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The Walking Dead (season 8)
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television season
The Walking Dead (season 8)
Promotional poster
Starring
Andrew Lincoln
Norman Reedus
Lauren Cohan
Chandler Riggs
Danai Gurira
Melissa McBride
Lennie James
Alanna Masterson
Josh McDermitt
Christian Serratos
Seth Gilliam
Ross Marquand
Jeffrey Dean Morgan
Austin Amelio
Tom Payne
Xander Berkeley
Khary Payton
Steven Ogg
Katelyn Nacon
Pollyanna McIntosh
Country of origin
United States
No. of episodes
16
Release
Original network
AMC
Original release
October 22, 2017 (2017-10-22) – April 15, 2018 (2018-04-15)
Season chronology
← Previous
Season 7
Next →
Season 9
List of The Walking Dead episodes
The eighth season of The Walking Dead, an American post-apocalyptic horror television series on AMC, premiered on October 22, 2017, and concluded on April 15, 2018, consisting of 16 episodes. Developed for television by Frank Darabont, the series is based on the eponymous series of comic books by Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore, and Charlie Adlard. The executive producers are Kirkman, David Alpert, Scott M. Gimple, Greg Nicotero, Tom Luse, and Gale Anne Hurd, with Gimple as showrunner for his fifth and final season. The eighth season has received positive reviews from critics.
This season adapts material from issues #115–126 of the comic book series and focuses on Rick Grimes (Andrew Lincoln), his group of survivors and everyone at the Alexandria Safe-Zone, the Hilltop, the Kingdom, and later the Scavengers going to war with Negan (Jeffrey Dean Morgan) and the Saviors.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Cast
1.1 Main cast
1.1.1 Starring
1.1.2 Also starring
1.2 Supporting cast
1.2.1 Alexandria Safe-Zone
1.2.2 The Hilltop
1.2.3 The Saviors
1.2.4 The Kingdom
1.2.5 Oceanside
1.2.6 The Scavengers
1.2.7 Miscellaneous
2 Production
3 Episodes
4 Release
5 Reception
5.1 Critical response
5.2 Ratings
6 References
7 External links
Cast[edit]
Main article: List of The Walking Dead (TV series) characters
Main cast[edit]
The primary characters of the eighth season include (from left to right): Rick, Carol, Morgan, Daryl, Carl, Enid, Rosita, Tara, Michonne, Gabriel, Aaron, Maggie, Jesus, Gregory, Shiva, Ezekiel, Jadis, Eugene, Simon, Dwight, and Negan
The eighth season features twenty series regulars overall. For this season, Katelyn Nacon, Khary Payton, Steven Ogg, and Pollyanna McIntosh were promoted to series regular status, after previously having recurring roles, while Seth Gilliam and Ross Marquand were added to the opening credits.
Starring[edit]
Andrew Lincoln as Rick Grimes, the series' protagonist, a former sheriff and the leader of Alexandria, who is leading a new alliance to fight Negan and the Saviors.
Norman Reedus as Daryl Dixon, Rick's right-hand man, the group's primary hunter and a recruiter for Alexandria.
Lauren Cohan as Maggie Rhee, the pregnant widow of Glenn and a leading figure of the Hilltop.
Chandler Riggs as Carl Grimes, Rick's bold and courageous teenage son.
Danai Gurira as Michonne, Rick's katana-wielding girlfriend, who acts as a mother figure to Carl and Judith.
Melissa McBride as Carol Peletier, a fierce survivor who is spurred into fighting the Saviors as revenge for the deaths of her friends.
Lennie James as Morgan Jones, the first survivor Rick had ever encountered, who now resides in the Kingdom and fights for his sanity.
Alanna Masterson as Tara Chambler, a caring, witty member of the group and supply runner for Alexandria who serves as a liaison with Oceanside.
Josh McDermitt as Eugene Porter, a timorous former member of the group whose resourcefulness leads Negan to take him under his wing.
Christian Serratos as Rosita Espinosa, an impulsive member of the group, who is motivated to avenge her ex-boyfriend Spencer and Abraham's death.
Seth Gilliam as Gabriel Stokes, a priest who has become hardened from his experiences with Rick's group.
Ross Marquand as Aaron, an Alexandrian recruiter who brought Rick's group to Alexandria and is currently in the fight against the Saviors.
Jeffrey Dean Morgan as Negan, the leader of the Saviors who serves as the season's primary antagonist.
Also starring[edit]
Austin Amelio as Dwight, a former subordinate of Negan who now works for Rick as a double agent against the Saviors.
Tom Payne as Paul "Jesus" Rovia, a scout for the Hilltop.
Xander Berkeley as Gregory, the selfish and hypocritical leader of the Hilltop whose influence diminished with Maggie's prominence.
Khary Payton as Ezekiel, the charismatic leader of the Kingdom who allies with Rick against the Saviors.
Steven Ogg as Simon, a former mortgage broker and Negan's second-in-command, he does not hide his intentions to overthrow Negan.[2]
Katelyn Nacon as Enid, a former member of Alexandria who moved to Hilltop to be with Maggie, and has formed a relationship with Carl.[2]
Pollyanna McIntosh as Jadis ("Anne"), the deceptive leader of the Scavengers who betrayed Rick's group, and maintains a neutral stance in the war.[2]
Supporting cast[edit]
Alexandria Safe-Zone[edit]
Jason Douglas as Tobin, the foreman of Alexandria's construction crew and member of Rick's militia.
Jordan Woods-Robinson as Eric Raleigh, Aaron's boyfriend and his former recruiting partner, who is now a member of Rick's militia.
Kenric Green as Scott, a supply runner in Alexandria and member of Rick's militia.
Dahlia Legault as Francine, a member of Alexandria's construction crew and member of Rick's militia.
Mandi Christine Kerr as Barbara, resident of Alexandria.
Ted Huckabee as Bruce, resident and member of Alexandria's construction and member of Rick's militia.
The Hilltop[edit]
James Chen as Kal, a guard of the Hilltop.
Peter Zimmerman as Eduardo, a guard of the Hilltop and soldier of the Hilltop's militia.
Karen Ceesay as Bertie, a resident of the Hilltop and soldier of the Hilltop's militia.
Jeremy Palko as Andy, a resident of the Hilltop and soldier of the Hilltop's militia.
Brett Gentile as Freddie, a resident of the Hilltop and soldier of the Hilltop's militia.
R. Keith Harris as Harlan Carson, is the doctor of the Hilltop, who was captured by Simon in the previous season.
The Saviors[edit]
Jayson Warner Smith as Gavin, one of Negan's top lieutenants, who leads the weapons base.
Traci Dinwiddie as Regina, one of Negan's top lieutenants.
Elizabeth Ludlow as Arat, one of Negan's top lieutenants.
Mike Seal as Gary, one of Negan's top lieutenants.
Lindsley Register as Laura, one of Negan's top lieutenants.
Juan Pareja as Morales, a survivor from Rick's original Atlanta camp who joined the Saviors.
