text:
Julian calendar
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about a calendar used for civil and liturgical purposes. For the day-number calendar used for astronomical and historical calculations, see Julian day. For day of year, see Ordinal date.
Calendar
Today
Gregorian
18 December 2017
Julian
5 December 2017
The Julian calendar, proposed by Julius Caesar in 46 BC (708 AUC), was a reform of the Roman calendar.[1] It took effect on 1 January 45 BC (AUC 709), by edict. It was the predominant calendar in the Roman world, most of Europe, and in European settlements in the Americas and elsewhere, until it was refined and gradually replaced by the Gregorian calendar, promulgated in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII. The Julian calendar gains against the mean tropical year at the rate of one day in 128 years. For the Gregorian the figure is one day in 3,030 years.[2] The difference in the average length of the year between Julian (365.25 days) and Gregorian (365.2425 days) is 0.002%.
The Julian calendar has a regular year of 365 days divided into 12 months, as listed in the table below. A leap day is added to February every four years. The Julian year is, therefore, on average 365.25 days long. It was intended to approximate the tropical (solar) year. Although Greek astronomers had known, at least since Hipparchus, a century before the Julian reform, that the tropical year was slightly shorter than 365.25 days, the calendar did not compensate for this difference. As a result, the calendar year gains about three days every four centuries compared to observed equinox times and the seasons. This discrepancy was corrected by the Gregorian reform of 1582. The Gregorian calendar has the same months and month lengths as the Julian calendar, but, in the Gregorian calendar, years evenly divisible by 100 are not leap years, except that years evenly divisible by 400 remain leap years.[3] Consequently—since 16 February Julian/1 March 1900 Gregorian and until 15 February Julian/28 February 2100 Gregorian—the Julian calendar is currently 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar.
The Julian calendar has been replaced as the civil calendar by the Gregorian calendar in almost all countries which formerly used it, although it continued to be the civil calendar of some countries into the 20th century.[4] Egypt converted on 20 December 1874/1 January 1875. Turkey switched (for fiscal purposes) on 16 February/1 March 1917. Russia changed on 1/14 February 1918.[5] Greece made the change for civil purposes on 16 February/1 March 1923, but the national day (25 March), which was a religious holiday, was to remain on the old calendar. Most Christian denominations in the west and areas evangelised by western churches have also replaced the Julian calendar with the Gregorian as the basis for their liturgical calendars. However, most branches of the Eastern Orthodox Church still use the Julian calendar for calculating the date of Easter, upon which the timing of all the other moveable feasts depends. Some Orthodox churches have adopted the Revised Julian calendar for the observance of fixed feasts, while other Orthodox churches retain the Julian calendar for all purposes.[6] The Julian calendar is still used by the Berbers of the Maghreb in the form of the Berber calendar,[7] and on Mount Athos. In the form of the Alexandrian calendar, it is the basis for the Ethiopian calendar, which is the civil calendar of Ethiopia.
During the changeover between calendars and for some time afterwards, dual dating was used in documents and gave the date according to both systems. In contemporary as well as modern texts that describe events during the period of change, it is customary to clarify to which calendar a given date refers by using an O.S. or N.S. suffix (denoting Old Style, Julian or New Style, Gregorian).
Contents
[hide]
1 Table of months
2 Motivation
3 Context of the reform
4 Julian reform
4.1 Realignment of the year
4.2 Changes to the months
4.3 Intercalation
4.4 Sacrobosco's theory on month lengths
4.5 Adoption of the Julian calendar
5 Leap year error
6 Month names
7 Year numbering
8 New Year's Day
9 From Julian to Gregorian
10 Eastern Orthodox usage
11 See also
12 Notes
13 Bibliography
14 External links
Table of months[edit]
Months (Roman)
Lengths before 45 BC
Lengths as of 45 BC
Months (English)
Ianuarius[8] 29 31 January
Februarius 28 (in common years)
In intercalary years:
23 if Intercalaris is variable
23/24 if Intercalaris is fixed 28 (leap years: 29) February
Martius 31 31 March
Aprilis 29 30 April
Maius 31 31 May
Iunius[8] 29 30 June
Quintilis[9] (Iulius) 31 31 July
Sextilis (Augustus) 29 31 August
September 29 30 September
October 31 31 October
November 29 30 November
December 29 31 December
Motivation[edit]
The ordinary year in the previous Roman calendar consisted of 12 months, for a total of 355 days. In addition, a 27- or 28-day intercalary month, the Mensis Intercalaris, was sometimes inserted between February and March. This intercalary month was formed by inserting 22 or 23 days after the first 23 days of February; the last five days of February, which counted down toward the start of March, became the last five days of Intercalaris. The net effect was to add 22 or 23 days to the year, forming an intercalary year of 377 or 378 days.[10] Some say the mensis intercalaris always had 27 days and began on either the first or the second day after the Terminalia (23 February).[11]
According to the later writers Censorinus and Macrobius, the ideal intercalary cycle consisted of ordinary years of 355 days alternating with intercalary years, alternately 377 and 378 days long. In this system, the average Roman year would have had 366 1⁄4 days over four years, giving it an average drift of one day per year relative to any solstice or equinox. Macrobius describes a further refinement whereby, in one 8-year period within a 24-year cycle, there were only three intercalary years, each of 377 days (thus 11 intercalary years out of 24). This refinement averages the length of the year to 365.25 days over 24 years.
In practice, intercalations did not occur systematically according to any of these ideal systems, but were determined by the pontifices. So far as can be determined from the historical evidence, they were much less regular than these ideal schemes suggest. They usually occurred every second or third year, but were sometimes omitted for much longer, and occasionally occurred in two consecutive years.
If managed correctly this system could have allowed the Roman year to stay roughly aligned to a tropical year. However, since the pontifices were often politicians, and because a Roman magistrate's term of office corresponded with a calendar year, this power was prone to abuse: a pontifex could lengthen a year in which he or one of his political allies was in office, or refuse to lengthen one in which his opponents were in power.[12]
If too many intercalations were omitted, as happened after the Second Punic War and during the Civil Wars, the calendar would drift out of alignment with the tropical year. Moreover, because intercalations were often determined quite late, the average Roman citizen often did not know the date, particularly if he were some distance from the city. For these reasons, the last years of the pre-Julian calendar were later known as "years of confusion". The problems became particularly acute during the years of Julius Caesar's pontificate before the reform, 63–46 BC, when there were only five intercalary months (instead of eight), none of which were during the five Roman years before 46 BC.
Caesar's reform was intended to solve this problem permanently, by creating a calendar that remained aligned to the sun without any human intervention. This proved useful very soon after the new calendar came into effect. Varro used it in 37 BC to fix calendar dates for the start of the four seasons, which would have been impossible only 8 years earlier.[13] A century later, when Pliny dated the winter solstice to 25 December because the sun entered the 8th degree of Capricorn on that date,[14] this stability had become an ordinary fact of life.
Context of the reform[edit]
Although the approximation of 365 1⁄4 days for the tropical year had been known for a long time[15] ancient solar calendars had used less precise periods, resulting in gradual misalignment of the calendar with the seasons.
The octaeteris, a cycle of 8 lunar years popularised by Cleostratus (and also commonly attributed to Eudoxus) which was used in some early Greek calendars, notably in Athens, is 1.53 days longer than eight Julian years. The length of nineteen years in the cycle of Meton was 6,940 days, six hours longer than the mean Julian year. The mean Julian year was the basis of the 76-year cycle devised by Callippus (a student under Eudoxus) to improve the Metonic cycle.
In Persia (Iran) after the reform in the Persian calendar by introduction of the Persian Zoroastrian (i. e. Young Avestan) calendar in 503 BC and afterwards, the first day of the year (1 Farvardin=Nowruz) slipped against the vernal equinox at the rate of approximately one day every four years.[16][17]
Likewise in the Egyptian calendar, a fixed year of 365 days was in use, drifting by one day against the sun in four years. An unsuccessful attempt to add an extra day every fourth year was made in 238 BC (Decree of Canopus). Caesar probably experienced this "wandering" or "vague" calendar in that country. He landed in the Nile delta in October 48 BC and soon became embroiled in the Ptolemaic dynastic war, especially after Cleopatra managed to be "introduced" to him in Alexandria.
Caesar imposed a peace, and a banquet was held to celebrate the event.[18] Lucan depicted Caesar talking to a wise man called Acoreus during the feast, stating his intention to create a calendar more perfect than that of Eudoxus[18] (Eudoxus was popularly credited with having determined the length of the year to be 365 1⁄4 days).[19] But the war soon resumed and Caesar was attacked by the Egyptian army for several months until he achieved victory. He then enjoyed a long cruise on the Nile with Cleopatra before leaving the country in June 47 BC.[20]
Caesar returned to Rome in 46 BC and, according to Plutarch, called in the best philosophers and mathematicians of his time to solve the problem of the calendar.[21] Pliny says that Caesar was aided in his reform by the astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria[22] who is generally considered the principal designer of the reform. Sosigenes may also have been the author of the astronomical almanac published by Caesar to facilitate the reform.[23] Eventually, it was decided to establish a calendar that would be a combination between the old Roman months, the fixed length of the Egyptian calendar, and the 365 1⁄4 days of the Greek astronomy. According to Macrobius, Caesar was assisted in this by a certain Marcus Flavius.[24]
Julian reform[edit]
Realignment of the year[edit]
The first step of the reform was to realign the start of the calendar year (1 January) to the tropical year by making 46 BC (708 AUC) 445 days long, compensating for the intercalations which had been missed during Caesar's pontificate. This year had already been extended from 355 to 378 days by the insertion of a regular intercalary month in February. When Caesar decreed the reform, probably shortly after his return from the African campaign in late Quintilis (July), he added 67 more days by inserting two extraordinary intercalary months between November and December.[25]
