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List of current heads of state and government
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"World leaders" redirects here. For the CIA-published public domain directory, see World Leaders.
See also: List of state leaders in the 21st century
This is a list of current heads of state and heads of government. In some cases, mainly in presidential systems, there is only one leader being both head of state and head of government. In other cases, mainly in semi-presidential and parliamentary systems, the head of state and the head of government are different people. In semi-presidential and parliamentary systems, the head of government role (i.e. executive branch) is fulfilled by both the listed head of government and the head of state.
The list includes the names of recently elected or appointed heads of state and government who will take office on an appointed date, as presidents-elect and prime ministers-designate, and those leading a government in exile if internationally recognised.
Contents
1 Member and observer states of the United Nations
2 Other states
3 Other governments
4 Other entities
5 See also
6 Notes
7 External links
Member and observer states of the United Nations[edit]
Colour key
Gold cells highlight leaders whose positions constitutionally administer the executive or legislature of their respective government
Blue cells distinguish heads of state or party leaders regarded as exercising de facto authority over their respective system of government
Note: Names in small font generally denote acting, transitional, temporary leaders, or representatives. Other notes and exceptions are provided at § Notes.
State
Head of state
Head of government
Afghanistan
President – Ashraf Ghani[α] Chief Executive – Abdullah Abdullah
Albania
President – Ilir Meta Prime Minister – Edi Rama
Algeria
President – Abdelaziz Bouteflika Prime Minister – Ahmed Ouyahia
Andorra
Episcopal Co-Prince – Joan Enric Vives Sicília
Co-Prince's Representative – Josep Maria Mauri
French Co-Prince – Emmanuel Macron[β]
Co-Prince's Representative – Patrick Strzoda Head of Government – Antoni Martí
Angola
President – João Lourenço
Antigua and Barbuda
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Rodney Williams Prime Minister – Gaston Browne
Argentina
President – Mauricio Macri
Armenia
President – Armen Sarkissian Prime Minister – Nikol Pashinyan
Australia
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Peter Cosgrove Prime Minister – Malcolm Turnbull
Austria
Federal President – Alexander Van der Bellen Federal Chancellor – Sebastian Kurz
Azerbaijan
President – Ilham Aliyev Prime Minister – Novruz Mammadov
Bahamas, The
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Dame Marguerite Pindling Prime Minister – Hubert Minnis
Bahrain
King – Sheikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa Prime Minister – Prince Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa
Bangladesh
President – Abdul Hamid Prime Minister – Sheikh Hasina
Barbados
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Dame Sandra Mason Prime Minister – Mia Mottley
Belarus
President – Alexander Lukashenko Prime Minister – Andrei Kobyakov
Belgium
King – Philippe Prime Minister – Charles Michel
Belize
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Colville Young Prime Minister – Dean Barrow
Benin
President – Patrice Talon
Bhutan
King – Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck Chief Advisor of the Interim Government – Dasho Tshering Wangchuk
Bolivia
President – Evo Morales
Bosnia and Herzegovina
High Representative – Valentin Inzko
Presidency[δ]
Chairman of the Council of Ministers – Denis Zvizdić
Bakir Izetbegović (as Chairman)
Dragan Čović (as Member)
Mladen Ivanić (as Member)
Botswana
President – Mokgweetsi Masisi
Brazil
President – Michel Temer[ε]
Brunei
Sultan and Prime Minister – Hassanal Bolkiah
Bulgaria
President – Rumen Radev Prime Minister – Boyko Borisov
Burkina Faso
President – Roch Marc Christian Kaboré Prime Minister – Paul Kaba Thieba
Burundi
President – Pierre Nkurunziza
Cambodia
King – Norodom Sihamoni Prime Minister – Hun Sen
Cameroon
President – Paul Biya[α] Prime Minister – Philémon Yang
Canada
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor General – Julie Payette Prime Minister – Justin Trudeau
Cape Verde
President – Jorge Carlos Fonseca Prime Minister – Ulisses Correia e Silva
Central African Republic
President – Faustin-Archange Touadéra[α] Prime Minister – Simplice Sarandji
