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List of active United States military aircraft
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A United States Air Force F-16 Fighting Falcon in flight
Active United States military aircraft is a list of military aircraft that are used by the United States military. For aircraft no longer in-service see List of military aircraft of the United States.
Contents
1 Air Force
2 Army
3 Coast Guard
4 Marine Corps
5 Navy
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Air Force[edit]
See also: United States Air Force
Type
Manufacturer
Origin
Class
Role
Introduced
In service[1]
Total
Notes
A-10C Thunderbolt II Fairchild Republic USA Jet Attack 1977 287
AC-130 Stinger II, Ghost Rider, Spooky II Lockheed & Boeing USA Propeller Gunship 1968 35 AC-130U, AC-130W and AC-130J.
B-1B Lancer Rockwell USA Jet Bomber 1986 60 Only supersonic bomber aircraft active in the U.S. Air Force.
B-2A Spirit Northrop Grumman USA Jet Bomber 1997 20 Slated to remain in service until 2058.
B-52H Stratofortress Boeing USA Jet Bomber 1955 75 Slated to remain in service through 2050.
C-5M Super Galaxy Lockheed USA Jet Transport 1970 52
C-12 Huron Beechcraft USA Propeller Transport
Surveillance 1974 29 26 x C-12C/C-12D/C-12F, 3 x C-12J
C-17A Globemaster III McDonnell Douglas later Boeing USA Jet Transport 1995 222 U.S. Military C-17's were produced by McDonnell-Douglas prior to the merger with Boeing. Boeing continued production of the C-17 for sales to non-U.S. Military customers.
C-20 Gulfstream USA Jet Transport 1
C-21A Learjet USA Jet Passenger transport 23
C-26 Metroliner Fairchild USA Propeller Transport 1 C-26B, RC-26
C-32 Boeing USA Jet VIP Transport 8 6 x C-32A, 2 x C-32B
C-37A Gulfstream USA Jet Passenger transport 9
C-38A Gulfstream USA Jet Passenger transport 2
C-40 Clipper Boeing USA Jet VIP Transport 14 C-40B and C-40C. 1 on order.
C-130H Hercules Lockheed Martin USA Propeller Transport 218 Most C-130H serve in the ANG and AFRES.
C-130J Super Hercules Lockheed Martin USA Propeller Transport 115 The USAF continues to receive new C-130Js for various missions[2][3]
C-144 (CN-235-100M) CASA Spain Propeller Transport 2 427th SOS
C-146A Wolfhound[4] Fairchild-Dornier Germany Propeller Transport 18 524th SOS[5]
E-3 Sentry Boeing USA Jet Command and control 31 E-3B and E-3C. One E-3B For Testing[6]
E-4B "Nightwatch" Boeing USA Jet Command and control 4 assigned to 55th Wing at Offutt AFB, Nebraska
E-8C Joint STARS Northrop Grumman USA Jet Command and control 16 One E-8A For Testing
E-9A Widget Bombardier Aerospace USA
Canada Propeller Surveillance 5
E-11A[7] Northrop Grumman USA
Canada Jet Communications 4[8]
EC-130H Compass Call Lockheed Martin USA Propeller Electronic warfare 15
EC-130 Commando Solo III Lockheed Martin USA Propeller Electronic warfare 7 3 x EC-130J, 4 x EC-130SJ
Type
Manufacturer
Origin
Class
Role
Introduced
In service[1]
Total
Notes
F-15 Eagle McDonnell Douglas USA Jet Fighter 1976 235 212 x F-15C, 24 x F-15D. Currently being upgraded to remain in service beyond 2030 the aircraft will eventually be replaced by the F-22.
F-15E Strike Eagle McDonnell Douglas USA Jet Multirole Strike fighter 1988 220 Currently being upgraded to remain in service beyond 2030.
F-16 Fighting Falcon General Dynamics USA Jet Fighter 1978 1017 To be replaced by the F-35A.
F-22A Raptor Lockheed Martin USA Jet Fighter 2005 195[9] No longer in production.
F-35A Lightning II Lockheed Martin USA Jet Fighter 2016 187 In production with 1763 planned, currently 47 for testing
Type
Manufacturer
Origin
Class
Role
Introduced
In service[1]
Total
Notes
HC-130 Combat King/Combat King II Lockheed Martin USA Propeller Search and rescue 29 9 x HC-130N/HC-130P. 78 x HC-130J planned, of which 20 currently on order.
KC-10A Extender McDonnell Douglas USA Jet Aerial refueling 1981 58 Likely to remain in service until 2043
KC-135 Stratotanker Boeing USA Jet Aerial refueling 1957 397 KC-135R and KC-135T. To be replaced by the KC-46
LC-130H Hercules Lockheed Martin USA Propeller Cargo aircraft 10 all aircraft assigned to 139th Airlift Wing, New York Air Guard
MC-130
Combat Talon II/Combat Shadow Lockheed Martin USA Propeller Multi-mission 60 21 x MC-130H/P, 39 x MC-130J
OC-135B Open Skies Boeing USA Jet Observation 2 used as part of Treaty on Open Skies
RC-135 Cobra Ball, Combat Sent, Rivet Joint Boeing USA Jet Reconnaissance 22 3 x RC-135S, 2 x RC-135U, 17 x RC-135V/W
Type
Manufacturer
Origin
Class
Role
Introduced
In service[1]
Total
Notes
T-1A Jayhawk Raytheon USA Jet Trainer 157 Originally 180. Two crashed after mishaps.
T-6A Texan II Raytheon/Beechcraft USA Propeller Trainer 447
T-38 Talon Northrop USA Jet Trainer 1961 501 T-38A and T-38C
T-41C Mescalero Cessna USA Propeller Trainer 4
T-51A Cessna USA Propeller Trainer 3
T-52A Diamond Canada Propeller Trainer 54
T-53A[10] Cirrus USA Propeller Trainer 25
U-2 Dragon Lady Lockheed USA Jet Reconnaissance
Trainer aircraft 1957 31 26 x U-2S, 5 x TU-2S. To be replaced by the RQ-4 Global Hawk block 40.
U-28A Pilatus Switzerland Propeller Utility 15
VC-25A Boeing USA Jet VIP Transport 1990 2 Used as Presidential Transport, operated by 89th Airlift Wing at Andrews AFB, Maryland. To be replaced by the Boeing 747-8.[11]
WC-130J Hercules Lockheed Martin USA Propeller Weather reconnaissance 10 all aircraft assigned to 403d Wing (AFRC) at Keesler AFB, Mississippi
WC-135 Constant Phoenix Boeing USA Jet Weather Reconnaissance 2
Type
Manufacturer
Origin
Class
Role
Introduced
In service[1]
Total
Notes
HH-60 Pave Hawk Sikorsky USA Helicopter Search and rescue 99[12] HH-60G and HH-60U. To be replaced by 112 HH-60W from 2021.[13]
UH-1N Twin Huey Bell USA Helicopter Utility 59[14]
TH-1H Iroquois Bell USA Helicopter Trainer 37
C-145 Skytruck (M28)[15] PZL Mielec Poland Propeller STOL Utility 7 6th SOS[16]
UV-18B de Havilland Canada Canada Propeller STOL Utility 4
CV-22B Osprey Bell, Boeing USA Powered lift Cargo VTOL aircraft 2006 46[17] 50 planned
RQ-4 Global Hawk Northrop Grumman USA UAV Patrol 2001 37[18] RQ-4A, RQ-4B and MQ-4C. 66 RQ-4B planned plus 68 MQ-4C [19][20]
MQ-9B Reaper General Atomics USA UAV Multi-mission[21] 93 396 planned[19]
RQ-170 Sentinel Lockheed Martin USA UAV
Puma AE AeroVironment USA UAV Patrol
Army[edit]
See also: United States Army
Type
Manufacturer
Origin
Class
Role
Introduced
In service[22]
Total
Notes
C-12J Beechcraft USA Propeller Transport 3[23]
C-12 Huron Beechcraft USA Propeller Cargo/Transport 104 C-12C, C-12D and C-12F. 5 on order as of December 2015.
C-212 Aviocar CASA Spain Propeller Cargo/Transport 3
RC-26D Metroliner Fairchild USA Propeller Range Support 12
C-27J Spartan Alenia Aeronautica USA
Italy Propeller Cargo aircraft 6 Former Air Force aircraft used by Army Special Operations Command for training.
C-31A Troopship Fokker Netherlands Propeller Cargo/Transport 2 Used for the Golden Knights Gold Team and Black Team
C-37 Gulfstream USA Jet Cargo/Transport 3 2 x C-37A, 1 x C-37B
EO-5 de Havilland Canada Canada Propeller Electronic Warfare,
Reconnaissance 10 3 x EO-5C, 7 x RC-7. Previously designated as RC-7B
RC-12 Huron Beechcraft USA Propeller Reconnaissance 83 RC-12D, RC-12H and RC-12K. 6 on order as of December 2015.
UC-35 Cessna USA Jet Utility aircraft 27 20 x UC-35A, 7 x UC-35B
DHC Dash-8-315 de Havilland Canada Canada Propeller Patrol 6 Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance
UV-18 de Havilland Canada Canada Propeller Cargo/Transport 5
MH/AH-6M Little Bird MD Helicopter USA Helicopter Attack 1980 47
AH-64 Apache Longbow, Guardian Boeing USA Helicopter Attack 1986 792 AH-64D and AH-64E. 25 on order as of December 2015.
CH-47 Chinook Boeing USA Helicopter Transport 1962 442 394 x CH-47D, 48 x CH-47F. 464 new CH-47F to be delivered
EH-60A Black Hawk Sikorsky USA Helicopter Electronic-warfare 1979 64
MH-47 Chinook Boeing USA Helicopter Multi-mission 1962 61 11 x MH-47D, 23 x MH-47E, 27 x MH-47G
MH-60 Black Hawk Sikorsky USA Helicopter Multi-mission 58 23 x MH-60K, 35 x MH-60L.
TH-67 Creek Bell USA
Canada Helicopter Trainer 163 To be retired by 2020.[24]
UH-60 Black Hawk Sikorsky USA Helicopter Utility 1,443 751 x UH-60A, 592 x UH-60L, 100 x UH-60M. 1227 UH-60M planned.[25]
UH-72A Lakota Eurocopter USA
Germany Helicopter Utility 341 13 on order as of December 2015.
MQ-1C Gray Eagle General Atomics USA UAV 2009 75[26] 133 planned[19]
Prioria Robotics Maveric Prioria Robotics USA UAV 36 [27]
CQ-10 Snowgoose MMIST Canada UAV Transport 2005 15 49 planned. Parafoil and autogyro variants.
RQ-7B Shadow AAI Corporation USA UAV 450 68 on order.[28]
