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List of amendments to the United States Constitution
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This article is about the 33 constitutional amendments approved by Congress and sent to the states for ratification since 1789. For proposals to amend the United States Constitution introduced in but not approved by the U.S. Congress, see List of proposed amendments to the United States Constitution.
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Thirty-three amendments to the United States Constitution have been proposed by the United States Congress and sent to the states for ratification since the Constitution was put into operation on March 4, 1789. Twenty-seven of these, having been ratified by the requisite number of states, are part of the Constitution. The first ten amendments were adopted and ratified simultaneously and are known collectively as the Bill of Rights. Six amendments adopted by Congress and sent to the states have not been ratified by the required number of states. Four of these amendments are still technically open and pending, one is closed and has failed by its own terms, and one is closed and has failed by the terms of the resolution proposing it.
Article Five of the United States Constitution detailed the two-step process for amending the nation's frame of government. Amendments must be properly Proposed and Ratified before becoming operative. This process was designed to strike a balance between the excesses of constant change and inflexibility.[1]
An amendment may be proposed and sent to the states for ratification by either:
The United States Congress, whenever a two-thirds majority in both the Senate and the House of Representatives deem it necessary;
OR
A national convention, called by Congress for this purpose, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds (currently 34) of the states.
To become part of the Constitution, an amendment must be ratified by either (as determined by Congress):
The legislatures of three-fourths (currently 38) of the states, within the stipulated time period—if any;
OR
State ratifying conventions in three-fourths (currently 38) of the states, within the stipulated time period—if any.
Upon being properly ratified, an amendment becomes an operative addition to the Constitution.
Approximately 11,539 proposals to amend the Constitution have been introduced in Congress since 1789 (as of December 2014).[2] Collectively, members of the House and Senate typically propose around 200 amendments during each two–year term of Congress.[3] Most, however, never get out of the Congressional committees in which they were proposed, and only a fraction of those that do receive enough support to win Congressional approval to go through the constitutional ratification process. Beginning in the early 20th century, Congress has usually, but not always, stipulated that an amendment must be ratified by the required number of states within seven years from the date of its submission to the states in order to become part of the Constitution. Congress' authority to set ratification deadline was affirmed by the United States Supreme Court in Coleman v. Miller, 307 U.S. 433 (1939).
The thirty-three amendments to the United States Constitution—both ratified and unratified—are listed and detailed in the tables below.
Contents
[hide]
1 Ratified amendments
1.1 Synopsis of each ratified amendment
1.2 Summation of ratification data for each ratified amendment
2 Unratified amendments
2.1 Synopsis of each unratified amendment
2.2 Summation of ratification data for each unratified amendment
3 See also
4 References
5 Sources
6 External links
Ratified amendments
Synopsis of each ratified amendment
No.
Subject
Date submitted for Ratification[4]
Date ratification completed[4]
Ratification time span
1st Prohibits Congress from making any law respecting an establishment of religion, impeding the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances. September 25, 1789 December 15, 1791 2 years
2 months
20 days
2nd Protects the right to keep and bear arms. September 25, 1789 December 15, 1791 2 years
2 months
20 days
3rd Places restrictions on the quartering of soldiers in private homes without the owner's consent, prohibiting it during peacetime. September 25, 1789 December 15, 1791 2 years
2 months
20 days
4th Prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures and sets out requirements for search warrants based on probable cause as determined by a neutral judge or magistrate. September 25, 1789 December 15, 1791 2 years
2 months
20 days
5th Sets out rules for indictment by grand jury and eminent domain, protects the right to due process, and prohibits self-incrimination and double jeopardy. September 25, 1789 December 15, 1791 2 years
2 months
20 days
6th Protects the right to a fair and speedy public trial by jury, including the rights to be notified of the accusations, to confront the accuser, to obtain witnesses and to retain counsel. September 25, 1789 December 15, 1791 2 years
2 months
20 days
7th Provides for the right to trial by jury in certain civil cases, according to common law. September 25, 1789 December 15, 1791 2 years
2 months
20 days
8th Prohibits excessive fines and excessive bail, as well as cruel and unusual punishment. September 25, 1789 December 15, 1791 2 years
2 months
20 days
9th Protects rights not enumerated in the Constitution. September 25, 1789 December 15, 1791 2 years
2 months
20 days
10th Reinforces the principle of federalism by stating that the federal government possesses only those powers delegated to it by the states or the people through the Constitution. September 25, 1789 December 15, 1791 2 years
2 months
20 days
11th Makes states immune from suits from out-of-state citizens and foreigners not living within the state borders; lays the foundation for sovereign immunity. March 4, 1794 February 7, 1795 11 months
3 days
12th Revises presidential election procedures by having the President and Vice President elected together as opposed to the Vice President being the runner up. December 9, 1803 June 15, 1804 6 months
6 days
13th Abolishes slavery, and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. January 31, 1865 December 6, 1865 10 months
6 days
14th Defines citizenship, contains the Privileges or Immunities Clause, the Due Process Clause, the Equal Protection Clause, and deals with post–Civil War issues. June 13, 1866 July 9, 1868 2 years
0 months
26 days
15th Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race, color or previous condition of servitude. February 26, 1869 February 3, 1870 11 months
8 days
16th Permits Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on the United States Census. July 12, 1909 February 3, 1913 3 years
6 months
22 days
17th Establishes the direct election of United States Senators by popular vote. May 13, 1912 April 8, 1913 10 months
26 days
18th Prohibited the manufacturing or sale of alcohol within the United States.
