights Act
"Remarks on the Signing of the Voting Rights Act"
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SNCC had undertaken an ambitious voter registration program in Selma, Alabama, in 1963, but by 1965 had made little headway in the face of opposition from Selma's sheriff, Jim Clark. After local residents asked the SCLC for assistance, King came to Selma to lead several marches, at which he was arrested along with 250 other demonstrators. The marchers continued to meet violent resistance from police. Jimmie Lee Jackson, a resident of nearby Marion, was killed by police at a later march in February 17, 1965. Jackson's death prompted James Bevel, director of the Selma Movement, to initiate and organize a plan to march from Selma to Montgomery, the state capital.
On March 7, 1965, acting on Bevel's plan, Hosea Williams of the SCLC and John Lewis of SNCC led a march of 600 people to walk the 54 miles (87 km) from Selma to the state capital in Montgomery. Only six blocks into the march, at the Edmund Pettus Bridge, state troopers and local law enforcement, some mounted on horseback, attacked the peaceful demonstrators with billy clubs, tear gas, rubber tubes wrapped in barbed wire, and bull whips. They drove the marchers back into Selma. Lewis was knocked unconscious and dragged to safety. At least 16 other marchers were hospitalized. Among those gassed and beaten was Amelia Boynton Robinson, who was at the center of civil rights activity at the time.
The national broadcast of the news footage of lawmen attacking unresisting marchers' seeking to exercise their constitutional right to vote provoked a national response, and hundreds of people from all over the country came for a second march. These marchers were turned around by Dr. King at the last minute so as not to violate a federal injunction. With the support of James Forman and other SNCC leaders, activists throughout the country committed civil disobedience for Selma, particularly in Montgomery and at the White House. The marchers were able to lift the injunction and obtain protection from federal troops, permitting them to make the march across Alabama without incident two weeks later.
Police attack non-violent marchers on "Bloody Sunday", the first day of the Selma to Montgomery marches
The evening of a second march on March 9 to the site of Bloody Sunday, local whites attacked Rev. James Reeb, a voting rights supporter. He died of his injuries in a Birmingham hospital March 11. On March 25, four Klansmen shot and killed Detroit homemaker Viola Liuzzo as she drove marchers back to Selma at night after the successfully completed march to Montgomery.
Voting Rights Act, 1965[edit]
Eight days after the first march, but before the final march, President Johnson delivered a televised address to support the voting rights bill he had sent to Congress. In it he stated:
Their cause must be our cause too. Because it is not just Negroes, but really it is all of us, who must overcome the crippling legacy of bigotry and injustice. And we shall overcome.
Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965 on August 6. The 1965 act suspended literacy tests and other subjective voter registration tests. It authorized Federal supervision of voter registration in states and individual voting districts where such tests were being used. African Americans who had been barred from registering to vote finally had an alternative to taking suits to local or state courts, which had seldom prosecuted their cases to success. If discrimination in voter registration occurred, the 1965 act authorized the Attorney General of the United States to send Federal examiners to replace local registrars.
Within months of its passage, 250,000 new black voters had been registered, one third of them by federal examiners. Within four years, voter registration in the South had more than doubled. In 1965, Mississippi had the highest black voter turnout at 74% and led the nation in the number of black public officials elected. In 1969, Tennessee had a 92.1% turnout among black voters; Arkansas, 77.9%; and Texas, 73.1%.
Several whites who had opposed the Voting Rights Act paid a quick price. In 1966 Sheriff Jim Clark of Alabama, infamous for using cattle prods against civil rights marchers, was up for reelection. Although he took off the notorious "Never" pin on his uniform, he was defeated. At the election, Clark lost as blacks voted to get him out of office.
Blacks' regaining the power to vote changed the political landscape of the South. When Congress passed the Voting Rights Act, only about 100 African Americans held elective office, all in northern states. By 1989, there were more than 7,200 African Americans in office, including more than 4,800 in the South. Nearly every Black Belt county (where populations were majority black) in Alabama had a black sheriff. Southern blacks held top positions in city, county, and state governments.
Atlanta elected a black mayor, Andrew Young, as did Jackson, Mississippi, with Harvey Johnson Jr., and New Orleans, with Ernest Morial. Black politicians on the national level included Barbara Jordan, elected as a Representative from Texas in Congress, and President Jimmy Carter appointed Andrew Young as United States Ambassador to the United Nations. Julian Bond was elected to the Georgia State Legislature in 1965, although political reaction to his public Opposition to the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War prevented him from taking his seat until 1967. John Lewis represents Georgia's 5th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives, where he has served since 1987.
Watts riot of 1965[edit]
Main article: Watts Riots
Police arrest a man during the Watts Riots, August 1965
The new Voting Rights Act of 1965 had no immediate effect on living conditions for poor blacks. A few days after the act became law, a riot broke out in the South Central Los Angeles neighborhood of Watts. Like Harlem, Watts was an impoverished neighborhood with very high unemployment. Its residents confronted a largely white police department that had a history of abuse against blacks.[152]
While arresting a young man for drunk driving, police officers argued with the suspect's mother before onlookers. The spark triggered a massive destruction of property through six days of rioting. Thirty-four people were killed and property valued at about $30 million was destroyed, making the Watts Riots among the most expensive in American history.
With black militancy on the rise, ghetto residents directed acts of anger at the police. Black residents growing tired of police brutality continued to riot. Some young people joined groups such as the Black Panthers, whose popularity was based in part on their reputation for confronting police officers. Riots among blacks occurred in 1966 and 1967 in cities such as Atlanta, San Francisco, Oakland, Baltimore, Seattle, Tacoma, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Columbus, Newark, Chicago, New York City (specifically in Brooklyn, Harlem and the Bronx), and worst of all in Detroit.
Fair housing movements, 1966–1968[edit]
The first major blow against housing segregation in the era, the Rumford Fair Housing Act, was passed in California in 1963. It was overturned by white California voters and real estate lobbyists the following year with Proposition 14, a move which helped precipitate the Watts Riots.[153][154] In 1966, the California Supreme Court invalidated Proposition 14 and reinstated the Fair Housing Act.[155]
Working and organizing for fair housing laws became a major project of the movement over the next two years, with Martin Luther King Jr., James Bevel, and Al Raby leading the Chicago Freedom Movement around the issue in 1966. In the following year, Father James Groppi and the NAACP Youth Council also attracted national attention with a fair housing campaign in Milwaukee.[156][157] Both movements faced violent resistance from white homeowners and legal opposition from conservative politicians.
The Fair Housing Bill was the most contentious civil rights legislation of the era. Senator Walter Mondale, who advocated for the bill, noted that over successive years, it was the most filibustered legislation in U.S. history. It was opposed by most Northern and Southern senators, as well as the National Association of Real Estate Boards. A proposed "Civil Rights Act of 1966" had collapsed completely because of its fair housing provision.[158] Mondale commented that:
A lot of civil rights [legislation] was about making the South behave and taking the teeth from George Wallace, [but] this came right to the neighborhoods across the country. This was civil rights getting personal.[24]
Nationwide riots of 1967[edit]
Main articles: Detroit Riot of 1967, 1967 Newark riots, 1967 Plainfield riots, and Long Hot Summer of 1967
Over 100 U.S. cities experienced riots in 1967, including Detroit, Newark, Cincinnati, Cleveland, and Washington D.C.[159] The largest of these was the 1967 Detroit riot.
In Detroit, a large black middle class had begun to develop among those African Americans who worked at unionized jobs in the automotive industry; these workers still complained of racist practices, concerns which the United Auto Workers channeled into bureaucratic and ineffective grievance procedures.[160] Violent white mobs enforced the segregation of housing up through the 1960s;.[161] Blacks who were not upwardly mobile were living in substandard conditions, subject to the same problems as African Americans in Watts and Harlem.
When white Detroit Police Department (DPD) officers shut down an illegal bar and arrested a large group of patrons during the hot summer, furious black residents rioted. Rioters looted and destroyed property while snipers engaged in firefights from rooftops and windows, undermining the DPD's ability in curtailing the disorder. In response, the Michigan Army National Guard and U.S. Army paratroopers were deployed to reinforce the DPD and protect Detroit Fire Department (DFD) firefighters from attacks while putting out fires. Residents reported that police officers and National Guardsmen shot at black civilians and suspects indiscriminately. After five days, 43 people had been killed, hundreds injured, and thousands left homeless. $40 to $45 million worth of damage was caused.[161][162]
State and local governments responded to the riot with a dramatic increase in minority hiring.[163] In the aftermath of the turmoil, the Greater Detroit Board of Commerce also launched a campaign to find jobs for ten thousand "previously unemployable" persons, a preponderant number of whom were black.[164] Governor George Romney immediately responded to the riot of 1967 with a special session of the Michigan legislature where he forwarded sweeping housing proposals that included not only fair housing, but "important relocation, tenants' rights and code enforcement legislation." Romney had supported such proposals in 1965, but abandoned them in the face of organized opposition. The laws passed both houses of the legislature. Historian Sidney Fine wrote that:
The Michigan Fair Housing Act, which took effect on November 15, 1968, was stronger than the federal fair housing law...It is probably more than a coincidence that the state that had experienced the most severe racial disorder of the 1960s also adopted one of the strongest state fair housing acts.[165]
President Johnson created the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders in response to nationwide wave of riots. The commission's final report called for major reforms in employment and public policy in black communities. It warned that the United States was moving toward separate white and black societies.
Memphis, King assassination and the Poor People's March 1968[edit]
Main articles: Poor People's Campaign and Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
"I've Been to the Mountaintop"
Final 30 seconds of "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech by Martin Luther King Jr. These are the final words from his final public speech.
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A 3,000-person shantytown called Resurrection City was established on the National Mall.
Rev. James Lawson invited King to Memphis, Tennessee, in March 1968 to support a sanitation workers' strike. These workers launched a campaign for union representation after two workers were accidentally killed on the job, and King considered their struggle to be a vital part of the Poor People's Campaign he was planning.
A day after delivering his stirring "I've Been to the Mountaintop" sermon, which has become famous for his vision of American society, King was assassinated on April 4, 1968. Riots broke out in black neighborhoods in more than 110 cities across the United States in the days that followed, notably in Chicago, Baltimore, and in Washington, D.C.
The day before King's funeral, April 8, Coretta Scott King and three of the King children led 20,000 marchers through the streets of Memphis, holding signs that read, "Honor King: End Racism" and "Union Justice Now". Armed National Guardsmen lined the streets, sitting on M-48 tanks, to protect the marchers, and helicopters circled overhead. On April 9, Mrs. King led another 150,000 people in a funeral procession through the streets of Atlanta.[166] Her dignity revived courage and hope in many of the Movement's members, cementing her place as the new leader in the struggle for racial equality.
Coretta Scott King said,[167]
[Martin Luther King Jr.] gave his life for the poor of the world, the garbage workers of Memphis and the peasants of Vietnam. The day that Negro people and others in bondage are truly free, on the day want is abolished, on the day wars are no more, on that day I know my husband will rest in a long-deserved peace.
