text:
Lakes of the Four Seasons, Indiana
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Census-designated place in Indiana, United States
Lakes of the Four Seasons, Indiana
Census-designated place

Location of Lakes of the Four Seasons in Lake County and Porter County, Indiana.
Coordinates: 41°24′28″N 87°13′5″W / 41.40778°N 87.21806°W / 41.40778; -87.21806Coordinates: 41°24′28″N 87°13′5″W / 41.40778°N 87.21806°W / 41.40778; -87.21806
Country
United States
State
Indiana
Counties
Lake, Porter
Townships
Winfield, Porter
Area
• Total
3.1 sq mi (8.0 km2)
• Land
2.7 sq mi (6.9 km2)
• Water
0.4 sq mi (1.1 km2)
Elevation[1]
764 ft (233 m)
Population (2010)
• Total
7,033
• Density
2,640/sq mi (1,019.3/km2)
Time zone
Central (CST) (UTC-6)
• Summer (DST)
CDT (UTC-5)
ZIP code
46307
Area code(s)
219
FIPS code
18-41530[2]
GNIS feature ID
450251
Website
www.lofs.org
Lakes of the Four Seasons is a census-designated place (CDP) in Lake County and Porter County, in the U.S. state of Indiana.[3] This private gated community's population was 7,033 at the 2010 census.[4]
Geography[edit]
The county line of Porter and Lake counties runs directly through the center of the Four Seasons. While the entire community, both Porter and Lake County sides, have Crown Point mailing addresses, the school districts attended by the children who reside within the community are separated by county. Residents on the Porter County side are considered part of the Porter Township school system, whereas those on the Lake County side are in the Crown Point school system.
Lakes of the Four Seasons is located at 41°24′28″N 87°13′5″W / 41.40778°N 87.21806°W / 41.40778; -87.21806 (41.407824, -87.217953).[5]
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 3.1 square miles (8.0 km2), of which 2.7 square miles (6.9 km2) is land and 0.42 square miles (1.1 km2), or 13.44%, is water.[4]
Demographics[edit]
Historical population
Census
Pop.
%±
1990 6,556 —
2000 7,291 11.2%
2010 7,033 −3.5%
Source: US Census Bureau
As of the census[2] of 2000, there were 7,291 people, 2,506 households, and 2,155 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 2,720.3 people per square mile (1,050.4/km²). There were 2,590 housing units at an average density of 966.3/sq mi (373.1/km²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 97.06% White, 0.12% African American, 0.21% Native American, 0.77% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.64% from other races, and 1.18% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.90% of the population.
There were 2,506 households out of which 41.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 76.5% were married couples living together, 6.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 14.0% were non-families. 11.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 4.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.91 and the average family size was 3.16.
In the CDP, the population was spread out with 28.0% under the age of 18, 6.9% from 18 to 24, 27.0% from 25 to 44, 27.7% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.2 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP was $67,528, and the median income for a family was $68,903. Males had a median income of $52,222 versus $28,964 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $25,537. About 2.5% of families and 2.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.3% of those under age 18 and 3.3% of those age 65 or over.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "US Board on Geographic Names". United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
^ Jump up to: a b "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
Jump up ^ "Lakes of the Four Seasons, Indiana". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2017-04-02.
^ Jump up to: a b "Geographic Identifiers: 2010 Demographic Profile Data (DP-1): Lakes of the Four Seasons CDP, Indiana". U.S. Census Bureau, American Factfinder. Retrieved March 25, 2013.
Jump up ^ "US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990". United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
show
v
t
e
Municipalities and communities of Porter County, Indiana, United States
County seat: Valparaiso
Cities
Portage
Valparaiso
Towns
Beverly Shores
Burns Harbor
Chesterton
Dune Acres
Hebron
Kouts
Ogden Dunes
Porter
Town of Pines
Townships
Boone
Center
Jackson
Liberty
Morgan
Pine
Pleasant
Portage
Porter
Union
Washington
Westchester
CDPs
Aberdeen
Lakes of the Four Seasons‡
Salt Creek Commons
Shorewood Forest
South Haven
Wheeler
Other
unincorporated
communities
Aylesworth
Babcock
Beatrice
Boone Grove
Burdick
Clanricarde
Coburg
Crocker
Furnessville
Hillcrest
Hurlburt
Malden
Porter Crossroads
Sedley
Suman
Tassinong
Woodville
Ghost towns
Baillytown
City West
New City West/Tremont
Footnotes
‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties
show
v
t
e
Municipalities and communities of Lake County, Indiana, United States
County seat: Crown Point
Cities
Crown Point
East Chicago
Gary
Hammond
Hobart
Lake Station
Whiting
Towns
Cedar Lake
Dyer
Griffith
Highland
Lowell
Merrillville
Munster
New Chicago
St. John
Schererville
Schneider
Winfield
Townships
Calumet
Cedar Creek
Center
Eagle Creek
Hanover
Hobart
North
Ross
St. John
West Creek
Winfield
CDPs
Lake Dalecarlia
Lakes of the Four Seasons‡
Shelby
Other
unincorporated
communities
Ainsworth
Belshaw
Brunswick
Creston
Deep River
Deer Creek
Dinwiddie
Green Acres
Hawthorne Hills
Illinoi‡
Klaasville
Kreitzburg
Lake Hills
Leroy
Liberty Park
Liverpool
New Elliott
North Hayden
Orchard Grove
Palmer
Range Line
Rolling Hill Estates
Ross
Shady Lawn
Southeast Grove
Southmoor Park
Van Loon
Wald View
Ghost towns
Baxter's Addition to Chicago
Clarke
Edgemoor
Forsyth
Indiana City
Pine Station
Roby
Footnotes
‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lakes_of_the_Four_Seasons,_Indiana&oldid=839953315"
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Supermarket
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the type of food store. For other meanings, see Supermarket (disambiguation).
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The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (October 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
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Produce section in a Brazilian supermarket
Packaged food aisles in a hypermarket
A supermarket is a self-service shop offering a wide variety of food and household products, organized into aisles. It is larger and has a wider selection than earlier grocery stores, but is smaller and more limited in the range of merchandise than a hypermarket or big-box market.
A larger full-service supermarket combined with a department store is sometimes known as a hypermarket. Other services may include those of banks, cafés, childcare centres/creches, insurance (and other financial services), Mobile Phone services, photo processing, video rentals, pharmacies and/or petrol stations. If the eatery in a supermarket is substantial enough, the facility may be called a "grocerant", a portmanteau of "grocery" and "restaurant".[1]
The supermarket typically comprises meat, fresh produce, dairy, and baked goods aisles, along with shelf space reserved for canned and packaged goods as well as for various non-food items such as kitchenware, household cleaners, pharmacy products and pet supplies. Some supermarkets also sell a variety of other household products that are consumed regularly, such as alcohol (where permitted), medicine, and clothes, and some stores sell a much wider range of non-food products: DVDs, sporting equipment, board games, and seasonal items (e.g., Christmas wrapping paper in December).
