text:
Estelle Harris
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (August 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Estelle Harris
Harris at the premiere of Ponyo in 2009.
Born
Estelle Nussbaum
(1928-04-04) April 4, 1928 (age 89)
Manhattan, New York, U.S.
Occupation
Actress, voice artist, comedian
Years active
1977–present
Spouse(s)
Sy Harris (m. 1953)[1]
Children
3[2]
Estelle Harris (née Nussbaum; April 4, 1928)[3] is an American actress, voice artist and comedian. Easily recognized by her distinctive, high-pitched voice, she is best known for her roles as Estelle Costanza on Seinfeld, the voice of Mrs. Potato Head in the Toy Story franchise, and Muriel on The Suite Life of Zack & Cody.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
3 Personal life
4 Selected filmography
4.1 Film
4.2 Television
5 References
6 External links
Early life[edit]
Estelle Nussbaum was born in Manhattan, the younger of two daughters of Isaac and Anna Nussbaum, Polish Jewish immigrants who owned a candy store.[4]
Career[edit]
Harris is best known for her supporting role as Estelle Costanza, George's (Jason Alexander) mother and Frank's (Jerry Stiller) wife on Seinfeld, her voice role as Mrs. Potato Head in the Toy Story franchise, and her role as Muriel on The Suite Life of Zack & Cody. She appeared in Brad Paisley's music video for the song "Online".[5] In 2013, she played the mother of CBGB founder Hilly Kristal in the film CBGB.
Harris's voice work also includes Lula from Dave the Barbarian, Mama Lipsky on Kim Possible, Thelma on The Proud Family, Old Lady Bear in Brother Bear (2003), Audrey in Home on the Range (2004), and Death's nagging mother on Family Guy.
Personal life[edit]
Harris has been married to her husband Sy Harris since 1953; together they have three children.[6]
Selected filmography[edit]
Film[edit]
Year
Title
Role
Notes
1984 Once Upon a Time in America Peggy's Mother
1988 Stand and Deliver Secretary
1992 This Is My Life Aunt Harriet
1995 Perfect Alibi Aunt Dorothy
1995 The West Side Waltz
1997 Out to Sea Bridget
1998 Chairman of the Board Ms. Krubavitch
1998 The Odd Couple II Flirting Woman
1998 My Giant Aunt Pearl
1999 Lost & Found Mrs. Stubblefield
1999 Toy Story 2 Mrs. Potato Head Voice
2000 What's Cooking? Aunt Bea
2000 Dancing in September Sally
2000 Playing Mona Lisa Aunt Velva
2001 Good Advice Iris
2003 Brother Bear Old Lady Bear Voice
2004 Home on the Range Audrey Voice
2004 Teacher's Pet Mrs. Boogin Voice
2005 Tarzan II Mama Gunda Voice
2006 Queer Duck: The Movie Mrs. Duckstein Voice
2007 The Grand Ruth Melvin
2010 Toy Story 3 Mrs. Potato Head Voice
2010 Movin' In Arlene Taylor
2011 Hawaiian Vacation Mrs. Potato Head Voice
Short film
2011 Small Fry Mrs. Potato Head Voice
Short film
2012 Partysaurus Rex Mrs. Potato Head Voice
Short film
2013 CBGB Bertha Kristal
2015 Promoted Sylvia Silver
2019 Toy Story 4 Mrs. Potato Head Voice
Television[edit]
Night Court .... Easy Mary (1985–1986)
Married... with Children .... Delilah (1987)
Mathnet .... Postal Worker (1990)
Brooklyn Bridge .... Esther Shapiro (1991)
Law & Order .... Mrs. Rachlin (1992)
Mad About You .... Mother (1992)
Good Advice .... Ronnie Cohen (1993)
Chicago Hope .... Speaker at Funeral (Uncredited) (1995)
Aladdin .... Additional Voices (1995)
Timon & Pumbaa .... Timon's Mother (1995)
In the House .... Mrs. Claus (1995)
The Mask .... Lt. Kellaway's Mother (1996)
The Tick .... Arthur's Mother (1996)
Star Trek: Voyager .... Old Woman (1996)
Moesha .... Frances Howie (1997)
Living Single .... Esther Brooks (1997)
Cybill .... Woman (1997)
Seinfeld .... Estelle Costanza (1992–1998)
Addams Family Reunion .... Grandma Addams (1998)
Hercules .... Phil's Mother (1998)
The Wild Thornberrys .... Iguana/Turtle (1998)
Godzilla: The Series (1998)
The Rosie O'Donnell Show .... Herself (1998)
Queer Duck .... Mrs. Duckstein (1999)
The Brothers Flub .... Additional Voices (1999)
Sunset Beach .... Margaret Raynor (1999)
The Parkers .... Miss Agnes (1999)
Providence .... Darlene (2000)
Mickey Mouse Works .... Mrs. Turtle (1999–2000)
Sabrina, the Teenage Witch .... Dora (2001)
Family Guy .... Death's Mother (2001)
House of Mouse .... Mrs. Turtle (2002)
Weakest Link .... Herself (2002)
Whammy! The All-New Press Your Luck .... Herself (2002)
Half & Half .... Grandma Sophie (2003)
The Proud Family .... Helga (2003)
Test the Nation (2003)
Kim Possible .... Mama Lipsky (2004)
Kramer vs. Kramer: Kenny to Cosmo .... Herself (2004)
Dave the Barbarian .... Lula (2004–05)
Tripping the Rift .... Estelle (2005)
Phil of the Future .... Older Pim (2005)
Mind of Mencia (2006)
ER .... Mrs. Markovic (2006)
iCarly .... Mrs. Halberstadt (2007)
Can You Teach My Alligator Manners? .... Nana (2008)
The Suite Life of Zack & Cody .... Muriel (2005–2008)
American Dad! .... Marty's Wife (2009)
Curb Your Enthusiasm .... Estelle Costanza / Herself (2009)
Fanboy & Chum Chum .... Oz's Mom (2010)
Sonny with a Chance .... Grace Gallagher (2010)
The Bonnie Hunt Show .... Herself (2010)
KTLA Morning News .... Herself (2010)
Made in Hollywood .... Herself (2009–10)
Totally Tracked Down .... Herself (2010)
The Looney Tunes Show .... Sylvester's Mother (2011)
Futurama .... Velma Farnsworth (2012)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Profile, latimes.com, January 29, 1995; accessed May 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ Profile, latimes.com, January 29, 1995; accessed May 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ Born in 1928 as per both the 1930 United States census, which lists Isaac Nussbaum (age 30) as "Head", Anna Nussbaum (age 30) as "Wife" and Minnie (age 9) and Estelle (age 2) as "Daughter[s]", New York City. Ward 6th Assembly District; Date: April 6, 1930.
Jump up ^ Per 1930 U.S. census data
Jump up ^ "Brad Paisley gets in tune with "Online" video". Country Standard Times. Retrieved 2012-12-09.
Jump up ^ Profile, latimes.com, January 29, 1995; accessed May 7, 2017.
External links[edit]
Estelle Harris on IMDb
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 36582940
LCCN: no2002039290
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estelle_Harris&oldid=802076869"
Categories:
1928 births
Living people
Actresses from New York City
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
American film actresses
Jewish American comedians
American musical theatre actresses
American television actresses
American voice actresses
Jewish American actresses
Jewish comedians
People from Manhattan
American women comedians
Comedians from New York City
Hidden categories:
BLP articles lacking sources from August 2011
All BLP articles lacking sources
Articles with hCards
Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers
Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Acèh
العربية
Arpetan
Asturianu
Bân-lâm-gú
Català
Chavacano de Zamboanga
Corsu
Deutsch
Dolnoserbski
Eesti
Español
فارسی
Føroyskt
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî
한국어
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Kernowek
Kirundi
Lumbaart
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Occitan
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
Papiamentu
Piemontèis
Polski
Português
Qaraqalpaqsha
Русский
Scots
Shqip
Simple English
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
Türkmençe
Walon
Winaray
Yorùbá
Edit links
This page was last edited on 23 September 2017, at 21:12.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: b