Joshua Mikel as Jared, Benjamin's killer, and a hostile member of the Saviors who antagonizes Morgan.
Callan McAuliffe as Alden, a member of the Saviors who surrenders to Jesus at the satellite station outpost.
Lindsey Garrett as Mara, a Savior who guards one of many outposts.
Lee Norris as Todd, a timid member of the Saviors who works at the same outpost as Mara.
Whitmer Thomas as Gunther, a member of the Saviors who tortures Ezekiel.
Charles Halford as Yago, a Savior who manages Gavin's weapons base.
Ciera L. Payton as Zia, a Savior whom Rosita and Michonne encounter at a supply warehouse.
Adam Cronan as Leo, a Savior whom Rosita and Michonne encounter at a supply warehouse.
Chloe Aktas as Tanya, one of Negan's wives.
Elyse Dufour as Frankie, one of Negan's wives.
Adam Fristoe as Dean, a Savior who tried to kill Jesus.
The Kingdom[edit]
Cooper Andrews as Jerry, Ezekiel's loyal and good-natured bodyguard.
Kerry Cahill as Dianne, one of Ezekiel's top soldiers and a skilled archer.
Daniel Newman as Daniel, one of Ezekiel's top soldiers.
Carlos Navarro as Alvaro, one of Ezekiel's top soldiers.
Macsen Lintz as Henry, a resident of the Kingdom and younger brother of the deceased Benjamin.
Jason Burkey as Kevin, a resident of the Kingdom.
Nadine Marissa as Nabila, a resident and gardener of the Kingdom.
Oceanside[edit]
Deborah May as Natania, the vigilant leader of Oceanside.
Sydney Park as Cyndie, Natania's granddaughter.
Briana Venskus as Beatrice, one of Oceanside's top soldiers.
Nicole Barré as Kathy, one of Oceanside's top soldiers.
Mimi Kirkland as Rachel, an aggressive young member of Oceanside.
The Scavengers[edit]
Sabrina Gennarino as Tamiel, a leading member of the Scavengers.
Thomas Francis Murphy as Brion, a leading member of the Scavengers.
Miscellaneous[edit]
Avi Nash as Siddiq, a mysterious vagabond survivor who befriends Carl.
Jayne Atkinson as Georgie, the leader of a mysterious humanitarian group.
Production[edit]
The Walking Dead was renewed by AMC for a 16-episode eighth season on October 16, 2016.[3] Production began on April 25, 2017, in Atlanta, Georgia.[4] On July 12, 2017, production was shut down after stuntman John Bernecker was killed, after falling more than 20 feet onto a concrete floor.[5] Production resumed on July 17.[6]
The season premiere, which also serves as the series' milestone 100th episode, was directed by executive producer Greg Nicotero.[7]
In November 2017, it was announced that Lennie James who portrays Morgan Jones, would be leaving The Walking Dead after the conclusion of this season, and he will join the cast of the spin-off series Fear the Walking Dead.[8]
Episodes[edit]
See also: List of The Walking Dead episodes
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
100
1 "Mercy" Greg Nicotero Scott M. Gimple October 22, 2017 (2017-10-22) 11.44[9]
Rick, Maggie, and Ezekiel rally their communities together to take down Negan. Gregory attempts to have the Hilltop residents side with Negan, but they all firmly stand behind Maggie. The group attacks the Sanctuary, taking down its fences and flooding the compound with walkers. With the Sanctuary defaced, everyone leaves except Gabriel, who reluctantly stays to save Gregory, but is left behind when Gregory abandons him. Surrounded by walkers, Gabriel hides in a trailer, where he is trapped inside with Negan.
101
2 "The Damned" Rosemary Rodriguez Matthew Negrete & Channing Powell October 29, 2017 (2017-10-29) 8.92[10]
Rick's forces split into separate parties to attack several of the Saviors' outposts, during which many members of the group are killed; Eric is critically injured and rushed away by Aaron. Jesus stops Tara and Morgan from executing a group of surrendered Saviors. While clearing an outpost with Daryl, Rick is confronted and held at gunpoint by Morales, a survivor he met in the initial Atlanta camp, who is now with the Saviors.
102
3 "Monsters" Greg Nicotero Matthew Negrete & Channing Powell November 5, 2017 (2017-11-05) 8.52[11]
Daryl finds Morales threatening Rick and kills him; the duo then pursue a group of Saviors who are transporting weapons to another outpost. Gregory returns to Hilltop, and after a heated argument, Maggie ultimately allows him back in the community. Eric dies from his injuries, leaving Aaron distraught. Despite Tara and Morgan's objections, Jesus leads the group of surrendered Saviors to Hilltop. Ezekiel's group attacks another Savior compound, during which Kingdom fighters are annihilated while protecting Ezekiel.
103
4 "Some Guy" Dan Liu David Leslie Johnson November 12, 2017 (2017-11-12) 8.69[12]
Ezekiel's group is overwhelmed by the Saviors, who kill all of them except for Ezekiel himself and Jerry. Carol clears the inside of the compound, killing all but two Saviors, who almost escape but are eventually caught by Rick and Daryl. En route to the Kingdom, Ezekiel, Jerry, and Carol are surrounded by walkers, but Shiva sacrifices herself to save them. The trio returns to the Kingdom, where Ezekiel's confidence in himself as a leader has diminished.
104
5 "The Big Scary U" Michael E. Satrazemis Story by : Scott M. Gimple & David Leslie Johnson & Angela Kang
Teleplay by : David Leslie Johnson & Angela Kang November 19, 2017 (2017-11-19) 7.85[13]
After confessing their sins to each other, Gabriel and Negan manage to escape from the trailer. Simon and the other lieutenants grow suspicious of each other, knowing that Rick’s forces must have inside information. The workers in the Sanctuary become increasingly frustrated with their living conditions, and a riot nearly ensues, until Negan returns and restores order. Gabriel is locked in a cell, where Eugene discovers him sick and suffering. Meanwhile, Rick and Daryl argue over how to take out the Saviors, leading Daryl to abandon Rick.
105
6 "The King, the Widow, and Rick" John Polson Angela Kang & Corey Reed November 26, 2017 (2017-11-26) 8.28[14]
Rick visits Jadis in hopes of convincing her to turn against Negan; Jadis refuses, and locks Rick in a shipping container. Carl encounters Siddiq in the woods and recruits him to Alexandria. Daryl and Tara plot to deviate from Rick’s plans by destroying the Sanctuary. Ezekiel isolates himself at the Kingdom, where Carol tries to encourage him to be the leader his people need. Maggie has the group of captured Saviors placed in a holding area and forces Gregory to join them as punishment for betraying Hilltop.
106
7 "Time for After" Larry Teng Matthew Negrete & Corey Reed December 3, 2017 (2017-12-03) 7.47[15]
After learning of Dwight's association with Rick's group, Eugene affirms his loyalty to Negan and outlines a plan to get rid of the walkers surrounding the Sanctuary. With help from Morgan and Tara, Daryl drives a truck through the Sanctuary’s walls, flooding its interior with walkers, killing many Saviors. Rick finally convinces Jadis and the Scavengers to align with him, and they plan to force the Saviors to surrender. However, when they arrive at the Sanctuary, Rick is horrified to see the breached walls and no sign of the walker herd.
