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Vanadium
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Vanadium, 23V
General properties
Pronunciation
/vəˈneɪdiəm/
və-NAY-dee-əm
Appearance
blue-silver-grey metal
Standard atomic weight (Ar, std)
7001509415000000000♠50.9415(1)[1]
Vanadium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
–
↑
V
↓
Nb
titanium ← vanadium → chromium
Atomic number (Z)
23
Group, period
group 5, period 4
Block
d-block
Element category
transition metal
Electron configuration
[Ar] 3d3 4s2
Electrons per shell
2, 8, 11, 2
Physical properties
Phase (at STP)
solid
Melting point
2183 K (1910 °C, 3470 °F)
Boiling point
3680 K (3407 °C, 6165 °F)
Density (near r.t.)
6.0 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)
5.5 g/cm3
Heat of fusion
21.5 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization
444 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity
24.89 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa)
1
10
100
1 k
10 k
100 k
at T (K)
2101 2289 2523 2814 3187 3679
Atomic properties
Oxidation states
5, 4, 3, 2, 1, −1, −3 (an amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity
Pauling scale: 1.63
Ionization energies
1st: 650.9 kJ/mol
2nd: 1414 kJ/mol
3rd: 2830 kJ/mol
(more)
Atomic radius
empirical: 134 pm
Covalent radius
153±8 pm
Spectral lines
Miscellanea
Crystal structure
body-centered cubic (bcc)
Speed of sound thin rod
4560 m/s (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansion
8.4 µm/(m·K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity
30.7 W/(m·K)
Electrical resistivity
197 nΩ·m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic ordering
paramagnetic
Magnetic susceptibility
+255.0·10−6 cm3/mol (298 K)[2]
Young's modulus
128 GPa
Shear modulus
47 GPa
Bulk modulus
160 GPa
Poisson ratio
0.37
Mohs hardness
6.7
Vickers hardness
628–640 MPa
Brinell hardness
600–742 MPa
CAS Number
7440-62-2
History
Discovery
Andrés Manuel del Río (1801)
First isolation
Nils Gabriel Sefström (1830)
Named by
Nils Gabriel Sefström (1830)
Main isotopes of vanadium
Isotope
Abundance
Half-life (t1/2)
Decay mode
Product
48V
syn 16 d β+ 48Ti
49V
syn 330 d ε 49Ti
50V
0.25% 1.5×1017 y ε 50Ti
β− 50Cr
51V
99.75% stable
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Vanadium is a chemical element with symbol V and atomic number 23. It is a hard, silvery grey, ductile, and malleable transition metal. The elemental metal is rarely found in nature, but once isolated artificially, the formation of an oxide layer (passivation) stabilizes the free metal somewhat against further oxidation.
Andrés Manuel del Río discovered compounds of vanadium in 1801 in Mexico by analyzing a new lead-bearing mineral he called "brown lead", and presumed its qualities were due to the presence of a new element, which he named erythronium (derived from Greek for "red") since, upon heating, most of the salts turned red. Four years later, however, he was (erroneously) convinced by other scientists that erythronium was identical to chromium. Chlorides of vanadium were generated in 1830 by Nils Gabriel Sefström who thereby proved that a new element was involved, which he named "vanadium" after the Scandinavian goddess of beauty and fertility, Vanadís (Freyja). Both names were attributed to the wide range of colors found in vanadium compounds. Del Rio's lead mineral was later renamed vanadinite for its vanadium content. In 1867 Henry Enfield Roscoe obtained the pure element.
Vanadium occurs naturally in about 65 different minerals and in fossil fuel deposits. It is produced in China and Russia from steel smelter slag; other countries produce it either from the flue dust of heavy oil, or as a byproduct of uranium mining. It is mainly used to produce specialty steel alloys such as high-speed tool steels. The most important industrial vanadium compound, vanadium pentoxide, is used as a catalyst for the production of sulfuric acid.
Large amounts of vanadium ions are found in a few organisms, possibly as a toxin. The oxide and some other salts of vanadium have moderate toxicity. Particularly in the ocean, vanadium is used by some life forms as an active center of enzymes, such as the vanadium bromoperoxidase of some ocean algae.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Characteristics
2.1 Isotopes
3 Chemistry
3.1 Oxyanions
3.2 Halide derivatives
3.3 Coordination compounds
3.4 Organometallic compounds
4 Occurrence
4.1 Universe
4.2 Earth's crust
4.3 Water
5 Production
6 Applications
6.1 Alloys
6.2 Other uses
6.2.1 Proposed
7 Biological role
7.1 Vanadoenzymes
7.2 Vanadium accumulation in tunicates and ascidians
7.3 Fungi
7.4 Mammals
7.5 Research
8 Safety
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
History[edit]