These months are called Intercalaris Prior and Intercalaris Posterior in letters of Cicero written at the time; there is no basis for the statement sometimes seen that they were called "Undecimber" and "Duodecimber".[26] Their individual lengths are unknown, as is the position of the Nones and Ides within them.[27]
Because 46 BC was the last of a series of irregular years, this extra-long year was, and is, referred to as the "last year of confusion". The new calendar began operation after the realignment had been completed, in 45 BC.[28]
Changes to the months[edit]
The Julian months were formed by adding ten days to a regular pre-Julian Roman year of 355 days, creating a regular Julian year of 365 days. Two extra days were added to January, Sextilis (August) and December, and one extra day was added to April, June, September and November. February was not changed in ordinary years, and so continued to be the traditional 28 days. Thus, the ordinary (i.e., non leap year) lengths of all of the months were set by the Julian calendar to the same values they still hold today. (See Sacrobosco's theory on month lengths below for stories purporting otherwise.)
The Julian reform did not change the method used to account days of the month in the pre-Julian calendar, based on the Kalends, Nones and Ides, nor did it change the positions of these three dates within the months. Macrobius states that the extra days were added immediately before the last day of each month to avoid disturbing the position of the established religious ceremonies relative to the Nones and Ides of the month.[29] However, since Roman dates after the Ides of the month counted down toward the start of the next month, the extra days had the effect of raising the initial value of the count of the day following the Ides in the lengthened months. Thus, in January, Sextilis and December the 14th day of the month became a.d. XIX Kal. instead of a.d. XVII Kal., while in April, June, September and November it became a.d. XVIII Kal.
Romans of the time born after the Ides of a month responded differently to the effect of this change on their birthdays. Mark Antony kept his birthday on 14 January, which changed its date from a.d. XVII Kal. Feb to a.d. XIX Kal. Feb, a date that had previously not existed. Livia kept the date of her birthday unchanged at a.d. III Kal. Feb., which moved it from 28 to 30 January, a day that had previously not existed. Augustus kept his on 23 September, but both the old date (a.d. VIII Kal. Oct.) and the new (a.d. IX Kal. Oct.) were celebrated in some places.
The inserted days were all initially characterised as dies fasti (F – see Roman calendar).[30] The character of a few festival days was changed. In the early Julio-Claudian period a large number of festivals were decreed to celebrate events of dynastic importance, which caused the character of the associated dates to be changed to NP. However, this practice was discontinued around the reign of Claudius, and the practice of characterising days fell into disuse around the end of the first century AD: the Antonine jurist Gaius speaks of dies nefasti as a thing of the past.[31]
Intercalation[edit]
The old intercalary month was abolished. The new leap day was dated as ante diem bis sextum Kalendas Martias ('the sixth doubled before the Kalends of March'), usually abbreviated as a.d. bis VI Kal. Mart.; hence it is called in English the bissextile day. The year in which it occurred was termed annus bissextus, in English the bissextile year.
There is debate about the exact position of the bissextile day in the early Julian calendar. The earliest direct evidence is a statement of the 2nd century jurist Celsus, who states that there were two halves of a 48-hour day, and that the intercalated day was the "posterior" half. An inscription from AD 168 states that a.d. V Kal. Mart. was the day after the bissextile day. The 19th century chronologist Ideler argued that Celsus used the term "posterior" in a technical fashion to refer to the earlier of the two days, which requires the inscription to refer to the whole 48-hour day as the bissextile. Some later historians share this view. Others, following Mommsen, take the view that Celsus was using the ordinary Latin (and English) meaning of "posterior". A third view is that neither half of the 48-hour "bis sextum" was originally formally designated as intercalated, but that the need to do so arose as the concept of a 48-hour day became obsolete.[32]
There is no doubt that the bissextile day eventually became the earlier of the two days for most purposes. In 238 Censorinus stated that it was inserted after the Terminalia (23 February) and was followed by the last five days of February, i.e., a.d. VI, V, IV, III and prid. Kal. Mart. (which would be 24 to 28 February in a common year and the 25th to 29th in a leap year). Hence he regarded the bissextum as the first half of the doubled day. All later writers, including Macrobius about 430, Bede in 725, and other medieval computists (calculators of Easter) followed this rule, as does the liturgical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church. However, Celsus' definition continued to be used for legal purposes. It was incorporated into Justinian's Digest,[33] and in the English statute De anno et die bissextili of 1236, which was not formally repealed until 1879.
The effect of the bissextile day on the nundinal cycle is not discussed in the sources. According to Dio Cassius, a leap day was inserted in 41 BC to ensure that the first market day of 40 BC did not fall on 1 January, which implies that the old 8-day cycle was not immediately affected by the Julian reform. However, he also reports that in AD 44, and on some previous occasions, the market day was changed to avoid a conflict with a religious festival. This may indicate that a single nundinal letter was assigned to both halves of the 48-hour bissextile day by this time, so that the Regifugium and the market day might fall on the same date but on different days. In any case, the 8-day nundinal cycle began to be displaced by the 7-day week in the first century AD, and dominical letters began to appear alongside nundinal letters in the fasti.[34]
During the late Middle Ages days in the month came to be numbered in consecutive day order. Consequently, the leap day was considered to be the last day in February in leap years, i.e., 29 February, which is its current position.
Sacrobosco's theory on month lengths[edit]
The Julian reform set the lengths of the months to their modern values. However, a 13th-century scholar, Sacrobosco, proposed a different explanation for the lengths of Julian months[35] which is still widely repeated but is certainly wrong.
According to Sacrobosco, the month lengths for ordinary years in the Roman Republican calendar, from January to December, were:
30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29.
Sacrobosco then thought that Julius Caesar added one day to every month except February, a total of 11 more days to regular months, giving the ordinary Julian year of 365 days. A single leap day could now be added to this extra short February:
31, 29/30, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30.
He then said Augustus changed this, by taking one day from February to add it to Sextilis, and then modifying the alternation of the following months, to:
31, 28/29, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31
so that the length of Augustus (August) would not be shorter than (and therefore inferior to) the length of Iulius (July), giving us the irregular month lengths which are still in use.
There is abundant evidence disproving this theory. First, a wall painting of a Roman calendar predating the Julian reform has survived,[36] which confirms the literary accounts that the months were already irregular before Julius Caesar reformed them, with an ordinary year of 355 days, not 354, with month lengths arranged as:
29, 28, 31, 29, 31, 29, 31, 29, 29, 31, 29, 29.
Also, the Julian reform did not change the dates of the Nones and Ides. In particular, the Ides were late (on the 15th rather than 13th) in March, May, July and October, showing that these months always had 31 days in the Roman calendar,[37] whereas Sacrobosco's theory requires that March, May and July were originally 30 days long and that the length of October was changed from 29 to 30 days by Caesar and to 31 days by Augustus. Further, Sacrobosco's theory is explicitly contradicted by the 3rd and 5th century authors Censorinus[38] and Macrobius,[39] and it is inconsistent with seasonal lengths given by Varro, writing in 37 BC,[13] before Sextilis was renamed for Augustus in 8 BC, with the 31-day Sextilis given by an Egyptian papyrus from 24 BC,[40] and with the 28-day February shown in the Fasti Caeretani, which is dated before 12 BC.[41]
Adoption of the Julian calendar[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Caesar's reform only applied to the Roman calendar. However, in the following decades many of the local civic and provincial calendars of the empire and neighbouring client kingdoms were aligned to the Julian calendar by transforming them into calendars with years of 365 days with an extra day intercalated every four years.[42] The reformed calendars typically retained many features of the unreformed calendars. In many cases, the New Year was not on 1 January, the leap day was not on the bissextile day, the old month names were retained, the lengths of the reformed months did not match the lengths of Julian months, and, even if they did, their first days did not match the first day of the corresponding Julian month. Nevertheless, since the reformed calendars had fixed relationships to each other and to the Julian calendar, the process of converting dates between them became quite straightforward, through the use of conversion tables known as hemerologia.[43] Several of the reformed calendars are only known through surviving hemerologia.
The three most important of these calendars are the Alexandrian calendar, the Asian calendar and the Syro-Macedonian calendar. Other reformed calendars are known from Cappadocia, Cyprus and the cities of Syria and Palestine. Most reformed calendars were adopted under Augustus, though the calendar of Nabatea was reformed after the kingdom became the Roman province of Arabia in AD 106. There is no evidence that local calendars were aligned to the Julian calendar in the western empire. Unreformed calendars continued to be used in Gaul, Greece, Macedon, the Balkans and parts of Palestine, most notably in Judea.
The Alexandrian calendar adapted the Egyptian calendar by adding a 6th epagomenal day as the last day of the year in every fourth year, falling on 29 August preceding a Julian bissextile day. It was otherwise identical to the Egyptian calendar. The first leap day was in 22 BC, and they occurred every four years from the beginning, even though Roman leap days occurred every three years at this time (see Leap year error). This calendar influenced the structure of several other reformed calendars, such as those of the cities of Gaza and Ascalon in Palestine, Salamis in Cyprus, and the province of Arabia. It was adopted by the Coptic church and remains in use both as the liturgical calendar of the Coptic church and as the civil calendar of Ethiopia.