value: span

value: i

value: small

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-BLP_sources

values: Estelle Harris - Ponyo - USA premiere.jpg

values:
/wiki/Manhattan,_New_York
mw-redirect
Manhattan, New York

values:
/wiki/Estelle_Costanza
mw-redirect
Estelle Costanza

values:
/wiki/Polish_Jewish
mw-redirect
Polish Jewish

values:
/wiki/Frank_Costanza
mw-redirect
Frank Costanza

values:
/wiki/Doctor_Drakken#Mama_Lipsky
mw-redirect
Doctor Drakken

values:
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

values:
/wiki/Aladdin_(TV_series)
mw-redirect
Aladdin (TV series)

values:
/wiki/The_Mask_(TV_series)
mw-redirect
The Mask (TV series)

values:
/wiki/Grandma_Addams
mw-redirect
Grandma Addams

values:
/wiki/House_of_Mouse
mw-redirect
House of Mouse

values:
/wiki/Kramer_vs._Kramer:_Kenny_to_Cosmo
mw-redirect
Kramer vs. Kramer: Kenny to Cosmo

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-2

values: -moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0364680/
external text

values:
nofollow
external text
https://viaf.org/viaf/36582940

values: Category:American people of Polish-Jewish descent

values: Category:American musical theatre actresses

values: Category:BLP articles lacking sources from August 2011

values: Category:All BLP articles lacking sources

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Estelle_Harris
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: إستيل هاريس – Arabic

values: استل هریس – Persian

values: 에스텔 해리스 – Korean

values: אסטל האריס – Hebrew

values: エステル・ハリス – Japanese

values: Харрис, Эстель – Russian

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Estelle_Harris rootpage-Estelle_Harris vector-experimental-print-styles vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view


