text:
Epiphyseal plate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Epiphyseal plate
Radiogram of distal tibia (left) and fibula (right) showing two epiphyseal plates.
Light micrograph of epiphyseal plate showing the hypertrophic zone with its typical chondrocytes, matrix and three zones: maturation (top), degenerative (middle) and provisional calcification (bottom).
Details
Identifiers
Latin
lamina epiphysialis
TA
A02.0.00.020
FMA
75427
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
The epiphyseal plate (or epiphysial plate, physis, or growth plate) is a hyaline cartilage plate in the metaphysis at each end of a long bone. It is the part of a long bone where new bone growth takes place; that is, the whole bone is alive, with maintenance remodeling throughout its existing bone tissue, but the growth plate is the place where the long bone grows longer (adds length).
The plate is found in children and adolescents; in adults, who have stopped growing, the plate is replaced by an epiphyseal line. This replacement is known as epiphyseal closure.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Development
1.2 Histology
2 Clinical significance
3 Other animals
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Structure[edit]
Development[edit]
Endochondral ossification is responsible for the initial bone development from cartilage in utero and infants and the longitudinal growth of long bones in the epiphyseal plate. The plate's chondrocytes are under constant division by mitosis. These daughter cells stack facing the epiphysis while the older cells are pushed towards the diaphysis. As the older chondrocytes degenerate, osteoblasts ossify the remains to form new bone. In puberty increasing levels of estrogen, in both females and males, leads to increased apoptosis of chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate.[1] Depletion of chondrocytes due to apoptosis leads to less ossification and growth slows down and later stops when the entire cartilage have become replaced by bone, leaving only a thin epiphyseal scar which later disappears.[2]
Histology[edit]
The growth plate has a very specific morphology in having a zonal arrangement.
Epiphyseal plate zone (from epiphysis to diaphysis
Description
Zone of reserve Quiescent chondrocytes are found at the epiphyseal end
Zone of proliferation Chondrocytes undergo rapid mitosis under influence of growth hormone
Zone of maturation and hypertrophy Chondrocytes stop mitosis, and begin to hypertrophy by accumulating glycogen, lipids, and alkaline phosphatase
Zone of calcification Chondrocytes undergo apoptosis. Cartilagenous matrix begins to calcify.
Zone of ossification Osteoclasts and osteoblasts from the diaphyseal side break down the calcified cartilage and replace with mineralized bone tissue.
[3]
A mnemonic for remembering the names of the epiphyseal plate growth zones is "Real People Have Career Options," standing for: Resting zone, Proliferative zone, Hypertrophic cartilage zone, Calcified cartilage zone, Ossification zone.[4] The growth plate is clinically relevant in that it is often the primary site for infection, metastasis, fractures and the effects of endocrine bone disorders.[citation needed]
Masson Goldner trichrome stain of rabbit epiphysial plate.
Clinical significance[edit]
Defects in the development and continued division of epiphyseal plates can lead to growth disorders. The most common defect is achondroplasia, where there is a defect in cartilage formation. Achondroplasia is the most common cause of dwarfism.
Salter–Harris fractures are fractures involving epiphyseal plates and hence tend to interfere with growth, height or physiologic functions [5].
Osgood-Schlatter disease results from stress on the epiphyseal plate in the tibia, leading to excess bone growth and a painful lump at the knee.
Other animals[edit]
John Hunter studied growing chickens. He observed bones grew at the ends and thus demonstrated the existence of the epiphyseal plates. Hunter is considered the "father of the growth plate".[6]
See also[edit]
Human development (biology)
Salter–Harris fracture
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Zhong, M; Carney, DH; Boyan, BD; Schwartz, Z (January 2011). "17β-Estradiol regulates rat growth plate chondrocyte apoptosis through a mitochondrial pathway not involving nitric oxide or MAPKs". Endocrinology. 152 (1): 82–92. doi:10.1210/en.2010-0509. PMID 21068162.
Jump up ^ "Skeletal System / Bone Development and Growth". Archived from the original on 2008-07-09. Retrieved 2008-07-10.
Jump up ^ Ovalle, William K.; Nahirney, Patrick C. (2007). Netter's essential histology : with Student consult online access (1st ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Elsevier Saunders. ISBN 9781929007868.
Jump up ^ "Medical Mnemonics". Archived from the original on 2012-04-20.
Jump up ^ Mirghasemi, Alireza; Mohamadi, Amin; Ara, Ali Majles; Gabaran, Narges Rahimi; Sadat, Mir Mostafa (November 2009). "Completely displaced S-1/S-2 growth plate fracture in an adolescent: case report and review of literature". Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma. 23 (10): 734–738. doi:10.1097/BOT.0b013e3181a23d8b. ISSN 1531-2291. PMID 19858983.
Jump up ^ "Growth Plate (Physeal) Fractures". EMedicine.com. Retrieved 2008-01-15.
External links[edit]
Normal bones at GetTheDiagnosis.org, showing the development of epiphyseal plates for different ages and bones.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Epiphyseal plate.
[hide]
v
t
e
Bone and cartilage
Cartilage
perichondrium
fibrocartilage callus
metaphysis
Cells
chondroblast
chondrocyte
Types
hyaline
elastic
fibrous
Bone
Ossification
Primary bone
intramembranous
endochondral
Cells
osteoblast
osteoid
osteocyte
osteoclast
Types
cancellous
cortical
Regions
subchondral bone
epiphysis
epiphyseal plate/metaphysis
diaphysis
Condyle
Epicondyle
Structure
Osteon
Haversian canals
Volkmann's canals
connective tissue
endosteum
periosteum
Sharpey's fibres
enthesis
lacunae
canaliculi
trabeculae
medullary cavity
bone marrow
Shapes
long
short
flat
irregular
sesamoid
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Epiphyseal_plate&oldid=813079142"
Categories:
Skeletal system
Hidden categories:
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2008
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Deutsch
Español
فارسی
한국어
Italiano
עברית
Bahasa Melayu
Nederlands
日本語
Polski
Português
Русский
کوردی
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 1 December 2017, at 17:00.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
/wiki/Radiogram_(medicine)
mw-redirect
Radiogram (medicine)

