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Instrument flight rules
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"IFR" redirects here. For other uses, see IFR (disambiguation).
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IFR in between cloud layers in a Cessna 172
Instrument flight rules (IFR) is one of two sets of regulations governing all aspects of civil aviation aircraft operations; the other is visual flight rules (VFR).
The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) Instrument Flying Handbook defines IFR as: "Rules and regulations established by the FAA to govern flight under conditions in which flight by outside visual reference is not safe. IFR flight depends upon flying by reference to instruments in the flight deck, and navigation is accomplished by reference to electronic signals."[1] It is also a term used by pilots and controllers to indicate the type of flight plan an aircraft is flying, such as an IFR or VFR flight plan.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Basic information
1.1 Comparison to visual flight rules
1.2 Instrument flight rules
2 Separation and clearance
3 Weather
4 Navigation
4.1 Autopilot
5 Procedures
6 Qualifications
6.1 Pilot
6.2 Aircraft
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Basic information[edit]
Comparison to visual flight rules[edit]
Main article: Visual flight rules
To put instrument flight rules into context, a brief overview of visual flight rules (VFR) is necessary. It is possible and fairly straightforward, in relatively clear weather conditions, to fly a plane solely by reference to outside visual cues, such as the horizon to maintain orientation, nearby buildings and terrain features for navigation, and other aircraft to maintain separation. This is known as operating the aircraft under VFR, and is the most common mode of operation for small aircraft. However, it is safe to fly VFR only when these outside references can be clearly seen from a sufficient distance; when flying through or above clouds, or in fog, rain, dust or similar low-level weather conditions, these references can be obscured. Thus, cloud ceiling and flight visibility are the most important variables for safe operations during all phases of flight.[3] The minimum weather conditions for ceiling and visibility for VFR flights are defined in FAR Part 91.155, and vary depending on the type of airspace in which the aircraft is operating, and on whether the flight is conducted during daytime or nighttime. However, typical daytime VFR minimums for most airspace is 3 statute miles of flight visibility and a distance from clouds of 500' below, 1,000' above, and 2,000' feet horizontally.[4] Flight conditions reported as equal to or greater than these VFR minimums are referred to as visual meteorological conditions (VMC).
Any aircraft operating under VFR must have the required equipment on board, as described in FAR Part 91.205[5] (which includes some instruments necessary for IFR flight). VFR pilots may use cockpit instruments as secondary aids to navigation and orientation, but are not required to; the view outside of the aircraft is the primary source for keeping the aircraft straight and level (orientation), flying to the intended destination (navigation), and not hitting anything (separation).[6]
Visual flight rules are generally simpler than instrument flight rules, and require significantly less training and practice. VFR provides a great degree of freedom, allowing pilots to go where they want, when they want, and allows them a much wider latitude in determining how they get there.[7]
Instrument flight rules[edit]
When operation of an aircraft under VFR is not safe, because the visual cues outside the aircraft are obscured by weather or darkness, instrument flight rules must be used instead. IFR permits an aircraft to operate in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), which is essentially any weather condition less than VMC but in which aircraft can still operate safely. Use of instrument flight rules are also required when flying in "Class A" airspace regardless of weather conditions. Class A airspace extends from 18,000 feet above mean sea level to flight level 600 (60,000 feet pressure altitude) above the contiguous 48 United States and overlying the waters within 12 miles thereof.[8] Flight in Class A airspace requires pilots and aircraft to be instrument equipped and rated and to be operating under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR). In many countries commercial airliners and their pilots must operate under IFR as the majority of flights enter Class A airspace; however, aircraft operating as commercial airliners must operate under IFR even if the flight plan does not take the craft into Class A airspace, such as with smaller regional flights.[9] Procedures and training are significantly more complex compared to VFR instruction, as a pilot must demonstrate competency in conducting an entire cross-country flight in IMC conditions, while controlling the aircraft solely by reference to instruments.
Instrument pilots must meticulously evaluate weather, create a very detailed flight plan based around specific instrument departure, en route, and arrival procedures, and dispatch the flight.[6][10]
Separation and clearance[edit]
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The distance by which an aircraft avoids obstacles or other aircraft is termed separation. The most important concept of IFR flying is that separation is maintained regardless of weather conditions. In controlled airspace, air traffic control (ATC) separates IFR aircraft from obstacles and other aircraft using a flight clearance based on route, time, distance, speed, and altitude. ATC monitors IFR flights on radar, or through aircraft position reports in areas where radar coverage is not available. Aircraft position reports are sent as voice radio transmissions. In the United States, a flight operating under IFR is required to provide position reports unless ATC advises a pilot that the plane is in radar contact. The pilot must resume position reports after ATC advises that radar contact has been lost, or that radar services are terminated.
IFR flights in controlled airspace require an ATC clearance for each part of the flight. A clearance always specifies a clearance limit, which is the farthest the aircraft can fly without a new clearance. In addition, a clearance typically provides a heading or route to follow, altitude, and communication parameters, such as frequencies and transponder codes.
In uncontrolled airspace, ATC clearances are unavailable. In some states a form of separation is provided to certain aircraft in uncontrolled airspace as far as is practical (often known under ICAO as an advisory service in class G airspace), but separation is not mandated nor widely provided.
Despite the protection offered by flight in controlled airspace under IFR, the ultimate responsibility for the safety of the aircraft rests with the pilot in command, who can refuse clearances.
