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Automotive navigation system
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Navigation with Gosmore, an open source routing software, on a personal navigation assistant with free map data from OpenStreetMap.
An automotive navigation system is part of the automobile controls or a third party add-on used to find direction in an automobile. It typically uses a satellite navigation device to get its position data which is then correlated to a position on a road. When directions are needed routing can be calculated. On the fly traffic information can be used to adjust the route.
Dead reckoning using distance data from sensors attached to the drivetrain, a gyroscope and an accelerometer can be used for greater reliability, as GPS signal loss and/or multipath can occur due to urban canyons or tunnels.
Mathematically, automotive navigation is based on the shortest path problem, within graph theory, which examines how to identify the path that best meets some criteria (shortest, cheapest, fastest, etc.) between two points in a large network.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Technology
2.1 Navigation Data Standard (NDS)
2.1.1 Media
2.2 Real-time data
2.3 Integration and other functions
2.4 Original factory equipment
2.5 SMS
3 See also
4 References
History[edit]
Automotive navigation systems represent a convergence of a number of diverse technologies many of which have been available for many years, but were too costly or inaccessible. Limitations such as batteries, display, and processing power had to be overcome before the product became commercially viable.[1]
1961: Hidetsugu Yagi designed a wireless-based navigation system. This design was still primitive and intended for military-use.
1966: General Motors Research (GMR) was working on a non-satellite-based navigation and assistance system called DAIR (Driver Aid, Information & Routing). After initial tests GM found that it was not a scalable or practical way to provide navigation assistance. Decades later, however, the concept would be reborn as OnStar (founded 1996).[2]
1973: Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) and Fuji Heavy Industries sponsored CATC (Comprehensive Automobile Traffic Control), a Japanese research project on automobile navigation systems.[3]
1979: MITI established JSK (Association of Electronic Technology for Automobile Traffic and Driving) in Japan.[3]
1980: Electronic Auto Compass with new mechanism on the Toyota Crown.
1981: The earlier research of CATC leads to the first generation of automobile navigation systems from Japanese companies Honda, Nissan and Toyota. They used dead reckoning technology.[3]
1981: Honda's Electro Gyro-Cator was the first commercially available car navigation system. It used inertial navigation systems, which tracked the distance traveled, the start point, and direction headed.[4] It was also the first with a map display.[3]
1981: Navigation computer on the Toyota Celica (NAVICOM).[5]
1983: Etak was founded. It made an early system that used map-matching to improve on dead reckoning instrumentation. Digital map information was stored on standard cassette tapes.[6]
1987: Toyota introduced the World's first CD-ROM-based navigation system on the Toyota Crown.[7]
1990: Mazda Eunos Cosmo became the first car with built-in GPS-navigation system[8]
1991: Toyota introduced GPS car navigation on the Toyota Soarer.
1991: Mitsubishi introduced GPS car navigation on the Mitsubishi Debonair (MMCS: Mitsubishi Multi Communication System).[9]
1992: Voice assisted GPS navigation system on the Toyota Celsior.
1993: The Austrian channel ORF airs a presentation of the software company bitMAP and its head Werner Liebig's invention, an electronic city map including street names and house numbers, using a satellite-based navigation system. bitMAP attends Comdex in Las Vegas the same year, but doesn't manage to market itself properly.
1994: BMW 7 series E38 first European model featuring GPS navigation. The navigation system was developed in cooperation with Philips (Philips CARIN).[10]
1995: Oldsmobile introduced the first GPS navigation system available in a United States production car, called GuideStar.[11]
1995: Device called "Mobile Assistant" or short, MASS, produced by Munich-based company ComRoad AG, won the title "Best Product in Mobile Computing" on CeBit by magazine Byte. It offered turn-by-turn navigation via wireless internet connection, with both GPS and speed sensor in the car.
1997: Navigation system using Differential GPS developed as a factory-installed option on the Toyota Prius[12]
1998: First DVD-based navigation system introduced on the Toyota Progres.
2000: The United States made a more accurate GPS signal available for civilian use.[13]
2003: Toyota introduced the first Hard disk drive-based navigation system and the industry's first DVD-based navigation system with a built-in Electronic throttle control
2007: Toyota introduced Map on Demand, a technology for distributing map updates to car navigation systems, developed as the first of its kind in the world
2008: World's first navigation system-linked brake assist function and Navigation system linked to Adaptive Variable Suspension System (NAVI/AI-AVS) on Toyota Crown
Technology[edit]
The road database is a vector map. Street names or numbers and house numbers, as well as points of interest (waypoints), are encoded as geographic coordinates. This enables users to find a desired destination by street address or as geographic coordinates. (See map database management.)
Map database formats are almost uniformly proprietary, with no industry standards for satellite navigation maps, although some companies are trying to address this with SDAL and Navigation Data Standard (NDS). Map data vendors such as Tele Atlas and Navteq create the base map in a GDF (Geographic Data Files) format, but each electronics manufacturer compiles it in an optimized, usually proprietary manner. GDF is not a CD standard for car navigation systems. GDF is used and converted onto the CD-ROM in the internal format of the navigation system. CDF (CARiN Database Format) is a proprietary navigation map format created by Philips.
SDAL is a proprietary map format developed by Navteq, which was released royalty free in the hope that it would become an industry standard for digital navigation maps, has not been very widely adopted by the industry. Vendors who used this format include:
Microsoft
Magellan
Pioneer
Panasonic
Clarion
InfoGation
Navigation Data Standard (NDS)[edit]
The Navigation Data Standard (NDS) initiative, is an industry grouping of car manufacturers, navigation system suppliers and map data suppliers whose objective is the standardization of the data format used in car navigation systems, as well as allow a map update capability. The NDS effort began in 2004 and became a registered association in 2009.[14] Standardization would improve interoperability, specifically by allowing the same navigation maps to be used in navigation systems from 20 manufacturers.[15] Companies involved include BMW, Volkswagen, Daimler, Renault, ADIT, Aisin AW, Alpine Electronics, Navigon, Navis-AMS, Bosch, DENSO, Mitsubishi, Harman International Industries, Panasonic, Preh Car Connect formerly TechniSat, PTV, Continental AG, Clarion, Navteq, Navinfo, TomTom and Zenrin.