(Repealed December 5, 1933, via 21st Amendment.) December 18, 1917 January 16, 1919 1 year
0 months
29 days
19th Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on sex. June 4, 1919 August 18, 1920 1 year
2 months
14 days
20th Changes the date on which the terms of the President and Vice President (January 20) and Senators and Representatives (January 3) end and begin. March 2, 1932 January 23, 1933 10 months
21 days
21st Repeals the 18th Amendment and makes it a federal offense to transport or import intoxicating liquors into US states and territories where such transport or importation is prohibited by the laws of those states and territories. February 20, 1933 December 5, 1933 9 months
15 days
22nd Limits the number of times that a person can be elected president: a person cannot be elected president more than twice, and a person who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected cannot be elected more than once. March 24, 1947 February 27, 1951 3 years
11 months
6 days
23rd Grants the District of Columbia electors (the number of electors being equal to the least populous state) in the Electoral College. June 16, 1960 March 29, 1961 9 months
12 days
24th Prohibits the revocation of voting rights due to the non-payment of a poll tax or any other tax. September 14, 1962 January 23, 1964 1 year
4 months
27 days
25th Addresses succession to the Presidency and establishes procedures both for filling a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, as well as responding to Presidential disabilities. July 6, 1965 February 10, 1967 1 year
7 months
4 days
26th Prohibits the denial of the right of US citizens, eighteen years of age or older, to vote on account of age. March 23, 1971 July 1, 1971 3 months
8 days
27th Delays laws affecting Congressional salary from taking effect until after the next election of representatives. September 25, 1789 May 5, 1992[5] 202 years
7 months
10 days
Summation of ratification data for each ratified amendment
" Y " indicates that state ratified amendment
" N " indicates that state rejected amendment
" Y(‡) " indicates that state ratified amendment after first rejecting it
" Y(×) " indicates that state ratified amendment, later rescinded that ratification, but subsequently re-ratified it
" — " indicates that state did not complete action on amendment
" … " indicates that amendment was ratified before state joined the Union
State
(in order of statehood)
1–10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Delaware Y Y N Y(‡) Y(‡) Y(‡) Y Y(‡) Y Y(‡) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Pennsylvania Y — Y Y Y Y — Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y —
New Jersey Y — Y Y(‡) Y(×) Y(‡) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Georgia Y Y Y Y Y(‡) Y Y — Y Y(‡) Y — Y — — — Y Y
Connecticut Y Y N Y Y Y N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Massachusetts Y Y Y(‡) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y —
Maryland Y Y Y Y Y(‡) Y(‡) Y Y Y Y(‡) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
South Carolina Y Y Y Y Y(‡) Y Y — Y Y(‡) Y N Y — — Y Y Y
New Hampshire Y Y Y Y Y Y Y(‡) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Virginia Y Y Y Y Y(‡) Y N — Y Y(‡) Y Y Y — Y Y Y Y
New York Y Y Y Y Y Y(×) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y —
North Carolina Y Y Y Y Y(‡) Y Y Y Y Y Y — Y — Y Y Y Y
Rhode Island Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y Y Y — Y Y Y Y Y
Vermont Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Kentucky … Y Y Y(‡) Y(‡) Y(‡) Y — Y Y Y Y — — Y Y — Y
Tennessee … … Y Y Y Y(‡) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Ohio … … Y Y Y(×) Y(‡) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Louisiana … … … Y Y(‡) Y Y Y Y Y(‡) Y — Y — — Y Y Y
Indiana … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Mississippi … … … Y(‡) Y Y Y — Y Y(‡) Y — Y — N Y — —
Illinois … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Alabama … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y(‡) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Maine … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Missouri … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Arkansas … … … Y Y Y Y(‡) Y Y Y Y Y Y N — Y Y Y
Michigan … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Florida … … … Y Y Y — — Y Y Y Y Y — Y Y — Y
Texas … … … Y Y(‡) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y — Y Y Y Y
Iowa … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Wisconsin … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