Rev. Ralph Abernathy succeeded King as the head of the SCLC and attempted to carry forth King's plan for a Poor People's March. It was to unite blacks and whites to campaign for fundamental changes in American society and economic structure. The march went forward under Abernathy's plainspoken leadership but did not achieve its goals.
See also: Orangeburg massacre
Civil Rights Act of 1968[edit]
Main article: Civil Rights Act of 1968
As 1968 began, the fair housing bill was being filibustered once again, but two developments revived it.[24] The Kerner Commission report on the 1967 ghetto riots was delivered to Congress on March 1, and it strongly recommended "a comprehensive and enforceable federal open housing law" as a remedy to the civil disturbances. The Senate was moved to end their filibuster that week.[168]
As the House of Representatives deliberated the bill in April, Dr. King was assassinated, and the largest wave of unrest since the Civil War swept the country.[169] Senator Charles Mathias wrote that:
some Senators and Representatives publicly stated they would not be intimidated or rushed into legislating because of the disturbances. Nevertheless, the news coverage of the riots and the underlying disparities in income, jobs, housing, and education, between White and Black Americans helped educate citizens and Congress about the stark reality of an enormous social problem. Members of Congress knew they had to act to redress these imbalances in American life to fulfill the dream that King had so eloquently preached.[168]
The House passed the legislation on April 10, and President Johnson signed it the next day. The Civil Rights Act of 1968 prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, and national origin. It also made it a federal crime to "by force or by threat of force, injure, intimidate, or interfere with anyone...by reason of their race, color, religion, or national origin."[170]
Movements, politics, and white reactions[edit]
Grassroots leadership[edit]
Fannie Lou Hamer of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (and other Mississippi-based organizations) is an example of local grassroots leadership in the movement.
While most popular representations of the movement are centered on the leadership and philosophy of Martin Luther King Jr., some scholars note that the movement was too diverse to be credited to one person, organization, or strategy. Sociologist Doug McAdam has stated that, "in King's case, it would be inaccurate to say that he was the leader of the modern civil rights movement...but more importantly, there was no singular civil rights movement. The movement was, in fact, a coalition of thousands of local efforts nationwide, spanning several decades, hundreds of discrete groups, and all manner of strategies and tactics—legal, illegal, institutional, non-institutional, violent, non-violent. Without discounting King's importance, it would be sheer fiction to call him the leader of what was fundamentally an amorphous, fluid, dispersed movement."[171] Decentralized grassroots leadership has been a major focus of movement scholarship in recent decades through the work of historians John Dittmer, Charles Payne, Barbara Ransby, and others.
Black power (1966–1968)[edit]
Main articles: Black Power and Black Power movement
During the Freedom Summer campaign of 1964, numerous tensions within the civil rights movement came to the forefront. Many blacks in SNCC developed concerns that white activists from the North were taking over the movement. The massive presence of white students was also not reducing the amount of violence that SNCC suffered, but seemed to be increasing it. Additionally, there was profound disillusionment at Lyndon Johnson's denial of voting status for the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party.[172][173] Meanwhile, during CORE's work in Louisiana that summer, that group found the federal government would not respond to requests to enforce the provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, or to protect the lives of activists who challenged segregation. For the Louisiana campaign to survive it had to rely on a local African-American militia called the Deacons for Defense and Justice, who used arms to repel white supremacist violence and police repression. CORE's collaboration with the Deacons was effective against breaking Jim Crow in numerous Louisiana areas.[174][175]
In 1965, SNCC helped organize an independent political party, the Lowndes County Freedom Organization (LCFO), in the heart of Alabama Klan territory, and permitted its black leaders to openly promote the use of armed self-defense. Meanwhile, the Deacons for Defense and Justice expanded into Mississippi and assisted Charles Evers' NAACP chapter with a successful campaign in Natchez.[176] The same year, the Watts Rebellion took place in Los Angeles, and seemed to show that many black youth were now committed to the use of violence to protest inequality and oppression.[177]
During the March Against Fear in 1966, SNCC and CORE fully embraced the slogan of "black power" to describe these trends towards militancy and self-reliance. In Mississippi, Stokely Carmichael declared, "I'm not going to beg the white man for anything that I deserve, I'm going to take it. We need power."[178]
Several people engaging in the Black Power movement started to gain more of a sense in black pride and identity as well. In gaining more of a sense of a cultural identity, several blacks demanded that whites no longer refer to them as "Negroes" but as "Afro-Americans." Up until the mid-1960s, blacks had dressed similarly to whites and straightened their hair. As a part of gaining a unique identity, blacks started to wear loosely fit dashikis and had started to grow their hair out as a natural afro. The afro, sometimes nicknamed the "'fro," remained a popular black hairstyle until the late 1970s.
Black Power was made most public, however, by the Black Panther Party (BPP), which was founded by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, California, in 1966. The group began following the revolutionary pan-Africanism of late-period Malcolm X, using a "by-any-means necessary" approach to stopping inequality. They sought to rid African American neighborhoods of police brutality and establish socialist community control in the ghettos. Their tactics varied from armed confrontation with police to setting up free breakfast and healthcare programs for children.[179] Between 1968 and 1971, the BPP was one of the most important black organizations in the country and had support from the NAACP, SCLC, Peace and Freedom Party, and others.[180]
Black Power was taken to another level inside prison walls. In 1966, George Jackson formed the Black Guerrilla Family in the California San Quentin State Prison. The goal of this group was to overthrow the white-run government in America and the prison system. In 1970, this group displayed their dedication after a white prison guard was found not guilty of shooting and killing three black prisoners from the prison tower. They retaliated by killing a white prison guard.
"Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud"
James Brown's "Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud" from Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud
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Gold medalist Tommie Smith (center) and bronze medalist John Carlos (right) showing the raised fist on the podium after the 200 m race at the 1968 Summer Olympics; both wear Olympic Project for Human Rights badges. Peter Norman (silver medalist, left) from Australia also wears an OPHR badge in solidarity with Smith and Carlos.
Numerous popular cultural expressions associated with black power appeared at this time. Released in August 1968, the number one Rhythm & Blues single for the Billboard Year-End list was James Brown's "Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud".[181] In October 1968, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, while being awarded the gold and bronze medals, respectively, at the 1968 Summer Olympics, donned human rights badges and each raised a black-gloved Black Power salute during their podium ceremony.
King was not comfortable with the "Black Power" slogan, which sounded too much like black nationalism to him. When King was murdered in 1968, Stokely Carmichael stated that whites murdered the one person who would prevent rampant rioting and that blacks would burn every major city to the ground.
Black conservatism[edit]
Despite the common notion that the ideas of Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X and Black Power only conflicted with each other and were the only ideologies of the civil rights movement, there were other sentiments felt by many blacks. Fearing the events during the movement were occurring too quickly, there were some blacks who felt that leaders should take their activism at a slower pace. Others had reservations on how focused blacks were on the movement and felt that such attention was better spent on reforming issues within the black community.
Those who blatantly rejected integration had various rationales for doing so, such as fearing a change in the status quo they had been used to for so long or fearing for their safety if they found themselves in environments where whites were much more present. Some defended segregation for the sake of keeping ties with the white power structure from which many relied on for social and economic mobility above other blacks. Based on her interpretation of a 1966 study made by Donald Matthews and James Prothro detailing the relative percentage of blacks for integration, against it or feeling something else, Lauren Winner asserts that:
Black defenders of segregation look, at first blush, very much like black nationalists, especially in their preference for all-black institutions; but black defenders of segregation differ from nationalists in two key ways. First, while both groups criticize NAACP-style integration, nationalists articulate a third alternative to integration and Jim Crow, while segregationists preferred to stick with the status quo. Second, absent from black defenders of segregation's political vocabulary was the demand for self-determination. They called for all-black institutions, but not autonomous all-black institutions; indeed, some defenders of segregation asserted that black people needed white paternalism and oversight in order to thrive.[182]
Oftentimes, African-American community leaders would be staunch defenders of segregation. Church ministers, businessmen and educators were among those who wished to keep segregation and segregationist ideals in order to retain the privileges they gained from patronage from whites, such as monetary gains. In addition, they relied on segregation to keep their jobs and economies in their communities thriving. It was feared that if integration became widespread in the South, black-owned businesses and other establishments would lose a large chunk of their customer base to white-owned businesses, and many blacks would lose opportunities for jobs that were presently exclusive to their interests.[183] On the other hand, there were the everyday, average black people who criticized integration as well. For them, they took issue with different parts of the civil rights movement and the potential for blacks to exercise consumerism and economic liberty without hindrance from whites.[184]
For Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X and other leading activists and groups during the movement, these opposing viewpoints acted as an obstacle against their ideas. These different views made such leaders' work much harder to accomplish, but they were nonetheless important in the overall scope of the movement. For the most part, the black individuals who had reservations on various aspects of the movement and ideologies of the activists were not able to make a game-changing dent in their efforts, but the existence of these alternate ideas gave some blacks an outlet to express their concerns about the changing social structure.
Avoiding the "Communist" label[edit]
See also: The Communist Party and African-Americans
On December 17, 1951, the Communist Party–affiliated Civil Rights Congress delivered the petition We Charge Genocide: "The Crime of Government Against the Negro People", often shortened to We Charge Genocide, to the United Nations in 1951, arguing that the U.S. federal government, by its failure to act against lynching in the United States, was guilty of genocide under Article II of the UN Genocide Convention.[185] The petition was presented to the United Nations at two separate venues: Paul Robeson, concert singer and activist, to a UN official in New York City, while William L. Patterson, executive director of the CRC, delivered copies of the drafted petition to a UN delegation in Paris.[186]
Patterson, the editor of the petition, was a leader in the Communist Party USA and head of the International Labor Defense, a group that offered legal representation to communists, trade unionists, and African Americans in cases involving issues of political or racial persecution. The ILD was known for leading the defense of the Scottsboro boys in Alabama in 1931, where the Communist Party had considerable influence among African Americans in the 1930s. This had largely declined by the late 1950s, although they could command international attention. As earlier civil rights figures such as Robeson, Du Bois and Patterson became more politically radical (and therefore targets of Cold War anti-Communism by the U.S. Government), they lost favor with both mainstream Black America and the NAACP.[186]
In order to secure a place in the mainstream and gain the broadest base, the new generation of civil rights activists believed they had to openly distance themselves from anything and anyone associated with the Communist party. According to Ella Baker, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference adopted "Christian" into its name to deter charges of Communism.[187] The FBI under J. Edgar Hoover had been concerned about communism since the early 20th century, and continued to label as "Communist" or "subversive" some of the civil rights activists, whom it kept under close surveillance. In the early 1960s, the practice of distancing the civil rights movement from "Reds" was challenged by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee who adopted a policy of accepting assistance and participation by anyone, regardless of political affiliation, who supported the SNCC program and was willing to "put their body on the line." At times this political openness put SNCC at odds with the NAACP.[186]
Kennedy administration, 1961–1963[edit]
Attorney General Robert Kennedy speaking before a hostile Civil Rights crowd protesting low minority hiring in his Justice Department June 14, 1963[188]
For the first two years of the Kennedy administration, civil rights activists had mixed opinions of both the president and attorney general, Robert F. Kennedy. A well of historical skepticism toward liberal politics had left African Americans with a sense of uneasy disdain for any white politician who claimed to share their concerns for freedom, particularly ones connected to the historically pro-segregationist Democratic Party. Still, many were encouraged by the discreet support Kennedy gave to Dr. King, and the administration's willingness, after dramatic pressure from civil disobedience, to bring forth racially progressive initiatives.