Vanadium was discovered by Andrés Manuel del Río, a Spanish-Mexican mineralogist, in 1801. Del Río extracted the element from a sample of Mexican "brown lead" ore, later named vanadinite. He found that its salts exhibit a wide variety of colors, and as a result he named the element panchromium (Greek: παγχρώμιο "all colors"). Later, Del Río renamed the element erythronium (Greek: ερυθρός "red") because most of the salts turned red upon heating. In 1805, the French chemist Hippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils, backed by del Río's friend Baron Alexander von Humboldt, incorrectly declared that del Río's new element was only an impure sample of chromium. Del Río accepted Collet-Descotils' statement and retracted his claim.[3]
In 1831, the Swedish chemist Nils Gabriel Sefström rediscovered the element in a new oxide he found while working with iron ores. Later that same year, Friedrich Wöhler confirmed del Río's earlier work.[4] Sefström chose a name beginning with V, which had not been assigned to any element yet. He called the element vanadium after Old Norse Vanadís (another name for the Norse Vanr goddess Freyja, whose attributes include beauty and fertility), because of the many beautifully colored chemical compounds it produces.[4] In 1831, the geologist George William Featherstonhaugh suggested that vanadium should be renamed "rionium" after del Río, but this suggestion was not followed.[5]
The Model T made use of vanadium steel in its chassis.
The isolation of vanadium metal proved difficult. In 1831, Berzelius reported the production of the metal, but Henry Enfield Roscoe showed that Berzelius had in fact produced the nitride, vanadium nitride (VN). Roscoe eventually produced the metal in 1867 by reduction of vanadium(II) chloride, VCl2, with hydrogen.[6] In 1927, pure vanadium was produced by reducing vanadium pentoxide with calcium.[7]
The first large-scale industrial use of vanadium was in the steel alloy chassis of the Ford Model T, inspired by French race cars. Vanadium steel allowed for reduced weight while simultaneously increasing tensile strength (ca. 1905).[8]
German chemist Martin Henze discovered vanadium in the blood cells (or coelomic cells) of Ascidiacea (sea squirts) in 1911.[9][10]
Characteristics[edit]
High-purity (99.95%) vanadium cuboids, ebeam remelted and macro-etched
Vanadium is a medium-hard, ductile, steel-blue metal. Some sources describe vanadium as "soft", perhaps because it is ductile, malleable and not brittle.[11][12] Vanadium is harder than most metals and steels (see Hardnesses of the elements (data page) and iron). It has good resistance to corrosion and it is stable against alkalis and sulfuric and hydrochloric acids.[13] It is oxidized in air at about 933 K (660 °C, 1220 °F), although an oxide passivation layer forms even at room temperature.
Isotopes[edit]
Main article: Isotopes of vanadium
Naturally occurring vanadium is composed of one stable isotope, 51V, and one radioactive isotope, 50V. The latter has a half-life of 1.5×1017 years and a natural abundance of 0.25%. 51V has a nuclear spin of 7⁄2, which is useful for NMR spectroscopy.[14] Twenty-four artificial radioisotopes have been characterized, ranging in mass number from 40 to 65. The most stable of these isotopes are 49V with a half-life of 330 days, and 48V with a half-life of 16.0 days. The remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives shorter than an hour, most below 10 seconds. At least four isotopes have metastable excited states.[14] Electron capture is the main decay mode for isotopes lighter than 51V. For the heavier ones, the most common mode is beta decay. The electron capture reactions lead to the formation of element 22 (titanium) isotopes, while beta decay leads to element 24 (chromium) isotopes.
Chemistry[edit]
See also: Category:Vanadium compounds.
From left: [V(H2O)6]2+ (lilac), [V(H2O)6]3+ (green), [VO(H2O)5]2+ (blue) and [VO(H2O)5]3+ (yellow).
The chemistry of vanadium is noteworthy for the accessibility of the four adjacent oxidation states 2–5. In aqueous solution, vanadium forms metal aquo complexes of which the colours are lilac [V(H2O)6]2+, green [V(H2O)6]3+, blue [VO(H2O)5]2+, yellow VO3−. Vanadium(II) compounds are reducing agents, and vanadium(V) compounds are oxidizing agents. Vanadium(IV) compounds often exist as vanadyl derivatives, which contain the VO2+ center.[13]
Ammonium vanadate(V) (NH4VO3) can be successively reduced with elemental zinc to obtain the different colors of vanadium in these four oxidation states. Lower oxidation states occur in compounds such as V(CO)6, [V(CO)
6]−
and substituted derivatives.[13]
The most commercially important compound is vanadium pentoxide. It is used as a catalyst for the production of sulfuric acid.[13] This compound oxidizes sulfur dioxide (SO
2) to the trioxide (SO
3). In this redox reaction, sulfur is oxidized from +4 to +6, and vanadium is reduced from +5 to +4:
V2O5 + SO2 → 2 VO2 + SO3[citation needed]
The catalyst is regenerated by oxidation with air:
2 VO2 + O2 → V2O5
Similar oxidations are used in the production of maleic anhydride, phthalic anhydride, and several other bulk organic compounds.[15]