values: /wiki/Distal mw-redirect Distal

values: Hypertrophic Zone of Epiphyseal Plate.jpg

values:
/wiki/Bone_tissue
mw-redirect
Bone tissue

values:
/wiki/Daughter_cell
mw-redirect
Daughter cell

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2008)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Osgood-Schlatter_disease
mw-redirect
Osgood-Schlatter disease

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1210%2Fen.2010-0509

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21068162

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/issn/1531-2291

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19858983

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
http://bones.getthediagnosis.org/
external text

values:
/wiki/Cancellous_bone
mw-redirect
Cancellous bone

values:
/wiki/Cortical_bone
mw-redirect
Cortical bone

values:
/wiki/Subchondral_bone
mw-redirect
Subchondral bone

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2008

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Epiphyseal_plate
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: صفيحة مشاشية – Arabic

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisis
Fisis – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values: صفحه رشد استخوان – Persian

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisi
Fisi – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values: סחוס הגדילה – Hebrew

values: Эпифизарная пластинка – Russian

values: پەڕەی جەمسەری ئێسک – Central Kurdish

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Epiphyseal_plate rootpage-Epiphyseal_plate skin-vector action-view


text:
Primitive streak
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Primitive streak
Surface view of embryo of a rabbit.
arg. Embryonic disk.
pr. Primitive streak.
Details
Carnegie stage
6b
Days
15
Identifiers
Latin
linea primitiva
MeSH
A16.254.412
Dorlands
/Elsevier
s_25/12761719
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The primitive streak is a structure that forms in the blastula during the early stages of avian, reptilian and mammalian embryonic development. It forms on the dorsal (back) face of the developing embryo, toward the caudal or posterior end.
The presence of the primitive streak will establish bilateral symmetry, determine the site of gastrulation and initiate germ layer formation. To form the streak, reptiles, birds and mammals arrange mesenchymal cells along the prospective midline, establishing the second embryonic axis, as well as the place where cells will ingress and migrate during the process of gastrulation and germ layer formation.[1] The primitive streak extends through this midline and creates the left–right and cranial–caudal body axes,[2] and marks the beginning of gastrulation.[3] This process involves the ingression of mesoderm progenitors and their migration to their ultimate position,[2][4] where they will differentiate into the mesoderm germ layer[1] that, together with endoderm and ectoderm germ layers, will give rise to all the tissues of the adult organism.
Contents
[hide]
1 Components
2 Cellular movements
3 Formation
3.1 Vg1 and Wnt signaling
3.2 Hypoblast
3.3 Nodal signaling
3.4 FGF signaling
3.5 BMP signaling
4 Ethical implications
5 Additional images
6 References
Components[edit]
Given that the chicken embryo can be easily manipulated, most of our knowledge about the primitive streak comes from avian studies. The marginal zone of a chick embryo contains cells that will contribute to the streak.[4] This region has a defined anterior-to-posterior gradient in its ability to induce the primitive streak, with the posterior end having the highest potential.[5]
The epiblast, a single epithelial layer blastodisc, is the source of all embryonic material in amniotes[1] and some of its cells will give rise to the primitive streak.[4] All cells in the epiblast can respond to signals from the marginal zone,[1] but once a given region is induced by these signals and undergoes streak formation, the remaining cells in the epiblast are no longer responsive to these inductive signals and prevent the formation of another streak.[5]
Underlying the epiblast is the hypoblast, where the extra-embryonic tissue originates.[4] In the chick, the absence of the hypoblast results in multiple streaks,[6] suggesting that its presence is important for regulating the formation of a single primitive streak. In mice, this structure is known as the Anterior Visceral Endoderm (AVE).[6]
Cellular movements[edit]
The formation of the primitive streak in the blastocyst involves the coordinated movement and re-arrangement of cells in the epiblast. Even before the streak is visible, epiblast cells have started to move.[7] Two counter-rotating flows of cells meet at the posterior end, where the streak forms.[7] There is little movement in the center of these flows, while the greatest movement is observed at the periphery of the vortices.[3] The Polonaise Movement is key for the formation of the primitive streak. Cells overlaying Koller’s Sickle in the posterior end of the chick embryo move towards the midline, meet and change direction towards the center of the epiblast. Cells from the lateral posterior marginal zone replace those cells that left Koller’s Sickle by meeting at the center of this region, changing direction and extending anteriorly.[4][8] As these cells move and concentrate at the posterior end of the embryo, the streak undergoes a single- to multi-layered epithelial sheet transition that makes it a macroscopically visible structure.[4] Several mechanisms, including oriented cell division, cell-cell intercalation and chemotactic cell movement,[4] have been proposed to explain the nature of the cellular movements required to form the primitive streak.
Formation[edit]
The formation of the primitive streak relies on a complex network of signaling pathways that work together to ensure that this process is highly regulated. Activation of various secreted factors (Vg1, Nodal, Wnt8C, FGF8 and Chordin) and transcription factors (Brachyury and Goosecoid) adjacent to the site of streak formation is required for this process.[9][10][11][12][13] In addition, structures such as the hypoblast also play an important role in the regulation of streak formation. Removal of the hypoblast in the chick results in correctly patterned ectopic streaks, suggesting that the hypoblast serves to inhibit formation of the primitive streak.[13]
