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Narcos (season 1)
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Narcos (season 1)
Blu-ray cover
Starring
Wagner Moura
Boyd Holbrook
Pedro Pascal
Joanna Christie
Juan Pablo Raba
Maurice Compte
Diego Cataño
Jorge A. Jimenez
Paulina Gaitán
Paulina García
Stephanie Sigman
Bruno Bichir
Raúl Méndez
Manolo Cardona
Cristina Umana
Country of origin
United States
No. of episodes
10
Release
Original network
Netflix
Original release
August 28, 2015 (2015-08-28)
Season chronology
Next →
Season 2
List of Narcos episodes
The first season of Narcos, an American crime thriller drama web television series produced and created by Chris Brancato, Carlo Bernard, and Doug Miro, follows the story of notorious drug kingpin Pablo Escobar, who became a billionaire through the production and distribution of cocaine, while also focusing on Escobar's interactions with other drug lords, DEA agents, and various opposition entities.[1][2]
It stars Wagner Moura as Pablo Escobar – a Colombian drug lord and the leader of the Medellín Cartel, with Boyd Holbrook, Pedro Pascal, Joanna Christie, Juan Pablo Raba, Maurice Compte, Diego, Jorge A. Jimenez, Paulina Gaitán, Paulina García, Stephanie Sigman, Bruno Bichir, Raúl Méndez, Manolo Cardona, Cristina Umana and Alberto Ammann playing various real life based characters.
All 10 episodes of the season became available for streaming on Netflix on August 28, 2015, and were met with generally favorable critical reception. Wagner Moura's portrayal of Pablo Escobar earned him widespread critical acclaim including a Best Actor – Television Series Drama nomination at the 73rd Golden Globe Awards, while the season itself was nominated for Best Television Series – Drama at the ceremony and received Writers Guild of America Award for Television: Episodic Drama, British Academy Television Award for Best International Programme and three Primetime Emmy Award nominations. The series was renewed for a second season, which premiered on September 2, 2016, with 10 episodes.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Synopsis
2 Cast and characters
2.1 Main characters
2.2 Recurring characters
3 Episodes
4 Reception
4.1 Awards and nominations
5 References
6 External links
Synopsis[edit]
Season 1 chronicles the life of Pablo Escobar from the late 1970s, when he first began manufacturing cocaine, to July 1992, when he escaped La Catedral prison. The show chronicles the main events that happened in Colombia during this period and Escobar’s relationship to them. It is told through the perspective of Steve Murphy, an American DEA agent working in Colombia.
The initial episodes show how Escobar first became involved in the cocaine trade in Colombia. He was an established black marketeer in Medellín, moving trucks worth of illegal goods (alcohol, cigarettes, and household appliances) into Colombia during a time when this was strictly forbidden, when introduced to Mateo "Cockroach" Moreno, a Chilean exile and underground chemist, who pitched the idea that they go into business together, with Moreno producing and Escobar distributing a new, profitable drug — cocaine. They expand beyond Moreno's small cocaine processing lab by building additional, larger labs in the rainforest and, using the expertise of Carlos Lehder, transport their product in bulk to Miami, where it gains notoriety amongst the rich and famous. Soon enough, Pablo develops larger labs and more extensive distribution routes into the US to supply growing demand. With cocaine's growth into a drug of importance in the American market, one that accounts for a large flow of US dollars to Colombia and escalating drug-related violence in the US, the Americans send a task force from the DEA to Colombia to address the issue. Steve Murphy, the narrator, is partnered with Javier Peña. The role of Murphy's task force is to work with the Colombian authorities to put an end to the flow of cocaine into the United States.
At the time of Murphy’s arrival in Colombia, Escobar and his associates are dealing with more significant problems than the DEA. They are at war with the M-19, a revolutionary group of guerilla communists. When the M-19 kidnaps the Ochoa brothers' sister Marta, Escobar seizes the opportunity to form strategic alliances with other black-marketeer criminals to establish a group called "Death to Kidnappers", the genesis of the Medellín cartel. His promise to his allies is simple: to recover Marta Ochoa unharmed and to prevent further kidnappings. In the meantime, Escobar has political aspirations, as he desires to eventually become President of Colombia. He is elected as a congressman, but is made a fool of when proof of Escobar having criminal ties to the blooming drug industry is brought. Escobar plots his revenge.
An extradition plan is passed in the Colombian congress, allowing for narcos to be extradited to the United States when caught. This is a landmark win for Murphy, Peña, and the DEA and a devastating blow to the Medellín cartel. After making successive threats to the Colombian government to repeal the extradition plan, Escobar takes action against Rodrigo Lara Bonilla, the Colombian Minister of Justice and a prominent lawyer in the prosecution of cartel members, by gunning him down in his car. Murphy and Peña are finally making progress when they catch Escobar’s accountant, “Blackbeard”, along with a gigantic cache of incriminating evidence. The evidence is stored in the only place large enough and thought to have security strong enough to thwart any break-in attempts: the Palace of Justice. However, Escobar hires the M-19, his former enemies, to attack the Palace and burn all of the evidence. The DEA is left with nothing after Escobar’s slippery move.
In the sixth episode, César Gaviria—the pro-extradition presidential candidate—is targeted by Escobar’s assassins. Their plan is to blow him up whilst on Avianca Flight 203. He is saved when the DEA warns the president’s team of the assassination plans. Nonetheless, with the help of an explosive expert from the terrorist group ETA, the plane is brought down, killing all 107 people on board. The Colombian people are infuriated with the unmanageable levels of violence, especially the plane bombing. The DEA also manages to track down José Gonzalo Rodríguez Gacha, one of Escobar’s principal associates, and violently gun him and his son Fredy down when they try to escape.
As politicians and his business associates begin to turn against him, Escobar finds a way to strike back at them all: he kidnaps journalist Diana Turbay, the daughter of ex-president Julio César Turbay. Escobar uses Diana as a political bargaining chip to fight the extradition plans that the elected president, César Gaviria, has set in motion, and also to negotiate a peace treaty between the Medellín Cartel and the government. After months of gridlock, the government makes one final attempt to capture Escobar, but government forces mistakenly kill hostage Diana Turbay. As Colombia mourns her death, President Gaviria accepts the terms of Escobar’s deal, which will allow Escobar to be incarcerated in his own prison, La Catedral, which will be guarded by his own men. The deal also suspends the extradition plans. Escobar and his colleagues will turn themselves in, and a tentative peace will be restored to Colombia.