The vanadium redox battery utilizes all four oxidation states; one electrode uses the +5/+4 couple and the other uses the +3/+2 couple. Conversion of these oxidation states is illustrated by the reduction of a strongly acidic solution of a vanadium(V) compound with zinc dust or amalgam. The initial yellow color characteristic of the pervanadyl ion [VO2(H2O)4]+ is replaced by the blue color of [VO(H2O)5]2+, followed by the green color of [V(H2O)6]3+ and then the violet color of [V(H2O)6]2+.[13]
Oxyanions[edit]
The decavanadate structure
In aqueous solution, vanadium(V) forms an extensive family of oxyanions. The interrelationships in this family are described by the predominance diagram, which shows at least 11 species, depending on pH and concentration.[16] The tetrahedral orthovanadate ion, VO3−
4, is the principal species present at pH 12-14. Similar in size and charge to phosphorus(V), vanadium(V) also parallels its chemistry and crystallography. Orthovanadate VO3−
4 is used in protein crystallography[17] to study the biochemistry of phosphate.[18] The tetrathiovanadate [VS4]3− is analogous to the orthovanadate ion.[19]
At lower pH's, the monomer [HVO4]2− and dimer [V2O7]− are formed, with the monomer predominant at vanadium concentration of less than c. 10−2M (pV > 2, where pV is equal to the minus value of the logarithm of the total vanadium concentration/M). The formation of the divanadate ion is analogous to the formation of the dichromate ion. As the pH is reduced, further protonation and condensation to polyvanadates occur: at pH 4-6 [H2VO4]− is predominant at pV greater than ca. 4, while at higher concentrations trimers and tetramers are formed. Between pH 2-4 decavanadate predominates, its formation from orthovanadate is represented by this condensation reaction:
10 [VO4]3− + 24 H+ → [V10O28]6− + 12 H2O
In decavanadate, each V(V) center is surrounded by six oxide ligands.[13] Vanadic acid, H3VO4 exists only at very low concentrations because protonation of the tetrahedral species [H2VO4]− results in the preferential formation of the octahedral [VO2(H2O)4]+ species. In strongly acidic solutions, pH<2. [VO2(H2O)4]+ is the predominant species, while the oxide V2O5 precipitates from solution at high concentrations. The oxide is formally the inorganic anhydride of vanadic acid. The structures of many vanadate compounds have been determined by X-ray crystallography.
The Pourbaix diagram for vanadium in water
The Pourbaix diagram for vanadium in water, which shows the redox potentials between various vanadium species in different oxidation states, is also complex.[20]
Vanadium(V) forms various peroxo complexes, most notably in the active site of the vanadium-containing bromoperoxidase enzymes. The species VO(O)2(H2O)4+ is stable in acidic solutions. In alkaline solutions, species with 2, 3 and 4 peroxide groups are known; the last forms violet salts with the formula M3V(O2)4 nH2O (M = Li, Na, etc.), in which the vanadium has an 8-coordinate dodecahedral structure.[21][22]
Halide derivatives[edit]
Twelve binary halides, compounds with the formula VXn (n=2..5), are known. VI4, VCl5, VBr5, and VI5 do not exist or are extremely unstable. In combination with other reagents, VCl4 is used as a catalyst for polymerization of dienes. Like all binary halides, those of vanadium are Lewis acidic, especially those of V(IV) and V(V). Many of the halides form octahedral complexes with the formula VXnL6−n (X = halide; L = other ligand).
Many vanadium oxyhalides (formula VOmXn) are known.[23] The oxytrichloride and oxytrifluoride (VOCl3 and VOF3) are the most widely studied. Akin to POCl3, they are volatile, adopt tetrahedral structures in the gas phase, and are Lewis acidic.
Coordination compounds[edit]
A ball-and-stick model of VO5(C5H7)2
Complexes of vanadium(II) and (III) are relatively exchange inert and reducing. Those of V(IV) and V(V) are oxidants. Vanadium ion is rather large and some complexes achieve coordination numbers greater than 6, as is the case in [V(CN)7]4−. Oxovanadium(V) also forms 7 coordinate coordination complexes with tetradentate ligands and peroxides and these complexes are used for oxidative brominations and thioether oxidations. The coordination chemistry of V4+ is dominated by the vanadyl center, VO2+, which binds four other ligands strongly and one weakly (the one trans to the vanadyl center). An example is vanadyl acetylacetonate (V(O)(O2C5H7)2). In this complex, the vanadium is 5-coordinate, square pyramidal, meaning that a sixth ligand, such as pyridine, may be attached, though the association constant of this process is small. Many 5-coordinate vanadyl complexes have a trigonal bypyramidal geometry, such as VOCl2(NMe3)2.[24] The coordination chemistry of V5+ is dominated by the relatively stable dioxovanadium coordination complexes which are often formed by aerial oxidation of the vanadium(IV) precursors indicating the stability of the +5 oxidation state and ease of interconversion between the +4 and +5 states.