107
8 "How It's Gotta Be" Michael E. Satrazemis David Leslie Johnson & Angela Kang December 10, 2017 (2017-12-10) 7.89[16]
Eugene's plan allows the Saviors to escape the Sanctuary, and separately, the Saviors waylay the Alexandria, Hilltop, and Kingdom forces. The Scavengers abandon Rick, after which he returns to Alexandria. Aaron and Enid are ambushed by Oceanside soldiers, leading Enid to kill Natania. Ezekiel ensures that the Kingdom residents are able to escape before locking himself in the community with the Saviors. Eugene aids Gabriel and Doctor Carson in escaping the Sanctuary in order to ease his conscience. Negan attacks Alexandria, but Carl devises a plan to allow the Alexandria residents to escape into the sewers. Carl reveals he was bitten by a walker while escorting Siddiq to Alexandria.
108
9 "Honor" Greg Nicotero Matthew Negrete & Channing Powell February 25, 2018 (2018-02-25) 8.28[17]
Realizing his time alive is limited, Carl writes several letters to his loved ones. After the Saviors leave Alexandria, the survivors make for the Hilltop while Rick and Michonne stay behind to say their final goodbyes to a dying Carl, who pleads with Rick to build a better future alongside the Saviors. Morgan and Carol launch a rescue mission for Ezekiel and successfully retake the Kingdom from the invading Saviors; their lieutenant, Gavin, is killed by Benjamin's vengeful younger brother, Henry.
109
10 "The Lost and the Plunderers" David Boyd Angela Kang & Channing Powell & Corey Reed March 4, 2018 (2018-03-04) 6.82[18]
Aaron and Enid try to convince Oceanside to join the fight against the Saviors, but they refuse; Enid returns to Hilltop while Aaron opts to stay at Oceanside until he can convince them to join. Upon learning of the Scavenger’s siding with Rick, Negan orders Simon to kill only one of Jadis’ people. Rick and Michonne travel to the junkyard to warn Jadis of the Saviors’ impending attack, but they are too late; Simon had ordered the Saviors to slaughter the entire group; Jadis, who managed to escape lures her reanimated comrades into a waste shredder to protect herself.
110
11 "Dead or Alive Or" Michael E. Satrazemis Eddie Guzelian March 11, 2018 (2018-03-11) 6.60[19]
The Saviors hunt the surviving Alexandrians as they make their way to the Hilltop; Dwight affirms his loyalty to Rick's group as he distracts the Saviors and helps lead the group to safety. Eugene leads a crew of Saviors in crafting bullets at a new outpost while Negan plans to taint the Saviors' weapons with walker blood, in order to make the others "turn" instead of killing them. Doctor Carson tries to help a feverish and nearly blind Gabriel to safety, but the Saviors eventually catch up, killing Carson and recapturing Gabriel.
111
12 "The Key" Greg Nicotero Corey Reed & Channing Powell March 18, 2018 (2018-03-18) 6.66[20]
Maggie, Enid, Michonne and Rosita encounter a seemingly benevolent woman named Georgie, who gives them food and documents in exchange for phonograph records; Georgie claims the documents to be "a key to the future". Negan leads the Saviors to the Hilltop to send a warning via their newly tainted weapons; Rick pursues the Saviors and chases Negan into a building. Negan eventually escapes, only to be captured at gunpoint by Jadis. Unable to find Negan, Simon instructs the Saviors to attack the Hilltop and "expunge" the community for good.
112
13 "Do Not Send Us Astray" Jeffrey F. January Angela Kang & Matthew Negrete March 25, 2018 (2018-03-25) 6.77[21]
The Saviors attack the Hilltop with their tainted weapons, leading to a battle in which both sides suffer heavy casualties. Tara is non-fatally shot by Dwight in an effort to prevent Simon from killing her. Overnight, the injured die from their tainted wounds and attack the sleeping survivors after reanimating. Henry tries to take revenge for the murder of his brother, leading to the breakout of the Savior prisoners and the disappearance of Henry. Having seen the Saviors' callous attitude for themselves, Alden and several other Saviors choose to remain at the Hilltop rather than return to the Saviors.
113
14 "Still Gotta Mean Something" Michael E. Satrazemis Eddie Guzelian April 1, 2018 (2018-04-01) 6.30[22]
Carol and Morgan search for Henry while Rick hunts the escaped Savior prisoners; Morgan abandons Carol and joins Rick, and together, they find and kill the prisoners. Jadis tortures Negan until he informs her that he had nothing to do with Simon massacring her people; a helicopter flies nearby, but Jadis fails to catch its attention. Daryl and Rosita plot to stop Eugene from crafting ammunition for the Saviors. Carol finds Henry alive in the woods and they return to Hilltop. Upon Rick and Morgan's return, Michonne encourages Rick to read Carl's letter to him.
114
15 "Worth" Michael Slovis David Leslie Johnson-McGoldrick & Corey Reed April 8, 2018 (2018-04-08) 6.67[23]
Negan returns to the Sanctuary and regains control of the Saviors. Dwight secretly prepares notes to Rick about Negan's plans, and later sends Gregory to deliver the notes. Daryl and Rosita capture Eugene from his outpost, but he manages to escape and continues pushing his workers to craft bullets. Dwight lures Simon into a meeting where Negan accosts him for going against his orders with the Scavengers, and kills him in a fist fight. Negan then reveals that Laura informed him of Dwight's siding with Rick, and that his planning was a ruse upon knowing of Dwight's disloyalty. Negan is contacted by Michonne - who reads Carl's letter to him at the request of making peace; Negan remains intent on killing Rick and his allies once and for all.
115
16 "Wrath" Greg Nicotero Scott M. Gimple & Angela Kang & Matthew Negrete April 15, 2018 (2018-04-15) 7.92[24]
Rick's group follows the false plans given to them by Gregory, leading them into a trap. As the Saviors fire, their weapons backfire due to their ammo being sabotaged by Eugene. The surviving Saviors surrender, while Rick chases down Negan; the two brawl and Rick manages to slice Negan's neck, but immediately has Siddiq tend to the wound, knowing that Carl wanted Negan to survive. Meanwhile, an attack at Hilltop is stopped with help from Aaron and the Oceanside soldiers. The survivors regroup and rebuild their communities, but Rick's decision to spare Negan angers Maggie and she vows to take action against Rick in the future.
