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Four Seasons Hotel & Private Residences, One Dalton Street
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Four Seasons Hotel & Private Residences, One Dalton Street
One Dalton under construction on June 19, 2017
Wikimedia | © OpenStreetMap
General information
Status
Topped-out
Type
Office, Hotel, Retail
Coordinates
42°20′44.7″N 71°05′02.2″W / 42.345750°N 71.083944°W / 42.345750; -71.083944Coordinates: 42°20′44.7″N 71°05′02.2″W / 42.345750°N 71.083944°W / 42.345750; -71.083944
Construction started
2015
Completed
2019
Cost
US$700 million
Height
Roof
742 ft (226 m)
Technical details
Floor count
61
Floor area
706,000 sq ft (65,600 m2)
Design and construction
Architect
Pei Cobb Freed & Partners and Cambridge Seven Associates
Developer
Carpenter & Company, Inc.
The Four Seasons Hotel & Private Residences, One Dalton Street is a skyscraper under construction in Boston.[1] Upon completion, it will be the third tallest building in Boston, and the tallest building constructed in the city since Hancock Place in 1976.
Contents
1 Complex
2 Amenities
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Complex[edit]
One Dalton Street is being built along with a 26-story building, 30 Dalton Street. Pritzker Realty Group is developing the smaller tower.[2] Both projects are designed by collaborating architects Pei Cobb Freed & Partners and Cambridge Seven Associates.
Amenities[edit]
The building will contain a ballroom, meeting rooms available for reservation, a gym with a spa, a private dining space, and other services. There will also be a five thousand square foot (0.1 acre) park outside the building.
See also[edit]
List of tallest buildings in Boston
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Four Seasons Hotel and Private Residences One Dalton Street". Pei Cobb Freed & Partners. Retrieved 7 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Four Seasons One Dalton Boston". Carpenter & Company, Inc. Retrieved 7 May 2015.
External links[edit]
Official website
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Karst
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Karst (disambiguation).
A karst landscape in Minerve, Hérault, France
Škocjan Caves, Slovenia
The Puerto Princesa Underground River, Philippines
Global distribution of major outcrops of carbonate rocks (mainly limestone, except evaporites)
The karst hills of The Burren on the west coast of Ireland
El Torcal de Antequera, Andalusia, Spain
Karst is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. It is characterized by underground drainage systems with sinkholes and caves.[1] It has also been documented for more weathering-resistant rocks, such as quartzite, given the right conditions.[2] Subterranean drainage may limit surface water, with few to no rivers or lakes. However, in regions where the dissolved bedrock is covered (perhaps by debris) or confined by one or more superimposed non-soluble rock strata, distinctive karst features may occur only at subsurface levels and be totally missing above ground.
The study of karst is considered of prime importance in petroleum geology since as much as 50% of the world's hydrocarbon reserves are hosted in porous karst systems.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Early studies
3 Chemistry
3.1 Dissolution mechanism
4 Morphology
5 Hydrology
6 Interstratal karst
7 Kegelkarst
8 Pseudokarst
9 Notable karst areas
10 List of terms for karst-related features
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
Etymology[edit]
The English word karst was borrowed from German Karst in the late 19th century.[4] The German word came into use before the 19th century.[5] According to the prevalent interpretation, the term is derived from the German name for the Karst region (Italian: Carso), a limestone plateau above the city of Trieste in the northern Adriatic (now located on the border between Slovenia and Italy, in the 19th century it was part of the Austrian Littoral).[6] Scholars disagree, however, on whether the German word (which shows no metathesis) was borrowed from Slovene.[7][8]
The Slovene common noun kras was first attested in the 18th century, and the adjective form kraški in the 16th century.[9] As a proper noun, the Slovene form Grast was first attested in 1177,[10] referring to the Karst Plateau—a region in Slovenia partially extending into Italy, where the first research on karst topography was carried out. The Slovene words arose through metathesis from the reconstructed form *korsъ,[9] borrowed from Dalmatian Romance carsus.[10] Ultimately, the word is of Mediterranean origin,[10] believed to derive from some Romanized Illyrian base.[9] It has been suggested that the word may derive from the Proto-Indo-European root karra- "rock".[10][11] The name may also be connected to the oronym Kar(u)sádios oros cited by Ptolemy, and perhaps also to Latin Carusardius.[9][10]
Early studies[edit]
Karstic limestones as statuary in Shenyang Imperial Palace, Shenyang, China
Johann Weikhard von Valvasor, a pioneer of the study of karst in Slovenia and a fellow of the Royal Society for Improving Natural Knowledge, London, introduced the word karst to European scholars in 1689, describing the phenomenon of underground flows of rivers in his account of Lake Cerknica.[12]
Jovan Cvijić greatly advanced the knowledge of karst regions, so much that he became known as the "father of karst geomorphology". Primarily working with the karstic regions of the Balkans, Cvijić's 1893 publication Das Karstphänomen describes landforms such as karren, dolines and poljes.[3] In a 1918 publication Cvijić proposed a cyclical model for karstic landscape development.[3][13] Karst hydrology emerged as a discipline in the late 1950s and early 1960s in France. Previously, the activities of cave explorers, called speleologists, had been dismissed as more of a sport than a science, meaning that underground karstic caves and their associated watercourses were, from a scientific perspective, understudied.[14]
Chemistry[edit]
Karst lake (Doberdò del Lago, Italy) fed by an underground water source into a depression with no surface inlet or outlet
Doline in the causse de Sauveterre, Lozère, France
The development of karst occurs whenever acidic water starts to break down the surface of bedrock near its cracks, or bedding planes. As the bedrock (typically limestone or dolostone) continues to degrade, its cracks tend to get bigger. As time goes on, these fractures will become wider, and eventually a drainage system of some sort may start to form underneath. If this underground drainage system does form, it will speed up the development of karst formations there because more water will be able to flow through the region, giving it more erosive power.[15]