RQ-11 Raven AeroVironment USA UAV
Switchblade AeroVironment USA UAV Attack
Puma AE AeroVironment USA UAV Patrol
Coast Guard[edit]
See also: United States Coast Guard
Type
Manufacturer
Origin
Class
Role
Introduced
In service
Total
Notes
HC-27J Spartan Alenia Aeronautica USA
Italy Propeller Search and rescue 14 Former Air Force aircraft.
C-37A Gulfstream USA Jet Command & Control 2 VIP transport for high-ranking members of the Department of Homeland Security and U.S. Coast Guard.[citation needed]
HC-130 Hercules Lockheed Martin USA Propeller Search and rescue 33 5 x HC-130B or HC-130H (1500 series), 22 x HC-130H-7, 6 active HC-130J, 1 test, 3 in minotaur conversion, 4 under contract and in production.
HC-144 Ocean Sentry Airbus USA
Spain Propeller Search and rescue 2009 18 The HC-144A will replace some HC-130s. CGAS Miami is the first unit to receive operational HC-144A's.
MH-60 Jayhawk Sikorsky USA Helicopter Medium Range Recovery (MRR) 42 MH-60 aircraft have been upgraded to MH-60T standard from HH-60J and will remain in service until 2027
HH-65 Dolphin Eurocopter USA
France Helicopter Short Range Recovery (SRR) 101 MH-65C, MH-65D and MH-65E. The HH-65Bs have been upgraded to HH-65C standard. AUF HH-65Cs have also been upgraded to MH-65Cs.
Marine Corps[edit]
See also: United States Marine Corps
Type
Manufacturer
Origin
Class
Role
Introduced
In service[1]
Total
Notes
C-9B Skytrain II McDonnell Douglas USA Jet Cargo/Transport 2 Active 2 Scheduled to be replaced by 2 C-40A Clippers by 2023.
EA-6B Prowler Northrop Grumman USA Jet Carrier-based Electronic-warfare 18 Active, 6 Training, 3 Stored 27 Scheduled to be replaced most likely by the EA-18G Growler by 2019.[29]
F/A-18A Hornet McDonnell Douglas USA Jet Carrier-based Fighter 36 Active, 7 Training, 12 Stored 55 Scheduled to be replaced by F-35B/C Lightning II by 2019
F/A-18B Hornet McDonnell Douglas USA Jet Carrier-based Trainer 4 Training, 3 Stored 7 Scheduled to be replaced by F-35B/C Lightning II by 2019.
F/A-18C Hornet McDonnell Douglas USA Jet Carrier-based Fighter 60 Active, 12 Training, 47 Stored 119 Scheduled to begin replacement by F-35B/C Lightning II starting 2019.
F/A-18D Hornet McDonnell Douglas USA Jet Carrier-based Strike 48 Active, 20 Training, 24 Stored 92 Scheduled to begin replacement by F-35B/C Lightning II starting 2023.
F-35B Lightning II Lockheed Martin USA Jet Carrier-based Fighter 38 V/STOL variant. Planned total of 353 F-35Bs and 67 F-35Cs (CTOL) to replace various aircraft.[29]
F-5N Tiger II Northrop USA Jet Aggressor 13 Scheduled to maintain service till 2026.
KC-130J Super Hercules Lockheed Martin USA Propeller Tanker 53
UC-12W Huron Beechcraft USA Propeller Utility 6 Active 6 Scheduled to replace the UC-12F/M Huron by 2024.
UC-12M Huron Beechcraft USA Propeller Utility 3 Active 3 Scheduled to be replaced by UC-12W Huron by 2024.
UC-12F Huron Beechcraft USA Propeller Utility 3 Active 3 Scheduled to be replaced by UC-12W Huron by 2024.
UC-35D Citation Cessna USA Jet Utility 10 Active 10 Scheduled to maintain service till 2026.
UC-35C Citation Cessna USA Jet Utility 2 Active 2 Scheduled to maintain service till 2026.
AH-1W SuperCobra Bell USA Helicopter Attack 1986 105 To be upgraded to or replaced by AH-1Z Viper.
AH-1Z Viper Bell USA Helicopter Attack 2010 72
CH-53E Super Stallion Sikorsky USA Helicopter Cargo/Transport 142 To be replaced by CH-53K King Stallion, in flight testing - 2015.
UH-1Y Venom Bell USA Helicopter Utility 138
VH-3D Sea King Sikorsky USA Helicopter Marine One VIP Transport 11 Presidential transport[citation needed]
VH-60N Whitehawk Sikorsky USA Helicopter Marine One VIP Transport 7
AV-8B/+ Harrier II McDonnell Douglas UK
USA Jet Attack 108 VTOL. To be replaced by F-35B[30]
MV-22B Osprey Bell Boeing USA Powered lift Multi-mission 253 VTOL. 126 on order
TAV-8B Harrier II McDonnell Douglas UK
USA Jet Trainer 16 VTOL. To be replaced by F-35B
K-MAX Kaman USA UAV Cargo and transport 1 Helicopter with twin intermeshing rotors. UAV variant of manned type.
RQ-7B Shadow AAI Corporation USA UAV Reconnaissance 50
RQ-11 Raven AeroVironment USA UAV Reconnaissance
ScanEagle Boeing USA UAV Reconnaissance
Switchblade AeroVironment USA UAV Attack
Puma AE AeroVironment USA UAV Reconnaissance
RQ-21A Blackjack Boeing Insitu USA UAV Reconnaissance
MQ-8B Fire Scout Northrop Grumman USA UAV Multi-Mission 2009 27[31] Helicopter.
Type
Manufacturer
Origin
Class
Role
Introduced
In service
Total
Notes
Navy[edit]
See also: United States Navy
Type
Manufacturer
Origin
Class
Role
Introduced
In service[32]
Total
Notes
C-2A Greyhound Grumman USA Propeller Carrier-based Cargo/Transport aircraft 35 To be replaced by 44 CMV-22 [33]
C-20 Gulfstream USA Jet Cargo/Transport aircraft 4 C-20A, C-20D and C-20G
C-37 Gulfstream USA Jet Cargo/Transport aircraft 4 1 x C-37A, 3 x C-37B.[citation needed]
C-40A Clipper Boeing USA Jet Cargo/Transport aircraft 15
C-130T Hercules Lockheed USA Propeller Cargo/Transport aircraft 20
UC-12 Huron Beechcraft USA Propeller Cargo/Transport aircraft 14
C-26D Metroliner Fairchild USA Propeller Cargo/Transport aircraft 6
KC-130F/R Lockheed Martin USA Propeller Aerial Refueling 5
E-2C/D Hawkeye Northrop Grumman USA Propeller Carrier-based Airborne Command and Control aircraft 68
E-6B Mercury Boeing USA Jet Electronic-warfare aircraft 16
EA-18G Growler Boeing USA Jet Carrier-based Electronic-warfare aircraft 113 18 on order.
EP-3E ARIES II Lockheed USA Propeller Electronic-warfare aircraft 12
F-5F/N Tiger II Northrop USA Jet Fighter 30 F-5F, F-5N. Used for adversary training[34]
F-16 Fighting Falcon General Dynamics USA Jet Fighter aircraft 26 22 single-seat F-16N, 4 twin-seat TF-16N
Used for adversary training.[35]
F/A-18 Hornet McDonnell Douglas USA Jet Carrier-based Fighter aircraft 314 F/A-18A, F/A-18B, F/A-18C and F/A-18D.
To be replaced by F-35C
F/A-18E/F Super Hornet McDonnell Douglas / Northrop Grumman then Boeing / Northrop Grumman USA Jet Carrier-based Fighter 507 F/A-18E and F/A-18F. 10 on order.
F-35C Lightning II Lockheed Martin USA Jet Carrier-based Fighter aircraft 12 NAS Pax River SDD aircraft, 260 planned[36]
P-3C Orion Lockheed USA Propeller Maritime patrol aircraft 1962 78 To be replaced by P-8
P-8A Poseidon Boeing USA Jet Anti-Submarine-warfare aircraft 2013 50 122 planned[37]
T-6 Texan II Beechcraft USA Propeller Trainer aircraft 61 49 x T-6A, 12 x T-6B.
T-44A Beechcraft USA Propeller Trainer aircraft 52
T-45C Goshawk McDonnell Douglas USA Jet Carrier-based Trainer aircraft 218
UC-35D Cessna USA Jet Utility aircraft 1
HH-60H Rescue Hawk Sikorsky USA Helicopter Search-and-rescue 49
CMV-22 Osprey Bell Boeing USA Powered lift Multi-mission 1 48 on order.
MH-53E Sea Dragon Sikorsky USA Helicopter Airborne mine countermeasures and vertical on-board delivery 27
MH-60 Seahawk Sikorsky USA Helicopter Anti-submarine warfare helicopter
Multi-mission 400
SH-60F Seahawk Sikorsky USA Helicopter Anti-submarine warfare 60
TH-57 Sea Ranger Bell USA Helicopter Training helicopter 129 44 x TH-57B, 85 x TH-57C
ScanEagle Boeing USA UAV
RQ-21A Blackjack Boeing Insitu USA UAV
MQ-8B Fire Scout Northrop Grumman USA UAV Patrol 2009 27[31] Helicopter. 96 planned.[38]
See also[edit]
Military of the United States portal
U.S. DoD aircraft designations table
List of military aircraft of the United States
Future military aircraft of the United States
UAVs in the U.S. military
Notes[edit]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "WorldAirForces2018.pdf". Flightglobal.com.
Jump up ^ "Lockheed Martin Deliver 300th C-130J Super Hercules". defenseworld.net. Retrieved April 4, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Air Force Gets 300th C-130J Super Hercules". mil-embedded.com. Retrieved April 4, 2016.
Jump up ^ C-146A Wolfhound af.mil
Jump up ^ "524th Special Operations Squadron | 524th SOS". Airforce.americanspecialops.com. Retrieved 2013-03-03.
Jump up ^ "E-3 Sentry (AWACS)". United States Air Force. 2003-11-01. Retrieved 2013-08-02.
Jump up ^ Tamir Eshel. "U.S. Air Force Extends BACN Com-Relay Biz Jets Operations in Kandahar". defense-update.com. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
Jump up ^ "The Aviationist » Networking From on High: Behind the Scenes of NASA's Spooky WB-57 Jet". The Aviationist. Retrieved 25 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "nationaldefensemagazine.pdf". nationaldefensemagazine.org. Retrieved 2016-12-11. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ USAF Academy Buys Cirrus SR-20s, Designates T-53A. Archived 25 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine. July 6, 2011
