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Media cross-ownership in the United States
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Media cross-ownership is the ownership of multiple media businesses by a person or corporation. These businesses can include broadcast and cable television, film, radio, newspaper, magazine, book publishing, music, video games, and various online entities. Much of the debate over concentration of media ownership in the United States has for many years focused specifically on the ownership of broadcast stations, cable stations, newspapers and websites.
Contents
[hide]
1 Owners of American media
1.1 Others of note
2 History of FCC regulations
2.1 Communications Act of 1934
2.2 Cross ownership rules of 1975
2.3 Telecommunications Act 1996
2.4 Since 2000
2.5 UHF discount
3 Local content
4 Media consolidation debate
4.1 Robert W. McChesney
4.2 Benjamin Compaine
4.2.1 American public distrust in the media
5 See also
6 References
Owners of American media[edit]
Over time the amount of media merging has increased and the number of media outlets have increased. That translates to fewer companies owning more media outlets, increasing the concentration of ownership.[1] In 1983, 90% of US media was controlled by 50 companies; today, 90% is controlled by just 5 companies.[2]
Company[3]
Media Outlets
Revenues
Comcast Holdings include: NBCUniversal, NBC and Telemundo, Universal Pictures, Illumination Entertainment, Focus Features, DreamWorks Animation, 26 television stations in the United States and cable networks USA Network, Bravo, CNBC, The Weather Channel, MSNBC, Syfy, NBCSN, Golf Channel, Esquire Network, E!, Chiller, Universal HD and NBC Sports Regional Networks. Comcast also owns the Philadelphia Flyers through a separate subsidiary.
See: List of assets owned by Comcast.
US$80.40 billion (2016)[4]
The Walt Disney Company Holdings include: ABC Television Network, cable networks ESPN, the Disney Channel, Disney XD, Freeform, History, A&E and Lifetime, approximately 30 radio stations, music, video game, and book publishing companies, production companies Touchstone, Marvel Entertainment, Lucasfilm, Walt Disney Pictures, Pixar Animation Studios, mobile app developer Disney Mobile, Disney Consumer Products and Interactive Media, and theme parks in several countries. Also has a longstanding partnership with Hearst Corporation, which owns additional TV stations, newspapers, magazines, and stakes in several Disney television ventures.
See: List of assets owned by Disney.
US$55.13 billion (2017)[5]
Time Warner Formerly the largest media conglomerate in the world, with holdings including: CNN, The CW (a joint venture with CBS), HBO, Cinemax, Cartoon Network/Adult Swim, HLN, NBA TV, TBS, TNT, TruTV, Turner Classic Movies, Warner Bros. Pictures, Castle Rock, DC Comics, Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment, and New Line Cinema.
See: List of assets owned by Time Warner.
US$29.32 billion (2016)[6]
21st Century Fox Holdings include: the Fox Broadcasting Company, cable networks Fox News Channel, Fox Business Network, Fox Sports 1, Fox Sports 2, National Geographic, Nat Geo Wild, FX, FXX, FX Movie Channel, MyNetworkTV and the regional Fox Sports Networks ; film production companies 20th Century Fox, Fox Searchlight Pictures and Blue Sky Studios.
See: List of assets owned by 21st Century Fox
US$27.32 billion (2016)[7]
National Amusements (CBS) Holdings include: CBS Television Network and the CW (a joint venture with Time Warner), cable networks CBS Sports Network, Showtime, Pop; 30 television stations; Entercom, owner of hundreds of radio stations; CBS Television Studios; book publisher Simon & Schuster.
(Viacom) Holdings include: MTV, Nickelodeon/Nick at Nite, TV Land, VH1, BET, CMT, Comedy Central, Logo TV, Paramount Network, Paramount Pictures, and Paramount Home Media Distribution.
see: List of assets owned by CBS, List of assets owned by Viacom.
US$27.15 billion[citation needed]
*Although Viacom and CBS Corporation have been separate companies since 2006, and Entercom nominally acquired CBS's radio assets in 2017, all three are partially owned subsidiaries of the private National Amusements company, headed by Sumner Redstone. As such, Paramount Home Media Distribution handles DVD/Blu-ray distribution for most of the CBS Corporation library.
The former News Corporation was split into two separate companies on June 28, 2013, with publishing assets and Australian media assets going to New News Corp, and broadcasting and media assets going to 21st Century Fox. Both companies remain under the control of Rupert Murdoch[8] In 2018, most of 21st Century Fox, with the exception of its broadcast licenses and news and sports assets, will be sold to The Walt Disney Company.[9]
Others of note[edit]
Advance Publications (family of S.I. Newhouse)
Owns American City Business Journals, magazine and digital publisher Condé Nast (which publishes 20 national magazines), and a chain of local newspapers and regional news websites. The company also holds stakes in cable television provider Charter (which operates the Spectrum News and Spectrum Sports regional cable channels), and Discovery Communications.
Alphabet
Owns the search engine Google, video sharing site YouTube, proprietary rights to the open-source Android operating system, blog hosting site Blogger, Gmail e-mail service, and numerous other online media and software outlets.
American Media, Inc.
Owns all of the major supermarket tabloids in the U.S.: the National Enquirer, Star Magazine, Globe Magazine, National Examiner, and Radar Online.
AT&T Inc.
Owner of DirecTV, who in turn, owns Audience Network (an entertainment channel exclusive to AT&T-owned television providers), the AT&T SportsNet group of regional sports networks, and a stake in Game Show Network. AT&T has also declared its intent to acquire Time Warner. A previous incarnation of AT&T held a monopoly on telephone service in most of the U.S. until it was forcibly broken up in 1984.
Jeff Bezos
Owns The Washington Post, holds a minority stake in Alphabet, and presides over multimedia and e-commerce megalith Amazon.com.
Cumulus Media
Owns the former assets of Westwood One (which includes Transtar Radio Networks and Mutual Broadcasting System), Jones Radio Networks, Waitt Radio Networks, Satellite Music Network (all of the major satellite music radio services intended for relay through terrestrial stations), most of ABC's radio network offerings and stations, Watermark Inc., a significant number of radio stations ranging from small to large markets, and distribution rights to CBS Radio News and National Football League radio broadcasts.