Chad
President – Idriss Déby
Chile
President – Sebastián Piñera
China
General Secretary of the Communist Party – Xi Jinping
President – Xi Jinping Premier of the State Council – Li Keqiang
Colombia
President – Iván Duque
Comoros
President – Azali Assoumani
Congo, Democratic Republic of the
President – Joseph Kabila Prime Minister – Bruno Tshibala
Congo, Republic of the
President – Denis Sassou Nguesso Prime Minister – Clément Mouamba
Costa Rica
President – Carlos Alvarado Quesada
Croatia
President – Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović Prime Minister – Andrej Plenković
Cuba
First Secretary of the Communist Party – Raúl Castro
President of the Council of State and President of the Council of Ministers – Miguel Díaz-Canel
Cyprus
President – Nicos Anastasiades
Czech Republic
President – Miloš Zeman Prime Minister – Andrej Babiš
Denmark
Queen – Margrethe II Prime Minister – Lars Løkke Rasmussen
Djibouti
President – Ismaïl Omar Guelleh[α] Prime Minister – Abdoulkader Kamil Mohamed
Dominica
President – Charles Savarin Prime Minister – Roosevelt Skerrit
Dominican Republic
President – Danilo Medina
East Timor
President – Francisco Guterres Prime Minister – Taur Matan Ruak
Ecuador
President – Lenín Moreno
Egypt
President – Abdel Fattah el-Sisi Prime Minister – Mostafa Madbouly
El Salvador
President – Salvador Sánchez Cerén
Equatorial Guinea
President – Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo[α] Prime Minister – Francisco Pascual Obama Asue
Eritrea
President – Isaias Afwerki
Estonia
President – Kersti Kaljulaid Prime Minister – Jüri Ratas
Ethiopia
President – Mulatu Teshome Prime Minister – Abiy Ahmed
Fiji
President – George Konrote Prime Minister – Frank Bainimarama
Finland
President – Sauli Niinistö Prime Minister – Juha Sipilä
France
President – Emmanuel Macron[β] Prime Minister – Édouard Philippe
Gabon
President – Ali Bongo Ondimba[α] Prime Minister – Emmanuel Issoze-Ngondet
Gambia, The
President – Adama Barrow
Georgia
President – Giorgi Margvelashvili Prime Minister – Mamuka Bakhtadze
Germany
President – Frank-Walter Steinmeier Chancellor – Angela Merkel
Ghana
President – Nana Akufo-Addo
Greece
President – Prokopis Pavlopoulos Prime Minister – Alexis Tsipras
Grenada
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Dame Cécile La Grenade Prime Minister – Keith Mitchell
Guatemala
President – Jimmy Morales
Guinea
President – Alpha Condé[α] Prime Minister – Ibrahima Kassory Fofana
Guinea-Bissau
President – José Mário Vaz Prime Minister – Aristides Gomes
Guyana
President – David A. Granger[α] Prime Minister – Moses Nagamootoo
Haiti
President – Jovenel Moïse Prime Minister – Vacant
Prime minister-designate – Jean-Henry Céant
Honduras
President – Juan Orlando Hernández
Hungary
President – János Áder Prime Minister – Viktor Orbán
Iceland
President – Guðni Th. Jóhannesson Prime Minister – Katrín Jakobsdóttir
India
President – Ram Nath Kovind Prime Minister – Narendra Modi
Indonesia
President – Joko Widodo
Iran
Supreme Leader – Ali Khamenei President – Hassan Rouhani
Iraq
President – Fuad Masum Prime Minister – Haider al-Abadi
Ireland
President – Michael D. Higgins Taoiseach – Leo Varadkar
Israel
President – Reuven Rivlin Prime Minister – Benjamin Netanyahu
Italy
President – Sergio Mattarella President of the Council of Ministers – Giuseppe Conte
Ivory Coast
President – Alassane Ouattara[α] Prime Minister – Amadou Gon Coulibaly
Jamaica
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Patrick Allen Prime Minister – Andrew Holness
Japan
Emperor – Akihito Prime Minister – Shinzō Abe
Jordan
King – Abdullah II Prime Minister – Omar Razzaz
Kazakhstan
President – Nursultan Nazarbayev Prime Minister – Bakhytzhan Sagintayev
Kenya
President – Uhuru Kenyatta
Kiribati
President – Taneti Mamau
Kuwait
Emir – Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah Prime Minister – Sheikh Jaber Al-Mubarak Al-Hamad Al-Sabah
Kyrgyzstan
President – Sooronbay Jeenbekov Prime Minister – Muhammetkaliy Abulgaziyev
Laos
General Secretary of the Communist Party – Bounnhang Vorachith
President – Bounnhang Vorachith Prime Minister – Thongloun Sisoulith
Latvia
President – Raimonds Vējonis Prime Minister – Māris Kučinskis
Lebanon
President – Michel Aoun President of the Council of Ministers – Saad Hariri
Lesotho
King – Letsie III Prime Minister – Tom Thabane
Liberia
President – George Weah
Libya
Chairman of the Presidential Council and Prime Minister – Fayez al-Sarraj
Liechtenstein
