text:
Humerus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Humeral" should not be confused with "humoral".
Humerus
Position of humerus (shown in red)
from an anterior viewpoint
Details
Identifiers
Latin
humerus
MeSH
A02.835.232.087.090.400
TA
A02.4.04.001
FMA
13303
Anatomical terms of bone
[edit on Wikidata]
The humerus (/ˈhjuːmərəs/, Plural: humeri) is a long bone in the arm or forelimb that runs from the shoulder to the elbow. It connects the scapula and the two bones of the lower arm, the radius and ulna, and consists of three sections. The humeral upper extremity consists of a rounded head, a narrow neck, and two short processes (tubercles, sometimes called tuberosities). The body is cylindrical in its upper portion, and more prismatic below. The lower extremity consists of 2 epicondyles, 2 processes (trochlea & capitulum), and 3 fossae (radial fossa, coronoid fossa, and olecranon fossa). As well as its true anatomical neck, the constriction below the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus is referred to as its surgical neck due to its tendency to fracture, thus often becoming the focus of surgeons.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Structure
2.1 Articulations
2.2 Nerves
3 Function
3.1 Muscular attachment
4 Other animals
5 Additional images
6 Ossification
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Etymology[edit]
The word "humerus" is derived from Latin: humerus, umerus meaning upper arm, shoulder, and is linguistically related to Gothic ams shoulder and Greek ōmos.[1]
Structure[edit]
Articulations[edit]
At the shoulder, the head of the humerus articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula. More distally, at the elbow, the capitulum of the humerus articulates with the head of the radius, and the trochlea of the humerus articulates with the trochlear notch of the ulna.
Diagram of the human shoulder joint
The left shoulder and acromioclavicular joints, and the proper ligaments of the scapula.
Head of humerus
The supinator.
Nerves[edit]
The axillary nerve is located at the proximal end, against the shoulder girdle. Dislocation of the humerus's glenohumeral joint, has the potential to injure the axillary nerve or the axillary artery. Signs and symptoms of this dislocation include a loss of the normal shoulder contour and a palpable depression under the acromion.
The radial nerve follows the humerus closely. At the midshaft of the humerus, the radial nerve travels from the posterior to the anterior aspect of the bone in the spiral groove. A fracture of the humerus in this region can result in radial nerve injury.
The ulnar nerve lies at the distal end of the humerus near the elbow. When struck, it can cause a distinct tingling sensation, and sometimes a significant amount of pain. It is sometimes popularly referred to as 'the funny bone', possibly due to this sensation (a "funny" feeling), as well as the fact that the bone's name is a homophone of 'humorous'.[2] It lies posterior to the medial epicondyle, and is easily damaged in elbow injuries.[citation needed]
Horizontal section at the middle of upper arm.
Horizontal section of upper arm.
Humerus
Function[edit]
Muscular attachment[edit]
The deltoid originates on the lateral third of the clavicle, acromion and the crest of the spine of the scapula. It is inserted on the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus and has several actions including abduction, extension, and circumduction of the shoulder. The supraspinatus also originates on the spine of the scapula. It inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus, and assists in abduction of the shoulder.
The pectoralis major, teres major, and latissimus dorsi insert at the intertubercular groove of the humerus. They work to adduct and medially, or internally, rotate the humerus.
The infraspinatus and teres minor insert on the greater tubercle, and work to laterally, or externally, rotate the humerus. In contrast, the subscapularis muscle inserts onto the lesser tubercle and works to medially, or internally, rotate the humerus.
The biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis (which attaches distally) act to flex the elbow. (The biceps do not attach to the humerus.) The triceps brachii and anconeus extend the elbow, and attach to the posterior side of the humerus.
The four muscles of supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor and subscapularis form a musculo-ligamentous girdle called the rotator cuff. This cuff stabilizes the very mobile but inherently unstable glenohumeral joint. The other muscles are used as counterbalances for the actions of lifting/pulling and pressing/pushing.
