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Edgar Degas
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Edgar Degas
Self-portrait (Degas au porte-fusain), 1855
Born
Hilaire-Germain-Edgar De Gas
(1834-07-19)19 July 1834
Paris, France
Died
27 September 1917(1917-09-27) (aged 83)
Paris, France
Nationality
French
Known for
Painting, sculpture, drawing
Notable work
The Bellelli Family (1858–1867)
Woman with Chrysanthemums (1865)
Chanteuse de Café (c. 1878)
At the Milliner's (1882)
Movement
Impressionism
Signature
Edgar Degas (US: /deɪˈɡɑː/ or UK: /ˈdeɪɡɑː/; born Hilaire-Germain-Edgar De Gas, French: [ilɛːʁ ʒɛʁmɛ̃ ɛdɡaʁ də ɡɑ]; 19 July 1834 – 27 September 1917) was a French artist famous for his paintings, sculptures, prints, and drawings. He is especially identified with the subject of dance; more than half of his works depict dancers.[1] He is regarded as one of the founders of Impressionism, although he rejected the term, preferring to be called a realist.[2] He was a superb draftsman, and particularly masterly in depicting movement, as can be seen in his rendition of dancers, racecourse subjects and female nudes. His portraits are notable for their psychological complexity and for their portrayal of human isolation.[3]
At the beginning of his career, Degas wanted to be a history painter, a calling for which he was well prepared by his rigorous academic training and close study of classic art. In his early thirties, he changed course, and by bringing the traditional methods of a history painter to bear on contemporary subject matter, he became a classical painter of modern life.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Artistic career
3 Artistic style
4 Sculpture
5 Personality and politics
6 Reputation
7 Gallery
7.1 Paintings
7.2 Sculptures
8 References
8.1 Notes
8.2 Sources
9 Further reading
10 External links
Early life[edit]
Edgar Degas c. 1855–1860[5]
Degas was born in Paris, France, into a moderately wealthy family. He was the oldest of five children of Célestine Musson De Gas, a Creole from New Orleans, Louisiana, and Augustin De Gas, a banker. His maternal grandfather Germain Musson, was born in Port-au-Prince, Haiti of French descent and had settled in New Orleans in 1810.[6] Degas (he adopted this less grandiose spelling of his family name when he became an adult)[7] began his schooling at age eleven, enrolling in the Lycée Louis-le-Grand. His mother died when he was thirteen, and his father and grandfather became the main influences on him for the remainder of his youth.
Degas began to paint early in life. By the time he graduated from the Lycée with a baccalauréat in literature in 1853, at age 18, he had turned a room in his home into an artist's studio. Upon graduating, he registered as a copyist in The Louvre Museum, but his father expected him to go to law school. Degas duly enrolled at the Faculty of Law of the University of Paris in November 1853, but applied little effort to his studies. In 1855 he met Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, whom Degas revered and whose advice he never forgot: "Draw lines, young man, and still more lines, both from life and from memory, and you will become a good artist."[8] In April of that year Degas was admitted to the École des Beaux-Arts. He studied drawing there with Louis Lamothe, under whose guidance he flourished, following the style of Ingres.[9] In July 1856, Degas traveled to Italy, where he would remain for the next three years. In 1858, while staying with his aunt's family in Naples, he made the first studies for his early masterpiece The Bellelli Family. He also drew and painted numerous copies of works by Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian, and other Renaissance artists, but—contrary to conventional practice—he usually selected from an altarpiece a detail that had caught his attention: a secondary figure, or a head which he treated as a portrait.[10]
Artistic career[edit]
Upon his return to France in 1859, Degas moved into a Paris studio large enough to permit him to begin painting The Bellelli Family—an imposing canvas he intended for exhibition in the Salon, although it remained unfinished until 1867. He also began work on several history paintings: Alexander and Bucephalus and The Daughter of Jephthah in 1859–60; Sémiramis Building Babylon in 1860; and Young Spartans around 1860.[11] In 1861 Degas visited his childhood friend Paul Valpinçon in Normandy, and made the earliest of his many studies of horses. He exhibited at the Salon for the first time in 1865, when the jury accepted his painting Scene of War in the Middle Ages, which attracted little attention.[12] Although he exhibited annually in the Salon during the next five years, he submitted no more history paintings, and his Steeplechase—The Fallen Jockey (Salon of 1866) signaled his growing commitment to contemporary subject matter. The change in his art was influenced primarily by the example of Édouard Manet, whom Degas had met in 1864 (while both were copying the same Velázquez portrait in the Louvre, according to a story that may be apocryphal).[13]
Upon the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Degas enlisted in the National Guard, where his defense of Paris left him little time for painting. During rifle training his eyesight was found to be defective, and for the rest of his life his eye problems were a constant worry to him.[14]
A Cotton Office in New Orleans, 1873
After the war, Degas began in 1872 an extended stay in New Orleans, Louisiana, where his brother René and a number of other relatives lived. Staying at the home of his Creole uncle, Michel Musson, on Esplanade Avenue,[15] Degas produced a number of works, many depicting family members. One of Degas's New Orleans works, A Cotton Office in New Orleans, garnered favorable attention back in France, and was his only work purchased by a museum (the Pau) during his lifetime.