Organometallic compounds[edit]
Main article: Organovanadium chemistry
Organometallic chemistry of vanadium is well developed, although it has mainly only academic significance. Vanadocene dichloride is a versatile starting reagent and even finds some applications in organic chemistry.[25] Vanadium carbonyl, V(CO)6, is a rare example of a paramagnetic metal carbonyl. Reduction yields V(CO)−
6 (isoelectronic with Cr(CO)6), which may be further reduced with sodium in liquid ammonia to yield V(CO)3−
5 (isoelectronic with Fe(CO)5).[26][27]
Occurrence[edit]
Vanadinite
Universe[edit]
The cosmic abundance of vanadium in the universe is 0.0001%, making the element nearly as common as copper or zinc.[28] Vanadium is detected spectroscopically in light from the Sun and sometimes in the light from other stars.[29]
Earth's crust[edit]
See also: Category:Vanadate minerals.
Vanadium is the 20th most abundant element in the earth's crust;[30] metallic vanadium is rare in nature (known as the mineral vanadium, native vanadium),[31][32] but vanadium compounds occur naturally in about 65 different minerals. Economically significant examples include patronite (VS4),[33] vanadinite (Pb5(VO4)3Cl), and carnotite (K2(UO2)2(VO4)2·3H2O). Much of the world's vanadium production is sourced from vanadium-bearing magnetite found in ultramafic gabbro bodies. Vanadium is mined mostly in South Africa, north-western China, and eastern Russia. In 2013 these three countries mined more than 97% of the 79,000 tonnes of produced vanadium.[34]
Vanadium is also present in bauxite and in deposits of crude oil, coal, oil shale and tar sands. In crude oil, concentrations up to 1200 ppm have been reported. When such oil products are burned, traces of vanadium may cause corrosion in engines and boilers.[35] An estimated 110,000 tonnes of vanadium per year are released into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels.[36]
Water[edit]
The vanadyl ion is abundant in seawater, having an average concentration of 30 nM.[28] Some mineral water springs also contain the ion in high concentrations. For example, springs near Mount Fuji contain as much as 54 μg per liter.[28]
Production[edit]
Ferrovanadium chunks
Vacuum sublimed vanadium dendritic crystals (99.9%)
Crystal-bar vanadium, showing different textures and surface oxidation; 3N5-pure cube for comparison
Most vanadium is used as a steel alloy called ferrovanadium. Ferrovanadium is produced directly by reducing a mixture of vanadium oxide, iron oxides and iron in an electric furnace. The vanadium ends up in pig iron produced from vanadium-bearing magnetite. Depending on the ore used, the slag contains up to 25% of vanadium.[37]
Vanadium metal is obtained by a multistep process that begins with the roasting of crushed ore with NaCl or Na2CO3 at about 850 °C to give sodium metavanadate (NaVO3). An aqueous extract of this solid is acidified to give "red cake", a polyvanadate salt, which is reduced with calcium metal. As an alternative for small-scale production, vanadium pentoxide is reduced with hydrogen or magnesium. Many other methods are also in use, in all of which vanadium is produced as a byproduct of other processes.[37] Purification of vanadium is possible by the crystal bar process developed by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer in 1925. It involves the formation of the metal iodide, in this example vanadium(III) iodide, and the subsequent decomposition to yield pure metal:[38]
2 V + 3 I2 ⇌ 2 VI3
Applications[edit]
Tool made from vanadium steel
Alloys[edit]
Approximately 85% of vanadium produced is used as ferrovanadium or as a steel additive.[37] The considerable increase of strength in steel containing small amounts of vanadium was discovered in the early 20th century. Vanadium forms stable nitrides and carbides, resulting in a significant increase in the strength of steel.[39] From that time on, vanadium steel was used for applications in axles, bicycle frames, crankshafts, gears, and other critical components. There are two groups of vanadium steel alloys. Vanadium high-carbon steel alloys contain 0.15% to 0.25% vanadium, and high-speed tool steels (HSS) have a vanadium content of 1% to 5%. For high-speed tool steels, a hardness above HRC 60 can be achieved. HSS steel is used in surgical instruments and tools.[40] Powder-metallurgic alloys contain up to 18% percent vanadium. The high content of vanadium carbides in those alloys increases wear resistance significantly. One application for those alloys is tools and knives.[41]
Vanadium stabilizes the beta form of titanium and increases the strength and temperature stability of titanium. Mixed with aluminium in titanium alloys, it is used in jet engines, high-speed airframes and dental implants. The most common alloy for seamless tubing is Titanium 3/2.5 containing 2.5% vanadium, the titanium alloy of choice in the aerospace, defense and bicycle industries.[42] Another common alloy, primarily produced in sheets, is Titanium 6AL-4V, a titanium alloy with 6% aluminium and 4% vanadium.[43]
