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Topsoil
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Surface runoff, a type of nonpoint source pollution, from a farm field in Iowa during a rain storm.
Topsoil as well as farm fertilizers and other potential pollutants run off unprotected farm fields when heavy rains occur.
Topsoil is the upper, outermost layer of soil, usually the top 2 inches (5.1 cm) to 8 inches (20 cm). It has the highest concentration of organic matter and microorganisms and is where most of the Earth's biological soil activity occurs. Four elements constitute the composition of soil. Those elements are mineral particles, organic matter, water, and air. The volume of top soil consists of 50 to 80 percent of these particles which form the skeletal structure of most soils. This composition allows the soil to sustain its own weight, and other internal matter such as water and overlying landscape. Organic matter, another important element, varies on quantity on different soils. This provokes positive and negative effects or reactions on the soil. The strength of soil structure decreases with the presence of organic matter, creating weak bearing capacities. Organic matter condenses and or settles in different ways under certain conditions, such as roadbeds and foundations. The skeletal structure becomes affected once the soil is dewatered. The soil's volume substantially decreases. It decomposes and suffers wind erosion.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Importance
2 Classification
3 Evaluation
4 Carbon to nitrogen ratio
5 Commercial application
6 Erosion
7 Conservation
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Importance[edit]
Plants generally concentrate their roots in and obtain most of their vital nutrients from this layer. Actual depth of the topsoil layer can be measured as the depth from the surface to the first densely packed soil layer known as subsoil.
Classification[edit]
In soil classification systems, topsoil is known as the "O Horizon or A Horizon," therefore, it is the very top layer.[2]
Commercially available topsoil (manufactured or naturally occurring) in the United Kingdom should be classified to British Standard BS 3882 with the current version dated 2015. The standard has several classifications of topsoil with the final classification requiring material to meet certain threshold criteria such as Nutrient Content, Extractable Phytotoxic Elements, Particle Size Distribution, Organic Matter Content, Carbon:Nitrogen ratio, Electrical Conductivity, Loss on Ignition, pH, Chemical and Physical Contamination. The topsoil should be sampled in accordance with the British Standard and European Norm BS EN 12579:2013 Soil improvers and growing media - Sampling.[3] During construction of garden areas for housing plots the topsoil should be underlain by a layer of suitably certified subsoil that conforms to the British Standard BS 8601:2013 Specification for subsoil and requirements for use.[4]
It is always recommended that for construction projects that topsoil is placed in accordance with the DEFRA report Construction Code of Practice for the Sustainable Use of Soils on Construction Sites [5]
Evaluation[edit]
When starting a gardening project, it is crucial to check whether or not the soil is satisfactory. Different types of plants vary in their nutrient needs and preferred soil conditions, many are strongly adapted to particular conditions. However, some general guidelines for "desired levels of Topsoil nutrients" have been made, broadly suitable for many plants.[6]
Category
Desired Results
pH Level 5.0 to 6.2
Phosphorus (P-I) Index of 50
Potassium (K-I) Index of 50
Calcium (Ca%) 40-60% of Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Magnesium (Mg%) 8-10% of CEC
Base saturation (BS%) 35-80% of CEC
Manganese (Mn-I) Index > 25
Zinc (Zn-I) Index > 25
Copper (Cu-I) Index > 25
The two common types of Topsoil are Bulk and Bagged Topsoil. The following table illustrates major differences between the two.[6]
Topsoil Type
HM%[7]
BS%
pH
P-I
K-I
Ca%
Mg%
Bulk 0.3 69 5.2 009 026 45 10
Bagged 0.7 78 5.8 166+ 178 56 12.3
Alternatively the British Standard relates to other working values:
Category
Desired Results
pH Level 5.5 to 8.5
Phosphate (PO4) 16 to 140 mg/L
Potassium (K) 121 to 1500 mg/L
Magnesium (Mg) 51 to 600 mg/L
Nickel (Ni) from <60 mg/kg
Zinc (Zn) from <200 mg/kg
Copper (Cu) from <100 mg/kg
This is for a multipurpose grade and certain levels can alter with regard to soil pH. Other uses specified in the standard that allows for a variety of uses in different and specific scenarios includes:
Acidic, Calcareous, Low Fertility, Low Fertility Acidic and Low Fertility Calcareous. These uses are limited to specific site scenarios and acceptance should be on a case by case basis for construction projects.