Dissolution mechanism[edit]
The carbonic acid that causes karstic features is formed as rain passes through the atmosphere picking up carbon dioxide (CO2), which dissolves in the water. Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through soil that can provide much more CO2 to form a weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves calcium carbonate. The primary reaction sequence in limestone dissolution is the following:
H2O + CO2 → H2CO3
CaCO3 + H2CO3 → Ca2+ + 2 HCO−
3
Lijiang River, Guilin, China
In particular and very rare conditions such as encountered in the past in Lechuguilla Cave in New Mexico (and more recently in the Frasassi Caves in Italy), other mechanisms may also play a role. The oxidation of sulfides leading to the formation of sulfuric acid can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. As oxygen (O2)-rich surface waters seep into deep anoxic karst systems, they bring oxygen, which reacts with sulfide present in the system (pyrite or hydrogen sulfide) to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate, causing increased erosion within the limestone formation. This chain of reactions is:
H2S + 2 O2 → H2SO4 (sulfide oxidation)
H2SO4 + 2 H2O → SO2−
4 + 2 H3O+ (sulfuric acid dissociation)
CaCO3 + 2 H3O+ → Ca2+ + H2CO3 + 2 H2O (calcium carbonate dissolution)
CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2CO3 (global reaction leading to calcium sulfate)
CaSO4 + 2 H2O → CaSO4 · 2 H2O (hydration and gypsum formation)
This reaction chain forms gypsum.[16]
Morphology[edit]
Limestone pavement in Dent de Crolles, France
The karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large- or small-scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include solution flutes (or rillenkarren), runnels, limestone pavement (clints and grikes), collectively called karren or lapiez. Medium-sized surface features may include sinkholes or cenotes (closed basins), vertical shafts, foibe (inverted funnel shaped sinkholes), disappearing streams, and reappearing springs. Large-scale features may include limestone pavements, poljes, and karst valleys. Mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers, or haystack/eggbox landscapes. Beneath the surface, complex underground drainage systems (such as karst aquifers) and extensive caves and cavern systems may form.
Erosion along limestone shores, notably in the tropics, produces karst topography that includes a sharp makatea surface above the normal reach of the sea, and undercuts that are mostly the result of biological activity or bioerosion at or a little above mean sea level. Some of the most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailand's Phangnga Bay and at Halong Bay in Vietnam.
Calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce tufa terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time. In caves, a variety of features collectively called speleothems are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals.
Hydrology[edit]
A karst spring in the Jura mountains near Ouhans in eastern France at the source of the river Loue
Farming in karst areas must take into account the lack of surface water. The soils may be fertile enough, and rainfall may be adequate, but rainwater quickly moves through the crevices into the ground, sometimes leaving the surface soil parched between rains.
A karst fenster occurs when an underground stream emerges onto the surface between layers of rock, cascades some distance, and then disappears back down, often into a sinkhole. Rivers in karst areas may disappear underground a number of times and spring up again in different places, usually under a different name (like Ljubljanica, the river of seven names). An example of this is the Popo Agie River in Fremont County, Wyoming. At a site simply named "The Sinks" in Sinks Canyon State Park, the river flows into a cave in a formation known as the Madison Limestone and then rises again 800 m (1⁄2 mi) down the canyon in a placid pool. A turlough is a unique type of seasonal lake found in Irish karst areas which are formed through the annual welling-up of water from the underground water system.
Water supplies from wells in karst topography may be unsafe, as the water may have run unimpeded from a sinkhole in a cattle pasture, through a cave and to the well, bypassing the normal filtering that occurs in a porous aquifer. Karst formations are cavernous and therefore have high rates of permeability, resulting in reduced opportunity for contaminants to be filtered. Groundwater in karst areas is just as easily polluted as surface streams. Sinkholes have often been used as farmstead or community trash dumps. Overloaded or malfunctioning septic tanks in karst landscapes may dump raw sewage directly into underground channels.
The karst topography also poses difficulties for human inhabitants. Sinkholes can develop gradually as surface openings enlarge, but progressive erosion is frequently unseen until the roof of an underground cavern suddenly collapses. Such events have swallowed homes, cattle, cars, and farm machinery. In the United States, sudden collapse of such a cavern-sinkhole swallowed part of the collection of the National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky in 2014.[17]
Interstratal karst[edit]
Interstratal karst is a karstic landscape which is developed beneath a cover of insoluble rocks. Typically this will involve a cover of sandstone overlying limestone strata undergoing solution. In the United Kingdom extensive doline fields developed at Mynydd Llangynidr across a plateau of Twrch Sandstone overlying concealed Carboniferous Limestone.[18]
Kegelkarst[edit]
Kegelkarst is a type of tropical karst terrain with numerous cone-like hills, formed by cockpits, mogotes, and poljes and without strong fluvial erosion processes. This terrain is found in Cuba, Jamaica, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, southern China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam.[19]
Pseudokarst[edit]
Pseudokarsts are similar in form or appearance to karst features but are created by different mechanisms. Examples include lava caves and granite tors—for example, Labertouche Cave in Victoria, Australia—and paleocollapse features. Mud Caves are an example of pseudokarst.