Many of the initiatives resulted from Robert Kennedy's passion. The younger Kennedy gained a rapid education in the realities of racism through events such as the Baldwin-Kennedy meeting. The president came to share his brother's sense of urgency on the matter, resulting in the landmark Civil Rights Address of June 1963 and the introduction of the first major civil rights act of the decade.[189][190]
Robert Kennedy first became concerned with civil rights in mid-May 1961 during the Freedom Rides, when photographs of the burning bus and savage beatings in Anniston and Birmingham were broadcast around the world. They came at an especially embarrassing time, as President Kennedy was about to have a summit with the Soviet premier in Vienna. The White House was concerned with its image among the populations of newly independent nations in Africa and Asia, and Robert Kennedy responded with an address for Voice of America stating that great progress had been made on the issue of race relations. Meanwhile, behind the scenes, the administration worked to resolve the crisis with a minimum of violence and prevent the Freedom Riders from generating a fresh crop of headlines that might divert attention from the President's international agenda. The Freedom Riders documentary notes that, "The back burner issue of civil rights had collided with the urgent demands of Cold War realpolitik."[191]
On May 21, when a white mob attacked and burned the First Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, where King was holding out with protesters, Robert Kennedy telephoned King to ask him to stay in the building until the U.S. Marshals and National Guard could secure the area. King proceeded to berate Kennedy for "allowing the situation to continue". King later publicly thanked Kennedy for deploying the force to break up an attack which might otherwise have ended King's life.
With a very small majority in Congress, the president's ability to press ahead with legislation relied considerably on a balancing game with the Senators and Congressmen of the South. Without the support of Vice-President Johnson, a former Senator who had years of experience in Congress and longstanding relations there, many of the Attorney-General's programs would not have progressed.
By late 1962, frustration at the slow pace of political change was balanced by the movement's strong support for legislative initiatives, including administrative representation across all U.S. Government departments and greater access to the ballot box. From squaring off against Governor George Wallace, to "tearing into" Vice-President Johnson (for failing to desegregate areas of the administration), to threatening corrupt white Southern judges with disbarment, to desegregating interstate transport, Robert Kennedy came to be consumed by the civil rights movement. He continued to work on these social justice issues in his bid for the presidency in 1968.
On the night of Governor Wallace's capitulation to African-American enrollment at the University of Alabama, President Kennedy gave an address to the nation, which marked the changing tide, an address that was to become a landmark for the ensuing change in political policy as to civil rights. In 1966, Robert Kennedy visited South Africa and voiced his objections to apartheid, the first time a major US politician had done so:
At the University of Natal in Durban, I was told the church to which most of the white population belongs teaches apartheid as a moral necessity. A questioner declared that few churches allow black Africans to pray with the white because the Bible says that is the way it should be, because God created Negroes to serve. "But suppose God is black", I replied. "What if we go to Heaven and we, all our lives, have treated the Negro as an inferior, and God is there, and we look up and He is not white? What then is our response?" There was no answer. Only silence.
—  LOOK Magazine[192]
Robert Kennedy's relationship with the movement was not always positive. As attorney general, he was called to account by activists—who booed him at a June 1963 speech—for the Justice Department's own poor record of hiring blacks.[188] He also presided over FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover and his COINTELPRO program. This program ordered FBI agents to "expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize" the activities of Communist front groups, a category in which the paranoid Hoover included most civil rights organizations.[193][194] Kennedy personally authorized some of the programs.[195] According to Tim Weiner, "RFK knew much more about this surveillance than he ever admitted." Although Kennedy only gave approval for limited wiretapping of Dr. King's phones "on a trial basis, for a month or so." Hoover extended the clearance so his men were "unshackled" to look for evidence in any areas of the black leader's life they deemed important;they then used this information to harass King.[196] Kennedy directly ordered surveillance on James Baldwin after their antagonistic racial summit in 1963.[197][198]
American Jewish community and the civil rights movement[edit]
See also: African American–Jewish relations; New York City teachers' strike of 1968; and Brownsville, Brooklyn
Jewish civil rights activist Joseph L. Rauh Jr. marching with Martin Luther King in 1963
Many in the Jewish community supported the civil rights movement. In fact, statistically Jews were one of the most actively involved non-black groups in the Movement. Many Jewish students worked in concert with African Americans for CORE, SCLC, and SNCC as full-time organizers and summer volunteers during the Civil Rights era. Jews made up roughly half of the white northern volunteers involved in the 1964 Mississippi Freedom Summer project and approximately half of the civil rights attorneys active in the South during the 1960s.[199]
Jewish leaders were arrested while heeding a call from Martin Luther King Jr. in St. Augustine, Florida, in June 1964, where the largest mass arrest of rabbis in American history took place at the Monson Motor Lodge—a nationally important civil rights landmark that was demolished in 2003 so that a Hilton Hotel could be built on the site. Abraham Joshua Heschel, a writer, rabbi, and professor of theology at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York, was outspoken on the subject of civil rights. He marched arm-in-arm with Dr. King in the 1965 Selma to Montgomery march. In the 1964 murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner, the two white activists killed, Andrew Goodman and Michael Schwerner, were both Jewish.
Brandeis University, the only nonsectarian Jewish-sponsored college university in the world, created the Transitional Year Program (TYP) in 1968, in part response to Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King's assassination. The faculty created it to renew the university's commitment to social justice. Recognizing Brandeis as a university with a commitment to academic excellence, these faculty members created a chance to disadvantaged students to participate in an empowering educational experience.
The American Jewish Committee, American Jewish Congress, and Anti-Defamation League (ADL) actively promoted civil rights. While Jews were very active in the civil rights movement in the South, in the North, many had experienced a more strained relationship with African Americans. In communities experiencing white flight, racial rioting, and urban decay, Jewish Americans were more often the last remaining whites in the communities most affected.[citation needed] It has been argued that with Black militancy and the Black Power movements on the rise, "Black Anti-Semitism" increased leading to strained relations between Blacks and Jews in Northern communities. In New York City, most notably, there was a major socio-economic class difference in the perception of African Americans by Jews.[200] Jews from better educated Upper Middle Class backgrounds were often very supportive of African American civil rights activities while the Jews in poorer urban communities that became increasingly minority were often less supportive largely in part due to more negative and violent interactions between the two groups.
According to political scientist Michael Rogin, Jewish-Black hostility was a two-way street extending to earlier decades. In the post-World War II era, Jews were granted white privilege and most moved into the middle-class while Blacks were left behind in the ghetto.[201] Urban Jews engaged in the same sort of conflicts with Blacks—over integration busing, local control of schools, housing, crime, communal identity, and class divides—that other white ethnics did, leading to Jews participating in white flight. The culmination of this was the 1968 New York City teachers' strike, pitting largely Jewish schoolteachers against predominantly Black parents in Brownsville, New York.[202]
Profile[edit]
Many Jewish individuals in the Southern states who supported civil rights for African Americans tended to keep a low profile on "the race issue", in order to avoid attracting the attention of the anti-Black and antisemitic Ku Klux Klan.[203] However, Klan groups exploited the issue of African-American integration and Jewish involvement in the struggle to launch acts of violent antisemitism. As an example of this hatred, in one year alone, from November 1957 to October 1958, temples and other Jewish communal gatherings were bombed and desecrated in Atlanta, Nashville, Jacksonville, and Miami, and dynamite was found under synagogues in Birmingham, Charlotte, and Gastonia, North Carolina. Some rabbis received death threats, but there were no injuries following these outbursts of violence.[203]
White backlash[edit]
King reached the height of popular acclaim during his life in 1964, when he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. His career after that point was filled with frustrating challenges. The liberal coalition that had gained passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 began to fray.
King was becoming more estranged from the Johnson administration. In 1965 he broke with it by calling for peace negotiations and a halt to the bombing of Vietnam. He moved further left in the following years, speaking of the need for economic justice and thoroughgoing changes in American society. He believed change was needed beyond the civil rights gained by the movement.