Carbon to nitrogen ratio[edit]
Topsoil is the primary resource for plants to grow and crops to thrive and the main two parameters for this are Carbon and Nitrogen. The Carbon provides energy and Nitrogen is a tissue builder and plants require them in a range of ratios to enable suitable growth. An optimum figure for Topsoil in the UK is a ratio of less than 20:1. This ensures that the soil has a suitable energy reserve as well as tissue building material to enable the plants to thrive. A sawdust typically has a carbonaceous base and this a high C:N ratio (in the order of c. 400:1) while an Alfalfa Hay has a low carbonaceous content and can typically have a C:N ratio in the order of 12:1.[8]
Commercial application[edit]
A variety of soil mixtures are sold commercially as topsoil, usually for use in improving gardens and lawns, e.g. container gardens, potting soil and peat. Another important yet not commonly known use for topsoil is for proper surface grading near residential buildings such as homes. "The ground around the home should slope down six inches for the first ten feet away from the home. This can often be done by adding topsoil (not sand or gravel)."[citation needed]
Erosion[edit]
A major environmental concern known as topsoil erosion occurs when the topsoil layer is blown or washed away. Without topsoil, little plant life is possible. The estimated annual costs of public and environmental health losses related to soil erosion exceed $45 billion.[9] Conventional agriculture encourages the depletion of topsoil because the soil must be plowed and replanted each year. Sustainable techniques attempt to slow erosion through the use of cover crops in order to build organic matter in the soil. The United States alone loses almost 3 tons of topsoil per acre per year.[10] This is of great ecological concern as one inch of topsoil can take between 500[11] and 1,000 years[12] to form naturally. On current trends, the world has about 60 years of topsoil left.[12][13]
Conservation[edit]
Because of its use in commercial application and due to the environmental concerns regarding erosion, it is important for consumers to accurately determine how much topsoil they need for a given project. Topsoil is mainly sold by the cubic yard in the United States. To calculate the amount of topsoil you will need, "simply take your length (in feet) multiplied by your width (in feet) multiplied by your depth (in feet so if you wanted 5 inches that would be 5/12) then divide the total by 27. This will give you your cubic yards needed for the project. Ex: 10L x 10W x (5/12) = 41.66/27 = 1.54 cubic yards of topsoil needed.".[14]
See also[edit]
Ecology portal
Agricultural wastewater
Desertfication
Dust bowl
Erosion control
No-till farming
Nonpoint source pollution
Subsoil
Sustainable agriculture
Waterway degradation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Marsh, William M. (2010). Landscape planning : environmental applications (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN 9780470570814.
Jump up ^ U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Soil Survey Division Staff (1993). "Soil Survey Manual." USDA Handbook 18. Chapter 3.
Jump up ^ BS 3882:2015 Specification for Topsoil
Jump up ^ BS 8601:2013 Specification for subsoil and requirements for use.
Jump up ^ DEFRA Construction Code of Practice for the Sustainable Use of Soils on Construction Sites https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/69308/pb13298-code-of-practice-090910.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b Topsoil . North Carolina Department of Agriculture(July, 1995)
Jump up ^ Percent humic matter is a measure of the portion of organic matter that has decomposed to form humic and fulvic acids. HM% represents the portion of organic matter that is chemically reactive. This value affects determinations of lime and herbicide rates. [1]
Jump up ^ Understanding the Carbon Nitrogen Ratio by Crow Miller ACRES http://sccd.org/carbon-nitrogen_ratio.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.ce.cmu.edu/~gdrg/readings/2007/02/20/Pimental_EnvironmentalEnergeticAndEconomicComparisonsOfOrganicAndConventionalFarmingSystems.pdf
Jump up ^ "Summary Report, 2007 Natural Resources Inventory". Natural Resources Conservation Services, U. S. Department of Agriculture. December 2009. p. 97.