Notable karst areas[edit]
Main article: List of notable karst areas
The world's largest limestone karst is Australia's Nullarbor Plain. Slovenia has the world's highest risk of sinkholes, while the western Highland Rim in the eastern United States is at the second-highest risk of karst sinkholes.[20][21]
Mexico hosts important karstic regions in the Yucatán peninsula and Chiapas.[22]
List of terms for karst-related features[edit]
See also: Speleothem
Many karst-related terms derive from South Slavic languages, entering scientific vocabulary through early research in the Western Balkan Dinaric Alpine karst.
Abîme, a vertical shaft in karst that may be very deep and usually opens into a network of subterranean passages
Cenote, a deep sinkhole, characteristic of Mexico, resulting from collapse of limestone bedrock that exposes groundwater underneath
Foibe, an inverted funnel-shaped sinkhole
Scowle, porous irregular karstic landscape in a region of England
Turlough (turlach), a type of disappearing lake characteristic of Irish karst
Uvala, a collection of multiple smaller individual sinkholes that coalesce into a compound sinkhole. Word derives from South Slavic languages.
Karren, bands of bare limestone forming a surface
Limestone pavement, a landform consisting of a flat, incised surface of exposed limestone that resembles an artificial pavement
Polje (karst polje, karst field), a large flat specifically karstic plain. The name "polje" derives from South Slavic languages.
Doline, also sink or sinkhole, is a closed depression draining underground in karst areas. The name "doline" comes from dolina, meaning "valley", and derives from South Slavic languages.
Karst spring, a spring emerging from karst, originating a flow of water on the surface
Ponor, also sink or sinkhole, where surface flow enters an underground system. Derived from Slovenian
Sinking river, or ponornica in South Slavic languages
Karst fenster ("karst window"), a feature where a spring emerges briefly, with the water discharge then abruptly disappearing into a nearby sinkhole
See also[edit]
Glaciokarst
Thermokarst
Speleology
Scowle
Subterranean river
List of landforms
Karstjäger
References[edit]
Jump up ^ What is Karst, University of Texas at Austin
Jump up ^ Geomorphological Landscapes of the World.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ford, Derek (2007). "Jovan Cvijić and the founding of karst geomorphology". Environmental Geology. 51: 675–684. doi:10.1007/s00254-006-0379-x. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. 2002. Vol. 1, A–M. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 1481.
Jump up ^ Seebold, Elmar. 1999. Kluge Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache, 23rd edition. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, p. 429.
Jump up ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
Jump up ^ Pfeiffer, Dieter. 1961. "Zur Definition von Begriffen der Karst-Hydrologie." Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft 113: 51–60, p. 52
Jump up ^ Pörtner, Rudolf. 1986. Bevor die Römer kamen: Städte und Stätten deutscher Urgeschichte. Rasatt: Pabel-Moewig Verlag, p. 88.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Snoj, Marko. 2003. Slovenski etimološki slovar. 2nd edition. Ljubljana: Modrijan, p. 318.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Bezlaj, France (ed.). 1982. Etimološki slovar slovenskega jezika, vol. 2, K–O. Ljubljana: SAZU, p. 82.
Jump up ^ Gams, I., Kras v Sloveniji — v prostoru in casu (Karst in Slovenia in space and time), 2003, ISBN 961-6500-46-5.
Jump up ^ Paul Larsen, Scientific accounts of a vanishing lake: Janez Valvasor, Lake Cerknica and the New Philosophy, 2003.
Jump up ^ Cvijić, Jovan (1918). "Hydrographie souterraine et évolution morphologique du Karst". Recueil des travaux de l'institut de géographie alpine (in French). 6 (4): 375–426. Retrieved June 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ Gilli, Éric; Mangan, Christian; Mudry, Jacques (2012). Hydrogeology: Objectives, Methods, Applications. Translated by Fandel, Choél. CRC Press. p. 7.
Jump up ^ "What is Karst (and why is it important)?". Karst Waters Institute.
Jump up ^ Galdenzi, S.; Cocchioni, M.; Morichetti, L.; Amici, V.; Scuri, S. (2008). "Sulfidic ground water chemistry in the Frasassi Cave, Italy" (PDF). Journal of Cave and Karst Studies. 70 (2): 94–107.
Jump up ^ Mood somber, repairs uncertain as Corvette museum opens. CNN.com
Jump up ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-11-20. Retrieved 2013-03-03.
Jump up ^ Whittow, John (1984). Dictionary of Physical Geography. London: Penguin, 1984, p 292. ISBN 0-14-051094-X.
Jump up ^ Austin Peay State University : Harned Bowl work not to blame for new sinkhole, say experts
Jump up ^ What is Karst topography and why should you care? - Clarksville, TN Online
Jump up ^ Mora, L., Bonifaz, R., López-Martínez, R., (2016). "Unidades geomorfológicas de la cuenca del Río Grande de Comitán, Lagos de Montebello, Chiapas-México" (PDF). Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana (in Spanish). 68 (3): 377–394. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Further reading[edit]
Ford, D.C., Williams, P., Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology, John Wiley and Sons Ltd., 2007, ISBN 978-0-470-84996-5
Jennings, J.N., Karst Geomorphology, 2nd ed., Blackwell, 1985, ISBN 0-631-14032-8
Palmer, A.N., Cave Geology, 2nd Printing, Cave Books, 2009, ISBN 978-0-939748-66-2
Sweeting, M.M., Karst Landforms, Macmillan, 1973, ISBN 0-231-03623-X
van Beynen, P. (Ed.), Karst management, Springer, 2011, ISBN 978-94-007-1206-5
Vermeulen, J.J., Whitten, T., "Biodiversity and Cultural Property in the Management of Limestone Resources in East Asia: Lessons from East Asia", The World Bank, 1999, ISBN 978-0-821345-08-5
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Karst (category)
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Karst.