Jump up ^ Shalal, Andrea (29 January 2016). "Boeing wins contract to build new Air Force One presidential jets". Reuters. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "HH-60G Pave Hawk". af.mil.
Jump up ^ "Assessments of Selected Weapon Programs" (PDF), Report to Congressional Committees (PDF)|format= requires |url= (help), Government Accountability Office, 2015, p. 71, retrieved 2015-08-14
Jump up ^ "UH-1N Iroquois". U.S. Air Force. United States Air Force. Retrieved 29 September 2015.
Jump up ^ C-145A af.mil
Jump up ^ "Non-standard Aviation - USAF Special Operations". Retrieved 25 December 2014.
Jump up ^ "CV-22 Osprey".
Jump up ^ Northrop Grumman Delivers 37th Global Hawk to US Air Force - Deagel.com, January 7, 2013
^ Jump up to: a b c "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
Jump up ^ "Northrop Grumman Receives $114 Million to Build Three More Global Hawks for US. Air Force". November 9, 2013.
Jump up ^ "MQ-9 Reaper". af.mil.
Jump up ^ "WorldAirForces2016-Corrected.pdf". flightglobal.com. Retrieved 2015-12-10.
Jump up ^ "Alaska Army Guard receives 1 of only 3 C-12J airframes in the US Army".
Jump up ^ Huber, Mark (28 January 2016). "Flight Training Begins for First Class of Lakota Pilots". Aviation International News. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sikorsky Aircraft Delivers 100th New Production UH-60M BLACK HAWK Helicopter to U.S". Reuters. 25 March 2009. Archived from the original on 5 May 2009.
Jump up ^ "Gray Eagle Completes 20,000 Automated Takeoffs & Landings | sUAS News". Retrieved 2015-05-07.
Jump up ^ United States Army purchases Maveric bird camouflage UAS Archived 3 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine. - Armyrecognition.com, 26 November 2013
Jump up ^ "More RQ-7s for US Army". Flightglobal.com. 2012-11-05. Retrieved 2013-03-03.
^ Jump up to: a b "2015 Marine Aviation Plan" (PDF). Headquarters Marine Corps. Retrieved 29 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Cifuentes, Michael S. "Marine Corps continues flying with Joint Strike Fighter program". Headquarters Marine Corps. Archived from the original on 1 March 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Robochoppers Turned Into Maritime Recon Aircraft - Strategypage.com, January 18, 2013
Jump up ^ "2017 AIR FORCES PDF - Aircraft - Aviation". Scribd.
Jump up ^ Whittle, Richard (2015-01-13). "Navy Decides to Buy V-22 Ospreys for Carrier Delivery". Breaking Defense. Retrieved 2015-08-27.
Jump up ^ "F-5N/F Freedom Fighter | NAVAIR – U.S. Navy Naval Air Systems Command – Navy and Marine Corps Aviation Research, Development, Acquisition, Test and Evaluation". Navair.navy.mil. Retrieved 13 June 2011.
Jump up ^ "F-16 Versions - (T)F-16N". f-16.net.
Jump up ^ Drew, James (2015-08-16). "US Navy considers reduced annual F-35C buy". Flight Global. Reed Business Information. Retrieved 2015-08-17.
Jump up ^ Moran, Captain Michael T. "P-8A Poseidon." Archived 28 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine. NAVAIR – U.S. Navy Naval Air Systems Command – Navy and Marine Corps Aviation Research, Development, Acquisition, Test and Evaluation.
Jump up ^ Fire Scout ends Afghan mission; future includes new variant, LCS work - Militarytimes.com, August 16, 2013
External links[edit]
United States Navy Fact File page includes links to Fact File pages for USN manned and unmanned aircraft.
United States Army 2010 Weapons System Handbook (PDF file, 41.6 mb) includes pages describing US manned and unmanned aircraft.
United States Coast Guard Aircraft and Cutters page includes links to descriptive pages for USCG manned and unmanned aircraft.
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Sierra Nevada (U.S.)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Sierra Nevada (disambiguation).
Sierra Nevada
The Sierra's Mills Creek cirque (center) is on the west side of the Sierra Crest, south of Mono Lake (top, blue).
Highest point
Peak
Mount Whitney
Elevation
14,505 ft (4,421 m) [1]
Coordinates
36°34′43″N 118°17′31″W / 36.578580925°N 118.29199495°W / 36.578580925; -118.29199495
Dimensions
Length
400 mi (640 km) north-south from Fredonyer Pass to Tehachapi Pass [2]
Width
65 mi (105 km) [3]
Area
24,370 sq mi (63,100 km2) [4]
Naming
Etymology
1777: Spanish for "snowy saw"
Nickname
the Sierra, the High Sierra, Range of Light (1894, John Muir)[5]
Geography
Position of Sierra Nevada inside California
Country
United States
States
California and Nevada
Range coordinates
37°43′51″N 119°34′22″W / 37.73083°N 119.57278°W / 37.73083; -119.57278Coordinates: 37°43′51″N 119°34′22″W / 37.73083°N 119.57278°W / 37.73083; -119.57278
Geology
Age of rock
Mesozoic
Type of rock
batholith and igneous
The Sierra Nevada (/siˌɛrə nɪˈvædə, -ˈvɑːdə/, Spanish: [ˈsjera neˈβaða], snowy saw range[6]) is a mountain range in the Western United States, between the Central Valley of California and the Basin and Range Province. The vast majority of the range lies in the state of California, although the Carson Range spur lies primarily in Nevada. The Sierra Nevada is part of the American Cordillera, a chain of mountain ranges that consists of an almost continuous sequence of such ranges that form the western "backbone" of North America, Central America, South America and Antarctica.
The Sierra runs 400 miles (640 km) north-to-south, and is approximately 70 miles (110 km) across east-to-west. Notable Sierra features include Lake Tahoe, the largest alpine lake in North America; Mount Whitney at 14,505 ft (4,421 m),[1] the highest point in the contiguous United States; and Yosemite Valley, sculpted by glaciers from one-hundred-million-year-old granite. The Sierra is home to three national parks, twenty wilderness areas, and two national monuments. These areas include Yosemite, Sequoia, and Kings Canyon National Parks; and Devils Postpile National Monument.
The character of the range is shaped by its geology and ecology. More than one hundred million years ago during the Nevadan orogeny, granite formed deep underground. The range started to uplift four million years ago, and erosion by glaciers exposed the granite and formed the light-colored mountains and cliffs that make up the range. The uplift caused a wide range of elevations and climates in the Sierra Nevada, which are reflected by the presence of five life zones (areas with similar plant and animal communities). Uplift continues due to faulting caused by tectonic forces, creating spectacular fault block escarpments along the eastern edge of the southern Sierra.
The Sierra Nevada has a significant history. The California Gold Rush occurred in the western foothills from 1848 through 1855. Due to inaccessibility, the range was not fully explored until 1912.[7]:81
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
1.1 Setting
1.2 Watersheds
1.3 Elevation
1.4 Notable features
1.5 Communities
1.6 Protected areas
2 Geologic history
3 Climate and meteorology
4 Ecology
5 History
5.1 Native Americans
5.2 Etymology
5.3 Initial European-American exploration
5.4 Gold rush
5.5 Thorough exploration
5.6 Conservation
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Geography[edit]
Mount Whitney, the highest peak in the range and the contiguous United States
The Sierra Nevada lies in Central and Eastern California, with a very small but historically important spur extending into Nevada. West-to-east, the Sierra Nevada's elevation increases gradually from 1,000 feet (300 m) in the Central Valley to an average height of about 10,500 feet (3,200 m) at its crest only 50–75 miles (80–121 km) to the east. The east slope forms the steep Sierra Escarpment. Unlike its surroundings, the range receives a substantial amount of snowfall and precipitation due to orographic lift.
Setting[edit]
The Sierra Nevada's irregular northern boundary stretches from the Susan River[8] and Fredonyer Pass[9] to the North Fork Feather River. It represents where the granitic bedrock of the Sierra Nevada dives below the southern extent of Cenozoic igneous surface rock from the Cascade Range.[10] It is bounded on the west by California's Central Valley and on the east by the Basin and Range Province.
The geographical boundary between the Sierra and the Cascades is virtually indistinguishable, with the Fredonyer Pass designation being traditional. Physiographically, the Sierra is a section of the Cascade-Sierra Mountains province, which in turn is part of the larger Pacific Mountain System physiographic division. The California Geological Survey states that "the northern Sierra boundary is marked where bedrock disappears under the Cenozoic volcanic cover of the Cascade Range."[11]