Jump up ^ James Smolka (May 1, 2001). "Eating Locally". Discover. Retrieved May 1, 2001.
^ Jump up to: a b "Only 60 Years of Farming Left If Soil Degradation Continues". Scientific American. December 5, 2014.
Jump up ^ "What If the World's Soil Runs Out?". Time. December 14, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Topsoil Delivery Topsoil Dirt Cheap ~ Topsoil Delivery". Topsoil Delivery. Retrieved 2017-04-12.
Further reading
The lowdown on topsoil: It's disappearing
Mann, C (2008). "Our Good Earth". National Geographic Magazine. 214 (3): 80–107.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Soil science.
USDA Electronic Field Office Technical Guide - Detailed soil conservation guides tailored to individual states/counties
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Topsoil&oldid=803488812"
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Total internal reflection
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Total internal reflection of a laser beam in a block of acrylic
Total internal reflection is the phenomenon which occurs when a propagated wave strikes a medium boundary at an angle larger than a particular critical angle with respect to the normal to the surface. If the refractive index is lower on the other side of the boundary and the incident angle is greater than the critical angle, the wave cannot pass through and is entirely reflected. The critical angle is the angle of incidence above which the total internal reflection occurs. This is particularly common as an optical phenomenon, where light waves are involved, but it occurs with many types of waves, such as electromagnetic waves in general or sound waves. When a wave reaches a boundary between different materials with different refractive indices, the wave will in general be partially refracted at the boundary surface, and partially reflected. However, if the angle of incidence is greater (i.e. the direction of propagation is closer to being parallel to the boundary) than the critical angle – the angle of incidence at which light is refracted such that it travels along the boundary – then the wave will not cross the boundary, but will instead be totally reflected back internally. This can only occur when the wave in a medium with a higher refractive index (n1) reaches a boundary with a medium of lower refractive index (n2). For example, it will occur with light reaching air from glass, but not when reaching glass from air.
Total internal reflection in a semi-circular acrylic block
Contents
[hide]
1 Optical description
2 Critical angle
3 Derivation of evanescent wave
4 Frustrated total internal reflection
5 Phase shift upon total internal reflection
6 Applications
7 Examples in everyday life
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Optical description[edit]
Total internal reflection of light can be demonstrated using a semi-circular block of glass or plastic. A "ray box" shines a narrow beam of light (a "ray") onto the glass medium. The semi-circular shape ensures that a ray pointing towards the centre of the flat face will hit the curved surface at a right angle; this will prevent refraction at the air/glass boundary of the curved surface. At the glass/air boundary of the flat surface, what happens will depend on the angle. If θc is the critical angle, then the following scenarios depict what will happen according to the size of the incident angle.
If θ ≤ θc, the ray will split; some of the ray will reflect off the boundary, and some will refract as it passes through. This is not total internal reflection.
If θ > θc, the entire ray reflects from the boundary. None passes through. This is called total internal reflection. TIR is the abbreviation.
This physical property makes optical fibers useful and prismatic binoculars possible. It is also what gives diamonds their distinctive sparkle, as diamond has an unusually high refractive index.
Critical angle[edit]
Illustration of Snell's law, n 1 sin  θ i = n 2 sin  θ t {\displaystyle n_{1}\sin \theta _{i}=n_{2}\sin \theta _{t}} .
View up from directly under a diver. The above-water hemisphere is visible, compressed (as by a circular fisheye lens) into a circle (Snell's window) bounded by the critical angle. Everything outside the critical-angle circle is reflected from below the water (and is therefore dark).
The critical angle is the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90°. The angle of incidence is measured with respect to the normal at the refractive boundary (see diagram illustrating Snell's law). Consider a light ray passing from glass into air. The light emanating from the interface is bent towards the glass. When the incident angle is increased sufficiently, the transmitted angle (in air) reaches 90 degrees. It is at this point no light is transmitted into air. The critical angle θ c {\displaystyle \theta _{c}} is given by Snell's law,
n 1 sin  θ i = n 2 sin  θ t {\displaystyle n_{1}\sin \theta _{i}=n_{2}\sin \theta _{t}\quad } .