Release[edit]
The first trailer for the season was released on July 21, 2017 at the San Diego Comic-Con. The second trailer was released on February 1, 2018 for the second part of the season.[25]
On March 15, 2018, it was announced that the season finale and the fourth season premiere of Fear the Walking Dead would be screened at AMC, Regal, and Cinemark theaters across the United States on April 15, the same day as the TV airing, for "Survival Sunday: The Walking Dead & Fear the Walking Dead". The episodes marked the first crossover between the two series. The cinema screening also included an extra half-hour of exclusive bonus content.[26]
Reception[edit]
Critical response[edit]
The eighth season of The Walking Dead has received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season holds a score of 71% with an average rating of 6.94 out of 10, based on 13 reviews, and an average episode score 72%. The site's critical consensus reads: "The Walking Dead's eighth season energizes its characters with some much-needed angst and action, though it's still occasionally choppy and lacking forward-moving plot progression."[27]
The Walking Dead (season 8): Critical reception by episode
Season 8 (2017–18): Percentage of positive reviews tracked by the website Rotten Tomatoes[27]
Ratings[edit]
No.
Title
Air date
Rating
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)
1 "Mercy" October 22, 2017 5.0 11.44[9] 2.2 4.28 7.2 15.74[28]
2 "The Damned" October 29, 2017 4.0 8.92[10] 2.0 4.16 6.0 13.10[29]
3 "Monsters" November 5, 2017 3.8 8.52[11] 2.2 4.47 6.0 13.01[30]
4 "Some Guy" November 12, 2017 3.9 8.69[12] 1.8 3.66 5.7 12.36[31]1
5 "The Big Scary U" November 19, 2017 3.4 7.85[13] N/A N/A N/A N/A
6 "The King, the Widow, and Rick" November 26, 2017 3.6 8.28[14] 2.1 4.44 5.7 12.73[32]
7 "Time for After" December 3, 2017 3.3 7.47[15] 1.9 4.15 5.2 11.63[33]
8 "How It's Gotta Be" December 10, 2017 3.4 7.89[16] 2.0 4.23 5.4 12.13[34]
9 "Honor" February 25, 2018 3.6 8.28[17] N/A N/A N/A N/A
10 "The Lost and the Plunderers" March 4, 2018 2.9 6.82[18] 1.7 3.80 4.6 10.63[35]
11 "Dead or Alive Or" March 11, 2018 2.8 6.60[19] 1.6 3.44 4.4 10.06[36]
12 "The Key" March 18, 2018 2.8 6.66[20] 1.7 3.76 4.5 10.44[37]
13 "Do Not Send Us Astray" March 25, 2018 3.0 6.77[21] 1.7 3.82 4.7 10.62[38]
14 "Still Gotta Mean Something" April 1, 2018 2.6 6.30[22] 1.8 3.68 4.4 9.99[39]
15 "Worth" April 8, 2018 2.8 6.67[23] 1.7 3.64 4.5 10.32[40]
16 "Wrath" April 15, 2018 3.4 7.92[24] 1.6 3.30 5.0 11.24[41]
^1 Live +7 ratings were not available, so Live +3 ratings have been used instead.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Goldberg, Lesley (April 17, 2017). "'Walking Dead' Promotes Trio to Series Regular for Season 8". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved May 4, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ausiello, Michael (April 17, 2017). "The Walking Dead Promotes 3 Actors to Series Regular Ahead of Season 8". TV Line. Retrieved October 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Hibberd, James (October 16, 2016). "Walking Dead gets early season 8 renewal". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved October 16, 2016.
Jump up ^ Davis, Brandon (April 24, 2017). "The Walking Dead Cast And Crew Assemble For Season 8". Comicbook.com. Retrieved July 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Otterson, Joe (July 13, 2017). "'Walking Dead' Stuntman Dies After On-Set Accident". Variety. Retrieved July 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Pedersen, Erik (July 17, 2017). "'Walking Dead' Production Resumes After Stuntman's Death". Deadline. Retrieved July 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Davis, Brandon (April 25, 2017). "Exclusive: Greg Nicotero To Direct The Walking Dead Episode 100, Season 8 Premiere". Comicbook.com. Retrieved July 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Ross, Dalton (November 26, 2017). "The Walking Dead: Lennie James will cross over to Fear The Walking Dead". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved November 27, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (October 24, 2017). "Sunday cable ratings: 'The Walking Dead' has lowest-rated premiere since Season 2". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 24, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (October 31, 2017). "Sunday cable ratings: 'The Walking Dead' stumbles to 5-year low". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 31, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (November 7, 2017). "Sunday cable ratings: 'Shameless' has its best premiere in 4-plus years". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 7, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (November 14, 2017). "Sunday cable ratings: 'The Walking Dead' improves, 'Shameless' dips in week 2". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 14, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (November 21, 2017). "Sunday cable ratings: 6-year low for 'The Walking Dead'". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 21, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (November 29, 2017). "Sunday cable ratings: Hallmark's 'Switched for Christmas' hits a high, 'Walking Dead' rebounds some". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 29, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (December 5, 2017). "Sunday cable ratings: 'The Walking Dead' goes low again". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 5, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (December 12, 2017). "Sunday cable ratings: 'Walking Dead' fall finale ticks up, Season 8 still way down". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 12, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (February 27, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'The Walking Dead' returns a little higher". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved February 27, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (March 6, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'The Walking Dead' at lowest point since Season 1". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved March 6, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (March 13, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'The Walking Dead' goes even lower". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved March 13, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (March 20, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'The Walking Dead' levels off". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved March 20, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (March 27, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'The Terror' gets decent start behind 'The Walking Dead'". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved March 27, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (April 3, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'The Walking Dead' falls, NCAA women's championship off a little". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved April 3, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (April 10, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'Walking Dead,' 'Real Housewives of Atlanta' improve". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved April 10, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Porter, Rick (April 17, 2018). "Sunday cable ratings: 'Fear the Walking Dead' opens higher". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved April 17, 2018.
Jump up ^ Snierson, Dan (July 21, 2017). "The Walking Dead season 8 trailer teases surprise flash-forward". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved July 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ Nyren, Erin (March 15, 2018). "'The Walking Dead' Finale and 'Fear' Premiere to Screen in Theaters". Variety. Retrieved March 21, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Walking Dead: Season 8". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved April 17, 2016.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 3, 2017). "'Walking Dead' premiere grows a lot, still trails Season 7 debut by a lot: Cable Live +7 ratings for Oct. 16-22". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 9, 2017). "'Walking Dead,' 'AHS: Cult' way above everything else in cable Live +7 ratings for Oct. 23-29". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 17, 2017). "'American Horror Story: Cult' triples in cable Live +7 ratings for Oct. 30-Nov. 5". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (November 19, 2017). "'The Walking Dead' keeps pace in cable Live +3 ratings for Nov. 6-12". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved November 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (December 7, 2017). "'The Walking Dead' laps the field in cable Live +7 ratings for Nov. 20-26". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 7, 2017.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (December 15, 2017). "'The Walking Dead' outpaces everything else in cable Live +7 ratings for Nov. 27-Dec. 3". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (December 21, 2017). "'Top Chef' premiere more than doubles in cable Live +7 ratings for Dec. 4-10". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved December 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (March 15, 2018). "'Walking Dead' stays atop the cable Live +7 ratings for Feb. 26-March 4". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved March 15, 2018.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (March 22, 2018). "'Atlanta' and 'The Alienist' make more solid gains in cable Live +7 ratings for March 5-11". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved March 22, 2018.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (March 29, 2018). "'The Fosters' finale doubles in cable Live +7 ratings for March 12-18". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved March 29, 2018.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (April 6, 2018). "'Krypton' premiere makes solid gains in cable Live +7 ratings for March 19-25". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved April 6, 2018.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (April 11, 2018). "'Siren' premiere doubles in cable Live +7 ratings for March 26-April 1". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved April 11, 2018.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (April 19, 2018). "'Fixer Upper' finale goes out strong: Cable Live +7 ratings for April 2-8". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved April 19, 2018.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (April 26, 2018). "'The Last O.G.' scores for TBS in cable Live +7 ratings for April 9-15". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved April 26, 2018.
