text:
Fifty Shades Freed
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For the film adaptation, see Fifty Shades Freed (film).
Fifty Shades Freed
2001
Author
E.L James.
Cover artist
Isaiah Ogasawara
Country
United Kingdom
Language
English
Series
Fifty Shades trilogy
Genre
Erotic romance
Published
17 April 2012 (Vintage Books), (UK) 26 April 2012 (Arrow Books)
Media type
Print (Hardcover, Paperback)
Pages
592
ISBN
0345803507
Preceded by
Fifty Shades Darker
Followed by
Grey: Fifty Shades of Grey as Told by Christian
Fifty Shades Freed is the third and final installment of the erotic romance Fifty Shades Trilogy by British author E. L. James. After accepting entrepreneur CEO Christian Grey's proposal in Fifty Shades Darker, Anastasia Steele must adjust not only to married life but to her new husband's wealthy lifestyle and controlling nature. The paperback edition was first published in April 2012.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Characters
3 Reception
4 Film adaptation
5 References
6 External links
Plot[edit]
Anastasia 'Ana' Steele and Christian Grey return to Seattle after a long honeymoon. Christian is upset to find that Ana has kept her maiden name, Steele, at work. After some resistance, Ana relents and changes her name at work to Grey after realizing how important it is to Christian. As a belated wedding gift, Christian gives Seattle Independent Publishing to Ana, who plans to rename it Grey Publishing.
While Christian is on a business trip in New York, Anastasia goes out for a drink with longtime friend, Kate Kavanagh, doing so against Christian's wishes. Returning home, she finds that her former boss, Jack Hyde, who was fired for attempting to sexually assault Ana, has been apprehended by the security staff. Duct tape is found in his pocket and in his van there are tranquilizers and a ransom note—all indications that he intended to kidnap her. Jack is arrested. Angry with Ana for defying him, Christian cuts short his New York business trip and returns to Seattle. Furious that Ana reneged on her promise to have Kate over rather than go out, an upset Christian sulks while Ana sleeps. Eventually, the two argue and Ana berates him for being overly controlling and possessive. She demands more freedom and access to her friends. Soon after, Christian surprises her with a trip to Aspen, with Kate, Elliot, Mia, and Kate's brother, Ethan. While there, Elliot proposes to Kate, and she accepts.
Ana's step-father, Ray, is in a medically-induced coma after a car accident. When he awakens a few days later, Ana and Christian arrange to move him to Seattle to recover. It is also Ana's birthday weekend, and Christian surprises her with all her family and friends at a dinner. He gives her a charm bracelet with the charms representing all their "firsts" including an ice cream cone to represent their "vanilla" relationship. Christian also gifts her with an Audi R8. Soon after, Ana learns she is pregnant. Christian angrily accuses her of getting pregnant on purpose and leaves. He returns early the next morning drunk, claiming Ana will choose the baby - whom he believes to be a boy - over him. Ana says it could be a girl, though Christian refuses to accept that due to his sexist and chauvinistic nature. Ana become furious when she discovers a text message on Christian's phone from Elena Lincoln, the woman who seduced him when he was fifteen and introduced him to the BDSM lifestyle. The message indicates they met for a drink.
The next two mornings, Anastasia and Christian barely speak to each other: Christian is angry over the unplanned pregnancy; Anastasia is upset about his late-night encounter with Elena, though Christian insists their relationship is long-since over. When Christian is away on a business for a few days, Ana receives a call from Jack Hyde. He has kidnapped Mia Grey and demands $5 million in two hours. He warns Ana not to tell anyone or he will kill Mia.
Anastasia feigns illness and returns home to escape her bodyguard, Sawyer. She takes a gun and goes to the bank. While collecting the money, the suspicious bank manager calls Christian. who believes Ana is leaving him. To protect Mia's life, Ana lies to Christian, saying she is leaving him to raise the baby alone. Hyde instructs Ana to leave her phone but she tricks him by taking the bank manager's phone instead and dropping it in the trash. She leaves via the back entrance to a waiting car, shocked that Hyde's accomplice is Elizabeth Morgan, her co-worker. When handing over the money, Hyde tries to kill Ana out of vengeance for losing his job, causing Elizabeth to feel guilty for being involved. Angered by his behavior and his hurting Ana, she and Hyde argue. On the ground and bruised, Ana shoots Hyde in the leg. When Ana starts to black out she hears Christian calling her name.
Ana wakes three days later in the hospital with Christian at her side. Though he is angry at Ana's recklessness and still anxious about fatherhood, he realizes how important their baby is to her, and they reconcile. Ana returns home the next day. Christian learns from his private investigator, Welch, that he and Hyde had the same foster family. He tells Ana about how he met and was seduced by Elena. By introducing him to the world of BDSM, Elena helped Christian learn to take control of his life. If she had not intervened, he would still be plagued with horrible memories of his mother and would never have been able to control his life. Ana feels guilty for her behavior when he explains that he had been looking for his psychiatrist, Dr. Flynn, because he needed help. When he could not contact Flynn, Christian wound up at Elena's salon and they then had a drink at the bar. Although she made a pass at him, Elena realized that Christian loved Ana.
The next day, a furious Christian discovers that Elena's ex-husband, Eric Lincoln, has bailed Jack from jail out of spite for her affair with Christian. Christian tells Ana that after learning about the affair, Eric severely beat Elena and divorced her. Despite Christian's urging, Elena refused to press charges against Eric out of guilt. Christian retaliated by buying out Eric Lincoln's logging company to sell it off. It is also learned Elizabeth confessed to police that she was blackmailed by Hyde to be his accomplice. (However, her ultimate fate remains a mystery.)
Two years later, Ana and Christian have a son named Theodore Raymond Grey, nicknamed Teddy, and Ana is six months pregnant with their second child, a daughter whom they decide to name Phoebe. Elliot and Kate have married and have a two-month-old daughter named Ava. At the end, after having BDSM sex, Ana and Christian are getting ready to celebrate Teddy's second birthday with their family and friends.
Characters[edit]
Anastasia "Ana" Rose Grey: Commissioning Editor at SIP (Seattle Independent Publishing) and wife of Christian Grey.
Christian Grey: Adoptive son of Dr. Grace Trevelyan-Grey and Carrick Grey. 28-year-old CEO of Grey Enterprise Holdings, Inc and Anastasia's husband.
Jason Taylor: Christian's most trusted bodyguard and head of Christian's security team.
Luke Sawyer: Bodyguard in charge of Ana's protection.
Jack Hyde: Ana's former boss and main antagonist.
Mia Grey: Adoptive daughter of Carrick Grey and Dr. Grace Trevelyan Grey and younger sister of Christian Grey and Elliot Grey.