Weather[edit]
IFR flying with clouds below
It is essential to differentiate between flight plan type (VFR or IFR) and weather conditions (VMC or IMC). While current and forecast weather may be a factor in deciding which type of flight plan to file, weather conditions themselves do not affect one's filed flight plan. For example, an IFR flight that encounters visual meteorological conditions (VMC) en route does not automatically change to a VFR flight, and the flight must still follow all IFR procedures regardless of weather conditions. In the US, weather conditions are forecast broadly as VFR, MVFR (Marginal Visual Flight Rules), IFR, or LIFR (Low Instrument Flight Rules).[11]
The main purpose of IFR is the safe operation of aircraft in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). The weather is considered to be MVFR or IMC when it does not meet the minimum requirements for visual meteorological conditions (VMC). To operate safely in IMC ("actual instrument conditions"), a pilot controls the aircraft relying on flight instruments and ATC provides separation.[12]
It is important not to confuse IFR with IMC. A significant amount of IFR flying is conducted in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC). Anytime a flight is operating in VMC and in a volume of airspace in which VFR traffic can operate, the crew is responsible for seeing and avoiding VFR traffic; however, because the flight is conducted under Instrument Flight Rules, ATC still provides separation services from other IFR traffic, and can in many cases also advise the crew of the location of VFR traffic near the flight path.[citation needed]
Although dangerous and illegal, a certain amount of VFR flying is conducted in IMC. A scenario is a VFR pilot taking off in VMC conditions, but encountering deteriorating visibility while en route. Continued VFR flight into IMC can lead to spatial disorientation of the pilot which is the cause of a significant number of general aviation crashes. VFR flight into IMC is distinct from "VFR-on-top", an IFR procedure in which the aircraft operates in VMC using a hybrid of VFR and IFR rules, and "VFR over the top", a VFR procedure in which the aircraft takes off and lands in VMC but flies above an intervening area of IMC. Also possible in many countries is "Special VFR" flight, where an aircraft is explicitly granted permission to operate VFR within the controlled airspace of an airport in conditions technically less than VMC; the pilot asserts they have the necessary visibility to fly despite the weather, must stay in contact with ATC, and cannot leave controlled airspace while still below VMC minimums.[citation needed]
During flight under IFR, there are no visibility requirements, so flying through clouds (or other conditions where there is zero visibility outside the aircraft) is legal and safe. However, there are still minimum weather conditions that must be present in order for the aircraft to take off or to land; these vary according to the kind of operation, the type of navigation aids available, the location and height of terrain and obstructions in the vicinity of the airport, equipment on the aircraft, and the qualifications of the crew. For example, Reno-Tahoe International Airport (KRNO) in a mountainous region has significantly different instrument approaches for aircraft landing on the same runway surface, but from opposite directions. Aircraft approaching from the north must make visual contact with the airport at a higher altitude than when approaching from the south because of rapidly rising terrain south of the airport.[13] This higher altitude allows a flight crew to clear the obstacle if a landing is aborted. In general, each specific instrument approach specifies the minimum weather conditions to permit landing.
Although large airliners, and increasingly, smaller aircraft, carry their own terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS),[14] these are primarily backup systems providing a last layer of defense if a sequence of errors or omissions causes a dangerous situation.[14]
Navigation[edit]
Because IFR flights often take place without visual reference to the ground, a means of navigation other than looking outside the window is required. A number of navigational aids are available to pilots, including ground-based systems such as DME/VORs and NDBs as well as the satellite-based GPS/GNSS system. Air traffic control may assist in navigation by assigning pilots specific headings ("radar vectors"). The majority of IFR navigation is given by ground- and satellite-based systems, while radar vectors are usually reserved by ATC for sequencing aircraft for a busy approach or transitioning aircraft from takeoff to cruise, among other things.[citation needed]
Autopilot[edit]
Autopilot allows automatic piloting.
Modern flight management systems have evolved to allow a crew to plan a flight as to route and altitude and to specific time of arrival at specific locations.[citation needed] This capability is used in several trial projects experimenting with four-dimensional approach clearances for commercial aircraft, with time as the fourth dimension.[citation needed] These clearances allow ATC to optimize the arrival of aircraft at major airports, which increases airport capacity and uses less fuel providing monetary and environmental benefits to airlines and the public.[citation needed]
Required navigation performance (RNP)
ADS-B
Procedures[edit]
Main articles: Instrument approach and Flight procedure
Specific procedures allow IFR aircraft to transition safely through every stage of flight. These procedures specify how an IFR pilot should respond, even in the event of a complete radio failure, and loss of communications with ATC, including the expected aircraft course and altitude.[citation needed]
Departures are described in an IFR clearance issued by ATC prior to takeoff. The departure clearance may contain an assigned heading, one or more waypoints, and an initial altitude to fly. The clearance can also specify a departure procedure (DP) or standard instrument departure (SID) that should be followed unless "NO DP" is specified in the notes section of the filed flight plan.[citation needed]
Here is an example of an IFR clearance for a Cessna aircraft traveling from Palo Alto airport (KPAO) to Stockton airport (KSCK).
"Cessna 21756, cleared to Stockton Airport via turn right heading zero-six-zero within one mile of the airport. Radar vectors San Jose, then as filed. Maintain three thousand expect five thousand five minutes after departure. Departure frequency is one two one decimal three. Squawk four two six three."
Detailed explanation:
"Cessna 21756"
Verifies that only this specific aircraft is cleared.
"cleared to Stockton Airport"
Clearance Limit: the farthest destination the aircraft is allowed to go under IFR (in most cases it is the destination airport).
"via turn right heading zero-six-zero within one mile of the airport."
The pilot is expected to execute the right turn to 060° magnetic heading without further ATC prompting within one mile of the departure airport.
"Radar vectors San Jose"
The departure controller will provide directional guidance to the San Jose VOR.
"Then as filed."
After arriving at the San Jose VOR, the pilot will likely resume navigation without ATC prompts along the airways and intersections that were filed in their flight plan.
"Maintain three thousand ..."
After takeoff, climb to an indicated altitude of 3000 feet above sea level.
"... expect five thousand five minutes after departure."
The next altitude assignment is probably going to be 5000 feet above sea level. However, pilots must follow actual ATC altitude assignments throughout the flight. This portion of the clearance provides a backup if communications are lost, allowing the flight to continue and climb to 5000 feet.
"Departure frequency is one two one decimal three."
After the aircraft is airborne and the tower controller tells the pilot to "contact departure", pilots are to contact the departure controller on this communication frequency.
"Squawk four two six three."
The pilot should set the aircraft's transponder code to 4263 so that ATC can positively identify the flight on radar.