Left humerus. Anterior view.
Supraspinatus muscle
Latissimus dorsi muscle
Pectoralis major muscle
Deltoid muscle
Brachioradialis
Extensor carpi radialis longus muscle
Common extensor tendon
Subscapularis muscle
Teres major muscle
Coracobrachialis muscle
Brachialis muscle
Pronator teres muscle
Common flexor tendon
Left humerus. Posterior view.
Other animals[edit]
Primitive fossils of amphibians had little, if any, shaft connecting the upper and lower extremities, making their limbs very short. In most living tetrapods, however, the humerus has a similar form to that of humans; connecting their extremities. In many reptiles and some primitive mammals, the lower extremity includes a large foramen, or opening, which allows nerves and blood vessels pass through.[3]
Additional images[edit]
Position of humerus (shown in red). Animation.
Left humerus. Animation.
Human arm bones diagram.
Humerus - inferior epiphysis. Anterior view.
Trochlea. Posterior view.
Humerus - inferior epiphysis. Posterior view.
Humerus - superior epiphysis. Anterior view.
Humerus - superior epiphysis. Posterior view.
Elbow joint. Deep dissection. Anterior view.
Elbow joint. Deep dissection. Posterior view.
Elbow joint. Deep dissection. Posterior view.
Ossification[edit]
This section's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Upper end Accompanies shaft in 20th year. The parts which form upper end - Head Starts from 1st year, Greater tubercle Starts from 3rd year, Lesser tubercle Starts from the fifth year.
Lower end Accompanies shaft in 16th to 17th year. The parts which form lower end are - Capitulum and the lateral flange of trochlea Sarts from 2nd year, Medial part of trochlea starts from 10th year, Lateral epicondyle starts from 12th year and Medial epicondyle starts from the sixth year.[4]
See also[edit]
Humerus fracture
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas. "Humerus". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
Jump up ^ "Funny Bone". Word Detective.
Jump up ^ Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977). The Vertebrate Body. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 198–199. ISBN 0-03-910284-X.
Jump up ^ "Humerus - Anatomy, Proximal, Shaft, Distal and Fracture - Earth's Lab - The Easy Way to Learn". www.earthslab.com. Retrieved 2017-01-29.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Humerus.
"Humerus". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
[hide]
v
t
e
Bones of the arm
Shoulder girdle, clavicle
conoid tubercle
trapezoid line
costal tuberosity
subclavian groove
Scapula
fossae (subscapular, supraspinatous, infraspinatous)
notches (suprascapular, great scapular)
glenoid cavity
tubercles (infraglenoid, supraglenoid)
spine of scapula
acromion
coracoid process
angles (superior, inferior, lateral)
Humerus
upper extremity: necks (anatomical, surgical)
tubercles (greater, lesser)
bicipital groove
body: radial sulcus
deltoid tuberosity
lower extremity: capitulum
trochlea
epicondyles (lateral, medial)
supracondylar ridges (lateral, medial)
fossae (radial, coronoid, olecranon)
Forearm
Radius
near elbow (head, tuberosity)
near wrist (ulnar notch, styloid process, Lister's tubercle)
Ulna
near elbow (tuberosity, olecranon, coronoid process, radial notch, trochlear notch)
near wrist (styloid process)
Hand
Carpal bones
scaphoid
lunate
triquetral
pisiform
trapezium
trapezoid
capitate
hamate
hamulus
Metacarpal bones
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
Phalanges
proximal
intermediate
distal
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text:
Susan Egan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Susan Egan
Egan in 2007
Born
Susan Farrell Egan
(1970-02-18) February 18, 1970 (age 47)
Seal Beach, California, U.S.