The Asian calendar was an adaptation of the Macedonian calendar used in the province of Asia and, with minor variations, in nearby cities and provinces. It is known in detail through the survival of decrees promulgating it issued in 8 BC by the proconsul Paullus Fabius Maximus. It renamed the first month Dios as Kaisar, and arranged the months such that each month started on the ninth day before the kalends of the corresponding Roman month; thus the year began on 23 September, Augustus' birthday. Since Greek months typically had 29 or 30 days, the extra day of 31 day months was named Sebaste—the emperor's day—and was the first day of these months. The leap day was a second Sebaste day in the month of Xandikos, i.e., 24 February. This calendar remained in use at least until the middle of the fifth century AD.
The Syro-Macedonian calendar was an adaptation of the Macedonian calendar used in Antioch and other parts of Syria. The months were exactly aligned to the Julian calendar, but they retained their Macedonian names and the year began in Dios = November until the fifth century, when the start of the year was moved to Gorpiaios = September.
These reformed calendars generally remained in use until the fifth or sixth century. Around that time most of them were replaced as civil calendars by the Julian calendar, but with a year starting in September to reflect the year of the indiction cycle.
The Julian calendar spread beyond the borders of the Roman Empire through its use as the Christian liturgical calendar. When a people or a country was converted to Christianity, they generally also adopted the Christian calendar of the church responsible for conversion. Thus, Christian Nubia and Ethiopia adopted the Alexandrian calendar, while Christian Europe adopted the Julian calendar, in either the Catholic or Orthodox variant. Starting in the 16th century, European settlements in the Americas and elsewhere likewise inherited the Julian calendar of the mother country, until they adopted the Gregorian reform. The last country to adopt the Julian calendar was the Ottoman Empire, which used it for financial purposes for some time under the name Rumi calendar and dropped the "escape years" which tied it to Muslim chronology in 1840.
Leap year error[edit]
Although the new calendar was much simpler than the pre-Julian calendar, the pontifices initially added a leap day every three years, instead of every four. There are accounts of this in Solinus,[44] Pliny,[45] Ammianus,[46] Suetonius,[47] and Censorinus.[48]
Macrobius[49] gives the following account of the introduction of the Julian calendar:
"Caesar’s regulation of the civil year to accord with his revised measurement was proclaimed publicly by edict, and the arrangement might have continued to stand had not the correction itself of the calendar led the priests to introduce a new error of their own; for they proceeded to insert the intercalary day, which represented the four quarter-days, at the beginning of each fourth year instead of at its end, although the intercalation ought to have been made at the end of each fourth year and before the beginning of the fifth.
"This error continued for thirty-six years by which time twelve intercalary days had been inserted instead of the number actually due, namely nine. But when this error was at length recognised, it too was corrected, by an order of Augustus, that twelve years should be allowed to pass without an intercalary day, since the sequence of twelve such years would account for the three days which, in the course of thirty-six years, had been introduced by the premature actions of the priests."
So, according to Macrobius,
the year was considered to begin after the Terminalia, (23 February)[50]
the calendar was operated correctly from its introduction on 1 January 45 BC until the beginning of the fourth year (February 42 BC) at which point the priests inserted the first intercalation,
Caesar’s intention was to make the first intercalation at the beginning of the fifth year (February 41 BC),
the priests made a further eleven intercalations after 42 BC at three-year intervals so that the twelfth intercalation fell in 9 BC,
had Caesar’s intention been followed there would have been intercalations every four years after 41 BC, so that the ninth intercalation would have been in 9 BC,
after 9 BC, there were twelve years without leap years, so that the leap days Caesar would have had in 5 BC, 1 BC and AD 4 were omitted and
after AD 4 the calendar was operated as Caesar intended, so that the next leap year was AD 8 and then leap years followed every fourth year thereafter.[51]
Some people have had different ideas as to how the leap years went. The above scheme is that of Scaliger in the table below. He established that the Augustan reform was instituted in 8 BC. The table shows for each reconstruction the implied proleptic Julian date for the first day of Caesar's reformed calendar (Kal. Ian. AUC 709) and the first Julian date on which the Roman calendar date matches the Julian calendar after the completion of Augustus' reform.
Alexander Jones claims that the correct Julian calendar was in use in Egypt in 24 BC,[40] implying that the first day of the reform in both Egypt and Rome, 1 January 45 BC, was the Julian date 1 January if 45 BC was a leap year and 2 January if it was not. This necessitates fourteen leap days up to and including AD 8 if 45 BC was a leap year and thirteen if it was not.
Pierre Brind'Amour[52] argued that "only one day was intercalated between 1/1/45 and 1/1/40 (disregarding a momentary 'fiddling' in December of 41[53] to avoid the nundinum falling on Kal. Ian."[54]
Scholar
Date
Triennial leap years (BC)
First Julian day
First aligned day
Quadriennial leap year resumes
Bennett[55] 2003 44, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11, 8 31 Dec 46 BC 25 Feb 1 BC AD 4
Soltau[56] 1889 45, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11 2 Jan 45 BC 25 Feb AD 4 AD 8
Matzat[57] 1883 44, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11 1 Jan 45 BC 25 Feb 1 BC AD 4
Ideler[58] 1825 45, 42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12, 9 1 Jan 45 BC 25 Feb AD 4 AD 8
Kepler[59] 1614 43, 40, 37, 34, 31, 28, 25, 22, 19, 16, 13, 10 2 Jan 45 BC 25 Feb AD 4 AD 8
Harriot[60] After 1610 43, 40, 37, 34, 31, 28, 25, 22, 19, 16, 13, 10 1 Jan 45 BC 25 Feb 1 BC AD 4
Bünting[60] 1590 45, 42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12 1 Jan 45 BC 25 Feb 1 BC AD 4
Christmann[60][61] 1590 43, 40, 37, 34, 31, 28, 25, 22, 19, 16, 13, 10 2 Jan 45 BC 25 Feb AD 4 AD 7[60]
Scaliger[62] 1583 42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12, 9 2 Jan 45 BC 25 Feb AD 4 AD 8
In 1999 a papyrus was discovered which gives the dates of astronomical phenomena in 24 BC in both the Egyptian and Roman calendars. From 30 August 26 BC (Julian) Egypt had two calendars: the old Egyptian in which every year had 365 days and the new Alexandrian in which every fourth year had 366 days. Up to 28 August 22 BC (Julian) the date in both calendars was the same. The dates in the Alexandrian and Julian calendars are in one-to-one correspondence except for the period from 29 August in the year preceding a Julian leap year to the following 24 February.[63] From a comparison of the astronomical data with the Egyptian and Roman dates Alexander Jones[40] concluded that the Egyptian astronomers (as opposed to travellers from Rome) used the correct Julian calendar.
An inscription has been discovered[64] which orders a new calendar to be used in Asia to replace the previous Greek lunar calendar. According to one translation[65]
"Intercalation shall commence on the day after 14 Peritius [a.d. IX Kal. Feb, which would have been 15 Peritius] as it is currently constituted in the third year following promulgation of the decree. Xanthicus shall have 32 days in this intercalary year."
This is historically correct. It was decreed by the proconsul that the first day of the year in the new calendar shall be Augustus' birthday, a.d. IX Kal. Oct. Every month begins on the ninth day before the kalends. The date of introduction, the day after 14 Peritius, was 1 Dystrus, the next month. The month after that was Xanthicus. Thus Xanthicus began on a.d. IX Kal. Mart., and normally contained 31 days. In leap year, however, it contained an extra "Sebaste day", the Roman leap day, and thus had 32 days. From the lunar nature of the old calendar we can fix the starting date of the new one as 24 January, a.d. IX Kal. Feb 5 BC in the Julian calendar, which was a leap year. Thus from inception the dates of the reformed Asian calendar are in one-to-one correspondence with the Julian.
Another translation of this inscription[66] is
"Intercalation shall commence on the day after the fourteenth day in the current month of Peritius [a.d. IX Kal. Feb], occurring every third year. Xanthicus shall have 32 days in this intercalary year."
This would move the starting date back three years to 8 BC, and from the lunar synchronism back to 26 January (Julian). But since the corresponding Roman date in the inscription is 24 January, this must be according to the incorrect calendar which in 8 BC Augustus had ordered to be corrected by the omission of leap days. As the authors of the previous paper point out, with the correct four-year cycle being used in Egypt and the three-year cycle abolished in Rome it is unlikely that Augustus would have ordered the three-year cycle to be introduced in Asia.
Month names[edit]
The Julian reform did not immediately cause the names of any months to be changed. The old intercalary month was abolished and replaced with a single intercalary day at the same point (i.e., five days before the end of February). January continued to be the first month of the year.
The Romans later renamed months after Julius Caesar and Augustus, renaming Quintilis as "Iulius" (July)[8] in 44 BC and Sextilis as "Augustus" (August) in 8 BC. Quintilis was renamed to honour Caesar because it was the month of his birth.[67] According to a senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed to honour Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, occurred in that month.[68]
Other months were renamed by other emperors, but apparently none of the later changes survived their deaths. In AD 37, Caligula renamed September as "Germanicus" after his father;[69] in AD 65, Nero renamed April as "Neroneus", May as "Claudius" and June as "Germanicus";[70] and in AD 84 Domitian renamed September as "Germanicus" and October as "Domitianus".[71] Commodus was unique in renaming all twelve months after his own adopted names (January to December): "Amazonius", "Invictus", "Felix", "Pius", "Lucius", "Aelius", "Aurelius", "Commodus", "Augustus", "Herculeus", "Romanus", and "Exsuperatorius".[72] The emperor Tacitus is said to have ordered that September, the month of his birth and accession, be renamed after him, but the story is doubtful since he did not become emperor before November 275.[73] Similar honorific month names were implemented in many of the provincial calendars that were aligned to the Julian calendar.[74]
Other name changes were proposed but were never implemented. Tiberius rejected a senatorial proposal to rename September as "Tiberius" and October as "Livius", after his mother Livia.[75] Antoninus Pius rejected a senatorial decree renaming September as "Antoninus" and November as "Faustina", after his empress.[76]