Discovery Communications
Owns a number of major U.S. cable networks dedicated primarily to factual, non-fiction programming, including Discovery Channel, TLC, and Animal Planet. The company also owns a variety of spin-off networks, including Science and Velocity, and has a major presence in Europe with localized versions of its U.S. brands, as well as the pan-European sports service Eurosport.
James L. Dolan
Controls AMC Networks (AMC, IFC, SundanceTV, WeTV, as well as 49.98% of BBC America), The Madison Square Garden Company (major sports teams New York Rangers, New York Knicks and a minority stake in radio station owner Townsquare Media), and MSG Networks. Dolan's family members also own the Cleveland Indians and the newspaper Newsday, and preside over News 12 Networks.
Gannett Company
Owns the national newspaper USA Today. Its largest non-national newspaper is The Arizona Republic in Phoenix, Arizona. Other significant newspapers include The Indianapolis Star, The Cincinnati Enquirer, The Tennessean in Nashville, Tennessee, The Courier-Journal in Louisville, Kentucky, the Democrat and Chronicle in Rochester, New York, The Des Moines Register, the Detroit Free Press and The News-Press in Fort Myers. The company also previously held a number of television stations, which are now the autonomous company Tegna, Inc., and syndication company Multimedia Entertainment (the assets of which are now owned by Comcast).
iHeartMedia
Formerly Clear Channel, it owns a large number of radio stations across the country, the radio streaming platform iHeartRadio, Premiere Networks (which in turn owns The Rush Limbaugh Show, The Sean Hannity Show, The Glenn Beck Program, Coast to Coast AM, American Top 40, Delilah, and Fox Sports Radio, all being among the top national radio programs in their category), and previously held a stake in Live Nation and Sirius XM Radio as well as several television stations (later under the management of Newport Television, and now owned by separate companies). Also owns the largest U.S. outdoor advertising company Clear Channel Outdoor. Parent company Bain Capital also owns a share in The Weather Channel.
Microsoft
Owns MSN, the search engine Bing, a minority stake in the social networking site Facebook (which itself, in addition to being the largest and most pervasive U.S. social network, also owns photo sharing site Instagram, Oculus VR and messaging service WhatsApp), Xbox gaming brand, Office productivity suite, Outlook.com e-mail service, and Windows operating system.
News Corp
Owns the Wall Street Journal and the New York Post, the magazines Barron's and SmartMoney, and book publisher HarperCollins.
Oaktree Capital Management
Co-owners (along with Dolan) of Townsquare Media (which owns Regent Communications, Gap Broadcasting, Millennium Broadcasting, and Double O Radio) and joint owner of Tribune Media and Tribune Publishing (with Angelo, Gordon & Co. and JPMorgan Chase), which combined owns WGN America and a number of large-market newspapers and local television stations. Previously owned a number of radio networks, which are now held by Cumulus Media.
Scripps Networks Interactive
Owns HGTV, Food Network, DIY Network, Cooking Channel, Travel Channel, Great American Country and ulive. Scripps is a spin-off of the E. W. Scripps Company, which owns a number of local television stations and newspapers.
Sinclair Broadcast Group
It owns or operates a large number of television stations across the country that are affiliated with all six major television networks, including stations formerly owned by Allbritton Communications, Barrington Broadcasting, Fisher Communications, and Newport Television. Other assets include wrestling promotion Ring of Honor, Tennis Channel, and sports syndicator American Sports Network.
Sony Corporation
Owns Sony Pictures Entertainment (one of the major film studios), Sony Interactive Entertainment, which publishes video games and manufactures video game consoles, Sony Music Entertainment (one of the major record labels), and the online distributor Crackle.
Verizon Communications
A spin-off of the old AT&T, Verizon, in addition to its landline and wireless phone service, owns Internet holding company Oath, Inc., which controls a large number of legacy Internet brands: AOL, Yahoo!, Netscape, Compuserve, HuffPost (formerly Huffington Post), photo sharing service Flickr and blog site Tumblr.
History of FCC regulations[edit]
The First Amendment to the United States Constitution included a provision that protected “freedom of the press” from Congressional action. For newspapers and other print items, in which the medium itself was practically infinite and publishers could produce as many publications as they wanted without interfering with any other publisher's ability to do the same, this was not a problem.
The debut of radio broadcasting in the first part of the 20th century complicated matters; the radio spectrum is finite, and only a limited number of broadcasters could use the medium at the same time. The United States government opted to declare the entire broadcast spectrum to be government property and license the rights to use the spectrum to broadcasters. After several years of experimental broadcast licensing, the United States licensed its first commercial radio station, KDKA, in 1920.
Prior to 1927, public airwaves in the United States were regulated by the United States Department of Commerce and largely litigated in the courts as the growing number of stations fought for space in the burgeoning industry. In the earliest days, radio stations were typically required to share the same standard frequency (833 kHz) and were not allowed to broadcast an entire day, instead having to sign on and off at designated times to allow competing stations to use the frequency.
The Federal Radio Act of 1927 (signed into law February 23, 1927) nationalized the airwaves and formed the Federal Radio Commission, the forerunner of the modern Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to assume control of the airwaves. One of the first moves of the FRC was General Order 40, the first U.S. bandplan, which allocated permanent frequencies for most U.S. stations and eliminated most of the part-time broadcasters.
Communications Act of 1934[edit]
The Communications Act of 1934 was the stepping stone for all of the communications rules that are in place today. When first enacted, it created the FCC (Federal Communications Commission).[10] It was created to regulate the telephone monopolies, but also regulate the licensing for the spectrum used for broadcasting. The FCC was given authority by Congress to give out licenses to companies to use the broadcasting spectrum. However, they had to determine whether the license would serve “the public interest, convenience, and necessity”.[11] The primary goal for the FCC, from the start, has been to serve the "public interest". A debated concept, the term “public interest” was provided with a general definition by the Federal Radio Commission. The Commission determined, in its 1928 annual report, that “the emphasis must be first and foremost on the interest, the convenience, and the necessity of the listening public, and not on the interest, convenience, or necessity of the individual broadcaster or the advertiser.”[12] Following this reasoning, early FCC regulations reflected the presumption that "it would not be in the public’s interest for a single entity to hold more than one broadcast license in the same community. The view was that the public would benefit from a diverse array of owners because it would lead to a diverse array of program and service viewpoints."[13]
The Communications Act of 1934 refined and expanded on the authority of the FCC to regulate public airwaves in the United States, combining and reorganizing provisions from the Federal Radio Act of 1927 and the Mann-Elkins Act of 1910. It empowered the FCC, among other things, to administer broadcasting licenses, impose penalties and regulate standards and equipment used on the airwaves. The Act also mandated that the FCC would act in the interest of the "public convenience, interest, or necessity."[14] The Act established a system whereby the FCC grants licenses to the spectrum to broadcasters for commercial use, so long as the broadcasters act in the public interest by providing news programming.