Residence
Orange County, California
Nationality
American
Occupation
Actress, singer, dancer, voice actress, comedian
Years active
1982-present
Spouse(s)
Robert Hartmann (m. 2005)
Children
2
Susan Farrell Egan (born February 18, 1970) is an American actress, singer, dancer, voice actress, and comedian, known for her work on the Broadway stage. She is best known for originating the role of Belle in the Broadway musical adaptation of Beauty and the Beast (1994), as well as for providing the voice of Megara in Hercules (1997), and the voice for Rose Quartz on Steven Universe.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
2.1 Stage and other work
2.2 Television
2.3 Voice acting
3 Personal life
4 Filmography
5 Broadway and stage
6 Discography
7 Other
8 References
9 External links
Early life[edit]
Egan was born in Seal Beach, California on February 18, 1970. She attended Los Alamitos High School and the co-located Orange County High School of the Arts and UCLA.[1]
Career[edit]
Stage and other work[edit]
Having long desired to become a performer, Egan spent most of her time taking dancing, concentrating on ballet, and singing lessons as a child, and trained as a competitive figure skater from ages five to ten.[2]
While attending Los Alamitos High School, the Orange County High School of the Arts, and the UCLA, she started her career touring with the performance group the Young Americans. While attending UCLA, Egan took time off when Tommy Tune cast her as Kim in his touring production of Bye Bye Birdie.[3] After the tour ended, she was cast in the tour of State Fair and won the coveted role of Belle in the original Broadway cast of Beauty and the Beast, for which she was nominated for the Tony Award and the Drama Desk Award, Outstanding Actress in a Musical.[4]
On Broadway, Egan portrayed Belle for one year and reprised the role in the Los Angeles production in 1995, along with many of the original Broadway cast members. At the Sacramento Music Circus, she portrayed Maria in The Sound of Music in 1996[5] and Molly Brown in The Unsinkable Molly Brown in 2002. Egan joined Thoroughly Modern Millie in February 2004 as Millie.[6]
Egan has performed in one-woman, cabaret-style concerts at the Orange County Performing Arts Center in 2000[2] and at the Carpenter Performing Arts Center in October 2001.[3] In August 2001, Egan appeared at the Hollywood Bowl in the concert version of Show Boat as Julie. She sings with symphonies, as well;[7] she performed in concert at the Walt Disney Concert Hall with the Gay Men's Chorus of Los Angeles in November 2004.[8]
From 2002 to 2003, she was the interim artistic director of the Orange County High School of the Arts.[7][9]
On June 6, 2016, Egan appeared alongside Brad Kane at the Hollywood Bowl as opening acts for Disney's "The Little Mermaid Live" show. Egan performed a medley of songs from Beauty and the Beast.[10] The June 6 performance also included the original Little Mermaid voice actress Jodi Benson performing with the rest of the "Live" cast.[11]
Television[edit]
On television, Egan is known for her co-starring role as Nikki Cox's best friend in Nikki.[12]
Voice acting[edit]
Egan's voice has been featured in the English language versions of two feature films by Hayao Miyazaki, Spirited Away and Porco Rosso. She is most widely known for voicing Megara in Hercules and reprised her role in Kingdom Hearts II.[13]
Egan provided Angel's singing voice in Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure[14] and the voice acting for Rose Quartz on the Cartoon Network animated series Steven Universe.
Personal life[edit]
Egan is married to Robert Hartmann and has two daughters, Nina and Isla. She currently resides in Orange County, California.[15]
Filmography[edit]
Source:[13]
Men Don't Tell (1993) – Florist[16]
Hercules (1997) – Megara[17]
Man of the Century (1999) – Samantha Winter[18]
The Disappearing Girl Trick (2001) – Bridget Smith[19]
Revolution OS (2001) – Narrator[20]
Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure (2001) – Angel (singing voice)
Spirited Away (2002) – Lin
Gotta Kick It Up! (2002) – Heather Bartlett
Porco Rosso (2003) – Madame Gina[21]
13 Going on 30 (2004) – Tracy Hansen[22]
Steven Universe (2014–2017) – Rose Quartz, various characters[23] (10 episodes)
Achmed Saves America (2014) – Ginny
Modern Family (2015) – Miss Ford
Broadway and stage[edit]
Source: Internet Broadway Database[4]
Bye Bye Birdie (1992, U.S. Tour as Kim MacAfee)[24]
State Fair (1992, tour; 1996, replacement Margie)[25]
Beauty and the Beast (1994, Belle)
Triumph of Love (1997, Princess Léonide)
Cabaret (1998 revival) (various, 1999, 2000, 2003, Sally Bowles)
Putting It Together (1999, The Mark Taper Forum, California)[26]
The Unsinkable Molly Brown (2002, "Molly Brown", Sacramento Music Circus)[27]
Thoroughly Modern Millie (2004, replacement Millie Dillmount)[6]
Discography[edit]
Source:[28]
2002: So Far...