California … … … Y Y Y(‡) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Minnesota … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Oregon … … … Y Y(×) Y(‡) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Kansas … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y — Y Y Y Y Y Y
West Virginia … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y — Y Y Y Y Y
Nevada … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y — Y
Nebraska … … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y — Y Y Y Y Y Y
Colorado … … … … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
North Dakota … … … … … … Y Y Y Y Y — Y Y Y — — Y
South Dakota … … … … … … Y Y Y Y Y — Y Y Y — — Y
Montana … … … … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Washington … … … … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y — Y Y Y Y Y
Idaho … … … … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Wyoming … … … … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y — Y Y Y
Utah … … … … … … N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y — Y
Oklahoma … … … … … … Y Y Y Y Y — N Y — Y Y Y
New Mexico … … … … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y — Y
Arizona … … … … … … Y Y Y Y Y Y — Y — Y Y Y
Alaska … … … … … … … … … … … … … Y Y Y Y Y
Hawaii … … … … … … … … … … … … … Y Y Y Y Y
State
(in order of statehood)
1–10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Unratified amendments
Synopsis of each unratified amendment
Title
Subject
Status
Congressional Apportionment Amendment Would strictly regulate the size of congressional districts for representation in the House of Representatives. Pending since September 25, 1789
Titles of Nobility Amendment Would strip citizenship from any United States citizen who accepts a title of nobility from a foreign country. Pending since May 1, 1810
Corwin Amendment Would make the states' "domestic institutions" (slavery) impervious to the constitutional amendment procedures established in Article V and immune to abolition or interference from Congress. Pending since March 2, 1861
Child Labor Amendment Would empower the federal government to limit, regulate, and prohibit child labor. Pending since June 2, 1924
Equal Rights Amendment Would have prohibited deprivation of equality of rights by the federal or state governments on account of sex. Initial ratification period ended March 22, 1979, and extension period ended June 30, 1982; amendment failed
District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment Would have treated the District of Columbia as if it were a state regarding representation in the United States Congress (including repealing the 23rd Amendment), representation in the Electoral College and participation in the process by which the Constitution is amended. Ratification period ended August 22, 1985; amendment failed
Summation of ratification data for each unratified amendment
" Y " indicates that state ratified amendment
" N " indicates that state rejected amendment
" Y(‡) " indicates that state ratified amendment after first rejecting it
" Y(×) " indicates that state ratified amendment, but later recinded that ratification
" ⋈ " indicates that state did not complete action on amendment during stated ratification period.
" " An empty cell indicates that state has not completed action on pending amendment.
State
(in alphabetical order)
Congressional Apportionment
Titles of Nobility
Corwin
Child Labor
Equal Rights
District of Columbia Voting Rights
Alabama ⋈ ⋈
Alaska Y ⋈
Arizona Y ⋈ ⋈
Arkansas Y ⋈ ⋈
California Y Y ⋈
Colorado Y Y ⋈
Connecticut N N N Y Y
Delaware N Y N Y Y
Florida N ⋈ ⋈
Georgia N Y N ⋈ ⋈
Hawaii Y Y
Idaho Y Y(×) ⋈
Illinois Y Y ⋈Y ⋈
Indiana Y(‡) Y ⋈
Iowa Y Y Y
Kansas Y(‡) Y ⋈
Kentucky Y Y Y Y(‡) Y(×) ⋈
Louisiana N ⋈ Y
Maine Y(‡) Y Y
Maryland Y Y Y(×) N Y Y
Massachusetts N Y N Y Y
Michigan Y Y Y
Minnesota Y(‡) Y Y
Mississippi ⋈ ⋈
Missouri N ⋈ ⋈
Montana Y Y ⋈
Nebraska Y(×) ⋈
Nevada Y ⋈Y ⋈
New Hampshire Y Y Y(‡) Y ⋈
New Jersey Y Y Y Y Y
New Mexico Y(‡) Y ⋈
New York Y N Y ⋈
North Carolina Y Y N ⋈ ⋈
North Dakota Y Y ⋈
Ohio Y Y(×) Y Y Y
Oklahoma Y ⋈ ⋈
Oregon Y Y Y
Pennsylvania Y(‡) Y Y(‡) Y ⋈
Rhode Island Y N Y Y Y
South Carolina Y N ⋈ ⋈
South Dakota N Y(×) ⋈
Tennessee Y N Y(×) ⋈
Texas N Y ⋈
Utah Y(‡) ⋈ ⋈
Vermont Y Y N Y ⋈
Virginia Y N ⋈ ⋈
Washington Y Y ⋈
West Virginia Y Y Y
Wisconsin Y Y Y
Wyoming Y Y ⋈
Number of ratifications:
11
12
5(×2)
28
37(×5,⋈2)
16
See also
History of the United States Constitution
Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution
References
Jump up ^ England, Trent & Spalding, Matthew. "Essays on Article V: Amendments". The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved July 31, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Measures Proposed to Amend the Constitution". Statistics & Lists. United States Senate.