Lobbyists from the largest radio broadcasters, ABC and NBC, wanted to establish high fees for broadcasting licenses, but Congress saw this as a limitation upon free speech. Consequently, “the franchise to operate a broadcasting station, often worth millions, is awarded free of charge to enterprises selected under the standard of ‘public interest, convenience, or necessity.’”[15]
Nevertheless, radio and television was dominated by the Big Three television networks until the mid-1990s.
Cross ownership rules of 1975[edit]
In 1975, the FCC passed the newspaper and broadcast cross-ownership rule.[16] This ban prohibited the ownership of a daily newspaper and any "full-power broadcast station that serviced the same community".[13] This rule emphasized the need to ensure that a broad number of voices were given the opportunity to communicate via different outlets in each market. Newspapers, explicitly prohibited from federal regulation because of the guarantee of freedom of the press in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, were out of the FCC's jurisdiction, but the FCC could use the ownership of a newspaper as a preclusion against owning radio or television licenses, which the FCC could and did regulate.
The FCC designed rules to make sure that there is a diversity of voices and opinions on the airwaves. “Beginning in 1975, FCC rules banned cross-ownership by a single entity of a daily newspaper and television or radio broadcast station operating in the same local market.”[17] The ruling was put in place to limit media concentration in TV and radio markets, because they use public airwaves, which is a valuable, and now, limited resource.
Telecommunications Act 1996[edit]
The Telecommunications Act of 1996 was an influential act for media cross-ownership. One of the requirements of the act was that the FCC must conduct a biennial review of its media ownership rules “and shall determine whether any of such rules are necessary in the public interest as the result of competition.” The Commission was ordered to “repeal or modify any regulation it determines to be no longer in the public interest.”[18]
The legislation, touted as a step that would foster competition, actually resulted in the subsequent mergers of several large companies, a trend which still continues.[19] Over 4,000 radio stations were bought out, and minority ownership of TV stations dropped to its lowest point since the federal government began tracking such data in 1990.[20]
Since the Telecommunications Act of 1996, restrictions on media merging have decreased. Although merging media companies seems to provide many positive outcomes for the companies involved in the merge, it might lead to some negative outcomes for other companies, viewers and future businesses. The FCC even found that they were indeed negative effects of recent merges in a study that they issued.[1]
Since 2000[edit]
In September 2002, the FCC issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking stating that the Commission would re-evaluate its media ownership rules pursuant to the obligation specified in the Telecommunications Act of 1996.[13][21] In June 2003, after its deliberations which included a single public hearing and the review of nearly two-million pieces of correspondence from the public opposing further relaxation of the ownership rules[22] the FCC voted 3-2 to repeal the newspaper/broadcast cross-ownership ban and to make changes to or repeal a number of its other ownership rules as well.[13][23] In the order, the FCC noted that the newspaper/broadcast cross-ownership rule was no longer necessary in the public interest to maintain competition, diversity or localism. However, in 2007 the FCC revised its rules and ruled that they would take it “case-by-case and determine if the cross-ownership would affect the public interest.[13] The rule changes permitted a company to own a newspaper and broadcast station in any of the nation’s top 20 media markets as long as there are at least eight media outlets in the market. If the combination included a television station, that station couldn’t be in the market’s top four. As it has since 2003, Prometheus Radio Project argued that the relaxed rule would pave the way for more media consolidation. Broadcasters, pointing to the increasing competition from new platforms, argued that the FCC’s rules—including other ownership regulations that govern TV duopolies and radio ownership—should be relaxed even further. The FCC, meanwhile, defended its right to change the rules either way.“[17] That public interest is what the FCC bases its judgments on, whether a media cross-ownership would be a positive and contributive force, locally and nationally.
The FCC held one official forum, February 27, 2003, in Richmond, Virginia in response to public pressures to allow for more input on the issue of elimination of media ownership limits. Some complain that more than one forum was needed.[24]
In 2003 the FCC set out to re-evaluate its media ownership rules specified in the Telecommunications Act of 1996. On June 2, 2003, FCC, in a 3-2 vote under Chairman Michael Powell, approved new media ownership laws that removed many of the restrictions previously imposed to limit ownership of media within a local area. The changes were not, as is customarily done, made available to the public for a comment period.
Single-company ownership of media in a given market is now permitted up to 45% (formerly 35%, up from 25% in 1985) of that market.
Restrictions on newspaper and TV station ownership in the same market were removed.
All TV channels, magazines, newspapers, cable, and Internet services are now counted, weighted based on people's average tendency to find news on that medium. At the same time, whether a channel actually contains news is no longer considered in counting the percentage of a medium owned by one owner.
Previous requirements for periodic review of license have been changed. Licenses are no longer reviewed for "public-interest" considerations.