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Music of the American Civil War
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Typical cover of sheet music, with songs depicting the individuals of the era, such as John Hunt Morgan
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During the American Civil War, music played a prominent role on both sides of the conflict: Union and Confederate. On the American Civil War battlefield, different instruments including bugles, drums, and fifes were played to issue marching orders or sometimes simply to boost the morale of one's fellow soldiers. Singing was also employed as a recreational activity but as a release from the inevitable tensions that come with fighting in a war, particularly a war in which the issue of freedom of a race is to be decided. In camp, music was a diversion away from the bloodshed, helping the soldiers deal with homesickness and boredom. Soldiers of both sides often engaged in recreation with musical instruments, and when the opposing armies were near each other, sometimes the bands from both sides of the conflict played against each other on the night before a battle.
Each side had its particular favorite tunes, while some music was enjoyed by Northerners and Southerners alike, as exemplified by United States President Abraham Lincoln's love of Dixie, the unofficial anthem of the Confederacy. To this day, many of the songs are sung when a patriotic piece is required. The war's music also inspired music artists such as Lynyrd Skynyrd and Elvis Presley.
Contents
[hide]
1 Development of American music
2 Regulations
3 On the battlefield
4 In camp
5 Homefront
5.1 African American music
6 Different versions
7 Legacy
8 Songs published per year
8.1 1861
8.2 1862
8.3 1863
8.4 1864
8.5 1865
9 Media
10 See also
11 Notes and references
11.1 Notes
11.2 References
12 External links
Development of American music[edit]
The Civil War was an important period in the development of American music. During the Civil War, when soldiers from across the country commingled, the multifarious strands of American music began to cross-fertilize each other, a process that was aided by the burgeoning railroad industry and other technological developments that made travel and communication easier. Army units included individuals from across the country, and they rapidly traded tunes, instruments, and techniques. The songs that arose from this fusion were "the first American folk music with discernible features that can be considered unique to America".[1] The war was an impetus for the creation of many songs that became and remained wildly popular; the songs were aroused by "all the varied passions (that the Civil War inspired)" and "echoed and re-echoed" every aspect of the war. John Tasker Howard has claimed that the songs from this era "could be arranged in proper sequence to form an actual history of the conflicts; its events, its principal characters, and the ideals and principles of the opposing sides".[2]
In addition to, and in conjunction with, popular songs with patriotic fervor, the Civil War era also produced a great body of brass band pieces, from both the North and the South,[3] as well as other military musical traditions like the bugle call "Taps".
Regulations[edit]
John Clem, a twelve-year-old Union drummer boy
In May 1861 the United States War Department officially approved that every regiment of infantry and artillery could have a brass band with 24 members, while a cavalry regiment could have one of sixteen members. The Confederate army would also have brass bands. This was followed by a Union army regulation of July 1861 requiring every infantry, artillery, or cavalry company to have two musicians and for there to be a twenty-four man band for every regiment.[4] The July 1861 requirement was ignored as the war dragged on, as riflemen were more needed than musicians. In July 1862 the brass bands of the Union were disassembled by the adjutant general, although the soldiers that comprised them were sometimes reenlisted and assigned to musician roles. A survey in October 1861 found that 75% of Union regiments had a band.[4] By December 1861 the Union army had 28,000 musicians in 618 bands; a ratio of one soldier out of 41 who served the army was a musician, and the Confederate army was believed to have a similar ratio.[5] Musicians were often given special privileges. Union general Phillip Sheridan gave his cavalry bands the best horses and special uniforms, believing "Music has done its share, and more than its share, in winning this war".[6]
Musicians on the battlefield were drummers and buglers, with an occasional fifer. Buglers had to learn forty-nine separate calls just for infantry, with more needed for cavalry. These ranged from battle commands to calls for meal time.[7] Some of these required musicians were drummer boys not even in their teens, which allowed an adult man to instead be a foot soldier. The most notable of these under aged musicians was John Clem, also known as "Johnny Shiloh". Union drummers wore white straps to support their drums. The drum and band majors wore baldrics to indicate their status; after the war, this style would be emulated in civilian bands. Drummers would march to the right of a marching column. Similar to buglers, drummers had to learn 39 different beats: fourteen for general use, and 24 for marching cadence. However, buglers were given greater importance than drummers.[8]
On the battlefield[edit]
Whole songs were sometimes played during battles. The survivors of the disastrous Pickett's Charge returned under the tune Nearer My God to Thee.[9] At the Battle of Five Forks, Union musicians under orders from Sheridan played Stephen Foster's minstrel song Nelly Bly while being shot at on the front lines.[9] Samuel P. Heintzelman, the commander of the III Corps, saw many of his musicians standing at the back lines at the Battle of Williamsburg, and ordered them to play anything.[9] Their music rallied the Union forces, forcing the Confederate to withdraw. It was said that music was the equivalent of "a thousand men" on one's side. Robert E. Lee himself said, "I don't think we could have an army without music."[10]
Sometimes, musicians were ordered to leave the battlefront and assist the surgeons. One notable time was the 20th Maine's musicians at Little Round Top. As the rest of the regiment were driving back wave after wave of Confederates, the musicians of the regiment were not just performing amputations, but doing it in a very quick manner.[11][12]
In camp[edit]
Locations of the different sides the night of the band duel before the Battle of Stones River.