King's attempts to broaden the scope of the civil rights movement were halting and largely unsuccessful, however. King made several efforts in 1965 to take the Movement north to address housing discrimination. SCLC's campaign in Chicago publicly failed, as Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley marginalized SCLC's campaign by promising to "study" the city's problems. In 1966, white demonstrators holding "white power" signs in notoriously racist Cicero, a suburb of Chicago, threw stones at marchers demonstrating against housing segregation.[204]
Politicians and journalists quickly blamed this white backlash on the movement's shift towards Black Power in the mid-1960s; today most scholars view backlash as a phenomenon that was already developing in the mid-1950s, embodied in the "massive resistance" movement of the South where even the few moderate white leaders (including George Wallace, who had once been endorsed by the NAACP) shifted to openly racist positions.[205][206] Northern racists opposed the southerners on a regional and cultural basis, but also held segregationist attitudes which became more pronounced as the civil rights movement headed North. For instance, prior to the Watts riot, California whites had already mobilized to repeal the state's 1963 fair housing law.[204]
Even so, the backlash was not sufficient at the time to roll back major civil rights victories or swing the country into reaction. Social historians Matthew Lassiter and Barbara Ehrenreich note that backlash's primary constituency was suburban and middle-class, but not working-class whites: "among the white electorate, one half of blue-collar voters…cast their ballot for [the liberal presidential candidate] Hubert Humphrey in 1968…only in the South did George Wallace draw substantially more blue-collar than white-collar support."[207]
African-American women in the movement[edit]
Women often acted as leaders in the civil rights movement and led organizations that contributed to the cause of civil rights. African-American women stepped into the roles that men had previously held. Women were members of the NAACP because they believed it could help them contribute to the cause of civil rights.[208] Women involved with the Black Panthers would lead meetings, edit the Black Panther newspaper, and advocated for childcare and sexual freedom.[209] Women involved with SNCC helped to organize sit-ins and the Freedom Rides, as well as keeping the organization together.[210] Women also formed church groups, bridge clubs, and professional organizations, such as the National Council of Negro Women, to help achieve freedom for themselves and their race.[209] Some women who participated in these organizations lost their jobs because of their involvement.[209]
Discrimination[edit]
Many women in the movement experienced gender discrimination and sexual harassment within the movement.[211] In the SCLC, Ella Baker's input was discouraged in spite of her being the oldest and most experienced person on the staff. Within the ministers' patriarchal hierarchy, age and experience were actually considered detriments for a woman. Her role as an executive was only assigned as a placeholder for a male leader.[212] Women that worked under SNCC did the clerical work and were not consistently given leadership positions. Women who worked in multiple civil rights organizations noted that males tended to become the leaders and women "faded into the background" and the men of the movement did not acknowledge the gender discrimination present in the organization.[213] Much of the reasoning for the lesser role that women took in the movement was that it was time for black men to take on a role as a leader now that they had the opportunity. Women got very little recognition for their roles in the civil rights movement despite the fact that they were heavily involved with the participation and planning.[214]
Johnson administration: 1963–1968[edit]
Further information: Civil Rights Act of 1964, War on Poverty, and Lyndon B. Johnson
Lyndon Johnson made civil rights one of his highest priorities, coupling it with a whites war on poverty. However in creasing the shrill opposition to the War in Vietnam, coupled with the cost of the war, undercut support for his domestic programs.[215]
Under Kennedy, major civil rights legislation had been stalled in Congress his assassination changed everything. On one hand president Lyndon Johnson was a much more skillful negotiator than Kennedy but he had behind him a powerful national momentum demanding immediate action on moral and emotional grounds. Demands for immediate action originated from unexpected directions, especially white Protestant church groups. The Justice Department, led by Robert Kennedy, moved from a posture of defending Kennedy from the quagmire minefield of racial politics to acting to fulfill his legacy. The violent death and public reaction dramatically moved the moderate Republicans, led by Senator Everett McKinley Dirksen, whose support was the margin of victory for the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The act immediately ended de jure (legal) segregation and the era of Jim Crow.[216]
With the civil rights movement at full blast, Lyndon Johnson coupled black entrepreneurship with his war on poverty, setting up special program in the Small Business Administration, the Office of Economic Opportunity, and other agencies.[217] This time there was money for loans designed to boost minority business ownership. Richard Nixon greatly expanded the program, setting up the Office of Minority Business Enterprise (OMBE) in the expectation that black entrepreneurs would help defuse racial tensions and possibly support his reelection .[218]
Prison reform[edit]
Gates v. Collier[edit]
Mississippi State Penitentiary
Conditions at the Mississippi State Penitentiary at Parchman, then known as Parchman Farm, became part of the public discussion of civil rights after activists were imprisoned there. In the spring of 1961, Freedom Riders came to the South to test the desegregation of public facilities. By the end of June 1963, Freedom Riders had been convicted in Jackson, Mississippi.[219] Many were jailed in Mississippi State Penitentiary at Parchman. Mississippi employed the trusty system, a hierarchical order of inmates that used some inmates to control and enforce punishment of other inmates.[220]
In 1970 the civil rights lawyer Roy Haber began taking statements from inmates. He collected 50 pages of details of murders, rapes, beatings and other abuses suffered by the inmates from 1969 to 1971 at Mississippi State Penitentiary. In a landmark case known as Gates v. Collier (1972), four inmates represented by Haber sued the superintendent of Parchman Farm for violating their rights under the United States Constitution.
Federal Judge William C. Keady found in favor of the inmates, writing that Parchman Farm violated the civil rights of the inmates by inflicting cruel and unusual punishment. He ordered an immediate end to all unconstitutional conditions and practices. Racial segregation of inmates was abolished, as was the trusty system, which allowed certain inmates to have power and control over others.[221]
The prison was renovated in 1972 after the scathing ruling by Judge Keady, who wrote that the prison was an affront to "modern standards of decency." Among other reforms, the accommodations were made fit for human habitation. The system of trusties was abolished. (The prison had armed lifers with rifles and given them authority to oversee and guard other inmates, which led to many abuses and murders.)[222]
In integrated correctional facilities in northern and western states, blacks represented a disproportionate number of the prisoners, in excess of their proportion of the general population. They were often treated as second-class citizens by white correctional officers. Blacks also represented a disproportionately high number of death row inmates. Eldridge Cleaver's book Soul on Ice was written from his experiences in the California correctional system; it contributed to black militancy.[223]
Cold War[edit]
There was an international context for the actions of the U.S. federal government during these years. Soviet media frequently covered racial discrimination in the U.S.[224] Deeming American criticism of Soviet Union human rights abuses as hypocritical the Soviets would respond with "And you are lynching Negroes".[225] In his 1934 book Russia Today: What Can We Learn from It?, Sherwood Eddy wrote: "In the most remote villages of Russia today Americans are frequently asked what they are going to do to the Scottsboro Negro boys and why they lynch Negroes."[226]
In Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy, the historian Mary L. Dudziak wrote that Communists critical of the United States accused the nation for its hypocrisy in portraying itself as the "leader of the free world," when so many of its citizens were subjected to severe racial discrimination and violence; she argued that this was a major factor in moving the government to support civil rights legislation.[227]
In popular culture[edit]
Main article: African-American civil rights movement (1954–1968) in popular culture
The 1954 to 1968 civil rights movement contributed strong cultural threads to American and international theater, song, film, television, and folk art.
Activist organizations[edit]
National/regional civil rights organizations
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
Deacons for Defense and Justice
Leadership Conference on Civil Rights (LCCR)
Medical Committee for Human Rights (MCHR)
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)
Organization of Afro-American Unity
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
Southern Conference Educational Fund (SCEF)
Southern Student Organizing Committee (SSOC)
National economic empowerment organizations
Operation Breadbasket
Urban League
Local civil rights organizations
Albany Movement (Albany, GA)
Council of Federated Organizations (Mississippi)
Montgomery Improvement Association (Montgomery, AL)
Regional Council of Negro Leadership (Mississippi)
Women's Political Council (Montgomery, AL)
Individual activists[edit]
Ralph Abernathy
Victoria Gray Adams
Muhammad Ali
Maya Angelou
Louis Austin
Ella Baker
James Baldwin
Marion Barry
Daisy Bates
Fay Bellamy Powell
James Bevel
Claude Black
Unita Blackwell
Julian Bond
Amelia Boynton
Anne Braden
Carl Braden
Mary Fair Burks
Stokely Carmichael
Septima Clark
Albert Cleage
Charles E. Cobb Jr.
Annie Lee Cooper
Dorothy Cotton
Claudette Colvin
Jonathan Daniels
Annie Devine
Doris Derby
Marian Wright Edelman
Medgar Evers
Myrlie Evers-Williams
James L. Farmer Jr.
Karl Fleming
Sarah Mae Flemming
James Forman
Frankie Muse Freeman
Fred Gray
Jack Greenberg
Dick Gregory
Prathia Hall
Fannie Lou Hamer
Lorraine Hansberry
Robert Hayling
Lola Hendricks
Aaron Henry
Libby Holman
Myles Horton
T. R. M. Howard
Winson Hudson
Jesse Jackson
Jimmie Lee Jackson
Esau Jenkins
Gloria Johnson-Powell
Clyde Kennard
Coretta Scott King
Martin Luther King Jr.
Bernard Lafayette
W. W. Law
James Lawson
John Lewis
Viola Liuzzo
Joseph Lowery
Autherine Lucy
Clara Luper
Thurgood Marshall
James Meredith
Loren Miller
Jack Minnis
Anne Moody
Harry T. Moore
E. Frederic Morrow
Robert Parris Moses
Bill Moyer
Diane Nash
Denise Nicholas
E. D. Nixon
David Nolan
James Orange
Nan Grogan Orrock
Rosa Parks
Rutledge Pearson
A. Philip Randolph
George Raymond Jr.
James Reeb
Frederick D. Reese
Gloria Richardson
Amelia Boynton Robinson
Jackie Robinson
Jo Ann Robinson
Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
Bayard Rustin
Cleveland Sellers
Charles Sherrod
Fred Shuttlesworth
Modjeska Monteith Simkins
Nina Simone
Charles Kenzie Steele
Dempsey Travis
C. T. Vivian
Wyatt Tee Walker
Hosea Williams
Robert F. Williams
Malcolm X
Andrew Young
Whitney Young
See also[edit]
Civil rights movement portal
African American portal
Social movements portal
1950s portal
1960s portal
List of civil rights leaders
List of Kentucky women in the civil rights era
Photographers of the American civil rights movement
"We Shall Overcome", unofficial movement anthem
History preservation:
Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
Freedom Riders National Monument
Read's Drug Store (Baltimore), site of a 1955 desegregation sit-in
Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project
Television News of the Civil Rights Era 1950–1970
Post–civil rights movement:
Black Lives Matter
Post–civil rights era in African-American history
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Various other dates have been proposed as the date on which the civil rights movement began or ended.
Jump up ^ The social movement has also been called the Second Reconstruction, modern civil rights movement, civil rights revolution, black revolution, Negro movement, black civil rights movement, U.S. civil rights movement, 1960s civil rights movement, Negro revolution, Negro American revolution, Negro revolt, Southern freedom movement, black rights movement, United States civil rights movement, American freedom movement, and Negro freedom movement. The term civil rights struggle can denote this or other social movements that occurred during the same period in the United States. The span of time of the social movement is called the civil rights era.
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Haines, Herbert H. (1995). Black Radicals and the Civil Rights Mainstream, 1954–1970. Univ. of Tennessee Press. pp. 98–118. ISBN 9781572332607.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Civil Rights Greensboro". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Weiner, Melissa F. (2010). Power, Protest, and the Public Schools: Jewish and African American Struggles in New York City. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-4772-5.
Jump up ^ Adina Back "Exposing the Whole Segregation Myth: The Harlem Nine and New York City Schools" in Freedom north: Black freedom struggles outside the South, 1940–1980, Jeanne Theoharis, Komozi Woodard, eds.(Palgrave Macmillan, 2003) pp. 65–91
Jump up ^ "How The Horrific Photograph Of Emmett Till Helped Energize The Civil Rights Movement". 100 Photographs | The Most Influential Images of All Time. Retrieved July 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Whitfield, Stephen (1991). A Death in the Delta: The story of Emmett Till. pp 41–42. JHU Press.
^ Jump up to: a b "'The Blood of Emmett Till' remembers a horrific crime". USA TODAY. Retrieved July 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Haas, Jeffrey (2011). The Assassination of Fred Hampton. Chicago: Chicago Review Press. p. 17. ISBN 1-56976-709-2.
Jump up ^ Weller, Sheila (January 26, 2017). "How Author Timothy Tyson Found the Woman at the Center of the Emmett Till Case". Vanity Fair.
Jump up ^ Tyson, Timothy B. (2017). The Blood of Emmett Till. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 221. ISBN 978-1-4767-1486-8. Carolyn Bryant Donham, interview with the author, Raleigh, NC, September 8, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Chafe, William Henry (2003). The Unfinished Journey: America since World War II. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515049-0.