An intricate network of signaling pathways regulate the formation of the primitive streak.
Vg1 and Wnt signaling[edit]
Similarly, Vg1 (a TGFB family member) misexpression and grafts of the posterior marginal zone[5] in chicks can also induce ectopic streaks, but only within the marginal zone of the embryo,[11] indicating a specific characteristic of this region in its ability to induce streak formation. Several lines of evidence point to Wnt expression as the determinant of this ability. Deletion of Wnt3 in mouse embryos results in the absence of a streak formation, similarly to the phenotype of B-catenin mutant embryos.[14] In addition, mutating the intracellular negative regulator of Wnt signaling, Axin,[15] and misexpression of the chick cWnt8C[16] produces multiple streaks in mouse embryos. Localization of Wnt and components of its pathway, Lef1 and B-catenin, further supports streak-inducing role in the marginal zone.[11] Furthermore, it is expressed as a gradient decreasing from posterior to anterior,[11][12] corresponding to the streak-inducing ability of the marginal zone. Misexpression of Vg1 or Wnt1 alone failed to induce an ectopic streak in the chick, but together their misexpression resulted in ectopic streak formation, confirming that the streak-inducing ability of the posterior marginal zone could be attributed to Wnt signaling[11] and that Vg1 and Wnt must cooperate to induce this process. Misexpression of Vg1 along with Wnt antagonists, Crescent or Dkk-1, prevents the formation of ectopic streaks,[11] demonstrating the importance of Wnt activity in the formation of Vg1-induced ectopic streaks and hence its implication in normal primitive streak formation.
Hypoblast[edit]
Any given slice from the blastoderm is able to generate a complete axis[17] until the time of gastrulation and primitive streak formation.[13] This ability to generate a streak from the pre-streak stage chick embryo[18] indicates that there must be a mechanism to ensure that only a single streak forms. The hypoblast secretes an antagonist of Nodal that prevents ectopic streak formation in the chick.[13]
Nodal signaling[edit]
Nodal, a known mesodermal inducer of the TGFB superfamily,[18] has been implicated in streak formation. Mouse embryos mutant for Nodal fail to gastrulate and lack most mesoderm,[19] but more than playing a role in mesoderm induction, Nodal regulates the induction and/or maintenance of the primitive streak.[19] In the presence of hypoblast, Nodal is unable to induce ectopic streaks in the chick embryo, while its removal, induces expression of Nodal, Chordin and Brachyury,[13] suggesting that the hypoblast must have a certain inhibitory effect on Nodal signaling. Indeed, the multifunctional antagonist of Nodal, Wnt and BMP signaling, Cerberus (produced in the hypoblast) and Cerberus-Short (which inhibits only Nodal), through its effect on Nodal signaling, inhibits streak formation.[13] Eventually, the hypoblast gets displaced anteriorly by the moving endoblast, allowing streak formation at the posterior end. At the anterior end, the presence of the hypoblast and the antagonists it secretes, such as Cerberus, inhibit the expression of Nodal and hence restrict streak formation to the posterior end only.[13] Similarly to the hypoblast in chick, the AVE in the mouse secretes two antagonists of Nodal signaling, Cerberus-like, Cerl, and Lefty1.[13][20] In mouse, Cer-/-; Lefty1-/- double mutants develop multiple streaks[6] as indicated by ectopic expression of Brachyury and can be partially rescued by the removal of one copy of the Nodal gene.[6] In the mouse, the AVE restricts streak formation through the redundant functions of Cer1 and Lefty1, which negatively regulate Nodal signaling.[6] The role of the mouse’s AVE in ensuring the formation of a single primitive streak is evolutionarily conserved in the hypoblast of the chick.[6][13]
FGF signaling[edit]
Another important pathway in modulating formation of the primitive streak is FGF, which is thought to work together with Nodal to regulate this process.[18] Inhibition of FGF signaling through expression of a dominant negative receptor, using a FGF receptor inhibitor (SU5402) or depletion of FGF ligands, inhibit mesoderm formation[3] and this in turn, inhibits streak formation.[4] Furthermore, ectopic streak formation induced by Vg1 required FGF signaling.[18]
BMP signaling[edit]
Finally, BMP signaling is also important for regulating the process of streak formation in the chick embryo. The site of streak formation is characterized by low BMP signals, while the rest of the epiblast displays high levels of BMP activation.[21] In addition, misexpression of either BMP4 or BMP7 prevents streak formation, while the BMP inhibitor Chordin induces ectopic streak formation in the chick,[22] suggesting that streak formation is likely to require BMP inhibition.
Ethical implications[edit]
The primitive streak is an important concept in bioethics, where some experts have argued that experimentation with human embryos is permissible, but only before the primitive streak develops, generally around the fourteenth day of existence. The development of the primitive streak is taken, by such bioethicists, to signify the creation of a unique, human being.[23] In some countries, it is illegal to develop a human embryo for more than 14 days outside a woman's body.[24]
Additional images[edit]
Human embryo—length, 2 mm. Dorsal view, with the amnion laid open. X 30.
Lateral section through the mammalian blastodisc.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mikawa T, Poh AM, Kelly KA, Ishii Y, Reese DE (2004). "Induction and patterning of the primitive streak, an organizing center of gastrulation in the amniote.". Dev Dyn. 229 (3): 422–32. PMID 14991697. doi:10.1002/dvdy.10458.
^ Jump up to: a b Downs KM. (2009). "The enigmatic primitive streak: prevailing notions and challenges concerning the body axis of mammals". BioEssays. 31 (8): 892–902. PMC 2949267  . PMID 19609969. doi:10.1002/bies.200900038.