The decision by the FCC was overturned by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit in Prometheus Radio Project v. FCC in June, 2004. The Majority ruled 2-1 against the FCC and ordered the Commission to reconfigure how it justified raising ownership limits. The Supreme Court later turned down an appeal, so the ruling stands.[25]
In June 2006, the FCC adopted a Further Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (FNPR)[26] to address the issues raised by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit and also to perform the recurring evaluation of the media ownership rules required by the Telecommunications Act.[27] The deliberations would draw upon three formal sources of input:(1) the submission of comments, (2) ten Commissioned studies, and (3) six public hearings.[13]
The FCC in 2007 voted to modestly relax its existing ban on newspaper/broadcast cross-ownership.[28] The FCC voted December 18, 2007 to eliminate some media ownership rules, including a statute that forbids a single company to own both a newspaper and a television or radio station in the same city. FCC Chairman Kevin Martin circulated the plan in October 2007.[25] Martin's justification for the rule change is to ensure the viability of America's newspapers and to address issues raised in the 2003 FCC decision that was later struck down by the courts.[29] The FCC held six hearings around the country to receive public input from individuals, broadcasters and corporations. Because of the lack of discussion during the 2003 proceedings, increased attention has been paid to ensuring that the FCC engages in proper dialogue with the public regarding its current rules change. FCC Commissioners Deborah Taylor-Tate and Robert McDowell joined Chairman Martin in voting in favor of the rule change. Commissioners Michael Copps and Jonathan Adelstein, both Democrats, opposed the change.[30]
UHF discount[edit]
Beginning in 1985, the FCC implemented a rule stating that television stations broadcasting on UHF channels would be "discounted" by half when calculating a broadcaster's total reach, under the market share cap of 39% of U.S. TV households. This rule was implemented because the UHF band was generally considered inferior to VHF for broadcasting analog television. The notion became obsolete since the completion of the transition from analog to digital television in 2009; the majority of television stations now broadcast on the UHF band because, by contrast, it is generally considered superior for digital transmission.[31][32]
The FCC voted to deprecate the rule in September 2016; the Commission argued that the UHF discount had become technologically obsolete, and that it was now being used as a loophole by broadcasters to contravene its market share rules and increase their market share through consolidation. The existing portfolios of broadcasters who now exceeded the cap due to the change were grandfathered, including the holdings of Ion Media Networks, Tribune Media, and Univision.[33]
However, on April 21, 2017, under new Trump administration FCC commissioner Ajit Pai, the discount was reinstated in a 2-1 vote, led by Pai and commissioner Michael O'Rielly. The move, along with a plan to evaluate increasing the national ownership cap, is expected to trigger a wider wave of consolidation in broadcast television.[34][35] A challenge to the rule's restoration was filed on May 15 by The Institute for Public Representation (a coalition of public interest groups comprising Free Press, the United Church of Christ, Media Mobilizing Project, the Prometheus Radio Project, the National Hispanic Media Coalition and Common Cause), which requested an emergency motion to stay the UHF discount order – delaying its June 5 re-implementation – pending a court challenge to the rule. The groups re-affirmed that the rule was technologically obsolete, and was restored for the purpose of allowing media consolidation. The FCC rejected the claims, stating that the discount would only allow forward a regulatory review of any station group acquisitions, and that the Institute for Public Representation's criteria for the stay fell short of meeting adequate determination in favor of it by the court; it also claimed that the discount was "inextricably linked" to the agency's media ownership rules, a review of which it initiated in May of that year.[36][37][38]
The challenge and subsequent stay motion was partly filed as a reaction to Sinclair Broadcast Group's proposed acquisition of Tribune Media (announced on May 8), which – with the more than 230 stations that the combined company would have, depending on any divestitures in certain markets where both groups own stations – would expand the group's national reach to 78% of all U.S. households with at least one television set with the discount. On June 1, 2017, the District of Columbia Court of Appeals issued a seven-day administrative stay to the UHF discount rulemaking to review the emergency stay motion.[39][40] The D.C. Court of Appeals denied the emergency stay motion in a one-page memorandum on June 15, 2017, however, the merits of restoring the discount is still subject to a court appeal proceeding scheduled to occur at a later date.[41]
Local content[edit]
A 2008 study found that news stations operated by a small media company produced more local news and more locally produced video than large chain-based broadcasting groups.[13][42] It was then argued that the FCC claimed, in 2003, that larger media groups produced better quality local content. Research by Philip Napoli and Michael Yan showed that larger media groups actually produced less local content.[13][43] In a different study, they also showed that "ownership by one of the big four broadcast networks has been linked to a considerable decrease in the amount of televised local public affairs programming"[13]
The major reasoning the FCC made for deregulation was that with more capital, broadcasting organizations could produce more and better local content. However, the research studies by Napoli and Yan showed that once teamed-up, they produced less content. Cross ownership between broadcasting and newspapers is a complicated issue. The FCC believes that more deregulation is necessary. However, with research studies showing that they produced less local content - less voices being heard that are from within the communities. While less local voices are heard, more national-based voices do appear. Chain-based companies are using convergence, the same content being produced across multiple mediums, to produce this mass-produced content. It's cheaper and more efficient than having to run different local and national news. However, with convergence and chain-based ownership you can choose which stories to run and how the stories are heard - being able to be played in local communities and national stage.
Media consolidation debate[edit]
Robert W. McChesney[edit]
Robert McChesney, Ph. D.