Several vanadium alloys show superconducting behavior. The first A15 phase superconductor was a vanadium compound, V3Si, which was discovered in 1952.[44] Vanadium-gallium tape is used in superconducting magnets (17.5 teslas or 175,000 gauss). The structure of the superconducting A15 phase of V3Ga is similar to that of the more common Nb3Sn and Nb3Ti.[45]
It has been proposed that a small amount, 40 to 270 ppm, of vanadium in Wootz steel and Damascus steel significantly improved the strength of the product, though the source of the vanadium is unclear.[46]
Other uses[edit]
Vanadium(V) oxide is a catalyst in the contact process for producing sulfuric acid
Vanadium foil is used in cladding titanium to steel because it is compatible with both iron and titanium.[47] The moderate thermal neutron-capture cross-section and the short half-life of the isotopes produced by neutron capture makes vanadium a suitable material for the inner structure of a fusion reactor.[48][49]
The most common oxide of vanadium, vanadium pentoxide V2O5, is used as a catalyst in manufacturing sulfuric acid by the contact process[50] and as an oxidizer in maleic anhydride production.[51] Vanadium pentoxide is used in ceramics.[52] Vanadium is an important component of mixed metal oxide catalysts used in the oxidation of propane and propylene to acrolein, acrylic acid or the ammoxidation of propylene to acrylonitrile.[53][54][55] In service, the oxidation state of vanadium changes dynamically and reversibly with the oxygen and the steam content of the reacting feed mixture.[56][57] Another oxide of vanadium, vanadium dioxide VO2, is used in the production of glass coatings, which blocks infrared radiation (and not visible light) at a specific temperature.[58] Vanadium oxide can be used to induce color centers in corundum to create simulated alexandrite jewelry, although alexandrite in nature is a chrysoberyl.[59]
The Vanadium redox battery, a type of flow battery, is an electrochemical cell consisting of aqueous vanadium ions in different oxidation states.[60][61] Batteries of the type were first proposed in the 1930s and developed commercially from the 1980s onwards. Cells use +5 and +2 formal oxidization state ions, and (as of 2016) are used commercially for small scale (c. 0.1 - 10 MW, 0.1 - 100 GJ) grid energy storage.[citation needed]
Vanadate can be used for protecting steel against rust and corrosion by conversion coating.[62]
Proposed[edit]
Lithium vanadium oxide has been proposed for use as a high energy density anode for lithium ion batteries, at 745 Wh/L when paired with a lithium cobalt oxide cathode.[63] Vanadium phosphates have been proposed as the cathode in the Lithium Vanadium Phosphate Battery, another type of lithium ion battery.
Biological role[edit]
Vanadium is more important in marine environments than terrestrial.[64]
Active site of the enzyme vanadium bromoperoxidase, which produces the preponderance of naturally-occurring organobromine compounds.
Tunicates such as this bluebell tunicate contain vanadium as vanabin.
Amanita muscaria contains amavadin.
Vanadoenzymes[edit]
A number of species of marine algae produce vanadium bromoperoxidase as well as the closely related chloroperoxidase (which may use a heme or vanadium cofactor) and iodoperoxidases. The bromoperoxidase produces an estimated 1–2 million tons of bromoform and 56,000 tons of bromomethane annually.[65] Most naturally occurring organobromine compounds are produced by this enzyme,[66] catalyzing the following reaction (R-H is hydrocarbon substrate):
R-H + Br− + H2O2 → R-Br + H2O + OH−
A vanadium nitrogenase is used by some nitrogen-fixing micro-organisms, such as Azotobacter. In this role, vanadium replaces more common molybdenum or iron, and gives the nitrogenase slightly different properties.[67]
Vanadium accumulation in tunicates and ascidians[edit]
Vanadium is essential to ascidians and tunicates, where it is stored in the highly acidified vacuoles of certain blood cell types, designated "vanadocytes". Vanabins (vanadium binding proteins) have been identified in the cytoplasm of such cells. The concentration of vanadium in the blood of ascidians is as much as ten million times higher[specify][68][69] than the surrounding seawater, which normally contains 1 to 2 µg/l.[70][71] The function of this vanadium concentration system and these vanadium-bearing proteins is still unknown, but the vanadocytes are later deposited just under the outer surface of the tunic where they may deter predation.[72]
Fungi[edit]
Amanita muscaria and related species of macrofungi accumulate vanadium (up to 500 mg/kg in dry weight). Vanadium is present in the coordination complex amavadin[73] in fungal fruit-bodies. The biological importance of the accumulation is unknown.[74][75] Toxic or peroxidase enzyme functions have been suggested.
Mammals[edit]