Rearranging Snell's Law, we get incidence
sin  θ i = n 2 n 1 sin  θ t {\displaystyle \sin \theta _{i}={\frac {n_{2}}{n_{1}}}\sin \theta _{t}} .
To find the critical angle, we find the value for θ i {\displaystyle \theta _{i}} when θ t = {\displaystyle \theta _{t}=} 90° and thus sin  θ t = 1 {\displaystyle \sin \theta _{t}=1} . The resulting value of θ i {\displaystyle \theta _{i}} is equal to the critical angle θ c {\displaystyle \theta _{c}} .
Now, we can solve for θ i {\displaystyle \theta _{i}} , and we get the equation for the critical angle:
θ c = θ i = arcsin  ( n 2 n 1 ) , {\displaystyle \theta _{c}=\theta _{i}=\arcsin \left({\frac {n_{2}}{n_{1}}}\right),}
If the incident ray is precisely at the critical angle, the refracted ray is tangent to the boundary at the point of incidence. If for example, visible light were traveling through acrylic glass (with an index of refraction of approximately 1.50) into air (with an index of refraction of 1.00), the calculation would give the critical angle for light from acrylic into air, which is
θ c = arcsin  ( 1.00 1.50 ) = 41.8 ∘ {\displaystyle \theta _{c}=\arcsin \left({\frac {1.00}{1.50}}\right)=41.8{}^{\circ }} .
Light incident on the border with an angle less than 41.8° would be partially transmitted, while light incident on the border at larger angles with respect to normal would be totally internally reflected.
If the fraction n 2 / n 1 {\displaystyle {n_{2}}/{n_{1}}} is greater than 1, then arcsine is not defined—meaning that total internal reflection does not occur even at very shallow or grazing incident angles.
So the critical angle is only defined when n 2 / n 1 {\displaystyle {n_{2}}/{n_{1}}} is less than or equal to 1.
Refraction of light at the interface between two media, including total internal reflection.
Derivation of evanescent wave[edit]
An important side effect of total internal reflection is the appearance of an evanescent wave beyond the boundary surface. Essentially, even though the entire incident wave is reflected back into the originating medium, there is some penetration into the second medium at the boundary. The evanescent wave appears to travel along the boundary between the two materials, leading to the Goos-Hänchen shift.
If a plane wave, confined to the xz plane, is incident on a dielectric with an angle θ I {\displaystyle \theta _{I}} and wavevector k I {\displaystyle \mathbf {k_{I}} } then a transmitted ray will be created with a corresponding angle of transmittance as shown in the figure above. The transmitted wavevector is given by:
k T = k T sin  ( θ T ) x ^ + k T cos  ( θ T ) z ^ {\displaystyle \mathbf {k_{T}} =k_{T}\sin(\theta _{T}){\hat {x}}+k_{T}\cos(\theta _{T}){\hat {z}}}
If n 1 > n 2 {\displaystyle n_{1}>n_{2}} , then sin  ( θ T ) > 1 {\displaystyle \sin(\theta _{T})>1} since in the relation sin  ( θ T ) = n 1 n 2 sin  ( θ I ) {\displaystyle \sin(\theta _{T})={\frac {n_{1}}{n_{2}}}\sin(\theta _{I})} obtained from Snell's law, n 1 n 2 sin  ( θ I ) {\displaystyle {\frac {n_{1}}{n_{2}}}\sin(\theta _{I})} is greater than one for θ I > θ C {\displaystyle \theta _{I}>\theta _{C}}
As a result of this cos  ( θ T ) {\displaystyle \cos(\theta _{T})} becomes complex:
cos  ( θ T ) = 1 − sin 2  ( θ T ) = i sin 2  ( θ T ) − 1 {\displaystyle \cos(\theta _{T})={\sqrt {1-\sin ^{2}(\theta _{T})}}=i{\sqrt {\sin ^{2}(\theta _{T})-1}}}
The electric field of the transmitted plane wave is given by E T = E 0 e i ( k T ⋅ r − ω t ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {E_{T}} =\mathbf {E_{0}} e^{i(\mathbf {k_{T}} \cdot \mathbf {r} -\omega t)}} and so evaluating this further one obtains:
E T = E 0 e i ( k T ⋅ r − ω t ) = E 0 e i ( x k T sin  ( θ T ) + z k T cos  ( θ T ) − ω t ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {E_{T}} =\mathbf {E_{0}} e^{i(\mathbf {k_{T}} \cdot \mathbf {r} -\omega t)}=\mathbf {E_{0}} e^{i(xk_{T}\sin(\theta _{T})+zk_{T}\cos(\theta _{T})-\omega t)}}
and
E T = E 0 e i ( x k T sin  ( θ T ) + z k T i sin 2  ( θ T ) − 1 − ω t ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {E_{T}} =\mathbf {E_{0}} e^{i(xk_{T}\sin(\theta _{T})+zk_{T}i{\sqrt {\sin ^{2}(\theta _{T})-1}}-\omega t)}} .