Nevertheless, Escobar suffers a tremendous personal blow when his cousin and right-hand man Gustavo Gaviria is brutally killed by the “Search Bloc", a designated team of Colombian Special Operations agents tasked with catching high-level drug barons.[4] In the meantime, Escobar faces competition from the rival Cali Cartel and opposition from members of his own crew. In La Catedral, however, he is protected from authorities and can live in peace without constantly being chased by the Search Bloc. Escobar decorates La Catedral to his liking and hosts guests frequently, including judges, prostitutes, and his family.[citation needed]
The DEA manages to track the movements of people going in and out of La Catedral and observe that two of Pablo’s closest associates, Gerardo Moncada and Fernando Galeano, entered the prison but never left. As the rumors begin to circulate that Escobar killed them in La Catedral, the government uses this new information to try to convince Escobar to be transported to a jail in Bogota so that the government can further "fortify" La Catedral. Escobar does not approve of this, knowing that once in government hands, he will be prosecuted and extradited to the U.S. The army nevertheless surrounds La Catedral. Eduardo Sandoval, vice-minister of justice, decides to brashly enter the prison to escort Escobar out. He mistakenly assumes he has Pablo’s cooperation and is surprised when Escobar takes him hostage, forcing Sandoval to speak with President Gaviria on Escobar’s behalf. President Gaviria, fed up with Escobar’s persistent demands, calls for a special-forces team to be sent into the prison to kill Escobar and his men. The team enters, and Sandoval is rescued safely, but Escobar narrowly escapes La Catedral with a few of his men. Outside La Catedral, Escobar is much more vulnerable because he no longer has the protection of his hundreds of men.
Cast and characters[edit]
Main characters[edit]
Wagner Moura as Pablo Escobar – a Colombian drug lord and the leader of the Medellín Cartel
Boyd Holbrook as Steve Murphy – a DEA agent tasked with bringing down Escobar[5]
Pedro Pascal as Javier Peña – a DEA agent, who is on Murphy's task force
Joanna Christie as Connie Murphy[6] – Steve's wife, a nurse who works in the local hospital
Juan Pablo Raba as Gustavo Gaviria – Escobar's cousin and one of the founding members of the Medellín Cartel
Maurice Compte as Horacio Carrillo – a Colombian police chief, based on Colonel Hugo Martínez[7][8]
Diego Cataño as Juan Diego "La Quica" Díaz – an assassin routinely hired by the Medellín, based on Dandeny Muñoz Mosquera
Jorge A. Jiménez as Roberto "Poison" Ramos – a hitman hired by the Medellín Cartel, who often argues with Quica about personal death counts
Paulina Gaitán as Tata Escobar – Escobar's wife, based on María Henao
Paulina García as Hermilda Gaviria – Escobar's mother, a former Colombian schoolteacher
Stephanie Sigman as Valeria Vélez – a Colombian journalist who also serves as Pablo Escobar's mistress, based on Virginia Vallejo[9][10]
Bruno Bichir as Fernando Duque – a Colombian lawyer who represents Pablo Escobar, acting as his liaison with the Colombian government
Raúl Méndez as César Gaviria – a Colombian economist and politician and the 28th President of Colombia
Manolo Cardona as Eduardo Sandoval – the Vice Minister of Justice in President Gaviria's administration[11]
Recurring characters[edit]
Julián Díaz as El Negro or "Blackie" (né Nelson Hernández) – a member of the Medellín Cartel, who is frequently seen by Escobar's side (in real life, Escobar had a close friend named Jorge "El Negro" Pabón[12])
Juan Sebastián Calero as Navegante - a violent associate of the Cali Cartel who works as their top henchman
Jon-Michael Ecker as El León or "The Lion" - a childhood friend of Escobar's who becomes his first drug smuggler into Miami and subsequently runs Escobar's Miami operations
Alberto Ammann as Hélmer "Pacho" Herrera – a Colombian drug lord and high-ranking member of the Cali Cartel
Richard T. Jones as CIA Officer – a CIA officer, also on Murphy's task force
Cristina Umaña as Judy Moncada - a former leader in the Medellín Cartel who, after Escobar murdered her husband Kiko, led a breakaway cartel and allied with the Cali Cartel and Los Pepes; she is based on the real-life Dolly Moncada[13]
Patrick St. Esprit as Colonel Lou Wysession – a Marine officer fighting against communism
Luis Guzmán as Gonzalo Rodríguez Gacha – founding member and former leader of the Medellín Cartel
Juan Riedinger as Carlos Lehder – Lion's contact in the United States, tasked with distributing the cocaine
André Mattos as Jorge Ochoa – founding member and former leader of the Medellín Cartel
Roberto Urbina as Fabio Ochoa – a high-ranking member of the Medellín Cartel (Season 1)
Ana de la Reguera as Elisa Álvarez[11] – the co-leader of guerrilla faction 19th of April Movement (M-19)
Danielle Kennedy as Ambassador Noonan – a United States Ambassador deployed to Colombia under Ronald Reagan
Thaddeus Phillips as Agent Owen – a CIA agent on the Colombia task force
Ariel Sierra as Sureshot – one of Escobar's sicarios
Carolina Gaitán as Marta Ochoa – the Ochoas' sister, who is kidnapped by M-19
Laura Perico as Marina Ochoa – the Ochoas' sister, who has an affair with Escobar's cousin Gustavo
Vera Mercado as Ana Gaviria – the wife of César Gaviria and the First Lady of Colombia
Episodes[edit]
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date
1
1 "Descenso" José Padilha Chris Brancato and Carlo Bernard & Doug Miro August 28, 2015 (2015-08-28)
Chilean drug chemist Cockroach brings his product to Colombian smuggler Pablo Escobar. DEA agent Steve Murphy joins the war on drugs in Bogota.