Robert McChesney is an advocate for media reform, and the co-founder of Free Press, which was established in 2003.[44] His work is based on theoretical, normative, and empirical evidence suggesting that media regulation efforts should be more strongly oriented towards maintaining a healthy balance of diverse viewpoints in the media environment. However, his viewpoints on current regulation are; "there is every bit as much regulation by government as before, only now it is more explicitly directed to serve large corporate interests."[45]
McChesney believes that the Free Press' objective is a more diverse and competitive commercial system with a significant nonprofit and noncommercial sector. It would be a system built for the citizens, but most importantly - it would be accessible to anyone who wants to broadcast. Not only specifically the big corporations that can afford to broadcast nationally, but more importantly locally. McChesney suggests that to better our current system we need to "establish a bona fide noncommercial public radio and television system, with local and national stations and networks. The expense should come out of the general budget"[46]
Benjamin Compaine[edit]
Benjamin Compaine believes that the current media system is “one of the most competitive major industries in U.S. commerce.”[47] He believes that much of the media in the United States is operating in the same market. He also believes that all the content is being interchanged between different media.[48]
Compaine believes that due to convergence, two or more things coming together, the media has been saved. Because of the ease of access to send the same message across multiple and different mediums, the message is more likely to be heard. He also believes that due to the higher amount of capital and funding, the media outlets are able to stay competitive because they are trying to reach more listeners or readers by using newer media.[49]
Benjamin Compaine's main argument is that the consolidation of media outlets, across multiple ownerships, has allowed for a better quality of content. He also stated that the news is interchangeable, and as such, making the media market less concentrated than previously thought, the idea being that since the same story is being pushed across multiple different platforms, then it can only be counted as one news story from multiple sources. Compaine also believed the news is more readily available, making it far easier for individuals to access than traditional methods.[50]
American public distrust in the media[edit]
A 2012 Gallup poll found that Americans' distrust in the mass media had hit a new high, with 60% saying they had little or no trust in the mass media to report the news fully, accurately, and fairly. Distrust had increased since the previous few years, when Americans were already more negative about the media than they had been in the years before 2004.[51]
See also[edit]
Agenda-setting theory
Alternative media
Big Three television networks
Concentration of media ownership
Corporate media
Deregulation
Fourth television network
Freedom of speech
Freedom of the press
Lists of corporate assets
Local News Service
Mainstream
Mainstream media
Media bias
Media conglomerate
Media democracy
Media imperialism
Media manipulation
Media proprietor
Media transparency
Monopolies of knowledge
Network neutrality
Old media
Partido da Imprensa Golpista
Politico-media complex
Prometheus Radio Project
Propaganda model
State controlled media
Telecommunications Act of 1996
Western media
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Jump up ^ Ted Johnson (June 1, 2017). "Sinclair-Tribune Merger Faces Roadblock as Court Puts Hold on FCC Station Ownership Rule". Variety. Penske Media Corporation. Retrieved June 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ John Eggerton (May 28, 2017). "Free Press Seeks Emergency Stay of UHF Discount Return". Broadcasting & Cable. NewBay Media. Retrieved June 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ John Eggerton (June 1, 2017). "Federal Court Stays FCC UHF Discount Decision, for Now". Broadcasting & Cable. NewBay Media. Retrieved June 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Jessell, Harry (May 15, 2017). "Groups File To Block Return Of UHF Discount". TVNewsCheck. Retrieved June 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Ben Munson (June 2, 2017). "D.C. Appeals Court halts return of FCC's UHF discount for TV broadcasters". FierceCable. Retrieved June 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Mark K. Miller (June 15, 2017). "Court Rejects Request To Stay UHF Discount". TVNewsCheck. NewsCheck Media.
Jump up ^ David K. Scott, Robert H. Gobetz & Mike Chanslor, Chain Versus Independent Television Station Ownership: Toward An Investment Model Of Commitment To Local News Quality, 59 COMM. STUDIES 84 (2008).
Jump up ^ Philip M. Napoli & Michael Z. Yan, Media Ownership Regulations and Local News Programming on Broadcast Television: An Empirical Analysis, 51 J. OF BROAD. & ELEC. MEDIA 39 (2007).
Jump up ^ An Interview with Free Press Founder Bob McChesney (2010) Retrieved from http://www.internetsavingsaccounts.org/resources/an-interview-with-free-press-founder-bob-mcchesney
Jump up ^ McChesney, Robert (2009). "Understanding the Media Reform Movement". International Journal of Communication. 3.
Jump up ^ McChesney, Robert. "The U.S. Left and Media Politics". para.33
Jump up ^ Baker, Edwin (2002). "Media Concentration: Giving Up On Democracy". Florida Law Review. 839. 54.
Jump up ^ Compaine, Benjamin. "Domination Fantasies". Retrieved 3 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Compaine, Benjamin. "Domination Fantasies". p. 2, para. 9. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Compaine, Benjamin. "Domination Fantasies". p. 3, para. 16. Retrieved 3 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Distrust in Media Hits New High". Gallup. September 21, 2012.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Media_cross-ownership_in_the_United_States&oldid=824733092"
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Teen Wolf (season 4)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Teen Wolf (season 4)
DVD cover
Starring
Tyler Posey
Dylan O'Brien
Tyler Hoechlin
Holland Roden
Shelley Hennig
Arden Cho
Country of origin
United States
No. of episodes
12
Release
Original network
MTV
Original release
June 23 (2014-06-23) – September 8, 2014 (2014-09-08)
Season chronology
← Previous
Season 3
Next →
Season 5
List of Teen Wolf episodes
The fourth season of Teen Wolf, an American supernatural drama created by Jeff Davis and to some extent, based on the Teen Wolf 1985 film of the same name, premiered on June 23, 2014.[1] The series was renewed for a fourth season of 12 episodes on October 12, 2013.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
2.1 Main
2.2 Recurring
3 Episodes
4 Production
5 Awards and nominations
6 Home media
7 References
Plot[edit]
Two months after the end of Season 3 and still healing from tragic losses (Allison, Boyd, Erica and Aiden), Scott (Tyler Posey), Stiles (Dylan O'Brien), Lydia (Holland Roden) and Kira (Arden Cho) return to a new semester of school with more human worries than supernatural, while also trying to help their new friend, Malia (Shelley Hennig), integrate back into society. But Kate Argent's (Jill Wagner) surprising resurrection brings a new threat to Beacon Hills along with the emergence of another mysterious enemy known simply as The Benefactor. Scott must also uphold the responsibility of his first Beta werewolf, Liam Dunbar (Dylan Sprayberry).[2]
Cast[edit]
Main article: List of Teen Wolf characters
Main[edit]
Tyler Posey as Scott McCall
Dylan O'Brien as Stiles Stilinski
Tyler Hoechlin as Derek Hale
Holland Roden as Lydia Martin
Shelley Hennig as Malia Tate
Arden Cho as Kira Yukimura
Recurring[edit]
Linden Ashby as Sheriff Stilinski
Ian Bohen as Peter Hale
Dylan Sprayberry as Liam Dunbar
Meagan Tandy as Braeden
Ryan Kelley as Deputy Jordan Parrish
Orny Adams as Bobby Finstock
J.R. Bourne as Chris Argent
Jill Wagner as Kate Argent
Melissa Ponzio as Melissa McCall
Khylin Rhambo as Mason Hewitt
Cody Saintgnue as Brett Talbot
Seth Gilliam as Dr. Alan Deaton
Tom Choi as Ken Yukimura
Maya Eshet as Meredith Walker
Mason Dye as Garrett
Matthew Del Negro as Agent Rafael McCall
Samantha Logan as Violet
Tamlyn Tomita as Noshiko Yukimura
Lily Mariye as Satomi Ito
Susan Walters as Natalie Martin
Joseph Gatt as the Mute
Ivonne Coll as Araya Calavera
Ivo Nandi as Severo Calavera
Aaron Hendry as Brunski
Rahnuma Panthaky as Ms. Fleming
Ian Nelson as young Derek Hale
John Posey as Dr. Fenris
Steven Brand as Dr. Valack
Episodes[edit]
See also: List of Teen Wolf episodes
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
49
1 "The Dark Moon" Russell Mulcahy Jeff Davis June 23, 2014 (2014-06-23) 2.18[3]
Scott and his friends head into Mexico, looking for the Spanish hunter clan, known as the Calaveras, that were hunting Derek. The lead hunter, Araya, makes Scott realize that Kate Argent, Allison's presumed dead aunt, has returned and taken Derek. With assistance from Braeden, Scott and the group go in search of Derek in an abandoned town known as La Iglesia, said to be the home of supernatural creatures called the Nagual (werejaguars). When Stiles's jeep breaks down, Scott and Braeden carry on alone. They arrive in La Iglesia and enter an abandoned church buried beneath the town, but are attacked by a mysterious creature wearing bone armor. Meanwhile, a second creature attacks Malia and Kira in the desert. Both groups manage to escape their attackers, and Scott and Braeden find a teenage version of Derek buried in the church.