Much more lasting than the ephemeral month names of the post-Augustan Roman emperors were the Old High German names introduced by Charlemagne. According to his biographer, Charlemagne renamed all of the months agriculturally into German.[77] These names were used until the 15th century, over 700 years after his rule, and continued, with some modifications, to see some use as "traditional" month names until the late 18th century. The names (January to December) were: Wintarmanoth ("winter month"), Hornung,[78] Lentzinmanoth ("spring month", "Lent month"), Ostarmanoth ("Easter month"), Wonnemanoth ("joy-month", a corruption of Winnimanoth "pasture-month"), Brachmanoth ("fallow-month"), Heuuimanoth ("hay month"), Aranmanoth ("reaping month"), Witumanoth ("wood month"), Windumemanoth ("vintage month"), Herbistmanoth ("harvest month"), and Heilagmanoth ("holy month").
The calendar month names used in western and northern Europe, in Byzantium, and by the Berbers, were derived from the Latin names. However, in eastern Europe older seasonal month names continued to be used into the 19th century, and in some cases are still in use, in many languages, including: Belarusian, Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Finnish, Georgian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Polish, Romanian, Slovene, Ukrainian. When the Ottoman Empire adopted the Julian calendar, in the form of the Rumi calendar, the month names reflected Ottoman tradition.
Year numbering[edit]
The principal method used by the Romans to identify a year for dating purposes was to name it after the two consuls who took office in it, the eponymous period in question being the consular year. Beginning in 153 BC, consuls began to take office on 1 January, thus synchronizing the commencement of the consular and calendar years. The calendar year has begun in January and ended in December since about 450 BC according to Ovid or since about 713 BC according to Macrobius and Plutarch (see Roman calendar). Julius Caesar did not change the beginning of either the consular year or the calendar year. In addition to consular years, the Romans sometimes used the regnal year of the emperor, and by the late 4th century documents were also being dated according to the 15-year cycle of the indiction. In 537, Justinian required that henceforth the date must include the name of the emperor and his regnal year, in addition to the indiction and the consul, while also allowing the use of local eras.
In 309 and 310, and from time to time thereafter, no consuls were appointed.[79] When this happened, the consular date was given a count of years since the last consul (so-called "post-consular" dating). After 541, only the reigning emperor held the consulate, typically for only one year in his reign, and so post-consular dating became the norm. Similar post-consular dates were also known in the west in the early 6th century. The system of consular dating, long obsolete, was formally abolished in the law code of Leo VI, issued in 888.
Only rarely did the Romans number the year from the founding of the city (of Rome), ab urbe condita (AUC). This method was used by Roman historians to determine the number of years from one event to another, not to date a year. Different historians had several different dates for the founding. The Fasti Capitolini, an inscription containing an official list of the consuls which was published by Augustus, used an epoch of 752 BC. The epoch used by Varro, 753 BC, has been adopted by modern historians. Indeed, Renaissance editors often added it to the manuscripts that they published, giving the false impression that the Romans numbered their years. Most modern historians tacitly assume that it began on the day the consuls took office, and ancient documents such as the Fasti Capitolini which use other AUC systems do so in the same way. However, Censorinus, writing in the 3rd century AD, states that, in his time, the AUC year began with the Parilia, celebrated on 21 April, which was regarded as the actual anniversary of the foundation of Rome.[80]
Many local eras, such as the Era of Actium and the Spanish Era, were adopted for the Julian calendar or its local equivalent in the provinces and cities of the Roman Empire. Some of these were used for a considerable time.[81] Perhaps the best known is the Era of Martyrs, sometimes also called Anno Diocletiani (after Diocletian), which was associated with the Alexandrian calendar and often used by the Alexandrian Christians to number their Easters during the 4th and 5th centuries, and continues to be used by the Coptic and Ethiopian churches.
In the eastern Mediterranean, the efforts of Christian chronographers such as Annianus of Alexandria to date the Biblical creation of the world led to the introduction of Anno Mundi eras based on this event.[82] The most important of these was the Etos Kosmou, used throughout the Byzantine world from the 10th century and in Russia until 1700. In the west, the kingdoms succeeding the empire initially used indictions and regnal years, alone or in combination. The chronicler Prosper of Aquitaine, in the fifth century, used an era dated from the Passion of Christ, but this era was not widely adopted. Dionysius Exiguus proposed the system of Anno Domini in 525. This era gradually spread through the western Christian world, once the system was adopted by Bede.
The Julian calendar was also used in some Muslim countries. The Rumi calendar, the Julian calendar used in the later years of the Ottoman Empire, adopted an era derived from the lunar AH year equivalent to AD 1840, i.e., the effective Rumi epoch was AD 585. In recent years, some users of the Berber calendar have adopted an era starting in 950 BC, the approximate date that the Libyan pharaoh Sheshonq I came to power in Egypt.
New Year's Day[edit]
The Roman calendar began the year on 1 January, and this remained the start of the year after the Julian reform. However, even after local calendars were aligned to the Julian calendar, they started the new year on different dates. The Alexandrian calendar in Egypt started on 29 August (30 August after an Alexandrian leap year). Several local provincial calendars were aligned to start on the birthday of Augustus, 23 September. The indiction caused the Byzantine year, which used the Julian calendar, to begin on 1 September; this date is still used in the Eastern Orthodox Church for the beginning of the liturgical year. When the Julian calendar was adopted in AD 988 by Vladimir I of Kiev, the year was numbered Anno Mundi 6496, beginning on 1 March, six months after the start of the Byzantine Anno Mundi year with the same number. In 1492 (AM 7000), Ivan III, according to church tradition, realigned the start of the year to 1 September, so that AM 7000 only lasted for six months in Russia, from 1 March to 31 August 1492.[83]
During the Middle Ages 1 January retained the name New Year's Day (or an equivalent name) in all western European countries (affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church), since the medieval calendar continued to display the months from January to December (in twelve columns containing 28 to 31 days each), just as the Romans had. However, most of those countries began their numbered year on 25 December (the Nativity of Jesus), 25 March (the Incarnation of Jesus), or even Easter, as in France (see the Liturgical year article for more details).
In Anglo-Saxon England, the year most commonly began on 25 December, which, as (approximately) the winter solstice, had marked the start of the year in pagan times, though 25 March (the equinox) is occasionally documented in the 11th century. Sometimes the start of the year was reckoned as 24 September, the start of the so-called "western indiction" introduced by Bede.[84] These practices changed after the Norman conquest. From 1087 to 1155 the English year began on 1 January, and from 1155 to 1751 began on 25 March.[85] In 1752 it was moved back to 1 January. (See Calendar (New Style) Act 1750).
Even before 1752, 1 January was sometimes treated as the start of the new year – for example by Pepys[86] – while the "year starting 25th March was called the Civil or Legal Year".[87] To reduce misunderstandings on the date, it was not uncommon for a date between 1 January and 24 March to be written as "1661/62". This was to explain to the reader that the year was 1661 counting from March and 1662 counting from January as the start of the year.[88] (For more detail, see Dual dating).
Most western European countries shifted the first day of their numbered year to 1 January while they were still using the Julian calendar, before they adopted the Gregorian calendar, many during the 16th century. The following table shows the years in which various countries adopted 1 January as the start of the year. Eastern European countries, with populations showing allegiance to the Orthodox Church, began the year on 1 September from about 988. The Rumi calendar used in the Ottoman Empire began the civil year on 1 March until 1918.
Country
Year starting
1 January[89][90]
Adoption of
new calendar
Republic of Venice 1522 1582
Holy Roman Empire[91] 1544 1582
Spain, Portugal 1556 1582
Prussia, Denmark–Norway 1559 1700
Sweden 1559 1753[92]
France 1567 1582
Southern Netherlands 1576[93] 1582
Lorraine 1579 1760
Holland, Zeeland 1583 1582
Dutch Republic except
Holland and Zeeland 1583 1700
Scotland 1600 1752
Russia 1700 1918
Tuscany 1721 1750
British Empire excluding Scotland 1752 1752[94]
Serbia 1804[citation needed] 1918
Ottoman Empire (Turkey)[95] 1918 1917
From Julian to Gregorian[edit]
Main article: Gregorian calendar
The Julian calendar was in general use in Europe and northern Africa until 1582, when Pope Gregory XIII promulgated the Gregorian calendar. Reform was required because too many leap days are added with respect to the astronomical seasons on the Julian scheme. On average, the astronomical solstices and the equinoxes advance by about 11 minutes per year against the Julian year. As a result, the calculated date of Easter gradually moved out of alignment with the March equinox.
This is a visual example of the official date change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian.
While Hipparchus and presumably Sosigenes were aware of the discrepancy, although not of its correct value,[96] it was evidently felt to be of little importance at the time of the Julian reform. However, it accumulated significantly over time: the Julian calendar gained a day about every 134 years. By 1582, it was ten days out of alignment from where it supposedly had been in 325 during the Council of Nicaea.
The Gregorian calendar was soon adopted by most Catholic countries (e.g., Spain, Portugal, Poland, most of Italy). Protestant countries followed later, and some countries of eastern Europe even later. In the British Empire (including the American colonies), Wednesday 2 September 1752 was followed by Thursday 14 September 1752. For 12 years from 1700 Sweden used a modified Julian calendar, and adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1753.