Katherine "Kate" Kavanagh: Ana's best friend and Elliot Grey's wife
Elliot Grey: Elder brother to Christian Grey and Mia Grey and Katherine's husband
Elena Lincoln: Grace Trevelyan Grey's former friend and Christian's former Dominant. One of the main antagonists in Fifty Shades Darker
Dr. Grace Trevelyan-Grey: Christian's adoptive mother.
Carrick Grey: Christian's adoptive father.
Ray Steele: Ana's step-father, who adopted Ana and gave her his last name.
Ethan Kavanagh: Kate Kavanagh's older brother.
Nishant Mishra: Christian's corporate office's doorman.
Leila Williams: A former submissive of Christian.
Elizabeth Morgan: Ana's SIP colleague and accomplice of Jack Hyde.
Mr. Eric Lincoln: Owner of Lincoln Timbers and Elena's ex-husband.
Theodore "Teddy" Raymond Grey: Son of Anastasia and Christian Grey.
Reception[edit]
Fifty Shades Freed entered The New York Times Best Seller list at number three.[2] In the UK the novel sold over two million copies.[3]
Film adaptation[edit]
Main article: Fifty Shades Freed (film)
Sam Taylor-Johnson, the director of the film adaptation of the first installment of the book series, Fifty Shades of Grey, confirmed on 6 February 2015 that both Fifty Shades Freed and the second book in the trilogy, Fifty Shades Darker, will also be adapted for film.[4] The film was released on 9 February 2018.[5] In November 2015, Universal Studios announced that both films will be shot back-to-back with principal photography scheduled to commence in early 2016.[6]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Fifty Shades Freed (Fifty Shades #3)". Goodreads. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Best Sellers: Paperback Trade Fiction". The New York Times. May 6, 2012. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Rogers, Simon (August 9, 2012). "The top 100 bestselling books of all time: how does Fifty Shades of Grey compare?". The Guardian. London. Retrieved August 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Schumann, Rebecka (February 6, 2015). "'Fifty Shades of Grey' Sequels Confirmed; Fans React to 'Fifty Shades Darker' and 'Fifty Shades Freed' Movie Announcement". International Business Times. Retrieved February 6, 2015.
Jump up ^ McClintock, Pamela; Ford, Rebecca (April 23, 2015). "CinemaCon: 'Fifty Shades of Grey' Sequel to Hit Theaters in 2017". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved April 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kroll, Justin (November 12, 2015). "'Fifty Shades of Grey' Sequels to Shoot Back-to-Back". Variety. Retrieved November 13, 2015.
External links[edit]
Official author page
[hide]
v
t
e
Fifty Shades by E. L. James
Novels
Original trilogy
Fifty Shades of Grey
Fifty Shades Darker
Fifty Shades Freed
Retold
Grey: Fifty Shades of Grey as Told by Christian
Darker: Fifty Shades Darker as Told by Christian
Film series
Films
Fifty Shades of Grey
Fifty Shades Darker
Fifty Shades Freed
Music
Fifty Shades of Grey
"Earned It"
"Love Me like You Do"
"I Know You"
Fifty Shades Darker
"I Don't Wanna Live Forever"
"Not Afraid Anymore"
Fifty Shades Freed
"For You"
"Capital Letters"
"Heaven"
Parodies
Fifty Shades of Oy Vey: A Parody
Spank! The Fifty Shades Parody
Fifty Shades of Black
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Number Six (The Prisoner)
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This article is missing information about the 2009 version of the character. Please expand the article to include this information. Further details may exist on the talk page. (August 2013)
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Number Six
The Prisoner character
Patrick McGoohan as Number Six.
First appearance
"Arrival" (original)
Last appearance
"Checkmate" (remake)
Created by
Patrick McGoohan
George Markstein
Portrayed by
Patrick McGoohan (original series)
Nigel Stock (original series, episode: "Do Not Forsake Me Oh My Darling")
Jim Caviezel (2009 series)
Mark Elstob (Big Finish)
Information
Gender
Male
Occupation
Village resident
Nationality
British (original series), American (2009 series)
Number 6 is the central character in the 1960s television series The Prisoner, played by Patrick McGoohan (and by Nigel Stock in one episode). In the AMC remake, the character is played by Jim Caviezel, renamed "Six".
In several episodes, his attempts to escape his prison, the Village, would be foiled, either by Number 2, the place's chief administrator, who was frequently changed, or by Rover, an enigmatic non-human guardian that resembles a weather balloon.
Contents
[hide]
1 Fictional biography
1.1 Possible life before capture
1.2 Capture and Village life
1.3 Number One's identity
1.4 Ultimate fate
1.5 Shattered Visage
2 Personal habits
3 Names and codenames
4 Is Number Six really John Drake?
5 In other works
6 Allusions
7 References
Fictional biography[edit]
Much of Number 6's background is kept a mystery during the series, and not even his true name is revealed.
In the first episode, it is stated that he was born on 19 March 1928 (the same date as McGoohan's birthday), and that he held a position of some responsibility with the British government, possibly in some branch of British Intelligence, but the exact nature of his job is not known.
Possible life before capture[edit]
During the episode "Once Upon a Time", Number 6 undergoes an intense form of brainwashing/interrogation called "Degree Absolute" in which his mind is reverted to that of a child and he is made to relive major events of his life. Given the nature of this interrogation and the motive behind it, it is not known for certain what elements of Number 6's life so portrayed are real and which are fiction.
Among these events presented is the suggestion that as a young man Number 6 was driving a vehicle and speeding which may (or may not) have resulted in a fatal accident. It is also suggested he attended some sort of private school and was once punished for not telling the headmaster about some of his friends' rule-breaking activities.
During "Once Upon a Time" it is also stated (with greater certainty) that Number 6 flew a bomber in "the war"; exactly which war is not stated but evidently Number 6 was shot down and captured by the Germans, which presumably means World War II, which is possible given his stated birth date.
Another scene from the episode suggests that he worked for an established British banking firm before someone (the episode implies it was someone connected with the bank) enrolled him to a top secret government job.
Several episodes suggest he was a spy or similar operative, although director Alex Cox speculated in a 2017 book that he was in fact a rocket engineer who resigned because he felt his research was being misused.[1] He is shown to be highly sagacious, if not a genius, with tremendous proficiency and expertise in subjects ranging from fencing, boxing and marksmanship to mathematics, languages and astronomy.
It is known that prior to his capture by the Village, he was engaged to be married to Janet Portland, the daughter of his superior, Sir Charles Portland, though this doesn't stop Number 6 from developing several close platonic relationships with various women during his imprisonment.