Using the fact that k T = ω n 2 c {\displaystyle k_{T}={\frac {\omega n_{2}}{c}}} and Snell's law, one finally obtains
E T = E 0 e − κ z e i ( k x − ω t ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {E_{T}} =\mathbf {E_{0}} e^{-\kappa z}e^{i(kx-\omega t)}}
where κ = ω c ( n 1 sin  ( θ I ) ) 2 − n 2 2 {\displaystyle \kappa ={\frac {\omega }{c}}{\sqrt {(n_{1}\sin(\theta _{I}))^{2}-n_{2}^{2}}}} and k = ω n 1 c sin  ( θ I ) {\displaystyle k={\frac {\omega n_{1}}{c}}\sin(\theta _{I})} .
This wave in the optically less dense medium is known as the evanescent wave. It is characterized by its propagation in the x direction and its exponential attenuation in the z direction. Although there is a field in the second medium, it can be shown that no energy flows across the boundary. The component of Poynting vector in the direction normal to the boundary is finite, but its time average vanishes. Whereas the other two components of Poynting vector (here x-component only) and their time averaged values are in general found to be finite (i.e. nonzero).
When a glass of water is held firmly, ridges making up the fingerprints are made visible by frustrated total internal reflection. Light tunnels from the glass into the ridges through the very short air gap.[1]
It is important to note that the Goos-Hänchen effect only occurs for linearly polarized light[2]. If the light is circularly or elliptically polarized, it will undergo the analogous Imbert–Fedorov effect.
Frustrated total internal reflection[edit]
See also: Attenuated total reflectance
Under ordinary conditions, the evanescent wave transmits zero net energy across the interface. However, if a third medium with a higher refractive index than the low-index second medium is placed within less than several wavelengths distance from the interface between the first medium and the second medium, the evanescent wave will be different from the usual one, and it will pass energy across the second into the third medium. (See evanescent wave coupling.) This process is called "frustrated" total internal reflection (FTIR) and is very similar to quantum tunneling. The quantum tunneling model is mathematically analogous if one thinks of the electromagnetic field as being the wave function of the photon. The low index medium can be thought of as a potential barrier through which photons can tunnel.
The transmission coefficient for FTIR is highly sensitive to the spacing between the third medium and the second medium (the function is approximately exponential until the gap is almost closed), so this effect has often been used to modulate optical transmission and reflection with a large dynamic range.
Phase shift upon total internal reflection[edit]
Further information: Fresnel rhomb
An important aspect of total internal reflection is the appearance of a significant (rather than just 0° or 180°) phase shift upon reflection. Mathematically this is expressed by the Fresnel reflection coefficients acquiring an imaginary part. This resulting phase advance grows as the incidence angle increases beyond the critical angle, but unequally for the s and p polarization components of the incident wave.
This polarization dependent phase shift was discovered and quantitatively explained by Augustin-Jean Fresnel who employed it in his invention, the Fresnel rhomb, in which the angles of incidence are adjusted such that the two internal reflections cause a relative phase shift of 90° between the two polarizations of an incident wave. This performs the same function as a quarter-wave plate, but is more achromatic (phase shift has less dependence on wavelength). Either type of quarter-wave retarder may be used, for instance, to transform linear polarization to circular polarization (which Fresnel also discovered) and vice versa.