Degas returned to Paris in 1873 and his father died the following year, whereupon Degas learned that his brother René had amassed enormous business debts. To preserve his family's reputation, Degas sold his house and an art collection he had inherited, and used the money to pay off his brother's debts. Dependent for the first time in his life on sales of his artwork for income, he produced much of his greatest work during the decade beginning in 1874.[16] Disenchanted by now with the Salon, he instead joined a group of young artists who were organizing an independent exhibiting society. The group soon became known as the Impressionists. Between 1874 and 1886 they mounted eight art shows, known as the Impressionist Exhibitions. Degas took a leading role in organizing the exhibitions, and showed his work in all but one of them, despite his persistent conflicts with others in the group. He had little in common with Monet and the other landscape painters in the group, whom he mocked for painting outdoors. Conservative in his social attitudes, he abhorred the scandal created by the exhibitions, as well as the publicity and advertising that his colleagues sought.[2] He also deeply disliked being associated with the term "Impressionist", which the press had coined and popularized, and insisted on including non-Impressionist artists such as Jean-Louis Forain and Jean-François Raffaëlli in the group's exhibitions. The resulting rancor within the group contributed to its disbanding in 1886.[17]
As his financial situation improved through sales of his own work, he was able to indulge his passion for collecting works by artists he admired: old masters such as El Greco and such contemporaries as Manet, Pissarro, Cézanne, Gauguin, Van Gogh, and Édouard Brandon. Three artists he idolized, Ingres, Delacroix, and Daumier, were especially well represented in his collection.[18]
In the late 1880s, Degas also developed a passion for photography.[19] He photographed many of his friends, often by lamplight, as in his double portrait of Renoir and Mallarmé. Other photographs, depicting dancers and nudes, were used for reference in some of Degas's drawings and paintings.[20]
As the years passed, Degas became isolated, due in part to his belief that a painter could have no personal life.[21] The Dreyfus Affair controversy brought his anti-Semitic leanings to the fore and he broke with all his Jewish friends.[22] His argumentative nature was deplored by Renoir, who said of him: "What a creature he was, that Degas! All his friends had to leave him; I was one of the last to go, but even I couldn't stay till the end."[23]
Although he is known to have been working in pastel as late as the end of 1907, and is believed to have continued making sculptures as late as 1910, he apparently ceased working in 1912, when the impending demolition of his longtime residence on the rue Victor Massé forced him to move to quarters on Boulevard de Clichy.[24] He never married and spent the last years of his life, nearly blind, restlessly wandering the streets of Paris before dying in September 1917.[25]
Artistic style[edit]
The Dance Class (La Classe de Danse), 1873–1876, oil on canvas, by Edgar Degas
Degas is often identified as an Impressionist, an understandable but insufficient description. Impressionism originated in the 1860s and 1870s and grew, in part, from the realism of such painters as Courbet and Corot. The Impressionists painted the realities of the world around them using bright, "dazzling" colors, concentrating primarily on the effects of light, and hoping to infuse their scenes with immediacy. They wanted to express their visual experience in that exact moment.[26]
Technically, Degas differs from the Impressionists in that he continually belittled their practice of painting en plein air.[27]
You know what I think of people who work out in the open. If I were the government I would have a special brigade of gendarmes to keep an eye on artists who paint landscapes from nature. Oh, I don't mean to kill anyone; just a little dose of bird-shot now and then as a warning.[28]
"He was often as anti-impressionist as the critics who reviewed the shows", according to art historian Carol Armstrong; as Degas himself explained, "no art was ever less spontaneous than mine. What I do is the result of reflection and of the study of the great masters; of inspiration, spontaneity, temperament, I know nothing."[29] Nonetheless, he is described more accurately as an Impressionist than as a member of any other movement. His scenes of Parisian life, his off-center compositions, his experiments with color and form, and his friendship with several key Impressionist artists—most notably Mary Cassatt and Édouard Manet—all relate him intimately to the Impressionist movement.[30]