The clearance scheme, used by ATC, can be easily remembered using the acronym
"CRAFT"
Clearance Limit - Route - Altitudes - Frequencies - Transponder (Squawk)
En route flight is described by IFR charts showing navigation aids, fixes, and standard routes called airways. Aircraft with appropriate navigational equipment such as GPS, are also often cleared for a direct-to routing, where only the destination, or a few navigational waypoints are used to describe the route that the flight will follow. ATC will assign altitudes in its initial clearance or amendments thereto, and navigational charts indicate minimum safe altitudes for airways.[citation needed]
The approach portion of an IFR flight may begin with a standard terminal arrival route (STAR), describing common routes to fly to arrive at an initial approach fix (IAF) from which an instrument approach commences. An instrument approach terminates either by the pilot acquiring sufficient visual reference to proceed to the runway, or with a missed approach because the required visual reference is not seen in time.[citation needed]
Qualifications[edit]
Pilot[edit]
To fly under IFR, a pilot must have an instrument rating and must be current (meet recency of experience requirements). In the United States, to file and fly under IFR, a pilot must be instrument-rated and, within the preceding six months, have flown six instrument approaches, as well as holding procedures and course interception and tracking with navaids. Flight under IFR beyond six months after meeting these requirements is not permitted; however, currency may be reestablished within the next six months by completing the requirements above. Beyond the twelfth month, examination ("instrument proficiency check") by an instructor is required.[15]
Practicing instrument approaches can be done either in the instrument meteorological conditions or in visual meteorological conditions – in the latter case, a safety pilot is required so that the pilot practicing instrument approaches can wear a view-limiting device which restricts his field of view to the instrument panel. A safety pilot's primary duty is to observe and avoid other traffic.[citation needed]
For all ILS Cat II or Cat III approaches, additional crew training is required and a certain number of low visibility approaches must either be performed or simulated within a fixed time for pilots to be 'current' in performing them.[citation needed]
In the UK, an IR (UK restricted) - formerly the "IMC rating" - which permits flight under IFR in airspace classes B to G in instrument meteorological conditions, a non-instrument-rated pilot can also elect to fly under IFR in visual meteorological conditions outside controlled airspace. Compared to the rest of the world, the UK's flight crew licensing regime is somewhat unusual in its licensing for meteorological conditions and airspace, rather than flight rules.[citation needed]
Aircraft[edit]
The aircraft must be equipped and type-certified for instrument flight, and the related navigational equipment must have been inspected or tested within a specific period of time prior to the instrument flight.
In the United States, instruments required for IFR flight in addition to those that are required for VFR flight are: heading indicator, sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure, clock with a sweep-second pointer or digital equivalent, attitude indicator, radios and suitable avionics for the route to be flown, alternator or generator, gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator that is either a turn coordinator or the turn and bank indicator.[16] From 1999 single-engine helicopters could not be FAA-certified for IFR, and Helicopter Association International estimates that 326 lives were lost in 133 accidents that would likely not have happened if those helicopters had been flying in IFR.[17]
See also[edit]
Acronyms and abbreviations in avionics
Airspace class
Approach plate
Autoland
Bárány chair
Distance measuring equipment
Flight instruments
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Helmet fire
Instrument landing system
Non-directional beacon
Transponder landing system
VHF omnidirectional range
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Instrument Flying Handbook" (PDF), Instrument Flight Rules (defined), Oklahoma City, OK: Federal Aviation Administration, 2008, pp. G–9
Jump up ^ "Aeronautical Information Manual" (PDF), Instrument Flight Rules (defined), Oklahoma City, OK: Federal Aviation Administration, 2010-02-11, pp. PCG I−4
Jump up ^ Keel, Byron; Stancil, Charles; Eckert, Clifford; Brown, Susan (June 2000). "Aviation Weather Information Requirements Recommendations". Aviation Weather Information Requirements Study. Aviation Safety Program. Hampton, Virginia: NASA Langley Research Center. pp. 40–41. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.32.1842  .
Jump up ^ "14 CFR 91.155 [ Basic VFR weather minimums ]" (PDF). Federal Aviation Regulations: 721–722. 2010-02-11. Retrieved 2010-11-27.
Jump up ^ http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library%5CrgFAR.nsf/0/D97FA35A1232A3988625768F005C12DE?OpenDocument
^ Jump up to: a b Collins, Richard (2006-11-11). "Getting an Instrument Rating". Flying Magazine. 133 (11): 68. Retrieved 2010-11-27.
Jump up ^ Wallace, Lane (2010-05-03). "The Basics: VFR Flight Planning". Flying Magazine. 137 (4): 61. Retrieved 2010-11-27.
Jump up ^ "FAR Part 71 Sec. 71.33". Retrieved 24 Aug 2015.
Jump up ^ Federal Aviation Regulations Title 14, Chapter I, Subchapter E, §71.31, §71.33
Jump up ^ Goyer, Robert (2010-04-30). "IFR Flight Prep: A Whole New Game". Flying Magazine. 137 (4): 56. Retrieved 2010-11-27.
Jump up ^ Aviation Weather Center - METARs Help Page (4 of 5) National Weather Center. Retrieved 29 January 2015
Jump up ^ McCloy, John. "Safety Pilot in IMC". IFR magazine. Archived from the original on 5 September 2007. Retrieved 2009-05-20.
Jump up ^ See KRNO approach plates for "LOC RWY 16R", "ILS RWY 16R", and "ILS or LOC/DME RWY 34L".
^ Jump up to: a b "Terrain Awareness and Warning Systems—TAWS". Skybrary. Retrieved 11 July 2014
Jump up ^ US Code of Federal Regulations, 14 CFR 61.57(c) and (d)
Jump up ^ 14 CFR 91.205
Jump up ^ Hirschberg, Mike (April–May 2015). "Resurrecting single-engine helicopter IFR". Vertical Magazine. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
External links[edit]
FAA website
Instrument Procedures Handbook, 2015 (FAA-H-8083-16A)
Hear audio of a US instrument rating checkride - Part 1
"Blind Flying, January 1933, Popular Mechanics details on blind flying for that era
ATC Communication, A complete pilot-to-ATC communication reference
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Instrument_flight_rules&oldid=801556638"
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Gun laws in Colorado
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Location of Colorado in the United States
Gun laws in Colorado regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the state of Colorado in the United States.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Summary table
2 Concealed carry
3 Open carry
4 Other laws
4.1 Gun control lawsuit
5 Preemption
5.1 Denver
6 See also
7 References
Summary table[edit]
Subject/Law
Long guns
Handguns
Relevant Statutes
Notes
State Permit to Purchase? No No
Firearm registration? No No
Assault weapon law? No No DRMC § 38-130 Denver ordinance bans assault weapons.
Magazine Capacity Restriction? Yes Yes CRS §§ 18-12-302, 18-12-303 After July 1, 2013, magazines holding more than 15 rounds may not be sold, transferred, or possessed unless they were lawfully owned prior to July 1, 2013. Firearms with a tubular magazine which are either chambered in .22 rimfire or operated by lever action are exempt from this regulation, as are magazines "permanently altered" to limit the capacity to 15 or less.
Owner license required? No No
Concealed Carry permits required? No Yes CRS § 18-12-203 Colorado is a shall issue state for concealed carry. Permits are issued by local sheriff offices to county residents.
Open carry? Yes* Yes* CRS § 18-12;
DRMC §§ 38-117(b), 38-118 *Legal without permit requirements except in Denver and other posted areas.
Concealed within a vehicle? Yes Yes CRS §§ 18-12-105(2b), 33-6-125;
DRMC §§ 38-117(f), 38-118, 14-92 No permit is required. Pistols may be carried with chamber and magazine loaded. Rifles and shotguns must be carried with an empty chamber, but the magazine may be loaded.
