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India at the Olympics
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India at the
Olympics
IOC code
IND
NOC
Indian Olympic Association
Website
www.olympic.ind.in
Medals
Gold
9
Silver
7
Bronze
12
Total
28
Olympics appearances (overview)
34
Summer appearances
1900
1904–1912
1920
1924
1928
1932
1936
1948
1952
1956
1960
1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000
2004
2008
2012
2016
Winter appearances
1964
1968
1972–1984
1988
1992
1994
1998
2002
2006
2010
2014
2018
Other related appearances
Independent Olympic Participants
The Indian Hockey team at the 1936 Berlin Olympics, later going on to defeat Germany 8–1 in the final
India first participated at the Olympic Games in 1900, with a lone athlete (Norman Pritchard) winning two medals- both silver- in athletics. The nation first sent a team to the Summer Olympic Games in 1920, and has participated in every Summer Games since then. India has also competed at several Winter Olympic Games beginning in 1964. Indian athletes have won a total of 28 medals so far, all at the Summer Games. For a period of time, India national field hockey team was dominant in Olympic competition, winning eleven medals in twelve Olympics between 1920 and 1980. The run included 8 gold medals total and six successive gold medals from 1928–1956
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early history
1.2 Recent history
2 List of competitors
3 Medal tables
3.1 Medals by Summer Games
3.2 Medals by sport
4 List of medalists
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Early history[edit]
Indian Olympic delegation 1920
India sent its first athlete to the Summer Olympics for the 1900 Games, but an Indian national team did not compete at the Summer Olympics until 1920. Ahead of the 1920 Games, Sir Dorabji Tata and Governor of Bombay George Lloyd helped India secure representation at the International Olympic Council, enabling it to participate in the Games (see India at the 1920 Olympic Games). India then sent a team to the 1920 Olympics, comprising four athletes, two wrestlers, and managers Sohrab Bhoot and A. H. A. Fyzee. The Indian Olympic movement was then established during the 1920s: some founders of this movement were Dorabji Tata, A.G. Noehren (Madras College of Physical Education), H.C. Buck (Madras College of Physical Education), Moinul Haq (Bihar sports associations), S. Bhoot (Bombay Olympic Association), A.S. Bhagwat (Deccan Gymkhana), and Guru Dutt Sondhi (Punjab Olympic Association); Lt.Col H.L.O. Garrett (from the Government College Lahore and Punjab Olympic Association) and Sagnik Poddar (of St. Stephen's School) helped organise some early national games; and prominent patrons included Maharajas and royal princes Bhupinder Singh of Patiala, Ranjitsinhji of Nawanagar, the Maharaja of Kapurthala, and the Maharaja of Burdwan.
In 1923, a provisional All India Olympic Committee was formed, and in February 1924, the All India Olympic Games (that later became the National Games of India) were held to select a team for the Paris Summer Olympics. The Indian delegation at the Paris Olympics comprised seven athletes, seven tennis players and team manager Harry Buck.
In 1927, the provisional Indian Olympic Committee formally became the Indian Olympic Association (IOA); its main tasks were to promote the development of sports in India, choose host cities for the national games, and send teams selected from the national games to the Summer Olympics. Thus, at the 1928 national games, it selected seven athletes to represent India at the next Summer Olympics, with Sondhi as manager. By this time, the Indian Hockey Federation (IHF) had also been established and it sent a hockey team to the Summer Olympics. The national hockey team and additional sportspersons were similarly sent to the 1932 Games (four athletes and one swimmer) and 1936 (four athletes, three wrestlers, one Burmese weight-lifter), along with three officials headed by team manager Sondhi.
From 1948 onward, because of the IOA's wider outreach, India began sending delegations of over 50 sportspersons representing several sport, each selected by its sports federation, to the Summer Olympics. The delegation was headed by a chef-de-mission.
Thus, India's Summer Olympic delegation in the early Olympic Games was as follows:
1900: One athlete
1920: 6 competitors (four athletes, two wrestlers) and managers Bhoot and Fyzee
1924: 14 competitors (seven athletes, seven tennis players) and manager Harry Crowe Buck
1928: 21 competitors (seven athletes and a hockey team of 14) and manager G D Sondhi
1932: 20 competitors (four athletes, one swimmer, and a hockey team of 15) and three officials headed by manager G D Sondhi
1936: 27 competitors (four athletes, three wrestlers, one Burmese weight-lifter, and a hockey team of 19) and three officials including manager G D Sondhi
1948: 79 competitors and a few officials headed by chef-de-mission Moin ul Haq
1952: 64 competitors and some officials headed by chef-de-mission Moin ul Haq
Recent history[edit]
At the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Abhinav Bindra won gold in the Men's 10 metre air rifle event becoming the first Indian to win an individual gold medal at the Olympic Games. Vijender Singh got the country's first medal in boxing with his bronze medal in Middleweight category.
The 2012 Summer Olympics saw an 83-member Indian contingent participating in the games and setting a new best for the country with a total of six medals. Wrestler Sushil Kumar became the first Indian with multiple individual Olympic medals (bronze at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and silver at the 2012 Summer Olympics) since Norman Pritchard in 1900. Saina Nehwal won bronze medal in badminton in Women's singles getting the country's first Olympic medal in badminton. Pugilist Mary Kom became the first Indian woman to win a medal in boxing with her bronze medal finish in Women's flyweight category.
At the 2016 Summer Olympics, a record number of 118 athletes competed. Sakshi Malik became the first Indian woman wrestler to win an Olympic medal with her bronze medal finish in Women's freestyle 58 kg category. Shuttler P. V. Sindhu became the first Indian woman to win a silver medal in Olympics and also the youngest Indian Olympic medallist.
List of competitors[edit]
This list provides a comparative compendium of all the participants/competitors of India in the summer Olympic games.