Capture and Village life[edit]
A central theme in the series was Number 2's attempt to discover why Number 6 resigned from his position. Many people as well as the series itself postulate that those in control of the Village are either testing Number 6, or actually want to know why he resigned. Even according to McGoohan during subsequent interviews, the answer is not clear: others suggest the Village first wants to find why he resigned, hoping this revelation would unleash a torrent of other information. (At least one Number 2 believes it would: in "The Chimes of Big Ben", Number 2 says, "If he will answer one simple question, the rest will follow: Why did he resign?")
In several episodes, it is alluded that other residents of "The Village" are either scientists or ex-spies "retired" without their consent. Number 6 is known to have answered to at least two individuals known simply as "The Colonel", as well as to another long-time superior named Fotheringay. These men are shown as being in league with the Village in some way or other. It is also ambiguously (and menacingly) suggested that some people in the British government are in concert with those who run the Village, regardless of who they might be.
Number One's identity[edit]
The connection between Number 6 and Number 1—the entity presumably in charge of the Village—is left intentionally ambiguous and has been the subject of debate and analysis since the final episode of the series aired. In "Fall Out", Number 6 encounters a man who is supposedly Number 1: upon removing two masks worn by him, a person who is identical to Number 6 is revealed. This man quickly escapes and never appears again. Speculation as to the identity of this person varies from Number 6 having created The Village in his mind, a twin brother of Number 6, John Drake (McGoohan's character in the two Danger Man series), a likely mind-straining hallucination, or that he is Patrick McGoohan himself (who, as creator of the show, ultimately controlled The Village). This last interpretation would coincide with the ending of A Hundred Years of Solitude, by Gabriel García Marquez, which coincidentally was first published in 1967.
Ultimate fate[edit]
In the final episode—"Fall Out", following the events, in which the character (formerly known as "Number 6", but, now addressed simply as "The Man"), along with a revived Number 2 and Number 48, as well as the Butler—appear to have escaped the Village. However, his ultimate fate is not revealed. As The Butler enters The Man's original house, the door opens automatically, as doors in the Village had. Additionally, the hearse (seen in the opening credits when the occupant gets out and gases the Prisoner through his door letter box) appears to drive by again. Finally, as The Man drives towards the viewer (in the exact fashion as the series' episodes begin) the words "The Prisoner" appear on screen.
In interviews, McGoohan has repeatedly maintained "[the Prisoner] hasn't got [his freedom]".
Shattered Visage[edit]
In the late 1980s, DC Comics published Shattered Visage, a four-issue comic book mini-series based on The Prisoner, drawn by Mister X creator Dean Motter and co-written with Mark Askwith. Taking place twenty years after the TV series, a shipwrecked woman named Alice Drake is washed up on the shores of the Village. She comes across an older, bearded Number 6.
Number 6 is a gentleman living a solitary life as the single inhabitant of the Village. He says that the other villagers were "free to go" while he was "free to stay" and describes his need to be liberated from societal conditioning and conformity. While 6 is mysterious and a distant isolationist, Alice finds him kind as he puts her up in his old number six residence, takes her for a tour of the Village, catches fish and makes them dinner.
Later, Alice encounters Number 2 (this is the Number 2 portrayed by Leo McKern in three episodes), who speaks of 6 as a man of many talents and tremendous influence, who was punished as an individual for actions he was made to perform on behalf of all his countrymen.
Number 2 claims that Number 6 was imprisoned, interrogated, and eventually broken for the secrets he contained. According to his version of events, what is seen onscreen in "Fall Out", the last episode, is a drug-enhanced psycho drama, in which Number 6 was lauded for his individuality and thus granted a number of his preference, Number 1. The paradox that 6 was the only individual and therefore Number 1, apparently broke 6's mind. However, Number 2's account is contradicted by British intelligence files indicating that Number 6 "did not talk," leaving Number 6's motives for remaining in the Village open to interpretation.
In a later confrontation between Numbers 1 and Number 6 which leads to a fistfight, Number 2 calls 6 a coward, saying that 6 lost twenty years ago and won't return to the outside world because then he'd have to face defeat. Number 2 adds that 6's secrets are out of date and that 6 is nothing. Their fight takes them inside an old mill as a pummeled Number 6 declares that he is a free man and his life is his own. Number 2—choking 6 around the neck with both hands—answers, "Then take it!" Both fall out the window of the mill, into the water below. Shortly afterwards, Number 6 returns to his old place of residence in the Village, and begins to shave his beard.
At the end of the story, Number 6 and Alice Drake have returned to London. 6 is clean-shaven and tidily dressed. Alice asks 6 who Number 1 was. 6 asks in reply, "Does the presence of Number 2 require the existence of Number 1?" He assures her that the secrets the Village sought from him are safe. "None of us would be here if they weren't," he says with a confident smile.
Personal habits[edit]
Medically, Number 6 appears to be in good health. However, the episode "Free For All" reveals that he was required to eliminate sugar from his diet "on medical advice" (although he intentionally drops sugar cubes in his tea in "The Chimes of Big Ben" as an act of defiance). [This act had been also done earlier in the series.] He claims rarely to drink in "Dance of the Dead", and is seen to smoke only twice: once a cigar, and once in a dream sequence. "The Schizoid Man" establishes Number 6 as an at-least-occasional cigar smoker, as Number Two brainwashes him into preferring Russian cigarettes as a means of undermining his identity. Number 6 has repeatedly been under the influence of psychotropic and hallucinogenic drugs, and undergone periods of severe mental or physical stress without apparent effect on his health, although he has occasionally been driven to exhaustion by his ordeals.
Names and codenames[edit]
A few names are attached to Number 6 in the series, but it's impossible to tell if any of them are real. In "Many Happy Returns" he identifies himself as 'Peter Smith'. Although it is possible that this is an alias, he does give it to a woman who has presented herself as the current owner of his car and tenant of his apartment. He in fact asks to examine the former's lease and the latter's log books, expressing surprise that both bear only her name. However, the house and car may have been acquired under one of Number 6's long-term false identities as a spy.
In the episode "Do Not Forsake Me Oh My Darling", it is learned that Number 6 possesses numerous code names: Schmidt, Duval, and ZM-73.
Is Number Six really John Drake?[edit]
Many fans of The Prisoner believe that Number Six is really John Drake, the character that McGoohan played in Danger Man (first from 1960 to 1962, then again from 1964 to 1966), but the actor always denied this. In a 1966 interview in The Los Angeles Times, with reporter Robert Musel, McGoohan stated that "John Drake of Secret Agent is gone" (Secret Agent being the name of Danger Man in the USA). Further McGoohan stated in a 1985 interview that No.6 is not the same character as John Drake, further adding that he had originally wanted another actor to portray the character.[2] However, script editor, George Markstein, who co-created the series with McGoohan, always claimed that Number Six is John Drake.