text:
Drug test
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Drug testing (disambiguation).
Drug test
Medical diagnostics
MeSH
D015813
[edit on Wikidata]
A drug test is a technical analysis of a biological specimen, for example urine, hair, blood, breath, sweat, and/or oral fluid/saliva — to determine the presence or absence of specified parent drugs or their metabolites,including vape up to six months. Major applications of drug testing include detection of the presence of performance enhancing steroids in sport, employers and parole/probation officers screening for drugs prohibited by law (such as cannabis, cocaine, methamphetamine, and heroin) and police officers testing for the presence and concentration of alcohol (ethanol) in the blood commonly referred to as BAC (blood alcohol content). BAC tests are typically administered via a breathalyzer while urinalysis is used for the vast majority of drug testing in sports and the workplace. Numerous other methods with varying degrees of accuracy, sensitivity (detection threshold/cutoff), and detection periods exist.
A drug test may also refer to a test that provides quantitative chemical analysis of an illegal drug, typically intended to help with responsible drug use.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Detection periods
2 Types
2.1 Urine drug screen
2.2 Breath test
2.3 Hair testing
2.3.1 Alcohol
2.4 Presumptive substance testing
2.5 Saliva drug screen / Oral fluid-based drug screen
2.6 Sweat drug screen
2.7 Blood
2.8 Anabolic steroids
2.9 Random drug testing
2.10 Diagnostic screening
3 Methodologies
3.1 Urine drug testing
3.2 Spray drug testing
3.3 Hair drug testing
4 Legality, ethics and politics
4.1 United Kingdom
4.2 United States
4.3 Australia
5 Refusal
5.1 Historical cases
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Detection periods[edit]
The following chart gives approximate detection periods for each substance by test type.[2]
The detection windows depend upon multiple factors: drug class, amount and frequency of use, metabolic rate, body mass, age, overall health, and urine pH. For ease of use, the detection times of metabolites have been incorporated into each parent drug. For example, heroin and cocaine can only be detected for a few hours after use, but their metabolites can be detected for several days in urine. The chart depicts the longer detection times of the metabolites.
Oral fluid or saliva testing results for the most part mimic that of blood. The only exceptions are THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) and benzodiazepines. Oral fluid will likely detect THC from ingestion up to a maximum period of 6–12 hours. This continues to cause difficulty in oral fluid detection of THC and benzodiazepines.[3]
Breath air for the most part mimics blood tests as well. Due to the very low levels of substances in the breath air, liquid chromatography—mass spectrometry has to be used to analyze the sample according to a recent publication wherein 12 analytes were investigated.
Rapid oral fluid products are not approved for use in workplace drug testing programs and are not FDA cleared. Using rapid oral fluid drug tests in the workplace is prohibited in only:[4]
California
Kansas
Maine
Minnesota
New York
Vermont
K2, also known as synthetic cannabinoids, is detectable for up to 3 days after single use or up to 30 days for chronic users. It wasn't tested for in the past but is now detectable in modern tests.
Approximate values for detection periods[5]
Substance
Urine
Hair
Blood / Oral Fluid
Alcohol
6–24 hours[6] Note: Alcohol tests may measure ethyl glucuronide, which can stay in urine for up to 80 hours up to 90 days[7] 12 to 24 hours
Amphetamines (except methamphetamine)
1 to 3 days[8] up to 90 days 12 hours
Methamphetamine
3 to 5 days[9] up to 90 days 1 to 3 days[9]
MDMA (Ecstasy)
3 to 4 days up to 90 days 3 to 4 days
Barbiturates (except phenobarbital)
1 day up to 90 days 1 to 2 days
Phenobarbital
2 to 3 weeks[10] up to 90 days 4 to 7 days
Benzodiazepines
Therapeutic use: up to 7 days. Chronic use (over one year): 4 to 6 weeks up to 90 days 6 to 48 hours
Cannabis
Passive inhalation: up to 22 minutes** Infrequent users: 7-10 Days; Heavy users:30 to 100 days;[11][12][13] up to 90 days[11] 2 to 3 days in blood, up to 2 weeks in blood of heavy users[11] However, it depends on whether actual THC or THC metabolites are being tested for, the latter having a much longer detection time than the former. THC (found in marijuana) may only be detectable in saliva/oral fluid for 2 to 24 hours in most cases.
Cocaine
2 to 5 days (with exceptions for heavy users who can test positive up to 7–10 days, and individuals with certain kidney disorders) up to 90 days 2 to 10 days
Codeine
2 to 3 days up to 90 days 1 to 4 days
Cotinine (a breakdown product of nicotine)
2 to 4 days up to 90 days 2 to 4 days
Morphine
2 to 4 days up to 90 days 1 to 3 days
Tricyclic antidepressants (TCA's)
7 to 10 days[14] Undetectable[15] Detectable but dose relationship not established[16]
LSD
2–24 hours up to 4 days[citation needed] 2 to 4 days
Methadone
7 to 10 days up to 90 days 24 hours
Steroids
3 to 30 days
PCP
3 to 7 days for single use; up to 30 days in chronic users[17] up to 90 days 1 to 3 days[17]
Types[edit]
Urine drug screen[edit]
Main article: Urinalysis
Urine analysis is primarily used because of its low cost. Urine drug testing is one of the most common testing methods used. The enzyme-multiplied immune test is the most frequently used urinalysis. Complaints have been made about the relatively high rates of false positives using this test.[18]
Urine drug tests screen the urine for the presence of a parent drug or its metabolites. The level of drug or its metabolites is not predictive of when the drug was taken or how much the patient used. Rather, it is simply a confirmatory report indicating the presence of the parent drug or its metabolites.[citation needed]
Urine drug testing is an immunoassay based on the principle of competitive binding. Drugs which may be present in the urine specimen compete against their respective drug conjugate for binding sites on their specific antibody. During testing, a urine specimen migrates upward by capillary action. A drug, if present in the urine specimen below its cut-off concentration, will not saturate the binding sites of its specific antibody. The antibody will then react with the drug-protein conjugate and a visible colored line will show up in the test line region of the specific drug strip.[citation needed]
When an employer requests a drug test from an employee, or a physician requests a drug test from a patient, the employee or patient is typically instructed to go to a collection site or their home. The urine sample goes through a specified 'chain of custody' to ensure that it is not tampered with or invalidated through lab or employee error. The patient or employee’s urine is collected at a remote location in a specially designed secure cup, sealed with tamper-resistant tape, and sent to a testing laboratory to be screened for drugs (typically the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration 5 panel). The first step at the testing site is to split the urine into two aliquots. One aliquot is first screened for drugs using an analyzer that performs immunoassay as the initial screen. To ensure the specimen integrity and detecting possible adulterant, some other parameters such as, urine creatinine, pH, and specific gravity are tested along in this initial test. If the urine screen is positive then another aliquot of the sample is used to confirm the findings by gas chromatography—mass spectrometry (GC-MS) or liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry methodology. If requested by the physician or employer, certain drugs are screened for individually; these are generally drugs part of a chemical class that are, for one of many reasons, considered more abuse-prone or of concern. For instance, oxycodone and diamorphine may be tested, both sedative analgesics. If such a test is not requested specifically, the more general test (in the preceding case, the test for opiates) will detect the drugs, but the employer or physician will not have the benefit of the identity of the drug.
Employment-related test results are relayed to a medical review office (MRO) where a medical physician reviews the results. If the result of the screen is negative, the MRO informs the employer that the employee has no detectable drug in the urine, typically within 24 hours. However, if the test result of the immunoassay and GC-MS are non-negative and show a concentration level of parent drug or metabolite above the established limit, the MRO contacts the employee to determine if there is any legitimate reason—such as a medical treatment or prescription.[19]
On-site instant drug testing is a more cost-efficient method of effectively detecting drug abuse amongst employees, as well as in rehabilitation programs to monitor patient progress.[citation needed] These instant tests can be used for both urine and saliva testing. Although the accuracy of such tests varies with the manufacturer, some kits boast extremely high rates of accuracy, correlating closely with laboratory test results.[20]
Breath test[edit]
Main article: Breathalyzer
Breath test being used on a volunteer.
Breath test is a widespread method for quickly determining alcohol intoxication. A breath test measures the alcohol concentration in the body by a deep-lung breath. There are different instruments used for measuring the alcohol content of an individual though their breath. Breathalyzer is a widely known instrument which was developed in 1954 and contained chemicals unlike other breath-testing instruments.[21] More modernly used instruments are the infrared light-absorption devices and fuel cell detectors, these two testers are microprocessor controlled meaning the operator only has to press the start button.
To get accurate readings on a breath-testing device the individual must blow for approximately 6 seconds and need to contain roughly 1.1 to 1.5 liters of breath. For a breath-test to result accurately and truly an operator must take steps such as avoiding measuring “mouth alcohol” which is a result from regurgitation, belching, or recent intake of an alcoholic beverage.[22] To avoid measuring “mouth alcohol” the operator must not allow the individual that’s taking the test to consume any materials for at least fifteen minutes before the breath test. When pulled over for a driving violation if an individual in the United States refuses to take a breath test that individual's driver's license can be suspend for a 6 to 12 months time period.