State Preemption of local restrictions? Yes Yes CRS § 29-11.7-103 Local ordinances are preempted by state law, but Denver bans assault weapons and open carry.
NFA weapons restricted? No No CRS § 18-12-102 NFA items are defined as a "dangerous weapon". Subsection 5: "It shall be an affirmative defense to the charge of possessing a dangerous weapon...that said person has a valid permit and license for possession of such weapon."
Peaceable Journey laws? Yes Yes CRS § 18-12-105.6; DRMC §§ 38-117(f), 38-118 Denver's restrictions on transport/possession of firearms in vehicles do not apply to persons traveling to or from other jurisdictions; see Trinen v. City & County of Denver, 53 P.3d 754
Castle Doctrine? Yes Yes CRS § 18-1-704.5 A legal resident of a property has the right to use deadly force to defend themselves, other occupants, and property from armed or unarmed intruders. Known colloquially as the "Make My Day Law", in reference to a line spoken by "Dirty Harry" Callahan in the film Sudden Impact.
Stand Your Ground Law? No No
Background checks required for private sales? Yes Yes CRS § 18-12-112 For private party transfers of firearms, the seller must request that a licensed dealer perform a background check of the buyer, and must get approval of the transfer from the Colorado Bureau of Investigation. Transfers of antique firearms, bona-fide gifts or loans from immediate family members, and transfers to estate executors or trustees are exempt. Temporary transfers are strictly regulated.
Concealed carry[edit]
Colorado is a "shall-issue" state for concealed carry. Permits are issued by the county sheriff,[3] and are valid for five years. Applicants must demonstrate competence with a handgun, either by passing a training class or by other means.[4] The Concealed Carry Act allows a person with a permit to carry a concealed weapon "in all areas of the state" with the exception of some federal properties, K-12 schools, and buildings with fixed security checkpoints such as courthouses, and also disallows a local government from enforcing an ordinance or resolution that conflicts with the law.[5]
In March 2012, the Colorado Supreme Court struck down the University of Colorado's campus gun ban, saying it violated the Concealed Carry Act, which allows permit holders to carry on public property, including carrying on public colleges.[5][6]
Open carry[edit]
Open carry, as well as possession of a handgun either openly displayed or concealed in an automobile, is generally permitted without a license. However, local governments may prohibit open carry to a limited extent only in areas that are directly under the jurisdiction of the municipality such as municipal buildings, police stations, etc. If such an ordinance is written all locations affected must be posted per C.R.S 29-11.7-104. The exception is the city and county of Denver has done so in a broad sense banning open carry in all areas of the city and county. The Colorado Supreme Court ruled that Denver's pre-existing ban may remain in force, despite the Colorado legislature's enactment of a statewide pre-emption law designed to establish uniform firearms policies across the state. [7][8] When a rifle or shotgun is transported in a vehicle, there may not be a round in the chamber.[9]
Other laws[edit]
Effective July 1, 2013, Colorado requires background checks for all firearm sales at the buyer's expense. Magazines that are capable of accepting more than 15 rounds or are designed to be readily convertible to accept more than 15 rounds cannot be sold or transferred within state limits. However, such magazines lawfully obtained prior to July 1, 2013 may be kept without restrictions on their use. The magazine restriction law also does not specifically address residents purchasing LCMs from out-of-state sources for personal use, although they may not be possessed within state limits. Colorado's large capacity magazine ban is silent on non-residents visiting Colorado while in possession of magazines that meet the state's LCM ban criteria, provided the LCMs are for personal use, and the individual had lawfully obtained the LCMs according to the laws of his or her home state.[10] Denver city ordinance bans assault weapons[11] and the open carrying of firearms[7].
Gun control lawsuit[edit]
A lawsuit over the legality of the magazine ban and background check laws has been filed by 54 of the 64 elected county Sheriffs and 21 sporting and outdoor groups and Colorado companies. The suit alleges that the laws violate the Second and Fourteenth amendments, and state that the laws would be impossible to enforce.[12][13][14][15]
Preemption[edit]
Colorado has state preemption of local firearm laws, except for certain ordinances enacted by the City and County of Denver.[8]
Denver[edit]
Denver law bans assault weapons[11] and the open carry of firearms.[16][8] In 2003, the Colorado General Assembly passed laws preempting these and several other pre-existing Denver laws, which Denver successfully challenged in Denver District Court in 2004.[8] In 2006, the Colorado Supreme Court let stand the District Court order upholding the Denver laws.[17]
See also[edit]
Law of Colorado
Government of Denver
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "State Gun Laws: Colorado", National Rifle Association – Institute for Legislative Action. Retrieved February 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Colorado State Law Summary", Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. Retrieved February 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Colorado Gun Laws", Colorado State Patrol. Retrieved March 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Colorado Concealed Carry Permit Information", USA Carry. Retrieved March 23, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Whaley, Monte (5 March 2012). "Colorado Supreme Court affirms that CU students with permits can carry concealed guns on campus". The Denver Post.
Jump up ^ "Regents of the University of Colorado v. Students for Concealed Carry on Campus" (PDF). Colorado Supreme Court. 5 March 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Colorado", OpenCarry.org. Retrieved March 23, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Denver v. Colorado, 03 CV 3809, Order on Cross Motions for Summary Judgment, 5 November 2004
Jump up ^ "Guns in Vehicles in Colorado", Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence. Retrieved March 23, 2013.
Jump up ^ Bartels, Lynn and Lee, Kurtis (March 21, 2013). "Three New Gun Bills on the Books in Colorado Despite Its Wild West Image", Denver Post. Retrieved March 23, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Denver Revised Municipal Code (DRMC) § 38-130
Jump up ^ "Colorado sheriffs sue over new state gun restrictions". Fox News. Associated Press. May 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ 54 Sheriffs v. Hickenlooper, Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief
Jump up ^ "Majority of Colorado sheriffs file suit against new gun laws". NBC News. May 17, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Colorado sheriffs file federal lawsuit challenging gun bills". The Denver Post. May 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ DRMC §§ 38-117(b), 38-118
Jump up ^ Lindsay, Sue (6 June 2006). "Denver gun laws stand, but issue left unresolved". Rocky Mountain News hosted at Conceal Carry HQ.
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Topographic map
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the anatomy concept, see Topographic map (neuroanatomy).
For a broader coverage related to this topic, see Terrain cartography.
A topographic map with contour lines
Part of the same map in a perspective shaded relief view illustrating how the contour lines follow the terrain
Section of topographical map of Nablus area (West Bank) with contour lines at 100-meter intervals. Heights are colour-coded
In modern mapping, a topographic map is a type of map characterized by large-scale detail and quantitative representation of relief, usually using contour lines, but historically using a variety of methods. Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made features. A topographic map is typically published as a map series, made up of two or more map sheets that combine to form the whole map. A contour line is a line connecting places of equal elevation.