The traditional supermarket occupies a large amount of floor space, usually on a single level. It is usually situated near a residential area in order to be convenient to consumers. The basic appeal is the availability of a broad selection of goods under a single roof, at relatively low prices. Other advantages include ease of parking and frequently the convenience of shopping hours that extend into the evening or even 24 hours of the day. Supermarkets usually allocate large budgets to advertising, typically through newspapers. They also present elaborate in-shop displays of products.
Supermarkets typically are chain stores, supplied by the distribution centers of their parent companies thus increasing opportunities for economies of scale. Supermarkets usually offer products at relatively low prices by using their buying power to buy goods from manufacturers at lower prices than smaller stores can. They also minimise financing costs by paying for goods at least 30 days after receipt and some extract credit terms of 90 days or more from vendors. Certain products (typically staple foods such as bread, milk and sugar) are very occasionally sold as loss leaders so as to attract shoppers to their store. Supermarkets make up for their low margins by a higher overall volume of sales, and with the sale of higher-margin items bought by the intended higher volume of shoppers. Self-service with shopping carts (trolleys) or baskets reduces labor cost, and many supermarket chains are attempting further reduction by shifting to self-service check-out.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Growth in developing countries
3 Typical supermarket merchandise
4 Layout strategies
5 Criticisms
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
History[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
A supermarket in Sweden in 1941
Consumers shopping for produce and fruit.
In the early days of retailing, products generally were fetched by an assistant from shelves behind the merchant's counter while customers waited in front of the counter and indicated the items they wanted. Most foods and merchandise did not come in individually wrapped consumer-sized packages, so an assistant had to measure out and wrap the precise amount desired by the consumer. This offered opportunities for social interaction: many regarded this style of shopping as "a social occasion" and would often "pause for conversations with the staff or other customers."[2] These practices were by nature slow and labor-intensive and therefore also quite expensive. The number of customers who could be attended to at one time was limited by the number of staff employed in the store.
Shopping for groceries also often involved trips to multiple specialty shops, such as a greengrocer, butcher, bakery, fishmonger and dry goods store; in addition to a general store, milk and other items of short shelf life were delivered by a milkman.
The concept of an inexpensive food market relying on large economies of scale was developed by Vincent Astor. He founded the Astor Market in 1915, investing $750,000 ($18 million in 2015 currency) of his fortune into a 165' by 125' corner of 95th and Broadway, Manhattan, creating, in effect, an open-air mini-mall that sold meat, fruit, produce and flowers.[3] The expectation was that customers would come from great distances ("miles around"), but in the end, even attracting people from ten blocks away was difficult, and the market folded in 1917.[4][5][6]
The concept of a self-service grocery store was developed by entrepreneur Clarence Saunders and his Piggly Wiggly stores. His first store opened in 1916. Saunders was awarded a number of patents for the ideas he incorporated into his stores.[7][8][9][10] The stores were a financial success and Saunders began to offer franchises. The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company, which was established in 1859, was another successful early grocery store chain in Canada and the United States, and became common in North American cities in the 1920s. The general trend since then has been to stock shelves at night so that customers, the following day, can obtain their own goods and bring them to the front of the store to pay for them. Although there is a higher risk of shoplifting, the costs of appropriate security measures ideally will be outweighed by reduced labor costs.[citation needed]
Early self-service grocery stores did not sell fresh meats or produce. Combination stores that sold perishable items were developed in the 1920s.[11]
Historically, there has been debate about the origin of the supermarket, with King Kullen and Ralphs of California having strong claims.[12] Other contenders included Weingarten's Big Food Markets and Henke & Pillot.[13] To end the debate, the Food Marketing Institute in conjunction with the Smithsonian Institution and with funding from H.J. Heinz, researched the issue. It defined the attributes of a supermarket as "self-service, separate product departments, discount pricing, marketing and volume selling."[citation needed]
It has been determined that the first true supermarket in the United States was opened by a former Kroger employee, Michael J. Cullen, on 4 August 1930, inside a 6,000-square-foot (560 m2) former garage in Jamaica, Queens in New York City.[14] The store, King Kullen, operated under the slogan "Pile it high. Sell it low." At the time of Cullen's death in 1936, there were seventeen King Kullen stores in operation. Although Saunders had brought the world self-service, uniform stores, and nationwide marketing, Cullen built on this idea by adding separate food departments, selling large volumes of food at discount prices and adding a parking lot.
A Safeway advertisement from the 1950s
Other established American grocery chains in the 1930s, such as Kroger and Safeway at first resisted Cullen's idea, but eventually were forced to build their own supermarkets as the economy sank into the Great Depression, while consumers were becoming price-sensitive at a level never experienced before.[15] Kroger took the idea one step further and pioneered the first supermarket surrounded on all four sides by a parking lot.[citation needed]
As larger chain supermarkets began to dominate the market in the USA, able to supply consumers with the desired lower prices as opposed to the smaller "mom and pop" stands with considerably more overhead costs, the backlash of this infrastructure alteration was seen through numerous anti-chain campaigns. The idea of "monopsony," proposed by Cambridge economist Joan Robinson in 1933, that a single buyer could out-power the market of multiple sellers, became a strong anti-chain rhetorical device. With public backlash came political pressure to even the playing field for smaller vendors without the luxuries of economies of scale. In 1936, the Robinson-Patman Act was implemented as a way of preventing such larger chains from using this buying power to reap advantages over smaller stores, although the act was not well enforced and did not have much impact on the prevention of larger chains overtaking power in the markets.[16]
Supermarkets proliferated across Canada and the United States with the growth of automobile ownership and suburban development after World War II. Most North American supermarkets are located in suburban strip shopping centers as an anchor store along. They are generally regional rather than national in their company branding. Kroger is perhaps the most nationally oriented supermarket chain in the United States but it has preserved most of its regional brands, including Ralphs, City Market, King Soopers, Fry's, Smith's, and QFC.[citation needed]
Pyatorochka supermarket in Moscow, Russia
In Canada, the largest such company is Loblaw, which operates stores under a variety of banners targeted to different segments and regions, including Fortinos, Zehrs, No Frills, the Real Canadian Superstore, and Loblaws, the foundation of the company. Sobeys is Canada's second largest supermarket with locations across the country, operating under many banners (Sobeys IGA in Quebec).[citation needed] Québec's first supermarket opened in 1934 in Montréal, under the banner Steinberg's.[17]
In the United Kingdom, self-service shopping took longer to become established. Even in 1947, there were just ten self-service shops in the country.[18] In 1951, ex-US Navy sailor Patrick Galvani, son-in-law of Express Dairies chairman, made a pitch to the board to open a chain of supermarkets across the country. The UK's first supermarket under the new Premier Supermarkets brand opened in Streatham, South London,[19] taking ten times as much per week as the average British general store of the time. Other chains caught on, and after Galvani lost out to Tesco's Jack Cohen in 1960 to buy the 212 Irwin's chain, the sector underwent a large amount of consolidation, resulting in 'the big four' dominant UK of today: Tesco, Asda (owned by Wal-Mart), Sainsbury's and Morrisons.