Hair testing[edit]
Main article: Hair analysis
Hair analysis to detect drugs of abuse has been used by court systems in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and other countries worldwide. In the United States, hair testing has been accepted in court cases as forensic evidence following the Frye Rule, the Federal Rules of Evidence, and the Daubert Rule. As such, hair testing results are legally and scientifically recognized as admissible evidence.[citation needed]
Although some lower courts may have accepted hair test evidence, there is no controlling judicial ruling in either the federal or any state system declaring any type of hair test as reliable.
Hair testing is now recognized in both the UK and US judicial systems. There are guidelines for hair testing that have been published by the Society of Hair Testing (a private company in France) that specify the markers to be tested for and the cutoff concentrations that need to be tested. Drugs of abuse that can be detected include Cannabis, Cocaine, Amphetamines and drugs new to the UK such as Mephedrone.
Alcohol[edit]
In contrast to other drugs consumed, alcohol is deposited directly in the hair. For this reason the investigation procedure looks for direct products of ethanol metabolism. The main part of alcohol is oxidized in the human body. This means it is released as water and carbon dioxide. One part of the alcohol reacts with fatty acids to produce esters. The sum of the concentrations of four of these fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs: ethyl myristate, ethyl palmitate, ethyl oleate and ethyl stearate) are used as indicators of the alcohol consumption. The amounts found in hair are measured in nanograms (one nanogram equals only one billionth of a gram), however with the benefit of modern technology, it is possible to detect such small amounts. In the detection of ethyl glucuronide, or EtG, testing can detect amounts in picograms (one picogram equals 0.001 nanograms).
However, there is one major difference between most drugs and alcohol metabolites in the way in which they enter into the hair: on the one hand like other drugs FAEEs enter into the hair via the keratinocytes, the cells responsible for hair growth. These cells form the hair in the root and then grow through the skin surface taking any substances with them. On the other hand, the sebaceous glands produce FAEEs in the scalp and these migrate together with the sebum along the hair shaft (Auwärter et al., 2001, Pragst et al., 2004). So these glands lubricate not only the part of the hair that is just growing at 0.3 mm per day on the skin surface, but also the more mature hair growth, providing it with a protective layer of fat.
FAEEs (nanogram = one billionth of a gram) appear in hair in almost one order of magnitude lower than (the relevant order of magnitude of) EtG (picogram = one trillionth of a gram). It has been technically possible to measure FAEEs since 1993, and the first study reporting the detection of EtG in hair was done by Sachs in 1993.[23]
In practice, most hair which is sent for analysis has been cosmetically treated in some way (bleached, permed etc.). It has been proven that FAEEs are not significantly affected by such treatments (Hartwig et al., 2003a). FAEE concentrations in hair from other body sites can be interpreted in a similar fashion as scalp hair (Hartwig et al., 2003b).
Presumptive substance testing[edit]
Presumptive substance tests identify a suspicious substance, material or surface where traces of drugs are thought to be, instead of testing individuals through biological methods such as urine or hair testing. The test involves mixing the suspicious material with a chemical in order to trigger a color change to indicate if a drug is present. Most are now available over-the-counter, and do not require a lab to read results.
Duquenois reagent
Benefits to this method include that the person who is suspected of drug use does not need to be confronted or aware of testing. Only a very small amount of material is needed to obtain results, and can be used to test powder, pills, capsules, crystals, or organic material. There is also the ability to detect illicit material when mixed with other non-illicit materials. The tests are used for general screening purposes, offering a generic result for the presence of a wide range of drugs, including Heroin, Cocaine, Methamphetamine, Amphetamine, Ecstasy/MDMA, Methadone, Ketamine, PCP, PMA, DMT, MDPV, and may detect rapidly evolving synthetic designer drugs. Separate tests for Marijuana/Hashish are also available.[24]
There are five primary color-tests reagents used for general screening purposes. The Marquis reagent turns into a variety of colors when in the presence of different substances. Dille-Koppanyi reagent uses two chemical solutions which turns a violet-blue color in the presence of barbiturates. Duquenois-Levine reagent is a series of chemical solutions that turn to the color of purple when the vegetation of marijuana is added. Van Urk reagent turns blue-purple when in the presence of LSD. Scott Test's chemical solution shows up as a faint blue for cocaine base.[25]
Saliva drug screen / Oral fluid-based drug screen[edit]
Saliva / oral fluid-based drug tests can generally detect use during the previous few days. Is better at detecting very recent use of a substance. THC may only be detectable for 2–24 hours in most cases. On site drug tests are allowed per the Department of Labor.[citation needed]
Detection in saliva tests begins almost immediately upon use of the following substances, and lasts for approximately the following times:
Alcohol: 6-12 h[26]
Marijuana: 1-24h
A disadvantage of saliva based drug testing is that it is not approved by FDA or SAMHSA for use with DOT / Federal Mandated Drug Testing. Oral fluid is not considered a bio-hazard unless there is visible blood; however, it should be treated with care.
Sweat drug screen[edit]
Sweat patches are attached to the skin to collect sweat over a long period of time (up to 14 days).[27] These are used by child protective services, parole departments, and other government institutions concerned with drug use over long periods, when urine testing is not practical.[28] There are also surface drug tests that test for the metabolite of parent drug groups in the residue of drugs left in sweat.
Blood[edit]
Drug-testing a blood sample measures whether or not a drug or a metabolite is in the body at a particular time. These types of tests are considered to be the most accurate way of telling if a person is intoxicated. Blood drug tests are not used very often because they need specialized equipment and medically trained administrators.
Depending on how much marijuana was consumed, it can usually be detected in blood tests within six hours of consumption. After six hours has passed, the concentration of marijuana in the blood decreases significantly. It generally disappears completely within 30 days.
Anabolic steroids[edit]
Anabolic steroids are used to enhance performance in sports and as they are prohibited in most high-level competitions drug testing is used extensively in order to enforce this prohibition. This is particularly so in individual (rather than team) sports such as athletics and cycling.
Random drug testing[edit]
Can occur at any time, usually when the investigator has reason to believe that a substance is possibly being abused by the subject by behavior or immediately after an employee-related incident occurs during work hours. Testing protocol typically conforms to the national medical standard, candidates are given up to 120 minutes to reasonably produce a urine sample from the time of commencement (in some instances this time frame may be extended at the examiners discretion).
Diagnostic screening[edit]
In the case of life-threatening symptoms, unconsciousness, or bizarre behavior in an emergency situation, screening for common drugs and toxins may help find the cause, called a toxicology test or tox screen to denote the broader area of possible substances beyond just self-administered drugs. These tests can also be done post-mortem during an autopsy in cases where a death was not expected. The test is usually done within 96 hours (4 days) after the desire for the test is realized. Both a urine sample and a blood sample may be tested.[29] A blood sample is routinely used to detect ethanol/methanol and ASA/paracetamol intoxication. Various panels are used for screening urine samples for common substances, e.g. triage 8 that detects amphetamines, benzodiazepines, cocaine, methadone, opiates, cannabis, barbiturates and tricyclic antidepressants.[30] Results are given in 10–15 min.
Similar screenings may be used to evaluate the possible use of date rape drugs. This is usually done on a urine sample.[29]
Methodologies[edit]
Before testing samples, the tamper-evident seal is checked for integrity. If it appears to have been tampered with or damaged, the laboratory rejects the sample and does not test it.
Next, the sample must be made testable. Urine and oral fluid can be used "as is" for some tests, but other tests require the drugs to be extracted from urine. Strands of hair, patches, and blood must be prepared before testing. Hair is washed in order to eliminate second-hand sources of drugs on the surface of the hair, then the keratin is broken down using enzymes. Blood plasma may need to be separated by centrifuge from blood cells prior to testing. Sweat patches are opened and the sweat collection component is removed and soaked in a solvent to dissolve any drugs present.
Laboratory-based drug testing is done in two steps. The first step is the screening test, which is an immunoassay based test applied to all samples. The second step, known as the confirmation test, is usually undertaken by a laboratory using highly specific chromatographic techniques and only applied to samples that test positive during the screening test.[31] Screening tests are usually done by immunoassay (EMIT, ELISA, and RIA are the most common). A "dipstick" drug testing method which could provide screening test capabilities to field investigators has been developed at the University of Illinois.[32]