Jump up ^ The Little Rock Nine – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
Jump up ^ Minnijean Brown Trickey, America.gov Archived November 28, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Erikson, Erik (1969). Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence. New York City: Norton. p. 415. ISBN 0-393-31034-5.
Jump up ^ "Civil Rights Movement Veterans". Civil Rights Movement Veterans. Retrieved May 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Bruce Hartford (full interview)". vimeo. Retrieved May 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ Forman, James (1972). The Making of Black Revolutionaries. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-940880-10-5.
Jump up ^ Francis Fox Piven and Richard Cloward, Poor People's Movements: How They Succeed, How They Fail (Random House, 1977), 182
Jump up ^ Timothy B. Tyson, Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of "Black Power" (University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 79–80
Jump up ^ Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 88–89
Jump up ^ Nicholas Graham, "January 1958: The Lumbees face the Klan", This Month in North Carolina History
Jump up ^ Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 149
Jump up ^ Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 159–164
Jump up ^ "Williams, Robert Franklin (1925–1996)". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 213–216
Jump up ^ "The Black Power Movement, Part 2: The Papers of Robert F. Williams" A Guide to the Microfilm Editions of the Black Studies Research Sources (University Publications of America)
^ Jump up to: a b Tyson, Journal of American History (September 1998)
Jump up ^ Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years 1954–1963 (Simon and Schuster, 1988), 781
Jump up ^ Simon Wendt, The Spirit and the Shotgun: Armed Resistance and the Struggle for Civil Rights (University of Florida Press, 2007), 121–122; Mike Marqusee, "By Any Means Necessary" The Nation, September 24, 2004 – http://www.thenation.com/article/any-means-necessary#
Jump up ^ Walter Rucker, "Crusader in Exile: Robert F. Williams and the International Struggle for Black Freedom in America" The Black Scholar 36, No. 2–3 (Summer–Fall 2006): 19–33. URL
Jump up ^ Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert Franklin Williams: A Warrior For Freedom, 1925–1996" Archived July 8, 2013, at the Wayback Machine., Southern Exposure, Winter 1996, Investigating U.S. History (City University of New York)
Jump up ^ "Kansas Sit-In Gets Its Due at Last"; NPR; October 21, 2006
Jump up ^ First Southern Sit-in, Greensboro NC – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
Jump up ^ Chafe, William Henry (1980). Civilities and civil rights : Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black struggle for freedom. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 81. ISBN 0-19-502625-X.
Jump up ^ "Civil Rights Greensboro". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ I, Stations, Community (January 1, 2008). "Rising Up". Southern Spaces. 2008. doi:10.18737/M7HP4M. Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Atlanta Sit-ins – Civil Rights Veterans
^ Jump up to: a b "Atlanta Sit-Ins", The New Georgia Encyclopedia
Jump up ^ Houston, Benjamin (2012). The Nashville Way: Racial Etiquette and the Struggle for Social Justice in a Southern City. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 0-8203-4326-9.
Jump up ^ Nashville Student Movement – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
Jump up ^ "America's First Sit-Down Strike: The 1939 Alexandria Library Sit-In". City of Alexandria. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved February 11, 2010.
Jump up ^ Davis, Townsend (1998). Weary Feet, Rested Souls: A Guided History of the Civil Rights Movement. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 311. ISBN 0-393-04592-7.
Jump up ^ "Atlanta Sit-ins". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Students Begin to Lead – The New Georgia Encyclopedia—Atlanta Sit-Ins
Jump up ^ Carson, Clayborne (1981). In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 311. ISBN 0-674-44727-1.
Jump up ^ Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Founded – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
^ Jump up to: a b Freedom Rides – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
^ Jump up to: a b c Arsenault, Raymond (2006). Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice. Oxford Press.
Jump up ^ Black Protest (1961)
Jump up ^ Hartford, Bruce Hartford. "Arrests in Jackson MS". The Civil Rights Movement Veterans website. Westwind Writers Inc. Retrieved October 21, 2011.
Jump up ^ Voter Registration & Direct-action in McComb MS – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
Jump up ^ Council of Federated Organizations Formed in Mississippi – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
Jump up ^ Mississippi Voter Registration—Greenwood – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
Jump up ^ handeyside, Hugh. "What Have We Learned from the Spies of Mississippi?". American Civil Liberty Union. ACLU National Security Project. Retrieved May 6, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Carrying the burden: the story of Clyde Kennard" Archived October 9, 2007, at the Wayback Machine., District 125, Mississippi, Retrieved November 5, 2007
^ Jump up to: a b William H. Tucker, The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund, University of Illinois Press (May 30, 2007), pp 165–66.
Jump up ^ Neo-Confederacy: A Critical Introduction, Edited by Euan Hague, Heidi Beirich, Edward H. Sebesta, University of Texas Press (2008) pp. 284–85
^ Jump up to: a b "A House Divided |". Southern Poverty Law Center. Archived from the original on February 2, 2010. Retrieved October 30, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Jennie Brown, Medgar Evers, Holloway House Publishing, 1994, pp. 128–132
Jump up ^ United States v. Barnett, 376 U.S. 681 (1964)
Jump up ^ "James Meredith Integrates Ole Miss", Civil Rights Movement Veterans
Jump up ^ [1], University of Southern Mississippi Library Archived September 17, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Albany GA, Movement – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
Jump up ^ The Birmingham Campaign – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
Jump up ^ Letter from a Birmingham Jail ~ King Research & Education Institute at Stanford Univ.
Jump up ^ Bass, S. Jonathan (2001) Blessed Are The Peacemakers: Martin Luther King Jr., Eight White Religious Leaders, and the "Letter from Birmingham Jail". Baton Rouge: LSU Press. ISBN 0-8071-2655-1
Jump up ^ Freedom-Now" Time, May 17, 1963 Archived March 9, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.; Glenn T. Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Struggles in the Civil Rights Movement (University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 301.
^ Jump up to: a b Nicholas Andrew Bryant, The Bystander: John F. Kennedy And the Struggle for Black Equality (Basic Books, 2006), pg. 2
Jump up ^ Thomas J Sugrue, "Affirmative Action from Below: Civil Rights, Building Trades, and the Politics of Racial Equality in the Urban North, 1945–1969" The Journal of American History, Vol. 91, Issue 1
Jump up ^ "Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission website, "The Civil Rights Movement"".
Jump up ^ T he Daily Capital News(Missouri) June 14, 1963, pg. 4
Jump up ^ "The Dispatch – Google News Archive Search". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Jackson, Thomas F. (July 17, 2013). From Civil Rights to Human Rights. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 167. ISBN 0-8122-0000-4.
Jump up ^ "Teaching American History in Maryland – Documents for the Classroom – Maryland State Archives". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Thomas F. Jackson, "Jobs and Freedom: The Black Revolt of 1963 and the Contested Meanings of the March on Washginton" Virginia Foundation for the Humanities April 2, 2008, pg. 10–14
Jump up ^ Ortega, Tony (May 4, 2009). "Miss Lorraine Hansberry & Bobby Kennedy". Archived from the original on October 18, 2012. Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Hilty, James (April 1, 2000). Robert Kennedy: Brother Protector. Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-4399-0519-7. Retrieved July 29, 2016 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy and His Times (1978), pp. 332–333.
Jump up ^ "Book Reviews-The Bystander by Nicholas A. Bryant" The Journal of American History (2007) 93 (4)
Jump up ^ Standing In the Schoolhouse Door – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
Jump up ^ "Radio and Television Report to the American People on Civil Rights," June 11, 1963, transcript from the JFK library. Archived February 5, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Medgar Evers Archived November 7, 2005, at the Wayback Machine., a worthwhile article, on The Mississippi Writers Page, a website of the University of Mississippi English Department.
Jump up ^ Medgar Evers Assassination – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
^ Jump up to: a b Civil Rights bill submitted, and date of JFK murder, plus graphic events of the March on Washington. Archived October 12, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. This is an Abbeville Press website, a large informative article apparently from the book The Civil Rights Movement (ISBN 0-7892-0123-2).
Jump up ^ Clawson, Laura. "A. Philip Randolph, the union leader who led the March on Washington". Daily Kos. Daily Kos Group. Retrieved May 6, 2015.
Jump up ^ Rosenberg, Jonathan; Karabell, Zachary (2003). Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice: The Civil Rights Tapes. WW Norton & Co. p. 130. ISBN 0-393-05122-6.
Jump up ^ Schlesinger Jr., Arthur M. (2002) [1978]. Robert Kennedy and His Times. Houghton Mifflin Books. pp. 350, 351. ISBN 0-618-21928-5.
Jump up ^ Thompson, Krissah (2013-08-25). "In March on Washington, white activists were largely overlooked but strategically essential". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "Television News and the Civil Rights Struggle: The Views in Virginia and Mississippi". Southern Spaces. November 3, 2004. Retrieved November 8, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Cambridge, Maryland, activists campaign for desegregation, USA, 1962–1963". Global Nonviolent Action Database. Swarthmore College. Retrieved January 13, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Baltimore Afro-American – Google News Archive Search". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Negro and the American Promise," produced by Boston public television station WGBH in 1963
Jump up ^ Harlem CORE, "Film clip of Harlem CORE chairman Gladys Harrington speaking on Malcolm X".
Jump up ^ "Malcolm X" The King Encyclopedia, eds. Tenisha Armstrong, et al, Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute website,
Jump up ^ Manning Marable, Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (Penguin Books, 2011)
Jump up ^ Media, American Public. "Say it Plain, Say it Loud – American RadioWorks". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Akinyele Umoja, We Will Shoot Back: Armed Resistance in the Mississippi Freedom Movement (NYU Press, 2013), p. 126
Jump up ^ Francis Fox Piven and Richard Cloward, Regulating the Poor (Random House 1971), p. 238; Abel A. Bartley, Keeping the Faith: Race, Politics and Social Development in Jacksonville, 1940–1970 (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000), 111
Jump up ^ "The Ballot or the Bullet". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Blackside Productions, Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Movement 1954–1985, ", The Time Has Come" Public Broadcasting System
Jump up ^ Lewis, John (1998). Walking With the Wind. Simon & Schuster.
Jump up ^ Fannie Lou Hamer, Speech Delivered with Malcolm X at the Williams Institutional CME Church, Harlem, New York, December 20, 1964.
Jump up ^ George Breitman, ed. Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements (Grove Press, 1965), pp. 106–109
Jump up ^ Christopher Strain, Pure Fire:Self-Defense as Activism in the Civil Rights Era (University of Georgia Press, 2005), pp. 92–93
Jump up ^ Juan Williams, et al, Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years 1954–1965 (Penguin Group, 1988), p. 262
Jump up ^ Paul Ryan Haygood, "Malcolm's Contribution to Black Voting Rights", The Black Commentator
Jump up ^ Civil Rights Movement Veterans. "St. Augustine FL, Movement—1963" ; "Hayling, Robert B. (1929–)", Martin Luther King Jr. Research and Education Institute, Stanford University ; "Black History: Dr. Robert B. Hayling", Augustine.com; David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (Harper Collins, 1987) p 316–318
Jump up ^ Civil Rights Movement Veterans. "St. Augustine FL, Movement—1963"; David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (Harper Collins, 1987) p 317;
^ Jump up to: a b The Mississippi Movement & the MFDP – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
Jump up ^ Mississippi: Subversion of the Right to Vote – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
Jump up ^ McAdam, Doug (1988). Freedom Summer. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504367-7.