In the 1950s, supermarkets frequently issued trading stamps as incentives to customers. Today, most chains issue store-specific "membership cards," "club cards," or "loyalty cards". These typically enable the cardholder to receive special members-only discounts on certain items when the credit card-like device is scanned at check-out.[citation needed] Sales of selected data generated by club cards is becoming a significant revenue stream for some supermarkets.
Traditional supermarkets in many countries face intense competition from discounters such as Wal-Mart, and Tesco in the UK, which typically is non-union and operates with better buying power. Other competition exists from warehouse clubs such as Costco that offer savings to customers buying in bulk quantities. Superstores, such as those operated by Wal-Mart and Asda, often offer a wide range of goods and services in addition to foods. The proliferation of such warehouse and superstores has contributed to the continuing disappearance of smaller, local grocery stores; increased dependence on the automobile; suburban sprawl because of the necessity for large floor space and increased vehicular traffic. For example, in 2009 51% of Wal-Mart's $251 Billion domestic sales were recorded from grocery goods.[20] Some critics consider the chains' common practice of selling loss leaders to be anti-competitive. They are also wary of the negotiating power that large, often multinational have with suppliers around the world.[citation needed]
Growth in developing countries[edit]
There has been a rapid transformation of the food sector in developing countries, beginning in the 1990s. This applies particularly to Latin America, South-East Asia, India, China and South Africa. However, growth is being witnessed in nearly all countries. With growth, has come considerable competition and some amount of consolidation.[21] The growth has been driven by increasing affluence and the rise of a middle class; the entry of women into the workforce; with a consequent incentive to seek out easy-to-prepare foods; the growth in the use of refrigerators, making it possible to shop weekly instead of daily; and the growth in car ownership, facilitating journeys to distant stores and purchases of large quantities of goods. The opportunities presented by this potential have encouraged several European companies to invest in these markets (mainly in Asia) and American companies to invest in Latin America and China. Local companies also entered the market.[22] Initial development of supermarkets has now been followed by hypermarket growth. In addition there were investments by companies such as Makro and Metro in large-scale Cash-and-Carry operations.
While the growth in sales of processed foods in these countries has been much more rapid than the growth in fresh food sales, the imperative nature of supermarkets to achieve economies of scale in purchasing means that the expansion of supermarkets in these countries has important repercussions for small farmers, particularly those growing perishable crops. New supply chains have developed involving cluster formation; development of specialized wholesalers; leading farmers organizing supply, and farmer associations or cooperatives.[23] In some cases supermarkets have organized their own procurement from small farmers; in others wholesale markets have adapted to meet supermarket needs.[24]
Typical supermarket merchandise[edit]
Inside an Asda supermarket in Keighley, West Yorkshire
Sainsbury's supermarket checkouts
Fruit on display in a supermarket in Japan
Inside a Serbian supermarket
Larger supermarkets in North America and in Europe typically sell a great number of items among many brands, sizes and varieties, including:
Alcoholic beverages (as state, provincial or local laws allow)
Baby foods and baby-care products such as disposable diapers
Breads and bakery products (many stores may have a bakery on site that offers specialty and dessert items)
Baking needs
Books, newspapers, and magazines, including supermarket tabloids
Bulk dried foods such as legumes, flour, rice, etc. (typically available for self-service)
Canned goods and dried cereals
CDs, audio cassettes, DVDs, and videos (including video rentals)
Cigarettes and other tobacco products (as country, state, provincial or local laws allow)
Confections and candies
Cosmetics
Dairy products and eggs
Delicatessen foods (ready-to-eat)
Diet foods
Dressings and Sauces
Electrical products such as light bulbs, extension cords, etc.
Feminine hygiene products
Financial services and products such as mortgages, credit cards, savings accounts, wire transfers, etc. (typically offered in-store by a partnering bank or other financial institution)
Flowers
Frozen foods and crushed ice
Fresh produce, fruits and vegetables
Greeting cards
House-cleaning products
Housewares, dishware and cooking utensils (typically limited)
Laundry products such as detergents and fabric softeners
Lottery tickets (where operational and legal)
Luggage items (typically limited)
Meats, fish and seafoods (some stores may offer live fish and seafood items from aquarium tanks)
Medicines and first aid items (primarily over-the-counter drugs, although many supermarkets also have an on-site pharmacy) (as laws allow)
Nonalcoholic beverages such as soft drinks, juices, and bottled water (some stores may have a juice bar that prepares ready-to-drink freshly squeezed juices, smoothies, etc.)
Personal hygiene and grooming products
Pet foods and products
Seasonal items and decorations
Snack foods
Tea and coffee (some stores may have a commercial-style grinder, typically available for self-service, or a staffed coffee bar that prepares ready-to-drink coffee and tea beverages)
Toys and novelties
In some countries, the range of supermarket merchandise is more strictly focused on food products, although the range of goods for sale is expanding in many locations as typical store sizes continue to increase globally.[citation needed]
Layout strategies[edit]
A Kroger store, Kroger of the Villages, in Hedwig Village, Texas (Greater Houston)
Most merchandise is already packaged when it arrives at the supermarket. Packages are placed on shelves, arranged in aisles and sections according to type of item. Some items such as fresh produce are in bins. Those requiring an intact cold chain are in temperature-controlled display cases.
While branding and store advertising will differ from company to company, the layout of a supermarket remains virtually unchanged. Although big companies spend time giving consumers a pleasant shopping experience, the design of a supermarket is directly connected to the in-store marketing that supermarkets must conduct in order to get shoppers to spend more money while there.
Every aspect of the store is mapped out and attention is paid to color, wording and even surface texture. The overall layout of a supermarket is a visual merchandising project that plays a major role. Stores can creatively use a layout to alter customers’ perceptions of the atmosphere. Alternatively, they can enhance the store’s atmospherics through visual communications (signs and graphics), lighting, colors, and even scents.[25] For example, to give a sense of the supermarket being healthy, fresh produce is deliberately located at the front of the store. In terms of bakery items, supermarkets usually dedicate 30 to 40 feet of store space to the bread aisle.[26]
Supermarkets are designed to "give each product section a sense of individual difference and this is evident in the design of what is called the anchor departments; fresh produce, dairy, delicatessen, meat and the bakery".[27] Each section has different floor coverings, style, lighting and sometimes even individual services counters to allow shoppers to feel as if there are a number of markets within this one supermarket.[28]
Exterior of a supermarket in Kulim, Kedah, Malaysia.