Watersheds[edit]
The Sierra hosts many waterways, such as the Tuolumne River.
The range is drained on its western slope by the Central Valley watershed, which discharges into the Pacific Ocean at San Francisco. The northern third of the western Sierra is part of the Sacramento River watershed (including the Feather, Yuba, and American River tributaries), and the middle third is drained by the San Joaquin River (including the Mokelumne, Stanislaus, Tuolumne, and Merced River tributaries). The southern third of the range is drained by the Kings, Kaweah, Tule, and Kern rivers, which flow into the endorheic basin of Tulare Lake, which rarely overflows into the San Joaquin during wet years.
The eastern slope watershed of the Sierra is much narrower; its rivers flow out into the endorheic Great Basin of eastern California and western Nevada. From north to south, the Susan River flows into intermittent Honey Lake, the Truckee River flows from Lake Tahoe into Pyramid Lake, the Carson River runs into Carson Sink, the Walker River into Walker Lake; Rush, Lee Vining and Mill Creeks flow into Mono Lake; and the Owens River into dry Owens Lake. Although none of the eastern rivers reach the sea, many of the streams from Mono Lake southwards are diverted into the Los Angeles Aqueduct which provides water to Southern California.
Elevation[edit]
The height of the mountains in the Sierra Nevada increases gradually from north to south. Between Fredonyer Pass and Lake Tahoe, the peaks range from 5,000 feet (1,500 m) to more than 9,000 feet (2,700 m). The crest near Lake Tahoe is roughly 9,000 feet (2,700 m) high, with several peaks approaching the height of Freel Peak (10,881 ft or 3,317 m). Farther south, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park is Mount Lyell (13,120 ft or 3,999 m). The Sierra rises to almost 14,000 feet (4,300 m) with Mount Humphreys near Bishop, California. Finally, near Lone Pine, Mount Whitney is at 14,505 feet (4,421 m), the highest point in the contiguous United States.
South of Mount Whitney, the range quickly dwindles. The crest elevation is almost 10,000 feet (3,000 m) near Lake Isabella, but south of the lake, the peaks reach to only a modest 8,000 feet (2,400 m).[12]
Sierra Nevada panorama from Bishop, California. The prominent peak at right is Mount Tom
Notable features[edit]
Mount Tallac above Lake Tahoe
There are several notable geographical features in the Sierra Nevada:
Lake Tahoe is a large, clear freshwater lake in the northern Sierra Nevada, with an elevation of 6,225 ft (1,897 m) and an area of 191 sq mi (490 km2).[13] Lake Tahoe lies between the main Sierra and the Carson Range, a spur of the Sierra.[13]
Hetch Hetchy Valley, Yosemite Valley, Kings Canyon, and Kern Canyon are examples of many glacially-scoured canyons on the west side of the Sierra.
Yosemite National Park is filled with notable features such as waterfalls and granite domes.
Groves of Giant Sequoias Sequoiadendron giganteum occur along a narrow band of altitude on the western side of the Sierra Nevada. Giant sequoias are the largest trees in the world.[14]
Two of the largest rivers in California, which form the Central Valley and drain into San Francisco Bay, derive most of their flow from the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada range. The northern of the two is the Sacramento River (which also drains the adjacent Cascade Range and Klamath Range); the more southern is the San Joaquin River.
Communities[edit]
Communities in the Sierra Nevada range include Carson City, Paradise, South Lake Tahoe, Truckee, Grass Valley, Mammoth Lakes, Sonora, Nevada City, Portola, Auburn, Colfax and Kennedy Meadows.
Protected areas[edit]
View of Sequoia National Park from Moro Rock
Much of the Sierra Nevada consists of federal lands and is either protected from development or strictly managed. The three National Parks (Yosemite, Kings Canyon, Sequoia), two National Monuments (Devils Postpile, Giant Sequoia), and 26 wilderness areas lie within the Sierra. These areas protect 15.4% of the Sierra's 63,118 km2 (24,370 sq mi) from logging and grazing.[4]
The United States Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management currently control 52% of the land in the Sierra Nevada.[4] Logging and grazing are generally allowed on land controlled by these agencies, under federal regulations that balance recreation and development on the land.
The California Bighorn Sheep Zoological Area near Mount Williamson in the southern Sierra was established to protect the endangered Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep. Starting in 1981, hikers were unable to enter the Area from May 15 through December 15, in order to protect the sheep. As of 2010, the restriction has been lifted and access to the Area is open for the whole year.[15]
Geologic history[edit]
Sevehah Cliff, near Convict Lake, shows severely deformed Devonian rock[16]
Yosemite Valley in Yosemite National Park was carved by glaciers
For central Sierra Nevada geology, see Geology of the Yosemite area.
The earliest rocks in the Sierra Nevada are metamorphic roof pendants of Paleozoic age, the oldest being metasedimentary rocks from the Cambrian in the Mount Morrison region.[16] These dark-colored hornfels, slates, marbles, and schists are found in the western foothills (notably around Coarsegold, west of the Tehachapi Pass) and east of the Sierra Crest.[17] The earliest granite of the Sierra started to form in the Triassic period. This granite is mostly found east of the crest and north of 37.2°N.[18] In the Triassic and into the Jurassic, an island arc collided with the west coast of North America and raised a chain of volcanoes, in an event called the Nevadan orogeny.[19] Nearly all subaerial Sierran Arc volcanoes have since disappeared; their remains were redeposited during the Great Valley Sequence and the subsequent Cenozoic filling of the Great Valley, which is the source of much of the sedimentary rock in California.
In the Cretaceous, a subduction zone formed at the edge of the continent.[20] This means that an oceanic plate started to dive beneath the North American plate. Magma formed through the subduction of the ancient Farallon Plate rose in plumes (plutons) deep underground, their combined mass forming what is called the Sierra Nevada batholith. These plutons formed at various times, from 115 Ma to 87 Ma.[21] The earlier plutons formed in the western half of the Sierra, while the later plutons formed in the eastern half of the Sierra.[18] By 66 Ma, the proto-Sierra Nevada had been worn down to a range of rolling low mountains, a few thousand feet high.
Twenty million years ago, crustal extension associated with the Basin and Range Province caused extensive volcanism in the Sierra.[22] About 10 Ma, the Sierra Nevada started to form: a block of crust between the Coast Range and the Basin and Range Province started to tilt to the west.[23] Rivers started cutting deep canyons on both sides of the range. Lava filled some of these canyons, which have subsequently eroded leaving table mountains that follow the old river channels.[24]
About 2.5 Ma, the Earth's climate cooled, and ice ages started. Glaciers carved out characteristic U-shaped canyons throughout the Sierra. The combination of river and glacier erosion exposed the uppermost portions of the plutons emplaced millions of years before, leaving only a remnant of metamorphic rock on top of some Sierra peaks.
Uplift of the Sierra Nevada continues today, especially along its eastern side. This uplift causes large earthquakes, such as the Lone Pine earthquake of 1872.[25]
Sierra Escarpment viewed from the east. In the foreground is Tinemaha Reservoir in the Owens Valley.
Climate and meteorology[edit]
Red Slate Mountain (elevation 13,156 ft or 4,010 m) is still covered with snow in June.