Prince Regnant – Hans-Adam II Head of Government – Adrian Hasler
Regent – Hereditary Prince Alois
Lithuania
President – Dalia Grybauskaitė Prime Minister – Saulius Skvernelis
Luxembourg
Grand Duke – Henri Prime Minister – Xavier Bettel
Macedonia
President – Gjorge Ivanov President of the Government – Zoran Zaev
Madagascar
President – Hery Rajaonarimampianina Prime Minister – Christian Ntsay
Malawi
President – Peter Mutharika
Malaysia
Yang di-Pertuan Agong – Muhammad V Prime Minister – Mahathir Mohamad
Maldives
President – Abdulla Yameen
Mali
President – Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta Prime Minister – Soumeylou Boubèye Maïga
Malta
President – Marie Louise Coleiro Preca Prime Minister – Joseph Muscat
Marshall Islands
President – Hilda Heine
Mauritania
President – Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz Prime Minister – Yahya Ould Hademine
Mauritius
Acting President – Barlen Vyapoory Prime Minister – Pravind Jugnauth
Mexico
President – Enrique Peña Nieto
President-elect – Andrés Manuel López Obrador
Micronesia
President – Peter M. Christian
Moldova
President – Igor Dodon Prime Minister – Pavel Filip
Monaco
Sovereign Prince – Albert II Minister of State – Serge Telle
Mongolia
President – Khaltmaagiin Battulga Prime Minister – Ukhnaagiin Khürelsükh
Montenegro
President – Milo Đukanović Prime Minister – Duško Marković
Morocco
King – Mohammed VI Head of Government – Saadeddine Othmani
Mozambique
President – Filipe Nyusi[α] Prime Minister – Carlos Agostinho do Rosário
Myanmar
President – Win Myint[α] State Counsellor – Aung San Suu Kyi
Namibia
President – Hage Geingob[α] Prime Minister – Saara Kuugongelwa
Nauru
President – Baron Waqa
Nepal
President – Bidhya Devi Bhandari Prime Minister – Khadga Prasad Oli
Netherlands
King – Willem-Alexander Prime Minister – Mark Rutte
New Zealand
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Dame Patsy Reddy[ζ] Prime Minister – Jacinda Ardern
Nicaragua
President – Daniel Ortega
Niger
President – Mahamadou Issoufou Prime Minister – Brigi Rafini
Nigeria
President – Muhammadu Buhari
Norway
King – Harald V Prime Minister – Erna Solberg
North Korea
Chairman of the Workers' Party of Korea – Kim Jong-un
Supreme Leader and Chairman of the State Affairs Commission – Kim Jong-un[η]
Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly – Kim Yong-nam[θ] Premier of the Cabinet – Pak Pong-ju
Oman
Sultan and Prime Minister – Qaboos bin Said al Said
Pakistan
President – Mamnoon Hussain Interim Prime Minister – Nasirul Mulk
Prime minister-designate – Imran Khan
Palau
President – Tommy Remengesau
Palestine
President – Mahmoud Abbas Prime Minister – Rami Hamdallah
Panama
President – Juan Carlos Varela
Papua New Guinea
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Bob Dadae Prime Minister – Peter O'Neill
Paraguay
President – Horacio Cartes
President-elect – Mario Abdo Benítez
Peru
President – Martín Vizcarra[α] Prime Minister – César Villanueva
Philippines
President – Rodrigo Duterte
Poland
President – Andrzej Duda Prime Minister – Mateusz Morawiecki
Portugal
President – Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa Prime Minister – António Costa
Qatar
Emir – Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani Prime Minister – Sheikh Abdullah bin Nasser bin Khalifa Al Thani
Romania
President – Klaus Iohannis Prime Minister – Viorica Dăncilă
Russia
President – Vladimir Putin Prime Minister – Dmitry Medvedev
Rwanda
President – Paul Kagame[α] Prime Minister – Edouard Ngirente
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Tapley Seaton Prime Minister – Timothy Harris
Saint Lucia
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Neville Cenac Prime Minister – Allen Chastanet
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Frederick Ballantyne Prime Minister – Ralph Gonsalves
Samoa
O le Ao o le Malo – Va'aletoa Sualauvi II Prime Minister – Tuilaepa Aiono Sailele Malielegaoi
San Marino
Captain Regent[ι] – Stefano Palmieri
Captain Regent[ι] – Matteo Ciacci
São Tomé and Príncipe
President – Evaristo Carvalho Prime Minister – Patrice Trovoada
Saudi Arabia
King and Prime Minister – Salman
Senegal
President – Macky Sall Prime Minister – Mohammed Dionne
Serbia
President – Aleksandar Vučić Prime Minister – Ana Brnabić
Seychelles
President – Danny Faure
Sierra Leone
President – Julius Maada Bio[α] Chief Minister – David J. Francis
Singapore
President – Halimah Yacob Prime Minister – Lee Hsien Loong
Slovakia
President – Andrej Kiska Prime Minister – Peter Pellegrini
Slovenia