Since the Julian and Gregorian calendars were long used simultaneously, although in different places, calendar dates in the transition period are often ambiguous, unless it is specified which calendar was being used. In some circumstances, double dates might be used, one in each calendar. The notation "Old Style" (O.S.) is sometimes used to indicate a date in the Julian calendar, as opposed to "New Style" (N.S.), which either represents the Julian date with the start of the year as 1 January or a full mapping onto the Gregorian calendar. This notation is used to clarify dates from countries which continued to use the Julian calendar after the Gregorian reform, such as Great Britain, which did not switch to the reformed calendar until 1752, or Russia, which did not switch until 1918. This is why the Russian Revolution of 7 November 1917 N.S. is known as the October Revolution, because it began on 25 October OS.
Throughout the long transition period, the Julian calendar has continued to diverge from the Gregorian. This has happened in whole-day steps, as leap days which were dropped in certain centennial years in the Gregorian calendar continued to be present in the Julian calendar. Thus, in the year 1700 the difference increased to 11 days; in 1800, 12; and in 1900, 13. Since 2000 was a leap year according to both the Julian and Gregorian calendars, the difference of 13 days did not change in that year: 29 February 2000 (Gregorian) fell on 16 February 2000 (Julian). This difference will persist until the last day of February 2100 (Gregorian), since 2100 is not a Gregorian leap year, but is a Julian leap year. Monday 1 March 2100 (Gregorian) falls on Monday 16 February 2100 (Julian).[97]
Eastern Orthodox usage[edit]
Russian icon of the Theophany (the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist) (6 January), the highest-ranked feast which occurs on the fixed cycle of the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar.
Although most Eastern Orthodox countries (most of them in eastern or southeastern Europe) had adopted the Gregorian calendar by 1924, their national churches had not. The "Revised Julian calendar" was endorsed by a synod in Constantinople in May 1923, consisting of a solar part which was and will be identical to the Gregorian calendar until the year 2800, and a lunar part which calculated Easter astronomically at Jerusalem. All Orthodox churches refused to accept the lunar part, so almost all Orthodox churches continue to celebrate Easter according to the Julian calendar (with the exception of the Estonian Orthodox Church and the Finnish Orthodox Church).[98][99]
The solar part of the Revised Julian calendar was accepted by only some Orthodox churches. Those that did accept it, with hope for improved dialogue and negotiations with the western denominations, were the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, the Patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch, the Orthodox Churches of Greece, Cyprus, Romania, Poland (from 1924 to 2014 but remain permitted to use the Revised Julian calendar in parishes that want it), Bulgaria (the last in 1963), and the Orthodox Church in America (although some OCA parishes are permitted to use the Julian calendar). Thus these churches celebrate the Nativity on the same day that western Christians do, 25 December Gregorian until 2799.
The Orthodox Churches of Jerusalem, Russia, Serbia, Montenegro, Poland (from 15 June 2014), Macedonia, Georgia, Ukraine, and the Greek Old Calendarists and other groups continue to use the Julian calendar, thus they celebrate the Nativity on 25 December Julian (which is 7 January Gregorian until 2100). The Russian Orthodox Church has some parishes in the west which celebrate the Nativity on 25 December Gregorian until 2799.
Parishes of the Orthodox Church in America Bulgarian Diocese, both before and after the 1976 transfer of that diocese from the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia to the Orthodox Church in America, were permitted to use this date. Some Old Calendarist groups which stand in opposition to the state churches of their homelands will use the Great Feast of the Theophany (6 January Julian/19 January Gregorian) as a day for religious processions and the Great Blessing of Waters, to publicise their cause.[citation needed]
The Oriental Orthodox Churches generally use the local calendar of their homelands. However, when calculating the Nativity Feast, most observe the Julian calendar. This was traditionally for the sake of unity throughout Christendom. In the west, some Oriental Orthodox Churches either use the Gregorian calendar or are permitted to observe the Nativity according to it. The Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church celebrates the Nativity as part of the Feast of Theophany according to its traditional calendar.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Byzantine calendar
Conversion between Julian and Gregorian calendars
Julian day
Julian year (astronomy)
List of adoption dates of the Gregorian calendar per country
Mixed-style date
Proleptic Gregorian calendar
Proleptic Julian calendar
Revised Julian calendar
Roman timekeeping
Week
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Richards 2013, p. 595.
Jump up ^ Using value from Richards (2013, p. 587) for tropical year in mean solar days, the calculation is 1/(365.2425-365.24217)
Jump up ^ Introduction to Calendars. (15 May 2013). United States Naval Observatory.
Jump up ^ Social Security Administration publication GN 00307.180 – Gregorian/Julian calendar.
Jump up ^ Social Security Administration (26 August 2005). "GN 00307.180 Gregorian/Julian calendar". Retrieved 27 July 2016. Although the Russian authorities officially changed calendars in 1918, individual registrars particularly in remote areas continued to use the old calendar for as long as ten years.
Jump up ^ Towards a Common Date of Easter. (5–10 March). World Council of Churches/Middle East Council of Churches Consultation, Aleppo, Syria.
Jump up ^ Oxby, Clare (1998). "The manipulation of time: Calendars and power in the Sahara". Nomadic Peoples, New Series. 2 (1/2): 137–149. JSTOR 43123542.
^ Jump up to: a b c The letter J was not invented until the 16th century.
Jump up ^ The spelling Quinctilis is also attested; see page 669 of The Oxford Companion to the Year.
Jump up ^ T H Key, "A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities" (article Calendarium), London, 1875, available at [1].
Jump up ^ Blackburn, B & Holford-Strevens, L The Oxford Companion to the Year, Oxford University Press, 1999, reprinted with corrections, 2003, pp. 669–70.
Jump up ^ Censorinus, De die natali 20.7 (Latin)
^ Jump up to: a b Varro, On Agriculture I.1.28.
Jump up ^ Pliny, Natural History: (Book 18, LIX / LXVI / LXVIII / LXXIV).
Jump up ^ Parker, R. A. (May 1974). "Ancient Egyptian Astronomy". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 276 (1257): 51–65. JSTOR 74274.
Jump up ^ Hartner, Willy. "The young Avestan and Babylonian calendars and the antecedents of precession." Journal for the History of Astronomy 10 (1979): 1. pp. 1–22. doi:10.1177/002182867901000102
Jump up ^ Stern, Sacha. Calendars in antiquity: Empires, states, and societies. Oxford University Press, 2012., p. 178.
^ Jump up to: a b Lucan, Pharsalia: Book 10.
Jump up ^ Émile Biémont, Rythmes du temps, astronomie et calendriers, éd. De Boeck (Bruxelles), 2000 (ISBN 2-8041-3287-0), p. 224.
Jump up ^ Suetonius, Caesar 52.1.
Jump up ^ Plutarch, Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans: Caesar 59.
Jump up ^ Pliny, Natural History: (Book 18, LVII).
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Sosigenes of Alexandria.
Jump up ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia I.14.2 (Latin).
Jump up ^ It is not known why he decided that 67 was the correct number of days to add, nor whether he intended to align the calendar to a specific astronomical event such as the winter solstice. Ideler suggested (Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie II 123–125) that he intended to align the winter solstice to a supposedly traditional date of 25 December. The number may compensate for three omitted intercalary months (67 = 22+23+22). It also made the distance from 1 March 46 BC, the original New Years Day in the Roman calendar, to 1 January 45 BC 365 days.
Jump up ^ e.g., "... we have a sidelight on what was involved in "the year of confusion" as it was called. According to Dion Cassius, the historian, there was a governor in Gaul who insisted that, in the lengthened year, two months' extra taxes should be paid. The extra months were called Undecimber and Duodecimber." (P. W. Wilson, The romance of the calendar (New York, 1937), 112). The eponymous dating of the cited passage (Dio Cassius 54.21) shows that it actually refers to an event of 15 BC, not 46 BC.
Jump up ^ J. Rüpke, The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine: Time, History and the Fasti, 117f., suggests, based on the ritual structures of the calendar, that 5 days were added to November and that the two intercalary months each had 31 days, with Nones and Ides on the 7th and 15th.
Jump up ^ William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities: Year of Julius Caesar), following Ideler, interprets Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.14.13 (Latin) to mean that Caesar decreed that the first day of the new calendar began with the new moon which fell on the night of 1/2 January 45 BC. (The new moon was on 2 January 45 BC (in the Proleptic Julian calendar) at 00:21 UTC, according to IMCCE (a branch of the Paris Observatory): Phases of the moon (between −4000 and +2500).) However, more recent studies of the manuscripts have shown that the word on which this is based, which was formerly read as lunam, should be read as linam, meaning that Macrobius was simply stating that Caesar published an edict giving the revised calendar – see e.g., p.99 in the translation of Macrobius by P. Davies. Smith gives no source or justification for his other speculation that Caesar originally intended to commence the year precisely with the winter solstice.
Jump up ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.14.9 (Latin). Exceptionally, the extra day in April was inserted as the 26th, a.d. VI Kal. Mai. in the Julian calendar, in order to avoid adding a day to the Floralia, which ran from a.d. IV Kal. Mai. (27 April in the pre-Julian calendar) to a.d. V Non. Mai.
Jump up ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.14.12 (Latin).
Jump up ^ A. K. Michels, The Calendar of the Roman Republic Appendix II; J. Rüpke, The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine 113–114, 126–132, 147.
Jump up ^ W. Sternkopf, "Das Bissextum", (JCP 41 (1895) 718–733).
Jump up ^ Justinian, Digest 50.16.98.
Jump up ^ Dio Cassius 48.33.4, 60.24.7; C. J. Bennett, "The Imperial Nundinal Cycle", Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 147 (2004) 175–179.
Jump up ^ Roscoe Lamont, "The Roman calendar and its reformation by Julius Caesar", Popular Astronomy 27 (1919) 583–595. Sacrobosco's theory is discussed on pages 585–587.
Jump up ^ Roman Republican calendar.
Jump up ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.13.7 and 1.14.7–8 (Latin), Censorinus, De die natali 20.10 (Latin), (English).
Jump up ^ Censorinus, De die natali 20.9 (Latin), (English)
Jump up ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.14.7 (Latin)
^ Jump up to: a b c Alexander Jones, Calendrica II: Date Equations from the Reign of Augustus, Zeitschrift fűr Papyrologie und Epigraphik 129 (2000) 159–166, available at [2].