Games
Sports
Men
Women
Total
Change
Gold Silver Bronze Total
Change
1900 1 1 0 1 NA 0 2 0 2 NA
1920 2 6 0 6 +5 0 0 0 0 −2
1924 2 13 2 15 +8 0 0 0 0 0
1928 2 21 0 21 +7 1 0 0 1 +1
1932 3 30 0 30 +9 1 0 0 1 0
1936 3–4 27 0 27 −3 1 0 0 1 0
1948 10 79 0 79 +52 1 0 0 1 0
1952 11 60 4 64 −15 1 0 1 2 +1
1956 8 58 1 59 −5 1 0 0 1 −1
1960 6 45 0 45 −14 0 1 0 1 0
1964 8 52 1 53 +8 1 0 0 1 0
1968 5 25 0 25 −28 0 0 1 1 0
1972 7 40 1 41 +16 0 0 1 1 0
1976 2 20 0 20 −21 0 0 0 0 −1
1980 1 58 18 76 +56 1 0 0 1 +1
1984 48 −28 0 0 0 0 −1
1988 7 46 −2 0 0 0 0 0
1992 5 53 +7 0 0 0 0 0
1996 13 44 4 49 −4 0 0 1 1 +1
2000 7 65 +16 0 0 1 1 0
2004 14 48 25 73 +8 0 1 0 1 0
2008 12 31 25 56 −17 1 0 2 3 +2
2012 13 60 23 83 +27 0 2 4 6 +3
2016 15 66 54 118 +35 0 1 1 2 −4
This list provides a comparative compendium of all the participants/competitors of India in the winter Olympic games.
Games
Sports
Men
Women
Total
Change
Gold Silver Bronze Total
Change
1964 1 1 0 1 NA 0 0 0 0 NA
1968 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1988 1 2 1 3 +2 0 0 0 0 0
1992 1 2 0 2 −1 0 0 0 0 0
1998 1 1 0 1 −1 0 0 0 0 0
2002 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2006 3 3 1 4 +3 0 0 0 0 0
2010 3 3 0 3 −1 0 0 0 0 0
2014 3 3 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0
2018 2 2 0 2 −1 0 0 0 0 0
Medal tables[edit]
See also: All-time Olympic Games medal count
Red colour indicates the best performance.
Medals by Summer Games[edit]
Games
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
Rank
1896 Athens did not participate
1900 Paris 0 2 0 2[1] 17
1904 St. Louis did not participate
1908 London
1912 Stockholm
1920 Antwerp 0 0 0 0 -
1924 Paris 0 0 0 0 -
1928 Amsterdam 1 0 0 1[2] 23
1932 Los Angeles 1 0 0 1[3] 19
1936 Berlin 1 0 0 1[4] 20
1948 London 1 0 0 1[5] 22
1952 Helsinki 1 0 1 2[5] 26
1956 Melbourne 1 0 0 1[5] 24
1960 Rome 0 1 0 1[6] 32
1964 Tokyo 1 0 0 1[7] 24
1968 Mexico City 0 0 1 1[8] 42
1972 Munich 0 0 1 1[9] 43
1976 Montreal 0 0 0 0 -
1980 Moscow 1 0 0 1[10] 23
1984 Los Angeles 0 0 0 0 -
1988 Seoul 0 0 0 0 -
1992 Barcelona 0 0 0 0 -
1996 Atlanta 0 0 1 1[11] 71
2000 Sydney 0 0 1 1[12] 71
2004 Athens 0 1 0 1[13] 65
2008 Beijing 1 0 2 3[13] 50
2012 London 0 2 4 6[13] 55
2016 Rio de Janeiro 0 1[14] 1[15] 2[16] 67
Total 9 7 12 28
Medals by sport[edit]
Leading in that Sport
Sport
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
Rank
Field hockey 8 1 2 11 1
Shooting 1 2 1 4 34
Athletics 0 2 0 2 71
Wrestling 0 1 4 5 43
Badminton 0 1 1 2 9
Boxing 0 0 2 2 64
Tennis 0 0 1 1 30
Weightlifting 0 0 1 1
56
Total
9
7
12
28
List of medalists[edit]
Medal
Name/Team
Games
Sport
Event
Silver Norman Pritchard[1][17] 1900 Paris Athletics Men's 200 metres
Silver Norman Pritchard[1][17] 1900 Paris Athletics Men's 200 metre hurdles
Gold National team[2] 1928 Amsterdam Field hockey Men's competition
Gold National team[3] 1932 Los Angeles Field hockey Men's competition
Gold National team[4] 1936 Berlin Field hockey Men's competition
Gold National team[5] 1948 London Field hockey Men's competition
Gold National team[5] 1952 Helsinki Field hockey Men's competition
Bronze Khashaba Dadasaheb Jadhav[5] 1952 Helsinki Wrestling Men's freestyle bantamweight
Gold National team[5] 1956 Melbourne Field hockey Men's competition
Silver National team[6] 1960 Rome Field hockey Men's competition
Gold National team[7] 1964 Tokyo Field hockey Men's competition
Bronze National team[8] 1968 Mexico City Field hockey Men's competition
Bronze National team[9] 1972 Munich Field hockey Men's competition
Gold National team[10] 1980 Moscow Field hockey Men's competition
Bronze Leander Paes[11] 1996 Atlanta Tennis Men's singles
Bronze Karnam Malleswari[12] 2000 Sydney Weightlifting Women's 69 kg
Silver Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore[13] 2004 Athens Shooting Men's double trap
Gold Abhinav Bindra[13] 2008 Beijing Shooting Men's 10 m Air Rifle
Bronze Vijender Singh[13] 2008 Beijing Boxing Middleweight
Bronze Sushil Kumar[13] 2008 Beijing Wrestling Men's freestyle 66 kg
Silver Vijay Kumar[13] 2012 London Shooting Men's 25 Rapid Fire Pistol
Silver Sushil Kumar[13] 2012 London Wrestling Men's freestyle 66 kg
Bronze Saina Nehwal[13] 2012 London Badminton Women's singles
Bronze Mary Kom[13] 2012 London Boxing Women's flyweight
Bronze Gagan Narang[13] 2012 London Shooting Men's 10m Air Rifle
Bronze Yogeshwar Dutt[13] 2012 London Wrestling Men's freestyle 60 kg
Silver P. V. Sindhu[14] 2016 Rio de Janeiro Badminton Women's singles
Bronze Sakshi Malik[15] 2016 Rio de Janeiro Wrestling Women's freestyle 58 kg
See also[edit]
List of flag bearers for India at the Olympics
Category:Olympic competitors for India
India at the Paralympics
India at the Asian Games
India at the Commonwealth Games
Olympic Gold Quest
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c N. Kesavan (25 July 2016). "Indian medal winners at Olympics". The Hindu. Retrieved 18 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "1928 Olympics: India's first step towards ascending hockey throne". The Hindu. 7 July 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "1932 Olympics games: India's dominance continues". The Hindu. 7 July 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "1936 Olympics: Hat-trick for India under Dhyan Chand". The Hindu. 8 July 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Rohan Puri (26 July 2016). "Olympics: Down the memory lane 1940–1956". The Times of India. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "1960 Olympics: Pakistan ends India's dominance". The Hindu. 12 July 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Gold winning hockey team of 1964 Tokyo Olympics felicitated". The Times of India. 26 November 2014. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "When Indian hockey first went `bronze'". The Hindu. 16 September 2000. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "1972 Olympics: India's golden glory fades". The Hindu. 16 July 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "1980 Olympics: India sinks Spain for gold". The Hindu. 17 July 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Rohit Brijnath (31 August 1996). "Olympics 1996: How Leander Paes won India's first individual Olympic medal in 44 years". India Today. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Sydney Olympics hero Karnam Malleswari lauds Sakshi Malik, urges her to start preparing for Tokyo Games". India Today. 18 August 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m Rohan Puri (30 July 2016). "Olympics: Down the memory lane 2004–2012". The Times of India. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Manoj Bhagavatula (19 August 2016). "Rio 2016 Live: Silver for India's golden girl, Sindhu puts up tough fight". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "Rohtak Zen in Rio zone, Sakshi Malik brings wrestling bronze from Olympics". The Indian Express. 19 August 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Rio Olympics 2016: PV Sindhu assures India of a second medal, enters women's badminton finals". The Economic Times. 18 August 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b "India at the 1900 Paris Summer Games". Sports Reference. Retrieved 18 August 2016.