Natural Resources Canada provides this description of topographic maps:[1]
These maps depict in detail ground relief (landforms and terrain), drainage (lakes and rivers), forest cover, administrative areas, populated areas, transportation routes and facilities (including roads and railways), and other man-made features.
Other authors define topographic maps by contrasting them with another type of map; they are distinguished from smaller-scale "chorographic maps" that cover large regions,[2][3] "planimetric maps" that do not show elevations,[4] and "thematic maps" that focus on specific topics.[5]
However, in the vernacular and day to day world, the representation of relief (contours) is popularly held to define the genre, such that even small-scale maps showing relief are commonly (and erroneously, in the technical sense) called "topographic".[3]
The study or discipline of topography is a much broader field of study, which takes into account all natural and man-made features of terrain.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Uses
3 Conventions
4 Publishers of national topographic map series
4.1 Australia
4.2 Austria
4.3 Canada
4.4 China
4.5 Colombia
4.6 Denmark
4.7 Finland
4.8 France
4.9 Germany
4.10 Greece
4.11 Hong Kong
4.12 India
4.13 Japan
4.14 Nepal
4.15 Netherlands
4.16 New Zealand
4.17 Pakistan
4.18 Portugal
4.19 Romania
4.20 Russia
4.21 Spain
4.22 South Africa
4.23 Switzerland
4.24 Taiwan
4.25 United Kingdom
4.26 United States
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
See also: Topography § Etymology, Cadastre § History, and Cartography § History
Topographic maps are based on topographical surveys. Performed at large scales, these surveys are called topographical in the old sense of topography, showing a variety of elevations and landforms.[6] This is in contrast to older cadastral surveys, which primarily show property and governmental boundaries. The first multi-sheet topographic map series of an entire country, the Carte géométrique de la France, was completed in 1789.[7] The Great Trigonometric Survey of India, started by the East India Company in 1802, then taken over by the British Raj after 1857 was notable as a successful effort on a larger scale and for accurately determining heights of Himalayan peaks from viewpoints over one hundred miles distant.[8]
Global indexing system first developed for International Map of the World
Topographic surveys were prepared by the military to assist in planning for battle and for defensive emplacements (thus the name and history of the United Kingdom's Ordnance Survey). As such, elevation information was of vital importance.[9]
As they evolved, topographic map series became a national resource in modern nations in planning infrastructure and resource exploitation. In the United States, the national map-making function which had been shared by both the Army Corps of Engineers and the Department of the Interior migrated to the newly created United States Geological Survey in 1879, where it has remained since.[10][11]
1913 saw the beginning of the International Map of the World initiative, which set out to map all of Earth's significant land areas at a scale of 1:1 million, on about one thousand sheets, each covering four degrees latitude by six or more degrees longitude. Excluding borders, each sheet was 44 cm high and (depending on latitude) up to 66 cm wide. Although the project eventually foundered, it left an indexing system that remains in use.
By the 1980s, centralized printing of standardized topographic maps began to be superseded by databases of coordinates that could be used on computers by moderately skilled end users to view or print maps with arbitrary contents, coverage and scale. For example, the Federal government of the United States' TIGER initiative compiled interlinked databases of federal, state and local political borders and census enumeration areas, and of roadways, railroads, and water features with support for locating street addresses within street segments. TIGER was developed in the 1980s and used in the 1990 and subsequent decennial censuses. Digital elevation models (DEM) were also compiled, initially from topographic maps and stereographic interpretation of aerial photographs and then from satellite photography and radar data. Since all these were government projects funded with taxes and not classified for national security reasons, the datasets were in the public domain and freely usable without fees or licensing.
TIGER and DEM datasets greatly facilitated Geographic information systems and made the Global Positioning System much more useful by providing context around locations given by the technology as coordinates. Initial applications were mostly professionalized forms such as innovative surveying instruments and agency-level GIS systems tended by experts. By the mid-1990s, increasingly user-friendly resources such as online mapping in two and three dimensions, integration of GPS with mobile phones and automotive navigation systems appeared. As of 2011, the future of standardized, centrally printed topographical maps is left somewhat in doubt.[12][13]
Uses[edit]
Curvimeter used to measure the length of a curve
Topographic maps have multiple uses in the present day: any type of geographic planning or large-scale architecture; earth sciences and many other geographic disciplines; mining and other earth-based endeavours; civil engineering and recreational uses such as hiking and orienteering.
Conventions[edit]
For more details on this topic, see contour lines § elevation and depth.
The various features shown on the map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads. These signs are usually explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet.[14]
Topographic maps are also commonly called contour maps or topo maps. In the United States, where the primary national series is organized by a strict 7.5-minute grid, they are often called topo quads or quadrangles.
Topographic maps conventionally show topography, or land contours, by means of contour lines. Contour lines are curves that connect contiguous points of the same altitude (isohypse). In other words, every point on the marked line of 100 m elevation is 100 m above mean sea level.
These maps usually show not only the contours, but also any significant streams or other bodies of water, forest cover, built-up areas or individual buildings (depending on scale), and other features and points of interest.
Today, topographic maps are prepared using photogrammetric interpretation of aerial photography, lidar and other Remote sensing techniques. Older topographic maps were prepared using traditional surveying instruments.
Publishers of national topographic map series[edit]
It has been suggested that this section be split out into another article titled National topographic map series. (Discuss) (July 2014)
See also: National Mapping Agency and Map series
Although virtually the entire terrestrial surface of Earth has been mapped at scale 1:1,000,000, medium and large-scale mapping has been accomplished intensively in some countries and much less in others.[15] Nevertheless, national mapping programs listed below are only a partial selection. Several commercial vendors supply international topographic map series.