Jump up ^ A. Degrassi, Inscriptiones Italiae XIII: Fasti et Elogia 2: Fasti Anni Numani et Iuliani; Accedunt Feralia, Menologia Rustica, Parapegmata (Rome, 1963) 66 (Latin)
Jump up ^ This section is based on S. Stern, Calendars in Antiquity (OUP 2012) pp. 259–297.
Jump up ^ Studied in detail in W. Kubitschek, Die Kalendarbücher von Florenz, Rom und Leyden (Vienna, 1915).
Jump up ^ Gaius Julius Solinus, De mirabilibus mundi, c.3, available at [3].
Jump up ^ Gaius Plinius Secundus, Natural History, Vol. 2, 18.57, tr. J Bostock and H T Riley, London 1855, available at [4].
Jump up ^ The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus, 26.10, Loeb Classical Library vol. II, Harvard 1940, available at [5].
Jump up ^ Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, Life of Julius Caesar, 40.1, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard 1913, available at [6].
Jump up ^ Censorinus, The Natal Day, 20.30, tr. William Maude, New York 1900 available at [7].
Jump up ^ Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius, Saturnalia, 1.14.13–1.14.14, tr. Percival Vaughan Davies, New York 1969, Latin text at [8]
Jump up ^ Marcus Terentius Varro, On the Latin Language, 6.13, tr. Roland Kent, London 1938 available at [9].
Jump up ^ Nautical Almanac Offices of the United Kingdom and the United States. (1961). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris and the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. p. 410–11.
Jump up ^ Pierre Brind'Amour, Le calendrier romain, Ottawa 1983, pp. 45–46.
Jump up ^ Dio Cassius 48.33.4, tr. Earnest Cary, Loeb Classical Library, 9 vol., Harvard 1914–1927, available at [10].
Jump up ^ Refutation of Brind'Amour's theory by John Ward, Re: Intercalation in 45BC to 8AD, East Carolina University Calendar discussion List CALNDR-L, April 1998.
Jump up ^ C. J. Bennett, "The Early Augustan Calendars in Rome and Egypt", Zeitschrift fűr Papyrologie und Epigraphik 142 (2003) 221–240 and "The Early Augustan Calendars in Rome and Egypt: Addenda et Corrigenda", Zeitschrift fűr Papyrologie und Epigraphik 147 (2004) 165–168; see also Chris Bennett, A.U.C. 730 = 24 B.C. (Egyptian papyrus).
Jump up ^ W. Soltau, Römische Chronologie (Freiburg, 1889) 170–173. He accepted Matzat's phase of the triennial cycle but argued that it was absurd to suppose that Caesar would have made the second Julian year a leap year and that the 36 years had to be accounted from 45 BC.
Jump up ^ H. Matzat, Römische Chronologie I (Berlin, 1883), 13–18. His argument rested on Dio Cassius 48.33.4 which mentions a leap day inserted in 41 BC, "contrary to the (i.e., Caesar's) rule", in order to avoid having a market day on the first day of 40 BC. Dio stated that this leap day was compensated for "later". Matzat proposed this was done by omitting a scheduled leap day in 40 BC, rather than by omitting a day from an ordinary year.
Jump up ^ C. L. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie (Berlin, 1825) II 130–131. He argued that Caesar would have enforced the bissextile day by introducing it in his first reformed year. T. E. Mommsen, Die Römische Chronologie bis auf Caesar (Berlin, 1859) 282–299, provided additional circumstantial arguments.
Jump up ^ J. Kepler, De Vero Anno Quo Æternus Dei Filius Humanan Naturam in Utero Benedictæ Virginis Mariæ Assumpsit (Frankfurt, 1614) Cap. V, repub. in F. Hammer (ed.), Johannes Keplers Gesammelte Werke (Berlin, 1938) V 28.
^ Jump up to: a b c d For the list of triennial leap years proposed by Bünting, Christmann and Harriot, see Harriot's comparative table reproduced by Simon Cassidy (Fig. 6). The table numbers years as Julian years, where Julian year 1 = 45 BC. Thus, Scaliger and Clavius (col. 7) resume intercalation in Julian year 53 = AD 8, while Bünting (col. 8) and Harriot (col. 3) resume it in Julian year 49 = AD 4 and Christmann (col. 9) in year 52 = AD 7.
Jump up ^ J. Christmann Muhamedis Alfragani arabis chronologica et astronomica elementa (Frankfurt, 1590), 173. His argument assumed that the triennial cycle started in the third Julian year.
Jump up ^ J. J. Scaliger, De emendatione temporum (Paris, 1583), 159, 238.
Jump up ^ Dieter Hagedorn, Zum aegyptischen Kalender unter Augustus, Zeitschrift fűr Papyrologie und Epigraphik 100 (1994) 211–222, available at [11].
Jump up ^ OGIS 458 (Greek).
Jump up ^ B A Buxton and R Hannah in Studies in Latin Literature and Roman History (ed. C Deroux), XII 290.
Jump up ^ U. Laffi, "Le iscrizioni relative all'introduzione nel 9 a.c. del nuovo calendario della provincia d'Asia", Studi Classici e Orientali 16 (1967) 5–99.
Jump up ^ Suetonius, Caesar 76.1.
Jump up ^ Suetonius, Augustus 31.2; Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.12.35 (Latin)
Jump up ^ Suetonius, Caligula 15.2.
Jump up ^ Tacitus, Annals 15.74, 16.12.
Jump up ^ Suetonius, Domitian 13.3.
Jump up ^ Dio Cassius 73.15.3.
Jump up ^ Historia Augusta, Tacitus 13.6. On the chronology see R. McMahon, Tacitus.
Jump up ^ Surveyed in K. Scott, Honorific Months, Yale Classical Studies 2 (1931) 201–278.
Jump up ^ Suetonius, Tiberius 26.2.
Jump up ^ Historia Augusta, Antoninus Pius 10.1.
Jump up ^ Einhard, Life of Charlemagne, 29.
Jump up ^ This name of February, the only name in the list without the "month" suffix, is explained by König, Festschrift Bergmann (1997), pp. 425 ff. as a collective of horn, taken to refer to the antlers shed by red deer during this time. Older explanations compare the name with Old Frisian horning (Anglo-Saxon hornung-sunu, Old Norse hornungr) meaning "bastard, illegitimate son", taken to imply a meaning of "disinherited" in reference to February being the shortest of months.
Jump up ^ Chronography of AD 354.
Jump up ^ Censorinus De die natali 21.6 (Latin). Because the festivities associated with the Parilia conflicted with the solemnity of Lent, which was observed until the Saturday before Easter Sunday, the early Roman church did not celebrate Easter after 21 April – Charles W. Jones, "Development of the Latin Ecclesiastical calendar", Bedae Opera de Temporibus (1943), 1–122, p.28.
Jump up ^ For a partial survey see A. E. Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronology: calendars and years in classical antiquity (Munich, 1972), 245ff. Samuel introduces his survey by saying: "The number of eras which came into use and then expired to be replaced by yet other eras during Hellenistic and Roman times is probably not infinite, but I have not been able to find the end of them." Anatolian eras are exhaustively surveyed in W. Leschhorn, Antike Ären: Zeitrechnung, Politik und Geschichte im Schwarzmeerraum und in Kleinasien nördlich des Tauros (Stuttgart, 1993).
Jump up ^ A. A. Mosshammer, The Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era (Oxford, 2008) 27–29.
Jump up ^ История календаря в России и в СССР (Calendar history in Russia and in the USSR).
Jump up ^ M. L. R. Beaven, "The Regnal Dates of Alfred, Edward the Elder, and Athelstan", English Historical Review 32 (1917) 517–531; idem, "The Beginning of the Year in the Alfredian Chronicle (866–87)", English Historical Review 33 (1918) 328–342.
Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, General Chronology (Beginning of the Year).
Jump up ^ Pepys Diary, "I sat down to end my journell for this year, ..."
Jump up ^ Spathaky, Mike Old Style and New Style dates and the change to the Gregorian calendar.
Jump up ^ Spathaky, Mike Old Style and New Style dates and the change to the Gregorian calendar. "An oblique stroke is by far the most usual indicator, but sometimes the alternative final figures of the year are written above and below a horizontal line, as in a fraction (a form which cannot easily be reproduced here in ASCII text). Very occasionally a hyphen is used, as 1733-34."
Jump up ^ John James Bond, "Commencement of the Year", Handy-book of rules and tables for verifying dates with the Christian era, (London: 1875), 91–101.
Jump up ^ Mike Spathaky Old Style and New Style Dates and the change to the Gregorian Calendar: A summary for genealogists.
Jump up ^ The source has Germany, whose current area during the sixteenth century was a major part of the Holy Roman Empire, a religiously divided confederation. The source is unclear as to whether all or only parts of the country made the change. In general, Roman Catholic countries made the change a few decades before Protestant countries did.
Jump up ^ Sweden's conversion is complicated and took much of the first half of the 18th century. See Swedish calendar.
Jump up ^ Per decree of 16 June 1575. Hermann Grotefend, "Osteranfang" (Easter beginning), Zeitrechnung de Deutschen Mittelalters und der Neuzeit (Chronology of the German Middle Ages and modern times) (1891–1898).
Jump up ^ 1751 in England only lasted from 25 March to 31 December. The dates 1 January to 24 March which would have concluded 1751 under the old calendar became part of 1752 when the beginning of the numbered year was changed from 25 March to 1 January.
Jump up ^ See Rumi calendar for details. It is often stated that Turkey adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1926 or 1927. This refers to the adoption of the Anno domini era.
Jump up ^ Richards 1998, p. 216.
Jump up ^ Walker 2009.
Jump up ^ "Estonian Orthodox Church (Estonian Events)". Vancouveri Eesti Apostliku Õigeusu Kirik. 2010.
Jump up ^ Bishop Photius of Triaditsa, "The 70th Anniversary of the Pan-Orthodox Congress, Part II of II"; "HELSINGIN SANOMAT (International edition)". 21 September 2007.
Bibliography[edit]
Bonnie Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens, The Oxford Companion to the Year, Oxford University Press, reprinted with corrections 2003.
Brind'Amour, Pierre (1983). Le Calendrier romain: Recherches chronologiques. Ottawa University Press.
"Ethiopian Time". Washington D.C.: Embassy of Ethiopia. 2008.
Feeney, Dennis (2007). Caesar's Calendar: Ancient Time and the Beginnings of History. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Rüpke, Jörg (2011). The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine: Time, History and the Fasti. Wiley.
Nautical Almanac Offices of the United Kingdom and the United States of America (1961). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris and the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
Richards, E. G (1998). Mapping time: the calendar and its history. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-286205-1.
Richards, E. G. (2013). Urban, Sean E.; Seidelmann, P. Kenneth, eds. Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac (3rd ed.). Mill Valley, Calif: University Science Books. ISBN 978-1-891389-85-6.
Stern, Sacha (2012). Calendars in Antiquity: Empires, States and Societies. Oxford University Press.
Walker, John (2009). "Calendar Converter".
External links[edit]
Look up evenly divisible in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Julian calendar.
Calendars through the ages on WebExhibits.
Calendar FAQ
Roman Dates
The Roman Calendar
Calendar Converter – converts between several calendars, for example Gregorian, Julian, Mayan, Persian, Hebrew
[show]
v
t
e
Calendars
Systems
Lunar
Lunisolar
Solar
In wide use
Astronomical
Bengali
Chinese
Ethiopian
Gregorian
Hebrew
Hindu
Iranian
Islamic
ISO
Unix time
In more
limited use
Akan
Armenian
Assyrian
Bahá'í (Badí‘)
Balinese pawukon
Balinese saka
Berber
Buddhist
Burmese
Chinese
Coptic
Gaelic
Germanic Heathen