President – Borut Pahor Prime Minister – Miro Cerar
Prime minister-designate – Marjan Šarec
Solomon Islands
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Frank Kabui Prime Minister – Rick Houenipwela
Somalia
President – Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed Prime Minister – Hassan Ali Khayre
South Africa
President – Cyril Ramaphosa
South Korea
President – Moon Jae-in[α] Prime Minister – Lee Nak-yeon
South Sudan
President – Salva Kiir Mayardit
Spain
King – Felipe VI President of the Government – Pedro Sánchez
Sri Lanka
President – Maithripala Sirisena[α] Prime Minister – Ranil Wickremesinghe
Sudan
President – Omar al-Bashir[α] Prime Minister – Bakri Hassan Saleh
Suriname
President – Dési Bouterse
Swaziland
King – Mswati III Prime Minister – Barnabas Sibusiso Dlamini
Sweden
King – Carl XVI Gustaf Prime Minister – Stefan Löfven
Switzerland
Federal Council[κ]
Alain Berset (as President)
Ueli Maurer (as Vice President)
Doris Leuthard (as Member)
Simonetta Sommaruga (as Member)
Johann Schneider-Ammann (as Member)
Guy Parmelin (as Member)
Ignazio Cassis (as Member)
Syria
President – Bashar al-Assad Prime Minister – Imad Khamis
Tajikistan
President – Emomali Rahmon[α] Prime Minister – Kokhir Rasulzoda
Tanzania
President – John Magufuli[α] Prime Minister – Kassim Majaliwa
Thailand
King – Maha Vajiralongkorn Prime Minister – Prayut Chan-o-cha
Togo
President – Faure Gnassingbé[α] Prime Minister – Komi Sélom Klassou
Tonga
King – Tupou VI Prime Minister – ʻAkilisi Pōhiva
Trinidad and Tobago
President – Paula-Mae Weekes Prime Minister – Keith Rowley
Tunisia
President – Beji Caid Essebsi Head of Government – Youssef Chahed
Turkey
President – Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
Turkmenistan
President – Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow
Tuvalu
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Sir Iakoba Italeli Prime Minister – Enele Sopoaga
Uganda
President – Yoweri Museveni[α] Prime Minister – Ruhakana Rugunda
Ukraine
President – Petro Poroshenko Prime Minister – Volodymyr Groysman
United Arab Emirates
President – Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan Prime Minister – Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum
United Kingdom
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ] Prime Minister – Theresa May
United States
President – Donald Trump
Uruguay
President – Tabaré Vázquez
Uzbekistan
President – Shavkat Mirziyoyev[α] Prime Minister – Abdulla Aripov
Vanuatu
President – Tallis Obed Moses Prime Minister – Charlot Salwai
Vatican City
Sovereign – Pope Francis President of the Governorate – Cardinal Giuseppe Bertello
Venezuela
President – Nicolás Maduro
Vietnam
General Secretary of the Communist Party – Nguyễn Phú Trọng
President – Trần Đại Quang Prime Minister – Nguyễn Xuân Phúc
Yemen
President – Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi Prime Minister – Ahmed Obeid bin Daghr
Zambia
President – Edgar Lungu
Zimbabwe
President – Emmerson Mnangagwa
Other states[edit]
The following states control their territory and are recognised by at least one UN member state.
State
Also claimed by
Head of state
Head of government
Abkhazia
Georgia
President – Raul Khajimba Prime Minister – Gennady Gagulia
Cook Islands[λ]
New Zealand
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Queen's Representative – Tom Marsters Prime Minister – Henry Puna
Kosovo
Serbia
President – Hashim Thaçi Prime Minister – Ramush Haradinaj
Niue[λ]
New Zealand
Queen – Elizabeth II[γ]
Governor-General – Dame Patsy Reddy[ζ] Premier – Sir Toke Talagi
Northern Cyprus
Cyprus
President – Mustafa Akıncı Prime Minister – Tufan Erhürman
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Morocco
General Secretary of the Polisario Front – Brahim Ghali
President – Brahim Ghali Prime Minister – Mohamed Wali Akeik
South Ossetia
Georgia
President – Anatoliy Bibilov Prime Minister – Erik Pukhayev
Taiwan (Republic of China)
People's Republic of China
President – Tsai Ing-wen President of the Executive Yuan – William Lai
The following states/governments control their territory, but are not recognised by any UN member states.
State/Government
Also claimed by
Head of state
Head of government
Artsakh
Azerbaijan
President – Bako Sahakyan
Somaliland
Somalia
President – Muse Bihi Abdi
Transnistria
Moldova
President – Vadim Krasnoselsky Prime Minister – Aleksandr Martynov
Other governments[edit]
These alternative governments are recognised as a sovereign state by at least one UN member.