The climate of the Sierra Nevada is influenced by the Mediterranean climate of California. During the fall, winter and spring, precipitation in the Sierra ranges from 20 to 80 in (510 to 2,030 mm) where it occurs mostly as snow above 6,000 ft (1,800 m). Precipitation is highest on the central and northern portions of the western slope between 5,000 and 8,000 feet (1,500 and 2,400 m) elevation, due to orographic lift.[21]:69 Above 8,000 feet (2,400 m), precipitation diminishes on the western slope up to the crest, since most of the precipitation has been wrung out at lower elevations. Most parts of the range east of the crest are in a rain shadow, and receive less than 25 inches of precipitation per year.[26] While most summer days are dry, afternoon thunderstorms sometimes occur, particularly during the North American Monsoon in mid and late summer. Some of these summer thunderstorms drop over an inch of rain in a short period, and the lightning can start fires. Summer high temperatures average 42–90 °F (6–32 °C). Winters are comparatively mild, and the temperature is usually only just low enough to sustain a heavy snowpack. For example, Tuolumne Meadows, at 8,600 feet (2,600 m) elevation, has winter daily highs about 40 °F (4 °C) with daily lows about 10 °F (−12 °C).[27] The growing season lasts 20 to 230 days, strongly dependent on elevation.[28] The highest elevations of the Sierra have an alpine climate.
The Sierra Nevada snowpack is the major source of water and a significant source of electric power generation in California.[29] Many reservoirs were constructed in the canyons of the Sierra throughout the 20th century, Several major aqueducts serving both agriculture and urban areas distribute Sierra water throughout the state. However, the Sierra casts a rain shadow, which greatly affects the climate and ecology of the central Great Basin. This rain shadow is largely responsible for Nevada's being the driest state in the United States.[30]
Precipitation varies substantially from year to year. It is not uncommon for some years to receive precipitation totals far above or below normal.
The height of the range and the steepness of the Sierra Escarpment, particularly at the southern end of the range, produces a wind phenomenon known as the "Sierra Rotor". This is a horizontal rotation of the atmosphere just east of the crest of the Sierra, set in motion as an effect of strong westerly winds.[31]
Because of the large number of airplanes that have crashed in the Sierra Nevada, primarily due to the complex weather and atmospheric conditions such as downdrafts and microbursts caused by geography there, a portion of the area, a triangle whose vertices are Reno, Nevada; Fresno, California; and Las Vegas, Nevada, has been dubbed the "Nevada Triangle", in reference to the Bermuda Triangle. Some counts put the number of crashes in the triangle at 2,000, including millionaire and record-breaking flyer Steve Fossett. Theories that the crashes are related in some way to the United States Air Force's Area 51, or to the activities of extra-terrestrial aliens, have no evidence to support them.[32][33]
Ecology[edit]
Main article: Ecology of the Sierra Nevada
Tuolumne Meadows is an example of a subalpine meadow in the Sierra.
The Sierra Nevada is divided into a number of biotic zones, each of which is defined by its climate and supports a number of interdependent species.[21] Life in the higher elevation zones adapted to colder weather, and to most of the precipitation falling as snow. The rain shadow of the Sierra causes the eastern slope to be warmer and drier: each life zone is higher in the east.[21] A list of biotic zones, and corresponding elevations, is presented below:
The western foothill zone, 1,000–2,500 ft (300–760 m),[21]:92 with grassland, oak-grass savanna and chaparral-oak woodland.[28] North of Sequoia National Park, Gray pine (also known as digger pine) is intermixed with the oak woodland.[21]:95
The Pinyon pine-Juniper woodland, 5,000–7,000 ft (1,500–2,100 m) east side only.[21]:92
The Sierra Nevada lower montane forest (indicator species: Ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine), 2,500–7,000 ft (760–2,130 m) west side, 7,000–9,000 ft (2,100–2,700 m) east side.[21]:92 This biotic zone is notable for containing Giant Sequoia.
The upper montane forest (indicator species: Lodgepole pine, Red fir) 7,000–9,000 ft (2,100–2,700 m) west side, 9,000–10,500 ft (2,700–3,200 m) east side.[21]:92
The Sierra Nevada subalpine zone (indicator species: Whitebark pine)[34] 9,000–10,500 ft (2,700–3,200 m) west side, 10,500–11,500 ft (3,200–3,500 m) east side[21]:92
The alpine region at greater than 10,500 ft (3,200 m), and greater than 11,500 ft (3,500 m) east side.[21]:92
History[edit]
John Frémont was an early American explorer of the Sierra
Globe with Sierra Nevada marked from 1602.
Native Americans[edit]
Main article: Great Basin tribes
Archaeological excavations placed Martis people of Paleo-Indians in northcentral Sierra Nevada during the period of 3,000 BCE to 500 CE. The earliest identified sustaining indigenous people in the Sierra Nevada were the Northern Paiute tribes on the east side, with the Mono tribe and Sierra Miwok tribe on the western side, and the Kawaiisu and Tubatulabal tribes in the southern Sierra. Today, some historic intertribal trade route trails over mountain passes are known artifact locations, such as Duck Pass with its obsidian arrowheads. The California and Sierra Native American tribes were predominantly peaceful, with occasional territorial disputes between the Paiute and Sierra Miwok tribes in the mountains.[35] Washo and Maidu were also in this area prior to the era of European exploration and displacement.[36][37]
Etymology[edit]
Kearsarge Lakes Basin is named after the USS Kearsarge[38][39]
Used in 1542 by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo to describe a Pacific Coast Range (Santa Cruz Mountains), the term "sierra nevada" was a general identification of less familiar ranges toward the interior.[40] In 1776, Pedro Font's map applied the name to the range currently known as the Sierra Nevada.[41]
The literal translation is "snowy mountains," from sierra "a range of hills," 1610s, from Spanish sierra "jagged mountain range," lit. "saw," from Latin serra "a saw"; and from fem. of Spanish nevado "snowy."[42][43]
Initial European-American exploration[edit]
See also: History of the Yosemite area and California Trail
European-American exploration of the mountain range started in 1827. Although prior to the 1820s there were Spanish missions, pueblos (towns), presidios (forts), and ranchos along the coast of California, no Spanish explorers visited the Sierra Nevada.[44] The first European Americans to visit the mountains were amongst a group led by fur trapper Jedediah Smith, crossing north of the Yosemite area in May 1827, at Ebbetts Pass.[44]
In 1833, a subgroup of the Bonneville Expedition led by Joseph Reddeford Walker was sent westward to find an overland route to California. Eventually the party discovered a route along the Humboldt River across present-day Nevada, ascending the Sierra Nevada, starting near present-day Bridgeport and descending between the Tuolumne and Merced River drainage. The group may have been the first non-indigenous people to see Yosemite Valley.[45] The Walker party probably visited either the Tuolumne or Merced Groves of Giant Sequoia, becoming the first non-indigenous people to see the giant trees,[44] but journals relating to the Walker party were destroyed in 1839, in a print shop fire in Philadelphia.[46]
In the winter of 1844, Lt. John C. Frémont, accompanied by Kit Carson, was the first European to see Lake Tahoe. The Frémont party camped at 8,050 ft (2,450 m).[47]
Gold rush[edit]
Map of gold fields in the Sierra
Main article: California Gold Rush
The California Gold Rush began at Sutter's Mill, near Coloma, in the western foothills of the Sierra.[48] On January 24, 1848, James W. Marshall, a foreman working for Sacramento pioneer John Sutter, found shiny metal in the tailrace of a lumber mill Marshall was building for Sutter on the American River.[49] Rumors soon started to spread and were confirmed in March 1848 by San Francisco newspaper publisher and merchant Samuel Brannan. Brannan strode through the streets of San Francisco, holding aloft a vial of gold, shouting "Gold! Gold! Gold from the American River!"[49]
On August 19, 1848, the New York Herald was the first major newspaper on the East Coast to report the discovery of gold. On December 5, 1848, President James Polk confirmed the discovery of gold in an address to Congress.[50]:80 Soon, waves of immigrants from around the world, later called the "forty-niners", invaded the Gold Country of California or "Mother Lode". Miners lived in tents, wood shanties, or deck cabins removed from abandoned ships.[51] Wherever gold was discovered, hundreds of miners would collaborate to put up a camp and stake their claims.