Jump up ^ "C-SPAN's Capitol Questions". Archived from the original on May 9, 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
^ Jump up to: a b U.S. Congress, House. The Constitution of the United States of America, As Amended, H. Doc. 102-188, 102nd Cong., 2nd sess., (Washington: GPO, 1992).
Jump up ^ The U.S. Constitution and Constitutional Law. Britannica Educational Publishing. 2012. pp. 105–108. ISBN 9781615307555.
Sources
Congressional Research Service. (1992). The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation. (Senate Document No. 103–6). (Johnny H. Killian and George A. Costello, Eds.). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.
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The United States Constitution, USConstitution.net
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SoHo, Manhattan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"SoHo" redirects here. For other uses, see Soho (disambiguation).
SoHo–Cast Iron Historic District
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. National Historic Landmark District
NYC Landmark
Cast-iron buildings on Grand Street between Lafayette Street and Broadway
Show map of Manhattan Show map of New York City Show all
Location
Roughly north to south: Houston to Canal Streets; and west to east: West Broadway or Sixth Avenue to Crosby Street or Lafayette Street
Manhattan, New York City
Coordinates
Coordinates: 40°43′23″N 74°0′3″W / 40.72306°N 74.00083°W / 40.72306; -74.00083
Area
73 acres (30 ha)
Architectural style
Renaissance
Italianate
some Federal
NRHP reference #
78001883[1]
Significant dates
Added to NRHP
June 29, 1978
Designated NYCL
August 14, 1973
May 11, 2010 (extension)
SoHo, sometimes written Soho,[2] is a neighborhood in Lower Manhattan, New York City, which in recent history came to the public's attention for being the location of many artists' lofts and art galleries, but is now better known for its variety of shops ranging from trendy upscale boutiques to national and international chain store outlets. The area's history is an archetypal example of inner-city regeneration and gentrification, encompassing socioeconomic, cultural, political, and architectural developments.[3]
The name "SoHo" refers to the area being "South of Houston Street", and was also a reference to Soho, an area in London's West End.[4] It was coined by Chester Rapkin,[5] an urban planner and author of The South Houston Industrial Area study,[6] also known as the "Rapkin Report". This began a naming convention that became a model for the names of emerging and re-purposed neighborhoods in New York such as TriBeCa for "Triangle Below Canal Street", DUMBO ("Down Under the Manhattan Bridge Overpass"), NoHo ("North of Houston Street"), NoLIta ("North of Little Italy") and NoMad ("North of Madison Square"), among others.
Almost all of SoHo is included in the SoHo–Cast Iron Historic District, which was designated by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1973, extended in 2010, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and declared a National Historic Landmark in 1978.[7] It consists of 26 blocks and approximately 500 buildings,[8] many of them incorporating cast-iron architectural elements. Many side streets in the district are paved with Belgian blocks.[9]
SoHo is part of Manhattan Community Board 2.
Contents
1 Geography
1.1 Boundaries
1.2 Historic District
2 History
2.1 Early years
2.2 Commerce, entertainment, and decline
2.3 Cast-iron architecture
2.4 Lower Manhattan Expressway
2.5 Artists move in
2.6 Gentrification and shopping
3 Transportation
4 Schools
5 Demographics
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Geography[edit]
Boundaries[edit]
Because of the nature of neighborhoods in New York City,[notes 1] different sources will often give different boundaries for each one. In the case of SoHo, all sources appear to agree that the northern boundary is Houston Street, and the southern boundary is Canal Street, but the location of the eastern and western boundaries is disputed.
In 1974, shortly after SoHo first came into existence, The New York Times described the boundaries as "stretching from Houston to Canal Streets between West Broadway and Lafayette Street"[11] – a definition it continued to hold to in 2016[12] – but The Encyclopedia of New York City reports that SoHo is bounded by Crosby Street on the east, and Sixth Avenue to the west.[13] These are the same boundaries shown by Google Maps.[14] However, the AIA Guide to New York City gives the western boundary of SoHo north of Broome Street as being West Broadway,[4] and New York magazine gives the eastern boundary as Lafayette Street and the western boundary as the Hudson River.[15] The very small-scale map at the Community Board 2 profile page on New York City's official website appears to show Sixth Avenue and Lafayette Street as the western and eastern boundaries.[16]
Summing up these sources, the western boundary of SoHo may be the Hudson River, Sixth Avenue or West Broadway, and the eastern boundary may be Crosby Street or Lafayette Street.