Marketers use well-researched techniques to try to control purchasing behavior. The layout of a supermarket is considered by some to consist of a few rules of thumb and three layout principles.[29] The high-draw products are placed in separate areas of the store to keep drawing the consumer through the store. High impulse and high margin products are placed in the most predominant areas to grab attention. Power products are placed on both sides of the aisle to create increased product awareness, and end caps are used to receive a high exposure of a certain product whether on special, promotion or in a campaign, or a new line.
The first principle of the layout is circulation. Circulation is created by arranging product so the supermarket can control the traffic flow of the consumer. Along with this path, there will be high-draw, high-impulse items that will influence the consumer to purchase which he or she did not intend. Service areas such as restrooms are placed in a location which draws the consumer past certain products to create extra buys. Necessity items such as bread and milk are found at the rear of the store to increase the start of circulation. Cashiers' desks are placed in a position to promote circulation. The entrance will be on the right-hand side because research has shown that consumers who travel in a counter-clockwise direction spend more.[30]
The second principle of the layout is coordination. Coordination is the organized arrangement of product that promotes sales. Products such as fast-selling and slow-selling lines are placed in strategic positions in aid of the overall sales plan. Managers sometimes place different items in fast-selling places to increase turnover or to promote a new line.
The third principle is consumer convenience. The layout of a supermarket is designed to create a high degree of convenience to the consumer to make the shopping experience pleasant and increase customer spending.[31] This is done through the character of merchandising and product placement. There are many different ideas and theories in relation to layout and how product layout can influence the purchases made. One theory suggests that certain products are placed together or near one another that are of a similar or complementary nature to increase the average customer spend.[32] This strategy is used to create cross-category sales similarity. In other words, the toothpaste is next to or adjacent the toothbrushes and the tea and coffee are down the same aisle as the sweet biscuits. These products complement one another and placing them near is one-way marketers try to increase purchases.[32] For vertical placement, cheap generic brands tend to be on the lowest shelves, products appealing to children are placed at the mid-thigh level, and the most profitable brands are placed at eye level.[31]
The fourth principle is the use of color psychology, and the locations of the food. Even fast food restaurants use colors to draw in customers to get a chain returning consumers. [33], “A mainstay at fast-food restaurants, yellow evokes energy and increases appetite, perhaps explaining why your stomach may start to growl when you pass those golden arches.” These stores use the colors yellow or red to make the consumers feel happy, hungry and evokes energy. Most restaurants and super markets use these colors on their entire logo’s such as, Food 4 Less, Ralph’s, Habit Burger Grill, or McDonalds. Supermarket’s place all the junk food in the front to make you want to buy all that food. Their goal is to make you fill up your cart more than you have expected it to be. Throughout the years shopping carts have been made larger so that customers fill up their carts with more food. The layout of the supermarket also allows the customer to buy more groceries. Supermarkets put out their “tasty food” in the front to make you hungry and to make you want more and become addicted to it by make it affordable.
Consumer psychologists suggest that most buyers tend to enter the store and shop to their right first.[34] Some supermarkets, therefore, choose to place the entrance to the left-hand side as the consumer will likely turn right upon entry, and this allows the consumer to do a full anticlockwise circle around the store before returning to the checkouts. This suggests that supermarket marketers should use this theory to their advantage by placing their temporary displays of products on the right-hand side to entice you to make an unplanned purchase. Furthermore, aisle ends are extremely popular with product manufacturers, who pay top dollar to have their products located there.[35] These aisle ends are used to lure customers into making a snap purchase and to also entice them to shop down the aisle. The most obvious place supermarket layout influences consumers are at the checkout. Small displays of chocolates, magazines, and drinks are located at each checkout to tempt shoppers while they wait to be served.[34]
Criticisms[edit]
The large scale of supermarkets, while often improving cost and efficiency for customers, can place significant economic pressure on suppliers and smaller shopkeepers.[36][37][38][39][40]
Supermarkets often generate considerable food waste, although modern technologies such as biomethanation units may be able to process the waste into an economical source of energy.[41][42][43]
See also[edit]
List of grocers
Types of retail outlets
Farmers' market
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Meyer, Zlati (5 April 2017). "Why 'Grocerants' are the new trend, taking bite out of restaurants". USA Today. Retrieved 6 April 2017. The phenomenon is growing fast enough both in prevalence and sophistication that the food industry has coined a name for these combination grocery stores and eateries – the 'grocerant.'
Jump up ^ "Supermarket security system supplier". Dragon Guard Inc. Retrieved 10 January 2018. [not in citation given]
Jump up ^ "Opening of the Astor market, New York City, 1915". Library of Congress.
Jump up ^ "The Retailer". The Western Fruit Jobber. IV (3). July 1917.
Jump up ^ Gray, Christopher (10 September 2006). "The Astor Legacy in Brick and Stone". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Gray, Christopher (5 July 1987). "Streetscapes: Thalia Theater; a closed revival house that may itself be revived". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ CLARENCE SAOTTDEBS, CLARENCE SAOTTDEBS
Jump up ^ Patent US1407680 - CLARENCE SAUNDERS - Google Patents
Jump up ^ Patent US1704061 - OP MEMPHIS - Google Patents
Jump up ^ Patent US1647889 - PORATION - Google Patents
Jump up ^ , Strasser, Susan Never Done: A History of American Housework Holt Paperbacks, 2000.
Jump up ^ Ralphs Grocery Company: Groceteria.com | Supermarket History
Jump up ^ Supermarket News, 29 August 2005, p. 10
Jump up ^ Anonymous, "The place where supermarketing was born," Mass Market Retailers 19, no. 9 (17 June 2002): 172.
Jump up ^ Ryan Mathews, "1926–1936: Entrepreneurs and Enterprise: A Look at Industry Pioneers like King Kullen and J. Frank Grimes, and the Institution They Created (Special Report: Social Change & the Supermarket)," Progressive Grocer 75, no. 12 (December 1996): 39–43.
Jump up ^ Hamilton, Shane Supermarkets, Free markets, and the Problem of Buying Power in the Postwar United States, in What's Good For Business: Business and Politics Since World War II, ed. Julian Zelizer and Kim Phillips-Fein (Oxford University Press, 2012).
Jump up ^ "Steinberg Inc". The Canadian Encyclopedia
Jump up ^ Hamlett, Jane (April 2008). "Regulating UK supermarkets: an oral-history perspective". History & Policy. United Kingdom: History & Policy. Retrieved 9 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Helen Gregory (2001-11-03). "It's a super anniversary: it's 50 years since the first full size self-service supermarket was unveiled in the UK". The Grocer. Archived from the original on 2012-07-08. Retrieved 2010-06-30.