The polarization dependent phase shift is also the reason why TE and TM guided modes have different dispersion relations[dubious – discuss].
Applications[edit]
Mirror like effect
Total internal reflection is the operating principle of optical fibers[3], which are used in endoscopes and telecommunications.[4]
Total internal reflection is the operating principle of automotive rain sensors, which control automatic windscreen/windshield wipers.
Another application of total internal reflection is the spatial filtering of light.[5]
Prisms in binoculars use total internal reflection, rather than reflective coatings, to fold optical paths and show erect images.
Some multi-touch screens use frustrated total internal reflection in combination with a camera and appropriate software to pick up multiple targets.
Gonioscopy employs total internal reflection to view the anatomical angle formed between the eye's cornea and iris[6][7].
A gait analysis instrument, CatWalk XT,[8] uses frustrated total internal reflection in combination with a high speed camera to capture and analyze footprints of laboratory rodents.
Optical fingerprinting devices use frustrated total internal reflection in order to record an image of a person's fingerprint without the use of ink.
A total internal reflection fluorescence microscope uses the evanescent wave produced by TIR to excite fluorophores close to a surface. This is useful for the study of surface properties of biological samples.[9]
Total internal reflection is the operating principle of LED Light Panels. This technology utilizes LGPs (Light Guide Plates) as the vehicle for transmitting light over large areas. By etching a grid pattern on the second surface of the LGP, frustrated total internal reflection occurs allowing the light to escape the LGP as visible illumination.
Diamonds shine brightly due to total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection (TIR) are used on lighting industry to manage narrow distribution (NEMA classification) for floodlight.
Examples in everyday life[edit]
Total internal reflection can be seen at the air-water boundary.
Total internal reflection can be observed while swimming, when one opens one's eyes just under the water's surface. If the water is calm, the surface appears mirror-like (except directly overhead, in Snell's window).
Diamonds used for jewelry are normally shaped in such a way as to maximize the amount of light that is totally internally reflected from the back side of the diamond. [10]The very high refractive index of diamond gives a small critical angle allowing almost all the light entering the diamond to be reflected back for optimized diamond cuts such as the brilliant.
See also[edit]
Snell's window (looking up from underwater)
Total external reflection
References[edit]
This article incorporates public domain material from the General Services Administration document "Federal Standard 1037C" (in support of MIL-STD-188).
Jump up ^ Ehrlich, Robert (1997). Why toast lands jelly-side down: zen and the art of physics demonstrations. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press. p. 182. ISBN 0-691-02891-5. Retrieved 9 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Xu, Yadong; Chan, C. T.; Chen, Huanyang (2015-03-03). "Goos-Hänchen effect in epsilon-near-zero metamaterials". Scientific Reports. 5 (1). Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E8681X. doi:10.1038/srep08681. ISSN 2045-2322.
Jump up ^ Boundless (2016-05-26). "Total Internal Reflection and Fiber Optics". Boundless.
Jump up ^ "BBC - GCSE Bitesize: Total internal reflection". Retrieved 2017-09-04.
Jump up ^ Moreno, Ivan; J. Jesus Araiza; Maximino Avendano-Alejo (2005). "Thin-film spatial filters" (PDF). Optics Letters. 30 (8): 914–916. Bibcode:2005OptL...30..914M. doi:10.1364/OL.30.000914. PMID 15865397.
Jump up ^ OD, By Emily Bruce, OD, Rodney Bendure, OD, Sarah Krein, OD, and Nathan Lighthizer,. "Zoom in on Gonioscopy". Retrieved 2017-09-04.
Jump up ^ "Gonioscopy - Glaucoma Associates of Texas". Glaucoma Associates of Texas. Retrieved 2017-09-04.
Jump up ^ "Gait analysis system and software for rodents | CatWalk". Noldus.com. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Axelrod, D. (1 April 1981). "Cell-substrate contacts illuminated by total internal reflection fluorescence". The Journal of Cell Biology. 89 (1): 141–145. doi:10.1083/jcb.89.1.141. PMC 2111781  . PMID 7014571.