2
2 "The Sword of Simón Bolivar" José Padilha Chris Brancato August 28, 2015 (2015-08-28)
Communist radical group M-19 makes a move against the narcos, while Murphy gets an education in Colombian law enforcement from his new partner Peña.
3
3 "The Men of Always" Guillermo Navarro Dana Calvo August 28, 2015 (2015-08-28)
Murphy encounters the depths of government corruption when he and Peña try to derail Escobar's political ambitions by proving he's a narco.
4
4 "The Palace in Flames" Guillermo Navarro Chris Brancato August 28, 2015 (2015-08-28)
Despite a new extradition treaty, the U.S. puts more money into fighting communism, creating new challenges for Murphy and Peña in the hunt for Pablo.
5
5 "There Will Be a Future" Andi Baiz Dana Ledoux Miller August 28, 2015 (2015-08-28)
Pablo's extreme methods put the narcos on the brink of war with Carillo and the government. Peña tries to protect his witness.
6
6 "Explosivos" Andi Baiz Andy Black August 28, 2015 (2015-08-28)
Peña and Carillo close in on Gacha. Murphy tries to protect pro-extradition candidate Gaviria from a notorious assassin connected to Pablo.
7
7 "You Will Cry Tears of Blood" Fernando Coimbra Dana Calvo & Zach Calig August 28, 2015 (2015-08-28)
Pablo goes into hiding as the political tide turns against him, but he finds a way to strike back. Murphy and Peña finally get the CIA to help them.
8
8 "La Gran Mentira" Fernando Coimbra Allison Abner August 28, 2015 (2015-08-28)
A tragic mistake forces the government to change tactics in the fight against Pablo. But Pablo faces bigger threats from inside his empire.
9
9 "La Catedral" Andi Baiz Nick Schenk & Chris Brancato August 28, 2015 (2015-08-28)
The hunt for Pablo seems to be over after he makes a deal with the government, but Murphy and Peña - and the Cali Cartel - have other plans.
10
10 "Despegue" Andi Baiz Nick Schenk & Chris Brancato August 28, 2015 (2015-08-28)
Pablo's activities in prison provoke the government into taking extreme action. Murphy and Peña face a situation of their own.
Reception[edit]
First season received generally favorable reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes a review aggregator surveyed 45 reviews and judged 78% to be positive. The site reads, "Narcos lacks sympathetic characters, but pulls in the viewer with solid acting and a story that's fast-paced enough to distract from its familiar outline."[14] On Metacritic, Season 1 holds a score of 77 out of 100, based on 19 critics, indicating "Generally favorable reviews".[15] IGN gave the first season a 7.8 out of 10 score saying it "Good" and reads "It's a true-to-life account, sometimes to a fault, of the rise of Pablo Escobar and the hunt that brought him down laced with stellar performances and tension-filled stand-offs. Its blend of archival footage reminds us that the horrors depicted really happened, but also manage to present an Escobar that is indefensible but frighteningly sympathetic."[16]
Season received generally positive reviews from many media outlets. Writing for The Philadelphia Inquirer, Tirdad Derakhshani reviewed the season positively, calling it "Intense, enlightening, brilliant, unnerving, and addictive, Narcos is high-concept drama at its finest."[17] The New York Post's, Robert Rorke said, "Catching Escobar then becomes an exciting and suspenseful story arc, and makes Narcos the first cool show of the new season."[18] Joshua Alston of The A.V. Club judged "Narcos is frequently funny and just stylized enough to amplify the entertainment value without minimizing the gravity of the subject matter. It’s an eminently bingeable show even as it makes a strong case for moderate consumption."[19] Television critic, Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter also reviewed the series positively saying, "The series begins to find its pacing not long after, and we see the strength of Moura’s acting, which to his credit never races, in the early going, toward over-the-top menace or the drug-lord cliches we're all used to at this point. Credit also the fact that Padilha brings a documentary feel to Narcos."[20]
Nancy deWolf Smith of The Wall Street Journal wrote, "The omniscient-narrator device works very well for a complex story spanning many years and varied sets of players."[21] Critic Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times said, "It’s built on sharp writing and equally sharp acting, as any good series needs to be."[22] San Francisco Chronicle's David Wiegand said, "Virtually every performance is equal to the quality of the script, but Moura is especially compelling as he manipulates the seeming incongruities of Escobar’s character to heighten his aura of unpredictable menace.... Brancato does make one significant misstep by having the entire series heavily narrated by Murphy."[23] Chief TV critic Brian Lowry of Variety also lauded the series saying, "The sparely told project weaves together a taut, gripping narrative, in stark contrast with the flatness of its characters and color scheme. All told, this Gaumont production is the kind of binge-worthy TV addiction that Netflix was born to import."[24]
Some were more critical towards the show including chief television critic Mary McNamara of Los Angeles Times who wrote, "It's a grand if inconsistent experiment that, from the moment it opens with a definition of magic realism, wears its considerable ambitions on its sleeve."[25] New York Daily News's David Hinckley, moderately reviewed the season and said, "One of the strengths of Narcos is its refusal to paint anyone as purely good or bad."[26] Writing for IndieWire, Liz Shannon Miller said, "An unlikeable character, no matter the circumstances, remains unlikeable, but an unlikeable character trumps a bland blonde man whose position of authority appears to be his only really interesting character trait, no matter how much voice-over he utters."[27] Josh Bell of Las Vegas Weekly quipped, "Mostly the show is a breezy tour through history, sometimes informative but rarely affecting."[28]
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Award
Category
Recipient(s)
Result
Ref.
2016 Writers Guild of America Awards Episodic Drama "Explosivos" Nominated [29]
Golden Globe Awards Best Actor – Television Series Drama Wagner Moura Nominated [30]
Best Television Series – Drama Nominated
BAFTA TV Awards Best International Programme Nominated [31]
Satellite Awards Best Television Series – Drama Nominated [32]
Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards Outstanding Main Title Design Nominated [33]
Outstanding Main Title Theme Music Rodrigo Amarante Nominated
Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series "Descenso" Nominated
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Netflix Plans To Create Original Series About Colombian Drug Lord Pablo Escobar". Fox News. April 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Netflix's 'Narcos' Series On Pablo Escobar 'Will Be Like Nothing Ever Seen Before'". The Huffington Post. May 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ "'Narcos' Sets Season 2 Premiere Date". Deadline. June 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ "It's back to the beginning in episode eight of 'Narcos'". www.nydailynews.com. New York Daily News. September 21, 2015. Retrieved January 3, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Netflix's Pablo Escobar Drama Adds 'Hatfields' Alum (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. June 5, 2014.