Jump up ^ Csipak, James J., Rohit Rampal, and Laurent Josien. "The Effect Of A Wal-Mart Supercenter On Supermarket Food Prices: The Case Of The City Of Plattsburgh In Upstate New York." Academy Of Marketing Studies Journal 2 (2014): 251. Academic OneFile. Web. 5 Nov. 2015.
Jump up ^ Thomas Reardon, Peter Timmer and Julio Berdegue, 2004. "The rapid rise of supermarkets in developing countries". Journal of Agricultural and Development Economics, Vol 1 No 2.
Jump up ^ Reardon et al, op cit
Jump up ^ Kevin Chen, Andrew W. Shepherd & Carlos A. da Silva, "Changes in food retailing in Asia".
Jump up ^ Andrew W. Shepherd and Eva Gálvez. "The response of traditional marketing channels to the growth of supermarkets and to the demand for safer and higher quality fruit and vegetables, with particular reference to Asia". Proceedings of the International Symposium on Fresh Produce Supply Chain Management, Chiang Mai 2006. pp. 304–313. FAO, Bangkok.[1]
Jump up ^ Gajanayake, R., Gajanayake, S., Surangi, H 2011, "The impact of selected visual merchandising techniques on patronage intentions in supermarkets", International Conference on Business and Economic Research, p. 1130–1165
Jump up ^ NACS Magazine | Category Close Up: Take Bread to the Bank
Jump up ^ Browne, Karen (April 2010). "Trolley Psychology: Choice unlocks the psychological secrets of the supermarket and shows you how to avoid spending more than you mean to". Australian Consumer's Association Choice Magazine (4): 60.
Jump up ^ 2 Browne, K 2010, "Trolley Psychology: Choice unlocks the psychological secrets of the supermarket and shows you how to avoid spending more than you mean to", Choice, Australasian Consumers' Association, Chippendale, NSW, Australia, no. 4, April, p60, retrieved 14 October, Expanded Academic Database
Jump up ^ Aghazedah, S 2005, "Layout strategies for some of the operations", Management Research News, vol. 28, no. 10, pp. 31–46, retrieved 8 May 2012, Business Source Complete, EBSCO host.
Jump up ^ , Browne, p. 60.
^ Jump up to: a b Park, Michael Y. (30 October 2014). "How to Buy Food: The Psychology of the Supermarket". Bon Appetit. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Bezawada, R Balachander, S Kannan, PK Venkatesh, S 2009, "Cross-Category Effects of Aisle and Display Placements: A Spatial Modeling Approach and Insights", Journal of Marketing, vol. 73, no. 3, pp. 99–117, 3 May 2012, Business Source Complete.
Jump up ^ Simple, By Yelena Moroz Alpert, Real. "How color affects your spending - CNN". CNN. Retrieved 2018-03-03.
^ Jump up to: a b Browne, K 2012, "Trolley Psychology: Choice Unlocks the Psychological Secrets of the Supermarket and Shows You How to Avoid Spending More Than You Mean To", Choice, no. 4, p. 60, 3 May 2012, expanded academic database.
Jump up ^ Browne, 2010
Jump up ^ Bucklin, Louis P. (November 1967). "Competitive Impact of a New Supermarket". Journal of Marketing Research. 4 (4): 356–361. doi:10.2307/3149873.
Jump up ^ "Senate takes look at slotting fees". Associated Press. 15 September 1999.
Jump up ^ "Unfair trading practices / supply chain". European Economic and Social Committee. 11 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "Ten Reasons Supermarket Mergers Are Bad for Consumers" (Press release). Friends of the Earth. 13 January 2003. Archived from the original on 5 April 2004. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
Jump up ^ "Growers demand inquiry, ombudsman sought". TVNZ. 5 July 2010. Archived from the original on 8 July 2010. CS1 maint: Unfit url (link)
Jump up ^ Mukherjee SN, Kumar S (December 2007). "Leachate from market refuse and biomethanation study". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 135 (1): 49–53. doi:10.1007/s10661-007-9703-5. PMID 17505906.
Jump up ^ Colruyt Belgium already using biomethanation units in Halle and Gellingen
Jump up ^ "Biomethanation" (PDF). Asia Biomass Handbook. Japan Institute of Energy. 2008.
Further reading[edit]
Petroski, Henry (November–December 2005). "Shopping by Design". American Scientist 93 (6): 491.
William Greer, America the Bountiful: How the Supermarket Came to Main Street, Food Marketing Institute, 1986. ISBN 999925568X OCLC 14357784
Sowell, Thomas. Basic Economics (Third Edition, 2007 Basic Books). Pages 92–94 describe the competition between the dominant grocery chains in the United States through the 20th century and beyond.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Supermarkets.
Food Stories – Explore a century of revolutionary change in UK food culture on the British Library's Food Stories website
groceteria.com – supermarket history and architecture from the 1920s to the 1970s
Scrambling for customers, 4 August 2005, San Francisco Chronicle
Supermarket News – Nationally circulated weekly trade magazine for the food distribution industry.
Supermarket (store) at Encyclopædia Britannica
Authority control
GND: 4058631-5
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text:
Seat belt legislation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Seat belt legislation requires the fitting of seat belts to motor vehicles and the wearing of seat belts by motor vehicle occupants. Laws requiring the fitting of seat belts to cars have in some cases been followed by laws mandating their use, with the effect that thousands of deaths on the road have been prevented. Different laws apply in different countries to the wearing of seat belts.
Contents
[hide]
1 National comparisons
1.1 Australia
1.2 Canada
1.3 United Kingdom
1.4 United States
1.5 Developing countries
2 Effects
3 Opposition
3.1 Risk compensation and other theories
3.2 Individual liberty
3.3 Side-effects of seat belts
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References and further reading
National comparisons[edit]
Australia[edit]
In Australia, after the introduction of mandatory front outboard mounting points in 1964, the use of seat belts by all vehicle passengers was made compulsory in the states of Victoria and South Australia in 1970 and 1971, respectively.[1] By 1973, the use of fitted seat belts by vehicle occupants was made compulsory for the rest of Australia and some other countries during the 1970s and 1980s. The subsequent dramatic decline in road deaths is generally because of seat belt laws and subsequent road safety campaigns.[2][3][4] Seat belts are not required for bus occupants, reversing drivers, and those driving some slow moving vehicles. The laws for these differ depending on the state or territory with jurisdiction.