2004: Coffee House
2005: All That & More
2006: Winter Tracks
2007: Susan Egan Live!
2011: Secret of Happiness (includes Save me video, Brian Haner music video, filmed in 2011)[29]
2015: Softly[30]
Other[edit]
Source:[13]
Revolution OS (2001) as Narrator
Kingdom Hearts II (2006) as Megara (voice)
House M.D. Episode 5.17 (2009) as Audrey
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "NOTABLE ALUMNI ACTORS". UCLA School of Theater, Film and Television. Retrieved September 29, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Boehm, Mike. "This Belle Is Having a Ball" Los Angeles Times, February 14, 2000
^ Jump up to: a b Henerson, Evan."Broadway bent", Long Beach Press Telegram , August 2001
^ Jump up to: a b "Susan Egan at Internet Broadway Database", ibdb.com, accessed February 19, 2010
Jump up ^ "Susan Egan Biography", filmreference.com, accessed February 19, 2010
^ Jump up to: a b Jones, Kenneth."Beat the Drums: Susan Egan Is Broadway's New Modern Millie, Starting Feb. 16", playbill.com, February 16, 2004
^ Jump up to: a b "Press Release" susanegan.net, accessed February 19, 2010
Jump up ^ Gans, Andrew."Susan Egan to Sing Jerry Herman at Nov. 8 L.A. Concert", playbill.com, October 11, 2004
Jump up ^ Gans, Andrew."Diva Talk:Sondheim Comes to NYC, Busy Newman, Your Little Shop Picks" playbill.com, July 19, 2002
Jump up ^ STAGE TUBE: Watch Susan Egan Perform a BEAUTY AND THE BEAST Medley at The Hollywood Bowl Broadway World, Retrieved June 8, 2016
Jump up ^ https://ohmy.disney.com/news/2016/04/25/jodi-benson-to-reprise-her-role-as-ariel-in-additional-performance-of-the-little-mermaid-live-in-concert/
Jump up ^ Sieberg, Daniel. "Susan Egan: 'A great time being a bad girl'" cnn.com, April 5, 2001
^ Jump up to: a b c "Susan Egan at Internet Movie Database", imdb.com, accessed February 19, 2010
Jump up ^ Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure tcm.com, accessed December 12, 2016
Jump up ^ "Susan Egan gives back at Chance benefit"Orange County Register (reprint), August 24, 2009.
Jump up ^ Men Don't Tell tcm.com, accessed December 12, 2016
Jump up ^ Hercules' tcm.com, accessed December 12, 2016
Jump up ^ Man of the Century tcm.com, accessed December 12, 2016
Jump up ^ The Disappearing Girl Trick on IMDb
Jump up ^ Revolution OS tcm.com, accessed December 12, 2016
Jump up ^ "'Porco Rosso' Cast and Crew" allmovie.com, accessed February 26, 2016
Jump up ^ "'13 Going on 30' Cast and Crew" allmovie.com, accessed February 24, 2016
Jump up ^ "Fusion Cuisine". Steven Universe. Season 1. Episode 32. November 6, 2014. Cartoon Network.