Jump up ^ "Total Internal Reflection: Diamonds & Fiber Optics". laser.physics.sunysb.edu. Retrieved 2017-09-04.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Total internal reflection.
FTIR Touch Sensing
Multi-Touch Interaction Research
Georgia State University
Total Internal Reflection by Michael Schreiber, Wolfram Demonstrations Project
Total Internal Reflection – St. Mary's Physics Online Notes
Bowley, Roger (2009). "Total Internal Reflection". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
TE,TM Reflection Coefficients – interactive phase and magnitude plots
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Total_internal_reflection&oldid=838232004"
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D-Day (military term)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the first day of the Invasion of Normandy, see Normandy landings.
Battle plans for the Normandy Invasion, the most famous D-Day
In the military, D-Day is the day on which a combat attack or operation is to be initiated. The best known D-Day is during World War II, on June 6, 1944—the day of the Normandy landings—initiating the Western Allied effort to liberate mainland Europe from Nazi Germany. However, many other invasions and operations had a designated D-Day, both before and after that operation.[1]
The terms D-Day and H-Hour are used for the day and hour on which a combat attack or operation is to be initiated. They designate the day and hour of the operation when the day and hour have not yet been determined, or where secrecy is essential. For a given operation, the same D-Day and H-Hour apply for all units participating in it. When used in combination with numbers, and plus or minus signs, these terms indicate the point of time preceding or following a specific action. Thus, H−3 means 3 hours before H-Hour, and D+3 means 3 days after D-Day. (By extension, H+75 minutes is used for H-Hour plus 1 hour and 15 minutes.) Planning papers for large-scale operations are made up in detail long before specific dates are set. Thus, orders are issued for the various steps to be carried out on the D-Day or H-Hour minus or plus a certain number of days, hours, or minutes. At the appropriate time, a subsequent order is issued that states the actual day and times.
Other days such as A-Day (Battle of Leyte), L-Day (Battle of Okinawa) etc. have different meanings for the military.
Other languages have terms equivalent to D-Day such as "Hari H" (Indonesian),Час Ч (Russian), Dagen D[citation needed] (Swedish), Dan D (Slovenian), E eguna (Basque), Jour J (French), Lá L (Irish), Tag X (German), and Ziua-Z (Romanian). The initial D in D-Day has been given various meanings in the past, while more recently it has obtained the connotation of "Day" itself, thereby creating the phrase "Day-Day", or "Day of Days".[2]
History
Official U.S. Twelfth Army situation map for 2400 hours, 6 June 1944
The earliest use of these terms by the United States Army that the U.S. Army Center of Military History has been able to find was during World War I.[3] In Field Order Number 9, First Army, American Expeditionary Forces, dated 7 September 1918: "The First Army will attack at H hour on D day with the object of forcing the evacuation of the St. Mihiel Salient."
D-Day for the invasion of Normandy by the Allies was originally set for June 5, 1944, but bad weather and heavy seas caused U.S. Army General Dwight David Eisenhower to delay until June 6 and that date has been popularly referred to ever since by the short title "D-Day". Because of the connotation with the invasion of Normandy, planners of later military operations sometimes avoided the term to prevent confusion. For example, Douglas MacArthur's invasion of Leyte began on "A-Day", and the invasion of Okinawa began on "L-Day". The Allies' proposed invasions of Japan would have begun on "X-Day" (on Kyūshū, scheduled for November 1945) and "Y-Day" (on Honshū, scheduled for March 1946).
References
Jump up ^ Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.
Jump up ^ "D-Day". The Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2005. p. 220. ISBN 0-19-280666-1.
Jump up ^ "What does the "D" signify in D-Day, and the "H" signify in H-Hour?" U.S. Army Center of Military History. Last updated 3 October 2003. Retrieved 5 June 2014.
External links
"Digital Documents and Photograhs Project". Documents and Photographs regarding the D-Day Invasion, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. Archived from the original on 2011-08-10. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
U.S. Army official Normandy D-Day web site
Coordinates: 49°20′00″N 0°34′00″W / 49.3333°N 0.5667°W / 49.3333; -0.5667
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=D-Day_(military_term)&oldid=797397787"
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D-Day – Turkish
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