Many soldiers brought musical instruments from home to pass the time at camp. Banjos, fiddles, and guitars were particularly popular. Aside from drums, the instruments Confederates played were either acquired before the war or imported, due to the lack of brass and the industry to make such instruments.[11][13]
Musical duels between the two sides were common, as they heard each other as the music traveled across the countryside. The night before the Battle of Stones River, bands from both sides dueled with separate songs until both sides started playing Home! Sweet Home!, at which time soldiers on both sides started singing together as one.[14] A similar situation occurred in Fredericksburg, Virginia in the winter of 1862–3. On a cold afternoon, a Union band started playing Northern patriotic tunes; a Southern band responded by playing Southern patriotic tunes. This back and forth continued into the night, until at the end both sides played Home! Sweet Home! simultaneously, to the cheers of both sides' forces.[11] In a third instance, in the spring of 1863, the opposing armies were on the opposite sides of the Rappahannock River in Virginia, when the different sides played their patriotic tunes, and at taps one side played Home! Sweet Home!, and the other joined in, creating "cheers" from both sides that echoed throughout the hilly countryside.[15]
Both sides sang Maryland, My Maryland, although the lyrics were slightly different. Another popular song for both was Lorena. When Johnny Comes Marching Home was written in 1863 by Patrick Gilmore, an immigrant from Ireland, and was also enjoyed by both sides.[16][17]
Homefront[edit]
George F. Root
The first song was written for the war, The First Gun is Fired, was first published and distributed three days after the Battle of Fort Sumter. George F. Root, who wrote it, is said to have produced the most songs of anyone about the war, over thirty in total.[18] Lincoln once wrote a letter to Root, saying, "You have done more than a hundred generals and a thousand orators".[19] Other songs played an important role in convincing northern whites that African Americans were willing to fight and wanted freedom, for instance Henry Clay Work's 1883 "Babylon Is Fallen" and Charles Halpine's "Sambo's Right to Be Kilt".[20]
God Save the South booklet, with a rare music cover illustration, published in Richmond, Virginia
The southern states had long lagged behind northern states in producing common literature. With the advent of war, Southern publishers were in demand. These publishers, based largely in five cities (Charleston, South Carolina; Macon, Georgia; Mobile, Alabama; Nashville, Tennessee' and New Orleans, Louisiana), produced five times more printed music than they did literature.[21]
In the Confederate States of America, God Save the South was the official national anthem. However, Dixie was the most popular.[17] United States President Abraham Lincoln said he loved Dixie and wanted to hear it played, saying "as we had captured the rebel army, we had also captured the rebel tune".[22] At an April 9, 1865, rally, the band director was surprised when Lincoln requested that the band play Dixie. Lincoln said, "That tune is now Federal property...good to show the rebels that, with us in power, they will be free to hear it again". The other prominent tune was The Bonnie Blue Flag, and like Dixie was written in 1861, unlike Union popular tunes which were written throughout the war.[23]
The United States did not have a national anthem at this time (Star Spangled Banner would not be recognized as such until the twentieth century). Union soldiers frequently sang the Battle Cry of Freedom, and the Battle Hymn of the Republic was considered the north's most popular song.[24]

African American music[edit]
Music sung by African-Americans changed during the war. The theme of escape from bondage became especially important in spirituals sung by blacks, both by slaves singing among themselves on plantations and for free and recently freed blacks singing to white audiences. New versions of songs such as "Hail Mary", "Michael Row the Boat Ashore", and "Go Down Moses" emphasized the message of freedom and the rejection of slavery.[25] Many new slave songs were sung as well, the most popular being, "Many Thousands Go", which was frequently sung by slaves fleeing plantations to Union Army camps.[26] Several attempts were made to publish slave songs during the war. The first was the publishing of sheet music to "Go Down Moses" by Reverend L. C. Lockwood in December 1861 based on his experience with escaped slaves in Fort Monroe, Virginia in September of that year. In 1863, the Continental Monthly published a sampling of spirituals from South Carolina in an article titled, "Under the Palmetto."[27]
The white Colonel of the all-black First South Carolina, Thomas Wentworth Higginson noted that when blacks knew that whites were listening, they changed the way they were sung, and historian Christian McWhiter noted that African Americans "used their music to reshape white perceptions and foster a new image of black culture as thriving and ready for freedom.[28] In Port Royal, escaped slaves learned the anthem, "America" in secret, never singing it in front of whites. When the Emancipation Proclamation was passed a celebration was held, and in a surprise to white onlookers, contrabands began singing the anthem, using the song to express their new status.[29] The most popular white songs among slaves were "John Brown's Body" and H. C. Work's "Kingdom Coming",[30] and as the war continued, the lyrics African Americans sung changed, with vagueness and coded language dropped and including open expressions of their new roles as soldiers and citizens.[31]
Slave owners in the south responded by restricting singing on plantations and imprisoning singers of songs supporting emancipation or the North.[32] Confederate supporters also looked to music sung by slaves for signs of loyalty. Several Confederate regimental bands included slaves, and Confederates arranged slaves to sing and dance to show how happy they were. Slave performer Thomas Greene Bethune, known as Blind Tom frequently played pro-Confederate songs such as "Maryland, My Maryland" and "Dixie" and dropped, "Yankee Doodle" from his performances.[33]
Different versions[edit]
Although certain songs were identified with one particular side of the war, sometimes the other would adapt the song for their use. A Southern revision of the Star Spangled Banner was used, entitled "The Southern Cross". In an example of the different lyrics, where the Banner had "O say does that Star Spangled Banner yet wave", the Cross had "'Tis the Cross of the South, which shall ever remain".[34] Another Confederate version of the Star Spangled Banner, called The Flag of Secession, replaced the same verse with "and the flag of secession in triumph doth wave".[22] Even a song from the American Revolutionary War was adapted, as the tune Yankee Doodle was changed to "Dixie Doodle", and started with "Dixie whipped old Yankee Doodle early in the morning".[35] The Union's Battle Cry of Freedom was also altered, with the original lines of "The Union forever! Hurrah, boys, hurrah! Down with the traitor, up with the star" being changed to "Our Dixie forever! She's never at a loss! Down with the eagle and up with the cross!"[36]
The Union also adapted Southern Songs. In a Union variation of Dixie, instead of the line "I wish I was in the land of cotton, old times there are not forgotten, Look away, look away, look away, Dixie Land", it was changed to "Away down South in the land of traitors, Rattlesnakes and alligators, Right away, come away, right away, come away".[37] John Brown's Body (originally titled John Brown) was originally written for a soldier at Fort Warren in Boston in 1861. It was sung to the tune of Glory, Hallelujah and was later used by Julia Ward Howe for her famous poem, Battle Hymn of the Republic.[38]
Legacy[edit]
Elvis Presley
The music derived from this war was of greater quantity and variety than from any other war involving America.[39] Songs came from a variety of sources. Battle Hymn of the Republic borrowed its tune from a song sung at Methodist revivals. Dixie was a minstrel song that Daniel Emmett adapted from two Ohio black singers named Snowden.[40] American soldiers would continue to sing Battle Hymn of the Republic in the Spanish–American War, World War I, and World War II.[41]
The Southern rock style of music has often used the Confederate Battle Flag as a symbol of the musical style. Sweet Home Alabama by Lynyrd Skynyrd was described as a "vivid example of a lingering Confederate mythology in Southern culture".[42]
A ballad from the war, Aura Lee, would become the basis of the song Love Me Tender by Elvis Presley. Presley also sang An American Trilogy, which was described as "smoothing" out All My Trials, the Battle Hymn of the Republic, and Dixie of its divisions, although Dixie still dominated the piece.[43]
In 2013, a compilation album by current popular musicians, like Jorma Kaukonen, Ricky Skaggs, and Karen Elson, was released with the title, Divided & United: The Songs of the Civil War.[44]
Songs published per year[edit]
w. = Words by
m. = Music by
1861[edit]
The First Gun is Fired, w.m. George F. Root
The Bonnie Blue Flag, w. Mrs. Annie Chamber-Ketchum m. Harry MacCarthy
Dixie, w. Dan Emmett a. C. S. Grafully
John Brown's Body, w. anonymous m. William Steffe (came to be the unofficial theme song of black soldiers.)