Media[edit]
The road database may be stored in solid state read-only memory (ROM), optical media (CD or DVD), solid state flash memory, magnetic media (hard disk), or a combination. A common scheme is to have a base map permanently stored in ROM that can be augmented with detailed information for a region the user is interested in. A ROM is always programmed at the factory; the other media may be preprogrammed, downloaded from a CD or DVD via a computer or wireless connection (bluetooth, Wi-Fi), or directly used utilizing a card reader.
Some navigation device makers provide free map updates for their customers. These updates are often obtained from the vendor's website, which is accessed by connecting the navigation device to a PC.
Real-time data[edit]
Main article: Integration of traffic data with navigation systems
Some systems can receive and display information on traffic congestion using either TMC, RDS, or by GPRS/3G data transmission via mobile phones.
Integration and other functions[edit]
The color LCD screens on some automotive navigation systems can also be used to display television broadcasts or DVD movies.
A few systems integrate (or communicate) with mobile phones for hands-free talking and SMS messaging (i.e., using Bluetooth or Wi-Fi).
Automotive navigation systems can include personal information management for meetings, which can be combined with a traffic and public transport information system.
Original factory equipment[edit]
Many vehicle manufacturers offer a GPS navigation device as an option in their vehicles. Customers whose vehicles did not ship with GPS can therefore purchase and retrofit the original factory-supplied GPS unit. In some cases this can be a straightforward "plug-and-play" installation if the required wiring harness is already present in the vehicle. However, with some manufacturers, new wiring is required, making the installation more complex.
The primary benefit of this approach is an integrated and factory-standard installation. Many original systems also contain a gyrocompass and/or an accelerometer and may accept input from the vehicle's speed sensors and reverse gear engagement signal output, thereby allowing them to navigate via dead reckoning when a GPS signal is temporarily unavailable.[16] However, the costs can be considerably higher than other options.
SMS[edit]
Establishing points of interest in real-time and transmitting them via GSM cellular telephone networks using the Short Message Service (SMS) is referred to as Gps2sms. Some vehicles and vessels are equipped with hardware that is able to automatically send an SMS text message when a particular event happens, such as theft, anchor drift or breakdown. The receiving party (e.g., a tow truck) can store the waypoint in a computer system, draw a map indicating the location, or see it in an automotive navigation system.
See also[edit]
Augmented reality
Automatic vehicle location
Autonomous car
GPS eXchange Format
GPS navigation device
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Map database management
Mapscape BV
Mobile data terminal
Navigation Data Standard (NDS)
NavPix
Navteq
Personal navigation assistant (PNA)
TomTom
Traffic Message Channel (TMC)
Hybride Navigation
References[edit]
GRACENOTE
Jump up ^ Cartographies of Travel and Navigation, James R. Akerman, p.277
Jump up ^ http://www.gpspower.net/gps-news/330038-evolution-car-navigation-technology-pictures.html
^ Jump up to: a b c d Cartographies of Travel and Navigation, James R. Akerman, p.279
Jump up ^ http://edition.cnn.com/2017/06/13/world/gallery/japanese-inventions-changed-how-we-live/index.html
Jump up ^ http://7car.tw/articles/read/12512
Jump up ^ "Positioning and Navigation
Jump up ^ "Toyota Crown Royal 1987". favcars.com/. Retrieved 2015-01-19.
Jump up ^ "1993 Eunos/Mazda Cosmo Classic Drive Uncosmopolitan: Meet the Rarest Mazda in America". Motor Trend. TEN: The Enthusiast Network. Retrieved 2015-01-18.
Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RXd32z5vN18
Jump up ^ "20 JAHRE NAVIGATION Was ist aus ihnen geworden?". auto-motor-und-sport.de/. Retrieved 4 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "How In-Dash Navigation Worked In 1992 – Olds Was First". jesda.com/. Retrieved 2015-01-19.
Jump up ^ "Autoradio GPS Android pas cher, Caméra radar de recul - Player Top". www.player-top.fr. Retrieved 2016-07-18.
Jump up ^ "The United States' Decision to Stop Degrading Global Positioning System Accuracy". Clinton4.nara.gov. 2000-05-01. Retrieved 2009-10-18.
Jump up ^ "Short History of NDS" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-11-05.
Jump up ^ "NDS Partners, NDS Association". NDS Association. Archived from the original on 2015-02-13. Retrieved 2015-02-13. External link in |publisher= (help)
Jump up ^ In-Car Positioning and Navigation Technologies—A Survey, I. Skog, and P. Händel, [1]
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Representative democracy
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Countries designated "electoral democracies" in Freedom House's 2017 survey Freedom in the World, covering the year 2016.[1]
Representative democracy (also indirect democracy, representative republic or psephocracy) is a type of democracy founded on the principle of elected officials representing a group of people, as opposed to direct democracy.[2] Nearly all modern Western-style democracies are types of representative democracies; for example, the United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, Ireland is a unitary parliamentary republic, and the United States is a federal republic.[3]
It is an element of both the parliamentary and the presidential systems of government and is typically used in a lower chamber such as the House of Commons (United Kingdom), Lok Sabha (India) or Dáil Éireann (Republic of Ireland), and may be curtailed by constitutional constraints such as an upper chamber. It has been described by some political theorists including Robert A. Dahl, Gregory Houston and Ian Liebenberg as polyarchy.[4][5] In it the power is in the hands of the elected representatives who are elected by the people in elections.