Jump up ^ Carson, Clayborne (1981). In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Harvard University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Veterans Roll Call – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, pp. 521–524.
Jump up ^ Youth in the Ghetto: A Study of the Consequences of Powerlessness, Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited, Inc., 1964
Jump up ^ Poverty and Politics in Harlem, Alphnso Pinkney and Roger Woock, College & University Press Services, Inc., 1970
Jump up ^ Freedom Ballot in MS – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
Jump up ^ Spencer Crump, Black riot in Los Angeles: the story of the Watts tragedy (1966).
Jump up ^ Self, Robert O. (August 8, 2005). American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4417-3. Retrieved July 29, 2016 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Reitman, Valerie; Landsberg, Mitchell (August 11, 2005). "Watts Riots, 40 Years Later". Retrieved July 29, 2016 – via LA Times.
Jump up ^ "No on Proposition 14: California Fair Housing Initiative Collection". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Black Thursday". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Folkart, Burt A. (November 5, 1985). "James Groppi, Ex-Priest, Civil Rights Activist, Dies". Retrieved July 29, 2016 – via LA Times.
Jump up ^ "Darren Miles "Everett Dirksen's Role in Civil Rights Legislation" Western Illinois Historical Review, Vol. I Spring 2009" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "A Walk Through Newark. History. The Riots – Thirteen/WNET". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Miller, Karen (October 1, 1999). "Review of Georgakas, Dan; Surkin, Marvin, Detroit, I Do Mind Dying: A Study in Urban Revolution".
^ Jump up to: a b "American Experience.Eyes on the Prize.Profiles – PBS". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Hubert G. Locke, The Detroit riot of 1967 (Wayne State University Press, 1969).
Jump up ^ Sidney Fine, Expanding the Frontier of Civil Rights: Michigan, 1948–1968 (Wayne State University Press, 2000) p. 325
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Jump up ^ Sidney Fine, "Michigan and Housing Discrimination 1949–1969" Michigan Historical Review, Fall 1997 Archived May 4, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Coretta Scott King". Spartacus Educational Publishers. Archived from the original on July 5, 2010. Retrieved October 30, 2010.
Jump up ^ Gregg, Khyree. A Concise Chronicle History of the African-American People Experience in America. Henry Epps. p. 284.
^ Jump up to: a b "Honorable Charles Mathias Jr. "Fair Housing Legislation: Not an Easy Row To Hoe" US Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Peter B. Levy, "The Dream Deferred: The Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., and the Holy Week Uprisings of 1968" in Baltimore '68 : Riots and Rebirth in an American city(Temple University Press, 2011), p. 6
Jump up ^ "Public Law 90-284, Government Printing Office" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Doug McAdam "Occupy the Future:What Should a Sustained Movement Look Like?" Boston Review, June 26, 2012
Jump up ^ "SNCC, the Federal Government & the Road to Black Power". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Allen J. Matusow "From Civil Rights to Black Power: The Case of SNCC" in Twentieth Century America: Recent Interpretations (Harcourt Press, 1972), pp. 367–378" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "By Any Means Necessary". Retrieved July 29, 2016 – via The Nation.
Jump up ^ Douglas Martin, "Robert Hicks, Leader in Armed Rights Group, Dies at 81" The New York Times, April 24, 2010
Jump up ^ Lance Hill, The Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement (University of North Carolina Press, 2006) pp. 200–204
Jump up ^ "Watts Rebellion goes out of control". Retrieved August 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ "American Experience.Eyes on the Prize.Transcript – PBS". Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Rickford, Russell (2016-01-14). We Are an African People: Independent Education, Black Power, and the Radical Imagination. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199861484.
Jump up ^ Bloom, Joshua; Martin, Waldo E. (2016-10-25). Black Against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party. Univ of California Press. pp. 223–236. ISBN 9780520293281.
Jump up ^ "Year End Charts – Year-end Singles – Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs". Billboard.com. Archived from the original on December 11, 2007. Retrieved September 8, 2009.
Jump up ^ Winner, Lauren F. "Doubtless Sincere: New Characters in the Civil Rights Cast." In The Role of Ideas in the Civil Rights South, edited by Ted Ownby. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2002, pp. 158–159.
Jump up ^ Winner, Doubtless Sincere, 164–165.
Jump up ^ Winner, Doubtless Sincere, 166–167.
Jump up ^ We Charge Genocide – Civil Rights Movement Veterans
^ Jump up to: a b c Carson, Clayborne (1981). In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Harvard University Press.
Jump up ^ interviewee, Baker, Ella,. "Oral History Interview with Ella Baker, September 4, 1974. Interview G-0007. Southern Oral History Program Collection (#4007): Electronic Edition. Ella Baker Describes Her Role in the Formation of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee".
^ Jump up to: a b Risen, Clay (2014). The Bill of the Century: The Epic Battle for the Civil Rights Act. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 76. ISBN 9781608198245.
Jump up ^ James Hilty, Robert Kennedy: Brother Protector (Temple University Press, 2000), p. 350-361.
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, Arthur Jr, Robert Kennedy And His Times (2002)
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Jump up ^ Ripple of Hope in the Land of Apartheid: Robert Kennedy in South Africa, June 1966 Archived March 13, 2005, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "COINTELPRO Revisited - Spying & Disruption - In Black and White: The F.B.I. Papers". What Really Happened.
Jump up ^ "A Huey P. Newton Story - Actions - COINTELPRO". PBS. Archived from the original on 2010-11-18. Retrieved 2008-06-23.
Jump up ^ Weiner, Tim (2012). Enemies: A History of the FBI (1st ed.). New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6748-0. OCLC 1001918388
Jump up ^ Hersh, Burton (2007). Bobby and J. Edgar: The Historic Face-Off Between the Kennedys and J. Edgar Hoover That Transformed America. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-7867-1982-2. OCLC 493616276
Jump up ^ James Campbell, "James Baldwin and the FBI", The Threepenny Review 77, Spring 1999; accessed via JStor.
Jump up ^ Talia Whyte, "Baldwin: A literary standard", Black History 43 (27), February 14, 2009.
Jump up ^ From Swastika to Jim Crow—PBS Documentary
Jump up ^ Cannato, Vincent "The Ungovernable City: John Lindsay and his struggle to save New York" Better Books, 2001. ISBN 0-465-00843-7
Jump up ^ Karen Brodkin (2000). How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says About Race in America. Rutgers University Press.
Jump up ^ Rogin, Michael (1998-05-29). Blackface, White Noise: Jewish Immigrants in the Hollywood Melting Pot. University of California Press. pp. 262–267. ISBN 9780520213807.
^ Jump up to: a b Sachar, Howard (November 2, 1993). A History of Jews in America. myjewishlearning.com. Vintage Books. Archived from the original on July 21, 2014. Retrieved March 1, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Zelizer, Julian E. (2015-01-08). "Chapter Seven". The Fierce Urgency of Now: Lyndon Johnson, Congress, and the Battle for the Great Society. Penguin. ISBN 9781101605493.
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Jump up ^ Gyant, LaVerne (1996). "Passing the Torch: African American Women in the Civil Rights Movement". Journal of Black Studies. 26 (5): 629–647. JSTOR 2784888.
^ Jump up to: a b c Greene, Christina (2016-11-22). "Women in the Civil Rights and Black Power Movements". doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-212#acrefore-9780199329175-e-212-div1-6.
Jump up ^ URBAN, DENNIS J. (2002). "THE WOMEN OF SNCC: STRUGGLE, SEXISM, AND THE EMERGENCE OF FEMINIST CONSCIOUSNESS, 1960-66". International Social Science Review. 77 (3/4): 185–190. JSTOR 41887103.
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Jump up ^ "On MLK Day, Honor the Mother of the Civil Rights Movement". Time. Retrieved 2018-03-03.
Jump up ^ URBAN, DENNIS J. (2002). "THE WOMEN OF SNCC: STRUGGLE, SEXISM, AND THE EMERGENCE OF FEMINIST CONSCIOUSNESS, 1960-66". International Social Science Review. 77 (3/4): 185–190. JSTOR 41887103.
Jump up ^ Blumberg, Rhoda Lois (1990). "WOMEN IN THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT: REFORM OR REVOLUTION?". Dialectical Anthropology. 15 (2/3): 133–139. JSTOR 29790343.
Jump up ^ David Zarefsky, President Johnson's war on poverty: Rhetoric and history (2005).
Jump up ^ Peter J. Ling, "What a difference a death makes: JFK, LBJ, and the Civil Rights Act of 1964." The Sixties 8#2 (2015): 121–137.
Jump up ^ Robert E. Weems Jr., Business in Black and White: American Presidents and Black Entrepreneurs (2009).
Jump up ^ Douglas Schoen (2015). The Nixon Effect: How His Presidency Has Changed American Politics. Encounter Books. pp. 34–35. ISBN 978-1-59403-800-6.
Jump up ^ "Riding On". Time. Time Inc. July 7, 2007. Retrieved October 23, 2007.
Jump up ^ "ACLU Parchman Prison". Archived from the original on March 7, 2008. Retrieved November 29, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice". Archived from the original on August 26, 2006. Retrieved August 28, 2006.
Jump up ^ Goldman, Robert M. Goldman (April 1997). ""Worse Than Slavery": Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice – book review". Hnet-online. Archived from the original on August 29, 2006. Retrieved August 29, 2006.
Jump up ^ Cleaver, Eldridge (1967). Soul on Ice. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Jump up ^ Quinn, Allison (November 27, 2014), "Soviet Propaganda Back in Play With Ferguson Coverage", The Moscow Times, retrieved December 17, 2016
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Jump up ^ Eddy, Sherwood (1934), Russia Today: What Can We Learn from It?, New York: Farrar & Rinehar, pp. 73, 151, OCLC 1617454
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Bibliography[edit]
Arsenault, Raymond (2006). Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice. Oxford Press.
Back, Adina "Exposing the Whole Segregation Myth: The Harlem Nine and New York City Schools" in Freedom north: Black freedom struggles outside the South, 1940–1980, Jeanne Theoharis, Komozi Woodard, eds.(Palgrave Macmillan, 2003).
