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Endocrine system
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Endocrine system
Main glands of the endocrine system. Note that the thymus is no longer considered part of the endocrine system, as it does not produce hormones.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Systema endocrinum
MeSH
D004703
FMA
9668
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The endocrine system is a chemical messenger system consisting of hormones, the group of glands of an organism that secrete those hormones directly into the circulatory system to be carried towards distant target organs, and the feedback loops of homeostasis that the hormones drive. In humans, the major endocrine glands include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, and adrenal glands. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The field of study dealing with the endocrine system and its disorders is endocrinology, a branch of internal medicine.[1]
Special features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and commonly the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen. A number of glands that signal each other in sequence are usually referred to as an axis, for example, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
In addition to the specialized endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other body systems, such as bone, kidney, liver, heart and gonads, have secondary endocrine functions. For example, the kidney secretes endocrine hormones such as erythropoietin and renin. Hormones can consist of either amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.[1]
The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its hormones to the outside of the body using ducts. As opposed to endocrine factors that travel considerably longer distances via the circulatory system, other signaling molecules, such as paracrine factors involved in paracrine signalling diffuse over a relatively short distance.
The word endocrine derives from the Greek words ἐνδο- endo- "inside, within," and κρίνειν krinein "to separate, distinguish".
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Major endocrine systems
1.2 Glands
1.3 Cells
2 Development
3 Function
3.1 Hormones
3.2 Cell signalling
3.2.1 Autocrine
3.2.2 Paracrine
3.2.3 Juxtacrine
4 Clinical significance
4.1 Disease
5 Other animals
6 Additional images
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Structure[edit]
Major endocrine systems[edit]
The human endocrine system consists of several systems that operate via feedback loops. Several important feedback systems are mediated via the hypothalamus and pituitary.[2]
TRH – TSH – T3/T4
GnRH – LH/FSH – sex hormones
CRH – ACTH – cortisol
Renin – angiotensin – aldosterone
leptin vs. insulin
Glands[edit]
Main article: Endocrine gland
Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that secrete their products, hormones, directly into insterstitial spaces and then absorbed into blood rather than through a duct. The major glands of the endocrine system include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus and adrenal glands. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are neuroendocrine organs.
Cells[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2017)
Development[edit]
Main article: Development of the endocrine system
Function[edit]
See also: List of human endocrine organs and actions
Hormones[edit]
Main article: Hormone
A hormone is any member of a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour. Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes: eicosanoids, steroids, and amino acid/protein derivatives (amines, peptides, and proteins). The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine system. The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (autocrine or intracrine signalling) or nearby cells (paracrine signalling).
Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood.[3][4]
Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a signal transduction pathway. This may lead to cell type-specific responses that include rapid non-genomic effects or slower genomic[disambiguation needed] responses where the hormones acting through their receptors activate gene transcription resulting in increased expression of target proteins. Amino acid–based hormones (amines and peptide or protein hormones) are water-soluble and act on the surface of target cells via second messengers; steroid hormones, being lipid-soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei.
Cell signalling[edit]
The typical mode of cell signaling in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling, that is, using the circulatory system to reach distant target organs. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling. Purely neurocrine signaling between neurons, on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous system.
Autocrine[edit]
Main article: Autocrine signalling
Autocrine signaling is a form of signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on the same cell, leading to changes in the cells.
Paracrine[edit]
Main article: Paracrine signaling
Some endocrinologists and clinicians include the paracrine system as part of the endocrine system, but there is not consensus. Paracrines are slower acting, targeting cells in the same tissue or organ. An example of this is somatostatin which is released by some pancreatic cells and targets other pancreatic cells.[1]
Juxtacrine[edit]
Main article: Juxtacrine signalling
Juxtacrine signaling is a type of intercellular communication that is transmitted via oligosaccharide, lipid, or protein components of a cell membrane, and may affect either the emitting cell or the immediately adjacent cells.[5]
It occurs between adjacent cells that possess broad patches of closely opposed plasma membrane linked by transmembrane channels known as connexons. The gap between the cells can usually be between only 2 and 4 nm.[6]
Clinical significance[edit]
Disease[edit]
Disability-adjusted life year for endocrine disorders per 100,000 inhabitants in 2002.[7]
no data
less than 80
80–160
160–240
240–320
320–400
400–480
480–560
560–640
640–720
720–800
800–1000
more than 1000
Main article: Endocrine diseases
Diseases of the endocrine system are common,[8] including conditions such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity. Endocrine disease is characterized by irregulated hormone release (a productive pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signaling (hypothyroidism), lack of a gland (diabetes mellitus type 1, diminished erythropoiesis in chronic renal failure), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid (toxic multinodular goitre). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, hyperplastic or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation.
Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Secondary endocrine disease is indicative of a problem with the pituitary gland. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.[citation needed]
As the thyroid, and hormones have been implicated in signaling distant tissues to proliferate, for example, the estrogen receptor has been shown to be involved in certain breast cancers. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of oncogenesis.[9]
Other common diseases that result from endocrine dysfunction include Addison's disease, Cushing's disease and Graves's disease. Cushing's disease and Addison's disease are pathologies involving the dysfunction of the adrenal gland. Dysfunction in the adrenal gland could be due to primary or secondary factors and can result in hypercortisolism or hypocortisolism . Cushing's disease is characterized by the hypersecretion of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) due to a pituitary adenoma that ultimately causes endogenous hypercortisolism by stimulating the adrenal glands.[10] Some clinical signs of Cushing's disease include obesity, moon face, and hirsutism.[11] Addison's disease is an endocrine disease that results from hypocortisolism caused by adrenal gland insufficiency. Adrenal insufficiency is significant because it is correlated with decreased ability to maintain blood pressure and blood sugar, a defect that can prove to be fatal.[12]
Graves' disease involves the hyperactivity of the thyroid gland which produces the T3 and T4 hormones.[11] Graves' disease effects range from excess sweating, fatigue, heat intolerance and high blood pressure to swelling of the eyes that causes redness, puffiness and in rare cases reduced or double vision.[6]
Other animals[edit]
A neuroendocrine system has been observed in all animals with a nervous system and all vertebrates have an hypothalamus-pituitary axis.[13] All vertebrates have a thyroid, which in amphibians is also crucial for transformation of larvae into adult form.[14][15] All vertebrates have adrenal gland tissue, with mammals unique in having it organized into layers.[16] All vertebrates have some form of renin–angiotensin axis, and all tetrapods have aldosterone as primary mineralocorticoid.[17][18]
Additional images[edit]
Female endocrine system.
Male endocrine system
See also[edit]
Endocrine disease
Endocrinology
Exocrine gland
List of human endocrine organs and actions
Neuroendocrinology
Nervous system
Paracrine signalling
Releasing hormones
Tropic hormone
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Marieb, Elaine (2014). Anatomy & physiology. Glenview, IL: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN 978-0321861580.
Jump up ^ Sherwood, L. (1997). "Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems". Wadsworth Pub Co. ISBN 0495391840.
Jump up ^ Neave N (2008). Hormones and behaviour: a psychological approach. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0521692014. Lay summary – Project Muse.
Jump up ^ "Hormones". MedlinePlus. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
Jump up ^ Gilbert, Scott F. (2000-01-01). "Juxtacrine Signaling".
^ Jump up to: a b Vander, Arthur (2008). Vander's Human Physiology: the mechanisms of body function. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 332–333. ISBN 007304962X.
Jump up ^ "Mortality and Burden of Disease Estimates for WHO Member States in 2002" (xls). World Health Organization. 2002.
Jump up ^ Kasper (2005). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. McGraw Hill. p. 2074. ISBN 0-07-139140-1.
Jump up ^ Bhowmick NA, Chytil A, Plieth D, Gorska AE, Dumont N, Shappell S, Washington MK, Neilson EG, Moses HL (2004). "TGF-beta signaling in fibroblasts modulates the oncogenic potential of adjacent epithelia". Science. 303 (5659): 848–51. Bibcode:2004Sci...303..848B. doi:10.1126/science.1090922. PMID 14764882.
Jump up ^ Buliman A, Tataranu LG, Paun DL, Mirica A, Dumitrache C (2016). "Cushing's disease: a multidisciplinary overview of the clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment". Journal of Medicine & Life. 9 (1): 12–18. PMC 5152600  . PMID 27974908.
^ Jump up to: a b Vander, Arthur (2008). Vander's Human Physiology: the mechanisms of body function. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. pp. 345–347. ISBN 007304962X.
Jump up ^ Inder, Warrick J.; Meyer, Caroline; Hunt, Penny J. (2015-06-01). "Management of hypertension and heart failure in patients with Addison's disease". Clinical Endocrinology. 82 (6): 789–792. doi:10.1111/cen.12592.
Jump up ^ Hartenstein V (September 2006). "The neuroendocrine system of invertebrates: a developmental and evolutionary perspective". The Journal of Endocrinology. 190 (3): 555–70. doi:10.1677/joe.1.06964. PMID 17003257.