Contents
[hide]
1 Powers of representatives
2 History
3 Research on representation per se
4 Criticisms
4.1 Proposed solutions
5 References
6 External links
Powers of representatives[edit]
Representatives are elected by the public, as in national elections for the national legislature.[3] Elected representatives may hold the power to select other representatives, presidents, or other officers of the government or of the legislature, as the Prime Minister in the latter case. (indirect representation).
The power of representatives is usually curtailed by a constitution (as in a constitutional democracy or a constitutional monarchy) or other measures to balance representative power:[citation needed]
An independent judiciary, which may have the power to declare legislative acts unconstitutional (e.g. constitutional court, supreme court).
The constitution may also provide for some deliberative democracy (e.g., Royal Commissions) or direct popular measures (e.g., initiative, referendum, recall elections). However, these are not always binding and usually require some legislative action—legal power usually remains firmly with representatives.[where?]
In some cases, a bicameral legislature may have an "upper house" that is not directly elected, such as the Canadian Senate, which was in turn modeled on the British House of Lords.
Theorists such as Edmund Burke believe that part of the duty of a representative was not simply to communicate the wishes of the electorate but also to use their own judgement in the exercise of their powers, even if their views are not reflective of those of a majority of voters:[6]
...it ought to be the happiness and glory of a representative to live in the strictest union, the closest correspondence, and the most unreserved communication with his constituents. Their wishes ought to have great weight with him; their opinion, high respect; their business, unremitted attention. It is his duty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasures, his satisfactions, to theirs; and above all, ever, and in all cases, to prefer their interest to his own. But his unbiassed opinion, his mature judgment, his enlightened conscience, he ought not to sacrifice to you, to any man, or to any set of men living. These he does not derive from your pleasure; no, nor from the law and the constitution. They are a trust from Providence, for the abuse of which he is deeply answerable. Your representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgment; and he betrays, instead of serving you, if he sacrifices it to your opinion.
History[edit]
See also: Democratization
The Roman Republic was the first government in the western world to have a representative government, despite taking the form of a direct government in the Roman assemblies. The Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries,[7] and today's modern representative democracies imitate more the Roman than the Greek models because it was a state in which supreme power was held by the people and their elected representatives, and which had an elected or nominated leader.[8] Representative democracy is a form of democracy in which people vote for representatives who then vote on policy initiatives as opposed to a direct democracy, a form of democracy in which people vote on policy initiatives directly.[9] A European medieval tradition of selecting representatives from the various estates (classes, but not as we know them today) to advise/control monarchs led to relatively wide familiarity with representative systems inspired by Roman systems.
In Britain, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments.[10][11] The first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns.[12] Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689.[13][14]
The American Revolution led to the creation of a new Constitution of the United States in 1787, with a national legislature based partly on direct elections of representatives every two years, and thus responsible to the electorate for continuance in office. Senators were not directly elected by the people until the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. Women, men who owned no property, and blacks, and others not originally given voting rights in most states eventually gained the vote through changes in state and federal law in the course of the 19th and 20th centuries. Until it was repealed by the Fourteenth Amendment following the Civil War, the Three-Fifths Compromise gave a disproportionate representation of slave states in the House of Representatives relative to the voters in free states.[15][16]
In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all males in 1792.[17] Universal male suffrage was re-established in France in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848.[18]
Representative democracy came into particular general favour in post-industrial revolution nation states where large numbers of citizens evinced interest in politics, but where technology and population figures remained unsuited to direct democracy. As noted above, Edmund Burke in his speech to the electors of Bristol classically analysed their operation in Britain and the rights and duties of an elected representative.
The U.S. House of Representatives, one example of representative democracy
Globally, a majority of the world's people live in representative democracies including constitutional monarchies and republics with strong representative branches.
Research on representation per se[edit]
Further information: Representation (politics)
Separate but related, and very large, bodies of research in political philosophy and social science investigate how and how well elected representatives, such as legislators, represent the interests or preferences of one or another constituency.
Criticisms[edit]
In his book Political Parties, written in 1911, Robert Michels argues that most representative systems deteriorate towards an oligarchy or particracy. This is known as the iron law of oligarchy.[19] Representative democracies which are stable have been analysed by Adolf Gasser and compared to the unstable representative democracies in his book "Gemeindefreiheit als Rettung Europas" which was published in 1943 (first edition in German) and a second edition in 1947 (in German).[20] Adolf Gasser stated the following requirements for a representative democracy in order to remain stable, unaffected by the iron law of oligarchy:
Society has to be built up from bottom to top. As a consequence, society is built up by people, who are free and have the power to defend themselves with weapons.
These free people join or form local communities. These local communities are independent, which includes financial independence, and they are free to determine their own rules.
Local communities join together into a higher unit e.g. a canton.
There is no hierarchical bureaucracy.
There is competition between these local communities e.g. on services delivered or on taxes.
A drawback to this type of government is that elected officials are not required to fulfill promises made before their election and are able to promote their own self-interests once elected, providing an incohesive system of governance.[21] Legislators are also under scrutiny as the system of majority-won legislators voting for issues for the large group of people fosters inequality among the marginalized.[22]
Proposed solutions[edit]
The system of stochocracy has been proposed as an improved system compared to the system of representative democracy, where representatives are elected. Stochocracy aims to at least reduce this degradation by having all representatives appointed by lottery instead of by voting. Therefore, this system is also called lottocracy. The system was proposed by the writer Roger de Sizif in 1998 in his book La Stochocratie. Choosing officeholders by lot was also the standard practice in ancient Athenian democracy.[23] The rationale behind this practice was to avoid lobbying and electioneering by economic oligarchs.