Australia[edit]
The NMIG (National Mapping Information Group) of Geoscience Australia is the Australian Government's national mapping agency. It provides topographic maps and data to meet the needs of the sustainable development of the nation. The Office of Spatial Data Management provides an online free map service MapConnect.[16] These topographic maps of scales 1:250,000 and 1:100,000 are available in printed form from the Sales Centre.[17] 1:50,000 and 1:25,000 maps are produced in conjunction with the Department of Defence.[18]
Austria[edit]
Austrian Maps (German: Österreichische Karte (ÖK)) is the government agency producing maps of Austria, which are distributed by Bundesamt für Eich- und Vermessungswesen (BEV) in Vienna. The maps are published at scales 1:25,000 1:50,000 1:200,000 and 1:500,000. Maps can also be viewed online.[19]
Canada[edit]
The Centre for Topographic Information produces topographic maps of Canada at scales of 1:50,000 and 1:250,000. They are known as the National Topographic System (NTS).[20] A government proposal to discontinue publishing of all hardcopy or paper topographic maps in favor of digital-only mapping data was shelved in 2005 after intense public opposition.[21]
China[edit]
The State Bureau of Surveying and Cartography compiles topographic maps at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scales. It is reported that these maps are accurate and attractively printed in seven colors, and that successive editions show progressive improvement in accuracy.[22]
These large-scale maps are the basis for maps at smaller scales. Maps at scales 1:4,000,000 or smaller are exported by Cartographic Publishing House, Beijing while larger-scale maps are restricted as state secrets, and prohibited from publishing by legislation, all except Hong Kong and Macau. China's topographic maps follow the international system of subdivision with 1:100,000 maps spanning 30 minutes longitude by 20 minutes latitude.[23]
Colombia[edit]
The Geographic Institute Agustín Codazzi is the government entity responsible for producing and distributing topographic maps of Colombia in 1:500,000 and 1:100,000 scales. These and several other Geographic information services can be accessed using the Instituto Geográfico Agustin Codazzi website[24] in Spanish.
Denmark[edit]
The National Survey and Cadastre of Denmark is responsible for producing topographic and nautical geodata of Denmark, Greenland and the Faroe Islands.[25]
Finland[edit]
The National Land Survey of Finland produces the Topographic Database (accuracy 1:5000-1:10 000) and publishes topographic maps of Finland at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000. In addition topographics maps can be viewed by using a free map service MapSite.[26][27]
France[edit]
The Institut Géographique National (IGN) produces topographic maps of France at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000.[28] In addition, topographic maps are freely accessible online, through the Géoportail website.
Germany[edit]
In principle, each federal state (Bundesland) is in charge of producing the official topographic maps. In fact, the maps between 1:5,000 and 1:100,000 are produced and published by the land surveying offices of each federal state, the maps between 1:200,000 and 1:1,000,000 by a federal office – the Bundesamt für Kartographie und Geodäsie (BKG) in Frankfurt am Main.[29]
Greece[edit]
Topographic maps for general use are available at 1:50,000 and 1:100,000 from the Hellenic Military Geographical Service (HMGS).[30] They use a national projection system called EGSA'87, which is a Transverse Mercatorial Projection mapping Greece in one zone. A few areas are also available at 1:25,000. Some private firms sell topographic maps of national parks based on HMGS topography.
Hong Kong[edit]
The Department of Lands is the government agency responsible for surveying and publishing topographic maps of Hong Kong. Commonly used maps such as the HM20C series (1:20,000) are reviewed and updated every year or two. Very large scale (1:600 in Urban area and the 1:1,000 HM1C series for all of HK) topographic maps are also available to public for various uses.[31]
India[edit]
The Survey of India is responsible for all topographic control, surveys and mapping of India.[32]
Japan[edit]
The Geographical Survey Institute of Japan is responsible for base mapping of Japan. Standard map scales are 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:200,000 and 1:500,000.[33]
Nepal[edit]
From 1992 to 2002 a definitive series of large scale topographic maps were surveyed and published through a joint project by Government of Nepal Survey Department[34] and Finland's Ministry for Foreign Affairs contracting through the FinnMap consulting firm.[35] Japan International Cooperation Agency[36] substituted for FinnMap in Lumbini Zone.
Topographic sheets at 1:25,000 scale covering 7.5 minutes latitude and longitude map the densely populatedTerai and Middle Mountain regions. Less populated high mountain regions are on 15-minute sheets at 1:50,000. JPG scans can be downloaded.[37]
Netherlands[edit]
The Land Registry Kadaster (formerly Topografische Dienst) collects, processes and provides topographical information of the entire Dutch territory. The history of the Land Registry goes back to the year 1815, that year was commissioned to create a large map, known as Map of Krayenhoff. Around 1836 they began printing the topographic map on a scale of 1: 50,000, followed in 1865 by the topographic map on a scale of 1: 25,000. In 1951 began the start of production of the topographic map on a scale of 1: 10,000. From various reorganizations arose in 1932 the Topografische Dienst as national mapping agency of the Netherlands, since January 2004 housed within the Land Registry Kadaster.
New Zealand[edit]
Land Information New Zealand is the government agency responsible for providing up-to-date topographic mapping. LINZ topographic maps cover all of New Zealand, offshore islands, some Pacific Islands and the Ross Sea Region.[38] The standard issue NZTopo map series was published September 2009 at 1:50,000 (NZTopo50), and 1:250,000 (NZTopo250). Vector data[39] from the New Zealand Topographic Database (NZTopo) is also available.
Pakistan[edit]
The responsibility for topographic mapping and aerial photography lies with the Surveyor General of Pakistan [SGP]. Established in 1947, the Survey of Pakistan (SOP) is based in Rawalpindi with a number of regional offices distributed at urban centers throughout Pakistan. SGP is a civil organization which, for security reasons, is headed by a Surveyor General and works under the strict control of Army General Headquarters (GHQ). Colonel C.A.K. Innes-Wilson, a Royal Engineers officer who joined the Survey of India which mapped the subcontinent, was the first Surveyor General of Pakistan.
All departments which require topographic maps make their request to SGP and many are permanently registered with it for mapping and aerial photographs procurement. The SOP performs these functions under the auspices of the Ministry of Defence (MOD). Organisationally, the SOP is overseen by the Surveyor General (SG) who is a direct military appointee and a senior uniformed officer. The SG reports directly to the Secretary of Defence. Under the SG are two Deputy SG’s (I and II) who manage the operational departments of the agency and a Senior Technical Advisor. These departments are divided into Regional Directorates for Topographic Mapping including the Northern region centred in Peshawar, Eastern region (Lahore), Western region (Quetta) and finally, the Southern region in Karachi. Responsibility for fields surveys and the maintenance/update of topographic maps are sub-divided according to these geographic areas.
Portugal[edit]
The Army's Geographical Institute - Instituto Geográfico do Exército [1] - produces 1.25,000, 1:500,000 maps for public sale, as well as lots of geographical services.
Romania[edit]
Until recently, the two major government mapping authorities in Romania have been the Military Topographic Department (Directia Topografica Militara (DTM)), and the Institute for Geodesy, Photogrammetry, Cartography and Land Management (Institutul de Geodezie, Fotogrammetrie, Cartografie, si Organizarea Teritoriului (IGFCOT)). This situation has recently changed, following a decision in 1996 by the Romanian Government to establish a combined civilian National Office of Cadastre, Geodesy and Cartography (Oficiul National de Cadastru, Geodezie si Cartografie (ONCGC). Maps continued to be published under the imprint of the previous organizations into the late 1990s. From 1958, a number of town maps at scales of 1:5,000 or 1:10,000 were also made, initially on the Gauss-Krϋger projection, but after 1970 on a stereographic projection. More than 100 such sheets have been produced. There is also a street map of Bucharest in four sheets at 1:15,000 derived from larger scale surveys, which is revised annually.