External links[edit]
"India". International Olympic Committee.
"Results and Medalists — India". Olympic.org. International Olympic Committee.
"Olympic Medal Winners". International Olympic Committee.
"India". Sports-Reference.com. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03.
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United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda
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United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda
Abbreviation
UNAMIR
Formation
5 October 1993
Type
Peacekeeping Mission
Legal status
Completed
Head
Roméo Dallaire
Parent organization
United Nations Security Council
Human skulls at the
Nyamata Genocide Memorial Centre
Part of a series on the
Rwandan genocide
Background[show]
History of Rwanda
Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa
Kingdom of Rwanda
Rwandan Revolution
Rwandan Civil War
Hutu Power
Assassination of
Habyarimana and Ntaryamira
Events[show]
Initial events
Chronology
Gikondo massacre
Nyarubuye massacre
Parties responsible[show]
People indicted by the
International Criminal Tribunal
Genocidaires
Akazu
Impuzamugambi militia
Interahamwe militia
Kangura
RTLM radio
Response[show]
Rwandan Patriotic Front
International community
United Nations Mission
UN Security Council
Resolution 935
Opération "Turquoise"
Effects[show]
Great Lakes refugee crisis
Gacaca court
First Congo War
Second Congo War
Resources[show]
Bibliography
Filmography
v
t
e
The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) was established by United Nations Security Council Resolution 872 on 5 October 1993.[1] It was intended to assist in the implementation of the Arusha Accords, signed on 4 August 1993, which was meant to end the Rwandan Civil War.[2] The mission lasted from October 1993 to March 1996.[2] Its activities were meant to aid the peace process between the Hutu-dominated Rwandese government and the Tutsi-dominated rebel Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). The UNAMIR has received much attention for its role in failing, due to the limitations of its rules of engagement, to prevent the Rwandan Genocide and outbreak of fighting. Its mandate extended past the RPF overthrow of the government and into the Great Lakes refugee crisis. The mission is thus regarded as a major failure.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Establishment
2.1 Mandate
2.2 Composition
3 Operations before the genocide
4 Genocide
4.1 UNAMIR II
5 After the genocide
6 Casualties
7 See also
8 References and notes
9 Further reading
10 External links
Background[edit]
In October 1990 the Rwandan Civil War began when the Rwandan Patriotic Front rebel group invaded across Uganda's southern border into northern Rwanda. The RPF was composed of over 4000 soldiers, most the sons of Tutsi refugees who had fled ethnic purges in Rwanda between 1959 and 1963. It portrayed itself as a democratic, multi-ethnic movement and demanded an end to ethnic discrimination, to economic looting of the country by government elites and a stop to the security situation that continued to generate refugees. It was supported by the Ugandan government of Yoweri Museveni, who had come to power in the Ugandan Bush War with significant support from the Rwandan refugees in the country. However, the Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR) was saved by reinforcements from France and Zaire, who backed the government of Rwandan President Juvénal Habyarimana, who had been in power since 1973.
The French intervention of two parachute companies, explained as an attempt to protect its own nationals, actually blocked the RPF advance on the capital Kigali. In contrast, the government of Belgium, the former colonial power, cut all support to the Habyarimana regime, which viewed the action as abandonment. Thwarted by the French, the RPF suffered a humiliating retreat back into the Virunga Mountains along the border. After the demoralizing death of Major-General Fred Rwigyema, the collapse of the RPF was prevented through the leadership of Paul Kagame.
The RPF thus managed to retain control of a sliver of land in the north, from which it continued to launch raids.[4] Comparing the RPF and FAR as he saw them in 1993, Canadian Lieutenant-General Roméo Dallaire noted that the rebels "had won all recent contests because of their superior leadership, training, experience, frugality, mobility. Discipline and morale."[5]
However, the RPF invasion, which displaced approximately 600,000 people into crowded internally displaced person camps, also radicalized the Hutu populace. The Tutsi civilians in Rwanda, roughly 14% of the population, were labeled ibyitso ("accomplices") or inyenzni ("cockroaches"), who were accused of secretly aiding the RPF invaders.[6] Anti-Tutsi propaganda was spread through the publication Kangura, a forerunner to the Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines, which was created immediately after the invasion. The first plans for mass murder of Tutsi were also developed toward the end of 1990, mostly in a series of secret meetings in Gisenyi prefecture of the Akazu, a network of associates based around Agathe Habyarimana, the First Lady.[7]
A number of ceasefire agreements were signed by the RPF and government, including one signed on 22 July 1992 in Arusha, Tanzania that resulted in the Organization of African Unity (OAU) establishing a 50-member Neutral Military Observer Group (NMOG I) led by Nigerian General Ekundayo Opaleye.[8] The negotiations for a peace settlement continued in Arusha, interrupted by a massive RPF offensive in early February 1993. Rwanda continued to allege Ugandan support for the RPF, which both the RPF and Uganda duly denied, but resulting in both countries sending letters to President of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) requesting that military observers be deployed along the border to verify that military supplies were not crossing.