^ Jump up to: a b c Chuai M, Zeng W, Yang X, Boychenko V, Glazier JA, Weijer CJ (2006). "Cell movement during chick primitive streak formation". Dev Biol. 296 (1): 137–49. PMC 2556955  . PMID 16725136. doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2006.04.451.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Chuai M, Weijer CJ (2008). "The mechanisms underlying primitive streak formation in the chick embryo". Curr Top Dev Biol. Current Topics in Developmental Biology. 81: 135–56. ISBN 978-0-12-374253-7. PMID 18023726. doi:10.1016/S0070-2153(07)81004-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c Khaner O, Eyal-Giladi H (1989). "The chick's marginal zone and primitive streak formation. I. Coordinative effect of induction and inhibition". Dev Biol. 134 (1): 206–14. PMID 2731648. doi:10.1016/0012-1606(89)90090-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Perea-Gomez A, Vella FD, Shawlot W, Oulad-Abdelghani M, Chazaud C, Meno C, Pfister V, Chen L, Robertson E, Hamada H, Behringer RR, Ang SL (2002). "Nodal antagonists in the anterior visceral endoderm prevent the formation of multiple primitive streaks". Dev Cell. 3 (5): 745–56. PMID 12431380. doi:10.1016/S1534-5807(02)00321-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Cui C, Yang X, Chuai M, Glazier JA, Weijer CJ (2005). "Analysis of tissue flow patterns during primitive streak formation in the chick embryo". Dev Biol. 284 (1): 37–47. PMID 15950214. doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.04.021.
Jump up ^ Hatada Y, Stern CD (1994). "A fate map of the epiblast of the early chick embryo". Development. 120 (10): 2879–89. PMID 7607078.
Jump up ^ Shah SB, Skromne I, Hume CR, Kessler DS, Lee KJ, Stern CD, Dodd J (1997). "Misexpression of chick Vg1 in the marginal zone induces primitive streak formation". Development. 124 (24): 5127–38. PMID 9362470.
Jump up ^ Bachvarova RF, Skromne I, Stern CD (1998). "Induction of primitive streak and Hensen's node by the posterior marginal zone in the early chick embryo". Development. 125 (17): 3521–34. PMID 9693154.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Skromne I, Stern CD (2001). "Interactions between Wnt and Vg1 signalling pathways initiate primitive streak formation in the chick embryo". Development. 128 (15): 2915–27. PMID 11532915.
^ Jump up to: a b Skromne I, Stern CD (2002). "A hierarchy of gene expression accompanying induction of the primitive streak by Vg1 in the chick embryo". Mech Dev. 114 (1–2): 115–8. PMID 12175495. doi:10.1016/S0925-4773(02)00034-5  .
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Bertocchini F, Stern CD (2002). "The hypoblast of the chick embryo positions the primitive streak by antagonizing nodal signaling". Dev Cell. 3 (5): 735–44. PMID 12431379. doi:10.1016/S1534-5807(02)00318-0.
Jump up ^ Liu P, Wakamiya M, Shea MJ, Albrecht U, Behringer RR, Bradley A (1999). "Requirement for Wnt3 in vertebrate axis formation". Nat. Genet. 22 (4): 361–5. PMID 10431240. doi:10.1038/11932.
Jump up ^ Zeng L, Fagotto F, Zhang T, Hsu W, Vasicek TJ, Perry WL 3rd, Lee JJ, Tilghman SM, Gumbiner BM, Costantini F. (1997). "The mouse Fused locus encodes Axin, an inhibitor of the Wnt signaling pathway that regulates embryonic axis formation". Cell. 90 (1): 181–92. PMID 9230313. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80324-4. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Pöpperl H, Schmidt C, Wilson V, Hume CR, Dodd J, Krumlauf R, Beddington RS (1997). "Misexpression of Cwnt8C in the mouse induces an ectopic embryonic axis and causes a truncation of the anterior neuroectoderm". Development. 124 (15): 2997–3005. PMID 9247341.
Jump up ^ SPRATT NT Jr; HAAS H. (1960). "Integrative mechanisms in development of the early chick blastoderm. I. REgulative potentiality of separated parts". J Exp Zool. 145: 97–137. doi:10.1002/jez.1401450202.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bertocchini F, Skromne I, Wolpert L, Stern CD (2004). "Determination of embryonic polarity in a regulative system: evidence for endogenous inhibitors acting sequentially during primitive streak formation in the chick embryo". Development. 131 (14): 3381–90. PMID 15226255. doi:10.1242/dev.01178.
^ Jump up to: a b Conlon FL, Lyons KM, Takaesu N, Barth KS, Kispert A, Herrmann B, Robertson EJ (1994). "A primary requirement for nodal in the formation and maintenance of the primitive streak in the mouse". Development. 120 (7): 1919–28. PMID 7924997.
Jump up ^ C Perea-Gomez A, Rhinn M, Ang SL (2001). "Role of the anterior visceral endoderm in restricting posterior signals in the mouse embryo". Int J Dev Biol. 45 (1): 311–20. PMID 11291861.
Jump up ^ Faure S, de Santa Barbara P, Roberts DJ, Whitman M (2002). "Endogenous patterns of BMP signaling during early chick development". Dev Biol. 244 (1): 44–65. PMID 11900458. doi:10.1006/dbio.2002.0579.
Jump up ^ Streit A, Lee KJ, Woo I, Roberts C, Jessell TM, Stern CD (1998). "Chordin regulates primitive streak development and the stability of induced neural cells, but is not sufficient for neural induction in the chick embryo". Development. 125 (3): 507–19. PMID 9425145.
Jump up ^ "The President's Council on Bioethics, Human Cloning and Human Dignity: An Ethical Inquiry. Chapter 6". July 2002.
Jump up ^ "Prohibition of Human Cloning for Reproduction Act 2002". Government of Australia Department of Health and Ageing. 22 Dec 2008.
[hide]
v
t
e
Human embryogenesis in the first three weeks
Week 1
Fertilization
Oocyte activation
Zygote
Cleavage
Blastomere
Morula
Blastocoele
Blastocyst
Blastula
Inner cell mass
Trophoblast
Week 2
(Bilaminar)
Hypoblast
Epiblast
Week 3
(Trilaminar)
Germ layers
Archenteron/Primitive streak
Primitive pit
Primitive knot/Blastopore
Primitive groove
Gastrula
Gastrulation
Regional specification
Embryonic disc
Ectoderm
Surface ectoderm
Neuroectoderm
Somatopleuric mesenchyme
Neurulation
Neural crest
Endoderm
Splanchnopleuric mesenchyme
Mesoderm
Axial mesoderm
Paraxial
Somite
Somitomere
Intermediate
Lateral plate
Intraembryonic coelom
Splanchnopleuric mesenchyme
Somatopleuric mesenchyme
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Primitive_streak&oldid=799889772"
Categories:
Developmental biology
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
Medicine infobox template using GraySubject or GrayPage
Medicine infobox template using Dorlands parameter
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
العربية
Bosanski
Čeština
Deutsch
Español
Français
Italiano
Português
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 10 September 2017, at 12:31.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: i