Bartley, Abel A. Keeping the Faith: Race, Politics and Social Development in Jacksonville, 1940–1970 (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000)
Bass, S. Jonathan (2001) Blessed Are The Peacemakers: Martin Luther King Jr., Eight White Religious Leaders, and the "Letter from Birmingham Jail". Baton Rouge: LSU Press. ISBN 0-8071-2655-1
Beito, David T. and Beito, Linda Royster, Black Maverick: T.R.M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power, University of Illinois Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-252-03420-6
Branch, Taylor. Parting the waters: America in the King years, 1954–1963. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988
Breitman, George ed. Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements (Grove Press, 1965)
Brown, Jennie Medgar Evers, Holloway House Publishing, 1994
Bryant, Nicholas Andrew The Bystander: John F. Kennedy And the Struggle for Black Equality (Basic Books, 2006)
Cannato, Vincent "The Ungovernable City: John Lindsay and his struggle to save New York" Better Books, 2001. ISBN 0-465-00843-7
Carson, Clayborne (1981). In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-44727-1.
Chafe, William Henry (1980). Civilities and civil rights : Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black struggle for freedom. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-502625-X.
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Cleaver, Eldridge (1967). Soul on Ice. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Crump, Spencer Black riot in Los Angeles: the story of the Watts tragedy (1966)
Davis, Townsend (1998). Weary Feet, Rested Souls: A Guided History of the Civil Rights Movement. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-04592-7.
Dudziak, M.L.: Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy
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Garrow, David J. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (Harper Collins, 1987)
Gershenhorn, Jerry (2018). Louis Austin and The Carolina Times: A Life in the Long Black Freedom Struggle. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
Goluboff, Risa L. The Lost Promise of Civil Rights, Harvard University Press, MA: Cambridge, 2007.
Gregg, Khyree. A Concise Chronicle History of the African-American People Experience in America. Henry Epps.
Hague, Euan; Sebesta, Edward H.; Beirich, Heidi (2008). Neo-Confederacy: A Critical Introduction. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-71837-1.
Hill, Lance The Deacons for Defense: Armed Resistance and the Civil Rights Movement (University of North Carolina Press, 2006)
Hilty, James (2000). Robert Kennedy: Brother Protector. Temple University Press. ISBN 978-1-4399-0519-7.
Hoose, Phillip (2009). Claudette Colvin: Twice Toward Justice. New York: Melanie Kroupa Books/Farrar Straus Giroux. ISBN 978-0-312-66105-2.
Houston, Benjamin (2012). The Nashville Way: Racial Etiquette and the Struggle for Social Justice in a Southern City. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 0-8203-4326-9.
Jackson, Thomas F. (July 17, 2013). From Civil Rights to Human Rights. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-0000-4.
Klarman, Michael J., Brown v. Board of Education and the Civil Rights Movement [electronic resource] : abridged edition of From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality, Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 2007.
Levy, Peter B. "The Dream Deferred: The Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., and the Holy Week Uprisings of 1968" in Baltimore '68 : Riots and Rebirth in an American city (Temple University Press, 2011)
Lewis, John (1998). Walking With the Wind. Simon & Schuster.
Locke, Hubert G. The Detroit riot of 1967 (Wayne State University Press, 1969)
Logan, Rayford,The Betrayal of the Negro from Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson. New York: Da Capo Press, 1997.
McAdam, Doug (1988). Freedom Summer. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504367-7.
Marable, Manning Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (Penguin Books, 2011)
Matusow, Allen J. "From Civil Rights to Black Power: The Case of SNCC" in Twentieth Century America: Recent Interpretations (Harcourt Press, 1972)
Pinkney, Alphnso and Woock, Roger Poverty and Politics in Harlem, College & University Press Services, Inc., 1970
Piven, Francis Fox and Cloward, Richard Regulating the Poor (Random House 1971)
Piven, Francis Fox and Cloward, Richard Poor People's Movements: How They Succeed, How They Fail (Random House, 1977)
Ransby, Barbara Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (University of North Carolina Press, 2003).
Reeves, Richard (1993). President Kennedy: Profile of Power. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-64879-4.
Robinson, Jo Ann & Garrow, David J. (forward by Coretta Scott King) The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It (1986) ISBN 0-394-75623-1 Knoxville, University of Tennessee Press.
Rosenberg, Jonathan; Karabell, Zachary (2003). Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice: The Civil Rights Tapes. WW Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-05122-6.
Saito, Leland T. (1998). Race and Politics: Asian Americans, Latinos, and Whites in a Los Angeles Suburb. University of Illinois Press.
Schultz, Jeffrey D. (2002). Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics: African Americans and Asian Americans. ISBN 978-1-57356-148-8.
Schlesinger Jr., Arthur M. (2002) [1978]. Robert Kennedy and His Times. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0-618-21928-5.
Schoen, Douglas (2015). The Nixon Effect: How His Presidency Has Changed American Politics. Encounter Books. ISBN 978-1-59403-800-6.
Self, Robert O. (2005). American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4417-3.
Smith, Jean Edward (2001). Grant. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-1701-9.
Stephens, Otis H. Jr.; Scheb, John M. II (2007). American Constitutional Law: Civil Rights and Liberties. Cengage Learning. ISBN 0-495-09705-5.
Strain, Christopher Pure Fire:Self-Defense as Activism in the Civil Rights Era (University of Georgia Press, 2005)
Tucker, William H. The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund, University of Illinois Press (May 30, 2007)
Tyson, Timothy B. Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of "Black Power" (University of North Carolina Press, 1999)
Umoja, Akinyele We Will Shoot Back: Armed Resistance in the Mississippi Freedom Movement (NYU Press, 2013)
Weems, Robert E. Jr., Business in Black and White: American Presidents and Black Entrepreneurs (2009)
Weiner, Melissa F. (2010). Power, Protest, and the Public Schools: Jewish and African American Struggles in New York City. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-4772-5.
Wendt, Simon The Spirit and the Shotgun: Armed Resistance and the Struggle for Civil Rights (University of Florida Press, 2007).
Williams, Juan. Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954–1965. Penguin Books, 1987. ISBN 0-14-009653-1.
Winner, Lauren F. "Doubtless Sincere: New Characters in the Civil Rights Cast." In The Role of Ideas in the Civil Rights South, edited by Ted Ownby. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2002
Woodward, C. Vann The Strange Career of Jim Crow, 3rd rev. ed. (Oxford University Press, 1974).
Young, Coleman Hard Stuff: The Autobiography of Mayor Coleman Young (1994)
Zarefsky, David President Johnson's war on poverty: Rhetoric and history (2005)
Further reading[edit]
Abel, Elizabeth. Signs of the Times: The Visual Politics of Jim Crow. (U of California Press, 2010).
Barnes, Catherine A. Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Transit (Columbia UP, 1983).
Berger, Martin A. Seeing through Race: A Reinterpretation of Civil Rights Photography. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.
Berger, Maurice. For All the World to See: Visual Culture and the Struggle for Civil Rights. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2010.
Branch, Taylor. Pillar of fire: America in the King years, 1963–1965. (1998)
Branch, Taylor. At Canaan's Edge: America In the King Years, 1965–1968. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006. ISBN 0-684-85712-X
Chandra, Siddharth and Angela Williams-Foster. "The 'Revolution of Rising Expectations,' Relative Deprivation, and the Urban Social Disorders of the 1960s: Evidence from State-Level Data." Social Science History, (2005) 29#2 pp:299–332, in JSTOR
Cox, Julian. Road to Freedom: Photographs of the Civil Rights Movement, 1956-1968, Atlanta: High Museum of Art, 2008.
Ellis, Sylvia. Freedom's Pragmatist: Lyndon Johnson and Civil Rights (U Press of Florida, 2013).
Fairclough, Adam. To Redeem the Soul of America: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference & Martin Luther King. The University of Georgia Press, 1987.
Garrow, David J. The FBI and Martin Luther King. New York: W.W. Norton. 1981. Viking Press Reprint edition. 1983. ISBN 0-14-006486-9. Yale University Press; Revised and Expanded edition. 2006. ISBN 0-300-08731-4.
Greene, Christina. Our Separate Ways: Women and the Black Freedom Movement in Durham. North Carolina. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
Hine, Darlene Clark, ed. Black Women in America (3 Vol. 2nd ed. 2005; several multivolume editions). Short biographies by scholars.
Horne, Gerald. The Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. 1995. Da Capo Press; 1st Da Capo Press ed edition. October 1, 1997. ISBN 0-306-80792-0
Jones, Jacqueline. Labor of love, labor of sorrow: Black women, work, and the family, from slavery to the present (2009).
Kasher, Steven. The Civil Rights Movement: A Photographic History, New York: Abbeville Press, 1996.
Keppel, Ben. Brown v. Board and the Transformation of American Culture (LSU Press, 2016). xiv, 225 pp.
Kirk, John A. Redefining the Color Line: Black Activism in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1940–1970. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8130-2496-X
Kirk, John A. Martin Luther King Jr. London: Longman, 2005. ISBN 0-582-41431-8.
Kousser, J. Morgan, "The Supreme Court And The Undoing of the Second Reconstruction," National Forum, (Spring 2000).
Kryn, Randall L. "James L. Bevel, The Strategist of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement", 1984 paper with 1988 addendum, printed in We Shall Overcome, Volume II edited by David Garrow, New York: Carlson Publishing Co., 1989.
Lowery, Charles D. Encyclopedia of African-American civil rights: from emancipation to the present (Greenwood, 1992). online
Marable, Manning. Race, Reform and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945–1982. 249 pages. University Press of Mississippi, 1984. ISBN 0-87805-225-9.
McAdam, Doug. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1982.
McAdam, Doug, 'The US Civil Rights Movement: Power from Below and Above, 1945–70', in Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.), Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-19-955201-6.
Minchin, Timothy J. Hiring the Black Worker: The Racial Integration of the Southern Textile Industry, 1960–1980. University of North Carolina Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8078-2470-4.
Morris, Aldon D. The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change. New York: The Free Press, 1984. ISBN 0-02-922130-7
Ogletree, Charles J. Jr. (2004). All Deliberate Speed: Reflections on the First Half Century of Brown v. Board of Education. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-05897-0.
Payne, Charles M. I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle. U of California Press, 1995.
Patterson, James T. Brown v. Board of Education, a Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy. Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-19-515632-3.
Raiford, Leigh. Imprisoned in a Luminous Glare: Photography and the African American Freedom Struggle. (U of North Carolina Press, 2011).
Richardson, Christopher M.; Ralph E. Luker, eds. (2014). Historical Dictionary of the Civil Rights Movement (2nd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8108-8037-5.
Sitkoff, Howard. The Struggle for Black Equality (2nd ed. 2008)
Smith, Jessie Carney, ed. Encyclopedia of African American Business (2 vol. Greenwood 2006). excerpt
Sokol, Jason. There Goes My Everything: White Southerners in the Age of Civil Rights, 1945–1975. (Knopf, 2006).
Tsesis, Alexander. We Shall Overcome: A History of Civil Rights and the Law. (Yale University Press, 2008). ISBN 978-0-300-11837-7
Tuck, Stephen. We Ain't What We Ought to Be: The Black Freedom Struggle from Emancipation to Obama (2011).