Jump up ^ Ge, Linda. "Netflix's 'Narcos' Casts Joanna Christie — Star of Tony-Winning 'Once' (Exclusive)". The Wrap. Retrieved May 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ Harvey, Chris (August 1, 2015). "The terrible reign of cocaine king Pablo Escobar". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved November 19, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Maurice Compte boards the Netflix series Narcos". Digital Spy. October 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Entrevista exclusiva con la nueva chica Bond mexicana". Publimetro (in Spanish). Metro International. March 12, 2015. Retrieved March 12, 2015. Hago a Valeria Velez, un personaje distinto basado en la amante de Pablo Escobar, Virginia Vallejo, un personaje importante en Colombia
Jump up ^ "Stephanie Sigman Joins Netflix Series 'Narcos'". Variety. July 20, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "'Narcos' Netflix Casting: Ana De La Reguera, 'The Book Of Life' Actress, Joins Cast". Latin Times. October 9, 2014.
Jump up ^ Guryney, Kyra (5 December 2014). "Top 10 Tales from Pablo Escobar's Son's Book". InsightCrime.
Jump up ^ Bowden, Mark (November 26, 2000). "A Former Ally Offers A Profile Of Escobar". The Philadelphia Inquirer.
Jump up ^ "Narcos: Season 1 (2015)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved March 13, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Narcos". Metacritic. Retrieved September 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ Chris Wheatley (August 27, 2015). "Narcos: Season 1 Review". IGN. Retrieved September 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ Tirdad Derakhshani (August 27, 2015). "Narcos: Season 1 Review". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Retrieved September 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ Robert Rorke (August 28, 2015). "Cocaine kingpin Pablo Escobar laid bare in 'Narcos'". New York Post. Retrieved September 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ Joshua Alston (August 28, 2015). "Netflix's drug-war drama Narcos gives summer television a generous bump". The A.V. Club. Retrieved September 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ Tim Goodman (August 19, 2015). "'Narcos': TV Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved October 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ Nancy deWolf Smith (August 28, 2015). "Easy to get hooked on Netflix's drug drama 'Narcos'". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved October 11, 2015.
Jump up ^ Neil Genzlinger (August 28, 2015). "Review: 'Narcos' Follows the Rise and Reign of Pablo Escobar". The New York Times. Retrieved October 5, 2015.
Jump up ^ David Wiegand (August 26, 2015). "Get hooked on Netflix's compelling drug war saga". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved October 6, 2015.
Jump up ^ TV Review: ‘Narcos’ (August 18, 2015). "Get hooked on Netflix's compelling drug war saga". Variety. Retrieved October 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Mary McNamara (August 26, 2015). "Netflix's 'Narcos' plays up Pablo Escobar's menace and magnetism". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved October 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ David Hinckley (August 26, 2015). "'Narcos' review: Realistic look at 1990s drug lord Pablo Escobar and his pursuer on Netflix". New York Daily News. Retrieved October 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Josh Bell (August 26, 2015). "The Grug War gets a superficial dramatization in Narcos". IndieWire. Retrieved October 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ Josh Bell (August 26, 2015). "The Grug War gets a superficial dramatization in Narcos". Las Vegas Weekly. Retrieved October 12, 2015.
Jump up ^ "2016 Writers Guild Awards Winners & Nominees". Writers Guild of America. Archived from the original on April 24, 2016. Retrieved July 31, 2016.
Jump up ^ Moraski, Lauren (December 10, 2015). "Golden Globe Awards 2016 nominees list". CBS News. Retrieved July 31, 2016.
Jump up ^ Lazarus, Susanna (8 May 2016). "BAFTA Television Awards 2016 – winners in full". Radio Times. Retrieved 31 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Narcos - Awards - IMDb". IMDb. Retrieved July 31, 2016.
Jump up ^ Prudom, Laura (July 14, 2016). "Creative Arts Emmy Awards Winners: 'Game Of Thrones' Leads Way On Night 1". Deadline.com. Archived from the original on September 11, 2016. Retrieved September 11, 2016.
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text:
Two pounds (British coin)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the circulating £2 coins first issued 1998 (dated 1997) and the commemorative coins issued from 1986 to 1996. For earlier two pound coins, see Two pounds (British gold coin).
Two pounds
United Kingdom
Value
2 pounds sterling
Mass
12 g
Diameter
28.4 mm
Thickness
2.5 mm
Edge
Milled, with incuse lettering
Composition
Outer ring: Nickel-brass
(76% Cu, 20% Zn and 4% Ni)
Centre: Cupro-nickel
(75% Cu , 25% Ni)
Years of minting
1997–present
Obverse
Design
Queen Elizabeth II
Designer
Jody Clark
Design date
2015
Reverse
Design
Britannia
Designer
Antony Dufort
Design date
2015
The British two pound (£2) coin is a denomination of the pound sterling. Its obverse has featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II since the coin’s introduction. Three different portraits of the Queen have been used, with the current design by Jody Clark being introduced in 2015. The reverse design features Britannia.
The coin was introduced on 15 June 1998 (coins minted 1997) after a review of the United Kingdom's coinage decided that a general-circulation £2 coin was needed.[1] The new Bi-metallic coin design replaced a series of commemorative, uni-metallic coins which were issued between 1986 and 1996 to celebrate special occasions. Although legal tender, these coins have never been common in everyday circulation.
As of March 2014 there were an estimated 417 million £2 coins in circulation with an estimated face value of £834 million. [2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Design
2 Variants
3 Mintages
4 See also
5 References
5.1 Notes
6 External links
Design[edit]
The original reverse design, by Bruce Rushin
The original reverse of the coin, designed by Bruce Rushin, is an abstract design symbolising the history of technological achievement, accompanied by the words TWO POUNDS above, and the year of minting below. This was the first bi-metallic coin to be produced for circulation in Britain since the tin farthing with a copper plug produced in 1692, and is the highest denomination coin in common circulation in the UK. The coin consists of an outer yellow metal nickel-brass ring made from 76% copper, 20% zinc, and 4% nickel, and an inner steel-coloured cupro-nickel disc made from 75% copper, 25% nickel. The coin weighs 12 grams and is 28.4 millimetres in diameter.