value: th

attrs: colspan style

value: tr

value: img

attrs: alt src width height data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

attrs: href title

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Embryonic_disk
mw-redirect
Embryonic disk

value: td

values:
/wiki/Embryonic_development
mw-redirect
Embryonic development

values:
/wiki/Bilateral_symmetry
mw-redirect
Bilateral symmetry

values: Polonaise Movement (page does not exist)

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/FGF_and_Mesoderm_Formation
mw-redirect
FGF and Mesoderm Formation

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14991697

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fdvdy.10458

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19609969

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fbies.200900038

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16725136

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ydbio.2006.04.451

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18023726

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2731648

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12431380

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15950214

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ydbio.2005.04.021

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7607078

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9362470

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9693154

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11532915

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12175495

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12431379

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10431240

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1038%2F11932

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9230313

values: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9247341

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1002%2Fjez.1401450202

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15226255

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1242%2Fdev.01178

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7924997

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11291861

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11900458

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1006%2Fdbio.2002.0579

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9425145

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
row
navbox-group
text-align: center;;width:1%

values:
row
navbox-group
width:1%;text-align: center;

values:
/wiki/Regional_specification
mw-redirect
Regional specification

values:
/wiki/Intraembryonic_coelom
mw-redirect
Intraembryonic coelom

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: Category:Medicine infobox template using GraySubject or GrayPage

values: Category:Medicine infobox template using Dorlands parameter

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Primitive_streak
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: الشريط البدائي – Arabic

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Primitive_streak rootpage-Primitive_streak skin-vector action-view