Government
Also claimed by
Head of state
Head of government
House of Representatives
Libya
President of the House of Representatives – Aguila Saleh Issa Prime Minister – Abdullah al-Thani
Supreme Political Council
Yemen
President of the Supreme Political Council – Mahdi al-Mashat Prime Minister – Abdel-Aziz bin Habtour
Syrian Interim Government
Syria
President – Riad Seif Prime Minister – Jawad Abu Hatab
Other entities[edit]
Entity
Head of state
Head of government
European Union
President of the European Council – Donald Tusk President of the European Commission – Jean-Claude Juncker
Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Prince and Grand Master – Giacomo dalla Torre del Tempio di Sanguinetto Grand Chancellor – Albrecht Freiherr von Boeselager
See also[edit]
international relations portal
lists portal
List of countries by system of government
List of current longest ruling non-royal national leaders
List of current state leaders by date of assumption of office
List of current presidents
List of current sovereign monarchs
List of current vice presidents and designated acting presidents
List of current prime ministers
List of current foreign ministers
List of current presidents of assembly
List of current dependent territory leaders
List of elected and appointed female heads of state and government
List of leaders of dependent territories
List of longest-ruling non-royal national leaders since 1900
List of oldest living state leaders
List of national governments
Lists of state leaders
Lists of state leaders by year
List of state leaders in 2018
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w In this state, the president is both head of state and of government; the office of prime minister may exist in these states, but it does not direct executive power (neither does the Afghan Chief Executive, the Myanma/Burmese State Counsellor, nor the Sierra Leonean Chief Minister either).
^ Jump up to: a b The President of France and the French Co-Prince of Andorra are positions held by the same person.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Constitutionally, Elizabeth II is separately and equally monarch of 16 sovereign states (alongside the United Kingdom) known collectively as the Commonwealth realms. In each of these states, with the exception of the UK (where she permanently resides) she is duly represented at the national level by a governor-general.
Jump up ^ The three-member Bosnian presidency is the head of state collectively.
Jump up ^ Temer assumed the Brazilian presidential powers and duties during the course of the suspension of Dilma Rousseff on 12 May 2016. Temer assumed the presidency outright when Rousseff was convicted and removed from office via impeachment on 31 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b The Governor-General of New Zealand and the Governor-General of Niue are positions held by the same person.
Jump up ^ The term "Supreme Leader" is used as a description (for the sake of brevity) rather than being an official title of a single office. The three actual offices held by Kim are:
Chairman of the Workers' Party of Korea
Chairman of the State Affairs Commission
Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army
Jump up ^ The President (otherwise known as Chairman) of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly accepts the credentials of foreign ambassadors, signs treaties, receives visiting heads of state, and represents North Korea on all state visits (ceremonial functions usually performed by heads of state in other states). The president has held these duties since 1998, when the constitution was revised.
^ Jump up to: a b Since 2016, the Grand and General Council of San Marino has held a larger proportion of seats for the United Left than those for the Popular Alliance; it can thus be inferred that the partner belonging to the former party exercises wider legislative capabilities than the latter through its parliamentary superiority, outnumbering the latter party by 3 seats.
Jump up ^ The seven-member Swiss Federal Council is collectively head of state and government. As a party to the Council, the President serves solely in a primus inter pares capacity for one year.
^ Jump up to: a b States in free association with New Zealand.
External links[edit]
CIDOB Foundation (in Spanish)—contextualised biographies of world political leaders
EmilePhaneuf—an archived, partial list of official websites for heads of state
Portale Storia (in Spanish)—a list of current rulers by country
Rulers—a list of rulers throughout time and places
United Nations—a list of heads of state, heads of government, and foreign ministers
WorldStatesmen—an online encyclopedia of the leaders of nations and territories
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Vietnam
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special administrative regions