The design itself was first tried out in 1994 when the Royal Mint produced a short run of demonstration pieces to the new bi-metal standard. These pieces were not for circulation and were simply intended to test the manufacturing process. The coin was technically similar to the version which eventually entered circulation with the Maklouf effigy of Queen Elizabeth II on the obverse and the image of a sailing ship similar to that previously used on the reverse of the pre-decimal halfpenny piece. The inscription on the reverse read ROYAL MINT TRIAL 1994 with an edge inscription based on the one pound coin which read DECUS ET TUTAMEN ANNO REGNI XLVI, meaning "An ornament and a safeguard – in the 46th year of her reign". The 1994 pieces were never legal tender but were eventually released for sale as part of a presentation set in 1998. At the same time in 1994 the Royal Mint produced a mono-metallic trial two-pound coin, with the same ship reverse and inscription, but otherwise similar to the earlier commemorative coins. These were never issued in presentation sets, and so are much scarcer than the bi-metallic version.
Because of technical difficulties, the 1997-dated coins, which bear the effigy of Queen Elizabeth II by Raphael Maklouf, were not released to circulation until June 1998 (the same time as the 1998-dated coins). 1998 and later dated coins bear the effigy of the Queen by Ian Rank-Broadley. The Maklouf-effigy coins bear the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F D[n 1] on the obverse; the Rank-Broadley coins bear the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRA REG FID DEF[n 1].
The reverse of the regular-issue coin, designed by Bruce Rushin, bears a concentric design symbolically representing technological development from the Iron Age, through the Industrial Revolution and the Electronic Age to the Internet, with the inscription TWO POUNDS above the design and the date below. An oddity of the design is that it depicts nineteen interlocking gears. Because there is an odd number of them, the mechanism could not actually turn. The coin has the edge inscription STANDING ON THE SHOULDERS OF GIANTS, a quote taken from a letter by Isaac Newton to Robert Hooke, in which he describes how his work was built on the knowledge of those that had gone before him. "If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." (Newton was Warden and later Master of the Royal Mint.)
In February 2015, the Royal Mint announced a new design featuring Britannia by Antony Dufort replacing the previous design.[3] The new coins will feature the edge inscription QUATUOR MARIA VINDICO, meaning "I will claim the four seas", an inscription previously featured on coins bearing the image of Britannia.[4][5]
The comparative rarity of the Maklouf-effigy coins ("the ones with the necklace") has led to an urban myth that they are much more valuable than the other coins, but this is not true – there were over 13 million 1997-dated £2 coins issued. Another urban myth about the coin is that putting it in the freezer overnight causes the cupro-nickel centre to pop out, a claim which had been true of some early mintings of the similarly bimetallic Canadian 2 dollar coin.
Variants[edit]
In addition to the standard designs there have been several variant reverse designs used on the £2 coin to commemorate important events. These are summarised in the table below.
Reverse designs (Images: [1])
Year
Event
Design
Edge Inscription
Designer
1986 XIII Commonwealth Games Cross of St Andrew, crown of laurel leaves and Scottish Thistle XIII COMMONWEALTH GAMES JULY 1986 Norman Sillman
1989 Tercentenary of the Bill of Rights Cypher of 'W&M' (King William and Queen Mary) interlaced surmounting a horizontal Parliamentary Mace and representation of the Royal Crown above and the dates 1689 and 1989 below, all within the inscription 'Tercentenary of the Bill of Rights' None (milled) John Lobban
1989 Tercentenary of the Claim of Right Cypher of 'W&M' (King William and Queen Mary) interlaced surmounting a horizontal Parliamentary Mace and representation of the Royal Crown above and the dates 1689 and 1989 below, all within the inscription 'Tercentenary of the Claim of Right' None (milled) John Lobban
1994 Tercentenary of the Bank of England The Bank's Corporate Seal including the Crown and Cypher of King William and Queen Mary and the dates 1694–1994 SIC VOS NON VOBIS
(Translation > "Thus we do, but not for ourselves") Leslie Durbin
1995 50th Anniversary of the end of the Second World War A stylised representation of a Dove as the symbol of peace 1945 IN PEACE GOODWILL 1995 John Mills
1995 50th Anniversary of the founding of the United Nations 50th anniversary symbol of United Nations and a fanning pattern of flags with the inscription NATIONS UNITED FOR PEACE above and the dates '1945–1995' below None (milled) Michael Rizzello
1996 10th European Football Championship A stylised representation of a football, with the date of 1996 centrally placed and encircled by sixteen small rings TENTH EUROPEAN CHAMPIONSHIP John Mills
1999 1999 Rugby World Cup Design depicts a stadium, on which is superimposed a rugby ball and goalpost. The date '1999' above separated by goal-posts from the value 'TWO POUNDS' below Rugby World Cup 1999 Ron Dutton
2001 100th Anniversary of Marconi's 1st Wireless Transmission across the Atlantic Radio waves decorating centre and outer border while a spark of electricity linking the zeros of the date represents the generation of the signal WIRELESS BRIDGES THE ATLANTIC...MARCONI 1901... Robert Evans
2002 XVII Commonwealth Games in Manchester Stylised figure of an athlete holding a banner and the inscription XVII Commonwealth Games 2002. Behind the athlete is a circle containing a flag – there are four different versions of this coin, each with one of the flags of Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and England in this circle SPIRIT OF FRIENDSHIP, MANCHESTER 2002 Matthew Bonaccorsi