text:
Representative democracy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Parliamentary democracy" redirects here. For the system of government, see Parliamentary system.
Part of the Politics series
Democracy
History
Types
Athenian
Anticipatory
Cellular
Consensus
Conservative
Cosmopolitan
Delegative
Deliberative
Direct
Economic
Electronic
Empowered
Ethnic
Grassroots
Guided
Illiberal
Inclusive
Industrial
Interactive
Jacksonian
Jeffersonian
Liberal
Media
New
Non-partisan
Participatory
People's
Popular
Procedural
Radical
Representative
Religious
Christian
Islamic
Jewish
Sectarian
Semi
Social
Socialist
Sociocracy
Sovereign
Soviet
Substantive
Theodemocracy
Totalitarian
Workplace
Related topics
Anarchism
Democratic capitalism
Democratic Confederalism
Democratic socialism
Liberalism
Libertarianism
Majoritarianism
Ochlocracy
Polyarchy
Sortition
Tyranny of the majority
Politics portal
v
t
e
Part of the Politics series
Basic forms of government
Power structure
Separation
Associated state
Dominion
Chiefdom
Federalism
Federation
Confederation
Devolution
Integration
Empire
Hegemony
Unitary state
Administrative division
Power source
Democracy
power of many
Direct
Representative
Semi
others
Oligarchy
power of few
Aristocracy
Military junta
Plutocracy
Stratocracy
Timocracy
Theocracy
Kritarchy
Particracy
Autocracy
power of one
Despotism
Illiberal democracy
Semi-authoritarian
Dictatorship
Hybrids
Anocracy
Power ideology
Monarchy vs. Republic
socio-political ideologies
Absolute
Constitutional
Directorial
Legalist
Parliamentary
Semi-presidential
Presidential
Authoritarian vs. Libertarian
socio-economic ideologies
Capitalism
Colonialism
Communism
Distributism
Feudalism
Socialism
Anarchism vs. Statism
civil-liberties ideologies
Anarchy
Minarchy
Totalitarianism
Global vs. Local
geo-cultural ideologies
Central
City-state
National unity
World
Politics portal
v
t
e
Countries designated "electoral democracies" in Freedom House's 2017 survey Freedom in the World, covering the year 2016.[1]
Representative democracy (also indirect democracy, representative republic, or psephocracy) is a type of democracy founded on the principle of elected officials representing a group of people, as opposed to direct democracy.[2] Nearly all modern Western-style democracies are types of representative democracies; for example, the United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, Ireland is a unitary parliamentary republic, and the United States is a federal republic.[3]
It is an element of both the parliamentary and the presidential systems of government and is typically used in a lower chamber such as the House of Commons (United Kingdom) or Dáil Éireann (Republic of Ireland), and may be curtailed by constitutional constraints such as an upper chamber. It has been described by some political theorists including Robert A. Dahl, Gregory Houston and Ian Liebenberg as polyarchy.[4][5] In it the power is in the hands of the elected representatives who are elected by the people in elections.
Contents
[hide]
1 Powers of representatives
2 History
3 Research on representation per se
4 Criticisms
4.1 Proposed solutions
5 References
6 External links
Powers of representatives[edit]
Representatives are elected by the public, as in national elections for the national legislature.[3] Elected representatives may hold the power to select other representatives, presidents, or other officers of the government or of the legislature, as the Prime Minister in the latter case. (indirect representation).
The power of representatives is usually curtailed by a constitution (as in a constitutional democracy or a constitutional monarchy) or other measures to balance representative power:[citation needed]
An independent judiciary, which may have the power to declare legislative acts unconstitutional (e.g. constitutional court, supreme court).
The constitution may also provide for some deliberative democracy (e.g., Royal Commissions) or direct popular measures (e.g., initiative, referendum, recall elections). However, these are not always binding and usually require some legislative action—legal power usually remains firmly with representatives.[where?]
In some cases, a bicameral legislature may have an "upper house" that is not directly elected, such as the Canadian Senate, which was in turn modeled on the British House of Lords.
Theorists such as Edmund Burke believe that part of the duty of a representative was not simply to communicate the wishes of the electorate but also to use their own judgement in the exercise of their powers, even if their views are not reflective of those of a majority of voters:[6]
...it ought to be the happiness and glory of a representative to live in the strictest union, the closest correspondence, and the most unreserved communication with his constituents. Their wishes ought to have great weight with him; their opinion, high respect; their business, unremitted attention. It is his duty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasures, his satisfactions, to theirs; and above all, ever, and in all cases, to prefer their interest to his own. But his unbiassed opinion, his mature judgment, his enlightened conscience, he ought not to sacrifice to you, to any man, or to any set of men living. These he does not derive from your pleasure; no, nor from the law and the constitution. They are a trust from Providence, for the abuse of which he is deeply answerable. Your representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgment; and he betrays, instead of serving you, if he sacrifices it to your opinion.
History[edit]
See also: Democratization
The Roman Republic was the first government in the western world to have a representative government, despite taking the form of a direct government in the Roman assemblies. The Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries,[7] and today's modern representative democracies imitate more the Roman than the Greek models because it was a state in which supreme power was held by the people and their elected representatives, and which had an elected or nominated leader.[8] Representative democracy is a form of democracy in which people vote for representatives who then vote on policy initiatives as opposed to a direct democracy, a form of democracy in which people vote on policy initiatives directly.[9] A European medieval tradition of selecting representatives from the various estates (classes, but not as we know them today) to advise/control monarchs led to relatively wide familiarity with representative systems inspired by Roman systems.
In Britain, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments.[10][11] The first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns.[12] Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689.[13][14]
The American Revolution led to the creation of a new Constitution of the United States in 1787. with a national legislature based partly on direct elections of representatives every two years, and thus responsible to the electorate for continuance in office. Senators were not directly elected by the people until the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. Women, men who owned no property, and blacks, and others not originally given voting rights in most states eventually gained the vote through changes in state and federal law in the course of the 19th and 20th centuries. Until it was repealed by the Fourteenth Amendment following the Civil War, the Three-Fifths Compromise gave a disproportionate representation of slave states in the House of Representatives relative to the voters in free states,[15][16]
In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short-lived, the National Convention was elected by all males in 1792.[17]
Representative democracy came into particular general favour in post-industrial revolution nation states where large numbers of citizens evinced interest in politics, but where technology and population figures remained unsuited to direct democracy. As noted above, Edmund Burke in his speech to the electors of Bristol classically analysed their operation in Britain and the rights and duties of an elected representative.
The US House of Representatives, one example of representative democracy
Globally, a majority of the world's people live in representative democracies including constitutional monarchies and republics with strong representative branches.
Research on representation per se[edit]
Further information: Representation (politics)
Separate but related, and very large, bodies of research in political philosophy and social science investigate how and how well elected representatives, such as legislators, represent the interests or preferences of one or another constituency.
Criticisms[edit]
In his book Political Parties, written in 1911, Robert Michels argues that most representative systems deteriorate towards an oligarchy or particracy. This is known as the iron law of oligarchy.[18] Representative democracies which are stable have been analysed by Adolf Gasser and compared to the unstable representative democracies in his book "Gemeindefreiheit als Rettung Europas" which was published in 1943 (first edition in German) and a second edition in 1947 (in German).[19] Adolf Gasser stated the following requirements for a representative democracy in order to remain stable, unaffected by the iron law of oligarchy:
Society has to be built up from bottom to top. As a consequence, society is built up by people, who are free and have the power to defend themselves with weapons.
These free people join or form local communities. These local communities are independent, which includes financial independence, and they are free to determine their own rules.
Local communities join together into a higher unit e.g. a canton.
There is no hierarchical bureaucracy.
There is competition between these local communities e.g. on services delivered or on taxes.