Speleogenesis Network, a communication platform for physical speleology and karst science research
Speleogenesis and Karst Aquifers – a large glossary of Karst related terms
Acta Carsologica – research papers and reviews in all the fields related to karst
CDK Citizens of the Karst – Citizens of the Karst, a non profit NGO dedicated to the protection of the Puerto Rican Karst (English site available)
The Virtual Cave's page on karst landforms
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text:
Mehran Karimi Nasseri
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Mehran Karimi Nasseri
Born
مهران کریمی ناصری
Mehran Karimi Nasseri
1942 (age 75–76)
Masjed Soleiman, Iran
Nationality
Iranian (1942–1977)
Stateless (1977–present)
Mehran Karimi Nasseri (مهران کریمی ناصری pronounced [mehˈrɒn kʲæriˈmi nɒseˈri]; born 1942), also known as Sir Alfred Mehran,[1] is an Iranian refugee who lived in the departure lounge of Terminal One in Charles de Gaulle Airport from 26 August 1988 until July 2006, when he was hospitalized for an unspecified ailment. His autobiography has been published as a book, The Terminal Man, in 2004. His story was the inspiration for the 2004 Tom Hanks movie The Terminal
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Life in Terminal 1
3 Autobiography
4 Documentaries and fictionalizations
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Early life[edit]
Nasseri was born in the Anglo-Persian Oil Company settlement located in Masjed Soleiman, Iran. His father was an Iranian physician working for the company. Nasseri stated that his mother was a nurse from Scotland working in the same place.[2] He arrived in the United Kingdom in September 1973, to take a three-year course in Yugoslav studies at the University of Bradford.
Life in Terminal 1[edit]
Nasseri's residency site in Terminal 1 of Charles de Gaulle Airport.
Nasseri claims he was expelled from Iran in 1977 for protests against the Shah and after a long battle, involving applications in several countries, was awarded refugee status by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in Belgium. This allegedly permitted residence in many other European countries. However, this claim has been disputed, with investigations showing that Nasseri was never expelled from Iran.[3]
Having claimed to have one British parent, although he has produced no evidence to support this claim, he decided to settle in the UK in 1986, but en route there in 1988, his papers were lost when his briefcase was allegedly stolen.[4] (Others indicate that Nasseri actually mailed his documents to Brussels while onboard a ferry to Britain, lying about them being stolen.[5]) Despite this setback, he boarded the plane for London but was promptly returned to France when he failed to present a passport to British immigration officials. He was initially arrested by the French, but then released as his entry to the airport was legal and he had no country of origin to be returned to; thus began his residency at Terminal 1.
His case was later taken on by French human rights lawyer Christian Bourget. In 1992, a French court ruled that, having entered the country legally, he could not be expelled from the airport, but it could not grant him permission to enter France.
Attempts were then made to have new documents issued from Belgium, but the authorities there would only do so if Nasseri presented himself in person. However, under Belgian law a refugee who voluntarily leaves a country that has accepted him cannot return. In 1995, the Belgian authorities granted permission for him to return, but only if he agreed to live there under supervision of a social worker. Nasseri refused this on the grounds of wanting to enter the UK as originally intended.[4]
Both France and Belgium offered Nasseri residency, but Nasseri refused to sign the papers as they listed him as being Iranian (he wanted it to be British), and did not show his preferred name, "Sir, Alfred Mehran".[1] His refusal to sign the documents that would give him his freedom was much to the frustration of his lawyer, Bourget.[5] When contacted about Nasseri's situation, his family stated that they believed he was living the life he wanted.[3]
In 2003 Spielberg's DreamWorks production company paid US$250,000 to Nasseri for the rights to his story, but ended up not using his story in the subsequent movie, The Terminal.
Nasseri's stay at the airport ended in July 2006 when he was hospitalized and his sitting place dismantled. Towards the end of January 2007, he left the hospital and was looked after by the airport's branch of the French Red Cross; he was lodged for a few weeks in a hotel close to the airport. On March 6, 2007, he transferred to an Emmaus charity reception-centre in Paris's 20th arrondissement. Since 2008 he has continued to live in a Paris shelter.[4]
During his 18-year-long stay at Terminal 1 in the Charles de Gaulle Airport, Nasseri had his luggage at his side and spent his time reading, writing in his diary, or studying economics.[6] He received food and newspapers from employees of the airport, visits from journalists eager to tell his story, and letters of support.