The system of deliberative democracy is a mix between a majority ruled system and a consensus-based system. It allows for representative democracies or direct democracies to coexist with its system of governance, providing an initial advantage.[24] It is a system which allows for legislators to discuss the issues in a productive manner trying to reach a consensus. If the group cannot reach a consensus then a majority-wins vote must be taken.
The system of delegative democracy or Liquid Democracy is a dynamic mixture of representative democracy and direct democracy, meaning that each participant can decide himself when he wants to participate in a decision by direct voting, or whether he rather wants a delegate to vote for him by using a software system. The voter can delegate his vote to an organization, a political party or an individual. One can have different delegates in different subject areas, and always change the delegate. When the voter votes directly in an issue, the delegates vote will be erased and the direct vote will be counted. This system also contains room for popular initiatives and deliberation. The first example of delegative or Liquid Democracy using a software program in a real political setting involved the local political party Demoex in Vallentuna near Stockholm, Sweden. Pirate Parties in Germany,[25] Italy, Austria, Norway, France and the Netherlands[26] use delegative democracy with the open-source software LiquidFeedback,[citation needed] while members of the Belgian Pirate Party have developed their own software called Get Opinionated.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Freedom in The World 2017 (PDF)
Jump up ^ "Victorian Electronic Democracy, Final Report – Glossary". 28 July 2005. Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. Retrieved 14 December 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Loeper, Antoine (2016). "Cross-border externalities and cooperation among representative democracies". European Economic Review. 91: 180–208. doi:10.1016/j.euroecorev.2016.10.003 – via ebscohost.
Jump up ^ Houston, G F (2001) Public Participation in Democratic Governance in South Africa, Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council HSRC Press
Jump up ^ Dahl, R A (2005) 'Is international democracy possible? A critical view'. In Sergio Fabbrini (editor) Democracy and Federalism in the European Union and the United States: Exploring post-national governance: 195 to 204 (Chapter 13), Abingdon on Thames: Routledge
Jump up ^ The Works of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke. Volume I. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1854. pp. 446–8.
Jump up ^ Livy, 2002, p. 34
Jump up ^ Watson, 2005, p. 271
Jump up ^ Budge, Ian (2001). "Direct democracy". In Clarke, Paul A.B. & Foweraker, Joe. Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-19396-2. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Jobson, Adrian (2012). The First English Revolution: Simon de Montfort, Henry III and the Barons' War. Bloomsbury. pp. 173–4. ISBN 978-1-84725-226-5.
Jump up ^ "Simon de Montfort: The turning point for democracy that gets overlooked". BBC. 19 January 2015. Retrieved 19 January 2015 ; "The January Parliament and how it defined Britain". The Telegraph. 20 January 2015. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Norgate, Kate (1894). "Montfort, Simon of (1208?-1265)". In Lee, Sidney. Dictionary of National Biography. 38. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
Jump up ^ Kopstein, Jeffrey; Lichbach, Mark; Hanson, Stephen E., eds. (2014). Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order (4, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–9. ISBN 1139991388. Britain pioneered the system of liberal democracy that has now spread in one form or another to most of the world's countries
Jump up ^ "Constitutionalism: America & Beyond". Bureau of International Information Programs (IIP), U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 24 October 2014. Retrieved 30 October 2014. The earliest, and perhaps greatest, victory for liberalism was achieved in England. The rising commercial class that had supported the Tudor monarchy in the 16th century led the revolutionary battle in the 17th, and succeeded in establishing the supremacy of Parliament and, eventually, of the House of Commons. What emerged as the distinctive feature of modern constitutionalism was not the insistence on the idea that the king is subject to law (although this concept is an essential attribute of all constitutionalism). This notion was already well established in the Middle Ages. What was distinctive was the establishment of effective means of political control whereby the rule of law might be enforced. Modern constitutionalism was born with the political requirement that representative government depended upon the consent of citizen subjects.... However, as can be seen through provisions in the 1689 Bill of Rights, the English Revolution was fought not just to protect the rights of property (in the narrow sense) but to establish those liberties which liberals believed essential to human dignity and moral worth. The "rights of man" enumerated in the English Bill of Rights gradually were proclaimed beyond the boundaries of England, notably in the American Declaration of Independence of 1776 and in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789.
Jump up ^ "We Hold These Truths to be Self-evident;" An Interdisciplinary Analysis of the Roots of Racism & slavery in America Kenneth N. Addison; Introduction P. xxii
Jump up ^ "Expansion of Rights and Liberties". National Archives. Retrieved December 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The French Revolution II". Mars.wnec.edu. Archived from the original on 27 August 2008. Retrieved 22 August 2010.
Jump up ^ French National Assembly. "1848 " Désormais le bulletin de vote doit remplacer le fusil "" (in French). Retrieved 2009-09-26.
Jump up ^ Zur Soziologie des Parteiwesens in der modernen Demokratie. Untersuchungen über die oligarchischen Tendenzen des Gruppenlebens (1911, 1925; 1970). Translated as Sociologia del partito politico nella democrazia moderna : studi sulle tendenze oligarchiche degli aggregati politici, from the German original by Dr. Alfredo Polledro, revised and expanded (1912). Translated, from the Italian, by Eden and Cedar Paul as Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (Hearst's International Library Co., 1915; Free Press, 1949; Dover Publications, 1959); republished with an introduction by Seymour Martin Lipset (Crowell-Collier, 1962; Transaction Publishers, 1999, ISBN 0-7658-0469-7); translated in French by S. Jankélévitch, Les partis politiques. Essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties, Brussels, Editions de l'Université de Bruxelles, 2009 (ISBN 978-2-8004-1443-0).