This resulted in the United Nations Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda (UNOMUR) being approved by the UNSC on 22 June 1993 to deploy along the Ugandan side of the border.[9] Seven days later, UN Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali announced that Brigadier-General Dallaire was to be appointed the Chief Military Observer for UNOMUR, which reached its authorized strength of 81 observers by September. NMOG I was deployed inside Rwanda.[10]
In the meantime, talks in Arusha had reconvened on 16 March 1993, resulting in the signing of the Arusha Accords, a comprehensive agreement to create a power-sharing government, on the fourth of August. Both the RPF and Rwandan government requested UN assistance in implementing the agreement. In early August, NMOG I was replaced by NMOG II, consisting of about 130 members, in preparation for a UN-led peacekeeping force.[11]
Establishment[edit]
Mandate[edit]
UNAMIR mandate was :"(a) To contribute to the security of the city of Kigali inter alia with in a weapons-secure area established by the parties in and around the city; (b) To monitor observance of the cease-fire agreement, which calls for the establishment of cantonment and assembly zones and the demarcation of the new demilitarized zone and other demilitarization procedures; (c) To monitor the security situation during the final period of the transitional government’s mandate, leading up to the elections;(d) To assist with mine clearance, primarily through training programmes;(e) To investigate at the request of the parties or on its own initiative instances of alleged non-compliance with the provisions of the Arusha Peace Agreement relating to the integration of the armed forces, and pursue any such instances with the parties responsible and report thereon as appropriate to the Secretary-General; (f) To monitor the process of repatriation of Rwandese refugees and resettlement of displaced persons to verify that it is carried out in a safe and orderly manner; (g) To assist in the coordination of humanitarian assistance activities in conjunction with relief operations; (h) To investigate and report on incidents regarding the activities of the gendarmerie and police.[1]:paragraph3 "[12] Its authorised strength was 2,500 personnel, but it took some five months of piecemeal commitments for the mission to reach this level.
On 5 April 1994, the UN voted to extend the mandate of UNAMIR to 29 July 1994, after expressing "deep concern at the delay in the establishment of the broad-based transitional Government and the Transitional National Assembly" and "concern at the deterioration in security in the country, particularly in Kigali."[2]
On 17 May 1994, the Security Council expanded UNAMIR’s mandate to include following additional responsibilities: "(a) To contribute to the security and protection of displaced persons, refugees and civilians at risk in Rwanda, including through the establishment and maintenance, where feasible, of secure humanitarian areas; (b) To provide security and support for the distribution of relief supplies and humanitarian relief operations".[13]:paragraph3
Composition[edit]
The Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG) or head of the mission, was Jacques-Roger Booh-Booh of Cameroon. At the beginning of July 1994, Jacques-Roger Booh-Booh was replaced by Shaharyar Khan of Pakistan. The military head, and Force Commander was Canadian Brigadier-General (promoted Major-General during the mission) Roméo Dallaire. In August 1994, Dallaire, suffering from severe stress, was replaced as Force Commander by Major-General Guy Tousignant, also from Canada. In December 1995, Tousignant was replaced by Brigadier General Shiva Kumar from India.
Troop contributing countries were Belgium, Bangladesh, Ghana, and Tunisia. Around 400 of the troops in this early part of the mission were Belgian soldiers, despite the fact that Rwanda had been a Belgian colony, and normally the UN bans the former colonial power from serving in such peace-keeping roles.
Squabbling between interested parties delayed the UNAMIR goal of assisting the formation of the transitional government following the inauguration of President Habyarimana on 5 January 1994. The violent clashes that followed, including the assassinations of two major political leaders and the ambush of a UNAMIR-led convoy of RPF forces led the UNAMIR forces to move to a more defensive footing. UNAMIR thus contributed support to the military and civilian authorities in Rwanda, while the UN continued to place pressure on Habyarimana and the RPF to return to the ideas set forth in the Accords.
Operations before the genocide[edit]
A school chalkboard in Kigali. Note the names "Dallaire", UNAMIR Force Commander, and "Marchal", UNAMIR Kigali sector commander.
The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) had been in Rwanda since October 1993,[14] with a mandate to oversee the implementation of the Arusha Accords.[15] UNAMIR commander Dallaire learned of the Hutu Power movement during the early phase of deployment;[16] in January 1994, a government informant alerted Dallaire to a group who were rapidly arming militias and planning mass extermination of Tutsi, and led UNAMIR to a secret arms cache.[17] Dallaire sent a cable to the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) in New York, requesting permission to raid the weapons caches;[18] the UN refused Dallaire's request to raid the arms, and rebuked him for exceeding his mandate.[16] Dallaire's cable also informed the DPKO of the information concerning the genocide; it said: "Since UNAMIR mandate [the informant] has been ordered to register all Tutsi in Kigali. He suspects it is for their extermination. Example he gave was that in 20 minutes his personnel could kill up to 1000 Tutsis."[19] Dallaire received little support from the administrative head of UNAMIR, Cameroonian Jacques-Roger Booh-Booh; the RPF accused Booh-Booh of partiality towards President Habyarimana and the Hutu elite.[20] UNAMIR operated with very limited resources,[21] and its efforts to install the transitional government were obstructed by President Habyarimana and the hardliners throughout early 1994.[22] By April, the Security Council threatened to terminate UNAMIR's mandate if it did not make progress.[23]
Genocide[edit]
Main article: Rwanda genocide
Memorial for the dead Belgian UNAMIR personnel in Kigali
Skulls in Murambi Technical School
On 6 April 1994, a plane carrying President Habyarimana and President Cyprien Ntaryamira of Burundi was shot down near Kigali. What followed was the collapse of the unstable peace in Rwanda and the Rwandan Genocide, estimated to have claimed between 800,000 and 1,017,100 Tutsi and Hutu victims over 100 days.
Among the first targets of the genocide were Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana and ten Belgian members of 2nd Commando Battalion, the Paracommando Regiment operating as part of UNAMIR. These troops were murdered after handing over their weapons to Rwandan government troops. They were advised to do so by their battalion commander who was unclear on the legal issues with authorising them to defend themselves, even though they had already been under fire for approximately two hours.