Jump up ^ Dickhoff, Walton W.; Darling, Douglas S. (1983). "Evolution of Thyroid Function and Its Control in Lower Vertebrates". American Zoologist. 23 (3): 697–707. doi:10.1093/icb/23.3.697. JSTOR 3882951.
Jump up ^ Galton, Valerie Anne (1 January 1988). "The Role of Thyroid Hormone in Amphibian Development". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 28 (2): 309–18. doi:10.1093/icb/28.2.309. JSTOR 3883279.
Jump up ^ Pohorecky LA, Wurtman RJ (March 1971). "Adrenocortical control of epinephrine synthesis". Pharmacological Reviews. 23 (1): 1–35. PMID 4941407.
Jump up ^ Wilson JX (1984). "The renin–angiotensin system in nonmammalian vertebrates". Endocrine Reviews. 5 (1): 45–61. doi:10.1210/edrv-5-1-45. PMID 6368215.
Jump up ^ Colombo L, Dalla Valle L, Fiore C, Armanini D, Belvedere P (April 2006). "Aldosterone and the conquest of land". Journal of Endocrinological Investigation. 29 (4): 373–9. doi:10.1007/bf03344112. PMID 16699307.
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Human Physiology has a page on the topic of: The endocrine system
The Wikibook Anatomy and Physiology of Animals has a page on the topic of: Endocrine System
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[hide]
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Argus C3
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Argus C3
Argus C3
Overview
Maker
Argus
Lens
Lens mount
Screw mount
Lens
Interchangeable
Sensor/Medium
Film format
35mm
Film size
36mm × 24mm
Film advance
Manual
Film rewind
Manual
Focusing
Focus
Coupled rangefinder
General
Made in
USA
Released
October 1939
The Argus C3 was a low-priced rangefinder camera mass-produced from 1939 to 1966 by Argus in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. The camera sold about 2 million units, making it one of the most popular cameras in history. Due to its shape, size, and weight, it is commonly referred to as "The Brick" by photographers (in Japan its nickname translates as "The Lunchbox"). The most famous 20th-century photographer who used it was Tony Vaccaro, who employed this model during World War II.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Specifications
3 Models
4 Notable users
5 In popular culture
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
The C3 was introduced in October 1939 as an improved version of the C (1938–9) and C2 (1938–42). All three models shared the same "brick" design, attributed to Gustave Fassin, but the C3 was by far the most successful. The original Argus C was equipped with an uncoupled rangefinder which required the user to manually rotate the lens barrel to match the rangefinder reading, while the C2 coupled the rangefinder to the lens to allow one-step focusing. The C3 added built-in flash synchronization but was otherwise identical to the C2. It originally retailed for $35, equivalent to $616 in current dollars.[1]
The C3 proved hugely successful, selling approximately 2 million units during its 27-year production run. Although the boxy design was neither stylish nor ergonomic, customers were reportedly drawn to the camera's "scientific" appearance with its many gears, knobs, and dials. The C3 also developed a reputation for rugged durability and sharp, high-quality images.[1] Photographers affectionately nicknamed it "the brick". The C3's enduring popularity allowed it to outlast nearly all of its American competitors, including the Kodak 35 Rangefinder, but it was not able to compete with the flood of inexpensive Japanese single lens reflex cameras entering the market in the 1960s and was finally discontinued in 1966.
Although the design is over 75 years old, many C3s are still in use.[2] The cameras are inexpensive on the used market and their simple construction makes them relatively easy to repair.
Specifications[edit]
The C3 was constructed primarily of Bakelite plastic and metal castings. The design featured an unusual but simple diaphragm shutter built into the camera body, so the camera could make use of interchangeable lenses without the need for a complex focal plane shutter. The rangefinder was separate from the viewfinder and was coupled to the lens through a series of gears located on the outside of the camera body. The camera came equipped with a 50mm f/3.5 Cintar anastigmat triplet lens. The lenses were made under contract by Bausch & Lomb, Ilex, and Graf Optical, which was taken over by Argus in 1939, with varying quality.[1]
Models[edit]
Argus C3 Matchmatic
The series began in 1938 with the Argus C, equipped with a rangefinder which was not coupled to the lens. Focusing a C is a two step process, first finding the distance using the built-in rangefinder, then focusing the lens by rotating it until a scale on the side matches the distance given by the rangefinder. Very early production C cameras had high and low range shutter speeds marked on the speed dial, with a separate switch to select the desired speed range. The high/low speed selector was soon deleted from production, and speeds controlled by the rotary dial with 10 marked speeds.
The C was replaced within just a few months by the C2, with a geared coupling between the rangefinder and the lens, greatly accelerating focusing and making the camera much more convenient to use. Finally, in 1939 the C3 was introduced, with electrical plugs on the cameras left side for a battery-powered flash, synchronized to the shutter.