Historiography and memory[edit]
Armstrong, Julie Buckner, ed. (2015). The Cambridge Companion to American Civil Rights Literature. Cambridge University Press. pp. xxiv, 209. ISBN 978-1-316-24038-0.
Catsam, Derek (January 2008). "The Civil Rights Movement and the Presidency in the Hot Years of the Cold War: A Historical and Historiographical Assessment". History Compass. 6 (1): 314–344. doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00486.x.
Cha-Jua, Sundiata Keita; Lang, Clarence (Spring 2007). "The "Long Movement" as Vampire: Temporal and Spatial Fallacies in Recent Black Freedom Studies". The Journal of African American History. 92 (2): 265–288.
Eagles, Charles W. (November 2000). "Toward New Histories of the Civil Rights Era". The Journal of Southern History. 66 (4): 815–848. doi:10.2307/2588012. JSTOR 2588012.
Fairclough, Adam (December 1990). "Historians and the Civil Rights Movement". Journal of American Studies. 24 (3): 387–398.
Frost, Jennifer (May 2012). "Using 'Master Narratives' to Teach History: The Case of the Civil Rights Movement" (PDF). History Teacher. 45 (3): 437–446.
Hall, Jacquelyn Dowd (March 2005). "The Long Civil Rights Movement and the Political Uses of the Past" (PDF). The Journal of American History. 91 (4): 1233–1263. doi:10.2307/3660172. JSTOR 3660172.
Lawson, Steven F. (April 1991). "Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement". The American Historical Review. 96 (2): 456–471. doi:10.2307/2163219. JSTOR 2163219.
Lawson, Steven F.; Payne, Charles M. (1998). Debating the Civil Rights Movement, 1945–1968. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-8476-9053-4.
Lawson, Steven F. (2003). Civil Rights Crossroads: Nation, Community, and the Black Freedom Struggle. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-2693-7.
Payne, Charles M. (2007). "Bibliographic Essay: The Social Construction of History". I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle. University of California Press. pp. 413–442. ISBN 978-0-520-25176-2.
Robinson, Armstead L.; Sullivan, Patricia, eds. (1991). New Directions in Civil Rights Studies. University of Virginia Press. ISBN 978-0-8139-1319-3.
Sandage, Scott A. (June 1993). "A Marble House Divided: The Lincoln Memorial, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Politics of Memory, 1939–1963" (PDF). The Journal of American History. 80 (1): 135–167. doi:10.2307/2079700. JSTOR 2079700. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
Strickland, Arvarh E.; Weems, Robert E., eds. (2001). The African American Experience: An Historiographical and Bibliographical Guide. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-29838-7.
Zamalin, Alex (2015). African American Political Thought and American Culture: The Nation's Struggle for Racial Justice. Springer. pp. xii, 192. ISBN 978-1-137-52810-0.
Autobiographies and memoirs[edit]
Carson, Clayborne; Garrow, David J.; Kovach, Bill; Polsgrove, Carol, eds. Reporting Civil Rights: American Journalism 1941–1963 and Reporting Civil Rights: American Journalism 1963–1973. New York: Library of America, 2003. ISBN 1-931082-28-6 and ISBN 1-931082-29-4.
Dann, Jim. Challenging the Mississippi Firebombers, Memories of Mississippi 1964–65. Baraka Books, 2013. ISBN 978-1-926824-87-1.
Holsaert, Faith et al. Hands on the Freedom Plow Personal Accounts by Women in SNCC. University of Illinois Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-252-03557-9.
Malcolm X (with the assistance of Alex Haley). The Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: Random House, 1965. Paperback ISBN 0-345-35068-5. Hardcover ISBN 0-345-37975-6.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of civil rights in the United States.
Civil Rights Digital Library – Provided by the Digital Library of Georgia.
Civil Rights Movement Veterans ~ Provides movement history, personal stories, documents, and photos. Hosted by Tougaloo College.
Civil Rights in America – Provided by The National Archives of the United Kingdom.
Television News of the Civil Rights Era 1950–1970 – Provided by the University of Virginia.
Provided by the Library of Congress:
The Civil Rights Era – Part of The African American Odyssey: A Quest for Full Citizenship presentation.
Voices of Civil Rights – A project with the collaboration of AARP and the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights (LCCR).
We Shall Overcome: Historic Places of the Civil Rights Movement – Provided by the National Park Service.
Provided by Southern Poverty Law Center:
"Teaching the Movement: The State Standards We Deserve" – Part of "Teaching Tolerance" project published on September 19, 2011.
"Teaching Tolerance Publishes Guide for Teaching the Civil Rights Movement" – Part of "Teaching Tolerance" project published on March 26, 2014.
"Teaching the Movement 2014: The State of Civil Rights Education in the United States" – Part of "Teaching Tolerance" project published in 2014.
Civil Rights Teaching – Provided by Teaching for Change, a 501(c)(3) organization.
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Civil Rights Memorial
In memoriam
Louis Allen
Willie Brewster
Benjamin Brown
Johnnie Mae Chappell
James Chaney
Addie Mae Collins
Vernon Dahmer
Jonathan Daniels
Henry Hezekiah Dee
Roman Ducksworth Jr.
Willie Edwards
Medgar Evers
Andrew Goodman
Paul Guihard
Samuel Hammond Jr.
Jimmie Lee Jackson
Wharlest Jackson
Martin Luther King Jr.
Bruce W. Klunder
George W. Lee
Herbert Lee
Viola Liuzzo
Carol Denise McNair
Delano Herman Middleton
Charles Eddie Moore
Oneal Moore
William Lewis Moore
Mack Charles Parker
Lemuel Penn
James Reeb
John Earl Reese
Carole Robertson
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Lamar Smith
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Clarence Triggs
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Ben Chester White
Sammy Younge Jr.
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Related
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Civil rights movement
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Martin Luther King Jr.
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Speeches, movements, and protests
Speeches
"Give Us the Ballot" (1957)
"I Have a Dream" (1963)
"How Long, Not Long" (1965)
"Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence" (1967)
"I've Been to the Mountaintop" (1968)
Writings
Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story (1958)
The Measure of a Man (1959)
"What Is Man?"
"Second Emancipation Proclamation"
Strength to Love (1963)
Letter from Birmingham Jail (1963)
Why We Can't Wait (1964)
Conscience for Change (1967)
Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community? (1967)
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and protests
Montgomery bus boycott (1955–1956)
Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom (1957)
Albany Movement (1961–1962)
Birmingham campaign (1963)
March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom (1963)
St. Augustine movement (1963–1964)
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Mississippi March Against Fear (1966)
Anti-Vietnam War movement (1967)
Memphis sanitation strike (1968)
Poor People's Campaign (1968)
show
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Yolanda King (daughter)
Martin Luther King III (son)
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Christine King Farris (sister)
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Alveda King (niece)
Other
leaders
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Ella Baker (colleague)
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Dorothy Cotton (colleague)
Jesse Jackson (protégé)
Bernard Lafayette (colleague)
James Lawson (colleague)
John Lewis (colleague)
Joseph Lowery (colleague)
Benjamin Mays (mentor)
Diane Nash (colleague)
James Orange (colleague)
Bayard Rustin (advisor)
Fred Shuttlesworth (colleague)
C. T. Vivian (colleague)
Wyatt Walker (colleague)
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Andrew Young (colleague)
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Media
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King: A Filmed Record... Montgomery to Memphis (1970 documentary)
Our Friend, Martin (1999 animated)
Boycott (2001 film)
The Witness: From the Balcony of Room 306 (2008 documentary)
Alpha Man: The Brotherhood of MLK (2011 documentary)
Selma (2014 film)
All the Way (2016 film)
Television
King (1978 miniseries)
"The First Store" (The Jeffersons episode, 1980)
"Great X-Pectations" (A Different World episode, 1993)
"The Promised Land" (New York Undercover episode, 1997)
"Return of the King" (The Boondocks episode, 2006)
Plays
The Meeting (1987)
The Mountaintop (2009)
I Dream (2010)
All the Way (2012)
Illustrated
Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story (1957 comic book)
Music
"Abraham, Martin and John" (Dion)
"March! For Martin Luther King" (John Fahey)
"Martin Luther King's Dream" (Strawbs)
"Happy Birthday" (Stevie Wonder)
"Pride (In the Name of Love)" (U2)
"MLK" (U2)
"King Holiday" (King Dream Chorus and Holiday Crew)
"By The Time I Get To Arizona" (Public Enemy)
"Shed a Little Light" (James Taylor)
"Up to the Mountain" (Patti Griffin)
"Never Alone Martin" (Jason Upton)
"Symphony Of Brotherhood" (Miri Ben-Ari)
Joseph Schwantner: New Morning for the World; Nicolas Flagello: The Passion of Martin Luther King (1995 album)
"A Dream" (Common featuring Will.i.am)
"Glory" (Common and John Legend)
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Related topics
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
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Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
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Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
National Civil Rights Museum
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Season for Nonviolence
U.S. Capitol Rotunda sculpture
Oval Office bust
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Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. sculpture, Houston
Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial, San Francisco
Landmark for Peace Memorial, Indianapolis
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. statue, Milwaukee
The Dream sculpture, Portland, Oregon
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library
Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.
Eponymous streets
America in the King Years
Civil rights movement in popular culture
Lee–Jackson–King Day
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Lycée Martin Luther King (disambiguation)
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Civil_rights_movement&oldid=848845210"
Categories:
Civil rights movement
History of African-American civil rights
1950s in the United States
1960s in the United States
Community organizing
Counterculture of the 1960s
Defunct American political movements
History of civil rights in the United States
Movements for civil rights
Nonviolent resistance movements
Politics of the Southern United States
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values: حركة الحقوق المدنية – Arabic

values: Movimientu polos derechos civiles n'Estaos Xuníos – Asturian

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values: Рух за правы афраамерыканцаў – Belarusian

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values: Moviment afroamericà pels drets civils – Catalan

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values: Afroamerické hnutí za občanská práva – Czech

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values: Movimiento por los derechos civiles en Estados Unidos – Spanish

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values: Afro-amerikarren eskubide zibilen aldeko mugimendua (1955-1968) – Basque

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values: جنبش حقوق مدنی سیاهپوستان آمریکا (۶۸–۱۹۵۵) – Persian

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values: Mouvement afro-américain des droits civiques – French

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values: アフリカ系アメリカ人公民権運動 – Japanese

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values: ਅਫ਼ਰੀਕੀ-ਅਮਰੀਕੀ ਨਾਗਰਿਕ ਅਧਿਕਾਰ ਅੰਦੋਲਨ (1954–68) – Punjabi

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values: Movimento dos direitos civis dos negros nos Estados Unidos – Portuguese

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values: Pokret za građanska prava (SAD) – Serbo-Croatian

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values: ఆఫ్రికా-అమెరికా చట్ట హక్కుల ఉద్యమం (1955-1968) – Telugu

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