and limited recognised states
Abkhazia1
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Northern Cyprus1
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Taiwan
1 Partially or entirely in Asia, depending on the definition of the Europe–Asia border.
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Partially recognised2
Abkhazia1
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Unrecognised states3
Artsakh1
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Heads of
government
UN members
and observers
Albania
Andorra
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Spain
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Turkey1
Ukraine
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Partially recognised2
Abkhazia1
Kosovo
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Unrecognised states3
Artsakh1
Transnistria
Former countries
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East Germany
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Soviet Union1
Yugoslavia
1. Partially or entirely in Asia, depending on geographical definition.
2. Recognised by at least one United Nations member.
3. Not recognised by any United Nations members.
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Associated states of New Zealand
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Niue
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_current_heads_of_state_and_government&oldid=854744776"
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George Konrote

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Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
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The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah (Arabic: صلح الحديبية) was an important event that took place during the formation of Islam. It was a pivotal treaty between the Islamic Prophet Muhammad, representing the state of Medina, and the Quraysh tribe of Mecca in March 628 (corresponding to Dhu al-Qi'dah, 6 AH). It helped to decrease tension between the two cities, affirmed a 10-year peace, and authorised Muhammad's followers to return the following year in a peaceful pilgrimage, later known as The First Pilgrimage.[1][2][3]
Contents
1 Attempted pilgrimage
2 Treaty
3 Umar's opposition
4 Significance
5 See also
6 References
Attempted pilgrimage[edit]
See also: Pledge of the Tree
Muhammad had a premonition that he entered Mecca and did tawaf around the Ka'bah. His companions in Madinah were delighted when he told them about it. They all revered Mecca and the Ka'bah and they yearned to do tawaf there. In 628, Muhammad and a group of 1,400 Muslims marched peacefully without arms towards Mecca, in an attempt to perform the Umrah (pilgrimage). They were dressed as pilgrims, and brought sacrificial animals, hoping that the Quraish would honour the Arabian custom of allowing pilgrims to enter the city. The Muslims had left Medina in a state of ihram, a premeditated spiritual and physical state which restricted their freedom of action and prohibited fighting. This, along with the paucity of arms carried, indicated that the pilgrimage was always intended to be peaceful.[4]
Muhammad and his followers camped outside of Mecca, and Muhammad met with Meccan emissaries who wished to prevent the pilgrims' entry into Mecca. After negotiations the two parties decided to resolve the matter through diplomacy rather than warfare, and a treaty was drawn up.[5]
Treaty[edit]
The statement of the treaty was as follows:[6]
“In your name, O God!
This is the treaty of peace between Muhammad Ibn Abdullah and Suhayl ibn Amr. They have agreed to allow their arms to rest for ten years. During this time each party shall be secure, and neither shall injure the other; no secret damage shall be inflicted, but honesty and honour shall prevail between them. Whoever in Arabia wishes to enter into a treaty or covenant with Muhammad can do so, and whoever wishes to enter into a treaty or covenant with the Quraysh can do so. And if a Qurayshite comes without the permission of his guardian to Muhammad, he shall be delivered up to the Quraysh; but if, on the other hand, one of Muhammad's people comes to the Quraysh, he shall not be delivered up to Muhammad. This year, Muhammad, with his companions, must withdraw from Mecca, but next year, he may come to Mecca and remain for three days, yet without their weapons except those of a traveler, the swords remaining in their sheaths.”
Umar's opposition[edit]
After the treaty was signed, most of the pilgrims objected to Muhammad giving in on most points to the Quraysh, refusing to use the name of Allah and refusing to call himself the Messenger of God. That led to Umar having doubts about Muhammad's truthfulness and asking Muhammad if he really was the Messenger of God.[7][8][9][10][11][12][13] This has even been recorded in Sahih Muslim.[14] Umar later said that if a hundred men had supported him, he would then have left Islam.[15][16][17]
Significance[edit]
The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was, and still is, very important in Islam. After the signing of the treaty, the Quraysh of Mecca no longer considered Muhammad to be a rebel or a fugitive from Mecca. They also recognized the Islamic state in Medina by signing the treaty. The treaty also allowed the Muslims who were still in Mecca to practice Islam publicly. Further, as there was no longer a constant struggle between the Muslims and the polytheists, many people saw Islam in a new light, which led to many more people accepting Islam. In addition, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah paved the way for many other tribes to make treaties with the Muslims. The treaty also serves as an example that Islam was not merely spread with the sword, as Muhammad had an army that could have attacked Mecca, but Muhammad chose to make a treaty instead of attacking.
A verse of the Quran was revealed about the treaty, which translates to, "Verily we have granted thee a manifest victory" (Quran 48:1).
See also[edit]
Pledge of the Tree
List of treaties
Urwah ibn Mas'ud
References[edit]
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Armstrong, Karen (2007). Muhammad: A Prophet for Our Time. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 175–181. ISBN 978-0-06-115577-2.
Jump up ^ Armstrong, Karen (2002). Islam: A Short History. New York: Modern Library. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-8129-6618-3.
Jump up ^ Andrae; Menzel (1960) p. 156; See also: Watt (1964) p. 183
Jump up ^ "The Event Of Hudaybiyyah". Al-Islam.org. Retrieved 22 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Learning Islam 8. Islamic Services Foundation. 2009. p. D14. ISBN 1-933301-12-0.
Jump up ^ Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims. pp. 183–186.
Jump up ^ Glubb, Sir John. The Great Arab Conquests.
Jump up ^ Bodley, R.V.C. The Messenger - the Life of Mohammed.
Jump up ^ al-Samawi, Muhammad al-Tijani. Then I was Guided.
Jump up ^ "The Treaty of Hudaybiyah". Questions on Islam. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Ibn Hisham. ibid, Volume 3. p. 331.
Jump up ^ ibn Hanbal, Ahmad. ibid, Volume 4. p. 330.
Jump up ^ Muslim. Sahih, Volume 3. p. 1412.
Jump up ^ Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims. p. 185.
Jump up ^ Rodinson, Maxime (2002). Muhammad: Prophet of Islam. Taurus Parke Paperbacks. p. 251.
Jump up ^ Andre, Tor. Mohammed - the Man and his Faith.