In the 1990s, real estate agents began giving an adjacent neighborhood below West Houston Street various appellations, with no general agreement on whether it should be called West SoHo, Hudson Square or the South Village.[17] The AIA Guide calls that neighborhood "An intersection of brick and glass, searching for an identity", and refers to the western section of it as "The Glass Box District".[18]
Cast-iron buildings at 453-467 Broome Street between Mercer and Greene Streets
Niblo's Garden, seen here around 1887, was an entertainment venue on Broadway near Prince Street from 1823 to 1895
Historic District[edit]
The SoHo–Cast Iron Historic District is contained within the zoned SoHo neighborhood. Originally ending in the west at the eastern side of West Broadway and to the east at the western side of Crosby Street, the SoHo–Cast Iron Historic District was expanded in 2010 to cover most of West Broadway and to extend east to Lafayette and Centre Streets. The boundary lines are not straight, and some block-fronts on West Broadway and Lafayette are excluded from the District.[19][20]
History[edit]
Early years[edit]
During the colonial period, the land that is now SoHo was part of a grant of farmland given to freed slaves of the Dutch West Indies Company, and the site of the first free Black settlement on Manhattan island.[21] This land was acquired in the 1660s by Augustine Hermann, and then passed to his brother-in-law, Nicholas Bayard.[21] The estate was confiscated by the state as a result of Bayard's part in Leisler's Rebellion, but was returned to him after the sentence was annulled.[22]
In the 18th century natural barriers – streams and hills – impeded the growth of the city northward into the Bayard estate, and the area maintained its rural character.[22] During the American Revolution, the area was the location of numerous fortifications, redoubts and breastworks.[22] After the war, Bayard, who had suffered financially because of it, was forced to mortgage some of the property, which was divided up into lots, but even then there was very little development in the area, aside from some manufacturing at Broadway and Canal Street.[22]
Serious development of the area did not begin until the Common Council, answering the complaints of landowners in the area, drained the Collect Pond, which had once been an important source of fresh water for the island, but which had become polluted and rank and a breeding ground for mosquitoes. A canal was built to drain the pond into the Hudson, and the canal and pond were both later filled in using earth from nearby Bayard's Hill.[22] Once Broadway was paved and sidewalks were built there and along Canal Street, more people began to make their homes there, joining earlier arrivals such as James Fennimore Cooper.[22]
Commerce, entertainment, and decline[edit]
By the mid-19th century, the early Federal- and Greek Revival-style homes were replaced by more-solid structures of masonry and cast iron, and along Broadway, large marble-skinned commercial establishments began to open, such as Lord & Taylor, Arnold Constable & Company and Tiffany & Company, as well as grand hotels such as the St. Nicholas and the Metropolitan.[23] Theatres followed in their wake, and Broadway between Canal and Houston Streets became a lively theater and shopping district and the entertainment center of New York;[23] as usual with such areas, it was home to many brothels as well,[24] and the side streets off of Broadway became the city's red-light district.[23] As this change in character drove out the middle-class, their place was taken by small manufacturing concerns, including cabinet-makers and the lumberyards that supplied them, brass and copper firms, makers of china and glassware, locksmiths, snuff manufacturers and book publishers.[25]
This dramatic shift in the nature of the neighborhood continued to drive out residents, and between 1860 and 1865 the Eighth Ward, which included the SoHo area, lost 25% of its population.[25] After the Civil War and the Panic of 1873, in the 1880s and 90s, large manufacturers began to move into the area, especially textile firms, and the area became the mercantile and wholesale dry-goods trade center of the city, and was the subject of significant real-estate speculation.[25] This phase came to an end by the close of the 19th century, and as the center of the city continued to move uptown, the quality of the area declined.[26]
After World War II, the textile industry largely moved to the South, leaving many large buildings in the district unoccupied. In some buildings they were replaced by warehouses and printing plants, and other buildings were torn down to be replaced by gas stations, auto repair shops and parking lots and garages.[27] By the 1950s, the area had become known as Hell's Hundred Acres,[27] an industrial wasteland, full of sweatshops and small factories in the daytime, but empty at night. It would not be until the 1960s, when artists began to be interested in the tall ceilings and many windows of the empty manufacturing lofts, that the character of the neighborhood began to change again.[26]
Cast-iron architecture[edit]
SoHo boasts the greatest collection of cast-iron architecture in the world.[28] Approximately 250 cast-iron buildings stand in New York City, and the majority are in SoHo. Cast iron was initially used as a decorative front over a pre-existing building. With the addition of modern, decorative facades, older industrial buildings were able to attract new commercial clients. Most of these facades were constructed during the period from 1840 to 1880.[13] In addition to revitalizing older structures, buildings in SoHo were later designed to feature the cast iron.