Following the death of Habyarimana, Dallaire liaised repeatedly with both the Crisis Committee and the RPF, in an attempt to re-establish peace.[24] He addressed the government forces during the night of 6 April, expressing regret at Habyarimana's death but urging them to restrain the killings that had commenced;[25] he also urged Kagame not to resume the civil war, to avoid esacalating the violence and to give UNAMIR a chance to rein in the killings.[26] Neither side was interested in a ceasefire, the government because it was controlled by the genocidaires, and the RPF because it considered it necessary to fight to stop the killings.[27] UNAMIR's Chapter VI mandate rendered it powerless to intervene militarily,[28] and most of its Rwandan staff were killed in the early days of the genocide, severely limiting its ability to operate.[27] UNAMIR was therefore largely reduced to a bystander role, and Dallaire later labelled it a "failure."[29] Its most significant contribution was to provide refuge for thousands of Tutsi and moderate Hutu at its headquarters in Amahoro Stadium, as well as other secure UN sites.[30] UNAMIR also assisted with the evacuation of foreign nationals; a group of Belgian soldiers, who had been sheltering 2,000 Rwandans at the École Technique Officielle, were ordered to abandon their station to assist in the evacuation. After the Belgians left, Hutu militants entered and massacred everyone inside.[31]
On 12 April, the Belgian government, which was one of the largest troop contributors to UNAMIR,[32] and had lost ten soldiers protecting Prime Minister Uwilingiliyimana, announced that it was withdrawing. Belgium also favoured a complete withdrawal of UNAMIR, and lobbied for this in the UN.[33] Dallaire protested, arguing that the force should be strengthened and given a new mandate to protect the thousands of refugees it was protecting,[34] but the UN Security Council refused, telling Dallaire that UNAMIR would be effectively withdrawn unless the belligerents agreed to a ceasefire by early May.[35] According to Philip Gourevitch, the United States, having recently suffered losses in the UN mission in Somalia, was particularly keen to "get out of Rwanda" and "leave it to its fate."[36] New Zealand, which held the rotating presidency of the UN Security Council, was the lone voice supporting reinforcement,[37] and in late April, persuaded the council to postpone UNAMIR's withdrawal.[38] despite continuing reluctance from the United States and United Kingdom.[39]
Understaffed and abandoned, UNAMIR did the best it could with what forces remained. As individuals and as a group, members of the UNAMIR forces did manage to save the lives of thousands of Tutsis in and around Kigali and the few areas of UN control. Dallaire requested the immediate insertion of approximately 5,000 troops, but his request was denied.
UNAMIR II[edit]
For the next six weeks, approximately, UNAMIR coordinated peace talks between the Hutu government and the RPF to little avail. Eventually, on 17 May 1994, the UN finally conceded that "acts of genocide may have been committed,"[40] and agreed to reinforcement, that would deliver nearly 5,500 troops and much needed personnel carriers and other equipment to UNAMIR, which would be henceforth known as UNAMIR II.[39] The new soldiers did not start arriving until June,[41] and following the end of the genocide in July, the role of UNAMIR II was largely confined to maintaining security and stability.[42] UNAMIR withdrew from Rwanda in 1996, following the withdrawal of support by the RPF-led government.[42]
UNAMIR II and subsequent resolutions were still unclear on the right to use force in stopping the genocide. In one of Dallaire’s parting cables, he said that “the [UN] force has been prevented from having a modicum of self-respect and effectiveness on the ground.”[43] Unfortunately, in the face of the mayhem in Rwanda and this diplomatic watering down of UNAMIR's mandate, many UN member states delayed contributing personnel for some time, until the main wave of killings ceased.
After the genocide[edit]
United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda Medal

Obverse and ribbon of the medal
Type
Campaign medal
Eligibility
United Nations forces.
Awarded for
90 days' service to the Mission
Campaign(s)
Rwandan Civil War, Rwandan Genocide, Great Lakes refugee crisis
Clasps
None
Statistics
Established
December 1993
In July 1994, the RPF swept into Kigali and ended the genocide that had lasted 100 days, and RPF leader Paul Kagame (who became president several years later—and still is today[44]—but effectively controlled the country from July 1994 through the present) reaffirmed his commitment to the Arusha Accords.
Following the end of the main killings the challenges for UNAMIR (and the many NGOs who arrived in the country) were to maintain the fragile peace, stabilise the government and, most importantly, care for the nearly 4 million displaced persons in camps within Rwanda, Zaire, Tanzania, Burundi and Uganda. The massive camps around Lake Kivu in the north west of Rwanda were holding about 1.2 million people and this was creating enormous security, health and ecological problems.
After the late arrival of the much needed troop support, UNAMIR continued to carry out its mandate to the best of its abilities. In 1996, however, with assertion from the new Rwandese government that UNAMIR had failed in its priority mission, the UN withdrew the UNAMIR mandate on 8 March 1996. Despite the failure of UNAMIR in its main mission, its humanitarian services during the 1994 genocide are recognized to this day as having saved the lives of thousands or tens of thousands of Rwandan Tutsi and Hutu moderates who would have otherwise been killed. However, the actions of the UN in Rwanda (and particularly the Head of Peacekeeping Operations at the time, Kofi Annan) have been used by some as examples of the over-bureaucratic and dithering approach of the UN. (General Dallaire was particularly critical of Annan's performance.)
Countries that contributed troops to UNAMIR throughout its existence were: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chad, Congo, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Fiji, Germany, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, India, Jordan, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Netherlands, Niger, Nigeria, Pakistan, Poland, Romania, Russia, Senegal, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland, Togo, Tunisia, United Kingdom, Uruguay, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Casualties[edit]
27 members of UNAMIR - 22 soldiers, three military observers, one civilian police and one local staff - lost their lives during the mission. The genocide and the spectre of mission failure had a profound effect on Dallaire. On his return to Canada he was diagnosed with acute Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD); he even attempted suicide. He was eventually released from the Canadian army service on medical grounds. Dallaire received the Aegis Trust Award (the first) for his acts of bravery. In 2004-2005, he was awarded a fellowship at the Carr Center for Human Rights Policy, Harvard University, where he was studying and writing about different forms of conflict resolution. On 25 March 2005, he was appointed a Canadian senator, representing Québec as a member of the Liberal Party of Canada; he serves on the committee for Human Rights. He also speaks publicly about his experiences relating to genocide, PTSD and suicide. While Dallaire's issues have been the focus of much attention, particularly in Canada, very little attention has been paid to the plight of the front line soldiers of the Canadian Contingent to UNAMIR who suffered from a rash of suicides, marital breakdowns and career ending diagnoses of PTSD following their return from Rwanda.