After a suspected positive sample is detected during screening, the sample is tested using a confirmation test. Samples that are negative on the screening test are discarded and reported as negative. The confirmation test in most laboratories (and all SAMHSA certified labs) is performed using mass spectrometry, and is precise but expensive. False positive samples from the screening test will almost always be negative on the confirmation test. Samples testing positive during both screening and confirmation tests are reported as positive to the entity that ordered the test. Most laboratories save positive samples for some period of months or years in the event of a disputed result or lawsuit. For workplace drug testing, a positive result is generally not confirmed without a review by a Medical Review Officer who will normally interview the subject of the drug test.
Urine drug testing[edit]
Urine drug test kits are available as on-site tests, or laboratory analysis. Urinalysis is the most common test type and used by federally mandated drug testing programs and is considered the Gold Standard of drug testing. Urine based tests have been upheld in most courts for more than 30 years. However, urinalysis conducted by the Department of Defense has been challenged for reliability of testing the metabolite of cocaine. There are two associated metabolites of cocaine, benzoylecgonine (BZ) and ecgonine methyl ester (EME), the first (BZ) is created by the presence of cocaine in an aqeous solution with a pH greater than 7.0, while the second (EME) results from the actual human metabolic process. The presence of EME confirms actual ingestion of cocaine by a human being, while the presence of BZ is indicative only. BZ without EME is evidence of sample contamination, however, the US Department of Defense has chosen not to test for EME in its urinalysis program.[33][relevant? – discuss]
A number of different analyses (defined as the unknown substance being tested for) are available on Urine Drug Screens.
Spray drug testing[edit]
Spray (sweat) drug test kits are non-invasive. It is a simple process to collect the required specimen, no bathroom is needed, no laboratory is required for analysis, and the tests themselves are difficult to manipulate and relatively tamper-resistant. The detection window is long and can detect recent drug use within several hours.
There are also some disadvantages to spray or sweat testing. There is not much variety in these drug tests, only a limited number of drugs can be detected, prices tend to be higher, and inconclusive results can be produced by variations in sweat production rates in donors. They also have a relatively long specimen collection period and are more vulnerable to contamination than other common forms of testing.[27]
Hair drug testing[edit]
Hair drug testing is a method that can detect drug use over a much longer period of time,[34] and is often used for highly safety-critical positions where there is zero tolerance of illegal drug use.[35] Standard hair follicle screen covers a period of 30 to 90 days. The growth of hair is usually at the rate of 0.5 inches per month. The hair sample is cut close to the scalp and 80 to 120 strands of hair are needed for the test. In the absence of hair on the head, body hair can be used as an acceptable substitute.[34] This includes facial hair, the underarms, arms, and legs or even pubic hair. Because body hair grows at a different rate than head hair, the timeframe changes, with scientists estimating that drug use can be detected in body hair for up to 12 months. Currently, most entities that use hair testing have prescribed consequences for individuals removing hair to avoid a hair drug test.
The claim that a hair test cannot be tampered with has been shown to be debatable. One study has shown that THC does not readily deposit inside epithelial cells so it is possible for cosmetic and other forms of adulteration to reduce the amount of testable cannabinoids within a hair sample.[23]
Legality, ethics and politics[edit]
The results of federally mandating drug testing were similar to the effects of simply extending to the trucking industry the right to perform drug tests, and it has been argued that the latter approach would have been as effective at lower cost.[36]
Psychologist Tony Buon has criticized the use of workplace drug testing on a number of grounds, including:
Flawed Technology: The real world performance of testing is much lower than that claimed by its promoters. Buon suggest that tests are probably adequate for rehabilitation and treatment situations, possibly adequate for pre-employment situations, but not for dismissing employees.
Ethical Issues: Because of the fairly simple ways that an employee can invalidate the test, drug testing must be strictly monitored. This means that the specimen must be observed leaving the body. Many legal objections currently being raised in the courts about drug testing are pointing to legal requirements of prior notice, consent, due process, and cause.[37][38]
Wrong focus: As has been shown with Employee Assistance Programs, the focus of management concern should be on work performance decline. Buon suggests effective management practices are an infinitely better approach to managing workplace alcohol and other drug issues.[39]
Tony Buon has also reported by the CIPD as stating that "drug testing captures the stupid—experienced drug users know how to beat the tests".[40]
United Kingdom[edit]
A study in 2004 by the Independent Inquiry into Drug Testing at Work found that attempts by employers to force employees to take drug tests could potentially be challenged as a violation of privacy under the Human Rights Act 1998 and Article 8 of the European Convention of Human Rights.[41] However, this does not apply to industries where drug testing is a matter of personal and public safety or security rather than productivity.
United States[edit]
In consultation with Dr. Carlton Turner, President Ronald Reagan issued Executive Order 12564. In doing so, he instituted mandatory drug-testing for all safety-sensitive executive-level and civil-service Federal employees. This was challenged in the courts by the National Treasury Employees Union. In 1988, this challenge was considered by the US Supreme Court.[42] A similar challenge resulted in the Court extending the drug-free workplace concept to the private sector.[43] These decisions were then incorporated into the White House Drug Control Strategy directive issued by President George H.W. Bush in 1989.[44] All defendants serving on federal probation or federal supervised release are required to submit to at least three drug tests. Failing a drug test can be construed as possession of a controlled substance, resulting in mandatory revocation and imprisonment.[45]
There have been inconsistent evaluation results as to whether continued pretrial drug testing has beneficial effects.[46]
Testing positive can lead to bail not being granted, or if bail has already been granted, to bail revocation or other sanctions. Arizona also adopted a law in 1987 authorizing mandatory drug testing of felony arrestees for the purpose of informing the pretrial release decision, and the District of Columbia has had a similar law since the 1970s. It has been argued that one of the problems with such testing is that there is often not enough time between the arrest and the bail decision to confirm positive results using GC/MS technology. It has also been argued that such testing potentially implicates the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination, the right to due process (including the prohibition against gathering evidence in a manner that shocks the conscience or constitutes outrageous government conduct), and the prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures contained in the Fourth Amendment.[47]
According to Henriksson, the anti-drug appeals of the Reagan administration "created an environment in which many employers felt compelled to implement drug testing programs because failure to do so might be perceived as condoning drug use. This fear was easily exploited by aggressive marketing and sales forces, who often overstated the value of testing and painted a bleak picture of the consequences of failing to use the drug testing product or service being offered."[48] On March 10, 1986, the Commission on Organized Crime asked all U.S. companies to test employees for drug use. By 1987, nearly 25% of the Fortune 500 companies used drug tests.[49]
According to an uncontrolled self-report study done by DATIA and Society for Human Resource Management in 2012 (sample of 6,000 randomly selected human resource professionals), human resource professionals reported the following results after implementing a drug testing program: 19% of companies reported a subjective increase in employee productivity, 16% reported a decrease in employee turnover (8% reported an increase), and unspecified percentages reported decreases in absenteeism and improvement of workers' compensation incidence rates.[50]
According to US Chamber of Commerce 70% of all illicit drug users are employed.[51] Some industries have high rates of employee drug use such as construction (12.8%), repair (11.1%), and hospitality (7.9-16.3%).[52]
Australia[edit]
A person conducting a business or undertaking (PCBU—the new term that includes employers) has duties under the work health and safety (WHS) legislation to ensure a worker affected by alcohol or other drugs does not place themselves or other persons at risk of injury while at work. Workplace policies and prevention programs can help change the norms and culture around substance abuse.[citation needed]
All organisations—large and small—can benefit from an agreed policy on alcohol and drug misuse that applies to all workers. Such a policy should form part of an organisations overall health and safety management system. PCBUs are encouraged to establish a policy and procedure, in consultation with workers, to constructively manage alcohol and other drug related hazards in their workplace. A comprehensive workplace alcohol and other drug policy should apply to everyone in the workplace and include prevention, education, counselling and rehabilitation arrangements. In addition, the roles and responsibilities of managers and supervisors should be clearly outlined.[citation needed]