Jump up ^ Gemeindefreiheit als Rettung Europas. Grundlinien einer ethischen Geschichtsauffassung. Verlag Bücherfreunde, Basel 1947. In 1983 republished under: "Gemeindefreiheit – kommunale Selbstverwaltung" (Adolf Gasser/Franz-Ludwig Knemeyer), in de reeks "Studien zur Soziologie", Nymphenburger, München, 1983.
Jump up ^ Sørensen, Eva (2015). "Enhancing policy innovation by redesigning representative democracy". American Political Science Review – via ebscohost.
Jump up ^ Thaa, Winfried (2016). "Issues and images – new sources of inequality in current representative democracy". Critical Review of International Social & Political Philosophy. 19 (3).
Jump up ^ "1,5". Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece. Josiah Ober , Robert Wallace , Paul Cartledge , Cynthia Farrar (1st ed.). 15 October 2008. pp. 17,105. ISBN 978-0520258099.
Jump up ^ Bohman, James (1997). "Deliberative Democracy" (PDF). MIT Press.
Jump up ^ Piratenpartei Berlin. "Piratenpartei revolutioniert parteiinternen Diskurs: Interaktive Demokratie mit Liquid Feedback". Retrieved 22 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Uitleg LiquidFeed systeem". Archived from the original on 5 September 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
External links[edit]
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Film finance
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The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page. (November 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Film finance is an aspect of film production that occurs during the development stage prior to pre-production, and is concerned with determining the potential value of a proposed film. In the United States, the value is typically based on a forecast of revenues (generally 10 years for films and 20 years for television shows), beginning with theatrical release, and including DVD sales, and release to cable broadcast television networks both domestic and international and inflight airline licensing.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 About
2 Methods
2.1 Government grants
2.2 Tax incentives
2.2.1 German tax shelters
2.2.2 British tax shelters
2.3 Private equity financing
2.4 Hedge-fund financing
2.5 Private investors
2.6 Debt finance
2.6.1 Pre-sales
2.6.2 Television pre-sales
2.6.3 Negative pickup deal
2.6.4 Gap/supergap financing
2.6.5 Bridge financing
2.7 Product placement financing
2.8 Crowdfunding
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
About[edit]
Film finance is a subset of project finance, meaning the film project's generated cash flows rather than external sources are used to repay investors. The main factors determining the commercial success of a film include public taste, artistic merit, competition from other films released at the same time, the quality of the script, the quality of the cast, the quality of the director and other parties, etc. Even if a film looks like it will be a commercial success "on paper", there is still no accurate method of determining the levels of revenue the film will generate. In the past, risk mitigation was based on pre-sales, box office projections and ownership of negative rights. Along with strong ancillary markets in DVD, CATV, and other electronic media (like streaming video on demand -SVOD), investors were shown that picture subsidies (tax incentives and credits), and pre-sales (discountable-contract finance) from foreign distributors, could help to mitigate potential losses. As production costs have risen, however, potential financiers have become increasingly insistent upon higher degrees of certainty as to whether they will actually have their investment repaid, and assurances regarding what return they will earn.
Past film slate's poor performance records are showing up in public court documents. Property and casualty companies (P&C) like AIG had offered insurance against film slates and the bonds issued to fund them, but now fully refuse to cover film slates. This ended in many lawsuits, starting in early 1999 (with Steve Stabler's Destination Films $100M bond fund failure and subsequent lawsuit), and continue to this day with Aramid's lawsuit on Relativity's Beverly-1-Sony film slate and the Melrose-2-Paramount slate. Citigroup attempted to wrap the Beverly-1-Sony slate with a property and casualty insurance wrapper (from the formerly bankrupt Ambac Assurance, Corp.). After these "uninsured" slate financing arrangements (SFA) failed to return even the original principal to investors, the market has sought solutions. Traditionally, banks like JP Morgan have an entertainment division that uses proprietary risk mitigation regression analysis to see if future film revenues can meet an exceedance probability (where in the ultimate revenues allow the loan to break even), but this is calculated guesswork, and has caused all of the major national banks to lose millions in bad loans. An alternative to such loss protection was developed by Geneva Media Holdings, LLC (originally as risk mitigation for affluent individuals and "direct investors" under US tax incentive IRC 181). Fully insured media funds are now being carefully reviewed by risk analysts at major hedge funds, banks and institutional pension plans specializing in investor risk mitigation.
Many outside of Hollywood fail to realize the longevity of film and television after-market income streams. Many commercial films and network television shows will make money for decades. For the investor who pays for part of the negative costs, the time value of money is important. For many movie investors the required rate of return for this "risky" investment may be 25% or more. This means that while there may be TV revenues for an additional 10 years after the movie is released, the PV (present value) of those revenues is diminished by the required rate of return and the time it takes for these revenues to accrue. Ancillary revenues (VOD, DVD, Blu-ray, PPV, CATV, etc.), tend to accrue to the studio that purchased these residuals as part of their overall distribution deal. For many movie investors in the past, the theatrical box office was the primary place to gain a PV return on their investment.
VaultML has developed technologies usually seen in high-frequency trading to predict box office success and investor risk using artificial intelligence. They claim to analyze over 300,000 elements from screenplay to form a basis for prediction.[2] Based on their published future predictions for 2015 they out yielded the market on a return on investment basis.
Ryan Kavanaugh of Relativity Media offered participation in profits to actors, rather than up-front fees, to lower production costs and keep profits protected. Kavanaugh has attempted to use data from major studios like Sony and NBC/Universal to build a complex Monte Carlo system to determine movie failure rates prior to production. His projects and business models have failed miserably, causing a half-a-billion dollars in losses. The box office results of his movies have been mixed, as there is no set ratios, blends, mixtures, method or secret crystal ball that can project movie revenues, investor risk or rejection parameters.