Degas's style reflects his deep respect for the old masters (he was an enthusiastic copyist well into middle age)[31] and his great admiration for Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and Eugène Delacroix. He was also a collector of Japanese prints, whose compositional principles influenced his work, as did the vigorous realism of popular illustrators such as Daumier and Gavarni. Although famous for horses and dancers, Degas began with conventional historical paintings such as The Daughter of Jephthah (c.1859–61) and The Young Spartans (c.1860–62), in which his gradual progress toward a less idealized treatment of the figure is already apparent. During his early career, Degas also painted portraits of individuals and groups; an example of the latter is The Bellelli Family (c.1858–67), a brilliantly composed and psychologically poignant portrayal of his aunt, her husband, and their children. In this painting, as in The Young Spartans and many later works, Degas was drawn to the tensions present between men and women. In his early paintings, Degas already evidenced the mature style that he would later develop more fully by cropping subjects awkwardly and by choosing unusual viewpoints.
L'Absinthe, 1876, oil on canvas, by Edgar Degas
By the late 1860s Degas had shifted from his initial forays into history painting to an original observation of contemporary life. Racecourse scenes provided an opportunity to depict horses and their riders in a modern context. He began to paint women at work, milliners and laundresses. Mlle. Fiocre in the Ballet La Source, exhibited in the Salon of 1868, was his first major work to introduce a subject with which he would become especially identified, dancers.[32]
In many subsequent paintings dancers were shown backstage or in rehearsal, emphasizing their status as professionals doing a job. From 1870 Degas increasingly painted ballet subjects, partly because they sold well and provided him with needed income after his brother's debts had left the family bankrupt.[33] Degas began to paint café life as well, in works such as L'Absinthe and Singer with a Glove. His paintings often hinted at narrative content in a way that was highly ambiguous; for example, Interior (which has also been called The Rape) has presented a conundrum to art historians in search of a literary source—Thérèse Raquin has been suggested[34]—but it may be a depiction of prostitution.[35]
As his subject matter changed, so, too, did Degas's technique. The dark palette that bore the influence of Dutch painting gave way to the use of vivid colors and bold brushstrokes. Paintings such as Place de la Concorde read as "snapshots," freezing moments of time to portray them accurately, imparting a sense of movement. The lack of color in the 1874 Ballet Rehearsal on Stage and the 1876 The Ballet Instructor can be said to link with his interest in the new technique of photography. The changes to his palette, brushwork, and sense of composition all evidence the influence that both the Impressionist movement and modern photography, with its spontaneous images and off-kilter angles, had on his work.[30]
Place de la Concorde, 1875, oil on canvas, by Edgar Degas, Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg
Blurring the distinction between portraiture and genre pieces, he painted his bassoonist friend, Désiré Dihau, in The Orchestra of the Opera (1868–69) as one of fourteen musicians in an orchestra pit, viewed as though by a member of the audience. Above the musicians can be seen only the legs and tutus of the dancers onstage, their figures cropped by the edge of the painting. Art historian Charles Stuckey has compared the viewpoint to that of a distracted spectator at a ballet, and says that "it is Degas' fascination with the depiction of movement, including the movement of a spectator's eyes as during a random glance, that is properly speaking 'Impressionist'."[36]
Musicians in the Orchestra, 1872, oil on canvas, by Edgar Degas
Degas's mature style is distinguished by conspicuously unfinished passages, even in otherwise tightly rendered paintings. He frequently blamed his eye troubles for his inability to finish, an explanation that met with some skepticism from colleagues and collectors who reasoned, as Stuckey explains, that "his pictures could hardly have been executed by anyone with inadequate vision".[14] The artist provided another clue when he described his predilection "to begin a hundred things and not finish one of them",[37] and was in any case notoriously reluctant to consider a painting complete.