The 1:50,000 series in 737 sheets is now regarded as the base map. It was revised in the period 1965-72 using aerial photographs, and is currently being updated again with the intention of establishing a revision cycle of five to six years. The 1:25,000 will be retained, but revision only at 15-20-year intervals, except for sheets covering areas of rapid change.
Russia[edit]
Detailed, accurate topographic maps have long been a military priority. They are currently produced by the Military-topographic service of armed forces of the Russian Federation (Russian: Военно-топографическая служба Вооружённых сил Российской Федерации or ВТС ВС). Military topographic mapping departments held other titles in the Russian Empire since 1793 and in the Soviet Union[40] where these maps also came to be used for internal control and economic development.
When Germany invaded in 1941, detailed maps from the USSR's western borders to the Volga River became an urgent task, accomplished in less than one year. After the war years the entire Soviet Union was mapped at scales down to 1:25,000—even 1:10,000 for the agriculturally productive fraction. The rest of the world except Antarctica is believed to have been mapped at scales down to 1:200,000, with regions of special interest down to 1:50,000 and many urban areas to 1:10,000. In all there may have been over one million map sheets[41] of high quality and detail.[42][43][44] Soviet maps were also notable for their consistent global indexing system.[45][46] These advantages held for Soviet military maps of other countries, although there were some errors due to faulty intelligence.[47]
Soviet maps for domestic civilian purposes were often of lower quality.[48] From 1919 to 1967 they were produced by Head geodesic administration (Russian: Высшее геодезическое управление or ВГУ), then by Chief administration of geodesy and cartography (Russian: Главное управление геодезии и картографии or ГУГК). Now (June 2011) civilian maps are produced by the Federal agency for geodesy and cartography (Russian: Федеральное агентство геодезии и картографии or Роскартография).[49]
Soviet military maps were state secrets. After the 1991 breakup of the Soviet Union, many maps leaked into the public domain[50] and are available for download.[51] Map scales 1:100.000 - 1:500.000 can be viewed online.[52][53]
Spain[edit]
The Instituto Geográfico Nacional (IGN) is responsible for the official topographic maps. It does use six scales that cover all the Spanish territory: 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:200,000, 1:500,000, 1:1,000,000 and 1:2,000,000. The most common scale is the first one, which utilizes the UTM system.
South Africa[edit]
The Chief Directorate: National Geo-spatial Information (CD:NGI) produces three topographic map series, each covering the whole country, at scales 1:50 000, 1:250 000, and 1:500 000.
Switzerland[edit]
Swisstopo (the Federal Office of Topography) produces topographic maps of Switzerland at seven different scales.
Taiwan[edit]
Topographic maps for Taiwan had long been kept as confidential information due to security concerns. It has only been recently made available to public from the National Land Surveying and Mapping Center, the government agency responsible for surveying and publishing various maps. Topographic maps of up to 1:25,000 is now available in digital and printed format.[54]
United Kingdom[edit]
The Ordnance Survey (OS) produces topographic map series covering the United Kingdom at 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scales.[55] The 1:25,000 scale is known as the "Explorer" series, and include an "OL" (Outdoor Leisure) sub-series for areas of special interest to hikers and walkers. It replaced the "Pathfinder" series, which was less colourful and covered a smaller area on each map. The 1:50,000 scale is known as the "Landranger" and carries a distinctive pink cover. More detailed mapping as fine as 1:10,000 covers some parts of the country.[56] The 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 scales are easily coordinated with standard romer scales on currently available compasses and plotting tools. The Ordnance Survey maintains a mapping database from which they can print specialist maps at virtually any scale.[57]
The Ordnance Survey National Grid divides the U.K. into cells 500 km, 100 km, 10 km and 1 km square on a Transverse Mercator grid aligned true North-South along the 2°W meridian. OS map products are based on this grid.
United States[edit]
The United States Geological Survey (USGS), a civilian federal agency, produces several national series of topographic maps which vary in scale and extent, with some wide gaps in coverage, notably the complete absence of 1:50,000 scale topographic maps or their equivalent. The largest (both in terms of scale and quantity) and best-known topographic series is the 7.5-minute or 1:24,000 quadrangle. This scale is unique to the United States,[citation needed] where nearly every other developed nation has introduced a metric 1:25,000 or 1:50,000 large scale topo map. The USGS also publishes 1:100,000 maps covering 30 minutes latitude by one degree longitude, 1:250,000 covering one by two degrees, and state maps at 1:500,000 with California, Michigan and Montana needing two sheets while Texas has four. Alaska is mapped on a single sheet, at scales ranging from 1:1,584,000 to 1:12,000,000.[58][citation needed]
The Mount Marcy area of New York State in 1892 in a 15-minute quadrangle at 1:62,500.
The same area about a century later (1979) in a 7.5- by 15-minute metric map at 1:25,000.
Recent USGS digital US Topo 1:24,000 topo maps based on the National Map omit[why?] several important geographic details that were featured in the original USGS topographic map series (1945-1992).[59] Examples of omitted details and features include power transmission lines, telephone lines, railroads, recreational trails, pipelines, survey marks, and buildings.[59] For many of these feature classes, the USGS is working with other agencies to develop data or adapt existing data on missing details that will be included in The National Map and to US Topo.[59] In other areas USGS digital map revisions may omit geographic features such as ruins, mine locations, springs, wells, and even trails in an effort to protect natural resources and the public at large, or because such features are not present in any public domain database.[59]
See also[edit]
Atlas portal
Aeronautical chart
Bathymetric chart
Cadastral map
Hypsometric tints
International Map of the World
(List of) national mapping agencies
Nautical chart
Raised-relief map
Stereoplotter
Topo (climbing)
Topographic profile
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Government of Canada (8 April 2016). "National Topographic System Maps". Earth Sciences – Geography. Natural Resources Canada. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ P. D. A. Harvey, The History of Topographical Maps: Symbols, Pictures and Surveys, Thames and Hudson, 1980, ISBN 0-500-24105-8, p. 9. "By a topographical map, we mean a large-scale map, one that sets out to convey the shape and pattern of landscape, showing a tiny portion of the earth's surface as it lies within one's own direct experience, and quite distinct from the small-scale maps that show us the features of whole provinces, nations and continents."