A drawback to this type of government is that elected officials are not required to fulfill promises made before their election and are able to promote their own self-interests once elected, providing an incohesive system of governance.[20] Legislators are also under scrutiny as the system of majority-won legislators voting for issues for the large group of people fosters inequality among the marginalized.[21]
Proposed solutions[edit]
The system of stochocracy has been proposed as an improved system compared to the system of representative democracy, where representatives are elected. Stochocracy aims to at least reduce this degradation by having all representatives appointed by lottery instead of by voting. Therefore, this system is also called lottocracy. The system was proposed by the writer Roger de Sizif in 1998 in his book La Stochocratie. Choosing officeholders by lot was also the standard practice in ancient Athenian democracy.[22] The rationale behind this practice was to avoid lobbying and electioneering by economic oligarchs.
The system of deliberative democracy is a mix between a majority ruled system and a consensus-based system. It allows for representative democracies or direct democracies to coexist with its system of governance, providing an initial advantage.[23] It is a system which allows for legislators to discuss the issues in a productive manner trying to reach a consensus. If the group cannot reach a consensus then a majority-wins vote must be taken.
The system of delegative democracy or Liquid Democracy is a dynamic mixture of representative democracy and direct democracy, meaning that each participant can decide himself when he wants to participate in a decision by direct voting, or whether he rather wants a delegate to vote for him by using a software system. The voter can delegate his vote an organization, a political party or an individual. One can have different delegates in different subject areas, and always change the delegate. When the voter votes directly in an issue, the delegates vote will be erased and the direct vote will be counted. This system also contains room for popular initiatives and deliberation. The first example of delegative or Liquid Democracy using a software program in a real political setting involved the local political party Demoex in Vallentuna near Stockholm, Sweden. Pirate Parties in Germany,[24] Italy, Austria, Norway, France and the Netherlands[25] use delegative democracy with the open-source software LiquidFeedback,[citation needed] while members of the Belgian Pirate Party have developed their own software called Get Opinionated.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Freedom in The World 2017 (PDF)
Jump up ^ "Victorian Electronic Democracy, Final Report – Glossary". 28 July 2005. Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. Retrieved 14 December 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Loeper, Antoine (2016). "Cross-border externalities and cooperation among representative democracies". European Economic Review – via ebscohost.
Jump up ^ Houston, G F (2001) Public Participation in Democratic Governance in South Africa, Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council HSRC Press
Jump up ^ Dahl, R A (2005) 'Is international democracy possible? A critical view'. In Sergio Fabbrini (editor) Democracy and Federalism in the European Union and the United States: Exploring post-national governance: 195 to 204 (Chapter 13), Abingdon on Thames: Routledge
Jump up ^ The Works of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke. Volume I. London: Henry G. Bohn. 1854. pp. 446–8.
Jump up ^ Livy, 2002, p. 34
Jump up ^ Watson, 2005, p. 271
Jump up ^ Budge, Ian (2001). "Direct democracy". In Clarke, Paul A.B. & Foweraker, Joe. Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-19396-2. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Jobson, Adrian (2012). The First English Revolution: Simon de Montfort, Henry III and the Barons' War. Bloomsbury. pp. 173–4. ISBN 978-1-84725-226-5.
Jump up ^ "Simon de Montfort: The turning point for democracy that gets overlooked". BBC. 19 January 2015. Retrieved 19 January 2015 ; "The January Parliament and how it defined Britain". The Telegraph. 20 January 2015. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Norgate, Kate (1894). "Montfort, Simon of (1208?-1265)". In Lee, Sidney. Dictionary of National Biography. 38. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
Jump up ^ Kopstein, Jeffrey; Lichbach, Mark; Hanson, Stephen E., eds. (2014). Comparative Politics: Interests, Identities, and Institutions in a Changing Global Order (4, revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–9. ISBN 1139991388. Britain pioneered the system of liberal democracy that has now spread in one form or another to most of the world's countries
Jump up ^ "Constitutionalism: America & Beyond". Bureau of International Information Programs (IIP), U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 30 October 2014. The earliest, and perhaps greatest, victory for liberalism was achieved in England. The rising commercial class that had supported the Tudor monarchy in the 16th century led the revolutionary battle in the 17th, and succeeded in establishing the supremacy of Parliament and, eventually, of the House of Commons. What emerged as the distinctive feature of modern constitutionalism was not the insistence on the idea that the king is subject to law (although this concept is an essential attribute of all constitutionalism). This notion was already well established in the Middle Ages. What was distinctive was the establishment of effective means of political control whereby the rule of law might be enforced. Modern constitutionalism was born with the political requirement that representative government depended upon the consent of citizen subjects.... However, as can be seen through provisions in the 1689 Bill of Rights, the English Revolution was fought not just to protect the rights of property (in the narrow sense) but to establish those liberties which liberals believed essential to human dignity and moral worth. The "rights of man" enumerated in the English Bill of Rights gradually were proclaimed beyond the boundaries of England, notably in the American Declaration of Independence of 1776 and in the French Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789.
Jump up ^ "We Hold These Truths to be Self-evident;" An Interdisciplinary Analysis of the Roots of Racism & slavery in America Kenneth N. Addison; Introduction P. xxii
Jump up ^ "Expansion of Rights and Liberties". National Archives. Retrieved December 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ "The French Revolution II". Mars.wnec.edu. Retrieved 2010-08-22.
Jump up ^ Zur Soziologie des Parteiwesens in der modernen Demokratie. Untersuchungen über die oligarchischen Tendenzen des Gruppenlebens (1911, 1925; 1970). Translated as Sociologia del partito politico nella democrazia moderna : studi sulle tendenze oligarchiche degli aggregati politici, from the German original by Dr. Alfredo Polledro, revised and expanded (1912). Translated, from the Italian, by Eden and Cedar Paul as Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy (Hearst's International Library Co., 1915; Free Press, 1949; Dover Publications, 1959); republished with an introduction by Seymour Martin Lipset (Crowell-Collier, 1962; Transaction Publishers, 1999, ISBN 0-7658-0469-7); translated in French by S. Jankélévitch, Les partis politiques. Essai sur les tendances oligarchiques des démocraties, Brussels, Editions de l'Université de Bruxelles, 2009 (ISBN 978-2-8004-1443-0).
Jump up ^ Gemeindefreiheit als Rettung Europas. Grundlinien einer ethischen Geschichtsauffassung. Verlag Bücherfreunde, Basel 1947. In 1983 republished under: "Gemeindefreiheit – kommunale Selbstverwaltung" (Adolf Gasser/Franz-Ludwig Knemeyer), in de reeks "Studien zur Soziologie", Nymphenburger, München, 1983.
Jump up ^ Sørensen, Eva (2015). "Enhancing policy innovation by redesigning representative democracy". American Political Science Review – via ebscohost.
Jump up ^ Thaa, Winfried (2016). "Issues and images – new sources of inequality in current representative democracy.". Critical Review of International Social & Political Philosophy. 19 (3).
Jump up ^ "1,5". Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece. Josiah Ober , Robert Wallace , Paul Cartledge , Cynthia Farrar (1st ed.). 15 October 2008. pp. 17,105. ISBN 978-0520258099.
Jump up ^ Bohman, James (1997). "Deliberative Democracy" (PDF). MIT Press.
Jump up ^ Piratenpartei Berlin. "Piratenpartei revolutioniert parteiinternen Diskurs: Interaktive Demokratie mit Liquid Feedback". Retrieved 22 October 2013.
Jump up ^ "Uitleg LiquidFeed systeem". Archived from the original on 5 September 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
External links[edit]
Representative democracy at DMOZ
Portals
Access related topics
Politics portal
Find out more on Wikipedia's
Sister projects
Media
from Commons
Definitions
from Wiktionary
Quotations
from Wikiquote
Source texts
from Wikisource
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Representative_democracy&oldid=803656886"
Categories:
Democracy
Elections
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter
Articles incorporating Cite DNB template
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013
Vague or ambiguous geographic scope from July 2011
Articles with unsourced statements from March 2013
Use dmy dates from July 2015
Articles with DMOZ links
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Alemannisch
العربية
Avañe'ẽ
Bân-lâm-gú
Български
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
한국어
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Къарачай-малкъар
Kurdî
ລາວ
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Magyar
Македонски
მარგალური
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Scots
Simple English
Slovenčina
کوردی
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
தமிழ்
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
Yorùbá
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 3 October 2017, at 20:52.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: li