2003 50th Anniversary of the discovery of DNA A representation of the double helical structure of DNA with the words DNA Double Helix above and 'TWO POUNDS' and the dates '1953–2003' below DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID John Mills
2004 200th Anniversary of the first steam locomotive by Richard Trevithick A representation of a steam locomotive engine with the words 'TWO POUNDS' above and inside a cog wheel, the words R.TREVITHICK 1804 INVENTION INDUSTRY PROGRESS 2004 as a circumscription None (milled with an incuse railway line motif) Robert Lowe
2005 400th anniversary of the Gunpowder Plot An arrangement of crossiers, maces and swords surrounded by stars and the dates 1605 & 2005. Denomination TWO POUNDS below REMEMBER REMEMBER THE FIFTH OF NOVEMBER Peter Forster
2005 60th anniversary of Victory in Europe Day Design depicts St Paul's Cathedral illuminated by searchlights and the value 'TWO POUNDS' sbove and the dates 1945–2005 below In Victory Magnanimity in Peace Goodwill Bob Elderton
2006 Bicentennial of the birth of Isambard Kingdom Brunel Depiction of a section of the roof of Paddington Station with the dates 2006 above and the name BRUNEL to the right and the denomination TWO POUNDS below SO MANY IRONS IN THE FIRE Robert Evans
2006 Bicentennial of the birth of Isambard Kingdom Brunel A portrait of Isambard Kingdom Brunel with two of his engineering achievements, encircled by a chain with the denomination TWO POUNDS above and the date 2006 below 1806–1859 ISAMBARD KINGDOM BRUNEL ENGINEER Rod Kelly
2007 Tercentenary of the Act of Union between England and Scotland A design dividing the coin into four quarters, with a rose and a thistle occupying two of the quarters and a portcullis in each of the other two quarters. The whole design is overlaid with a linking jigsaw motif and surrounded by the dates "1707" and "2007", and the denomination "TWO POUNDS" UNITED INTO ONE KINGDOM Yvonne Holton
2007 Bicentenary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade in the British Empire The date "1807" with the "0" depicted as a broken chain link, surrounded by the inscription "AN ACT FOR THE ABOLITION OF THE SLAVE TRADE" and the date "2007" AM I NOT A MAN AND A BROTHER David Gentleman
2008 Olympic Handover Ceremony A flag showing the five Olympic rings being passed from a hand on the left to a hand on the right. The surrounding inscription reads "BEIJING 2008" left of image and "LONDON 2012" to right. The London 2012 olympic logo is at the bottom of the coin overlapping both metals I CALL UPON THE YOUTH OF THE WORLD The Royal Mint Engraving Team
2008 The Centenary of the London Olympic Games of 1908 Four lanes of a running track extend from bottom left and converge into distance towards top right. The lane numbers show "1908" across the lanes with "TWO POUNDS 2008" written along the lanes. The inscription "LONDON OLYMPIC CENTENARY" is shown around the upper right half of the coin THE 4TH OLYMPIAD LONDON Thomas T Docherty
2009 250th Anniversary of the birth of Robert Burns A handwriting style of font reads [sic] "we'll tak a cup a' kindness yet, for auld lang syne". The inscription "1759 ROBERT BURNS 1796" above, "TWO POUNDS" below SHOULD AULD ACQUAINTANCE BE FORGOT The Royal Mint Engraving Team
2009 200th Anniversary of Charles Darwin's birth A profile portrait of Charles Darwin on left, facing right, stares into the face of a chimpanzee on right, facing left. The inscription "1809 . DARWIN . 2009" above, "TWO POUNDS" below ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES 1859 Suzie Zamit
2010 100th Anniversary of the death of Florence Nightingale The design portrays a pulse being taken, whilst the background symbolises the rays of light from the lamp that Florence Nightingale was known for carrying during her rounds to tend to the wounded troops in the Crimean War. Surrounded by the inscription "1820 – FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE – 1910" with "TWO POUNDS" below 150 YEARS OF NURSING Gordon Summers
2011 400th Anniversary of the King James Bible The design features typeset in a replica of the black letter typeface used in the first edition: the reversed, raised text of the printing block on the left and the recessed text of the printed word on the right, taking the form of the quote, ‘In the beginning was the Word’ (John 1:1).’[6] Inscription "KING JAMES BIBLE" above, "1611–2011" below THE AUTHORISED VERSION Paul Stafford & Benjamin Wright
2011 500th Anniversary of the maiden voyage of the Mary Rose The Mary Rose sailing right, based upon a 1546 pictorial survey of Henry VIII's navy. Inscription "THE MARY ROSE" above, "TWO POUNDS" below YOUR NOBLEST SHIPPE 1511 John Bergdahl
2012 200th Anniversary of the birth of Charles Dickens A profile outline of Charles Dickens, facing left, created from the titles of Dickens’ famous works. Inscription "1812 CHARLES DICKENS 1870" to left SOMETHING WILL TURN UP Matthew Dent
2012 The London 2012 Handover to Rio The design depicts the moment of a baton handover in a relay race. The hand holding the baton descends from top right, above a sweeping UK flag which twists to become the flag of Brazil below the hand reaching up from bottom left to take the baton.[7] Inscription "LONDON 2012" top left, "RIO 2016" bottom right. The London 2012 olympic logo is at the very top of the coin I CALL UPON THE YOUTH OF THE WORLD Jonathan Olliffe
2013 London Underground 150th Anniversary – The Train The front of a tube train (1967 stock) fills the cupro-nickel centre of the coin as if approaching out of a tunnel formed by the surrounding nickel-brass outer ring of the coin. Inscription "1863 · LONDON UNDERGROUND · 2013" above Linear representation of the Tube map Edward Barber and Jay Osgerby