^ Jump up to: a b Art & Architecture Thesaurus entry for topographic maps.
Jump up ^ Committee on Nomenclature of the American Society of Photogrammetry, "Definitions of terms used in photogrammetric surveying and mapping: preliminary report", Photogrammetric Engineering, 8, 247-283, 1942. "Topographic Map. A map that presents the horizontal and vertical positions of the features represented; distinguished from a planimetric map by the addition of relief in measurable form." This definition is used in many glossaries of map terminology.
Jump up ^ M.-J. Kraak and F. Ormeling, Cartography: Visualization of Spatial Data, Longman, 1996, ISBN 0-582-25953-3, p. 44. "Traditionally, the main division of maps is into topographic and thematic maps. Topographic maps supply a general image of the earth's surface: roads, rivers, buildings, often the nature of the vegetation, the relief and the names of the various mapped objects."
Jump up ^ The range of information is indicated by the title of a map produced in 1766: A Topographical Map of Hartfordshire from an Actual Survey in which is Express'd all the Roads, Lanes, Churches, Noblemen and Gentlemen's Seats, and every Thing remarkable in the County, by Andrew Dury and John Andrews, reprinted by Hertfordshire Publications in 1980. This showed the relief by using hachures.
Jump up ^ Library of Congress, Geography and Maps: General Collections
Jump up ^ Dickey, Parke A (October 1985). "Who discovered Mount Everest?". Eos. 66 (41): 54–59. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Peter Barber, The Map Book, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005, ISBN 0-297-84372-9, pp. 232, 250.
Jump up ^ "Organizing the U.S. Geological Survey". The United States Geological Survey: 1879-1989. U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior. 10 April 2000. Retrieved 19 June 2007.
Jump up ^ "The Four Great Surveys of the West". The United States Geological Survey: 1879-1989. U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior. 10 April 2000. Retrieved 19 June 2007.
Jump up ^ Ramirez, J. Raul. "Maps for the Future: A Discussion" (PDF). Retrieved 1 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Hurst, Paul (2010), Will we be lost without paper maps in the digital age? (PDF) (M.S. thesis), U.K.: University of Sheffield, pp. 1–18, retrieved 1 July 2011
Jump up ^ Ordnance Survey, Explorer Map Symbols; Swisstopo, Conventional Signs; United States Geological Survey, Topographic Map Symbols.
Jump up ^ Pickles, John. Cartography, Digital Transitions, and Questions of History (PDF). International Cartographic Association, 1999. Ottawa. p. 17. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Geoscience Australia: MapConnect
Jump up ^ Geoscience Australia Sales Centre
Jump up ^ DIGO
Jump up ^ "Austrian Map Online". Retrieved 29 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Centre for Topographic Information website.
Jump up ^ "Canada shreds plan to scrap paper maps". CBC News. 12 October 2006.
Jump up ^ Chen Cheng-siang and Au Kam-nin. "Some Recent Developments in Geoscience in China" (PDF). pp. 37–41. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "Chen and Au, op. cit." (PDF).
Jump up ^ Instituto Geográfico Agustin Codazzi website
Jump up ^ Kort & Matrikelstyrelsens website (in Danish).
Jump up ^ 2010 Maanmittauslaitos
Jump up ^ National Land Survey of Finland.
Jump up ^ Institut Géographique National website (in French, English and German).
Jump up ^ Government topographic maps in Germany[better source needed]
Jump up ^ Αρχικη σελιδα
Jump up ^ http://www.landsd.gov.hk/mapping/tc/about/about.htm
Jump up ^ Department of Scientific and Technology: Survey of India
Jump up ^ Omni Resources catalog page
Jump up ^ "Government of Nepal, Survey Department". Retrieved 4 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Land Administration & Management, Mapping, Surveying and Aerial Photography, Major Reference Projects" (PDF). FinnMap. Retrieved 4 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Japan International Cooperation Agency". Retrieved 4 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Nepal-Topo Maps". PAHAR Mountains of Central Asia Digital Dataset. MyPublisher. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Land Information New Zealand
Jump up ^ http://www.linz.govt.nz/core/topography/topographicdata/topodtabase/index.html
Jump up ^ ru:Топографическая служба Вооружённых сил Российской Федерации[better source needed]
Jump up ^ David Watt (December 2005). "Soviet Military Mapping" (PDF). Sheetlines. London: Charles Close Society. 74: 9–12. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
Jump up ^ John Davies (April 2005). "Uncle Joe knew where you lived. Soviet mapping of Britain (part 1)" (PDF). Sheetlines. London: Charles Close Society. 72: 26–38. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
Jump up ^ J. Davies (August 2005). "...(part 2)" (PDF). Sheetlines. 73: 6–20.
Jump up ^ Department of the Army, ed. (1958). Soviet topographic map symbols (PDF). Technical manual. 30-548. Washington DC: USGPO. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
Jump up ^ U.S. Army, 1958, op. cit. (PDF). pp. 2–9.
Jump up ^ ru:Советская система разграфки и номенклатуры топографических карт[better source needed]
Jump up ^ "J. Davies (part 2), op. cit." (PDF): 11ff.
Jump up ^ Charles Close Society (ed.), Soviet Military Mapping of Britain - Study Day Cambridge 8th October 2005 (PDF) (exhibition guide), p. 15, retrieved 5 June 2011
Jump up ^ ru:Федеральное агентство геодезии и картографии[better source needed]
Jump up ^ "J. Davies (part 2), op. cit." (PDF): 6–7.
Jump up ^ "Карты" [Maps] (in English and Russian). Retrieved 5 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "Soviet Military Maps" [Online Viewer]. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Collection of Soviet Military Map Country Mosaics 1:200,000 Scale" [Online Viewer]. Retrieved 22 May 2013.
Jump up ^ http://www.nlsc.gov.tw/websites/make_page.aspx?la=1&le=2&li=11&sno=136&le2=3&li2=135
Jump up ^ Ordnance Survey website
Jump up ^ 1:10,000 Scale Raster: mid-scale high-resolution detailed mapping
Jump up ^ The MasterMap Topography Layer contains information about buildings, roads, woodland, administrative boundaries, etc., with just a few spot heights along the roads. For contours or a digital terrain model, a separate product called OS Terrain is required.
Jump up ^ "USGS Map Booklet". USGS. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Moore, Larry, US Topo – A New National Map Series, Directions Magazine, 16 May 2011, retrieved 18 April 2012
External links[edit]
USGS Topographic maps are downloadable as pdf files from a searcheable map or by a search if the map name is known.
How a Topographic Map is Manufactured, History, and Other Information
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