Georgian
Hebrew
Hindu or Indian
Vikram Samvat
Saka
Igbo
Iranian
Jalali (medieval)
Hijri (modern)
Zoroastrian
Islamic
Fasli
Tabular
Jain
Japanese
Javanese
Korean
Juche
Kurdish
Lithuanian
Malayalam
Mongolian
Melanau
Nanakshahi
Nepal Sambat
Nisg̱a'a
Oromo
Romanian
Somali
Sesotho
Slavic
Slavic Native Faith
Tamil
Thai
lunar
solar
Tibetan
Vietnamese
Xhosa
Yoruba
Types
Runic
Mesoamerican
Long Count
Calendar round
Christian variants
Julian
Revised
Liturgical year
Eastern Orthodox
Saints
Historical
Attic
Aztec
Tonalpohualli
Xiuhpohualli
Babylonian
Bulgar
Byzantine
Celtic
Cham
Culāsakaraj
Egyptian
Florentine
French Republican
Germanic
Greek
Hindu
Inca
Macedonian
Maya
Haab'
Tzolk'in
Muisca
Pentecontad
Pisan
Rapa Nui
Roman calendar
Rumi
Soviet
Swedish
Turkmen
By specialty
Holocene (anthropological)
Proleptic Gregorian / Proleptic Julian (historiographical)
Darian (Martian)
Dreamspell (New Age)
Discordian / Pataphysical (surreal)
Proposals
Calendar reform
Hanke–Henry Permanent
International Fixed
Pax
Positivist
Symmetry454
Tranquility
World
New Earth Time
Fictional
Discworld
Greyhawk
Middle-earth
Stardate
Star Wars (Galactic Standard Calendar)
Displays and
applications
Electronic
Perpetual
Wall
Year naming
and
numbering
Terminology
Era
Epoch
Regnal name
Regnal year
Year zero
Systems
Ab urbe condita
Anno Domini/Common Era
Anno Mundi
Assyrian
Before Present
Chinese Imperial
Chinese Minguo
Human Era
Japanese
Korean
Seleucid
Spanish
Yugas
Satya
Treta
Dvapara
Kali
Vietnamese
List of calendars
[show]
v
t
e
Ancient Rome topics
Outline
Timeline
Epochs
Foundation
Kingdom
overthrow
Republic
Empire
Pax Romana
Principate
Dominate
Western Empire
fall
historiography of the fall
Byzantine Empire
decline
fall
Constitution
History
Kingdom
Republic
Empire
Late Empire
Senate
Legislative assemblies
Curiate
Centuriate
Tribal
Plebeian
Executive magistrates
SPQR
Government
Curia
Forum
Cursus honorum
Collegiality
Emperor
Legatus
Dux
Officium
Prefect
Vicarius
Vigintisexviri
Lictor
Magister militum
Imperator
Princeps senatus
Pontifex Maximus
Augustus
Caesar
Tetrarch
Optimates
Populares
Province
Magistrates
Ordinary
Tribune
Quaestor
Aedile
Praetor
Consul
Censor
Promagistrate
Governor
Extraordinary
Dictator
Magister Equitum
Decemviri
Consular Tribune
Triumvir
Rex
Interrex
Law
Twelve Tables
Mos maiorum
Citizenship
Auctoritas
Imperium
Status
Litigation
Military
Borders
Establishment
Structure
Campaigns
Political control
Strategy
Engineering
Frontiers and fortifications
castra
Technology
Army
Legion
Infantry tactics
Personal equipment
Siege engines
Navy
Auxiliaries
Decorations and punishments
Hippika gymnasia
Economy
Agriculture
Deforestation
Commerce
Finance
Currency
Republican currency
Imperial currency
Technology
Abacus
Numerals
Civil engineering
Military engineering
Military technology
Aqueducts
Bridges
Circus
Concrete
Domes
Forum
Metallurgy
Roads
Sanitation
Thermae
Culture
Architecture
Art
Bathing
Calendar
Clothing
Cosmetics
Cuisine
Hairstyles
Education
Literature
Music
Mythology
Religion
Romanization
Sexuality
Theatre
Wine
Society
Patricians
Plebs
Conflict of the Orders
Secessio plebis
Equites
Gens
Tribes
Naming conventions
Demography
Women
Marriage
Adoption
Slavery
Bagaudae
Latin
History
Alphabet
Versions
Old
Classical
Vulgar
Late
Medieval
Renaissance
New
Contemporary
Ecclesiastical
Romance languages
Writers
Apuleius
Caesar
Catullus
Cicero
Ennius
Horace
Juvenal
Livy
Lucan
Lucretius
Martial
Ovid
Petronius
Phaedrus
Plautus
Pliny the Elder
Pliny the Younger
Propertius
Quintilian
Quintus Curtius Rufus
Sallust
Seneca
Statius
Suetonius
Tacitus
Terence
Tibullus
Marcus Terentius Varro
Virgil
Vitruvius
Major cities
Alexandria
Antioch
Aquileia
Berytus
Bononia
Carthage
Constantinopolis
Eboracum
Leptis Magna
Londinium
Lutetia
Mediolanum
Pompeii
Ravenna
Roma
Smyrna
Vindobona
Volubilis
Lists and other
topics
Wars and battles
Generals
Legions
Emperors
Geographers
Cities and towns
Institutions
Laws
Consuls
Tribunes
Distinguished women
Nomina
Gentes
Climate
Legacy
Fiction
Films
[show]
v
t
e
Time
Key concepts
Past
history
deep time
Present
Future
Futures studies
Far future in religion
Far future in science fiction and popular culture
Timeline of the far future
Eternity
Eternity of the world
Measurement and
standards
Chronometry
UTC
UT
TAI
Unit of time
Planck time
Second
Minute
Hour
Day
Week
Month
Year
Decade
Century
Millennium
Tropical year
Sidereal year
Samvatsara
Measurement
systems
Time zone
Six-hour clock
12-hour clock
24-hour clock
Daylight saving time
Solar time
Sidereal time
Metric time
Decimal time
Hexadecimal time
Calendars
Gregorian
Julian
Hebrew
Islamic
Lunar
Solar Hijri
Mayan
Intercalation
Leap second
Leap year
Clocks
Horology
History of timekeeping devices
Main types
astrarium
atomic
quantum
marine
sundial
sundial markup schema
watch
water-based
Chronology
History
Astronomical chronology
Big History
Calendar era
Chronicle
Deep time
Periodization
Regnal year
Timeline
Religion
Mythology
Dreamtime
Kāla
Kalachakra
Prophecy
Time and fate deities
Wheel of time
Immortality
Philosophy of time
A-series and B-series
B-theory of time
Causality
Duration
Endurantism
Eternal return
Eternalism
Event
Perdurantism
Presentism
Static interpretation of time
Temporal finitism
Temporal parts
The Unreality of Time
Human experience
and use of time
Accounting period
Chronemics
Fiscal year
Generation time
Mental chronometry
Music
Procrastination
Punctuality
Temporal database
Term
Time discipline
Time management
Time perception
Specious present
Time-tracking software
Time-use research
Time-based currency (time banking)
Time value of money
Time clock
Timesheet
Yesterday – Today – Tomorrow
Time in
Geology
Geological time
age
chron
eon
epoch
era
period
Geochronology
Geological history of Earth
Physics
Absolute time and space
Arrow of time
Chronon
Coordinate time
Imaginary time
Planck epoch
Planck time
Proper time
Rate
Spacetime
Theory of relativity
Time dilation
gravitational
Time domain
Time translation symmetry
Time reversal symmetry
other subject
areas
Chronological dating
Chronobiology
Circadian rhythms
Dating methodologies in archaeology
Time geography
Related topics
Carpe diem
Clock position
Space
System time
Tempus fugit
Time capsule
Time complexity
Time signature
Time travel
Time portal
[show]
v
t
e
Time measurement and standards
Chronometry
Orders of magnitude
Metrology
International standards
Coordinated Universal Time
offset
UT
ΔT
DUT1
International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service
ISO 31-1
ISO 8601
International Atomic Time
6-hour clock
12-hour clock
24-hour clock
Barycentric Coordinate Time
Barycentric Dynamical Time
Civil time
Daylight saving time
Geocentric Coordinate Time
International Date Line
Leap second
Solar time
Terrestrial Time
Time zone
180th meridian
Obsolete standards
Ephemeris time
Greenwich Mean Time
Prime meridian
Time in physics
Absolute time and space
Spacetime
Chronon
Continuous signal
Coordinate time
Cosmological decade
Discrete time and continuous time
Planck time
Proper time
Theory of relativity
Time dilation
Gravitational time dilation
Time domain
Time translation symmetry
T-symmetry
Horology
Clock
Astrarium
Atomic clock
Complication
History of timekeeping devices
Hourglass
Marine chronometer
Marine sandglass
Radio clock
Watch
Water clock
Sundial
Dialing scales
Equation of time
History of sundials
Sundial markup schema
Calendar
Astronomical
Dominical letter
Epact
Equinox
Gregorian
Hebrew
Hindu
Intercalation
Islamic
Julian
Leap year
Lunar
Lunisolar
Solar
Solstice
Tropical year
Weekday determination
Weekday names
Archaeology and geology
Chronological dating
Geologic time scale
International Commission on Stratigraphy
Astronomical chronology
Galactic year
Nuclear timescale
Precession
Sidereal time
Other units of time
Shake
Jiffy
Second
Minute
Moment
Hour
Day
Week
Fortnight
Month
Year
Lustrum
Decade
Century
Saeculum
Millennium
Related topics
Chronology
Duration
music
Mental chronometry
Metric time
System time
Time value of money
Timekeeper
[show]
v
t
e
Chronology
Key topics
Archaeology
Astronomy
Geology
History
Paleontology
Time
Eras
Epochs
Calendar eras
Human Era
Ab urbe condita
Anno Domini / Common Era
Anno Mundi
Byzantine era
Seleucid era
Spanish era
Before Present
Hijri
Egyptian
Sothic cycle
Hindu units of time (Yuga)
Mesoamerican
Long Count
Short Count
Tzolk'in
Haab'
Regnal year
Canon of Kings
Lists of kings
Limmu
Era names
Chinese
Japanese
Korean
Vietnamese
Calendars
Pre-Julian / Julian
Pre-Julian Roman
Original Julian
Proleptic Julian
Revised Julian
Gregorian
Gregorian
Proleptic Gregorian
Old Style and New Style dates
Adoption of the Gregorian calendar
Dual dating
Astronomical
Lunisolar
Solar
Lunar
Astronomical year numbering
Others
Chinese sexagenary cycle
Geologic Calendar
Hebrew
Iranian
Islamic
ISO week date
Mesoamerican
Maya
Aztec
Winter count (Plains Indians)
Astronomic time
Cosmic Calendar
Ephemeris
Galactic year
Metonic cycle
Milankovitch cycles
Geologic time
Concepts
Deep time
Geological history of Earth
Geological time units
Standards
Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)
Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)
Methods
Chronostratigraphy
Geochronology
Isotope geochemistry
Law of superposition
Luminescence dating
Samarium–neodymium dating
Chronological
dating
Absolute dating
Amino acid racemisation
Archaeomagnetic dating
Dendrochronology
Ice core
Incremental dating
Lichenometry
Paleomagnetism
Radiometric dating
Radiocarbon
Uranium–lead
Potassium–argon
Tephrochronology
Luminescence dating
Thermoluminescence dating
Relative dating
Fluorine absorption
Nitrogen dating
Obsidian hydration
Seriation
Stratigraphy
Genetic methods
Molecular clock
Linguistic methods
Glottochronology
Related topics
Chronicle
New Chronology
Periodization
Synchronoptic view
Timeline
Year zero
Circa
Floruit
Terminus post quem
ASPRO chronology
Portal
Authority control
GND: 4318310-4
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julian_calendar&oldid=816043243"
Categories:
Julian calendar
Roman calendar
Julius Caesar
Eastern Orthodox liturgy
Liturgical calendars
Hidden categories:
Articles needing additional references from December 2013
All articles needing additional references
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from January 2008
Articles with unsourced statements from January 2010
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Afrikaans
Alemannisch
العربية
ܐܪܡܝܐ
Asturianu
Azərbaycanca
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Башҡортса
Беларуская
Беларуская (тарашкевіца)
Български
Boarisch
Bosanski
Brezhoneg
Català
Чӑвашла
Cebuano
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Føroyskt
Français
Frysk
Gaeilge
Gàidhlig
Galego
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Hrvatski
Ido
Ilokano
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Basa Jawa
Къарачай-малкъар
ქართული
Қазақша
Kernowek
Kiswahili
Kreyòl ayisyen
Kurdî
Latina
Latviešu
Lëtzebuergesch
Lietuvių
Ligure
Limburgs
Magyar
मैथिली
Македонски
मराठी
მარგალური
مصرى
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Nordfriisk
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
Polski
Português
Română
Runa Simi
Русский
Саха тыла
Sardu
Scots
Shqip
සිංහල
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
தமிழ்
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche
Tiếng Việt
吴语
ייִדיש
粵語
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 18 December 2017, at 21:58.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href title