See also[edit]
History of Rwanda
Rwandan Genocide
Mogadishu Line
Shake Hands With the Devil: The Failure of Humanity in Rwanda
References and notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b UN Security Council (5 October 1993). "RESOLUTION 872 (1993) Adopted by the Security Council at its 3288th meeting". Security Council. p. 1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Department of Public Information (DPI). "Rwanda-UNAMIR mandate". Peace and Security Section of DPI in cooperation with the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. (c)United Nations. Retrieved 1 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Rwanda/UN: Acknowledging Failure", AfricaFocus Bulletin (compiling several individual reports), 31 March 2004
Jump up ^ Linda Melvern, Conspiracy to Murder: The Rwandan Genocide, Verso: New York, 2004, ISBN 1-85984-588-6, pp. 13-16
Jump up ^ Roméo Dallaire, Shake Hands with the Devil, Carroll & Graf: New York, 2003, ISBN 0-7867-1510-3, p. 67
Jump up ^ Melvern 2004, pp. 14-15. See also Historical Background Archived 23 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine., Rwanda - UNAMIR: Background, un.org
Jump up ^ Melvern 2004, pp. 12 & 19
Jump up ^ William J. Lahneman (2004). Military intervention: cases in context for the twenty-first century. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 71. ISBN 0-7425-2951-7.
Jump up ^ "S/RES/846(1993)". United Nations Security Council. 22 June 1993.
Jump up ^ United Nations Involvement Archived 23 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine., Rwanda - UNAMIR: Background, un.org
Jump up ^ Rwanda - UNAMIR: Background Archived 16 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine., un.org
Jump up ^ Rwanda - UNAMIR: Mandate Archived 5 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine., un.org
Jump up ^ "S/RES/918(1994)". United Nations Security Council. 17 May 1994.
Jump up ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 98.
Jump up ^ Prunier 1999, p. 194.
^ Jump up to: a b Dallaire 2005, p. 146.
Jump up ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 150.
Jump up ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 145.
Jump up ^ Dallaire 1994.
Jump up ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 213.
Jump up ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 131.
Jump up ^ Prunier 1999, p. 205.
Jump up ^ Dallaire 2005, pp. 219 220.
Jump up ^ Prunier 1999, pp. 236 237.
Jump up ^ Dallaire 2005, pp. 238 239.
Jump up ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 250.
^ Jump up to: a b Dallaire 2005, p. 247.
Jump up ^ Prunier 1999, p. 261.
Jump up ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 6.
Jump up ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 270.
Jump up ^ Melvern 2004, p. 186.
Jump up ^ Prunier 1999, p. 204.
Jump up ^ Melvern 2004, p. 197.
Jump up ^ Melvern 2004, p. 215.
Jump up ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 295.
Jump up ^ Gourevitch, Philip. "Interviews - Philip Gourevitch : The Triumph Of Evil : FRONTLINE : PBS". www.pbs.org. the Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 28 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 298.
Jump up ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 319.
^ Jump up to: a b Melvern 2004, p. 229.
Jump up ^ Various PBS contributors. "100 days of Slaughter: A Chronology of U.S./U.N. Actions". Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
Jump up ^ Melvern 2004, p. 411.
^ Jump up to: a b United Nations (I).
Jump up ^ Power, Samantha. "Rwanda:"Mostly In A Listening Mode"" A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide. New York: Basic, 2002. 329-90. Print.
Jump up ^ "President Kagame attends the Milken Institute Global Conference". Retrieved 5 May 2015.
Further reading[edit]
Barnett, Michael. Eyewitness to a Genocide: The United Nations and Rwanda. Cornell University Press, 2002.
Melvern, Linda (2004). Conspiracy to Murder: The Rwandan Genocide. New York: Verso. ISBN 1-85984-588-6.
External links[edit]
UNAMIR Official United Nations information webpage
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_Nations_Assistance_Mission_for_Rwanda&oldid=843439144"
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Crazy Rap
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Crazy Rap"
Single by Afroman
from the album Sell Your Dope and The Good Times
Released
September 6, 2001
Genre
Dirty rap, comedy hip hop
Length
5:53 (original album version)
3:11 (radio edit/Now 51 version)
Label
T-Bones
Songwriter(s)
Joseph "Afroman" Foreman
Producer(s)
Joseph "Afroman" Foreman/The Savalas Brothers
Afroman singles chronology
"Because I Got High"
(2001) "Crazy Rap"
(2001)
"Because I Got High"
(2001) "Crazy Rap"
(2001)
"Crazy Rap", also known as "Colt 45 and 2 Zig Zags" or simply "Colt 45", is a dirty rap single recorded by rapper Afroman. It was featured on his third album, Sell Your Dope, and was later included on his greatest hits album, The Good Times. It is often referred to as "Colt 45", as the hook states "Colt 45 and two zig-zags, baby that's all we need". The song failed to replicate the success of its predecessor but it nonetheless still charted across Europe, reaching the top 10 in the UK.
Contents
[hide]
1 Track listing
2 Music video
3 Charts
4 References
5 External links
Track listing[edit]
"Crazy Rap"
"Crazy Rap" (Accapella)
"Crazy Rap" (Afrolicious Mix)
"Outro"
Music video[edit]
The video takes place in front of a liquor store in Los Angeles, and shows Afroman telling his story to his friends, while dancing and crip walking to the beat with them, and others who join in. It also shows him in the various situations he describes, such as riding in a car, being chased by a klansman, and in the bed with multiple women. The last line is a homage to "Rapper's Delight".
This is a remade version of the song which was first featured on Afroman's debut album My Fro-losophy, which was released independently without a record label.