The Oxford History of Islam by John Esposito (Oxford U. Press, 1999)
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Eggshell
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For other uses, see Eggshell (disambiguation).
A broken wild bird eggshell
An eggshell is the outer covering of a hard-shelled egg and of some forms of eggs with soft outer coats.
Contents
1 Diversity
1.1 Insect eggs
1.2 Fish, amphibian and reptile eggs
1.3 Bird eggs
1.3.1 Environmental issues
1.4 Mammal eggs
1.5 Egg teeth
2 See also
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links
Diversity[edit]
Insect eggs[edit]
Butterfly embryo / caterpillar visible through transparent eggshell
Insects and other arthropods lay a variety of styles and shapes of eggs. Some have gelatinous or skin-like coverings, others have hard eggshells. Softer shells are mostly protein. It may be fibrous or quite liquid. Some arthropod eggs do not actually have shells, rather, their outer covering is actually the outermost embryonic membrane, the choroid, which serves to protect inner layers. The choroid itself can be a complex structure, and it may have different layers within it. It may have an outermost layer called an exochorion. Eggs which must survive in dry conditions usually have hard eggshells, made mostly of dehydrated or mineralized proteins with pore systems to allow respiration. Arthropod eggs can have extensive ornamentation on their outer surfaces.
Fish, amphibian and reptile eggs[edit]
Fish and amphibians generally lay eggs which are surrounded by the extraembryonic membranes but do not develop a shell, hard or soft, around these membranes. Some fish and amphibian eggs have thick, leathery coats, especially if they must withstand physical force or desiccation. These types of eggs can also be very small and fragile.
While many reptiles lay eggs with flexible, calcified, eggshells, there are some that lay hard eggs. Eggs laid by snakes generally have leathery shells which often adhere to one another. Depending on the species, turtles and tortoises lay hard or soft eggs. Several species lay eggs which are nearly indistinguishable from bird eggs.
Bird eggs[edit]
The bird egg is a fertilized gamete (or, in the case of some birds, such as chickens, possibly unfertilized) located on the yolk surface and surrounded by albumen, or egg white. The albumen in turn is surrounded by two shell membranes (inner and outer membranes) and then the eggshell. The chicken eggshell is 95[citation needed]-97%[1] calcium carbonate crystals, which are stabilized by a protein matrix.[2][3][1] Without the protein, the crystal structure would be too brittle to keep its form and the organic matrix is thought to have a role in deposition of calcium during the mineralization process.[4][5][6] The structure and composition of the avian eggshell serves to protect the egg against damage and microbial contamination, prevention of desiccation, regulation of gas and water exchange for the growing embryo, and provides calcium for embryogenesis. Eggshell formation requires gram amounts of calcium being deposited within hours, which must be supplied via the hen’s diet.[1]
Brown chicken egg with irregular calcification
Structure revealed by light
The fibrous chicken shell membranes are added in the proximal (white) isthmus of the oviduct.[1] In the distal (red) isthmus mammillae or mammillary knobs are deposited on the surface of the outer membrane in a regular array pattern.[7][8] The mammillae are proteoglycan-rich and are thought to control calcification. In the shell gland (similar to a mammalian uterus), mineralization starts at the mammillae. The shell gland fluid contains very high levels of calcium and hydrogen carbonate. The thick calcified layer of the eggshell forms in columns from the mammillae structures, and is known as the palisade layer. Between these palisade columns are narrow pores that traverse the eggshell and allow gaseous exchange. The cuticle forms the final, outer layer of the eggshell.[9]
While the bulk of eggshell is made of calcium carbonate, it is now thought that the protein matrix has an important role to play in eggshell strength.[10] These proteins affect crystallization, which in turn affects the eggshell structure. Moreover, the concentration of eggshell proteins decreases over the life of the laying hen, as does eggshell strength.
In an average laying hen, the process of shell formation takes around 20 hours. Pigmentation is added to the shell by papillae lining the oviduct, coloring it any of a variety of colors and patterns depending on species. Since eggs are usually laid blunt end first, that end is subjected to most pressure during its passage and consequently shows the most color.
As they contain mainly calcium carbonate, bird eggshells dissolve in various acids, including the vinegar used in cooking. While dissolving, the calcium carbonate in an eggshell reacts with the acid to form carbon dioxide.[11]
Environmental issues[edit]
The US food industry generates 150,000 tons of shell waste a year.[12] The disposal methods for waste eggshells are 26.6% as fertilizer, 21.1% as animal feed ingredients, 26.3% discarded in municipal dumps, and 15.8% used in other ways.[13] Many landfills are unwilling to take the waste because the shells and the attached membrane attract vermin.[citation needed] Together the calcium carbonate eggshell and protein rich membrane are useless.[14] Recent inventions have allowed for the egg cracking industry to separate the eggshell from the eggshell membrane. The eggshell is mostly made up of calcium carbonate and the membrane is valuable protein. When separated both products have an array of uses.