His interest in portraiture led Degas to study carefully the ways in which a person's social stature or form of employment may be revealed by their physiognomy, posture, dress, and other attributes. In his 1879 Portraits, At the Stock Exchange, he portrayed a group of Jewish businessmen with a hint of anti-Semitism. In 1881 he exhibited two pastels, Criminal Physiognomies, that depicted juvenile gang members recently convicted of murder in the "Abadie Affair". Degas had attended their trial with sketchbook in hand, and his numerous drawings of the defendants reveal his interest in the atavistic features thought by some 19th-century scientists to be evidence of innate criminality.[38] In his paintings of dancers and laundresses, he reveals their occupations not only by their dress and activities but also by their body type: his ballerinas exhibit an athletic physicality, while his laundresses are heavy and solid.[39]
At the Races, 1877–1880, oil on canvas, by Edgar Degas, Musée d'Orsay, Paris
By the later 1870s Degas had mastered not only the traditional medium of oil on canvas, but pastel as well. The dry medium, which he applied in complex layers and textures, enabled him more easily to reconcile his facility for line with a growing interest in expressive color.
In the mid-1870s he also returned to the medium of etching, which he had neglected for ten years. At first he was guided in this by his old friend Ludovic-Napoléon Lepic, himself an innovator in its use, and began experimenting with lithography and monotype.[40]
He produced some 300 monotypes over two periods, from the mid-1870s to the mid-1880s and again in the early 1890s.[41]
He was especially fascinated by the effects produced by monotype and frequently reworked the printed images with pastel.[40] By 1880, sculpture had become one more strand to Degas's continuing endeavor to explore different media, although the artist displayed only one sculpture publicly during his lifetime.
La Toilette (Woman Combing Her Hair), c. 1884–1886, pastel on paper, by Edgar Degas, Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg
These changes in media engendered the paintings that Degas would produce in later life. Degas began to draw and paint women drying themselves with towels, combing their hair, and bathing (see: After the Bath, Woman drying herself). The strokes that model the form are scribbled more freely than before; backgrounds are simplified.
The meticulous naturalism of his youth gave way to an increasing abstraction of form. Except for his characteristically brilliant draftsmanship and obsession with the figure, the pictures created in this late period of his life bear little superficial resemblance to his early paintings. In point of fact, these paintings—created late in his life and after the heyday of the Impressionist movement—most vividly use the coloristic techniques of Impressionism.[42][43]
For all the stylistic evolution, certain features of Degas's work remained the same throughout his life. He always painted indoors, preferring to work in his studio, either from memory, photographs, or live models.[44] The figure remained his primary subject; his few landscapes were produced from memory or imagination. It was not unusual for him to repeat a subject many times, varying the composition or treatment. He was a deliberative artist whose works, as Andrew Forge has written, "were prepared, calculated, practiced, developed in stages. They were made up of parts. The adjustment of each part to the whole, their linear arrangement, was the occasion for infinite reflection and experiment."[45] Degas himself explained, "In art, nothing should look like chance, not even movement".[33]
Sculpture[edit]
External video
Edgar Degas's Studies of Circus Performer, Miss Lala, Getty Museum
Degas' The Dance Class, Smarthistory
Video Postcard: The Millinery Shop (1879/86) on YouTube, Art Institute of Chicago
Degas's only showing of sculpture during his life took place in 1881 when he exhibited The Little Dancer of Fourteen Years. A nearly life-size wax figure with real hair and dressed in a cloth tutu, it provoked a strong reaction from critics, most of whom found its realism extraordinary but denounced the dancer as ugly.[46] In a review, J.-K. Huysmans wrote: "The terrible reality of this statuette evidently produces uneasiness in the spectators; all their notions about sculpture, about those cold inanimate whitenesses ... are here overturned. The fact is that with his first attempt Monsieur Degas has revolutionized the traditions of sculpture as he has long since shaken the conventions of painting."[47]
Degas created a substantial number of other sculptures during a span of four decades, but they remained unseen by the public until a posthumous exhibition in 1918. Neither The Little Dancer of Fourteen Years nor any of Degas's other sculptures were cast in bronze during the artist's lifetime.[46] Degas scholars have agreed that the sculptures were not created as aids to painting, although the artist habitually explored ways of linking graphic art and oil painting, drawing and pastel, sculpture and photography. Degas assigned the same significance to sculpture as to drawing: "Drawing is a way of thinking, modelling another".[33]
After Degas's death, his heirs found in his studio 150 wax sculptures, many in disrepair. They consulted foundry owner Adrien Hébrard, who concluded that 74 of the waxes could be cast in bronze. It is assumed that, except for the Little Dancer Aged Fourteen, all Degas bronzes worldwide are cast from surmoulages (fr) (i.e., cast from bronze masters). A surmoulage bronze is a bit smaller, and shows less surface detail, than its original bronze mold. The Hébrard Foundry cast the bronzes from 1919 until 1936, and closed down in 1937, shortly before Hébrard's death.