According to Markstein, he conceived the Prisoner show-format as a revamp of Danger Man when McGoohan resigned.[3] In Markstein's mind, The Prisoner was a sequel. Markstein's spy thriller concept was then melded with McGoohan's Kafka-esque ideas, which McGoohan had been developing since he first saw Portmeirion during the shooting of a Danger Man episode in 1959.
Official novels based on the series also make this connection, specifically those written by Thomas Disch and David McDaniel, although these are generally not considered canonical. McDaniel's novel refers to Number Six as "Drake" from its very first sentence: "Drake woke."[4]
In fact, Number Six's real name is never given or learned, even in episodes when he has met old colleagues or friends in the village, or in episodes where he comes into contact with his former superiors, coworkers or people in his life, they never refer to him by name, and such episodes appear to go out of their way to avoid anyone actually speaking his name. In addition to this, the character of Fotheringay is played by Richard Wattis, who played one of Drake's superiors on Danger Man. Also, Christopher Benjamin plays a secret service contact named Potter in both Danger Man and "The Girl Who Was Death" episode of The Prisoner. However, Wattis' character on Danger Man was named Hardy, not Fotheringay, and Christopher Benjamin appears in early episodes of The Prisoner as an assistant to several Number Six's without being identified as Potter. The significance of Wattis and Benjamin's appearances is uncertain, especially as Potter appears only in a story being improvised by Number 6.
While John Drake and Number Six look identical and have the same moral integrity, the same profession, the same skills, and the same mannerisms, some differences are noteworthy. Drake is a less emotional, more restrained character while Number Six has a tendency to be outraged and furious as well as superior and condescending. Drake is a regular smoker of cigarettes and cigars, while Number Six smokes only twice in The Prisoner, despite the ready availability of tobacco in the Village (during the production of The Prisoner, Patrick McGoohan smoked constantly, which suggests that Number 6's only occasional smoking is a deliberate characterisation). Drake is seen frequently consuming alcoholic beverages (or at least appearing to do so in the course of his undercover work) while Number Six claims to rarely drink. Drake seems to prefer business suits with ties while Number Six's clothing of choice is a dark sweater beneath a dress-jacket. However, the choice of clothing available to Number Six is limited to what was available in The Village. It may be significant that in the Danger Man episode "The Paper Chase" Drake wears an outfit identical to the one worn by Number 6 in the opening credits of The Prisoner.
In other works[edit]
The Simpsons episode "The Computer Wore Menace Shoes", parodies The Prisoner, with McGoohan reprising his role as Number 6 and Homer Simpson as Number 5.
Allusions[edit]
Number Six (played by Tricia Helfer), who appears on the television series Battlestar Galactica, is a tribute to the character, according to Battlestar Galactica: The Official Companion (Titan Books, 2005).[5]
In the second volume of the Tales of the Shadowmen anthology series, Xavier Mauméjean's short story "Be Seeing You!" has Sherlock Holmes being the original Number 6, based on his birthdate of 6 January. Due to that, the original Number 2 (Winston Churchill) sets the policy that the Village's most difficult inmates will always be given the title of Number 6.
In the Iron Maiden song "The Prisoner", a section of speech from the series is played at the beginning of the song.
In the Fringe episode entitled Letters of Transit, Walter Bishop says loudly "I am not a number! I'm a free man!"
In the Battle Angel Alita sequel series, Last Order, main character Alita is confronted by Sechs (German for "Six"), who is a clone of Alita during her TUNED years (where she was known as "A-1"). Sechs in turn is trying to fight for her freedom and individuality, and believes that defeating Alita will grant her that.
In "Ready Player One (film)", the army of debt-indentured players belonging to Innovative Online Industries (IOI) is derisively referred to as "Sixers," because each has given up their name in exchange for a number.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ I Am (Not) A Number: Decoding The Prisoner, Kamera, 2017, ISBN 0-85730-175-6
Jump up ^ Calia, Barrington (Summer–Fall 1985). "Talking With McGoohan". New Video.
Jump up ^ An Interview with George Markstein Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ McDaniel, David (1969). The Prisoner #2. New York: Ace Books. p. 1. ASIN B001Q6TDUU.
Jump up ^ Battlestar Galactica: The Official Companion, Titan Books, 2005, ISBN 1-84576-225-8
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Colonisation of Africa
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A map of Africa in 1910
The history of external colonisation of Africa can be divided into two stages: Classical antiquity and European colonialism. In popular parlance, discussions of colonialism in Africa usually focus on the European conquests that resulted in the scramble for Africa after the Berlin Conference in the 19th century.[1][2] Settlements established by Europeans while incorporated abjection of natives, also brought with it governing and academic institutions as well as agricultural and technological innovations that offset the extractive institutions commonly attributed to colonialism by Western powers.[3]
In nearly all African countries today, the language used in government and media is a relic inherited from one of these waves of colonisation.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of Africa
2 Ancient and Medieval colonisation
3 Early modern period
4 Scramble for Africa
5 Decolonisation
6 Theoretical Frameworks
6.1 Summary
6.2 The legacy of Citizen and Subject
6.3 Achille Mbembe
6.4 Stephanie Terreni Brown
6.5 Critique
7 See also
8 Notes
8.1 Bibliography
9 External links
History of Africa[edit]
Main article: History of Africa
In Ancient times, people from Southern Europe and Western Asia colonised North Africa, while people from Southeast Asia colonised Madagascar.
In the Middle Ages, North and East Africa was further colonised by people from Western Asia.
In the Modern Era, Western Europeans colonised all parts of the continent, culminating in the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century. A wave of decolonisation followed after World War II.
The main instance of internal colonisation within the African continent was the Bantu migration.
Ancient and Medieval colonisation[edit]
North Africa experienced colonisation from Europe and Western Asia in the early historical period, particularly Greeks and Phoenicians.
Under Egypt's Pharaoh Amasis (570–526 BC) a Greek mercantile colony was established at Naucratis, some 50 miles from the later Alexandria.[4] Greeks also colonised Cyrenaica around the same time.[5] There was also an attempt in 513 BC to establish a Greek colony between Cyrene and Carthage, which resulted in the combined local and Carthaginian expulsion two years later of the Greek colonists.[6]
Alexander the Great (356–323 BC) founded Alexandria during his conquest of Egypt. This became one of the major cities of Hellenistic and Roman times, a trading and cultural centre as well as a military headquarters and communications hub.