Jump up ^ Churnin, Nancy. "Stage Review : 'Birdie' Soars on Dancing of Tommy Tune" Los Angeles Times, April 22, 2992
Jump up ^ Drake, Sylvie. "Stage Review. 'State Fair'" Los Angeles Times, October 9, 1992
Jump up ^ Howard, Jerry. "'Putting It Together' review talkinbroadway.com, 1999
Jump up ^ Gans, Andrew. "Susan Egan Is Molly Brown July 22-28 at the Sacramento Music Circus", Playbill, July 22, 2002, accessed December 12, 2016
Jump up ^ "Susan Egan listing", amazon.com, accessed February 19, 2010
Jump up ^ Interview losangeles.cbslocal.com, November 14, 2011
Jump up ^ BWW News Desk. "Susan Egan Releases New Solo CD SOFTLY Today" broadwayworld.com. Nov.ember 11, 2015
External links[edit]
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Inner core
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the cores of other planetary bodies, see Planetary core.
For a broader coverage related to this topic, see Earth core.
The internal structure of Earth
The Earth's inner core is the Earth's innermost part. It is primarily a solid ball with a radius of about 1,220 kilometres (760 miles), which is about 70% of the Moon's radius.[1][2] It is composed of an iron–nickel alloy and some light elements. The temperature at the inner core’s surface is approximately 5,700 K (5,430 °C), which is about the temperature at the surface of the Sun.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Discovery
2 Composition
3 Temperature and pressure
4 Dynamics
5 History
6 See also
7 References
Discovery[edit]
The Earth was discovered to have a solid inner core distinct from its liquid outer core in 1936, by the Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann,[4] who deduced its presence by studying seismograms from earthquakes in New Zealand. She observed that the seismic waves reflect off the boundary of the inner core and can be detected by sensitive seismographs on the Earth's surface. This boundary is known as the Bullen discontinuity,[5] or sometimes as the Lehmann discontinuity.[6] A few years later, in 1940, it was hypothesized that this inner core was made of solid iron; its rigidity was confirmed in 1971.[7]
The outer core was determined to be liquid from observations showing that compressional waves pass through it, but elastic shear waves do not – or do so only very weakly.[8] The solidity of the inner core had been difficult to establish because the elastic shear waves that are expected to pass through a solid mass are very weak and difficult for seismographs on the Earth's surface to detect, since they become so attenuated on their way from the inner core to the surface by their passage through the liquid outer core. Dziewonski and Gilbert established that measurements of normal modes of vibration of Earth caused by large earthquakes were consistent with a liquid outer core.[9] It has recently been claimed that shear waves have been detected passing through the inner core; these claims were initially controversial, but are now gaining acceptance.[10]
Composition[edit]
Based on the relative prevalence of various chemical elements in the Solar System, the theory of planetary formation, and constraints imposed or implied by the chemistry of the rest of the Earth's volume, the inner core is believed to consist primarily of a nickel-iron alloy. Pure iron was found to be denser than the core by approximately 3%, implying the presence of light elements in the core (e.g. silicon, oxygen, sulfur) in addition to the probable presence of nickel.[11]
Further, if the primordial and mostly fluid (still forming) earth contained any significant mass(es) of elements denser than iron and nickel, namely the white (appearance) precious metals (and a few others) except silver, specifically the siderophile elements then these would necessarily have differentiated to the very center of the core into concentric nested spheres by Planetary differentiation. The most dense (and stable, i.e. platinum, iridium, and osmium, (etc.) in order of density) of these forming the innermost spheroid(s).[12] While unstable elements of such trans-iron/nickel density would have mostly decayed to iron/nickel/lead by the time the earth formed a discrete core.