All Australian workplace drug testing must comply with Australian standard AS/NZS4308:2008.[citation needed]
In Victoria, roadside saliva tests detect drugs that contain:[53]
THC (Delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol), the active component in cannabis
methamphetamine, which is found in drugs such as "speed", "base", "ice", and "crystal meth"
MDMA (Methylenedioxymethamphetamine), which is known as ecstasy
In February 2016 a New South Wales magistrate "acquitted a man who tested positive for cannabis". He had been arrested and charged after testing positive during a roadside drug test, despite not having smoked for nine days. He was relying on advice previously given to him by police.[54]
Refusal[edit]
In the United States federal criminal system, refusing to take a drug test triggers an automatic revocation of probation or supervised release.[55][56]
In Victoria, Australia the driver of the car has the option to refuse the drug test. Refusing to undergo a drug test or refusing to undergo a secondary drug test after the first one, triggers an automatic suspension and disqualification for a period of 2 years and a fine of AUD$1000. The second refusal triggers an automatic suspension and disqualification for a period of 4 years and an even larger fine.
Historical cases[edit]
In 1993 Meritorious Marine Sergeant Steve Steinmetz refused to submit to further drug screening on the grounds that it violated his 4th and 5th Amendment Rights against unwarranted search and self-incrimination. He was court-martialed and given a Bad Conduct Discharge from the United States Marine Corps in 1994 for refusing to obey a "lawful order". He was threatened with forced medical procedures to obtain a sample if he was imprisoned. Said Marine stated, "That won't happen". He was discharged without being imprisoned.[citation needed]
In 2000, an Australian Mining Company South Blackwater Coal Ltd with 400 employees, imposed drug-testing procedures, and the trade unions advised their members to refuse to take the tests, partly because a positive result does not necessarily indicate present impairment; the workers were stood-down by the company without pay for a week.[57]
In 2003, sixteen members of the Chicago White Sox considered refusing to take a drug test, in hopes of making steroid testing mandatory.[58]
In 2006, Levy County, Florida volunteer librarians resigned en masse rather than take drug tests.[59]
In 2010, Iranian super heavyweight class weightlifters refused to submit to a drug test authorized by the Iran Weightlifting League.[60]
See also[edit]
Cannabis drug tests
Drug-Free Workplace Act of 1988
Equine drug testing
Forensic toxicology
Lacing (drugs)
Presumptive and confirmatory tests
School district drug policies
Urinalysis
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "I spent my weekend testing drugs at a festival". The Independent. 25 July 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Drugs of Abuse Reference Guide," Pinnacle BioLabs, Retrieved online April 11, 2007.
Jump up ^ U.S. Department of Transportation: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (DOT HS 810 704). Pilot Test of New Roadside Survey Methodology for Impaired Driving. January, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on January 25, 2014. Retrieved 2013-02-21.
Jump up ^ "Heroin Test - Heroin Drug Test - Testing Blood - Urine Tests". TheGoodDrugsGuide. Retrieved 2016-05-11.
Jump up ^ Erowid Alcohol Vault : Drug Testing. Erowid.org. Retrieved on August 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Hair Alcohol Testing (EtG)". Psychemedics.com. Retrieved on June 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ Erowid Amphetamine Vault : Drug Testing. Erowid.org. Retrieved on September 5, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Erowid Methamphetamine Vault : Drug Testing. Erowid.org. Retrieved on September 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Erowid Barbiturates Vault : Drug Testing. Erowid.org. Retrieved on August 7, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Erowid Cannabis (Marijuana) Vault : Drug Testing. Erowid.org (2010-02-28). Retrieved on August 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ Marijuana Detection Time Shorter Than Previously Assumed. norml.org (2006-02-23). Retrieved on March 13, 2012.
Jump up ^ Susan Squibb (2016-03-09). "How long does weed stay in your system?". The Cannabist. Archived from the original on 2016-03-11. Retrieved 2016-05-25.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ "2D6O - Clinical: Cytochrome P450 2D6 Genotype, Saliva". mayomedicallaboratories.com.
Jump up ^ "Employer Drug Testing Hair Test FAQs". Omega Laboratories.
^ Jump up to: a b Erowid PCP Vault : Drug Testing. Erowid.org (2009-11-03). Retrieved on August 7, 2011.
Jump up ^ Abadinsky, H. (2014). Drug use and abuse: A comprehensive introduction. Belmont: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. pp. 163–165. ISBN 9781285070278.
Jump up ^ "Medical Review Officer Manual" (PDF). Medical Review Officer Manual. SAMSHA Gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 15, 2013.
Jump up ^ Article in Confirm Biosciences
Jump up ^ Saferstein, R. (2013). Forensic science: From the crime scene to the crime lab. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education Inc. pp. 295–300. ISBN 978-0131391871.
Jump up ^ Saferstein, R. (2013). Forensic science: From the crime scene to the crime lab. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education. pp. 295–303. ISBN 978-0131391871.
^ Jump up to: a b Pascal Kintz (August 30, 2006). Analytical and practical aspects of drug testing in hair. CRC Press. pp. 305–. ISBN 978-0-8493-6450-1.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on March 10, 2014. Retrieved 2014-03-10. . Touch-know.com. Retrieved on March 10, 2014.
Jump up ^ Saferstein, Richard (2013). Forensic science:From the crime scene to the crime lab. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education Inc. p. 271. ISBN 978-0131391871.
Jump up ^ http://www.erowid.org/psychoactives/testing/testing_info1.shtml Drug Testing Basics
^ Jump up to: a b "Drug Test". 2007.
Jump up ^ "Federal Court Drug-Testing Device Under Fire, PharmChem Sweat Patch May Be "Too Good"". January 5, 2001.
^ Jump up to: a b WebMD --> Toxicology Tests Author: Jeannette Curtis. Primary Medical Reviewer: Kathleen Romito, MD—Family Medicine. Specialist Medical Reviewer: R. Steven Tharratt, MD, MPVM, FACP, FCCP—Pulmonology, Critical Care, Medical Toxicology. Last Updated: May 9, 2008
Jump up ^ Sixteen devices for the detection of drugs of abuse in urine Archived August 11, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. MHRA Report No. MHRA 03078. Report Date: October 2003
Jump up ^ "Principles of Drug Testing Technology," Drug Tests Direct, Retrieved online Dec 07, 2012.
Jump up ^ Jim Barlow (November 2006). "A Little Dab Will Do It". LASNews. University of Illinois. Archived from the original on January 29, 2007. Retrieved November 29, 2006.
Jump up ^ Maume, Chris (November 29, 2013). "Books of the year 2013: Sport". The Independent. London.
^ Jump up to: a b "How Did I Pass My Drug Test - Personal Story". Best Way To Beat Any Drug Test!.
Jump up ^ Hatala, John W. (June 2003). "The Feasibility of Testing Hair for Illicit Drug Use in the United States Marine Corps" (PDF). Monterey, California: Naval Postgraduate School: 2. Retrieved May 7, 2009.
Jump up ^ Mireille Jacobson (April 2003). "Drug Testing in the Trucking Industry: The Effect on Highway Safety". Journal of Law and Economics. 46 (1): 131–156. doi:10.1086/345584.
Jump up ^ Buon, T (1996). Alcohol, Drug and Other Problems in Academia. Drugs In Society. 2/96 June. ADFQ. 8-12.
Jump up ^ "Does testing work?". ebscohost.com.
Jump up ^ Buon, Y. and Compton, B. 1994. "The Development of Alcohol and Other Drug Programs in the Workplace". In Stone, R. J. (ed.). Readings in Human Resource Management (Volume 2): 240–252. Brisbane: John Wiley Ltd.
Jump up ^ "Does testing work? - People Management Magazine Online". cipd.co.uk.
Jump up ^ Independent Inquiry into Drug Testing at Work. "Drug testing in the workplace: Summary conclusions of the Independent Inquiry into Drug Testing at Work". Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved January 17, 2008.
Jump up ^ . National Treasury Employees Union v. von Raab. 86-1879, US Supreme Court, 1989.
Jump up ^ Skinner v. Railway Labor Executives Assoc. 87-15555. US Supreme Court, 1989
Jump up ^ Miller, NS; Giannini, AJ; Gold, MS; Philomena, JA (1990). "Drug testing: medical, legal, and ethical issues". Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment. 7 (4): 239–44. doi:10.1016/0740-5472(90)90047-T. PMID 2290186.
Jump up ^ 18 U.S.C. § 3563, 18 U.S.C. § 3583
Jump up ^ Christy A. Visher. "Pretrial Drug Testing: Panacea or Pandora's Box?". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 521.
Jump up ^ Cathryn Jo Rosen; John S. Goldkamp (Spring 1989). "The Constitutionality of Drug Testing at the Bail Stage". The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 80 (1): 114–176. doi:10.2307/1143765.
Jump up ^ Lennart E. Henriksson (June 1991). "The Unconvincing Case for Drug Testing". Canadian Public Policy. 17 (2): 183–196. doi:10.2307/3551028. JSTOR 3551028.
Jump up ^ Deborah F. Crown; Joseph G. Rosse (Fall 1988). "A Critical Review of the Assumptions Underlying Drug Testing". Journal of Business and Psychology. 3 (1): 22–41. doi:10.1007/BF01016746.
Jump up ^ "Employee Drug Testing Study" (PDF). Global Drug Policy.
Jump up ^ "EAP Employee and Supervisor Drug Education" (PDF). USUHS.mil.
Jump up ^ "Substance Abuse in the hospitality industry". Arkansas Small Business Development Center. Archived from the original on February 16, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Roadside drug testing". www.adf.org.au. Alcohol and Drug Foundation. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
Jump up ^ Knowles, Lorna; Branley (2 February 2016). "Acquittal of man caught drug-driving nine days after smoking cannabis throws NSW drug laws into doubt". abc.net.au. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 2 February 2016. A spokeswoman for NSW Roads Minister Duncan Gay said roadside tests were followed up with lab tests and 97 per cent of tests matched. She said the research they had indicated drugs were only detected in a person's saliva for 12 hours after being ingested.