Slated[3][4][5] is the first dedicated online film finance marketplace for professional equity investing. Combined with Slated's team, script and financial analysis, investors can have ownership in films.
Epagogix has developed a system using neural networks to assess factors that contribute to box office success. They assess a wide variety of movies of different box office returns. Another film finance analyst, Steve Jasmine, claims to have developed a system for predicting a film's box office success. This system claims to quantify 800 creative elements of billion dollar grossing movies to determine what audiences are most interested in.[6] Worldwide Motion Picture Group offers a service termed "script evaluation" where a team of analysts compare draft scripts to those of previously released movies in an effort to estimate the box office potential of the proposed script. They also conduct surveys and use results of previous focus groups to assist this analysis.[7]
A final consideration is securing title. Since the collateral for film financing arrangements can be based on the ownership of intellectual property rights, film finance transactions generally commence with a title analysis.[8]
Methods[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
There are five main methods of financing the production of a film:[citation needed]
government grants;
tax incentives and shelters;
private equity and hedge funds
debt finance; and
equity finance.
Government grants[edit]
A number of governments run programs to subsidise the cost of producing films. For instance, until it was abolished in March 2011, in the United Kingdom the UK Film Council provided National Lottery funding to producers, as long as certain conditions were met.[9] Many of the Council's functions have now been taken over by the British Film Institute. States such as Georgia, Ohio, Louisiana, New York, Connecticut, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Utah, and New Mexico, will provide a subsidy or tax credit provided all or part of a film is filmed in that state.[10]
Governments are willing to provide these subsidies as they hope it will attract creative individuals to their territory and stimulate employment. Also, a film shot in a particular location can have the benefit of advertising that location to an international audience.
Government subsidies are often pure grants, where the government expects no financial return.
Tax incentives[edit]
Some U.S. states and Canadian provinces have between 15% and 70% tax or cash incentives for labor, production costs or services on bona fide film/television/PCgame expenditures. Each state and province differs. These so-called "soft-money" incentives are generally not realized until a theatrical or interactive production is completed, all payments are made to workers, financial institutions, and rental or prop companies within the state or province offering the incentives. Many other limitations may apply (i.e., actors, cast and crew may have to take up residence in the state or province). Often, a certain amount of physical shooting (principal photography) must be completed within the state borders, and/or the use of the state's institutions. This would include rental facilities, banks, insurance companies, sound stages or studios, agents, agencies, brokers, catering companies, hotel/motels, etc. Each may also have to be physically domiciled within the state or province's borders. Finally, additional incentives (another 5% to 25% on top of the already generous soft money), may be offered for off-season, low-income area, or family entertainment projects shot in places of economic impoverishment or during poor weather condition months in a hurricane-prone state or Arctic province.
A number of countries have introduced legislation that has the effect of generating enhanced tax deductions for producers or owners of films. Incentives are created which effectively sell the enhanced tax deductions to wealthy individuals with large tax liabilities (e.g., IRS code sections 181 and 199). The individual will often become the legal owner of the film or certain rights relating to the film. In 2007 the United Kingdom government introduced the Producer's Tax Credit which results in a direct cash subsidy from the treasury to the film producer.
German tax shelters[edit]
A relatively new tactic for raising finance is through German tax shelters. The tax law of Germany allows investors to take an instant tax deduction even on non-German productions and even if the film has not yet gone into production. The film producers can sell the copyright to one of these tax shelters for the cost of the film's budget, then have them lease it back for a price around 90% of the original cost.[citation needed] On a $100 million film, a producer could make $10 million, minus fees to lawyers and middlemen.
This tactic favors big-budget films as the profit on more modestly budgeted films would be consumed by the legal and administrative costs.
That being said, the above schemes are all but gone and are being replaced by more traditional production incentives.[11]
The main production incentive is the German Federal Film Fund (de) (DFFF). The DFFF is a grant given by the German Federal Commissioner for Culture and the Media. To receive the grant a producer has to fulfill different requirements including a cultural eligibility test. The film finance calculator[12] on germanfilmfinance.com[13] checks online if the project passes the test as well as it shows the individually calculated estimated grant.
British tax shelters[edit]
Now, the same copyright can be sold again to a British company and a further $10 million could be raised, but UK law insists that part of the film is shot in Britain and that the production employs a fair proportion of British actors and crew. This explains why many American films like to shoot at Britain's major film studios like Pinewood and Shepperton and why a film such as Basic Instinct 2 relocated its action from New York to London.[citation needed] These are commonly referred to Sale & Leaseback deals; they were discontinued in March 2007, though those initiated prior to Dec. 31, 2006 were grandfathered in.[citation needed]
Private equity financing[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (January 2009)
Generally tax-advantaged theatrical film and television investment for affluent individuals comes with little risk. Most often, the cost of production is recouped by a combination of federal and state tax incentives, thereby eliminating most of the risk. Capital is still required as a direct investment (partnerships can be used), but must also be "at risk", which allows § 181 IRC write-offs. For example, if a private equity source is found (individuals with capital or a private wealth management firm representing individuals personal funds), the investor pays for the film or TV production, and receives back an equal amount of capital in tax-incentives, pre-sales and state tax credits, thereby making the investment and recoup a wash. This is a highly specialized tax play, and is often looked upon as risky by those who do not understand the risk mitigation offered through state tax and federal tax incentives like § 181 IRC.
Hedge-fund financing[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (February 2010)
Also known as slate financing deals.