See also: Densities of the elements (data page)
It then necessarily follows that all, or almost all, of these denser elements we have mined (or are even able to) at the surface (or near surface, or even at all "above" the core) have been delivered later as part of impact objects/masses.[13]
Temperature and pressure[edit]
The temperature of the inner core can be estimated by considering both the theoretical and the experimentally demonstrated constraints on the melting temperature of impure iron at the pressure which iron is under at the boundary of the inner core (about 330 GPa). These considerations suggest that its temperature is about 5,700 K (5,400 °C; 9,800 °F).[3] The pressure in the Earth's inner core is slightly higher than it is at the boundary between the outer and inner cores: it ranges from about 330 to 360 gigapascals (3,300,000 to 3,600,000 atm).[14] Iron can be solid at such high temperatures only because its melting temperature increases dramatically at pressures of that magnitude (see the Clausius–Clapeyron relation).[15]
A report published in the journal Science [16] concludes that the melting temperature of iron at the inner core boundary is 6230 ± 500 K, roughly 1000 K higher than previous estimates.
Dynamics[edit]
The Earth's inner core is thought to be slowly growing as the liquid outer core at the boundary with the inner core cools and solidifies due to the gradual cooling of the Earth's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years).[17] Many scientists had initially expected that the inner core would be found to be homogeneous, because the solid inner core was originally formed by a gradual cooling of molten material, and continues to grow as a result of that same process. Even though it is growing into liquid, it is solid, due to the very high pressure that keeps it compacted together even if the temperature is extremely high. It was even suggested that Earth's inner core might be a single crystal of iron.[18] However, this prediction was disproved by observations indicating that in fact there is a degree of disorder within the inner core.[19] Seismologists have found that the inner core is not completely uniform, but instead contains large-scale structures such that seismic waves pass more rapidly through some parts of the inner core than through others.[20] In addition, the properties of the inner core's surface vary from place to place across distances as small as 1 km. This variation is surprising, since lateral temperature variations along the inner-core boundary are known to be extremely small (this conclusion is confidently constrained by magnetic field observations). Recent discoveries suggest that the solid inner core itself is composed of layers, separated by a transition zone about 250 to 400 km thick.[21] If the inner core grows by small frozen sediments falling onto its surface, then some liquid can also be trapped in the pore spaces and some of this residual fluid may still persist to some small degree in much of its interior.
Because the inner core is not rigidly connected to the Earth's solid mantle, the possibility that it rotates slightly faster or slower than the rest of Earth has long been entertained.[22][23] In the 1990s, seismologists made various claims about detecting this kind of super-rotation by observing changes in the characteristics of seismic waves passing through the inner core over several decades, using the aforementioned property that it transmits waves faster in some directions. Estimates of this super-rotation are around one degree of extra rotation per year.
Growth of the inner core is thought to play an important role in the generation of Earth's magnetic field by dynamo action in the liquid outer core. This occurs mostly because it cannot dissolve the same amount of light elements as the outer core and therefore freezing at the inner core boundary produces a residual liquid that contains more light elements than the overlying liquid. This causes it to become buoyant and helps drive convection of the outer core.[citation needed] The existence of the inner core also changes the dynamic motions of liquid in the outer core as it grows and may help fix the magnetic field since it is expected to be a great deal more resistant to flow than the outer core liquid (which is expected to be turbulent).[citation needed]
Speculation also continues that the inner core might have exhibited a variety of internal deformation patterns. This may be necessary to explain why seismic waves pass more rapidly in some directions than in others.[24] Because thermal convection alone appears to be improbable,[25] any buoyant convection motions will have to be driven by variations in composition or abundance of liquid in its interior. S. Yoshida and colleagues proposed a novel mechanism whereby deformation of the inner core can be caused by a higher rate of freezing at the equator than at polar latitudes,[26] and S. Karato proposed that changes in the magnetic field might also deform the inner core slowly over time.[27]
There is an East–West asymmetry in the inner core seismological data. There is a model which explains this by differences at the surface of the inner core – melting in one hemisphere and crystallization in the other.[28] The western hemisphere of the inner core may be crystallizing, whereas the eastern hemisphere may be melting. This may lead to enhanced magnetic field generation in the crystallizing hemisphere, creating the asymmetry in the Earth's magnetic field.[29]
History[edit]
Main article: History of the Earth
Based on rates of cooling of the core, it is estimated that the current solid inner core started solidifying approximately 0.5 to 2 billion years ago[30] out of a fully molten core (which formed just after planetary formation). If true, this would mean that the Earth's solid inner core is not a primordial feature that was present during the planet's formation, but a feature younger than the Earth (the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old).