Canada[edit]
Main article: Seat belt legislation in Canada
All provinces in Canada have primary enforcement seat belt laws. In 1976, Ontario was the first province to pass a law which required vehicle occupants to wear seat belts.[5]
United Kingdom[edit]
In the United Kingdom, seat belts must be worn at all times if they are fitted to a vehicle unless reversing. Passengers may be exempt from wearing a seat belt for different reasons. Since September 18, 2006, children travelling in the UK must also use an appropriate child seat in addition to the standard seat belt, unless they are 12 years old and/or have reached at least 135 centimetres (53 in) in height.[6]
In the UK, a requirement for anchorage points was introduced in 1965, followed by the requirement in 1968 to fit three-point belts in the front outboard positions on all new cars and all existing cars back to 1965.[citation needed] Successive UK Governments proposed, but failed to deliver, seat belt legislation throughout the 1970s. Front seat belts were compulsory equipment on all new cars registered in the UK from 1972, although it did not become compulsory for them to be worn until 1983. Rear seat belts were compulsory equipment from 1986 and became compulsory for them to be worn in 1991. However, it has never been a legal requirement for cars registered before those dates to be fitted with seat belts.[7] In one such attempt in 1979 similar claims for potential lives and injuries saved were advanced. William Rodgers, then Secretary of State for Transport in the Callaghan Labour Government (1976–1979), stated: "On the best available evidence of accidents in this country - evidence which has not been seriously contested - compulsion could save up to 1000 lives and 10,000 injuries a year."[8]
United States[edit]
Main article: Seat belt legislation in the United States
Seat belt use by type of law in the US, 2008
In the United States, seat belt legislation varies by state. The state of Wisconsin introduced legislation in 1961 requiring seat belts to be fitted to the front outboard seat positions of cars.[9] Seat belts have been mandatory equipment since the 1968 model year per Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 208.
New York State passed the first law in the US mandating the use of seat belts in 1984 under the leadership of John D. States, an orthopedic surgeon who dedicated his career to improving automotive safety.[10] Depending on which state a driver is in, not wearing a seat belt in the front seat is either a primary offense or a secondary offense, with the exception of New Hampshire, which does not have a law requiring people over age 18 to wear a seat belt. In the front seat, the driver and each passenger must wear a seat belt, one person per belt. In some states, such as New York, New Hampshire, and Michigan, belts in the rear seats are not mandatory for people over the age of 16, though it is extremely advised. The driver and front-seat passengers aged 16 or older can be fined up to $50 each for failure to buckle up. In California, you must be 15 years or older to accompany the driver in the front seat. Children 14 and younger must sit in the rear seat until they reach the age of 15.Template:DMV.org
Seat belt use by sex, age, and type of law in the US, 2008
A primary offense means that a police officer can pull a driver over for the seat belt law violation alone, and secondary offense indicates that one can be punished for a seat belt law violation only if they are already pulled over for another reason. By January 2007 25 states and the District of Columbia had primary seat belt laws, 24 had secondary seat belt laws, and New Hampshire had no laws.[11] In 2009, Public Health Law Research published several evidence briefs summarizing the research assessing the effect of a specific law or policy on public health. One stated, "Safety belt laws work, but there is strong evidence to support that primary enforcement safety belt laws are more effective than secondary enforcement laws in increasing seat belt use and reducing crash injuries."[12]
Another found that "there is strong evidence that enhanced seat belt enforcement interventions can substantially increase seat belt use and its associated benefits."[13]
Developing countries[edit]
In many developing countries, pedestrians, cyclists, rickshaw operators and moped users represent the majority of road users.
In India, all cars manufactured after March 25, 1994 are equipped with front seat belts. The rule was extended for rear seats in 2002. The usage of seat belts is to be implemented by the respective states, with most states making seat belt usage for front seat passengers mandatory in 2002. Older vehicles that did not originally have seat belts were exempted. However, enforcement is weak in most parts of the country.
In Indonesia, belts are only mandatory for front seats. Many low entry car models are not equipped with rear seat belts.[14]
In Malaysia, the first stage of safety belt laws was implemented in 1979. This was expanded in January 2009 to include rear passengers. Passenger vehicles registered prior to January 1, 1995, and those weighing more than 3.5 tons are exempted from this rule. The third and fourth stages, which will deal with baby and child seats and the number of passengers in a vehicle, have not taken effect.[15]
In the Philippines, a seat belt law, Republic Act No. 8750, was approved in August 5, 1999. The law took effect in 2000 and requires all public and private vehicles, except motorcycles and tricycles, to have their front seats equipped with seat belts. Front seats as defined by the law includes the first row of seats behind the driver for public utility buses. Those below the age of six are prohibited to occupy the front seats of motor vehicles even if wearing a seat belt. Jeepneys are only required lap belts for the front seat passengers and the driver.[16][17]
The table below gives an overview of when seat belt legislation was first introduced in different countries. It includes both regional and national legislation.
Country
Compulsory wearing
Compulsory fitting
Source
Cars
Bus passengers
Cars
Buses
Driver
Front passengers
Rear passengers
Argentina 1994 1994 1994 (First row only, all in school buses) [18]
Australia 1970 (Victoria) 1971 (NSW) 1972 (national) 1986 (child restraints) 1969, 1970 (back seat, Victoria) 1971 (back seat) 1983 (≤3.5 tonnes) [19][20]
Canada 1976
Czech Republic 1966 (outside cities)
1990 (all) 1976
1990 2004 1968 [21]
European Union 1993 [22]
Finland 1975 1982 1987 2006
France 1973 (outside cities), 1975 (cities at night), 1979 (all) 1990 2003 1967, 1978 (back seat) 2003 [22]
[23]
Germany 1976 1984 1999 1970, 1979 (back seat) 1999 Angurtpflicht
Hungary 1976 1993 [19]
Hong Kong 1983 1983 1996 2004 (minibuses) 1996 (back seat) 2004 (minibuses)
[24]
India 1994 (front seats), 2002 (rear seats)
Ireland 1979 1992 1971 (front seats), 1992 (rear seats) [25]
Italy 1989 1990 (where available)‡ 2006‡ 1988 (new vehicles); 1989 (all*, front seats); 1990 (new vehicles, back seats); 2000 (all*, back seats) 2006 [26]
Japan 1971† (1985) 1971 (no fines), 1985 (fines on freeway), 1993 (all) 2008 2008 1969 [22]
Myanmar 2017 2017 2017 2016 (motorway buses enforced)
Netherlands 1976 1992 1975 (front) 1990 (rear)
New Zealand 1972 1972 (15 years and over), 1979 (8 years and over) 1989♣ 1972 (vehicles registered after 1965), 1975 (after 1955) [27]
Philippines 2000 (those below 6 years prohibited to occupy front seats) 2000 (first row beside the driver's seat only) 2000 [28]
Singapore 1973 1973 1993 2008 (small buses) 1973
Spain 1975
Sri Lanka 2011 2011
Sweden 1975 1986 1969 (front) 1970 (rear) 2004 [22][29]
Thailand 1996 2009
United Kingdom 1983 1991 2006 1967 (front) 1987 (rear) [30]
United States 1984 (New York; seat belt use law is jurisdiction of individual states) Wisconsin, 1961. Federally, front lap 1965 model year; front shoulder & rear lap 1968; 3-point front 1974 [22]
* - actually only vehicles registered after 15 June 1976; in previous registered vehicles fitting is optional
† - required by the law, but no penalty for violation at the time
‡ - required by the law, but low enforcement
♣ - definitely introduced by this date, possibly earlier
Effects[edit]
Lives saved by seat belts and airbags in the United States (1991–2001)
Studies by road safety authorities conclude that seat belt legislation has reduced the number of casualties in road accidents.