Private investors[edit]
One of the hardest types of film financing pieces to obtain is private investor funds. These are funds invested by an individual who is looking to possibly add more risk to his investment portfolio, or a high-net-worth individual with a keen interest in films. While there are a few steps to cover between development funding and capital funding, with regard to the latter, any capital funding that is approached, whether that source is private equity (private individuals and /or funding groups), or debt financing (finance institutions and /or banks), is going to require that you have certain necessary elements in place before they consider financing your project. These elements include marketplace analytics, audience analytics, a bondable schedule and budget, and a distribution plan.[14]
Debt finance[edit]
Pre-sales[edit]
Pre-sales is, based on the script and cast, selling the right to distribute a film in different territories before the film is completed.[15] When the deal is made, the distributor will insist the producers deliver on certain elements of content and cast; if a material alteration is made, financing may collapse.[16] In order to gain the “marquee names” essential for drawing in an international audience, distributors and sale agents will often make casting suggestions.[17] Pre-sales contracts with big name actors or directors will often (at the insistence of the buyer) have an "essential element" clause that (as per the example above) allows the buyer to get out of the contract if the star or director falls out of the picture and a marquee equivalent cannot be procured.
The reliance on pre-sales explains the film industry's dependence on movie stars, directors and/or certain film genres (such as Horror).[17][18]
Typically, upon signing a pre-sale contract, the buyer will pay a 20% deposit to the film's collection account (or bank), with the balance (80%) due upon the film's delivery to the foreign sales agent (along with all the necessary deliverable requirements.)
Usually a producer pre-sells foreign territories (in whole or part) and/or North American windows/rights (i.e. theatrical, home video/DVD, pay TV, free TV, etc.) so that the producer can use the value of those contracts as collateral for the production loan that a bank (senior lender) is providing to finance the production.
Television pre-sales[edit]
Although it is more usual for a producer to sell the TV rights of this film after it has been made, it is sometimes possible to sell the rights in advance and use the money to pay for the production.[citation needed] In some cases the television station will be a subsidiary of the movie studio's parent company.
Negative pickup deal[edit]
A negative pickup deal is a contract entered into by an independent producer and a movie studio wherein the studio agrees to purchase the movie from the producer at a given date and for a fixed sum. Until then, the financing is up to the producer, who must pay any additional costs if the film goes over-budget.
Generally, a producer will have a bank/lender lend against the value of the negative pickup contract as a way to shore up their financing package of the film. This is commonly referred to as "factoring paper". Most major North American studio and network contracts (incl. basic cable) are collateralized/factored by the bank at 100% of the contract value, and the lender just takes a basic origination/setup fee.[citation needed]
Splitting the roles of studios and networks necessitated a means for financing television series appropriate to the varied risks and rewards inherent in the separation. A practice known as "deficit financing" consequently developed – an arrangement in which the network pays the studio that make a show a license fee in exchange for the right to air the show, but the studio retains ownership. The license fee does not fully cover the costs of production – hence the "deficit" of deficit financing.[19]
Deficit financing developed after the varied risks and rewards were determined and carried out through film financing. Deficit financing occurs when the license fee for a show doesn’t fully cover production fees. A studio has ownership of the production, but as license fees are handed out in exchange to air a show, the phrase deficit financing comes into play as costs were not being met and paid.[19]
From the late 1960s through the mid-1990s special regulations from financial regulation's and syndication's rules created relations between television networks and independent production companies. These rules stated that ownership of the rights to the programs reverted to the producer/production company after a specified number of network runs (syndication). Profits from any other sales, including syndication, generally benefited the production community. Because of this, production companies produced original shows at a loss, hoping that they would eventually be run by syndication and make their money back.[20]
Gap/supergap financing[edit]
In motion pictures, gap/supergap financing is a form of mezzanine debt financing where the producer wishes to complete their film finance package by procuring a loan that is secured against the film's unsold territories and rights. Most gap financiers will only lend against the value of unsold foreign (non-North American) rights, as domestic (North American: USA & Canadian) rights are seen as a "performance" risk, as opposed to more quantifiable risk that is the foreign market.[citation needed] In short, this means that the foreign value of a film can be ascertained by a foreign sales company/agent by evaluating the blended value of the quality of the script, its genre, cast, director, producer, as well as whether it has theatrical distribution in the US from a major film studio;[citation needed] all of this is taken into consideration and applied against the historical and current market tastes, trends, and needs of each foreign territory of country. This is still an unpredictable practice. Domestic distribution is also unpredictable and far from ever a sure thing (e.g. just because a film has a big budget and a commercial genre and cast, it could still be unwatchable and thus never receive a theatrical or television release in the US, thus being relegated to being a big budget, direct-to-video film.) Any certainty in the entertainment business, lending against foreign value estimates is preferable to betting on strictly a domestic success (comedies and urban films being two notable exceptions: they are referred to as "domestic pieces" or "domestic plays".)
True to its mezzanine nature, in the pecking order of recoupment of investment, generally, gap (or supergap) loans are subordinate to (recoup after) the senior/bank production loan, but in turn, the gap/supergap loan will be senior to (recoup before) equity financiers.
A gap loan becomes a supergap loan when it extends beyond 10-15% of the production loan required to shoot the film (or in other words, when the percentage of the gap required to complete the film's financing package becomes greater than a bank is willing to bear, which is traditionally 10-15%, but can sometime be a flat dollar threshold like US$1,000,000.)[citation needed]
Gap/supergap lending is a very risky form of capital investment and accordingly the fees and interest charged reflect that level of risk. But at the same time it is not unlike buying a house: nobody pays 100% of the purchase price with cash; they pay about 20% in cash and borrow the rest. Supergap financing works by the same principle: put down 20-30% cash/equity and borrow the rest.
Over the years, because of the high risk nature, many supergap companies have come and gone, but a few established players have survived the ups and downs of the markets with Relativity Media, Screen Capital International, Grosvenor Park, Helios Productions, Endgame Entertainment, Blue Rider, Newmarket Capital, Aramid Entertainment, MDG Entertainment Holdings, Limelight, RJG Entertainment, BondIt Media Capital and 120 dB all active in the current debt financing space.