50
2 "117" Christian Taylor Eoghan O'Donnell June 30, 2014 (2014-06-30) 1.55[4]
Years earlier, Peter teaches Derek how to control his shift, using an artifact known as the Triskelion. In the present day, Kate kills a gas station attendant, and appears to be unable to control herself when transformed. Scott and his friends return from Mexico and take Derek to Deaton, who is baffled by Derek's regression. Derek attacks Deaton and goes to his destroyed house, but is arrested. When Kate abducts Derek from Scott's house, Scott teams up with Peter to put an end to Kate's plan. Peter identifies the creatures that attacked Scott as Berserkers. Kate and Derek access the Hale family's vault under the high school, and Kate wants the Triskelion in order to learn control. Scott, Malia and Kira take on the Berserkers, but are defeated. Peter confronts Derek and Kate in the vault. Derek leaves to help Scott, while Peter explains that the Triskelion was only ever a trinket. With Derek gone, Peter and Kate fight, but are interrupted when an individual blinds them and steals a briefcase. Kate flees and Derek reverts to his normal age. Stiles and Lydia find Peter, and he reveals that 117 million dollars were stolen.
51
3 "Muted" Tim Andrew Alyssa Clark July 7, 2014 (2014-07-07) 1.55[5]
Sean Walcott, a seemingly ordinary teenager, is attacked by a mouthless assassin known as the Mute; the Mute slaughters his family, but Sean is able to escape. Stiles and Scott meet a new freshman, Liam (Dylan Sprayberry), who excels on the lacrosse field; worried that their positions on the lacrosse team are in jeopardy, Stiles persuades Scott to use his werewolf abilities again on the field. Scott begins excelling again, but accidentally injures Liam. Deputy Parrish and Lydia investigate Sean's house, where they find a hidden meat locker full of frozen human corpses. Sean, identified as a wendigo, kills and eats one of the cops protecting him and takes Liam hostage on the hospital roof. Scott is forced to bite Liam to keep him from falling off of the roof, saving his life. The Mute kills Sean, and Scott realizes that his bite may have turned Liam into a werewolf.
52
4 "The Benefactor" Russell Mulcahy Jeff Davis & Ian Stokes July 14, 2014 (2014-07-14) 1.72[6]
Peter is attacked and injured by the Mute. Scott and his friends attempt to plan a way to help Liam deal with the upcoming full moon. Deputy Parrish, Sheriff Stilinski and Derek discover that the Mute is an assassin hired by someone called the Benefactor. Scott and his friends lock up Liam and Malia at Lydia's lake house; unfortunately, Liam texted his friends that there was a party at the house. Lydia deals with the party, and discovers a soundproofed room in her house. Derek and Sheriff Stilinski locate the Mute at the high school, and avoid a claymore mine that the Mute planted. Peter eventually appears and kills the Mute. Stiles is able to help Malia gain control over her shift. Liam escapes, but Scott is able to subdue him with help from Chris Argent. At the party, a werewolf is killed by Violet, an agent of the Benefactor, along with her boyfriend Garrett. Lydia manages to decipher the code in the Mute's computer, using the keyword "ALLISON", which reveals that it's actually a "dead pool", a hit list of supernatural beings living in Beacon Hills, which includes all of their supernatural friends.
53
5 "I.E.D." Jennifer Lynch Angela L. Harvey July 21, 2014 (2014-07-21) 1.61[7]
Violet and Garrett kill another werewolf at the school, and then prepare to take down their next target during the first lacrosse scrimmage. Malia tries to help Lydia use her powers to find the next cipher key, but when Lydia is unsuccessful, they decide to contact Meredith Walker – another banshee from Eichen House. Derek reveals to Chris that he is losing his powers. Scott, Stiles and Kira spend the game attempting to keep Liam safe, assuming that he is the assassins' target; however, Brett, a player from Liam's old school, is revealed to be a werewolf, and turns out to be Violet and Garrett's target. With help from Meredith, Lydia is able to decipher the second code, using the codeword "AIDEN", and is shocked to discover that the deadpool includes Deputy Parrish. Violet uses Brett as bait and tries to take down Scott, but he effortlessly overpowers her.
54
6 "Orphaned" Russell Mulcahy Jeff Davis July 28, 2014 (2014-07-28) 1.56[8]
Agent McCall recognizes Violet as a member of the Orphans, a group of teenage serial killers. Garrett attacks and poisons Liam, throws him into a well, and forces Scott to help him free Violet. However, Kate and the Berserkers have already abducted Violet, and Garrett is killed. Derek recruits Malia in an attempt to find the pack of the werewolves who have been killed by the assassins. Lydia, Stiles and Deputy Parrish go to Eichen House in an attempt to get Meredith's help in finding the last cipher key. She refuses, saying that the Benefactor has ordered her not to help them. Scott and Chris face off against Kate and the Berserkers, but are overpowered; during the fight, Scott discovers that Violet has been killed. Derek and Malia find Satomi's pack, only to discover that they are all dead. Liam howls a distress call to Scott, who is able to hear it and rescues Liam. Lydia deciphers the last part of the list, which includes Liam, Malia and Meredith. Scott and Stiles find the money that Garrett and Violet received from the Benefactor. Peter offers to teach Kate to control her shift.