Mammal eggs[edit]
Monotremes, egg-laying mammals, lay soft-shelled eggs similar to those of reptiles. The shell is deposited on the egg in layers within the uterus. The egg can take up fluids and grow in size during this process, and the final, most rigid layer is not added until the egg is full-size.
Egg teeth[edit]
Hatching birds, amphibian and egg-laying reptiles have an egg-tooth used to start an exit hole in the hard eggshell.[15][16]
See also[edit]
Eggshell skull rule, in tort law
Walk on eggshells, an idiom in the English language
Natural eggshell membrane, a dietary supplement
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Hunton, P (2005). "Research on eggshell structure and quality: an historical overview". Revista Brasileira de Ciência Avícola. 7: 67–71. doi:10.1590/S1516-635X2005000200001.
Jump up ^ Arias, J. L.; Fernandez, M. S. (2001). "Role of extracellular matrix molecules in shell formation and structure". World's Poultry Science Journal. 57: 349–357. doi:10.1079/WPS20010024.
Jump up ^ Nys, Yves; Gautron, Joël; Garcia-Ruiz, Juan M.; Hincke, Maxwell T. (2004). "Avian eggshell mineralization: biochemical and functional characterization of matrix proteins". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 3: 549–62. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2004.08.002.
Jump up ^ Romanoff, A.L., A.J. Romanoff (1949) The avian egg. New York, Wiley.
Jump up ^ Burley, R.W., D.V. Vadehra (1989) The Avian Egg: Chemistry and Biology. New York, Wiley.
Jump up ^ Lavelin, I; Meiri, N; Pines, M (2000). "New insight in eggshell formation". Poultry science. 79 (7): 1014–7. doi:10.1093/ps/79.7.1014. PMID 10901204.
Jump up ^ Wyburn, GM; Johnston, HS; Draper, MH; Davidson, MF (1973). "The ultrastructure of the shell forming region of the oviduct and the development of the shell of Gallus domesticus". Quarterly journal of experimental physiology and cognate medical sciences. 58 (2): 143–51. PMID 4487964.
Jump up ^ Fernandez, MS; Araya, M; Arias, JL (1997). "Eggshells are shaped by a precise spatio-temporal arrangement of sequentially deposited macromolecules". Matrix Biology. 16 (1): 13–20. doi:10.1016/s0945-053x(97)90112-8. PMID 9181550.
Jump up ^ "The Egg-Shell Microstructure Studied by Powder Diffraction". Xray.cz. Retrieved 2012-10-16.
Jump up ^ http://ict.udg.co.cu/FTPDocumentos/Literatura%20Cientifica/Maestria%20Nutricion%20Animal/6.%20EVENTOS%20RELEVANTES/XVII%20Congreso%20Avicultura/confs/hunton1.htm. Retrieved February 2, 2011. Missing or empty |title= (help)[dead link]
Jump up ^ "Q & A: Eggshells in Vinegar - What happened? | Department of Physics | University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign". Van.physics.illinois.edu. 2007-10-22. Retrieved 2012-10-16.
Jump up ^ Hecht J: Eggshells break into collagen market. New Scientist 1999, 161:6-6.
Jump up ^ Daengprok W, Garnjanagoonchorn W, Mine Y: Fermented pork sausage fortified with commercial or hen eggshell calcium lactate. Meat Science 2002, 62:199-204.
Jump up ^ Wei Z; Li B; Xu C (2009). "Application of waste eggshell as low-cost solid catalyst for biodiesel production". Bioresource Technology. 100 (11): 2883–2885. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2008.12.039.
Jump up ^ "What is Egg Shell Quality and How to Preserve It". Ag.ansc.purdue.edu. Archived from the original on 2012-12-08. Retrieved 2012-10-16.
Jump up ^ Nys, Yves; Gautron, Joël; Garcia-Ruiz, Juan M.; Hincke, Maxwell T. "Avian eggshell mineralization: biochemical and functional characterization of matrix proteins" (PDF). Comptes Rendus Palevol. 3 (6-7): 549–562. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2004.08.002.
Further reading[edit]
Kilner, R. M. (2006). "The evolution of egg colour and patterning in birds". Biological Reviews. 81 (3): 383–406. doi:10.1017/S1464793106007044. PMID 16740199.
External links[edit]
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values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

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values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
/w/index.php?title=Eggshell&action=edit
Edit this page [ctrl-alt-e]
e

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: እንቁላል ቅርፊት – Amharic

values:
https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibulaka
Tibulaka – Central Bikol
bcl
bcl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munakoor
Munakoor – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-et
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values: முட்டைஓடு – Tamil

values: เปลือกไข่ – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values: Яєчна шкаралупа – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Eggshell rootpage-Eggshell skin-vector action-view