Deficiencies in vanadium result in reduced growth in rats.[76] The U.S. Institute of Medicine has not confirmed that vanadium is an essential nutrient for humans, so neither a Recommended Dietary Intake nor an Adequate Intake have been established. Dietary intake is estimated at 6 to 18 µg/day, with less than 5% absorbed. The Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) of dietary vanadium, beyond which adverse effects may occur, is set at 1.8 mg/day.[77]
Research[edit]
Vanadyl sulfate as a dietary supplement has been researched as a means of increasing insulin sensitivity or otherwise improving glycemic control in people who are diabetic. Some of the trials had significant treatment effects, but were deemed as being of poor study quality. The amounts of vanadium used in these trials (30 to 150 mg) far exceeded the safe upper limit.[78][79] The conclusion of the systemic review was "There is no rigorous evidence that oral vanadium supplementation improves glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes. The routine use of vanadium for this purpose cannot be recommended."[78]
In astrobiology, it has been suggested that discrete vanadium accumulations on Mars could be a potential microbial biosignature, when used in conjunction with Raman spectroscopy and morphology.[80][81]
Safety[edit]
All vanadium compounds should be considered toxic. Tetravalent VOSO4 has been reported to be at least 5 times more toxic than trivalent V2O3.[82] The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set an exposure limit of 0.05 mg/m3 for vanadium pentoxide dust and 0.1 mg/m3 for vanadium pentoxide fumes in workplace air for an 8-hour workday, 40-hour work week.[83] The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has recommended that 35 mg/m3 of vanadium be considered immediately dangerous to life and health, that is, likely to cause permanent health problems or death.[83]
Vanadium compounds are poorly absorbed through the gastrointestinal system. Inhalation of vanadium and vanadium compounds results primarily in adverse effects on the respiratory system.[84][85][86] Quantitative data are, however, insufficient to derive a subchronic or chronic inhalation reference dose. Other effects have been reported after oral or inhalation exposures on blood parameters,[87][88] liver,[89] neurological development,[90] and other organs[91] in rats.
There is little evidence that vanadium or vanadium compounds are reproductive toxins or teratogens. Vanadium pentoxide was reported to be carcinogenic in male rats and in male and female mice by inhalation in an NTP study,[85] although the interpretation of the results has recently been disputed.[92] The carcinogenicity of vanadium has not been determined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.[93]
Vanadium traces in diesel fuels are the main fuel component in high temperature corrosion. During combustion, vanadium oxidizes and reacts with sodium and sulfur, yielding vanadate compounds with melting points as low as 530 °C, which attack the passivation layer on steel and render it susceptible to corrosion. The solid vanadium compounds also abrade engine components.[94][95]
See also[edit]
Green Giant mine
Grid energy storage
Flow battery
Vanadium carbide
Vanadium redox battery
Vanadium(V) oxide
Vanadium tetrachloride
References[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
Slebodnick, Carla; et al. (1999). "Modeling the Biological Chemistry of Vanadium: Structural and Reactivity Studies Elucidating Biological Function". In Hill, Hugh A.O.; et al. Metal sites in proteins and models: phosphatases, Lewis acids, and vanadium. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-65553-4.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vanadium.
Look up vanadium in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Videos
Vanadium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Research papers
National Instrument Vanadium Technical Report Vanadium recovery methods
ATSDR – ToxFAQs: Vanadium
Vanadium concentration in seawater and estuary environments is around 1.5-3.3 ug/kg [1].
Vanadium speciation and cycling in coastal waters [2]
Ocean anoxia and the concentrations of Molybdenum and Vanadium in seawater [3]
[hide]
v
t
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Periodic table
(Large cells)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1
H He
2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
6
Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
7
Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post-transition metal Metalloid Polyatomic nonmetal Diatomic nonmetal Noble gas Unknown
chemical
properties
[show]
v
t
e
Vanadium compounds
VBr2
VBr3
VC
V(CO)6
VCl2
VCl3
VCl4
VF3
VF4
VF5
VI3
VN
VO
VO2
VOCl3
VOF3
V2O3
V2O5
VS
VS2
V2S3
V2S5
V2(SO4)3
VOSO4
VO(ClO4)3
Authority control
LCCN: sh85142005
GND: 4187375-0
BNF: cb122626454 (data)
NDL: 00560502
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High speed steel