55
7 "Weaponized" Tim Andrew Alyssa Clark August 4, 2014 (2014-08-04) 1.75[9]
Derek rushes an injured Braeden to the hospital. A virus designed to kill werewolves is released during the PSATs, and the school is quarantined. Deaton is confronted by Satomi at the animal clinic; she explains that most of her pack have been wiped out by the virus, and she was the only one who was immune. After conducting an autopsy on a werewolf, Deaton figures out that the virus is a version of canine distemper. With help from Satomi and Derek, they realize that Reishi tea leaves are the cure, and that there is a jar of them in the Hale vault. Scott, Malia and Kira are dying due to the virus, and hide in the vault to avoid the assassin. Stiles discovers that an assassin, a teacher overseeing the PSATs, is responsible for unleashing the virus. Agent McCall saves Stiles by shooting the teacher, who was about to kill Stiles. Using the last of his strength, Scott finds the tea leaves and breaks the jar, releasing the spores, which cures the virus. Malia walks away from the others after discovering that she is Peter's daughter.
56
8 "Time of Death" Jann Turner Angela L. Harvey August 11, 2014 (2014-08-11) 1.68[10]
For their plan to lure out the Benefactor, Scott is put into a near-death state by Kira, brought in to the hospital, and declared dead, and his friends have 45 minutes before he dies permanently. Derek reveals to Braeden that he lost all of his powers; Braeden teaches him how to use guns and fight without his abilities. Scott experiences repeated hallucinations in which Liam urges him to embrace his werewolf nature, and tries to convince him that he can kill the assassins. In separate hallucinations, Liam fails to convince Scott and is killed by the Mute, and Scott ultimately kills Liam with the Mute's tomahawk. Malia seeks out Peter to get information about her family, especially her biological mother; Peter says that he is trying to locate the "Desert Wolf". Kate and the Berserkers break into the hospital in an attempt to confirm whether Scott is dead, but Chris persuades her to leave; however, Kira's mother becomes injured. Lydia discovers information that suggests her grandmother was a banshee. Lydia discovers that her grandmother wrote down part of the deadpool code and finds another message in the same code.
57
9 "Perishable" Jennifer Lynch Eric Wallace August 18, 2014 (2014-08-18) 1.48[11]
Parrish is attacked and burned alive by his partner, only to survive, which brings him into the supernatural world. Scott, Derek, Lydia and Parrish realize that the deadpool is available to anyone. Lydia explains her grandmother's history; she spent many years researching numerous different subjects in an attempt to learn about her powers. One of her subjects was Meredith, but the tests seriously injured Meredith, forcing her to spend a year in hospital. Stiles and Lydia figure out that the coded message written by Lydia's grandmother was another list of names; they realize that all of the names belonged to deceased patients at Eichen House. Stiles and Lydia go to Eichen House for the files, but are attacked by the head orderly. Scott, Liam and Malia attend the annual lacrosse bonfire, but it turns out to be a trap; the music distorts their senses and makes them sick, allowing the guards, who were working with Parrish's partner, to ambush them. Derek and Braeden rescue them, and Parrish saves Stiles and Lydia from Brunski, and shoots him. Meredith enters the room, still alive, and reveals that she is the Benefactor.
58
10 "Monstrous" J. D. Taylor Jeff Davis & Ian Stokes August 24, 2014 (2014-08-24) 1.44[12]
Kira saves Brett Talbot and another werewolf named Lori from a team of hunters. Scott races to the Clinic, reunites with Kira and meets Satomi and her pack. Lydia tries to get Meredith to talk, but she will only talk to Peter, who reads her mind to find out how she knows him. Lydia discovers that during her stay in the hospital, Meredith was placed in the same room as Peter, and involuntarily listened to Peter's thoughts and plans. When Meredith heard Lydia's scream when Allison was killed, she decided to carry out Peter's plan; Brunski stole Peter's money from the vault, and she hired assassins to eliminate every supernatural creature in Beacon Hills. The hunters track down Satomi's pack and are fought off. During the fight, Scott further transforms into a new form, but regains control when the hunter he was fighting surrenders. Stiles and Malia discover a room filled with old computer servers behind the wall of the soundproof study at the lake house. They shut down the computers, deactivating the deadpool and terminating the Benefactor's contracts. Peter meets with Kate and continues with his plan to kill Scott and steal his powers.
59
11 "A Promise to the Dead" Tim Andrew Jeff Davis & Ian Stokes September 1, 2014 (2014-09-01) 1.29[13]
Dr. Deaton meets with one of the inmates of Eichen House, Dr. Valack, who claims to have knowledge regarding what Kate did to Derek. Deaton obtains the information by looking into Valack's third eye, but ends up in a coma. Chris tracks down Kate in the sewers, but encounters Peter and a Berserker. Peter impales Chris with a metal bar and leaves. As Stiles and Liam prepare for the season's first lacrosse game, Scott and Kira go on a date in Derek's loft, but are ambushed by Kate. Scott and Kira are eventually defeated and abducted. Lydia is able to awaken Deaton; he informs the group that Kate has taken Scott and Kira to Mexico. Peter appears at the lacrosse game, and offers Malia a deal; he will give Malia her mother's identity if she helps him kill Kate. Parrish finds Chris in the sewers and frees Chris. Kate imprisons Scott and Kira in the abandoned church in the Mexican town where she was keeping Derek, and informs Scott that she is planning to turn him into a Berserker.
60
12 "Smoke and Mirrors" Russell Mulcahy Jeff Davis September 8, 2014 (2014-09-08) 1.54[14]
Kira awakens in the tunnels, and Scott, now a Berserker, attacks her. Kate explains that she was drawn to La Iglesia after she turned into a Nagual, and found Berserkers. Lydia and Mason are attacked by a Berserker at the school, and are held prisoner. The pack arrive at La Iglesia, but are attacked by Scott. Derek is badly injured, and Braeden protects him while the rest pursue Scott. Stiles finds Kira, while Peter, Liam and Malia overpower Scott, and Liam manages to bring him back. In Beacon Hills, Stilinski enters the school and destroys the Berserker using the Mute's mine. In La Iglesia, Kate attacks Braeden, but Chris, Parrish and the Calaveras arrive. Derek apparently dies, but reveals that his body was evolving; he is a werewolf again, and can shift into a full wolf. Kate escapes into the tunnels and reveals she tried to kill Scott because she thought that he killed Allison. Peter reveals his true plan and attacks Scott, who embraces his true nature, and easily defeats Peter. Chris leaves to hunt down Kate. Peter is locked up in the supernatural wing at Eichen House, in the same room as Dr. Valack.