See also[edit]
The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Structure of the Earth
Geodynamics
Iron meteorite
Structure of the Earth
Travel to the Earth's center
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Monnereau, Marc; Calvet, Marie; Margerin, Ludovic; Souriau, Annie (May 21, 2010). "Lopsided Growth of Earth's Inner Core". Science. 328 (5981): 1014–1017. Bibcode:2010Sci...328.1014M. doi:10.1126/science.1186212. PMID 20395477
Jump up ^ E. R. Engdahl; E. A. Flynn & R. P. Massé (1974). "Differential PkiKP travel times and the radius of the core". Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc. 40 (3): 457–463. Bibcode:1974GeoJI..39..457E. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1974.tb05467.x.
^ Jump up to: a b D. Alfè; M. Gillan & G. D. Price (January 30, 2002). "Composition and temperature of the Earth's core constrained by combining ab initio calculations and seismic data" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Elsevier. 195 (1–2): 91–98. Bibcode:2002E&PSL.195...91A. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00568-4.
Jump up ^ Edmond A. Mathez, ed. (2000). EARTH: INSIDE AND OUT. American Museum of Natural History. Archived from the original on 2008-04-30.
Jump up ^ John C. Butler (1995). "Class Notes – The Earth's Interior". Physical Geology Grade Book. University of Houston. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Although another discontinuity is named after Lehmann, this usage still can be found: see for example: Robert E Krebs (2003). The basics of earth science. Greenwood Publishing Company. ISBN 0-313-31930-8. ,and From here to "hevean," or the D layer, About.com
Jump up ^ Hung Kan Lee (2002). International handbook of earthquake and engineering seismology; volume 1. Academic Press. p. 926. ISBN 0-12-440652-1.
Jump up ^ William J. Cromie (1996-08-15). "Putting a New Spin on Earth's Core". Harvard Gazette. Retrieved 2007-05-22.
Jump up ^ A. M. Dziewonski; F. Gilbert (1971-12-24). "Solidity of the Inner Core of the Earth inferred from Normal Mode Observations". Nature. 234 (5330): 465–466. Bibcode:1971Natur.234..465D. doi:10.1038/234465a0.
Jump up ^ Robert Roy Britt (2005-04-14). "Finally, a Solid Look at Earth's Core". Retrieved 2007-05-22.
Jump up ^ Stixrude, Lars; Wasserman, Evgeny; Cohen, Ronald E. (1997-11-10). "Composition and temperature of Earth's inner core". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 102 (B11): 24729–24739. doi:10.1029/97JB02125. ISSN 2156-2202.
Jump up ^ "core – National Geographic Society".
Jump up ^ "Earth's Precious Metals Could Be From Meteorites and Asteroids".
Jump up ^ David. R. Lide, ed. (2006–2007). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (87th ed.). pp. j14–13.
Jump up ^ Anneli Aitta (2006-12-01). "Iron melting curve with a tricritical point". Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment. iop. 2006 (12): 12015–12030. arXiv:cond-mat/0701283  . Bibcode:2006JSMTE..12..015A. doi:10.1088/1742-5468/2006/12/P12015. or see preprints http://arxiv.org/pdf/cond-mat/0701283 , http://arxiv.org/pdf/0807.0187 .
Jump up ^ S. Anzellini; A. Dewaele; M. Mezouar; P. Loubeyre & G. Morard (2013). "Melting of Iron at Earth's Inner Core Boundary Based on Fast X-ray Diffraction". Science. AAAS. 340 (6136): 464–466. doi:10.1126/science.1233514.