Maryland, My Maryland, w. James Ryder Randall m. Walter de Mapers (Music "Mini est Propositum" 12th century)
The Vacant Chair w. Henry S. Washburne m. George Frederick Root
1862[edit]
Here's Your Mule, - C. D. Benson
Battle Cry of Freedom, - George F. Root
The Battle Hymn of the Republic, - Julia Ward Howe
1863[edit]
Cover of the 1864 publication of the sheet music of Tramp! Tramp! Tramp!
All Quiet Along the Potomac Tonight, w.m. John Hill Hewitt
Just Before the Battle, Mother, by George F. Root
Mother Would Comfort Me, w.m. Charles C. Sawyer
Tenting on the Old Camp Ground, w.m. Walter Kittredge
Weeping Sad And Lonely, w. Charles Carroll Sawyer m. Henry Tucker
When Johnny Comes Marching Home Again, by Louis Lambert & Patrick Gilmore
You Are Going to the Wars, Willie Boy!, w.m. John Hill Hewitt
The Young Volunteer, w.m. John Hill Hewitt
1864[edit]
Tramp! Tramp! Tramp! (The Boys Are Marching), w.m. George F. Root
Pray, Maiden, Pray!, w. A. W. Kercheval m. A. J. Turner.
1865[edit]
Jeff in Pettycoats, w.m. Henry Tucker
Marching Through Georgia, w.m. Henry Clay Work
Good Bye, Old Glory, w. L. J. Bates, m. George Frederick Root
Media[edit]
Dixie
Dixie, traditional Blackface song
When Johnny Comes Marching Home
When Johnny Comes Marching Home by Patrick Gilmore
Problems listening to the files? See media help.
See also[edit]
Songs of the American Civil War
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Music of the American Civil War.

Notes and references[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Struble, pg. xvii
Jump up ^ Howard, John Tasker, cited in Ewen, pg. 19 (no specific source given)
Jump up ^ Library of Congress: Band Music from the Civil War Era
^ Jump up to: a b Lanning p.243
Jump up ^ Lanning p.243, Vaughan pp.194,195
Jump up ^ Lanning pp.244
Jump up ^ Amedeo p.127, Miller p.92
Jump up ^ Lanning p.243, Miller p.96
^ Jump up to: a b c Lanning p.244
Jump up ^ Lanning pp.243,244
^ Jump up to: a b c Music of the Civil War National Park Service.gov
Jump up ^ Turner p.151, Vaughan p.195
Jump up ^ Heidler p.1173, Miller p.190
Jump up ^ Amedeo p.257, Vaughan p.194
Jump up ^ Branham p.131
Jump up ^ Amedeo p.77, 127
^ Jump up to: a b Lanning p.245
Jump up ^ Kelley p.30, Silber p.7
Jump up ^ Branham p.132
Jump up ^ McWhirter 2012, p148
Jump up ^ Harwell pp.3,4
^ Jump up to: a b Branham p.130
Jump up ^ Silber p.8
Jump up ^ Lanning pp.245
Jump up ^ McWhirter 2012, p149-150, p157
Jump up ^ McWhirter 2012, p151
Jump up ^ McWhirter 2012, p155-156
Jump up ^ McWhirter 2012, p152
Jump up ^ McWhirter 2012, p158-159
Jump up ^ McWhirter 2012, p159
Jump up ^ McWhirter 2012, p163
Jump up ^ McWhirter 2012, p152-153
Jump up ^ McWhirter 2012, p154
Jump up ^ Harwell pp.64,65
Jump up ^ Harwell pp.67
Jump up ^ Silber p.10
Jump up ^ Van Deburg p.109
Jump up ^ Hall, p.4
Jump up ^ Silber p.4
Jump up ^ Heidler pp.191,607
Jump up ^ Ravitch p.257
Jump up ^ Kaufman pp.x,81
Jump up ^ Amedeo p.111, Kaufman p.83
Jump up ^ Doughtery, Steve, "Civil War Pop Music: Divided & United: On a new CD, contemporary artists revive the era's songs", Wall Street Journal, Oct. 23, 2013 https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303448104579149793649312548
References[edit]
Abel, E. Lawrence (2000). Singing the New Nation: How Music Shaped the Confederacy, 1861 - 1865 (First ed.). Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. ISBN 0-8117-0228-6.
Amedeo, Michael (2007). Civil War: Untold stories of the Blue and the Gray. West Side Publications. ISBN 1-4127-1418-4.
Branham, Robert J. (2002). Sweet Freedom's Song: "My Country 'tis of Thee" and Democracy in America. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-513741-8.
Clarke, Donald (1995). The Rise and Fall of Popular Music. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-11573-3.
Donald, David Herbert (1995). Lincoln. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-684-82535-X.
Ewen, David (1957). Panorama of American Popular Music. Prentice Hall.
Hall, Roger Lee (2012). Glory, Hallelujah: Civil War Songs and Hymns. PineTree Press.
Harwell, Richard B. (1950). Confederate Music. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. OCLC 309959.
Heidler, David (2002). Encyclopedia of the American Civil War. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-04758-X.
Kaufman, Will (2006). The Civil War in American Culture. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-7486-1935-6.
Kelley, Bruce (2004). "An Overview of Music of the Civil War Era" Bugle Resounding. University of Missouri Press. ISBN 0-8131-2375-5.
Knouse, Dr. Nola Reed "Music from the Band Books of the 26th Infantry Regiment, NC Troops, C.S.A.". Liner notes essay. New World Records.
Lanning, Michael (2007). The Civil War 100. Sourcebooks, Inc. ISBN 1-4022-1040-X.
McWhirter, Christian (2012). Battle Hymns. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1469613673 – via Project MUSE. (Subscription required (help)).
Miller, David (2001). Uniforms, Weapons, and Equipment of the Civil War. London: Salamander Books Ltd. ISBN 1-84065-257-8.
Ravitch, Diane (2000). The American Reader: Words that Moved a Nation. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-273733-3.
Silber, Irwin (1995). Songs of the Civil War. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-28438-7.
Southern, Eileen (1997). The Music of Black Americans. New York, New York: W.W. Nortan & Company, Inc. pp. 206–212. ISBN 0-393-97141-4.
Struble, John Warthen (1995). The History of American Classical Music. Facts on File, Inc. ISBN 0-8160-2927-X.
Turner, Thomas Reed (2007). 101 Things You Didn't Know about the Civil War. Adams Media. ISBN 1-59869-320-4.
Van Deburg, William L. (1984). Slavery & Race in American Popular Culture: In American Popular Culture. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-09634-3.
Vaughan, Donald (2000). The Everything Civil War Book. Holbrook, Massachusetts: Adams Media Corporation. ISBN 1-58062-366-2.