Production[edit]
A fourth season of 12 episodes was confirmed and premiered on June 23, 2014 on MTV.[1] Filming began in February 2014.[15] Crystal Reed and Daniel Sharman won't be returning, being the first season of the show not to star Reed and the first since season two not to star Sharman.[16] Jill Wagner (Kate Argent) confirmed on Wolf Watch that she will be appearing more this season after her character made a surprise appearance in the season 3 finale.
New cast additions include Meagan Tandy as Braeden (who only appeared in 2 episodes of season 3),[17] Dylan Sprayberry as "Liam",[18] Khylin Rambo as Mason "an out-and-proud athlete" and Mason Dye as Garrett.[19] In addition to this, Dylan O'Brien and Jeff Davis confirmed in interviews that Malia Tate (Shelley Hennig) and Kira Yukimura (Arden Cho) would be regulars this season and join the pack.[20]
On July 14, 2014, during the original airing of the fourth episode of the season, there was an audio failure in one of the scenes. MTV posted the scene, with the proper audio, on its official Facebook account the following day.[21]
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Association
Category
Nominee(s)
Result
2014 Young Hollywood Award[22] Bingeworthy TV Show Teen Wolf Nominated
Home media[edit]
Season 4 was released on DVD in the United States on June 9, 2015,[23] 20 days before the premiere of Season 5 on June 29, 2015.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Teen Wolf MTV - Teen Wolf Season Four Tease HQ". Facebook. Retrieved May 8, 2014.
Jump up ^ Bricker, Tiereny (March 25, 2014). "Teen Wolf Season 4 Scoop: Jeff Davis on Who's Missing in Mexico, Mourning Allison, Time Jump and More". EOnline. Retrieved March 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (June 24, 2014). "Monday Cable Ratings: 'Love & Hip Hop Atlanta' Wins Night, 'WWE Raw', 'Hit The Floor', 'Teen Wolf', 'Switched at Birth', 'The Fosters' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved June 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (July 1, 2014). "Monday Cable Ratings: 'Love and Hip-Hop Atlanta' Wins Night + World Cup Soccer, 'Monday Night RAW', 'SportsCenter' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (July 9, 2014). "Monday Cable Ratings: 'Love & Hip Hop' Wins Night, 'WWE Raw', 'Hit The Floor', 'Major Crimes', 'Teen Wolf', 'Switched at Birth', 'The Fosters' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 9, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (July 15, 2014). "Monday Cable Ratings: Home Run Derby Tops Night + 'Love and Hip Hop: Atlanta', 'Monday Night RAW', 'Hit the Floor', 'Major Crimes' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (July 22, 2014). "Monday Cable Ratings: 'Love & Hip Hop Atlanta' Wins Night, 'WWE Raw', 'Hit The Floor', 'Major Crimes', 'Teen Wolf', 'The Fosters' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 22, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (July 29, 2014). "Monday Cable Ratings: 'Love and Hip-Hop: Atlanta' Tops Night + 'Monday Night RAW', 'Major Crimes', 'Hit the Floor' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (August 5, 2014). "Monday Cable Ratings: 'WWE Raw' Wins Night, 'Street Outlaws', 'Hit The Floor', 'Major Crimes', 'Teen Wolf' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 5, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (August 12, 2014). "Monday Cable Ratings: 'Love & Hip-Hop: Atlanta' Tops Night + 'Jaws Strikes Back', 'Monster Hammerhead' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 12, 2014.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (August 19, 2014). "Monday Cable Ratings: Football Wins Night, 'Love & Hip Hop Atlanta', 'WWE Raw', 'Teen Wolf', 'The Fosters', 'Dallas' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (August 26, 2014). "Sunday Cable Ratings: 'Video Music Awards' Tops Night + 'True Blood', 'The Strain', 'The Last Ship' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved August 26, 2014.
Jump up ^ Bibel, Sara (September 3, 2014). "Monday Cable Ratings: 'Love & Hip Hop Atlanta' Wins Night, 'WWE Raw', 'Houdini', 'Teen Wolf', 'T.I. & Tiny' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved September 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ Kondolojy, Amanda (September 9, 2014). "Monday Cable Ratings: 'Monday Night Football' Rules Night + 'Love & Hip-Hop', 'Monday Night RAW', 'SportsCenter' & More". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved September 9, 2014.
Jump up ^ Cho, Arden (March 25, 2014). "Secrets out. I've been filming season 4 of Teen Wolf since February! Thanks loves for watching!!". instagram.com. Retrieved March 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Swift, Andy (March 25, 2014). "Teen Wolf EP on Kate's 'Agenda,' Danny's Twist, Isaac's Exit and More Season 4 Scoop". tvline.com. Retrieved March 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ "'Teen Wolf' season 4: Meagan Tandy to return as Braeden". Hypable.com. February 15, 2014. Retrieved May 8, 2014.
Jump up ^ "'Teen Wolf' Books 'Man of Steel' Alum for Season Four". Hollywood Reporter. February 3, 2014. Retrieved May 8, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Teen Wolf Season 4 Casting Scoop: Meet the 2 New Lacrosse Players—and One of Them Is Gay | E! Online UK". Eonline.com. March 10, 2014. Retrieved May 8, 2014.
Jump up ^ Swift, Andy (March 24, 2014). "'Teen Wolf' Season 3 Finale Spoilers — Stiles' Sacrifice, Allison's Death". TVLine. Retrieved May 8, 2014.
Jump up ^ Facebook Page, Teen Wolf (July 16, 2014). "Teen Wolf Facebook Page - "In case your audio cut out like OURS did last night, check this scene from #TheBenefactor out!"". Teen Wolf. Retrieved July 16, 2014.
Jump up ^ "YHA Nominees list". Young Hollywood Awards. June 28, 2014. Retrieved June 28, 2014.
Jump up ^ Amazon Page, Teen Wolf (June 9, 2015). "Teen Wolf: Season 4". Teen Wolf. Retrieved June 30, 2015.
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