Charts[edit]
Chart (2001–2002)
Peak
position
Australia (ARIA)[1]
99
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[2]
41
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[3]
39
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Wallonia)[4]
11
Germany (Official German Charts)[5]
37
Ireland (IRMA)[6]
7
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[7]
52
Norway (VG-lista)[8]
13
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[9]
76
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[10]
10
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The ARIA Report: Week Commencing 11 February 2002" ARIA Top 100 Singles. National Library of Australia. Retrieved November 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Austriancharts.at – Afroman – Crazy Rap" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40. Retrieved November 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Afroman – Crazy Rap" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50. Retrieved November 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Afroman – Crazy Rap" (in French). Ultratop 50. Retrieved November 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Afroman – Crazy Rap". GfK Entertainment Charts. Retrieved November 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Irish Charts – Search Results – Afroman". Irish Singles Chart. Retrieved March 4, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – Afroman – Crazy Rap" (in Dutch). Single Top 100. Retrieved November 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Norwegiancharts.com – Afroman – Crazy Rap". VG-lista. Retrieved November 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – Afroman – Crazy Rap". Swiss Singles Chart. Retrieved November 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Afroman: Artist Chart History". Official Charts Company. Retrieved March 4, 2014.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[hide]
v
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Studio albums
The Good Times
Independent albums
Because I Got High
Sell Your Dope
Afroholic... The Even Better Times
Jobe Bells
4R0:20
The Hungry Hustlerz: Starvation Is Motivation
Drunk 'n' High
A Colt 45 Christmas
Waiting to Inhale
Greatest Hitz Live
Frobama: Head of State
EPs
One Hit Wonder EP
Singles
"Crazy Rap"
"Because I Got High"
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crazy_Rap&oldid=814403524"
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Period 7 element
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Period 7 in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
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A period 7 element is one of the chemical elements in the seventh row (or period) of the periodic table of the chemical elements. The periodic table is laid out in rows to illustrate recurring (periodic) trends in the chemical behaviour of the elements as their atomic number increases: a new row is begun when chemical behaviour begins to repeat, meaning that elements with similar behaviour fall into the same vertical columns. The seventh period contains 32 elements, tied for the most with period 6, beginning with francium and ending with oganesson, the heaviest element currently discovered. As a rule, period 7 elements fill their 7s shells first, then their 5f, 6d, and 7p shells, in that order; however, there are exceptions, such as uranium.
Contents
[hide]
1 Properties
2 Elements
3 Francium and radium
4 Actinides
5 Transactinides
6 Notes
7 References
Properties[edit]
All elements of period 7 are radioactive. This period contains the actinides, which contains the heaviest naturally occurring element, plutonium; subsequent elements must be synthesized artificially. Whilst the first five of these are now available in macroscopic quantities, most are extremely rare, having only been prepared in microgram amounts or less. The later, transactinide elements have only been identified in laboratories in batches of a few atoms at a time.
Although the rarity of many of these elements means that experimental results are not very extensive, their periodic and group trends are less well defined than other periods. Whilst francium and radium do show typical properties of their respective groups, actinides display a much greater variety of behaviour and oxidation states than the lanthanides. These peculiarities are due to a variety of factors, including a large degree of spin-orbit coupling and relativistic effects, ultimately caused by the very high positive electrical charge from their massive atomic nuclei.
Elements[edit]
Chemical element
Chemical series
Electron configuration
Occurrence
87 Fr Francium Alkali metal [Rn] 7s1 From decay
88 Ra Radium Alkaline earth metal [Rn] 7s2 From decay
89 Ac Actinium Actinide [Rn] 6d1 7s2 (*) From decay
90 Th Thorium Actinide [Rn] 6d2 7s2 (*) Primordial
91 Pa Protactinium Actinide [Rn] 5f2 6d1 7s2 (*) From decay
92 U Uranium Actinide [Rn] 5f3 6d1 7s2 (*) Primordial
93 Np Neptunium Actinide [Rn] 5f4 6d1 7s2 (*) From decay
94 Pu Plutonium Actinide [Rn] 5f6 7s2 From decay
95 Am Americium Actinide [Rn] 5f7 7s2 Synthetic
96 Cm Curium Actinide [Rn] 5f7 6d1 7s2 (*) Synthetic
97 Bk Berkelium Actinide [Rn] 5f9 7s2 Synthetic
98 Cf Californium Actinide [Rn] 5f10 7s2 Synthetic
99 Es Einsteinium Actinide [Rn] 5f11 7s2 Synthetic
100 Fm Fermium Actinide [Rn] 5f12 7s2 Synthetic
101 Md Mendelevium Actinide [Rn] 5f13 7s2 Synthetic
102 No Nobelium Actinide [Rn] 5f14 7s2 Synthetic
103 Lr Lawrencium Actinide [Rn] 5f14 7s2 7p1 (*) Synthetic
104 Rf Rutherfordium Transition metal [Rn] 5f14 6d2 7s2 Synthetic
105 Db Dubnium Transition metal [Rn] 5f14 6d3 7s2 Synthetic
106 Sg Seaborgium Transition metal [Rn] 5f14 6d4 7s2 Synthetic
107 Bh Bohrium Transition metal [Rn] 5f14 6d5 7s2 Synthetic
108 Hs Hassium Transition metal [Rn] 5f14 6d6 7s2 Synthetic
109 Mt Meitnerium Transition metal (?) [Rn] 5f14 6d7 7s2 (?) Synthetic
110 Ds Darmstadtium Transition metal (?) [Rn] 5f14 6d8 7s2 (?) Synthetic
111 Rg Roentgenium Transition metal (?) [Rn] 5f14 6d9 7s2 (?) Synthetic
112 Cn Copernicium Post-transition metal [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 (?) Synthetic
113 Nh Nihonium Post-transition metal (?) [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p1 (?) Synthetic
114 Fl Flerovium Post-transition metal (?) [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p2 (?) Synthetic
115 Mc Moscovium Post-transition metal (?) [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p3 (?) Synthetic
116 Lv Livermorium Post-transition metal (?) [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p4 (?) Synthetic
117 Ts Tennessine Post-transition metal (?) [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p5 (?) Synthetic
118 Og Oganesson Noble gas (?) [Rn] 5f14 6d10 7s2 7p6 (?) Synthetic
(?) Prediction
(*) Exception to the Madelung rule.
Francium and radium[edit]
Main articles: Francium and Radium
Francium and radium make up the s-block elements of the 7th period.