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Vanadium pentoxide

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Vanadium dioxide

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values: Meitnerium, 109 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Darmstadtium, 110 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Roentgenium, 111 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Copernicium, 112 (post-transition metal)

values: Nihonium, 113 (unknown chemical properties)

values: Flerovium, 114 (unknown chemical properties)

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Vanadium – Afrikaans
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values: فاناديوم – Arabic

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Vanadio – Aragonese
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an
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https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiu
Vanadiu – Asturian
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ast
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https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Azerbaijani
az
az
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values: ভ্যানাডিয়াম – Bangla

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values: Ванад – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values: वैनेडियम – Bhojpuri

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values:
https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadij
Vanadij – Bosnian
bs
bs
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values:
https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiom
Vanadiom – Breton
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br
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values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadi
Vanadi – Catalan
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ca
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values: Ванади – Chuvash

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https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadyo
Vanadyo – Cebuano
ceb
ceb
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values:
https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanad
Vanad – Czech
cs
cs
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values:
https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiu
Vanadiu – Corsican
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co
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values:
https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanadiwm
Fanadiwm – Welsh
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cy
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https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Danish
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da
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https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – German
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de
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values: ވެނޭޑިއަމް – Divehi

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanaadium
Vanaadium – Estonian
et
et
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values: Βανάδιο – Greek

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadio
Vanadio – Spanish
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es
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values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanado
Vanado – Esperanto
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eo
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values:
https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banadio
Banadio – Basque
eu
eu
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values: وانادیم – Persian

values:
https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Fiji Hindi
hif
hif
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values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – French
fr
fr
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values:
https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadi
Vanadi – Friulian
fur
fur
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values:
https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanaidiam
Vanaidiam – Irish
ga
ga
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values:
https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanaadjum
Vanaadjum – Manx
gv
gv
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values:
https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhanadium
Bhanadium – Scottish Gaelic
gd
gd
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values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadio
Vanadio – Galician
gl
gl
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values: વેનેડિયમ – Gujarati

values:
https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Hakka Chinese
hak
hak
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values: Ванад – Kalmyk

values:
https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Hawaiian
haw
haw
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values: Վանադիում – Armenian

values: वनेडियम – Hindi

values:
https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadij
Vanadij – Croatian
hr
hr
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values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanado
Vanado – Ido
io
io
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values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Indonesian
id
id
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values:
https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Interlingua
ia
ia
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values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadio
Vanadio – Italian
it
it
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values: ונדיום – Hebrew

values: ವನಾಡಿಯಮ್ – Kannada

values: ვანადიუმი – Georgian

values: Ванадий – Kazakh

values:
https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadi
Vanadi – Swahili
sw
sw
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values: Ванадий – Komi

values: Ванадий – Kyrgyz

values:
https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Latin
la
la
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values:
https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Luxembourgish
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lb
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values:
https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadis
Vanadis – Lithuanian
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lt
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values:
https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanaddio
Vanaddio – Ligurian
lij
lij
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values:
https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Limburgish
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li
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https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadio
Vanadio – Lombard
lmo
lmo
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values: व्हेनेडियम – Marathi

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https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Malay
ms
ms
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https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Min Dong Chinese
cdo
cdo
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values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values: वनेडियम – Nepali

values: भ्यानडियम – Newari

values:
https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Northern Frisian
frr
frr
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values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Norwegian
no
no
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values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium
Vanadium – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
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values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadi
Vanadi – Occitan
oc
oc
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values: ଭାନାଡ଼ିଅମ – Odia