Because the gold in the California gravel beds was so richly concentrated, the early forty-niners simply panned for gold in California's rivers and streams.[52]:198–200 However, panning cannot take place on a large scale, and miners and groups of miners graduated to more complex placer mining. Groups of prospectors would divert the water from an entire river into a sluice alongside the river, and then dig for gold in the newly exposed river bottom.[53]:90
By 1853, most of the easily accessible gold had been collected, and attention turned to extracting gold from more difficult locations. Hydraulic mining was used on ancient gold-bearing gravel beds on hillsides and bluffs in the gold fields.[50]:89 In hydraulic mining, a high-pressure hose directed a powerful stream or jet of water at gold-bearing gravel beds. It is estimated that by the mid-1880s, 11 million ounces (340 t) of gold (worth approximately US$15 billion at December 2010 prices) had been recovered by "hydraulicking".[54] A byproduct of these extraction methods was that large amounts of gravel, silt, heavy metals, and other pollutants went into streams and rivers.[53]:32–36 As of 1999[update], many areas still bear the scars of hydraulic mining, since the resulting exposed earth and downstream gravel deposits do not support plant life.[53]:116–121
It is estimated that by 1855, at least 300,000 gold-seekers, merchants, and other immigrants had arrived in California from around the world.[50]:25 The huge numbers of newcomers brought by the Gold Rush drove Native Americans out of their traditional hunting, fishing and food-gathering areas. To protect their homes and livelihood, some Native Americans responded by attacking the miners, provoking counter-attacks on native villages. The Native Americans, out-gunned, were often slaughtered.[53]
The exploration team for the California Geological Survey, 1864
Thorough exploration[edit]
The Gold Rush populated the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada, but even by 1860, most of the Sierra was unexplored.[7][55] The state legislature authorized the California Geological Survey to officially explore the Sierra (and survey the rest of the state). Josiah Whitney was appointed to head the survey. Men of the survey, including William H. Brewer, Charles F. Hoffmann and Clarence King, explored the backcountry of what would become Yosemite National Park in 1863.[7] In 1864, they explored the area around Kings Canyon. In 1869, John Muir started his wanderings in the Sierra Nevada range,[56] and in 1871, King was the first to climb Mount Langley also that year, fishermen were the first to climb Mount Whitney.[7] From 1892–7 Theodore Solomons made the first attempt to map a route along the crest of the Sierra.[7]
Other people finished exploring and mapping the Sierra. Bolton Coit Brown explored the Kings River watershed in 1895–1899. Joseph N. LeConte mapped the area around Yosemite National Park and what would become Kings Canyon National Park. James S. Hutchinson, a noted mountaineer, climbed the Palisades (1904) and Mount Humphreys (1905). By 1912, the USGS published a set of maps of the Sierra Nevada, and the era of exploration was over.[7]:81
Conservation[edit]
The General Sherman Tree, a Giant Sequoia in Sequoia National Park, is the world's largest tree by volume.
The tourism potential of the Sierra Nevada was recognized early in the European history of the range. Yosemite Valley was first protected by the federal government in 1864. The Valley and Mariposa Grove were ceded to California in 1866 and turned into a state park.[45] John Muir perceived overgrazing by sheep and logging of Giant Sequoia to be a problem in the Sierra. Muir successfully lobbied for the protection of the rest of Yosemite National Park: Congress created an Act to protect the park in 1890. The Valley and Mariposa Grove were added to the Park in 1906.[45] In the same year, Sequoia National Park was formed to protect the Giant Sequoia: all logging of the Sequoia ceased at that time.
In 1903, the city of San Francisco proposed building a hydroelectric dam to flood Hetch Hetchy Valley. The city and the Sierra Club argued over the dam for 10 years, until the U.S. Congress passed the Raker Act in 1913 and allowed dam building to proceed. O'Shaughnessy Dam was completed in 1923.[57][58]
Between 1912 and 1918, Congress debated three times to protect Lake Tahoe in a national park. None of these efforts succeeded, and after World War II, towns such as South Lake Tahoe grew around the shores of the lake. By 1980, the permanent population of the Lake Tahoe area grew to 50,000, while the summer population grew to 90,000.[59] The development around Lake Tahoe affected the clarity of the lake water. In order to preserve the lake's clarity, construction in the Tahoe basin is currently regulated by the Tahoe Regional Planning Agency.[60]
As the 20th century progressed, more of the Sierra became available for recreation; other forms of economic activity decreased. The John Muir Trail, a trail that followed the Sierra crest from Yosemite Valley to Mount Whitney, was funded in 1915 and finished in 1938.[61] Kings Canyon National Park was formed in 1940 to protect the deep canyon of the Kings River.
By 1964, the Wilderness Act protected portions of the Sierra as primitive areas where humans are simply temporary visitors. Gradually, 20 wilderness areas were established to protect scenic backcountry of the Sierra. These wilderness areas include the John Muir Wilderness (protecting the eastern slope of the Sierra and the area between Yosemite and Kings Canyon Parks), and wilderness within each of the National Parks. Because of the Wilderness Act and the rocky terrain in the area, plans to construct two trans-Sierra highways across this portion of the Sierra Escarpment, State Route 168[62] and State Route 190,[63] were abandoned; the two highways each remain split as discontiguous segments on either side of the Sierra.
The Sierra Nevada still faces a number of issues that threaten its conservation. Logging occurs on both private and public lands, including controversial clearcut methods and thinning logging on private and public lands.[64] Grazing occurs on private lands as well as on National Forest lands, which include Wilderness areas. Overgrazing can alter hydrologic processes and vegetation composition, remove vegetation that serves as food and habitat for native species, and contribute to sedimentation and pollution in waterways.[65] A recent increase in large wildfires like the Rim Fire in Yosemite National Park and the Stanislaus National Forest and the King Fire on the Eldorado National Forest, has prompted concerns.[64] A 2015 study indicated that the increase in fire risk in California may be attributable to human-induced climate change.[66] A study looking back over 8,000 years found that warmer climate periods experienced severe droughts and more stand-replacing fires and concluded that as climate is such a powerful influence on wildfires, trying to recreate presettlement forest structure is likely impossible in a warmer future.[67]
See also[edit]
Bibliography of the Sierra Nevada
List of Sierra Nevada road passes
List of Sierra Nevada topics
Logging in the Sierra Nevada
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Mount Whitney". NGS data sheet. U.S. National Geodetic Survey.
Jump up ^ "Sierra Nevada". Ecological Subregions of California. United States Forest Service. Archived from the original on 2010-12-05.
Jump up ^ "Sierra Nevada". SummitPost.org. Retrieved 2010-05-29.
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Sierra Nevada Region". USCB Biogeography lab. Archived from the original on 2011-05-14.
Jump up ^ Muir, John (1894). "Chapter 1: The Sierra Nevada". The Mountains of California. Retrieved 2010-05-29.
Jump up ^ Carlson, Helen S. (1976). Nevada Place Names: A Geographical Dictionary. University of Nevada Press. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-87417-094-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Roper, Steve (1997). Sierra High Route: Traversing Timberline Country. The Mountaineers Press. ISBN 0-89886-506-9.
Jump up ^ "Subsection M261Eb: Fredonyer Butte – Grizzly Peak". Archived from the original on 2010-12-05. Retrieved 2010-08-02.
Jump up ^ "Sierra Nevada". Peakbagger.com. Retrieved 2010-08-07.
Jump up ^ "California Geomorphic Provinces" (PDF). California Geological Survey. 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2004-07-21.
Jump up ^ "California Geologic Provinces" (PDF). California Geological Survey. p. 2. Note 36.
Jump up ^ "Google terrain map". Retrieved 2010-05-29.