Experiments using both crash test dummies and human cadavers also indicated that wearing seat belts should lead to reduced risk of death and injury in car crashes.
Studies of accident outcomes suggest that fatality rates among car occupants are reduced by between 30 and 50 percent if seat belts are worn. The US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) estimates that death risks for a driver wearing a lap-shoulder seat belt are reduced by 48 percent. The same study indicated that in 2007, an estimated 15,147 lives were saved by seat belts in the United States and that if seat belt use were increased to 100 percent, an additional 5024 lives would have been saved.[31]
An earlier statistical analysis by the NHTSA claimed that seat belts save over 10,000 lives every year in the US.[32]
According to a more recent fact sheet produced by the NHTSA:
"In 2012, seat belts saved an estimated 12,174 lives among passenger vehicle occupants 5 and older. [...] Research has found that lap/shoulder seat belts, when used, reduce the risk of fatal injury to front-seat passenger car occupants by 45% and the risk of moderate-to-critical injury by 50%. [...] Research on the effectiveness of child safety seats has found them to reduce the risk of fatal injury by 71% for infants (younger than 1 year old) and by 54% for toddlers (1 to 4 years old) in passenger cars." [33]
By 2009, despite large increases in population and the number of vehicles, road deaths in Victoria had fallen below 300, less than a third of the 1970 level, the lowest since records were kept, and far below the per capita rate in jurisdictions such as the United States. This reduction was generally attributed to aggressive road safety campaigns beginning with the seat belt laws.[34][35]
A 2008 study in the Journal of Health Economics found that mandatory seat belt laws in the U.S. "significantly increased seatbelt use among high school age youths by 45-80%" and "significantly reduced traffic fatalities and serious injuries resulting from fatal crashes by 8 and 9%, respectively."[36] The authors note that these "results suggest that if all states had primary enforcement seatbelt laws then regular youth seatbelt use would be nearly universal and youth fatalities would fall by about 120 per year."[36]
Opposition[edit]
A number of groups and individuals are opposed to seat belt legislation. The most common grounds for opposition are:
The view that laws requiring the wearing of seat belts are an infringement of individual liberty.
Claims that official estimates of the number of lives saved by seat belts are overstated or fail to take into account additional risks for other road users.
Risk compensation and other theories[edit]
The most common basis for disputing estimates of the benefits of seat belts is risk compensation and risk homeostasis, advanced by researchers John Adams and Gerald Wilde. The idea of this theory is that, if the risk of death or injury from a car crash is reduced by the wearing of seat belts, drivers will respond by reducing the precautions they take against crashes.
Along with many others[who?], Adams accepts the hypothesis that wearing seat belts improves a vehicle occupant’s chances of surviving a crash.[37]
In order to explain the disparity between the agreed improvement in crash survival and the observed results, Adams and Wilde argue that protecting someone from the consequences of risky behaviour may tend to encourage greater risk taking. Wilde states, "to compel a person to use protection from the consequences of hazardous driving, as seat belt laws do, is to encourage hazardous driving. A fine for non-compliance will encourage seat belt use, but the fact that the law fails to increase people's desire to be safe encourages compensatory behaviour." [38]
Studies and experiments have been carried out to examine the risk compensation theory. In one experiment subjects were asked to drive go-karts around a track under various conditions. It was found that subjects who started driving belted did not drive any slower when subsequently unbelted, but those who started driving unbelted did drive consistently faster when subsequently belted.[39] A study of habitual non-seat belt wearers driving in freeway conditions found evidence that they had adapted to seat belt use by adopting higher driving speeds and closer following distances.[40] In another study, taxi drivers who were habitual non-wearers were timed over a route with passengers who did, and others who did not, insist on the driver wearing a belt. They completed the route faster when belted.[41]
In addition to risk compensation, Adams has suggested other mechanisms that may lead to inaccurate or unsupportable predictions of positive benefits from seat belt legislation.
Case-control studies based on voluntary use of safety aids can attribute to the aid benefits that actually come from the risk-averse nature of those likely to use them voluntarily (confounding), particularly early adopters.
Fatality rates are subject to considerable stochastic noise, and comparison of single years or short periods can be misleading.
Individual liberty[edit]
Opponents have objected to the laws on libertarian principles.[42] Some do so on the grounds that seat belt laws infringe on their civil liberties. They argue[where?] that not wearing seat belts is a victimless crime as the only person harmed is the one making that decision for himself about his own life.
The counterpoint to the libertarian view toward seat belt laws is that mandatory usage may reduce injuries and deaths (while possibly increasing the number of accidents) but also reduces the economic cost to society.[citation needed] Another notable scenario is of rear-seated passengers being forced forward in a crash and thus inadvertently harming the driver or front passenger. A University of Wisconsin study demonstrated that car accident victims who had not worn seat belts cost the hospital (and the state, in the case of the uninsured) on average 25% more.[43]
Side-effects of seat belts[edit]
Neck injuries can be caused by the deceleration from a high speed. The passengers head continues to move forward while the body is restrained, potentially causing paralyzing injuries. A study of such injuries notes, "Seatbelts save lives. However, they may cause injury to adjacent structures and when they malfunction can cause injury to the abdominal viscera, bony skeleton and vascular structures. The motor industry has attempted to reduce these injuries by modification of vehicle design and safety equipment."[44]
See also[edit]
Car accident
Click It or Ticket
Clunk Click Every Trip
Road safety
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "A Potted Seat Belt History". Drivers Technology.
Jump up ^ Milne, P.W. "Fitting and Wearing of Seat Belts in Australia: The history of a successful countermeasureA" (PDF). February, 1985. Department of Transport; Federal Office of Road Safety, Australian Government Publishing Service. Retrieved 15 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Helena Webb (15 August 2006). "Loose belts lose lives". Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
Jump up ^ 2005 Regulatory Impact Statement - Seat belt legislation amendments
Jump up ^ "Seatbelts Saving Lives In Ontario For 35 Years" (Press release). Ministry of Transportation, Ontario. December 2010.