Autobiography[edit]
In 2004 Nasseri's autobiography, The Terminal Man,[5] was published. It was co-written by Nasseri with British author Andrew Donkin, and was reviewed in the UK's Sunday Times as being "profoundly disturbing and brilliant".[7]
Documentaries and fictionalizations[edit]
Nasseri's story provided the inspiration for the 1994 French film Tombés du ciel, starring Jean Rochefort, internationally released under the title Lost in Transit. The short story "The Fifteen-Year Layover", written by Michael Paterniti and published in GQ and The Best American Non-Required Reading, chronicles Nasseri's life. Alexis Kouros made a documentary about him, Waiting for Godot at De Gaulle (2000). Glen Luchford and Paul Berczeller made the Here to Where mockumentary (2001), also featuring Nasseri. Hamid Rahmanian and Melissa Hibbard made a documentary called Sir Alfred of Charles De Gaulle Airport (2001).[8]
Nasseri was reportedly the inspiration behind the character Viktor Navorski, from the 2004 Steven Spielberg movie The Terminal;[9] however, neither publicity materials, nor the DVD "special features" nor the film's website mentions Nasseri's situation as an inspiration for the film. Despite this, in September 2003, The New York Times noted that Steven Spielberg had bought the rights to his life story as the basis for The Terminal.[10] The Guardian indicates that Spielberg's DreamWorks production company paid US$250,000 to Nasseri for rights to his story and report that, as of 2004, he carried a poster advertising Spielberg's film draping his suitcase next to his bench. Nasseri was reportedly excited about The Terminal, but it was unlikely that he would ever have had a chance to see it in theatres.[2]
Nasseri's story was also the inspiration for the contemporary opera Flight by British composer Jonathan Dove, which won the Helpmann Award at the Adelaide Festival Theatre in March 2006.[11]
See also[edit]
Stateless person
List of people who have lived at airports
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Stranded at the Airport". Snopes. 2 July 2008. Retrieved 2 September 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Berczeller, Paul (2004-09-06). "The man who lost his past". The Guardian. Retrieved 2008-08-01.
^ Jump up to: a b "The man who lost his past". September 6, 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Mehran Karimi Nasseri - In Transit". h2g2. BBC. May 28, 2008. Retrieved August 20, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c Alfred Merhan (September 6, 2004), The Terminal Man, Corgi Adult, ISBN 9780552152747, 0552152749
Jump up ^ Adams, Cecil (20 August 1999). "Has a guy been stuck in the Paris airport since 1988 for lack of the right papers?". The Straight Dope.
Jump up ^ Wavell, Stuart. "Memoir: The Terminal Man by Sir Alfred Mehran". The Sunday Times. (subscription required)
Jump up ^ Fictionville Studio promo website Archived 2014-11-06 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Ethan Gilsdorf, Behind 'The Terminal,' a true story, The Christian Science Monitor, June 21, 2004, Accessed 17 November 2015.
Jump up ^ Rose, Matthew (2003-09-21). "Waiting For Spielberg". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
Jump up ^ Vivien Schweitzer and Matthew Westphal, "Australia's Helpmann Awards Name Winners". Playbill Arts, 2 August 2006.
External links[edit]
Le naufragé du terminal 1 at the Wayback Machine (archived October 17, 2007), July 26, 2004, (in French)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 77393385
LCCN: nb2005007131
ISNI: 0000 0001 1676 7650
GND: 129431192
NDL: 01030325
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mehran_Karimi_Nasseri&oldid=830635643"
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text:
Potato salad
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"Tater salad" redirects here. For the comedian who uses this nickname, see Ron White.
Potato salad
A coarse cut potato salad
Type
Salad
Course
Side dish
Main ingredients
Potatoes
Cookbook: Potato salad Media: Potato salad
Potato salad is a dish made from boiled potatoes and a variety of other ingredients. It is generally considered a side dish, as it usually accompanies the main course. Potato salad is widely believed to have originated in Germany from where it spread widely throughout Europe and later to European colonies.[1][2] American potato salad most likely originated from recipes brought to the U.S. by way of German and European settlers during the nineteenth century.[2][1] American-style potato salad is served cold or at room temperature. Ingredients often include mayonnaise or a mayonnaise-like substitute (such as yogurt or sour cream), herbs, and vegetables (such as onion and celery.)[3] German-style potato salad is generally served warm and is typically made with vinegar or olive oil, herbs and bacon.
Contents
[hide]
1 Europe and North America
1.1 Germany
1.2 United States
2 References
Europe and North America[edit]
Germany
German potato salad, or "Kartoffelsalat" is served warm or cold and prepared with red potatoes, bacon, vinegar, salt, pepper, vegetable or olive oil, mustard, vegetable or beef broth, and onions. This style of potato salad is usually found in Southern Germany. Potato salad from northern Germany is generally made with mayonnaise and quite similar to its U.S. counterpart.
United States[edit]
Cold potato salad served at a restaurant
American potato salad most likely originated from recipes brought to the U.S. by way of German and European settlers during the nineteenth century.[4][5] Print evidence confirms that recipes for potato salad were often included in 19th century American cooking texts.[2] Basic ingredients for traditional American potato salad include cubed, boiled potatoes (typically russet potatoes), mayonnaise or a mayonnaise-like substitute such as yogurt or sour cream, yellow mustard and/or mustard powder (dry mustard), black pepper, salt, celery seed, sugar, dry dill, pickles (pickled cucumber), chives, red or white onion, green or red bell pepper, celery and sometimes chopped hard-boiled egg whites. Vegetable ingredients (not including the potatoes) are diced or chopped and incorporated raw. The salad is often topped with paprika and chives, and generally served cold or at room temperature.[6][7][8]
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Potato salads.
^ Jump up to: a b "» Potato Salad: History". www.guampedia.com. Retrieved 2017-03-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c Olver, Lynne. "The Food Timeline: history notes--salad".
Jump up ^ "American Potato Salad Recipe". kraftrecipes.com. Retrieved 2017-03-06.
Jump up ^ "The Food Timeline: Potato Salad". /www.foodtimeline.org.
Jump up ^ "» History of Potato Salad". www.guampedia.com. Retrieved 2017-03-06.
Jump up ^ "Traditional Potato Salad-Martha Stewart".