value: ul

attrs: class style

values: padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0.2em;text-align:left;padding:0.2em 1.65em 0.65em;text-align:center;

values:
/wiki/Democratic_Confederalism
mw-redirect
Democratic Confederalism

values: padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;padding-top:0;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em;background:#efefef;padding-top:0.2em;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;

values: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none

values: padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0.2em;text-align:left;border-top:#ddd 1px solid;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0.7em;;padding:0.4em 0.2em 0.6em;

values: padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding-top:0.2em;text-align:left;border-top:#ddd 1px solid;text-align:center;padding-bottom:0.7em;;padding-top:0.3em;border-top:none;

values: display:inline-block; width:1.5em; height:1.5em; margin:1px 0; border:1px solid black; background-color: #000080; color:black; font-size:100%; text-align:center;

values:
/wiki/Form_of_government
mw-redirect
Form of government

values:
/wiki/Lower_chamber
mw-redirect
Lower chamber

values:
/wiki/Constitutional_democracy
mw-redirect
Constitutional democracy

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Independent_judiciary
mw-redirect
Independent judiciary

values: The geographic scope near this tag is ambiguous. (July 2011)

values: Wikipedia:Naming conventions (geographic names)

values:
/wiki/Canadian_Senate
mw-redirect
Canadian Senate

values:
/wiki/British_House_of_Lords
mw-redirect
British House of Lords

values: Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester

values: Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values: Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

values:
/wiki/Revolutionary_France
mw-redirect
Revolutionary France

values:
/wiki/Industrial_revolution
mw-redirect
Industrial revolution

values: Edit section: Research on representation per se

values:
/wiki/Liquid_Democracy
mw-redirect
Liquid Democracy

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.demoex.net

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2013)

values: Category:CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter

values: s:Montfort, Simon of (1208?-1265) (DNB00)

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Category:Articles incorporating Cite DNB template

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013

values: Category:Vague or ambiguous geographic scope from July 2011

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2013

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Representative_democracy
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: ديمقراطية تمثيلية – Arabic

values: Представителна демокрация – Bulgarian

values: Αντιπροσωπευτική δημοκρατία – Greek

values: دموکراسی نیابتی – Persian

values: 간접 민주제 – Korean

values: דמוקרטיה ייצוגית – Hebrew

values: Келечилик демократия – Karachay-Balkar

values: ປະຊາທິປະໄຕແບບມີຜູ້ແທນ – Lao

values: Посредна демократија – Macedonian

values: წჷმმარინაფონი დემოკრატია – Mingrelian

values: Representativt demokrati – Norwegian Nynorsk

values: ਅਪ੍ਰਤੱਖ ਲੋਕਰਾਜ – Punjabi

values: Представительная демократия – Russian

values: دیموکراسییەتی نوێنەرایەتی – Central Kurdish

values: Представничка демократија – Serbian

values: Predstavnička demokratija – Serbo-Croatian

values: சார்பாண்மை மக்களாட்சி – Tamil

values: ประชาธิปไตยแบบมีผู้แทน – Thai

values: Представницька демократія – Ukrainian

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Representative_democracy rootpage-Representative_democracy vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view