Jump up ^ "Wearing a seat belt and exemptions". Directgov.
Jump up ^ "RoSPA History - How Belting Up Became Law". RoSPA. Retrieved 2012-08-02.
Jump up ^ "RoSPA History - How Belting Up Became Law" (PDF). john adams.
Jump up ^ "The History of Seat Belt Development". School Transportation News. STN Media Group. Retrieved 2011-06-20.
Jump up ^ Click it or ticket
Jump up ^ "Most Wanted". National Transportation Safety Board.
Jump up ^ "Primary Enforcement of Safety Belt Laws". Public Health Law Research. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. December 7, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Enhanced Enforcement of Safety Belt Laws". Public Health Law Research. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. 2009.
Jump up ^ "Indonesia". US Department of State. Retrieved 2012-10-02.
Jump up ^ "All must belt up in MPVs". The Star. 29 December 2008. Retrieved 1 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "Republic Act No. 8750". LAWPHiL. Eleventh Congress of the Philippines. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Crisostomo, Sheila (1 May 2000). "Seat Belt Law takes effect today". The Philippine Star. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
Jump up ^ (in Spanish) National Law Nº26,687 - Article 30 A, Article 40 K and Article 55
^ Jump up to: a b https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00022331.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/roads/safety/publications/1985/pdf/Belt_Analysis_4.pdf
Jump up ^ http://aplikace.mvcr.cz/archiv2008/sbirka/1966/sb35-66.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b c d e http://www.stnonline.com/stn/occupantrestraint/seatbelthistory/
Jump up ^ http://www.ladocfrancaise.gouv.fr/dossier_actualite/securite_routiere/chronologie.shtml
Jump up ^ http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/199901/27/0127119.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/travel_and_recreation/roads_and_safety/seatbelts_when_motoring_in_ireland.html
Jump up ^ http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie_generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario;jsessionid=an4pS+wPCztq+ANf1oUxlw__.ntc-as2-guri2a?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta=1988-04-11&atto.codiceRedazionale=088G0149&elenco30giorni=false
Jump up ^ http://www.transport.govt.nz/assets/NewPDFs/Legislation-2006.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1999/ra_8750_1999.html
Jump up ^ http://www.umu.se/dsps/surgery/personal/personal_kirurgi/OAG%20rapport%20124.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.rospa.com/about/history/seatbelt-history.aspx RoSPA
Jump up ^ "Lives Saved Calculations for Seat Belts and Frontal Air Bags" (PDF). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. December 2009. Retrieved 21 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Glassbrenner, Donna. "Estimating The Lives Saved By Safety Belts and Air Bags" (PDF). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Retrieved 21 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "Traffic Safety Facts - 2012 Data - Occupant Protection" (PDF). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Retrieved 21 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Sexton, Reid (27 December 2009). "Victoria's road toll at record low". theage.com.au. Retrieved 21 November 2010.
Jump up ^ Lucas, Clay (9 July 2010). "How low can we go?". theage.com.au. Retrieved 21 November 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Carpenter, Christopher S.; Stehr, Mark (2008-05-01). "The effects of mandatory seatbelt laws on seatbelt use, motor vehicle fatalities, and crash-related injuries among youths". Journal of Health Economics. 27 (3): 642–662. ISSN 0167-6296. PMID 18242744. doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2007.09.010.
Jump up ^ John Adams (2006). "The Failure of Seat Belt Legislation" (PDF). John Adams. Retrieved 2010-03-04. (primary source)
Jump up ^ Wilde GJS (1994). Target Risk. Toronto: PDE Publications. ISBN 0-9699124-0-4.
Jump up ^ Streff FM; Geller ES (August 1988). "An experimental test of risk compensation: between-subject versus within-subject analyses". Accident Analysis and Prevention. 20 (4): 277–87. PMID 3415759. doi:10.1016/0001-4575(88)90055-3.
Jump up ^ Janssen W (April 1994). "Seat belt wearing and driving behaviour: An instrumented-vehicle study". Accident Analysis and Prevention. 26 (2): 249–2. PMID 8198694. doi:10.1016/0001-4575(94)90095-7.
Jump up ^ Wilde GJS (1994). Target Risk (1st ed.). ISBN 0-9699124-0-4.
Jump up ^ Jeff Jacoby (August 25, 1994). "Unbuckling the Voters" (Op-Ed). Boston Globe.
Jump up ^ Marion Ceraso; Keri Frisch; Stephen Hargarten; Timothy Corden (September 2006). "Primary Enforcement of Seatbelt Laws: A Means for Decreasing Injuries, Deaths and Crash-Related Costs in Wisconsin?" (PDF). University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health.
Jump up ^ Smith, J. E. (2005). Injuries caused by seatbelt - Trauma. tra.sagepub.com. pp. Vol. 7, No. 4, 211–215. Retrieved 21 November 2010.
References and further reading[edit]
John Adams (1995). Risk. Routledge. ISBN 1-85728-068-7.
Wilde G.S. Target Risk PDE Publications, 1994
The Isles report "Seat belt savings: Implications of European Statistics", UK DoT, 1981, Sourced from Death on the Streets, Cars and the Mythology of Road Safety by Robert Davis, Leading Edge Press, North Yorkshire UK, 1992 and "Report questions whether seat belts save lives" by M. Hamer, New Scientist, 7 February 1985 p7
Evaluation of Automobile Safety Regulations: The case of Compulsory Seat Belt Legislation in Australia. by J.A.C. Coneybeare, Policy Sciences 12:27-39, 1980
Compulsory Seat Belt Use: Further Inferences, by P. Hurst Accident Analysis and Prevention., Vol 11: 27-33, 1979
Wilde G. S. Risk Homeostasis and Traffic Accidents Propositions, Deductions and Discussion of Dissension in Recent Reactions, Ergonomics 1988 Vol, 31, 4:439
Methodological Issues in Testing the Hypothesis of Risk Compensation by Brian Dulisse, Accident Analysis and Prevention Vol. 25 (5): 285-292, 1997
RS 255 The initial impact of seat belt legislation in Ireland by R. Hearne, An Foras Forbatha, Dublin, 1981
The efficacy of seat belt legislation: A comparative study of road accident fatality statistics from 18 countries, by J. Adams. Department of Geography University College, London 1981
Casualty Reductions, Whose Problem? By F. West-Oram, Traffic Engineering and Control, September 1990
The Puzzle of Seat Belts Explained, Press Release of the Annual Conference of the British Psychological Society, April 1999
Reconsidering the effects of seat belt Laws and Their Enforcement Status by T.S. Dee Accident Analysis and Prevention., Vol 30(1): 1-10, 1998

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