Jump up ^ "Potato Salad-Food Network".
Jump up ^ "Creamy Potato Salad-Betty Crocker".
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Species problem
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The species problem is the set of questions that arises when biologists attempt to define what a species is. Such a definition is called a species concept; there are at least 26 recognized species concepts.[1] A species concept that works well for sexually reproducing organisms such as birds is useless for species that reproduce asexually, such as bacteria. The scientific study of the species problem has been called microtaxonomy.[2]
One common, but sometimes difficult, question is how best to decide which species an organism belongs to, because reproductively isolated groups may not be readily recognizable, and cryptic species may be present. There is a continuum from reproductive isolation with no interbreeding, to panmixis, unlimited interbreeding. Populations can move forward or backwards along this continuum, at any point meeting the criteria for one or another species concept, and failing others.
Many of the debates on species touch on philosophical issues, such as nominalism and realism, and on issues of language and cognition.
The current meaning of the phrase "species problem" is quite different from what Charles Darwin and others meant by it during the 19th and early 20th centuries.[3] For Darwin, the species problem was the question of how new species arose. Darwin was however one of the first people to question how well-defined species are, given that they constantly change.
“
... I was much struck how entirely vague and arbitrary is the distinction between species and varieties
”
—
Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Before Darwin
1.2 From Darwin to Mayr
1.3 Mayr's Biological Species Concept
2 Philosophical aspects
2.1 Realism
2.2 Nominalism
2.3 Pragmatism
2.4 Language and the role of human investigators
2.5 Pluralism and monism
3 Quotations
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
Main article: Species
Before Darwin[edit]
The idea that one organism reproduces by giving birth to a similar organism, or producing seeds that grow to a similar organism, goes back to the earliest days of farming. While people tended to think of this as a relatively stable process, many thought that change was possible. The term species was just used as a term for a sort or kind of organism, until in 1686 John Ray introduced the biological concept that species were distinguished by always producing the same species, and this was fixed and permanent, though considerable variation was possible within a species.[5][6] Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) formalized the taxonomic rank of species, and devised the two part naming system of binomial nomenclature that we use today. However, this did not prevent disagreements on the best way to identify species.
The history of definitions of the term "species"[7][8] reveal that the seeds of the modern species debate were alive and growing long before Darwin.
"The traditional view, which was developed by Cain, Mayr and Hull in the mid-twentieth century, claims that until the ‘Origin of species’ by Charles Darwin both philosophy and biology considered species as invariable natural kinds with essential features. This ‘essentialism story’ was adopted by many authors, but questioned from the beginning by a minority … when Aristotle and the early naturalists wrote about the essences of species, they meant essential ‘functions’, not essential ‘properties’. Richards pointed out [Richard A. Richards, The Species Problem: A Philosophical Analysis, Cambridge University Press, 2010] that Linnaeus saw species as eternally fixed in his very first publication from 1735, but only a few years later he discovered hybridization as a modus for speciation.[9]
From Darwin to Mayr[edit]
Charles Darwin's famous book On the Origin of Species (1859) offered an explanation as to how species evolve, given enough time. Although Darwin did not provide details on how species can split into two, he viewed speciation as a gradual process. If Darwin was correct, then, when new incipient species are forming, there must be a period of time when they are not yet distinct enough to be recognized as species. Darwin's theory suggested that there was often not going to be an objective fact of the matter, on whether there were one or two species.
Darwin's book triggered a crisis of uncertainty for some biologists over the objectivity of species, and some came to wonder whether individual species could be objectively real — i.e. have an existence that is independent of the human observer.[10][11]
In the 1920s and 1930s, Mendel's theory of inheritance and Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection were joined in what was called the modern synthesis. This conjunction of theories also had a large impact on how biologists think about species. Edward Poulton anticipated many ideas on species that today are well accepted, and that were later more fully developed by Theodosius Dobzhansky and Ernst Mayr, two of the architects of the modern synthesis.[12] Dobzhansky's 1937 book[13] articulated the genetic processes that occur when incipient species are beginning to diverge. In particular, Dobzhansky described the critical role, for the formation of new species, of the evolution of reproductive isolation.