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiy
Vanadiy – Uzbek
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text:
Starry Night Over the Rhône
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Starry Night over the Rhône
French: Nuit étoilée sur le Rhône
Artist
Vincent van Gogh
Year
1888
Catalogue
F474
JH1592
Medium
Oil on canvas
Dimensions
72.5 cm × 92 cm (28.5 in × 36.2 in)
Location
Musée d'Orsay, Paris
Starry Night Over the Rhône (September 1888, French: Nuit étoilée sur le Rhône) is one of Vincent van Gogh's paintings of Arles at nighttime. It was painted at a spot on the bank of the Rhône that was only a one or two-minute walk from the Yellow House on the Place Lamartine which Van Gogh was renting at the time. The night sky and the effects of light at night provided the subject for some of his more famous paintings, including Cafe Terrace at Night (painted earlier the same month) and the later canvas from Saint-Rémy, The Starry Night.
A sketch of the painting is included in a letter van Gogh sent to his friend Eugène Boch on October 2, 1888.[1]
Starry Night Over the Rhône, which is now in the Musée d'Orsay in Paris, was first exhibited in 1889 at Paris' annual exhibition of the Société des Artistes Indépendants. It was shown together with van Gogh's Irises, which was added by Vincent's brother, Theo, although Vincent had proposed including one of his paintings from the public gardens in Arles.
Contents
1 Subject matter
2 Genesis
3 Colors of the night
4 In popular culture
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Subject matter[edit]
A similar view of the site, 2008
The view is from the quay (a waterside street) on the east side of the Rhône, into the knee of the river towards the western shore: coming down from the north, the Rhône turns to the right at this point to surround the rocks on which Arles is built. From the towers of Saint-Julien and Saint-Trophime at the left, the spectator follows the east bank up to the iron bridge connecting Arles to the suburb of Trinquetaille on the right, western bank. This implies a view from Place Lamartine towards the southwest. 43°40′57″N 4°37′49″E / 43.682367°N 4.630287°E / 43.682367; 4.630287
Genesis[edit]
Van Gogh announced and described this composition in a letter to his brother Theo:
Included a small sketch of a 30 square canvas - in short the starry sky painted by night, actually under a gas jet. The sky is aquamarine, the water is royal blue, the ground is mauve. The town is blue and purple. The gas is yellow and the reflections are russet gold descending down to green-bronze. On the aquamarine field of the sky the Great Bear is a sparkling green and pink, whose discreet paleness contrasts with the brutal gold of the gas. Two colorful figurines of lovers in the foreground.[2]
In reality, the view depicted in the painting faces away from Ursa Major, which is to the north. The foreground indicates heavy rework, wet-in-wet, as soon as the first state was finished.[3] The letter sketches executed at this time probably are based on the original composition.
Colors of the night[edit]
The challenge of painting at night intrigued van Gogh. The vantage point he chose for Starry Night Over the Rhône allowed him to capture the reflections of the gas lighting in Arles across the glimmering blue water of the Rhône. In the foreground, two lovers stroll by the banks of the river.
Depicting color was of great importance to Vincent; in letters to his brother, Theo, he often described objects in his paintings in terms of color. His night paintings, including Starry Night Over the Rhône, emphasize the importance he placed on capturing the sparkling colors of the night sky and of the artificial lighting that was new to the era.
In popular culture[edit]
The painting is referenced in Brian Eno and John Cale's song "Spinning Away" from the 1990 album Wrong Way Up. In the second verse, the singer's view is described as "like the night sky at Arles".
A fictionalised version of the painting appears in the Hearts of Stone expansion pack of the 2015 video game The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt.
The scene and stylized rendition of the painting appears in the 2017 film Loving Vincent, as do many other van Gogh settings and paintings.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Letter to Eugène Boch including a sketch of the Starry Night over the Rhone painting Archived 2012-07-29 at Archive.is
Jump up ^ Letter 543
Jump up ^ For a tracing of the original composition see Roland Dorn 1990, ill. p. 388
References[edit]
Boime, Albert: Vincent van Gogh: Starry Night. A history of matter, a matter of history (also available on CD-ROM: ISBN 3-634-23015-0 (German version))
Dorn, Roland: Décoration: Vincent van Gogh's Werkreihe für das Gelbe Haus in Arles, Georg Olms Verlag, Hildesheim, Zürich & New York 1990 ISBN 3-487-09098-8 / ISSN 0175-9558
External links[edit]
Media related to Starry Night Over the Rhone at Wikimedia Commons
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Starry_Night_Over_the_Rhône&oldid=842519062"
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