Phoenicians established a number of colonies along the coast of North Africa. Some of these were founded relatively early. Utica, for example, was founded c. 1100 BC. Carthage, which means New City, has a traditional foundation date of 814 BC. It was established in what is now Tunisia and became a major power in the Mediterranean by the 4th century BC. The Carthaginians themselves sent out expeditions to explore and establish colonies along Africa's Atlantic coast. A surviving account of such is that of Hanno, which Harden who quotes it places at c. 425 BC.[7]
Carthage encountered and struggled with the Romans. After the third and final war between them, the Third Punic War (150–146 BC), Rome completely destroyed Carthage. Scullard mentions plans by such as Gaius Gracchus in the late 2nd century BC, Julius Caesar and Augustus in the mid- and late 1st century BC to establish a new Roman colony near the same site. This was established and under Augustus served as the capital city of African continent Roman province of Africa.[8]
Gothic Vandals briefly established a kingdom there in the 5th century, which shortly thereafter fell to the Romans again, this time the Byzantines. The whole of Roman/Byzantine North Africa eventually fell to the Arabs in the 7th century.
Arabs introduced the Arabic language and Islam in the early Medieval period, while the Malay people introduced varieties of their language to Madagascar even earlier.
Map of West Africa, ca. 1736, "explaining what belongs to England, Holland, Denmark, etc."
Early modern period[edit]
Main article: European exploration of Africa
Early European expeditions by the Portuguese concentrated on colonising previously uninhabited islands such as the Cape Verde Islands and São Tomé Island, or establishing coastal forts as a base for trade.
Areas controlled by European colonial powers on the African continent in 1913, shown along with current national boundaries
Belgian
British
French
German
Italian
Portuguese
Spanish
Independent
Scramble for Africa[edit]
Main article: Scramble for Africa
Established empires, notably Britain, Portugal and France, had already claimed for themselves vast areas of Africa and Asia, and emerging imperial powers like Italy and Germany had done likewise on a smaller scale. With the dismissal of the aging Chancellor Bismarck by Kaiser Wilhelm II, the relatively orderly colonisation became a frantic scramble. The 1885 Berlin Conference, initiated by Bismarck to establish international guidelines for the acquisition of African territory, formalised this "New Imperialism". Between the Franco-Prussian War and the Great War, Europe added almost 9 million square miles (23,000,000 km²)—one-fifth of the land area of the globe—to its overseas colonial possessions.
Vincent Khapoya notes the great self-esteem some European states felt at possessing territory many times larger than themselves. He adds the significant contribution made by Africans to struggle among the Great Powers. He states that one million people of African descent fought for the Allies in World War I and two million in World War II.[9]
Khapoya considers the colonisers' administrative styles. "The French, the Portuguese, the Germans and the Belgians exercised a highly centralised type of administration called 'direct rule.'"[10] The British sought to rule by identifying local power holders and encouraging or forcing these to administer for the British Empire. This was indirect rule.[11]
France ruled from France, appointing chiefs individually without considering traditional criteria, but rather loyalty to France. France established two large colonial federations in Africa, French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa. France appointed officials, passed laws and had to approve any measures passed by colonial assemblies.
Local groups in German East Africa resisted German enforced labour and taxation. The Germans were almost driven out of the area in 1888.[12] A decade later the colony seemed conquered, though, "It had been a long drawn-out struggle and inland administration centres were in reality little more than a series of small military fortresses." In 1905, the Germans were astonished by a widely supported uprising. This resistance was at first successful. However, within a year, the insurgency was suppressed by reinforcing troops armed with machine guns. German attempts to seize control in Southwest Africa also produced ardent resistance, which was very forcefully put down.[13]
King Leopold II of Belgium called his vast private colony the Congo Free State. Effectively this meant those exploiting the area were free of all restraint and answerable only to the Belgian king.[14] The treatment of the Africans under this system was harsh enough to cause the other colonial powers to plead with the Belgian king to exercise some moderating influence. Eventually the Belgian government annexed the territory as a Belgian colony.[14]
Khapoya notes the significant attention colonial powers paid to the economics of colonisation. This included: acquisition of land, often enforced labour, introduction of cash crops, sometimes even to the neglect of food crops, changing inter-African trading patterns of pre-colonial times, introduction of labourers from India, etc. and the continuation of Africa as a source of raw materials for European industry.[15] Colonial powers later focused on abolishing slavery, developing infrastructure, and improving health and education.[16][17]
Decolonisation[edit]
Main article: Decolonisation of Africa
Vincent Khapoya notes the significant resistance of powers faced to their domination in Africa. Technical superiority enabled conquest and control. Pro-independence Africans recognised the value of European education in dealing with Europeans in Africa. Some Africans established their own churches. Africans also noticed the unequal evidence of gratitude they received for their efforts to support Imperialist countries during the world wars.[18]
Vincent Khapoya also notes that while European imposed borders did not correspond to traditional territories, such new territories provided entities to focus efforts by movements for increased political voice up to independence. Among local groups so concerned were professionals such as lawyers and doctors, the petite bourgeoisie (clerks, teachers, small merchants), urban workers, cash crop farmers, peasant farmers, etc. Trade unions and other initially non-political associations evolved into political movements.
Khapoya describes the differences in gaining independence by British and French colonies. Britain sought to follow a process of gradual transfer of power. The French policy of assimilation faced some resentment, especially in North Africa.[19] Shillington describes the granting of independence in March 1956 to Morocco and Tunisia to allow concentration on Algeria where there was a long (1954–62) and bloody armed struggle to achieve independence.[20] Khapoya writes that when President de Gaulle in 1958 held a referendum in its African colonies on the issue, only Guinea voted for outright independence. Nevertheless, in 1959 France amended the constitution to allow other colonies this option.[21]
As Shillington describes farmers in British East Africa were upset by attempts to take their land and to impose agricultural methods against their wishes and experience. In Tanganyika, Julius Nyerere exerted influence not only among Africans, united by the common Swahili language, but also on some white leaders whose disproportionate voice under a racially weighted constitution was significant. He became the leader of an independent Tanganyika in 1961. In Kenya, whites had evicted African tenant farmers in the 1930s; since the '40s there has been conflict, which intensified in 1952. By 1955, Britain had suppressed the revolt, and by 1960 Britain accepted the principle of African majority rule. Kenya became independent three years later.[22]
Shillington vividly portrays Belgium's initial opposition to independence, the demands by some urban Africans, the 1957 & 1958 local elections meant to calm this dissatisfaction, the general unrest that swept the colony, the rapid granting of independence and the civil strife that ensued.[23]
The main period of decolonisation in Africa began after World War II. Growing independence movements, indigenous political parties and trade unions coupled with pressure from within the imperialist powers and from the United States ensured the decolonisation of the majority of the continent by 1980. While some areas, in particular, South Africa, & Namibia retain a large population of European descent, only the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla and the islands of Réunion, the Canary Islands, and Madeira remain under European control.