Mayr's Biological Species Concept[edit]
Ernst Mayr's 1942 book was a turning point for the species problem.[14] In it, he wrote about how different investigators approach species identification, and he characterized their approaches as species concepts. He argued for what came to be called the Biological Species Concept (BSC), that a species consists of populations of organisms that can reproduce with one another and that are reproductively isolated from other populations, though he was not the first to define "species" on the basis of reproductive compatibility.[8] For example, Mayr discusses how Buffon proposed this kind of definition of "species" in 1753. Theodosius Dobzhansky was a contemporary of Mayr and the author of a classic book about the evolutionary origins of reproductive barriers between species, published a few years before Mayr's.[13] Many biologists credit Dobzhansky and Mayr jointly for emphasizing reproductive isolation.[15][16]
After Mayr's book, some two dozen species concepts were introduced. Some, such as the Phylogenetic Species Concept (PSC), were designed to be more useful than the BSC for describing species. Many authors have professed to "solve" or "dissolve" the species problem.[17][18][19][20][21][22][23] Some have argued that the species problem is too multidimensional to be "solved" by any one concept.[24][25] Since the 1990s, others have argued that concepts intended to help describe species have not helped to resolve the species problem.[24][26][27][28][29] Although Mayr promoted the BSC for use in systematics, some systematists have criticized it as not operational.[30][31][32][33] For others, the BSC is the preferred definition of species. Many geneticists who work on speciation prefer the BSC because it emphasizes the role of reproductive isolation.[34] It has been argued that the BSC is a natural consequence of the effect of sexual reproduction on the dynamics of natural selection.[35][36][37][38]
Philosophical aspects[edit]
Realism[edit]
Realism is the philosophical position that species are real mind-independent entities, natural kinds. Mayr, a proponent of realism, attempted to demonstrate species exist as natural, extra-mental categories. He showed for example that the New Guinean tribesman classify 136 species of birds, which Western ornithologists came to independently recognize:
"I have always thought that there is no more devastating refutation of the nominalistic claims than the above mentioned fact that primitive natives in New Guinea, with a Stone Age culture, recognize as species exactly the same entities of nature as western taxonomists. If species were something purely arbitrary, it would be totally improbable for representatives of two drastically different cultures to arrive at the identical species delimitations."[39]
Mayr's argument however has been criticized:
"The fact that independently observing humans see much the same species in nature does not show that species are real rather than nominal categories. The most it shows is that all human brains are wired up with a similar perceptual cluster statistic (Ridley, 1993). On this view we [humans] might have been ‘wired’ differently and different species might now be wired differently from us, so that no one wiring can be said to be ‘true’ or veridical."[40]
Another position of realism is that natural kinds are demarcated by the world itself by having a unique property that is shared by all the members of a species, and none outside the group. In other words, a natural kind possesses an essential or intrinsic feature (“essence”) that is self-individuating and non-arbitrary. This notion has been heavily criticized as essentialist, but modern realists have argued that while biological natural kinds have essences, these need not be fixed and are prone to change through speciation.[41] According to Mayr (1957) reproductive isolation or interbreeding "supplies an objective yardstick, a completely non-arbitrary criterion” and "describing a presence or absence relationship makes this species concept non-arbitrary". The BSC defines species as "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups". From this perspective, each species is based on a property (reproductive isolation) that is shared by all the organisms in the species that objectively distinguishes them.
Nominalism[edit]
Some philosophical variants of nominalism propose that species are just names that people have assigned to groups of creatures but where the lines between species get drawn does not reflect any fundamental underlying biological cut-off point. In this view, the kinds of things that people have given names to, do not reflect any underlying reality. It then follows that species do not exist outside the mind, because species are just named abstractions. If species are not real, then it would not be sensible to talk about "the origin of a species" or the "evolution of a species". As recently at least as the 1950s, some authors adopted this view and wrote of species as not being real.[42][43]
A counterpoint to the nominalist views in regard to species, was raised by Michael Ghiselin who argued that an individual species is not a type, but rather an actual individual, an actual entity.[18][44] This idea comes from thinking of a species as an evolving dynamic population. If viewed as an entity, a species would exist regardless of whether or not people have observed it and whether or not it has been given a name.
Pragmatism[edit]
A popular alternative view, pragmatism, espoused by philosophers such as Philip Kitcher and John Dupre states while species do not exist in the sense of natural kinds, they are conceptually real and exist for convenience and for practical applications.[45] For example, regardless of which definition of species one uses, one can still quantitatively compare species diversity across regions or decades, as long as the definition is held constant within a study. This has practical importance in advancing biodiversity science and environmental science.
Language and the role of human investigators[edit]
The nominalist critique of the view that kinds of things exist, raises for consideration the role that humans play in the species problem. For example, Haldane suggested that species are just mental abstractions.[46]
Several authors have noted the similarity between "species", as a word of ambiguous meaning, and points made by Wittgenstein on family resemblance concepts and the indeterminacy of language.[17][47][48]
Jody Hey described the species problem as a result of two conflicting motivations by biologists:[24][49]
to categorize and identify organisms;
to understand the evolutionary processes that give rise to species.
Under the first view, species appear to us as typical natural kinds, but when biologists turn to understand species evolutionarily they are revealed as changeable and without sharp boundaries. Hey argued that it is unrealistic to expect that one definition of "species" is going to serve the need for categorization and still reflect the changeable realities of evolving species.
Pluralism and monism[edit]
Many approaches to the species problem have attempted to develop one single common conception of what species are and of how they should be identified. It is thought that, if such a monistic description of species could be developed and agreed upon, then the species problem would be solved. In contrast, some authors have argued for pluralism, claiming that biologists cannot have just one shared concept of species, and that they should accept multiple, seemingly incompatible ideas about species.[50][51][52][53] David Hull however argued that pluralist proposals were unlikely to actually solve the species problem.[29]
Quotations[edit]
This section is a candidate to be copied to Wikiquote using the Transwiki process.
"No term is more difficult to define than "species," and on no point are zoologists more divided than as to what should be understood by this word." Nicholson (1872).[54]
"Of late, the futility of attempts to find a universally valid criterion for distinguishing species has come to be fairly generally, if reluctantly, recognized" Dobzhansky (1937).[13]
"The concept of a species is a concession to our linguistic habits and neurological mechanisms" Haldane (1956).[46]
"The species problem is the long-standing failure of biologists to agree on how we should identify species and how we should define the word 'species'." Hey (2001).[49]
"First, the species problem is not primarily an empirical one, but it is rather fraught with philosophical questions that require — but cannot be settled by — empirical evidence." Pigliucci (2003).[17]
"An important aspect of any species definition whether in neontology or palaeontology is that any statement that particular individuals (or fragmentary specimens) belong to a certain species is an hypothesis (not a fact)" Bonde (1977).[55]
"We show that although discrete phenotypic clusters exist in most [plant] genera (> 80%), the correspondence of taxonomic species to these clusters is poor (< 60%) and no different between plants and animals. ... Contrary to conventional wisdom, plant species are more likely than animal species to represent reproductively independent lineages." Rieseberg et al. (2006).[56]
See also[edit]
Evolutionarily Significant Unit (ESU)
Ring species
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Wilkins, John S. (1 October 2006). "A List of 26 Species Concepts". Science Blogs.