Francium (/ˈfrænsiəm/ FRAN-see-əm) is a chemical element with symbol Fr and atomic number 87. It was formerly known as eka-caesium and actinium K.[note 1] It is one of the two least electronegative elements, the other being caesium. Francium is a highly radioactive metal that decays into astatine, radium, and radon. As an alkali metal, it has one valence electron. Francium was discovered by Marguerite Perey in France (from which the element takes its name) in 1939. It was the last element discovered in nature, rather than by synthesis.[note 2] Outside the laboratory, francium is extremely rare, with trace amounts found in uranium and thorium ores, where the isotope francium-223 continually forms and decays. As little as 20–30 g (one ounce) exists at any given time throughout the Earth's crust; the other isotopes are entirely synthetic. The largest amount produced in the laboratory was a cluster of more than 300,000 atoms.[1]
Radium (/ˈreɪdiəm/ RAY-dee-əm) is a chemical element with atomic number 88, represented by the symbol Ra. Radium is an almost pure-white alkaline earth metal, but it readily oxidizes on exposure to air, becoming black in color. All isotopes of radium are highly radioactive, with the most stable isotope being radium-226, which has a half-life of 1601 years and decays into radon gas. Because of such instability, radium is luminescent, glowing a faint blue. Radium, in the form of radium chloride, was discovered by Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie in 1898. They extracted the radium compound from uraninite and published the discovery at the French Academy of Sciences five days later. Radium was isolated in its metallic state by Marie Curie and André-Louis Debierne through the electrolysis of radium chloride in 1910. Since its discovery, it has given names likeradium A and radium C2 to several isotopes of other elements that are decay products of radium-226. In nature, radium is found in uranium ores in trace amounts as small as a seventh of a gram per ton of uraninite. Radium is not necessary for living organisms, and adverse health effects are likely when it is incorporated into biochemical processes because of its radioactivity and chemical reactivity.
Actinides[edit]
Main article: Actinide
The atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki had a plutonium charge.[2]
The actinide or actinoid (IUPAC nomenclature) series encompasses the 15 metallic chemical elements with atomic numbers from 89 to 103, actinium through lawrencium.[3][4][5][6]
The actinide series derives its name from the group 3 element actinium. All but one of the actinides are f-block elements, corresponding to the filling of the 5f electron shell; lawrencium, a d-block element, is also generally considered an actinide. In comparison with the lanthanides, also mostly f-block elements, the actinides show much more variable valence.
Of the actinides, thorium and uranium occur naturally in substantial, primordial, quantities. The radioactive decay of uranium produces transient amounts of actinium, protactinium and plutonium, and atoms of neptunium are occasionally produced from transmutation reactions in uranium ores. The other actinides are purely synthetic elements, although the first six actinides after plutonium would have been produced during the Oklo phenomenon (and long since decayed away), and curium almost certainly previously existed in nature as an extinct radionuclide.[3][7] Nuclear weapons tests have released at least six actinides heavier than plutonium into the environment; analysis of debris from a 1952 hydrogen bomb explosion showed the presence of americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium and fermium.[8]
All actinides are radioactive and release energy upon radioactive decay; naturally occurring uranium and thorium, and synthetically produced plutonium are the most abundant actinides on Earth. These are used in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Uranium and thorium also have diverse current or historical uses, and americium is used in the ionization chambers of most modern smoke detectors.
In presentations of the periodic table, the lanthanides and the actinides are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table,[3] with placeholders or else a selected single element of each series (either lanthanum or lutetium, and either actinium or lawrencium, respectively) shown in a single cell of the main table, between barium and hafnium, and radium and rutherfordium, respectively. This convention is entirely a matter of aesthetics and formatting practicality; a rarely used wide-formatted periodic table (32 columns) shows the lanthanide and actinide series in their proper columns, as parts of the table's sixth and seventh rows (periods).
Transactinides[edit]
Main article: Transactinide elements
Transactinide elements (also, transactinides, or super-heavy elements) are the chemical elements with atomic numbers greater than those of the actinides, the heaviest of which is lawrencium (103).[9][10] All transactinides of period 7 have been discovered, up to oganesson (element 118).
Transactinide elements are also transuranic elements, that is, have an atomic number greater than that of uranium (92), an actinide. The further distinction of having an atomic number greater than the actinides is significant in several ways:
The transactinide elements all have electrons in the 6d subshell in their ground state (and thus are placed in the d-block).
Except for the first two transactinides, rutherfordium and dubnium, even the longest-lasting isotopes of transactinide elements have extremely short half-lives, measured in seconds, or smaller units.
The element naming controversy involved the first five or six transactinide elements. These elements thus used three-letter systematic names for many years after their discovery had been confirmed. (Usually the three-letter symbols are replaced with two-letter symbols relatively shortly after a discovery has been confirmed.)
Transactinides are radioactive and have only been obtained synthetically in laboratories. None of these elements has ever been collected in a macroscopic sample. Transactinide elements are all named after nuclear physicists and chemists or important locations involved in the synthesis of the elements.
Chemistry Nobel Prize winner Glenn T. Seaborg who first proposed the actinide concept which led to the acceptance of the actinide series also proposed the existence of a transactinide series ranging from element 104 to 121 and a superactinide series approximately spanning elements 122 to 153. The transactinide seaborgium is named in his honor.
IUPAC defines an element to exist if its lifetime is longer than 10−14 seconds, the time needed for the nucleus to form an electronic cloud.[11]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Actually the least unstable isotope, francium-223
Jump up ^ Some synthetic elements, like technetium, have later been found in nature.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Luis A. Orozco (2003). "Francium". Chemical and Engineering News.
Jump up ^ The Manhattan Project. An Interactive History. US Department of Energy
^ Jump up to: a b c Gray, Theodore (2009). The Elements: A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers. p. 240. ISBN 978-1-57912-814-2.
Jump up ^ Actinide element, Encyclopædia Britannica on-line
Jump up ^ Although "actinoid" (rather than "actinide") means "actinium-like" and therefore should exclude actinium, that element it is usually included in the series.
Jump up ^ Connelly, Neil G.; et al. (2005). "Elements". Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry. London: Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 52. ISBN 0-85404-438-8.
Jump up ^ Greenwood, p. 1250
Jump up ^ Fields, P.; Studier, M.; Diamond, H.; Mech, J.; Inghram, M.; Pyle, G.; Stevens, C.; Fried, S.; Manning, W. (1956). "Transplutonium Elements in Thermonuclear Test Debris". Physical Review. 102 (1): 180. Bibcode:1956PhRv..102..180F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.102.180.
Jump up ^ IUPAC Provisional Recommendations for the Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry (2004) (online draft of an updated version of the "Red Book" IR 3–6)
Jump up ^ Morss, Lester R.; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean, eds. (2006). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-3555-5.
Jump up ^ http://www.kernchemie.de/Transactinides/Transactinide-2/transactinide-2.html
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