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: tbody

value: table

value: b

values:
/wiki/Liturgical_calendar
mw-redirect
Liturgical calendar

values:
/wiki/Orthodox_Church
mw-redirect
Orthodox Church

values:
/wiki/Alexandrian_calendar
mw-redirect
Alexandrian calendar

values:
/wiki/Cleopatra_VII
mw-redirect
Cleopatra VII

values:
/wiki/Intercalary_month
mw-redirect
Intercalary month

values:
/wiki/Nones_(calendar)
mw-redirect
Nones (calendar)

values:
/wiki/Ides_(calendar)
mw-redirect
Ides (calendar)

values:
/wiki/Publius_Iuventius_Celsus
mw-redirect
Publius Iuventius Celsus

values:
/wiki/Nundinal_cycle
mw-redirect
Nundinal cycle

values:
/wiki/Seven-day_week
mw-redirect
Seven-day week

values: Edit section: Sacrobosco's theory on month lengths

values: Edit section: Adoption of the Julian calendar

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

values:
/wiki/Ludwig_Ideler
mw-redirect
Ludwig Ideler

values:
/wiki/Joseph_Scaliger
mw-redirect
Joseph Scaliger

values:
/wiki/Province_of_Asia
mw-redirect
Province of Asia

values:
/wiki/Marcus_Claudius_Tacitus
mw-redirect
Marcus Claudius Tacitus

values:
/wiki/Belarusian_months
mw-redirect
Belarusian months

values:
/wiki/Bulgarian_months
mw-redirect
Bulgarian months

values:
nofollow
external text
http://wordinfo.info/unit/3236/ip:23

values:
/wiki/Polish_months
mw-redirect
Polish months

values:
/wiki/Ukrainian_months
mw-redirect
Ukrainian months

values:
/wiki/Spanish_Era
mw-redirect
Spanish Era

values:
/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Church
mw-redirect
Ethiopian Orthodox Church

values:
/wiki/Etos_Kosmou
mw-redirect
Etos Kosmou

values:
/wiki/Passion_(Christianity)
mw-redirect
Passion (Christianity)

values:
/wiki/Vladimir_I_of_Kiev
mw-redirect
Vladimir I of Kiev

values:
/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church
mw-redirect
Roman Catholic Church

values:
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

values:
/wiki/Lorraine_(province)
mw-redirect
Lorraine (province)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2008)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter
margin:auto;

values:
/wiki/Russian_icon
mw-redirect
Russian icon

values:
/wiki/Epiphany_(feast)
mw-redirect
Epiphany (feast)

values:
/wiki/Southeastern_Europe
mw-redirect
Southeastern Europe

values: Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople

values:
/wiki/Greek_Church_of_Alexandria
mw-redirect
Greek Church of Alexandria

values:
/wiki/Orthodox_Church_of_Cyprus
mw-redirect
Orthodox Church of Cyprus

values: Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem

values: Macedonian Orthodox Church – Ohrid Archbishopric

values: Orthodox Church in America Bulgarian Diocese

values:
/wiki/Old_Calendarist
mw-redirect
Old Calendarist

values:
/wiki/State_church
mw-redirect
State church

values:
/wiki/Great_Feast
mw-redirect
Great Feast

values:
/wiki/Great_Blessing_of_Waters
mw-redirect
Great Blessing of Waters

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2010)

values:
/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox
mw-redirect
Oriental Orthodox

values: Conversion between Julian and Gregorian calendars

values:
/wiki/Mixed-style_date
mw-redirect
Mixed-style date

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/43123542

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/74274

values:
nofollow
external text
http://omacl.org/Pharsalia/book10.html

values: International Standard Book Number (identifier)

values: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities

values: Institut de mécanique céleste et de calcul des éphémérides

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.cree.name/genuki/dates.htm

values:
/wiki/%C3%81satr%C3%BA_holidays
mw-redirect
Ásatrú holidays

values:
/wiki/Saka_calendar
mw-redirect
Saka calendar

values: Slavic Native Faith's calendars and holidays

values:
/wiki/Calendar_round
mw-redirect
Calendar round

values:
/wiki/Inca_calendar
mw-redirect
Inca calendar

values: Renaming of Turkmen months and days of week, 2002

values:
/wiki/Greyhawk_Calendar
mw-redirect
Greyhawk Calendar

values:
/wiki/Wall_calendar
mw-redirect
Wall calendar

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire

values: Military establishment of the Roman Republic

values: Structural history of the Roman military

values: Roman military frontiers and fortifications

values: Technological history of the Roman military

values: Roman military decorations and punishments

values:
/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency
mw-redirect
Roman Imperial currency

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: Far future in science fiction and popular culture

values:
/wiki/Eon_(geology)
mw-redirect
Eon (geology)

values:
/wiki/Planck_epoch
mw-redirect
Planck epoch

values: Template talk:Time measurement and standards

values:
/wiki/Absolute_time_and_space
mw-redirect
Absolute time and space

values: International Commission on Stratigraphy

values: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values:
/wiki/Chinese_sexagenary_cycle
mw-redirect
Chinese sexagenary cycle

values: Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point

values: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

values: navigation navbox Chronology padding:3px

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4318310-4

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from December 2013

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2008

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2010

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Julian_calendar
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: تقويم يولياني – Arabic

values: ܣܘܪܓܕܐ ܝܘܠܝܝܐ – Aramaic

values: জুলীয় বর্ষপঞ্জী – Bangla

values: Юлиан календары – Bashkir

values: Юліянскі каляндар – Belarusian

values: Юліянскі каляндар – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)

values: Юлиански календар – Bulgarian

values: Юлиан календарĕ – Chuvash

values: Ιουλιανό ημερολόγιο – Greek

values: گاه‌شماری ژولینی – Persian

values: 율리우스력 – Korean

values: Հուլյան օրացույց – Armenian

values: जूलियन कैलेंडर – Hindi

values: הלוח היוליאני – Hebrew

values: იულიუსის კალენდარი – Georgian

values: Юлиан күнтізбесі – Kazakh

values: जुलियन क्यालेन्डर – Maithili

values: Јулијански календар – Macedonian

values: जुलियन दिनदर्शिका – Marathi

values: იულიუსიშ კალენდარი – Mingrelian

values: Den julianske kalenderen – Norwegian Nynorsk

values: ਜੂਲੀਅਨ ਕੈਲੰਡਰ – Punjabi

values: Юлианский календарь – Russian

values: Юлиан халандаара – Sakha

values: ජුලියානු දිනදසුන – Sinhala

values: Јулијански календар – Serbian

values: யூலியன் நாட்காட்டி – Tamil

values: ปฏิทินจูเลียน – Thai

values: Юліанський календар – Ukrainian

values: جولینی تقویم – Urdu

values: جۇلىيان تەقۋىمى – Uyghur

values: יוליאנישער קאלענדאר – Yiddish

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Julian_calendar rootpage-Julian_calendar skin-vector action-view