Jump up ^ Mayr, Ernst (1982). "Chapter 6: Microtaxonomy, the science of species". The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674364462.
Jump up ^ Robson, G. C. (1928). The Species Problem: an Introduction to the Study of Evolutionary Divergence in Natural Populations. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.
Jump up ^ Darwin, C. (1859). On the origin of species by means of natural selection. London: Murray. p. 48. ISBN 84-206-5607-0.
Jump up ^ Wilkins, John S. (2006). "Species, Kinds, and Evolution". Reports of the National Center for Science Education. Retrieved 2009-09-24.
Jump up ^ Wilkins, John S. (May 10, 2009). "The first biological species concept : Evolving Thoughts". Archived from the original on May 15, 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-24.
Jump up ^ Britton, N.L. (April 1908). "The taxonomic aspect of the species question". The American Naturalist. 42 (496): 225–242. doi:10.1086/278927.
^ Jump up to: a b Mayr, E. (1982). The Growth of Biological Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-36445-7.
Jump up ^ Haveman, R. (2013). "Freakish patterns – species and species concepts in apomicts". Nordic Journal of Botany. 31 (3): 257–269. doi:10.1111/j.1756-1051.2013.00158.x.
Jump up ^ Johnson, D.S. (April 1908). "[Introduction]". The American Naturalist. 42 (496): 217. doi:10.1086/278925.
Jump up ^ Bailey, L.H. (December 1896). "The philosophy of species-making". Botanical Gazette. 22 (6): 454–462. doi:10.1086/327442.
Jump up ^ Mallet, James (December 2003). "Perspectives Poulton, Wallace and Jordan: how discoveries in Papilio butterflies led to a new species concept 100 years ago". Systematics and Biodiversity. 1 (4): 441–452. doi:10.1017/S1477200003001300.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dobzhansky, T. (1937). Genetics and the Origin of Species. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 310. ISBN 0-231-05475-0.
Jump up ^ Mayr, Ernst (1942). Systematics and the origin of species from the viewpoint of a zoologist. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-674-86250-3.
Jump up ^ Mallet, James (November 2001). "The speciation revolution" (PDF). Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 14 (6): 887–888. doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2001.00342.x.
Jump up ^ Coyne, Jerry (1994). "Ernst Mayr and the origin of species". Evolution. Society for the Study of Evolution. 48 (1): 19–30. doi:10.2307/2409999. JSTOR 2409999.
^ Jump up to: a b c Pigliucci, Massimo (June 2003). "Species as family resemblance concepts: The (dis-)solution of the species problem?". BioEssays. 25 (6): 596–602. doi:10.1002/bies.10284. PMID 12766949.
^ Jump up to: a b Ghiselin, Michael (December 1974). "A radical solution to the species problem". Systematic Zoology. Society of Systematic Biologists. 23 (4): 536–544. doi:10.2307/2412471. JSTOR 2412471.
Jump up ^ de Queiroz, K. (December 2005). "Different species problems and their resolution". BioEssays. 27 (12): 1263–1269. doi:10.1002/bies.20325. PMID 16299765.
Jump up ^ Hey, J. (1997). "A reduction of "species" and a resolution of the species problem". Rutgers University, Department of Genetics. Retrieved 2007-12-25.
Jump up ^ Ridley, Mark (January 1989). "The cladistic solution to the species problem". Biology and Philosophy. 4 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1007/BF00144036.
Jump up ^ Stamos, D.N. (2003). The species problem: Biological species, ontology, and the metaphysics of biology. Lanham: Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-0503-0.
Jump up ^ Vrana, P.; Wheeler, W. (1992). "Individual organisms as terminal entities: Laying the species problem to rest". Cladistics. 8 (1): 67–72. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.1992.tb00051.x.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hey, J. (2001). Genes categories and species. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-514477-2.
Jump up ^ Endler, J.A. (1989). "Conceptual and other problems in speciation". In Otte, D.; Endler, J.A. Speciation and its consequences. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 625–648. ISBN 978-0-87893-658-8.
Jump up ^ de Queiroz, K. (1998). "The general lineage concept of species: Species criteria and the process of speciation". In Howard, D.J.; Berlocher, S.H. Endless forms: Species and speciation. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 57–75. ISBN 978-0-19-510901-6.
Jump up ^ Miller, W. (December 2001). "The structure of species, outcomes of speciation and the `species problem': Ideas for paleobiology". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 176 (1): 1–10. Bibcode:2001PPP...176....1M. doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00346-7.
Jump up ^ Hey, J. (August 2006). "On the failure of modern species concepts". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 21 (8): 447–450. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2006.05.011. PMID 16762447.
^ Jump up to: a b Hull, D.L. (1999). "On the plurality of species: Questioning the party line". In Wilson, R.A. Species: New Interdisciplinary Essays. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. pp. 23–48. ISBN 978-0-262-73123-2.
Jump up ^ Wheeler, QD; Meier, R (2000). Species concepts and phylogenetic theory: A debate. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10143-1.
Jump up ^ Zink, R.M.; McKitrick, M.C. (1995). "The debate over species concepts and its implications for ornithology". The Auk. 112 (3): 701–719.
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