2013 London Underground 150th Anniversary – The Roundel A representation of the London Underground logo with "1863" above and "2013" below MIND THE GAP Edwina Ellis
2013 The 350th Anniversary of the Guinea A recreation of the design on what became known as the "spade guinea": a shield with the arms of King George III. Surrounding inscription "ANNIVERSARY OF THE GOLDEN GUINEA 2013" WHAT IS A GUINEA? ‘TIS A SPLENDID THING (Stephen Kemble quotation) Anthony Smith ARBS
2014 100th Anniversary of the Outbreak of the First World War A representation of the famous recruitment poster featuring Lord Kitchener with the legend "YOUR COUNTRY NEEDS YOU". Surrounding inscription "THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914–1918" with "2014" below THE LAMPS ARE GOING OUT ALL OVER EUROPE John Bergdahl[8]
2014 500th Anniversary of Trinity House The beacon of a lighthouse shining out to left and right. Surrounding inscription "1514 TRINITY HOUSE 2014" with "TWO POUNDS" below. SERVING THE MARINER Joe Whitlock-Blundell and David Eccles[8]
2015 800th Anniversary of the Magna Carta[9] King John is signing the Charter witnessed by a bishop and baron. Surrounding inscription "MAGNA CARTA" with "1215 - 2015" below FOUNDATION OF LIBERTY John Bergdahl
2015 The Royal Navy[10] Iron Duke-class battleship in profile with a lone seaplane on the starboard side and sea birds on the port side. Surrounding inscription "THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914 - 1918" with "2015" below THE SURE SHIELD OF BRITAIN David Rowlands
2016 William Shakespeare[11] Comedy - Jesters hat and stick. Surrounding inscription "WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE" with "2016" below All the Worlds a Stage John Bergdahl
2016 William Shakespeare[11] History - crown with a dagger through the middle of the crown. Surrounding inscription "WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE" with "2016" below The Hollow Crown John Bergdahl
2016 William Shakespeare[11] Tragedy - skull with a rose. Surrounding inscription "WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE" with "2016" below What a piece of work is a man John Bergdahl
2016 The Army[12] Surrounding inscription "THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-1918" with "2016" below FOR KING AND COUNTRY John Bergdahl
2016 The Great Fire of London[13] Surrounding inscription "1666 THE GREAT FIRE OF LONDON 2016" with "TWO POUNDS" below THE WHOLE CITY IN DREADFUL FLAMES Aaron West
2017 Jane Austen
2017 First World War Aviation
Mintages[edit]
[show]Uni-metallic coin
1986 ~ 8,212,184
1989 ~ 4,777,891
1994 ~ 1,443,116
1995 ~ 6,056,506
1996 ~ 5,141,350 [14]
[show]Bi-metallic coin – total
1997 ~ 13,734,625
1998 ~ 91,110,375
1999 ~ 38,652,000
2000 ~ 25,770,000
2001 ~ 39,542,750
2002 ~ 13,024,750
2003 ~ 21,830,250
2004 ~ 16,986,000
2005 ~ 19,168,750
2006 ~ 32,095,500
2007 ~ 26,260,000
2008 ~ 31,935,000
2009 ~ 15,931,000
2010 ~ 13,065,000
2011 ~ 26,390,030
2012 ~ 4,745,000
2013 ~ 17,420,250
2014 ~ 18,200,000
2015 ~ 35,360,058[15]
[show]Bi-metallic coin – commemoratives issued into circulation[15]
1999 ~ 4,933,000 (Rugby World Cup)
2001 ~ 4,558,000 (Marconi)
2002 ~ 771,750 (Commonwealth Games – Scotland)
2002 ~ 588,500 (Commonwealth Games – Wales)
2002 ~ 485,500 (Commonwealth Games – Northern Ireland)
2002 ~ 650,500 (Commonwealth Games – England)
2003 ~ 4,299,000 (DNA)
2004 ~ 5,004,500 (Trevithick)
2005 ~ 10,191,000 (World War Two)
2005 ~ 5,140,500 (Gunpowder Plot)
2006 ~ 7,928,250 (Brunel – portrait)
2006 ~ 7,452,250 (Brunel – achievements)
2007 ~ 7,545,000 (Act of Union)
2007 ~ 8,445,000 (Abolition of Slave Trade)
2008 ~ 910,000 (1908 Olympic Games)
2008 ~ 918,000 (Beijing Olympic Games Handover)
2009 ~ 3,903,000 (Charles Darwin)
2009 ~ 3,253,000 (Robert Burns)
2010 ~ 6,175,000 (Florence Nightingale)
2011 ~ 975,000 (King James Bible)
2011 ~ 1,040,000 (The Mary Rose)
2012 ~ 845,000 (Rio Olympic Games Handover)
2012 ~ 8,190,000 (Charles Dickens – 200th Anniversary)
2013 ~ 1,690,000 (London Underground – train)
2013 ~ 1,560,000 (London Underground – roundel)
2013 ~ 2,990,000 (Anniversary of the Guinea)
2014 ~ 980,000 (Anniversary of the Outbreak of the First World War)
2014 ~ 285,000 (500th Anniversary of Trinity House)
2015 ~ 1,495,000 (800th Anniversary of the Magna Carta)
2015 ~ 650,000 (The Royal Navy)
2015 ~ 650,000 (Britannia)
2016 ~ 4,335,000 (William Shakespeare - Comedy)
2016 ~ 4,615,000 (William Shakespeare - History)
2016 ~ 5,695,000 (William Shakespeare - Tragedy)
2016 ~ 9,550,000 (First World War Army)
2016 ~ 5,135,000 (The Great Fire of London)
2016 ~ 2,925,000 (Britannia)
See also[edit]
Numismatics portal
Coins of the pound sterling
Banknotes of the pound sterling
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Two Pound Coin Designs and Specifications, Royal Mint
Jump up ^ "Mintage Figures". Royal Mint. Retrieved 28 December 2015.
Jump up ^ A symbol of optimism BRITANNIA RETURNS Royal Mint (www.royalmint.com). Retrieved on 2015-03-01.
Jump up ^ "The Definitive 2015 United Kingdom £2 Brilliant Uncirculated Coin". Royal Mint. 2015. Retrieved 2015-03-02.
Jump up ^ Thomas Snelling (1762). A View of the Silver Coin and Coinage of England, from the Norman Conquest to the Present Time: Consider'd with Regard to Type, Legend, Sorts, Rarity, Weight, Fineness and Value : with Copper Plates. T. Snelling. p. 34.
Jump up ^ King James £2 coin issued, Royal Mint
Jump up ^ London 2012 Handover to Rio – the final London 2012 coin, Royal Mint
^ Jump up to: a b "The Royal Mint announces coins for 2014". Royal Mint. 6 January 2014. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
Jump up ^ 800th Anniversary of the Magna Carta 2015 UK £2 BU Coin Royal Mint (www.royalmint.com). Retrieved on 2014-11-13.