The E. V. Haughwout Building at Broadway and Broome Street was built in 1856–57, and has a cast-iron facade by Daniel D. Badger
An American architectural innovation, cast iron was cheaper to use for facades than materials such as stone or brick. Molds of ornamentation, prefabricated in foundries, were used interchangeably for many buildings, and a broken piece could be easily recast. The buildings could be erected quickly; some were built in four months. Despite the brief construction period, the quality of the cast-iron designs was not sacrificed. Bronze had previously been the metal most frequently used for architectural detail. Architects found that the relatively inexpensive cast iron could provide intricately designed patterns. Classical French and Italian architectural designs were often used as models for these facades. Because stone was the material associated with architectural masterpieces, cast iron, painted in neutral tints such as beige, was used to simulate stone.
There was a profusion of cast iron foundries in New York, including Badger's Architectural Iron Works, James L. Jackson's Iron Works, and Cornell Iron Works.
Since the iron was pliable and easily molded, sumptuously curved window frames were created, and the strength of the metal allowed these frames considerable height. The once-somber, gas-lit interiors of the industrial district were flooded with sunlight through the enlarged windows. The strength of cast iron permitted high ceilings with sleek supporting columns, and interiors became expansive and functional.
During cast iron's heyday, many architects thought it to be structurally more sound than steel. It was also thought that cast iron would be fire-resistant, and facades were constructed over many interiors built of wood and other flammable materials. When exposed to heat, cast iron buckled, and later cracked under the cold water used to extinguish fire. In 1899, a building code mandating the backing of cast-iron fronts with masonry was passed. Most of the buildings that stand today are constructed in this way. It was the advent of steel as a major construction material that brought an end to the cast iron era.
Lower Manhattan Expressway[edit]
In the 1960s, the SoHo area was to have been the location of two enormous elevated highways that comprised the two branches of the Lower Manhattan Expressway, a Robert Moses project that was intended to create an automobile and truck through-route connecting the Manhattan Bridge and Williamsburg Bridge on the east with the Holland Tunnel on the west.[13][29]
The young historic preservation movement and architectural critics, stung by the destruction of the original Pennsylvania Station in 1963 and the threat to other historic structures, challenged the plans because of the threatened loss of a huge quantity of 19th-century cast-iron buildings.[30]
Cast-iron architecture on Greene Street
When John V. Lindsay became mayor of New York City in 1966, his initial reaction was to try to push the expressways through, dubbing the project the Lower Manhattan Expressway, depressing some of the proposed highway in residential areas and stressing the importance of the artery to the city. Nevertheless, through the efforts of Jane Jacobs, Tony D'Apolito, Margot Gayle, and other local, civic, and cultural leaders, as well as SoHo artist residents themselves, the project was derailed.[30]
Artists move in[edit]
After the abandonment of the highway scheme, the city was left with a large number of historic buildings that were unattractive for the kinds of manufacturing and commerce that survived in the city in the 1970s. The upper floors of many of these buildings had been built as commercial Manhattan lofts, which provided large, unobstructed spaces for manufacturing and other industrial uses. These spaces attracted artists who valued them for their large areas, large windows admitting natural light and low rents. Most of these spaces were also used illegally as living space, despite being neither zoned nor equipped for residential use. This widespread zoning violation was ignored for a long period of time, as the artist-occupants were using space for which there was little demand due to the city's poor economy at the time, and would have lain dormant or been abandoned otherwise.[4][13][28]
SoHo also contains former industrial buildings in other architectural styles, and is also dotted with smaller structures like this Federal style house built in 1819–20.
Nevertheless, as the artist population grew, the city made some attempts to stem the movement, concerned about the occupation of space that did not meet residential building codes, and the possibility that the occupied space might be needed for the return of manufacturing to New York City. Pressured on many sides, the city abandoned attempts to keep the district as strictly industrial space, and in 1971, the Zoning Resolution was amended to permit Joint Live-Work Quarters for artists, and the M1-5a and M-5b districting was established to permit visual artists, certified as such by the Department of Cultural Affairs, to live where they worked.[citation needed] In 1987, non-artists residing in SoHo and NoHo were permitted to grandfather themselves, but that was the only extension to non-artists and was a one-time agreement.[citation needed]
The area received landmark designation as the SoHo–Cast Iron Historic District in 1973.[28]
428 Broadway (428-432) was built in 1888-89 and was designed by Samuel A. Warner in the Queen Anne style
Gentrification and shopping[edit]
In 2005, the construction of residential buildings on empty lots in the historic district was permitted. Nevertheless, with no enforcement of the new zoning laws by the city, beginning in the 1980s, in a way that would later apply elsewhere, the neighborhood began to draw more affluent residents. Due to rent protection and stability afforded by the 1982 Loft Law, in addition to the fact that many of the artists owned their co-ops, many of the original pioneering artists remained despite the popular misconception that gentrification forced them to flee. Many residents have lived in the neighborhood for decades. In the mid-1990s, most of the galleries moved to Chelsea, but several galleries remain as of 2013, including William Bennett Gallery, Martin Lawrence Galleries, Terrain Gallery, Franklin Bowles Gallery, and Pop International Gallery.