"Band Music From the Civil War Era". Library of Congress. Retrieved June 13, 2005.
External links[edit]
The short film A NATION SINGS (1963) is available for free download at the Internet Archive
Singing the Songs of Zion: Soldier's Hymn Collections and Hymn Singing in the American Civil War
Civil War songs and hymns
American Song Sheets - Duke University Libraries Digital Collections - Includes images and text of over 1,500 Civil War song sheets
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Circumference
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Part of a series of articles on the
mathematical constant π
3.1415926535897932384626433...
Uses
Area of a circle
Circumference
Use in other formulae
Properties
Irrationality
Transcendence
Value
Less than 22/7
Approximations
Memorization
People
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In geometry, the circumference (from Latin circumferentia, meaning "carrying around") of a circle is the (linear) distance around it.[1] That is, the circumference would be the length of the circle if it were opened up and straightened out to a line segment. Since a circle is the edge (boundary) of a disk, circumference is a special case of perimeter.[2] The perimeter is the length around any closed figure and is the term used for most figures excepting the circle and some circular-like figures such as ellipses. Informally, "circumference" may also refer to the edge itself rather than to the length of the edge.
Contents
1 Circumference of a circle
1.1 Relationship with π
2 Circumference of an ellipse
3 Circumference of a graph
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Circumference of a circle[edit]
Circle illustration with circumference (C) in black, diameter (D) in cyan, radius (R) in red, and centre or origin (O) in magenta. Circumference = π × diameter = 2 × π × radius.
The circumference of a circle is the distance around it, but if, as in many elementary treatments, distance is defined in terms of straight lines, this can not be used as a definition. Under these circumstances, the circumference of a circle may be defined as the limit of the perimeters of inscribed regular polygons as the number of sides increases without bound.[3] The term circumference is used when measuring physical objects, as well as when considering abstract geometric forms.
When a circle's diameter is 1, its circumference is π.
When a circle's radius is 1—called a unit circle—its circumference is 2π.
Relationship with π[edit]
The circumference of a circle is related to one of the most important mathematical constants. This constant, pi, is represented by the Greek letter π. The first few decimal digits of the numerical value of π are 3.141592653589793 ...[4] Pi is defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference C to its diameter d:
π = C d . {\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {C}{d}}.}
Or, equivalently, as the ratio of the circumference to twice the radius. The above formula can be rearranged to solve for the circumference:
C = π ⋅ d = 2 π ⋅ r . {\displaystyle {C}=\pi \cdot {d}=2\pi \cdot {r}.\!}
The use of the mathematical constant π is ubiquitous in mathematics, engineering, and science.
In Measurement of a Circle written circa 250 BCE, Archimedes showed that this ratio (C/d, since he did not use the name π) was greater than 310/71 but less than 31/7 by calculating the perimeters of an inscribed and a circumscribed regular polygon of 96 sides.[5] This method for approximating π was used for centuries, obtaining more accuracy by using polygons of larger and larger number of sides. The last such calculation was performed in 1630 by Christoph Grienberger who used polygons with 1040 sides.
Circumference of an ellipse[edit]
Main article: Ellipse § Circumference
Circumference is used by some authors to denote the perimeter of an ellipse. There is no general formula for the circumference of an ellipse in terms of the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the ellipse that uses only elementary functions. However, there are approximate formulas in terms of these parameters. One such approximation, due to Euler (1773), for the canonical ellipse,
x 2 a 2 + y 2 b 2 = 1 , {\displaystyle {\frac {x^{2}}{a^{2}}}+{\frac {y^{2}}{b^{2}}}=1,}
is
C e l l i p s e ∼ π 2 ( a 2 + b 2 ) . {\displaystyle C_{\rm {ellipse}}\sim \pi {\sqrt {2(a^{2}+b^{2})}}.}
Some lower and upper bounds on the circumference of the canonical ellipse with a ≥ b {\displaystyle a\geq b} are[6]
2 π b ≤ C ≤ 2 π a , {\displaystyle 2\pi b\leq C\leq 2\pi a,}
π ( a + b ) ≤ C ≤ 4 ( a + b ) , {\displaystyle \pi (a+b)\leq C\leq 4(a+b),}
4 a 2 + b 2 ≤ C ≤ π 2 ( a 2 + b 2 ) . {\displaystyle 4{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}\leq C\leq \pi {\sqrt {2(a^{2}+b^{2})}}.}
Here the upper bound 2 π a {\displaystyle 2\pi a} is the circumference of a circumscribed concentric circle passing through the endpoints of the ellipse's major axis, and the lower bound 4 a 2 + b 2 {\displaystyle 4{\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}} is the perimeter of an inscribed rhombus with vertices at the endpoints of the major and minor axes.
The circumference of an ellipse can be expressed exactly in terms of the complete elliptic integral of the second kind.[7] More precisely, we have
C e l l i p s e = 4 a ∫ 0 π / 2 1 − e 2 sin 2  θ d θ , {\displaystyle C_{\rm {ellipse}}=4a\int _{0}^{\pi /2}{\sqrt {1-e^{2}\sin ^{2}\theta }}\ d\theta ,}
where again a {\displaystyle a} is the length of the semi-major axis and e {\displaystyle e} is the eccentricity 1 − b 2 / a 2 . {\displaystyle {\sqrt {1-b^{2}/a^{2}}}.}
Circumference of a graph[edit]
In graph theory the circumference of a graph refers to the longest (simple) cycle contained in that graph.[8]
See also[edit]
Arc length
Area
Isoperimetric inequality
References[edit]
Jump up ^ San Diego State University (2004). "Perimeter, Area and Circumference" (PDF). Addison-Wesley. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Bennett, Jeffrey; Briggs, William (2005), Using and Understanding Mathematics / A Quantitative Reasoning Approach (3rd ed.), Addison-Wesley, p. 580, ISBN 978-0-321-22773-7
Jump up ^ Jacobs, Harold R. (1974), Geometry, W. H. Freeman and Co., p. 565, ISBN 0-7167-0456-0
Jump up ^ Sloane, N.J.A. (ed.). "Sequence A000796". The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation.
Jump up ^ Katz, Victor J. (1998), A History of Mathematics / An Introduction (2nd ed.), Addison-Wesley Longman, p. 109, ISBN 978-0-321-01618-8
Jump up ^ Jameson, G.J.O. (2014). "Inequalities for the perimeter of an ellipse". Mathematical Gazette. 98: 227–234. doi:10.2307/3621497.
Jump up ^ Almkvist, Gert; Berndt, Bruce (1988), "Gauss, Landen, Ramanujan, the arithmetic-geometric mean, ellipses, π, and the Ladies Diary", American Mathematical Monthly, 95: 585–608, doi:10.2307/2323302, MR 0966232
Jump up ^ Harary, Frank (1969), Graph Theory, Addison-Wesley, p. 13, ISBN 0-201-02787-9
External links[edit]
The Wikibook Geometry has a page on the topic of: Arcs
Look up circumference in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Numericana - Circumference of an ellipse
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Circumference&oldid=850894368"
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