Theoretical Frameworks[edit]
The theory of colonialism addresses the problems and consequences of the colonisation of a country, and there has been much research conducted exploring these concepts.
Summary[edit]
Mahmood Mamdani
Mahmood Mamdani wrote his book Citizen and Subject in 1996. The main point of his argument is that the colonial state in Africa took the form of a bifurcated state, “two forms of power under a single hegemonic authority”.[24] The colonial state in Africa was divided into two. One state for the colonial European population and one state for the indigenous population. The colonial power was mainly in urban towns and cities and were served by elected governments. The indigenous power was found in rural villages and were ruled by tribal authority, which seemed to be more in keeping with their history and tradition. Mamdani mentions that in urban areas, native institutions were not recognised. The natives, who were portrayed as uncivilised by the Europeans, were excluded from the rights of citizenship.[25] The division of the colonial state created a racial segregation between the European ‘citizen’ and African ‘subject’, and a division between institutions of government.
The legacy of Citizen and Subject[edit]
The division Mamdani spoke about in Citizen and Subject is still visible in African cities. The segregation he talks about was based on race, but now, it is based on wealth and class. African urban cities are divided between rich areas, and poor areas that do not have services. This is best illustrated by Johnny Miller, who created a project called Unequal Scenes to showcase the inequalities in urban African spaces. One city that Miller looks at is Nairobi in Kenya. The photographs he provides highlights the housing inequality. The suburb of Loresho is home to the rich that live in gated communities, and to the poor that live in slum communities. They are only separated by a concrete barrier. This barrier represents a class segregation and the uneven distribution of wealth.[26]
Achille Mbembe[edit]
Achille Mbembe
Achille Mbembe is a Cameroonian historian, political theorist, and philosopher who has written and theorized extensively on life in the colony and postcolony. His 2000 book, On the Postcolony, critically examines postcolonial life in Africa and is a prolific work within the field of postcolonialism. It is through this examination of the postcolony that Mbembe reveals the modes through which power was exerted in colonial Africa. He reminds the reader that colonial powers demanded use of African bodies in particularly violent ways for the purpose of labor as well as the shaping of subservient colonised identities.
Through a comparison of power in the colony and postcolony, Mbembe demonstrates that violence in the colony was exerted on African bodies largely for the purpose of labor and submission.[27] European colonial powers sought natural resources in African colonies and needed the requisite labor force to extract them and simultaneously build the colonial city around these industries. Because Europeans viewed native bodies as degenerate and in need of taming, violence was necessary to create a submissive laborer.[27]
Colonisers viewed this violence as necessary and good because it shaped the African into a productive worker.[27] They had the simultaneous goals of utilizing the raw labor and shaping the identity and character of the African. By beating into the African a docile nature, colonisers ultimately shaped and enforced the way Africans could move through colonial spaces.[27] The African’s day-to-day life then became a show of submission done through exercises like public works projects and military conscription.[27]
Mbembe contrasts colonial violence with that of the postcolony. Mbembe demonstrates that violence in the postcolony is cruder and more generally for the purpose of demonstrating raw power. Expressions of excess and exaggeration characterize this violence.[27]
Mbembe’s theorization of violence in the colony illuminates the unequal relationship between the coloniser and colonised and reminds us of the violence inflicted on African bodies throughout the process of colonisation. It cannot be understood nor should be taught without the context of this violence.
Stephanie Terreni Brown[edit]
Stephanie Terreni Brown is an academic in the field of Colonialism. In her 2014 paper she examines how sanitation and dirt is used in colonial narratives through the example of Kampala in Uganda. Writing also about Abjection through sanitation planning in the city and how this plays a key role in this narrative of colonisation.[28]
Brown describes Abjection as the process whereby one group others or dehumanizes another. Those who are deemed Abject are often avoided by others, and seen as inferior. Abjectivication is continually used as a mechanism to dominate a group of people, and control them. In the case of colonialism, she argues that it is used by the west to dominate over and control the indigenous population of Africa.[28]
Abjectivication through discourses of dirt and sanitation are used to draw distinctions between the Western governing figures and the local population. Dirt being seen as something out of place, whilst cleanliness being attributed to the “in group”, the colonisers, and dirt being paralleled with the indigenous people. The reactions of disgust and displeasure to dirt and uncleanliness are often linked social norms and the wider cultural context, shaping the way in which Africa is still thought of today.[28]
Brown discusses how the colonial authorities were only concerned with constructing a working sewage system to cater for the colonials themselves, and weren’t concerned with the Ugandan population. This rhetoric of sanitation is important because it is seen as a key part of modernity and being civilised, which the African population are therefore seen as not being. This lack of sanitation and proper sewage systems add to this discourse of the people of Africa and Africa itself being savages and uncivilised, playing a central role in how the west justified the case of the civilising process. Brown refers to this process of abjectification using discourses of dirt as a physical and material legacy of colonialism that is still very much present in Kampala and other African cities today.[28]
Critique[edit]
Critical theory on the colonisation of Africa is largely unified in a condemnation of imperial activities. Postcolonial theory has been derived from this anti-colonial/anti-imperial concept and writers such as Mbembe, Mamdani and Brown, and many more, have used it as a narrative for their work on the colonisation of Africa.
‘Post colonialism can be described as a powerful interdisciplinary mood in the social sciences and humanities that is refocusing attention on the imperial/colonial past, and critically revising understanding of the place of the west in the world.’ [29]
Postcolonial geographers are consistent with the notion that colonialism, although maybe not in such clear-cut forms, is still concurrent today. Both Mbembe, Mamdani and Brown’s theories have a consistent theme of the indigenous Africans having been treated as uncivilised, second class citizens and that in many former colonial cities this has continued into the present day with a switch from race to wealth divide.
Mbembe is one of the most prominent writers within the field and this has led to his work being reviewed by numerous academics. On the Postcolony has faced criticism from academics such as Meredith Terreta for focusing too much on specific African nations such as Cameroon.[30] Echoes of this criticism can also be found when looking at the work of Mamdani with his theories questioned for generalising across an Africa that, in reality, was colonised in very different ways, by fundamentally different European imperial ideologies.[31] In contrast to Mbembe and Mamdani, Brown is a less prominent writer and one whose work is yet to be reviewed by other academics meaning it is currently harder to grasp what academic theoretical critiques could be brought against her work.
See also[edit]
Africa portal
Economic history of Africa
Neocolonialism
Third world
White African
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Harris (1914)
Jump up ^ Miers & Klein (1998)
Jump up ^ Easterly, William; Levine, Ross (2016). "The European Origins of Economic Development". Journal of Economic Growth. 21 (3): 225–257. doi:10.1007/s10887-016-9130-y.