Jump up ^ J.A. Jacobs (1953). "The Earth's inner core". Nature. 172 (4372): 297–298. Bibcode:1953Natur.172..297J. doi:10.1038/172297a0.
Jump up ^ Broad, William J. (1995-04-04). "The Core of the Earth May Be a Gigantic Crystal Made of Iron". NY Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2010-12-21.
Jump up ^ Robert Sanders (1996-11-13). "Earth's inner core not a monolithic iron crystal, say UC Berkeley seismologist". Retrieved 2007-05-22.
Jump up ^ Andrew Jephcoat; Keith Refson (2001-09-06). "Earth science: Core beliefs". Nature. 413 (6851): 27–30. doi:10.1038/35092650. PMID 11544508.
Jump up ^ Kazuro Hirahara; Toshiki Ohtaki & Yasuhiro Yoshida (1994). "Seismic structure near the inner core-outer core boundary". Geophys. Res. Lett. American Geophysical Union. 51 (16): 157–160. Bibcode:1994GeoRL..21..157K. doi:10.1029/93GL03289.
Jump up ^ Aaurno, J. M.; Brito, D.; Olson, P. L. (1996). "Mechanics of inner core super-rotation". Geophysical Research Letters. 23 (23): 3401–3404. Bibcode:1996GeoRL..23.3401A. doi:10.1029/96GL03258
Jump up ^ Xu, Xiaoxia; Song, Xiaodong (2003). "Evidence for inner core super-rotation from time-dependent differential PKP traveltimes observed at Beijing Seismic Network". Geophysical Journal International. 152 (3): 509–514. Bibcode:2003GeoJI.152..509X. doi:10.1046/j.1365-246X.2003.01852.x
Jump up ^ G Poupinet; R Pillet; A Souriau (1983). "Possible heterogeneity of the Earth's core deduced from PKIKP travel times". Nature. 305: 204–206. doi:10.1038/305204a0.
Jump up ^ T. Yukutake (1998). "Implausibility of thermal convection in the Earth's solid inner core". Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 108 (1): 1–13. Bibcode:1998PEPI..108....1Y. doi:10.1016/S0031-9201(98)00097-1.
Jump up ^ S.I. Yoshida; I. Sumita & M. Kumazawa (1996). "Growth model of the inner core coupled with the outer core dynamics and the resulting elastic anisotropy". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 101: 28085–28103. Bibcode:1996JGR...10128085Y. doi:10.1029/96JB02700.
Jump up ^ S. I. Karato (1999). "Seismic anisotropy of the Earth's inner core resulting from flow induced by Maxwell stresses". Nature. 402 (6764): 871–873. Bibcode:1999Natur.402..871K. doi:10.1038/47235.
Jump up ^ Alboussière, T.; Deguen, R.; Melzani, M. (2010). "Melting-induced stratification above the Earth's inner core due to convective translation". Nature. 466 (7307): 744–747. arXiv:1201.1201  . Bibcode:2010Natur.466..744A. doi:10.1038/nature09257. PMID 20686572.
Jump up ^ "Figure 1: East–west asymmetry in inner-core growth and magnetic field generation." from Finlay, Christopher C. (2012). "Core processes: Earth's eccentric magnetic field". Nature Geoscience. 5: 523–524. doi:10.1038/ngeo1516.
Jump up ^ Labrosse, Stéphane; Poirier, Jean-Paul; Le Mouël, Jean-Louis (2001-08-15). "The age of the inner core". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 190 (3–4): 111–123. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00387-9.
[hide]
v
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e
Structure of the Earth
Shells
Crust
Lithosphere
Mesosphere
Mantle
Asthenosphere
Lithospheric mantle
Subcontinental lithospheric mantle
Oceanic lithospheric mantle
Outer core
Inner core
Discontinuities
Conrad (continental crust)
Mohorovičić (crust–mantle)
Lehmann (upper mantle)
Gutenberg (mantle–core)
Lehmann (core)
Arguments
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