^ Jump up to: a b "Facts about Lake Tahoe". USGS. Archived from the original on 2011-05-14. Retrieved 2007-05-12.
Jump up ^ "The General Sherman Tree". U.S. National Park Service. Archived from the original on 2011-05-05.
Jump up ^ "Forest Service Proposes to Change Designation of Bighorn Sheep Zoological Areas". United States Forest Service. September 25, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Stevens, CH; Greene, DC (2000). "Geology of Paleozoic rocks in eastern Sierra Nevada roof pendants, California". Geological Society of America. Field Guide 2.
Jump up ^ "Geology and Mineral Deposits of the Mount Morrison Quadrangle, Sierra Nevada, California" (PDF). United States Geological Survey.
^ Jump up to: a b Unger, Tanya S. "Mesozoic Plutonism in the Sierra Nevada Batholith".
Jump up ^ Shaffer, Jeffrey. "Evolution of the Yosemite Landscape — The Nevadan Orogeny". One Hundred Hikes in Yosemite. Archived from the original on 2011-05-14.
Jump up ^ Blakely, Ron. "Geologic History of Western US".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Schoenherr, Allan A. (1995). A Natural History of California. UC Press. ISBN 0-520-06922-6.
Jump up ^ Joel Michaelsen. "Basin and Range (Transierra) Region Physical Geography". Archived from the original on 2011-05-14. Retrieved 2010-05-07.
Jump up ^ Jayko, A.s. (2009-10-18). "Miocene-Pliocene uplit rates of the Sierra Nevada, California". 2009 Portland GSA meeting.
Jump up ^ Romans, Brian (October 2010). "Inverted Martian Topography". Wired Science.
Jump up ^ "1872 Lone Pine Earthquake". Sierra Nevada Virtual Museum. Archived from the original on May 14, 2011. Retrieved 2010-05-31. Few people ever see a mountain range grow, but on March 26, 1872, the 300 residents of Lone Pine, California, did.
Jump up ^ "Average Annual Precipitation". Sierra Nevada Photos. Retrieved 2014-01-02.
Jump up ^ "Weather". Yosemite. National Park Service.
^ Jump up to: a b "Chapter 33-Ecological subregions of the United States, Sierran Steppe - Mixed Forest - Coniferous Forest". United States Forest Service. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
Jump up ^ "Water—Most of California's Water Comes from the Sierra Nevada" (PDF). Sierra Nevada Conservancy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-07-05. Retrieved 2010-06-09.
Jump up ^ "Climatology by state based on climate division data: 1971–2000". NOAA Earth Systems Research Laboratory.
Jump up ^ Grubišic, Vanda; Billings, Brian J. (2006). Sierra Rotors: A Comparative Study of Three Mountain Wave and Rotor Events (PDF). 12th Conference on Mountain Meteorology. American Meteorological Society.
Jump up ^ Winter, Stuart (January 3, 2010). "Mystery of the Nevada Triangle". Sunday Express.
Jump up ^ Pupp, Martin (director) (December 1, 2014). The Missing Evidence: Nevada Triangle (TV series episode).
Jump up ^ Fites-Kauffman, J.; P. W. Rundel; N. Stephenson; D. A. Weixelman (2007). "Montane and subalpine vegetation of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges". In Barbour, M.G.; Keeler-Wolf, T.; Schoenherr, A.A. Terrestrial vegetation of California (3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA, USA: University of California Press. pp. 460–501.
Jump up ^ Hoffmann, Charles F. (1868). "Notes on Hetch-Hetchy Valley". Proceedings of the California Academy of Science. 1 (3:5): 368–370. Archived from the original on 2011-05-14. Retrieved 2006-09-27.
Jump up ^ Drake, Bill (2000). "Ancient petroglyph makers of the Northern Sierra". sierrarockart.org. Archived from the original on 2008-05-16.
Jump up ^ "Prehistoric Context" (PDF). Idaho-Maryland Mine Project, Master Environmental Assessment. cityofgrassvalley.com. June 2006. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-07-05. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
Jump up ^ Farquhar, Francis P. (1926). "K". Place Names of the Sierra Nevada. San Francisco: Sierra Club.
Jump up ^ The ship was named after Mount Kearsarge in New Hampshire, see "Kearsarge (BB-5)". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Naval History & Heritage Command (NHHC). 23 February 2005. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Farquhar, Francis P. (March 1925). "Exploration of the Sierra Nevada". California Historical Society Quarterly. 4: 3. doi:10.2307/25177743. Archived from the original on 2011-05-14.
Jump up ^ Farquhar, Francis P. (1926). "S". Place Names of the Sierra Nevada. San Francisco: Sierra Club.
Jump up ^ "Sierra". Etymology Online.
Jump up ^ "Nevada". Etymology Online.
^ Jump up to: a b c Wuerthner, George (1994). Yosemite: A Visitors Companion. Stackpole Books. pp. 13–14. ISBN 0-8117-2598-7.
^ Jump up to: a b c Schaffer, Jeffrey P. (1999). Yosemite National Park: A Natural History Guide to Yosemite and Its Trails. Berkeley: Wilderness Press. ISBN 0-89997-244-6.
Jump up ^ Kiver, Eugene P.; Harris, David V. (1999). Geology of U.S. Parklands (5th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-33218-6.
Jump up ^ Frémont's "Long Camp". 2007 [1999]. Retrieved 2010-05-29.
Jump up ^ "California Historic Gold Mines" (PDF). State of California. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-12-14.
^ Jump up to: a b Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1889). History of California, Volume 23: 1843–1850. San Francisco: The History Company. pp. 32–34.
^ Jump up to: a b c Starr, Kevin (2005). California: a history. New York: The Modern Library.
Jump up ^ Holliday, J. S. (1999). Rush for riches; gold fever and the making of California. Oakland, California, Berkeley and Los Angeles: Oakland Museum of California and University of California Press. p. 60.
Jump up ^ Brands, H. W. (2003). The age of gold: the California Gold Rush and the new American dream. New York: Anchor (reprint ed.).
^ Jump up to: a b c d Rawls, James J.; Orsi, Richard J., eds. (1999). A golden state: mining and economic development in Gold Rush California (California History Sesquicentennial Series, 2). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Jump up ^ "Mining History and Geology of the Mother Lode". Archived from the original on 2006-12-03.
Jump up ^ Moore, James G. (2000). Exploring the Highest Sierra. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-3703-7.
Jump up ^ Muir, John (1911). My First Summer in the Sierra. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 1-883011-24-8. Archived from the original on 2011-05-14.
Jump up ^ Simpson, John W. (2005). Dam!: Water, Power, Politics, and Preservation in Hetch Hetchy and Yosemite National Park. ISBN 0-375-42231-5.
Jump up ^ Righter, Robert W. (2005). The Battle over Hetch Hetchy: America's Most Controversial Dam and the Birth of Modern Environmentalism. ISBN 0-19-531309-7.
Jump up ^ "Stream and Ground-Water Monitoring Program, Lake Tahoe Basin, Nevada and California". USGS. Retrieved 2010-05-31.
Jump up ^ "Construction Monitoring". Tahoe Regional Planning Agency. Archived from the original on 2011-05-14.
Jump up ^ Starr, Walter A. (November 1947). "Trails". Sierra Club Bulletin. San Francisco: Sierra Club. 32 (10).
Jump up ^ "State Route 168 Transportation Concept Report" (PDF). California Department of Transportation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-02-11. Retrieved 2017-07-15.
Jump up ^ "State Route 190 Transportation Concept Report" (PDF). California Department of Transportation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-21. Retrieved 2017-07-15.
^ Jump up to: a b "Forest Issues - CSERC". CSERC. Retrieved 2016-01-28.
Jump up ^ "2014 Grazing Report Released by CSERC - CSERC". CSERC. Retrieved 2016-01-28.
Jump up ^ Yoon, Jin-Ho; Wang, S.-Y. Simon; Gillies, Robert R.; Hipps, Lawrence; Kravitz, Ben; Rasch, Philip J. (2015). "Extreme Fire Season in California: A Glimpse Into the Future?". American Meteorological Society. 96 (11): S5–S9. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-15-00114.1. ISSN 1520-0477.
Jump up ^ Pierce, Jennifer L.; Meyer, Grant A.; Timothy Jull, A. J. (2004-11-04). "Fire-induced erosion and millennial-scale climate change in northern ponderosa pine forests". Nature. 432 (7013): 87–90. doi:10.1038/nature03058. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 15525985.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Sierra Nevada, USA (category)
Wikisource has the text of a 1905 New International Encyclopedia article about Sierra Nevada (U.S.).
Clickable map of Sierra Nevada peaks
Sierra Nevada info at SummitPost
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values: Sierra Nevada (Verenigde State) – Afrikaans