Jump up ^ Boardman (1973), p. 114
Jump up ^ Boardman (1973), p. 151f
Jump up ^ Boardman (1973), p. 208
Jump up ^ Harden (1971), pp. 163–168
Jump up ^ Scullard (1976), pp. 37, 150, 216
Jump up ^ Khapoya (1998), p. 115f
Jump up ^ Bensoussan (2012)
Jump up ^ Khapoya (1998), p. 126f
Jump up ^ Shillington (1995)
Jump up ^ Shillington (1995), p. 340f
^ Jump up to: a b Khapoya (1998), p. 131
Jump up ^ Khapoya (1998), pp. 14–1431
Jump up ^ Lovejoy (2012)
Jump up ^ Ferguson (2003)
Jump up ^ Khapoya (1998), p. 148f
Jump up ^ Khapoya (1998), p. 177f
Jump up ^ Shillington (1995), p. 380f
Jump up ^ Khapoya (1998), p. 183
Jump up ^ Shillington (1995), p. 385f
Jump up ^ Shillington (1995), p. 391f
Jump up ^ 1946-, Mamdani, Mahmood, (1996). Citizen and subject : contemporary Africa and the legacy of late colonialism. Kampala: Fountain Publishers. p. 18. ISBN 9780852553992. OCLC 35445018.
Jump up ^ Mamdani, Mahmood (1996). Citizen and subject : contemporary Africa and the legacy of late colonialism. Kampala: Fountain. p. 16. ISBN 9780852553992.
Jump up ^ Miller, Johnny. "Nairobi". unequalscenes.com. Retrieved 30 October 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Mbembe, Achille (1992). "Provisional Notes on the Postcolony". Africa: Journal of the International African Institute. 62: 3–37.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Brown, Stephanie Terreni (2014-01-02). "Planning Kampala: histories of sanitary intervention and in/formal spaces". Critical African Studies. 6 (1): 71–90. doi:10.1080/21681392.2014.871841. ISSN 2168-1392.
Jump up ^ Clayton, Daniel (2003). "Chapter 18: Critical Imperial and Colonial Geographies". In Anderson, Kay; Domosh, Mona; Pile, Steve; Thrift, Nigel. Handbook of Cultural Geography. Sage London. pp. 354–368.
Jump up ^ Terretta, Meredith (2002). "Review Work: On the Postcolony by Achille Mbembe". Canadian Journal of African Studies. 36 (1): 161–163.
Jump up ^ Copans, Jean (1998). "Review of Citizen and Subject". Transformation. 36: 102–105.
Bibliography[edit]
Bensoussan, David (2012). Il était une fois le Maroc - Témoignages du passé judéo-marocain (2nd ed.). iUniverse. ISBN 978-1-4759-2609-5.
Boardman, John (1973) [1964]. The Greeks Overseas. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Crowther, Michael (1978) [1962]. The Story of Nigeria. London: Faber and Faber.
Davidson, Basil (1966) [1964]. The African Past. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
Ferguson, Niall (2003). Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-9615-3.
Harden, Donald (1971) [1962]. The Phoenicians. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Harris, Norman Dwight (1914). Intervention and Colonization in Africa. Houghton Mifflin.
Khapoya, Vincent B. (1998) [1994]. The African Experience (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0137458525.
Lovejoy, Paul E. (2012). Transformations of Slavery: a History of Slavery in Africa (3rd ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521176187.
Miers, Suzanne; Klein, Martin A. (1998). Slavery and Colonial Rule in Africa (Slave and Post-Slave Societies and Cultures). Routledge. ISBN 9780714644363.
Rodney, Walter (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. London: Bogle-L'Ouverture. ISBN 0-9501546-4-4.
Scullard, H. H. (1976) [1959]. From the Gracchi to Nero. London: Methuen and Co.
Shillington, Kevin (1995) [1989]. History of Africa (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 9780312125981.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Colonial Africa.
Economic Impact of Colonialism
Germany Refuses to Apologize for Herero Holocaust – from Africana.com
Andre Osborn, "Belgium exhumes its colonial demons", The Guardian, 12 July 2002
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Urbanisation in India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2016)
Mumbai, Maharashtra is the most populous city in India, and the fourth most populous city in the world, with a total metropolitan area population of approximately 20.5 million.
Urbanization in India began to accelerate after independence, due to the country's adoption of a mixed economy, which gave rise to the development of the private sector. Urbanisation is taking place at a faster rate in India. Population residing in urban areas in India, according to 1901 census, was 11.4%.[1] This count increased to 28.53% according to 2001 census, and crossing 30% as per 2011 census, standing at 31.16%.[2][3] According to a survey by UN State of the World Population report in 2007, by 2030, 40.76% of country's population is expected to reside in urban areas.[4] As per World Bank, India, along with China, Indonesia, Nigeria, and the United States, will lead the world's urban population surge by 2050.[2]
Bombay (Mumbai) saw large scale rural-urban migration in the 20th century.[see main] Mumbai accommodates 12.5 million people, and is the largest metropolis by population in India, followed by Delhi with 11 million inhabitants. Witnessing the fastest rate of and urbanisation in the world, as per 2011 census, Delhi's population rise by 4.1%, Mumbai's by 3.1% and Kolkata's by 2% as per 2011 census compared to 2001 census.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 The transition period
1.2 Modern India
2 Causes of urbanization in India
3 Consequences of urbanization
4 Urban unemployment
5 References
6 Bibliography
History[edit]
The transition period[edit]
After independence, India faced poverty, unemployment, and economic backwardness. The first Prime Minister of India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, failed to focus on the domain of science and technology.[5] The mixed economy system was adopted, resulting in the growth of the Public sector in India crippling down the development of Indian economy leading to what is popularly known as Hindu rate of growth.[6]
Modern India[edit]
v
t
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Largest urban agglomerations in India by population
(2011 census)[7]

Delhi

Mumbai
Rank
City Name
State/Territory
Population
Rank
City Name
State/Territory
Population

Kolkata

Chennai
1 Mumbai Maharashtra 18,414,288 11 Kanpur Uttar Pradesh 2,920,067
2 Delhi Delhi 16,314,838 12 Lucknow Uttar Pradesh 2,901,474
3 Kolkata West Bengal 14,112,536 13 Nagpur Maharashtra 2,497,777
4 Chennai Tamil Nadu 8,696,010 14 Ghaziabad Uttar Pradesh 2,358,525
5 Bengaluru Karnataka 8,499,399 15 Indore Madhya Pradesh 2,167,447
6 Hyderabad Telangana 7,749,334 16 Coimbatore Tamil Nadu 2,151,466
7 Ahmedabad Gujarat 6,352,254 17 Kochi Kerala 2,117,990
8 Pune Maharashtra 5,049,968 18 Patna Bihar 2,046,652
9 Surat Gujarat 4,585,367 19 Kozhikode Kerala 2,030,519
10 Jaipur Rajasthan 3,073,350 20 Thrissur Kerala 1,854,783
The contribution of the agricultural sector to the GDP of India started to decline and the percentage contribution from secondary sector increased. The period after 1941, witnessed rapid growth of four metropolitan cities in India, which were Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai, and Chennai.[8] The nation's economy saw a rise due to industrial revolution and the invention of new technologies increased the standard of living of people living in urban areas.[9] The growth of public sector resulted in development of public transport, roads, water supply, electricity, and hence the infrastructure of urban areas.