The Internet portal germanfilmfinance.com[13] aims to support national and international film makers in the acquisition of production financing. By combining national and regional financing components including a Supergap loan, it is possible to finance up to 50% - 65% of the entire film project budget.
Bridge financing[edit]
Bridge finance has increased in prevalence in filmmaking in recent years. Bridge financing is an answer to the common "catch-22" problem of needing funding to get the actors, but not being able to get the funding without actors. Bridge financing, for example, can be used in scenarios where a filmmaker has a promissory note from an investor to finance a film provided the filmmaker can attach an approved actor, however without money to escrow for the actor's payment, the filmmaker is unable to meet the investor's criteria. In this instance, a short-term lender can provide a bridge loan to secure the actor with the promissory note as collateral; once the actor's payment is escrowed, the equity investment would be triggered, and the bridge loan would be paid back with a small interest.[21]
Product placement financing[edit]
Income from product placement can be used to supplement the budget of a film.
The Bond franchise is notable for its lucrative product placements deals, bringing in millions of dollars. In the film Minority Report, Lexus, Bulgari and American Express reportedly paid a combined $20 million for product placement, a record-high amount.[22] Product placement may also take the form of in-kind contributions to the film, such as free cars or computers (as props or for the production's use). While no money changes hands, the films budget will be lowered by the amount that would have otherwise been spent on such items.
Crowdfunding[edit]
See also: Category:Crowdfunded films
With a rising popularity of online crowdfunding more and more films are getting financed directly by their consumers this way.[23] The crowdfunding platforms Kickstarter[24] and IndieGoGo[25] have their own categories dedicated to films.
Crowdfunding films gives the consumer a voice in what films are being produced, allow for riskier, more socially relevant, more innovative, less profit-oriented independent films with smaller and marginal target audiences that can't be found in mainstream cinema and lower the entry-barrier to new filmmakers.[26][27][28] Crowdfunded films include Iron Sky, Kung Fury, Veronica Mars, Code 8, Star Trek: Renegades, Manthan and Anomalisa.
See also[edit]
Film budgeting
Hollywood accounting
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on January 23, 2009. Retrieved January 31, 2009.
Jump up ^ "This startup uses artificial intelligence to predict whether a Hollywood film will be a hit or a flop — just by scanning the script".
Jump up ^ Chelin, Pamela (2014-01-23). "Slated: A Site That's Like Kickstarter But for Real Film Investors". Retrieved 2016-07-18.
Jump up ^ "How Slated Remakes Indie Film Finance". 2012-04-13. Retrieved 2016-07-18.
Jump up ^ Martin, Claire (2013-08-03). "Helping Hollywood Players Hook Up". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2016-07-18.
Jump up ^ "Reel-time analysis projects big hitters @Euromoney".
Jump up ^ Solving Equation of a Hit Film Script, With Data New York Times, May 5, 2013. Retrieved September 12, 2014.
Jump up ^ Thomas Glen Leo & Gregory Siewitt, Chain of Title Review is Major Hurdle for Film Investors Los Angeles Daily Journal, July 20, 2006. Retrieved August 17, 2007.
Jump up ^ "UK Film Council to be abolished". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved July 24, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Need production money? Try Cologne".
Jump up ^ Teutons push for new plan, a May 2006 article from Variety
Jump up ^ "Calculator".
^ Jump up to: a b "About NRW.GermanFilmFinance". nrw.germanfilmfinance.com.
Jump up ^ Ray, Ellingsen. "MPMG Film Funding White Paper". Moving Pictures Media Group.
Jump up ^ "Sales Agents: "Pre-Sales" Part 3 » Mr. Film Biz". Llarian.net. 2009-09-29. Retrieved 2011-07-13.
Jump up ^ "Learn how to finance your movie". Filmmaker.com. 2009-09-22. Retrieved 2011-07-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Greg Mottola's Adventureland - Filmmaker Magazine - Winter 2009". Filmmaker Magazine. Retrieved 2011-07-13.
Jump up ^ "Two Major Ways of Financing Your Film for Distribution". Studentfilmmakers.com. Retrieved 2011-07-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Lotz, Amanda D. (2007) “The Television Will Be Revolutionized”. New York, NY: New York University Press. P. 83
Jump up ^ 2. Kaplar, Richard T. The Financial Interest and Syndication Rules: Prime Time for Repeal. Washington, D.C.: Media Institute, 1990.
Jump up ^ "Scatena & Rosner Films - Film Finance". Scatena & Rosner Films.
Jump up ^ Harlow, John (May 2, 2011), "More than a word from 007's sponsors", The Australian, retrieved 28 June 2011
Jump up ^ Ohlendorf, Vera. Crowdfunding - Alternative Finanzierungsform für Filme?. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Kickstarter - Film and Video". Retrieved 1 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "IndieGoGo - Film". Retrieved 1 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Gerhard, Martin (25 May 2016). "Crowdfunding: Eine Chance auf bessere Filme? - Teil 1: Debütfilme". Retrieved 1 July 2016.
Jump up ^ Waider, Christina. Crowdfunding als alternatives Filminvestitionsmodell: Ist Crowdfunding und Crowdinvesting ein zukunftsfähiges Filmfinanzierungsmittel?. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "The rising popularity of movie crowdfunding". 26 February 2016. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
External links[edit]
Film Funding White Paper
Film Closings:The Film Finance Blog
FilmProposals.com for Independent Filmmakers
FilmFinanceGuide.com for Independent Filmmakers
Your Film to Fianciers
S&R - Film Financing
Film Finance Calculator
Financing Movies with VOD Sales Projections
How to finance a Hollywood blockbuster from Slate
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values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Film_finance rootpage-Film_finance vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view