Jump up ^ The Royal Navy 2015 UK £2 Brilliant Uncirculated Coin Royal Mint (www.royalmint.com). Retrieved on 2014-11-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c The Shakespeare 2016 UK £2 Three-Coin BU Set Royal Mint (www.royalmint.com). Retrieved on 2015-11-03.
Jump up ^ The Army 2016 UK £2 Brilliant Uncirculated Coin Royal Mint (www.royalmint.com). Retrieved on 2015-11-03.
Jump up ^ Great Fire of London 2016 UK £2 Brilliant Uncirculated Coin Royal Mint (www.royalmint.com). Retrieved on 2015-11-03.
Jump up ^ "Commemorative £2 coins struck to circulating standard, 1986-96". Royal Mint. 2008. Retrieved 2012-11-24.
^ Jump up to: a b United Kingdom decimal coins issued into general circulation, Royal Mint. Retrieved 2014-05-08.
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c For a details of inscriptions, see British coinage
External links[edit]
Royal Mint – £2 coin
Coins of the UK – Decimal £2 Coins
The Pemember 'error' on the £2 Gunpowder Plot commemorative
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Mechanical equilibrium
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
An object resting on a surface and the corresponding free body diagram showing the forces acting on the object. The normal force N is equal, opposite, and colliniear to the gravitational force mg so the net force and moment is zero. Consequently, the object is in a state of static mechanical equilibrium.
In classical mechanics, a particle is in mechanical equilibrium if the net force on that particle is zero.[1]:39 By extension, a physical system made up of many parts is in mechanical equilibrium if the net force on each of its individual parts is zero.[1]:45–46[2]
In addition to defining mechanical equilibrium in terms of force, there are many alternative definitions for mechanical equilibrium which are all mathematically equivalent. In terms of momentum, a system is in equilibrium if the momentum of its parts is all constant. In terms of velocity, the system is in equilibrium if velocity is constant. In a rotational mechanical equilibrium the angular momentum of the object is conserved and the net torque is zero.[2] More generally in conservative systems, equilibrium is established at a point in configuration space where the gradient of the potential energy with respect to the generalized coordinates is zero.
If a particle in equilibrium has zero velocity, that particle is in static equilibrium.[3][4] Since all particles in equilibrium have constant velocity, it is always possible to find an inertial reference frame in which the particle is stationary with respect to the frame.
Contents
1 Stability
1.1 Potential energy stability test
1.2 Statically indeterminate system
2 Examples
3 See also
4 Notes and references
5 Further reading
Stability[edit]
An important property of systems at mechanical equilibrium is their stability.
Potential energy stability test[edit]
If we have a function which describes the system's potential energy, we can determine the system's equilibria using calculus. A system is in mechanical equilibrium at the critical points of the function describing the system's potential energy. We can locate these points using the fact that the derivative of the function is zero at these points. To determine whether or not the system is stable or unstable, we apply the second derivative test:
Unstable equilibria
Second derivative < 0
The potential energy is at a local maximum, which means that the system is in an unstable equilibrium state. If the system is displaced an arbitrarily small distance from the equilibrium state, the forces of the system cause it to move even farther away.
Stable equilibria
Second derivative > 0
The potential energy is at a local minimum. This is a stable equilibrium. The response to a small perturbation is forces that tend to restore the equilibrium. If more than one stable equilibrium state is possible for a system, any equilibria whose potential energy is higher than the absolute minimum represent metastable states.
Neutral equilibria
Second derivative = 0 or does not exist
The state is neutral to the lowest order and nearly remains in equilibrium if displaced a small amount. To investigate the precise stability of the system, higher order derivatives must be examined. The state is unstable if the lowest nonzero derivative is of odd order or has a negative value, stable if the lowest nonzero derivative is both of even order and has a positive value, and neutral if all higher order derivatives are zero. In a truly neutral state the energy does not vary and the state of equilibrium has a finite width. This is sometimes referred to as state that is marginally stable or in a state of indifference.
When considering more than one dimension, it is possible to get different results in different directions, for example stability with respect to displacements in the x-direction but instability in the y-direction, a case known as a saddle point. Generally an equilibrium is only referred to as stable if it is stable in all directions.
Statically indeterminate system[edit]
Main article: Statically indeterminate
Sometimes there is not enough information about the forces acting on a body to determine if it is in equilibrium or not. This makes it a statically indeterminate system.
Examples[edit]
A stationary object (or set of objects) is in "static equilibrium," which is a special case of mechanical equilibrium. A paperweight on a desk is an example of static equilibrium. Other examples include a rock balance sculpture, or a stack of blocks in the game of Jenga, so long as the sculpture or stack of blocks is not in the state of collapsing.
Objects in motion can also be in equilibrium. A child sliding down a slide at constant speed would be in mechanical equilibrium, but not in static equilibrium (in the reference frame of the earth or slide).
Another example of mechanical equilibrium is a person pressing a spring to a defined point. He or she can push it to an arbitrary point and hold it there, at which point the compressive load and the spring reaction are equal. In this state the system is in mechanical equilibrium. When the compressive force is removed the spring returns to its original state.
The minimal number of static equilibria of homogeneous, convex bodies (when resting under gravity on a horizontal surface) is of special interest. In the planar case, the minimal number is 4, while in three dimensions one can build an object with just one stable and one unstable balance point.[citation needed] Such an object is called a gömböc.
See also[edit]
Dynamic equilibrium
Engineering mechanics
Metastability
Statically indeterminate
Statics
Notes and references[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b John L Synge & Byron A Griffith (1949). Principles of Mechanics (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
^ Jump up to: a b Beer FP, Johnston ER, Mazurek DF, Cornell PJ, and Eisenberg, ER (2009). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 158. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Herbert Charles Corben & Philip Stehle (1994). Classical Mechanics (Reprint of 1960 second ed.). Courier Dover Publications. p. 113. ISBN 0-486-68063-0.
Jump up ^ Lakshmana C. Rao; J. Lakshminarasimhan; Raju Sethuraman; Srinivasan M. Sivakumar (2004). Engineering Mechanics. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 6. ISBN 81-203-2189-8.
Further reading[edit]
Marion JB and Thornton ST. (1995) Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems. Fourth Edition, Harcourt Brace & Company.
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