Maharashtra was the most urbanized state in India till 1991, stood behind Tamil Nadu in 2001 and third after it in 2011, with Kerala being second,[10] with the urban-total state population ratio. However, Maharashtra's urban population of 41 million, far exceeds that of Tamil Nadu which is at 27 million, as per the 2001 census.[11]
Causes of urbanization in India[edit]
The main causes of urbanization in India are:
Expansion in government services, as a result of the Second World War
Migration of people during the partition of India[12][13][14]
The Industrial Revolution[15]
Eleventh five-year plan that aimed at urbanization for the economic development of India[16]
Economic opportunities are just one reason people move into cities
Infrastructure facilities in the urban areas[17]
Growth of private sector after 1990 .[18]
Growth of employment in cities is attracting people from rural areas as well as smaller cities to large towns. According to Mckinsey India's urban population will grow from 340 million in 2008 to 590 million in 2030.
Therefore, it is being driven by economic compulsions where people move out for economic advancements to areas offering better job opportunities.
It is also driven by land fragmentations, villages being erased due to roads and highway constructions, dam constructions and other activities.
Consequences of urbanization[edit]
Crowded housing and polluted waterway in Mumbai
Rapid rise in urban population, in India, is leading to many problems like increasing slums, decrease in standard of living in urban areas, also causing environmental damage.[19]
The Industrial Revolution in the 18th century caused countries like United States and England to become superpower nations but the present condition is worsening. India's urban growth rate is 2.07% which seems to be significant compared to Rwanda with 7.6%. India has around 300 million people living in metropolitan areas.[20] This has greatly caused slum problems, with so many people over crowding cities and forcing people to live in unsafe conditions which also includes illegal buildings. Water lines,roads and electricity are lacking which is causing fall of living standards. It is also adding to the problem of all types of pollution.[21]
Urbanization also results in a disparity in the market, owing to the large demands of the growing population and the primary sector struggling to cope with them.[22]
Allan Chirare, 15 August 2015 quotes: "Urbanization is just becoming a disaster to the city of Mumbai in India."
It can be argued that urbanization impacts the migrant himself at multiple levels. His network of friends and family become his support system during the initial transformation phase and the struggle to find a job. His struggle could take months to years in order to find a stable job. He is responsible to support himself in the city and family back home.
Some of positive shifts that have been back home from where migrants come, easing out of financial pressures as well as lifestyle up gradation of family through better homes and products that the migrant sends back.
On the otherhand, it poses a big challenge for the cities that are growing due to migrant population shifting in. How will cities support in terms of resources, land and space.
Urban unemployment[edit]
The National Sample Survey Organisation reported the following urban unemployment rates for the period July 2011–June 2012:[23]
Category of persons
Male
Female
Person
Unemployment rate (per 1000 persons in the labour force) 30 52 34
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kamaldeo Narain Singh (1 January 1978). Urban Development In India. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-080-8. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Business Standard (15 June 2012). "Victims of urbanization: India, Indonesia and China". Rediff.com. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Datta, Pranati. "Urbanisation in India" (PDF). Infostat.sk. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "Urbanization in India faster than rest of the world". Hindustan Times. 27 June 2007. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
Jump up ^ N. M. Khilnani (1993). Socio-Political Dimensions of Modern India. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. pp. 96–. ISBN 978-81-85880-06-8. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
Jump up ^ TR Jain; Mukesh Trehan; Ranju Trehan. Indian Economy and Business Environment (for BBA). FK Publications. pp. 250=. ISBN 978-81-87344-71-1. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "Table 3: Urban agglomerations having population 1 Lakh and above" (PDF). Provisional Population Totals. Government of India. Retrieved 2011-10-19.
Jump up ^ Viswambhar Nath; Surinder K. Aggarwal (1 January 2007). Urbanization, Urban Development, and Metropolitan Cities in India. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-81-8069-412-7. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "The Indian Industrial Revolution". Srcindore.org. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "Rural-Urban distribution of population" (PDF). Census of India Press Release. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "Urbanization" (PDF). Planning Commission (India). Retrieved 15 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Viswambhar Nath; Surinder K. Aggarwal (1 January 2007). Urbanization, Urban Development, and Metropolitan Cities in India. Concept Publishing Company. p. 6. ISBN 978-81-8069-412-7. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
Jump up ^ The Indian and Pakistan year book. Bennett, Coleman & Co. 1951. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Jonathan M. Harris; Tufts University. Global Development and Environment Institute (1 March 2001). A Survey of Sustainable Development: Social And Economic Dimensions. Island Press. pp. 142–. ISBN 978-1-55963-863-0. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
Jump up ^ N. T. K. Naik; S. Mansoor Rahman (1 January 2007). Urbanization of India. Serials Publications. ISBN 978-81-8387-078-8. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Amitabh Kundu. Trends and processes of urbanization in india. IIED. p. 1. GGKEY:NNAEQJ0WFTW. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Pradhan, Rudra Prakash. "Does infrastructure play role in urbanization: evidence from India". Indian Journal of Economics and Business via HighBeam Research.
Jump up ^ "Role of private sector in India's growth ~ Business News This Week". Businessnewsthisweek.com. 8 February 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2012.
Jump up ^ K. C. Sivaramakrishnan; Biplab Dasgupta; Mahesh N. Buch (1 January 1993). Urbanization in India: Basic Services and People's Participation. Concept Publishing Company. p. 2. ISBN 978-81-7022-480-8. Retrieved 13 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "AUICK Newsletter No.27". Auick.org. Retrieved 21 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Niu, Tong (18 January 2011). "Problems of Urbanisation in India". YouthKiAwaaz. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Javir. "Problems of Urbanization in India". Preserve Articles. Retrieved 15 June 2012.
Jump up ^ "Status of Urban Employment in the Country". PIB. 20 February 2014. Retrieved 21 February 2014.
Bibliography[edit]
Ballhatchet, Kenneth; Harrison, John (1980). The City in South Asia: Pre-Modern and Modern. Curzon Press.
[show]
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e
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