SoHo's location, the appeal of lofts as living spaces, its architecture, and its reputation as a haven for artists all contributed to this change. The pattern of gentrification is typically known as the "SoHo Effect" and has been observed elsewhere in the United States.[31][32] A backwater of poor artists and small factories in the 1970s, SoHo became a popular tourist destination for people seeking fashionable clothing and exquisite architecture, and home to some of the most expensive real estate in the country.[33]
SoHo's chain outlets are clustered in the northern area of the neighborhood, along Broadway and Prince and Spring Streets. The sidewalks in this area are often crowded with tourists and with vendors selling jewelry, T-shirts, and other works. SoHo is known for its commercialization and eclectic mix of boutiques for shopping—although in 2010, it had twice as many chain stores as boutiques and three times as many boutiques as art galleries.[34]
Transportation[edit]
SoHo can be reached by the New York City Subway, using the A, C, and E trains to Spring Street; 1 and 2 trains to Houston Street; the N, Q, R, and W trains to Prince Street; and the 4, 6, and <6> trains to Spring Street. The crosstown M21 on Houston Street and the north-south M1, M55 bus routes also serve the neighborhood.[35]
Schools[edit]
The Montessori School in Soho (75 Sullivan Street)[36]
There are no New York City Department of Education schools located within SoHo, although there are several just outside its borders, including:
Broome Street Academy Charter School (M522, 121 Avenue of the Americas)[37]
Chelsea Career and Technical Education High School (M615, 131 Avenue of the Americas)[38]
NYC Ischool (M376, 131 Avenue of the Americas)[39]
P.S. 130 Hernando de Soto School (M130, 143 Baxter Street)[40]
Unity Center for Urban Technologies (M500, 121 Avenue of the Americas)[41]
Demographics[edit]
About 13,310 people live in SoHo as of the 2010 United States Census.[42]
As of 2011[update], about 67% of people living in Manhattan Community Board 2 – of which SoHo is part – are white. Another 15% are Asian, 8% Hispanic, and 1% black.[43]
See also[edit]
New York City portal
Leslie Lohman Gay Art Foundation
Soho Grand Hotel
Vesuvio Playground
References[edit]
Informational notes
Jump up ^ Neighborhoods in New York City do not have official status, and their boundaries are not specifically set by the city, although the boundaries of related areas, such as zoning districts and historic districts are set and specific. Because of this, the definition of where neighborhoods begin and end is subject to a variety of forces, including the efforts of real estate concerns to promote certain areas, the use of neighborhood names in media news reports, and the everyday usage of people.[10]
Citations
Jump up ^ National Park Service (2009-03-13). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.
Jump up ^ As in, for example, "Soho, New York, guide: The best of the neighborhood". Time Out New York. Retrieved 2013-12-27. Sweeney, Sean (October 17, 2013). "Secret vote on the Soho BID was some tricky business". The Villager. Greenwich Village, New York City. Retrieved 2013-12-27. Strickland, Julie (October 18, 2013). "Soho BID gets green light amid community opposition". New York City: TheRealDeal.com. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
Jump up ^ SoHo, New York – Mixed Use, Density and the Power of Myth Archived 2008-07-08 at the Wayback Machine. Barr, Alistair – Architect
^ Jump up to: a b c White, Norval; Willensky, Elliot & Leadon, Fran (2010), AIA Guide to New York City (5th ed.), New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195383867 , p.111
Jump up ^ Hevesi, Dennis. "Obituary:Chester Rapkin, 82, Urban Planning Theorist" The New York Times (February 3, 2001)
Jump up ^ Rapkin, Chester. The South Houston Industrial Area (Prepared for the City of New York, City Planning Commission, Department of City Planning, 1963)
Jump up ^ Soho Cast-Iron Historic District Archived 2011-06-05 at the Wayback Machine., National Park Service, n.d. Accessed 2011-03-26.