values: سييرا نيفادا (الولايات المتحدة) – Arabic

values: সিয়েরা নেভাদা – Bangla

values: Сьера-Невада (ЗША) – Belarusian

values: Сиера Невада (САЩ) – Bulgarian

values: Sierra Nevada (kabukiran sa Estados Unidos) – Cebuano

values: Sierra Nevada (Vereinigte Staaten) – German

values: Σιέρρα Νεβάδα (Η.Π.Α.) – Greek

values: Sierra Nevada (Estados Unidos) – Spanish

values: سیرا نوادا (ایالات متحده) – Persian

values: Sierra Nevada (Feriene Steaten) – Western Frisian

values: Beanntan Sierra Nevada – Scottish Gaelic

values: Serra Nevada, Estados Unidos de América – Galician

values: 시에라네바다산맥 (미국) – Korean

values: Սիեռա Նևադա (Կորդիլիերաներ) – Armenian

values: Sierra Nevada (planinski lanac u SAD-u) – Croatian

values: Sierra Nevada (Stati Uniti d'America) – Italian

values: סיירה נבדה (ארצות הברית) – Hebrew

values: सियेरा नेव्हाडा – Marathi

values: Sierra Nevada (Verenigde Staten) – Dutch

values: シエラネバダ山脈 (アメリカ合衆国) – Japanese

values: سیرانیوادا (امریکہ) – Western Punjabi

values: Sierra Nevada (Stany Zjednoczone) – Polish

values: Serra Nevada (Estados Unidos) – Portuguese

values: Сьерра-Невада (США) – Russian

values: Сијера Невада (САД) – Serbian

values: Sierra Nevada (Amerika Birleşik Devletleri) – Turkish

values: Сьєрра-Невада (США) – Ukrainian

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