Jump up ^ 18 U.S.C. § 3565(b)(5)
Jump up ^ 18 U.S.C. § 3583(g)(3)
Jump up ^ Holland, Peter. "Case-Study. Drug Testing in the Australian Mining Industry" (PDF). Surveillance and Society: 204–9.
Jump up ^ "White Sox Players Almost Refused Drug Test". Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. March 12, 2003.
Jump up ^ Voyles, Karen (October 6, 2006). "Library volunteers just say no to drug testing". Gainesville Sun.
Jump up ^ "Iranian weightlifters refuse drug testing". February 16, 2010
External links[edit]
National Institute on Drug Abuse
[show]
v
t
e
Recreational drug use
Major
recreational
drugs
Depressants
Barbiturates
Benzodiazepines
Carbamates
Ethanol (alcohol)
Alcoholic drinks
Beer
Wine
Gabapentinoids
GHB
Inhalants
Medical
Nitrous oxide
Hazardous solvents
contact adhesives
Gasoline
nail polish remover
Paint thinner
Other
Freon
Kava
Nonbenzodiazepines
Quinazolinones
Opioids
Buprenorphine
Suboxone
Subutex
Codeine
Desomorphine
Krokodil
Dextropropoxyphene
Darvocet
Darvon
Fentanyl
Diamorphine
Heroin
Hydrocodone
Hydromorphone
Dilaudid
Methadone
Mitragyna speciosa
Kratom
Morphine
Opium
Oxycodone
/paracetamol
Tramadol
Stimulants
Amphetamine
Arecoline
Areca
Betel
Caffeine
Coffee
Energy drinks
Tea
Cathinone
Khat
Cocaine
Coca
Crack
Ephedrine
Ephedra
MDPV
Mephedrone
Methamphetamine
Methylone
Methylphenidate
Modafinil
Nicotine
Tobacco
Theobromine
Cocoa
Chocolate
Entactogens
2C series
6-APB
Benzofury
AMT
MDA
MDMA
Ecstasy
Hallucinogens
Psychedelics
Bufotenin
Psychoactive toads
Vilca
Yopo
DMT
Ayahuasca
LSA
LSD-25
Mescaline
Peruvian torch
Peyote
San Pedro
Psilocybin / Psilocin
Psilocybin mushrooms
Dissociatives
DXM
Glaucine
Inhalants
Nitrous oxide
alkyl nitrites
poppers
amyl nitrite
Ketamine
MXE
Muscimol
Amanita muscaria
PCP
Salvinorin A
Salvia divinorum
Deliriants
Atropine and Scopolamine
Atropa belladonna
Datura
Hyoscyamus niger
Mandragora officinarum
Dimenhydrinate
Diphenhydramine
Cannabinoids
JWH-018
THC
Cannabis
Hashish
Hash oil
Marijuana
Oneirogens
Calea zacatechichi
Silene capensis
Club drugs
Cocaine
Quaaludes
MDMA (Ecstasy)
Nitrous oxide
Poppers
Drug culture
Cannabis culture
420
Cannabis cultivation
Cannabis smoking
Head shop
Legal history of cannabis in the United States
Legality of cannabis
Marijuana Policy Project
Medical cannabis
NORML
Cannabis and religion
Stoner film
Coffee culture
Coffee break
Coffeehouse
Latte art
Tea house
Drinking culture
Bartending
Beer culture
Beer festival
Binge drinking
Diethyl ether
Drinking games
Drinking song
Happy hour
Hip flask
Nightclub
Pub
Pub crawl
Sommelier
Sports bar
Tailgate party
Wine bar
Wine tasting
Psychedelia
Psychonautics
Art
Drug
Era
Experience
Literature
Music
Microdosing
Therapy
Smoking culture
Cigarette card
Fashion cigarettes
Cloud-chasing
Loosie
Smokeasy
Smoking fetishism
Tobacco smoking
Other
Club drug
Counterculture of the 1960s
Dance party
Drug paraphernalia
Drug tourism
Entheogen
Hippie
Nootropic
Party and play
Poly drug use
Rave
Religion and drugs
Self-medication
Sex and drugs
Whoonga
Drug
production
and trade
Drug
production
Coca production in Colombia
Drug precursors
Opium production in Afghanistan
Rolling meth lab
Drug trade
Illegal drug trade
Colombia
Darknet market
Drug distribution
Beer shop
Cannabis shop
Liquor store
Liquor license
Issues with
drug use
Abuse
Date rape drug
Impaired driving
Drug harmfulness
Effects of cannabis
Addiction
Dependence
Prevention
Opioid replacement therapy
Rehabilitation
Responsible use
Drug-related crime
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
Long-term effects of cannabis
Neurotoxicity
Overdose
Passive smoking
of tobacco or other substances
Legality of
drug use
International
1961 Narcotic Drugs
1971 Psychotropic Substances
1988 Drug Trafficking
Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs
State level
Drug policy
Decriminalization
Prohibition
Supply reduction
Policy reform
Demand reduction
Drug Policy Alliance
Harm reduction
Law Enforcement Action Partnership
Liberalization
Latin America
Students for Sensible Drug Policy
Transform Drug Policy Foundation
Drug policy
by country
Australia
Canada
Germany
India
Netherlands
Portugal
Slovakia
Soviet Union
Sweden
Switzerland
United States
Just Say No
Office of National Drug Control Policy
School district drug policies
California
Colorado
Maryland
Virginia
Other
Arguments for and against drug prohibition
Capital punishment for drug trafficking
Cognitive liberty
Designer drug
Drug court
Drug possession
Drug test
Narc
Politics of drug abuse
War on Drugs
Mexican Drug War
Plan Colombia
Philippine Drug War
Zero tolerance
Lists of
countries by...
Alcohol legality
Alcohol consumption
Anabolic steroid legality
Cannabis legality
Annual use
Lifetime use
Cigarette consumption
Cocaine legality
Cocaine use
Methamphetamine legality
Opiates use
Psilocybin mushrooms legality
Salvia legality
[show]
v
t
e
Employment
Classifications
Casual
Contingent
Full-time
Part-time
Self-employed
Skilled
Independent contractor
Temporary
Tenure
Unskilled
Wage labour
Hiring
Application
Background check
Business networking
Contract
Cover letter
Curriculum Vitae (CV)
Drug testing
e-recruitment
Employment counsellor
Executive search
Induction programme
Job fair
Job fraud
Job hunting
Job interview
Labour brokering
Overqualification
Onboarding
Personality-job fit theory
Person-environment fit
Probation
Reference
Résumé
Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates
Underemployment
Work-at-home scheme
Roles
Co-op
Employee
Employer
Internship
Job
Permanent
Permatemp
Supervisor
Volunteer
Worker class
Blue-collar
Gold-collar
Green-collar
Grey-collar
Pink-collar
White-collar
Career and training
Apprenticeship
Avocation
Career assessment
Career counseling
Career development
Coaching
Creative class
Education
Continuing education
Continuing professional development
E-learning
Employability
Further education
Graduate school
Induction training
Initial Professional Development
Knowledge worker
Licensure
Lifelong learning
Practice-based professional learning
Professional association
Professional certification
Professional development
Professional school
Reflective practice
Retraining
Vocational education
Vocational school
Vocational university
Mentorship
Occupational Outlook Handbook
Practice firm
Profession
Tradesman
Vocation
Attendance
Break
Career break
Furlough
Gap year
Leave of absence
Long service leave
No call, no show
Sabbatical
Sick leave
Time clock
Schedules
Four-day week
Eight-hour day
Flextime
Overtime
Retroactive overtime
Shift work
Telecommuting
Working time
Workweek and weekend
Wages and salaries
Income bracket
Income tax
Living wage
Maximum wage
National average salary
World
Europe
Minimum wage
Canada
Hong Kong
Europe
United States
Progressive wage
Singapore
Overtime rate
Paid time off
Performance-related pay
Salary
Salary cap
Working poor
Benefits
Annual leave
Casual Friday
Day care
Disability insurance
Health insurance
Life insurance
Parental leave
Pension
Sick leave
Take-home vehicle
Safety and health
Epilepsy and employment
Human factors and ergonomics
Industrial noise
Karōshi
Protective clothing
Occupational burnout
Occupational disease
Occupational exposure limit
Occupational health psychology
Occupational injury
Occupational stress
Repetitive strain injury
Sick building syndrome
Work accident
Occupational fatality
Workers' compensation
Workplace phobia
Workplace wellness
Equality
Affirmative action
Equal pay for women
Gender pay gap
Glass ceiling
Infractions
Corporate abuse
Accounting scandals
Corporate behaviour
Corporate crime
Control fraud
Corporate scandals
Discrimination
Dress code
Employee handbook
Employee monitoring
Evaluation
Labour law
Sexual harassment
Sleeping while on duty
Wage theft
Whistleblower
Workplace bullying
Workplace harassment
Workplace incivility
Willingness
Boreout
Civil conscription
Conscription
Dead-end job
Extreme careerism
Job satisfaction
Organizational commitment
McJob
Refusal of work
Slavery
Bonded labour
Human trafficking
Labour camp
Penal labour
Peonage
Truck system
Unfree labour
Wage slavery
Workaholic
Work aversion
Work ethic
Work–life balance
Downshifting (lifestyle)
Slow living
Termination
At-will employment
Dismissal
Banishment room
Constructive dismissal
Wrongful dismissal
Employee exit management
Exit interview
Layoff
Notice period
Pink slip
Resignation
Letter of resignation
Restructuring
Retirement
Mandatory retirement
Retirement age
Severance package
Golden handshake
Golden parachute
Turnover
Unemployment
Barriers to Employment
Depression
Great Depression
Long Depression
Discouraged worker
Frictional unemployment
Full employment
Graduate unemployment
Involuntary unemployment
Jobless recovery
Phillips curve
Recession
Great Recession
Great Recession job losses
List of recessions
Recession-proof job
Reserve army of labour
Types of unemployment
Unemployment Convention
Unemployment benefits
Unemployment extension
Unemployment insurance
Unemployment rates
Employment rates
Employment-to-population ratio
Structural unemployment
Technological unemployment
Wage curve
Youth unemployment
See also templates
Aspects of corporations
Aspects of jobs
Aspects of occupations
Aspects of organizations
Aspects of workplaces
Corporate titles
Organized labor
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Drug_test&oldid=825802540"
Categories:
Drug control law
Doping in sport
Workplace
Medical tests
Tests
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
Articles with inconsistent citation formats
Use mdy dates from August 2011
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from October 2014
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017
Articles with unsourced statements from June 2011
Articles with unsourced statements from June 2010
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017
Wikipedia articles that may have off-topic sections
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015
Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Deutsch
Français
हिन्दी
Nederlands
Русский
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 15 February 2018, at 14:31.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Drug_testing_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Drug testing (disambiguation)