Jump up ^ Karen Graham Wade; Marjorie Pearson; James T. Dillon; et al. (n.d.). "National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: SoHo–Cast Iron Historic District" (pdf). National Park Service. and Accompanying photos, various dates (6.49 MB)
Jump up ^ Koppel, Niko. "Restoring New York Streets to Their Bumpier Pasts" The New York Times (July 18, 2010)
Jump up ^ Scherzer, Kenneth A. "neighborhoods" in Jackson, Kenneth T., ed. (2010), The Encyclopedia of New York City (2nd ed.), New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-11465-2 , pp.886-87. Quote: "Most neighborhoods in New York have a generally recognized central district, but their boundaries are difficult to define, especially if the population is transient and heterogeneous, the neighborhood is centrally situated, or the question of boundaries is politically sensitive ... Perceptions play a large role in shaping the evolution of neighborhoods: areas that are perceived as desirable tend to grow and prosper, which in turn makes them more desirable. At the same time the boundaries of a prosperous neighborhood inevitably expands, which serves the interests of residents of adjoining areas, of real estate brokers and speculators, and sometimes of government. A similar process works in reverse to the detriment of declining neighborhoods. Sometimes neighborhoods are renamed in an effort to improve their image."
Jump up ^ Shulman, Wendy (November 24, 1974) "SoHo a 'Victim of its Own Success'" The New York Times
Jump up ^ Jacobsen, Aileen (April 27, 2016) "SoHo: Chic Stores and Cobblestones" The New York Times
^ Jump up to: a b c d Gold, Joyce. "SoHo" in Jackson, Kenneth T., ed. (2010), The Encyclopedia of New York City (2nd ed.), New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0-300-11465-2 , pp.1202-03
Jump up ^ "Soho, Manhattan" Google Maps". Accessed: April 15, 2017
Jump up ^ Staff "Neighborhood Profile: SoHo" New York. Accessed: April 15, 2017
Jump up ^ "Community Portal: Manhattan Community District 2" nyc.gov. Accessed: April 18, 2017
Jump up ^ Wilson, Clare. "Living in: West SoHo; Eschewing a Name and Becoming an Address". The New York Times (August 15, 2004)
Jump up ^ White, Norval; Willensky, Elliot & Leadon, Fran (2010), AIA Guide to New York City (5th ed.), New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195383867 , p.185
Jump up ^ New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission "SoHo–Cast Iron Historic District Extension Map"
Jump up ^ Designation Report, p.1
^ Jump up to: a b Designation Report, p. 4
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Designation Report, p.5
^ Jump up to: a b c Designation Report. p.6
Jump up ^ "West Broadway: once a slum called 'Rotten Row'". Ephemeral New York. 2011-03-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c Designation Report, p.7
^ Jump up to: a b Designation Report, p.8
^ Jump up to: a b Betts, Mary Beth (ed.) "SoHo – Cast-Iron Historic District Extension Designation Report", New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (May 11, 2010) pp.5–6
^ Jump up to: a b c New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission; Dolkart, Andrew S.; Postal, Matthew A. (2009), Postal, Matthew A., ed., Guide to New York City Landmarks (4th ed.), New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-470-28963-1 , pp.39-41
Jump up ^ Anderson, Steve. "Lower Manhattan Expressway (I-78 and I-478, unbuilt)". NYCRoads. Retrieved April 29, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Dunlap, David W. (September 29, 2008). "Remembering a Pioneer of the Preservation Movement". The New York Times. Retrieved 2017-10-18.
Jump up ^ Zezima, Katie (August 10, 2004). "Artistic Enclave Gets Its Footing In Rhode Island". The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
Jump up ^ Miller, Sara B. (September 28, 2004). "In New England, a city revival built on creativity". The Christian Science Monitor. p. 2. Retrieved 2013-12-27.
Jump up ^ "America's Most Expensive ZIP Codes". Forbes. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Powell, Michael (Feb 21, 2010). "A Contrarian's Lament in a Blitz of Gentrification". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ "Manhattan Bus Map" (PDF). Metropolitan Transportation Authority. December 2017. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Contact Us" on the Montessori Schools website
Jump up ^ "Welcome - Broome Street Academy Charter School - M522 - New York City Department of Education". Retrieved 16 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Welcome - Chelsea Career and Technical Education High School - M615 - New York City Department of Education". Retrieved 16 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "NYC iSchool". Retrieved 16 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Welcome - P.S. 130 Hernando De Soto - M130 - New York City Department of Education". Retrieved 16 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "School website". Retrieved 16 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Soho neighborhood in New York, New York (NY), 10012, 10013, 10014 detailed profile, City Data
Jump up ^ "Community Snapshot 2011 / CD 2: Greenwich Village, Soho" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 February 2015. Retrieved 16 April 2017.
Bibliography
"SoHo – Cast-Iron Historic District Designation Report", New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (August 14, 1973)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to SoHo, Manhattan.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Manhattan/SoHo.
SoHo Alliance Community organization
SoHo, New York – Mixed Use, Density and the Power of Myth by Alistair Barr, Architect
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SoHo,_Manhattan&oldid=853520119"
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