The basic C3 model underwent only minor revisions from its introduction until it was discontinued in 1966. For instance, the number of shutter speeds was lowered from ten to seven to five, an accessory shoe was added, and the exposure reminder dial on the back of the camera was removed. There was a variant featuring color-coded exposure controls known as the Colormatic. A second-generation C3 with an improved lens and more comfortable controls, the Standard C3, came out in 1958, though it was otherwise nearly identical to its predecessor.
Three variants were offered in addition to the basic C3: the Matchmatic, Golden Shield, and C33. The first two, produced from 1958 to 1966, were sold with a selenium light meter attachment but were otherwise essentially identical to the Standard C3. Both models also featured distinctive finishes: two-tone tan and black leatherette on the Matchmatic and metallized PET film coating on the Golden Shield. The C33, sold from 1959 to 1960, was a significant departure from the basic model though it still featured the classic "brick" shape. It offered numerous improvements over the older model including an integrated rangefinder and coupled light meter.
Notable users[edit]
Jimmy Carter's C3
World War II soldier and photojournalist Tony Vaccaro took most of his images with an Argus C3, even developing the images in soldiers' helmets. Duane Michals used a C3 to make double exposures. Helen K. Garber's father, Alex Kolikow, taught her how to shoot with his Argus C3. A C3 used by U.S. President Jimmy Carter is on display at the Jimmy Carter Library and Museum in Atlanta.
In popular culture[edit]
The C3 has frequently appeared in film. It was the camera used by Spy Magazine photographer Elizabeth Imbrie (Ruth Hussey) in The Philadelphia Story (1940), by Claire Dodd in the 1941 Abbott and Costello film In The Navy, by Max Showalter in the 1953 film Niagara and by Polly Perkins (Gwyneth Paltrow) in Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow (2004). A C3 Matchmatic was used by Colin Creevey in the 2002 film Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets. A C3 is the first camera used by Therese in the 2015 film Carol.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Lahue, Kalton C.; Bailey, Joseph A. (1972). Glass, Brass, and Chrome: The American 35mm Miniature Camera. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 140–146. ISBN 0806134348.
Jump up ^ Wicks, Pamela A. (September–October 2011). "Can the Old Technology of the Argus C3 "Brick" Withstand the Test of Time?". TechTrends. 55 (5): 10. doi:10.1007/s11528-011-0519-3. Retrieved March 3, 2014.
External links[edit]
The Argus Collector's Group
Argus Camera Information Reference Site
Argus C3
Argus patents
The Story of Argus Camera at Ann Arbor District Library
Argus camera timeline
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argus_C3&oldid=813722198"
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This page was last edited on 4 December 2017, at 22:18.
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text:
1:32 scale
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Scalextric 1:32 scale TVR & Porsche slot cars on track
1:32 scale is a traditional scale for models and miniatures, in which one unit (such as an inch or a centimeter) on the model represents 32 units on the actual object. It is also known as "three-eighths scale", since 3⁄8 inch represents a foot. A six foot tall person is modeled as 2 1⁄4 inches tall (55 mm) in 1:32 scale.
1:32 was once so common a scale for toy trains, autos, and soldiers that it was known as "standard size" in the industry (not to be confused with Lionel's "Standard Gauge"). 1:32 is the scale for Gauge 1 toy and model trains. It was the scale of some of the earliest plastic model car kits. It is a common scale for aircraft models and for figure modeling, where it is called 54 mm scale, from the height of the human figure. 1:32 was used for equipment to match 54 mm toy soldiers for miniature wargaming and was common in scale military modeling such as tanks and armored cars until it was largely replaced by 1:35 scale.
1:32 is now considered to be the 'Normal' scale for agricultural models such as Britains or Siku
1:32 is a useful scale for scratch modelling or railways. As well as standard gauge gauge 1 using 45 mm/1.772 in track, narrow gauge modellers use 0 gauge (32 mm/1.26 in) track for 42", 1m and 36" prototype gauges. Also H0/00 track at 16.5mm is used to represent models of 20 in/508 mm gauge railways.
Today, 1:32 is associated with slot car scale. A standard for tabletop rail-racing in the mid-1950s, it was adopted by the original slot car manufacturers, Victory Industries and Scalextric.[1]
See also[edit]
List of scale model sizes
Model railway scales
Rail transport modelling scales
Model car
Slot car
Gauge 1
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Dempewolff, Richard F, "Table-Top Car Racing", 1st Ed. 1963
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1:32_scale&oldid=789818053"
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Model railway scales

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values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

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Visit the main page

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