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: th

attrs: colspan style

value: tr

attrs: href title

value: td

attrs: rel class href

values: Use of performance-enhancing drugs in sport

values:
/wiki/Prohibition_(drugs)
mw-redirect
Prohibition (drugs)

values:
/wiki/Police_officers
mw-redirect
Police officers

values:
/wiki/Chemical_analysis
mw-redirect
Chemical analysis

values:
/wiki/Illegal_drug
mw-redirect
Illegal drug

values:
/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressants
mw-redirect
Tricyclic antidepressants

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2014)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2017)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2011)

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2010)

values: Edit section: Presumptive substance testing

values: Edit section: Saliva drug screen / Oral fluid-based drug screen

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2017)

values:
/wiki/Athletics_(sport)
mw-redirect
Athletics (sport)

values:
/wiki/Acetylsalicylic_acid
mw-redirect
Acetylsalicylic acid

values:
/wiki/Blood_cells
mw-redirect
Blood cells

values: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

values: The material near this tag may contain information that is not relevant to the article's main topic. (October 2016)

values: Edit section: Legality, ethics and politics

values:
/wiki/Employee_Assistance_Program
mw-redirect
Employee Assistance Program

values: National Treasury Employees Union v. Von Raab

values:
/wiki/Federal_probation
mw-redirect
Federal probation

values:
/wiki/Federal_supervised_release
mw-redirect
Federal supervised release

values:
/wiki/Pretrial_release
mw-redirect
Pretrial release

values:
/wiki/District_of_Columbia
mw-redirect
District of Columbia

values: Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution

values:
/wiki/Right_to_due_process
mw-redirect
Right to due process

values: Prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures

values: Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution

values:
/wiki/Commission_on_Organized_Crime
mw-redirect
Commission on Organized Crime

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2015)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2017)

values:
/wiki/Cannabis_drug_tests
mw-redirect
Cannabis drug tests

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.touch-know.com/Drug-Test-Kit

values:
nofollow
external text
http://hairdrugtest.org

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1086%2F345584

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2290186

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F1143765

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F3551028

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/3551028

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01016746

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
/wiki/Psychoactive_toad
mw-redirect
Psychoactive toad

values: Legal history of cannabis in the United States

values: National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws

values:
/wiki/Opioid_replacement_therapy
mw-redirect
Opioid replacement therapy

values: United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances

values: Federal drug policy of the United States

values: Arguments for and against drug prohibition

values:
/wiki/War_on_Drugs
mw-redirect
War on Drugs

values: List of countries by alcohol consumption per capita

values: List of countries by cigarette consumption per capita

values: List of countries by prevalence of cocaine use

values: List of countries by prevalence of opiates use

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Personality-job_fit_theory
mw-redirect
Personality-job fit theory

values:
/wiki/Person-environment_fit
mw-redirect
Person-environment fit

values: Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates

values:
/wiki/Initial_Professional_Development
mw-redirect
Initial Professional Development

values: List of countries in Europe by monthly average wage

values:
/wiki/List_of_minimum_wages_in_Canada
mw-redirect
List of minimum wages in Canada

values: List of sovereign states in Europe by minimum wage

values:
/wiki/List_of_U.S._minimum_wages
mw-redirect
List of U.S. minimum wages

values:
/wiki/Industrial_noise
mw-redirect
Industrial noise

values:
/wiki/Protective_clothing
mw-redirect
Protective clothing

values:
/wiki/Equal_pay_for_women
mw-redirect
Equal pay for women

values:
/wiki/Corporate_abuse
mw-redirect
Corporate abuse

values:
/wiki/List_of_corporate_scandals
mw-redirect
List of corporate scandals

values:
/wiki/Employee_exit_management
mw-redirect
Employee exit management

values:
/wiki/Pink_slip_(employment)
mw-redirect
Pink slip (employment)

values: Job losses caused by the Great Recession

values:
/wiki/List_of_recessions
mw-redirect
List of recessions

values:
/wiki/Types_of_unemployment
mw-redirect
Types of unemployment

values:
/wiki/Unemployment_Convention
mw-redirect
Unemployment Convention

values:
/wiki/Unemployment_insurance
mw-redirect
Unemployment insurance

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Template:Organized_labor_navbox
mw-redirect
Template:Organized labor navbox

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: navigation navbox Employment padding:3px

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:Articles with inconsistent citation formats

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from October 2014

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2011

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2010

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2017

values: Category:Wikipedia articles that may have off-topic sections

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2015

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Drug_test
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: ड्रग परीक्षण – Hindi

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drugstest
Drugstest – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Тест на наркотики – Russian

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_drog
Test drog – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values: Тестирање на дроге – Serbian

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drogtest
Drogtest – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Drug_test rootpage-Drug_test skin-vector action-view