In 2004, a little-known group of 73 plaster casts, more or less closely resembling Degas's original wax sculptures, was presented as having been discovered among the materials bought by the Airaindor Foundry (later known as Airaindor-Valsuani) from Hébrard's descendants. Bronzes cast from these plasters were issued between 2004 and 2016 by Airaindor-Valsuani in editions inconsistently marked and thus of unknown size. There has been substantial controversy concerning the authenticity of these plasters as well as the circumstances and date of their creation as proposed by their promoters.[46][48] While several museum and academic professionals accept them as presented, most of the recognized Degas scholars have declined to comment.[49][50]
Personality and politics[edit]
Self-portrait (photograph), c. 1895
Degas, who believed that "the artist must live alone, and his private life must remain unknown",[51] lived an outwardly uneventful life. In company he was known for his wit, which could often be cruel. He was characterized as an "old curmudgeon" by the novelist George Moore,[51] and he deliberately cultivated his reputation as a misanthropic bachelor.[23] Profoundly conservative in his political opinions, he opposed all social reforms and found little to admire in such technological advances as the telephone. He fired a model upon learning she was Protestant.[51] Although Degas painted a number of Jewish subjects from 1865 to 1870, his anti-Semitism became apparent by the mid-1870s. His 1879 painting Portraits at the Stock Exchange is widely regarded as anti-Semitic, with the facial features of the banker taken directly from the anti-Semitic cartoons rampant in Paris at the time.[52]
The Dreyfus Affair, which divided Paris from the 1890s to the early 1900s, further intensified his anti-Semitism. By the mid-1890s, he had broken off relations with all of his Jewish friends,[22] publicly disavowed his previous friendships with Jewish artists, and refused to use models who he believed might be Jewish. He remained an outspoken anti-Semite and member of the anti-Semitic "Anti-Dreyfusards" until his death.[53]
Reputation[edit]
Dancers, 1900, Princeton University Art Museum
During his life, public reception of Degas's work ranged from admiration to contempt. As a promising artist in the conventional mode, Degas had a number of paintings accepted in the Salon between 1865 and 1870. These works received praise from Pierre Puvis de Chavannes and the critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary.[54] He soon joined forces with the Impressionists, however, and rejected the rigid rules, judgments, and elitism of the Salon—just as the Salon and general public initially rejected the experimentalism of the Impressionists.
Degas's work was controversial, but was generally admired for its draftsmanship. His La Petite Danseuse de Quatorze Ans, or Little Dancer of Fourteen Years, which he displayed at the sixth Impressionist exhibition in 1881, was probably his most controversial piece; some critics decried what they thought its "appalling ugliness" while others saw in it a "blossoming".[55]
In part Degas' originality consisted in disregarding the smooth, full surfaces and contours of classical sculpture ... [and] in garnishing his little statue with real hair and clothing made to scale like the accoutrements for a doll. These relatively "real" additions heightened the illusion, but they also posed searching questions, such as what can be referred to as "real" when art is concerned.[56]
The suite of pastels depicting nudes that Degas exhibited in the eighth Impressionist Exhibition in 1886 produced "the most concentrated body of critical writing on the artist during his lifetime ... The overall reaction was positive and laudatory".[57]
Recognized as an important artist in his lifetime, Degas is now considered "one of the founders of Impressionism".[58] Though his work crossed many stylistic boundaries, his involvement with the other major figures of Impressionism and their exhibitions, his dynamic paintings and sketches of everyday life and activities, and his bold color experiments, served to finally tie him to the Impressionist movement as one of its greatest artists.
Although Degas had no formal pupils, he greatly influenced several important painters, most notably Jean-Louis Forain, Mary Cassatt, and Walter Sickert;[59] his greatest admirer may have been Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.[60]
Degas's paintings, pastels, drawings, and sculptures are on prominent display in many museums, and have been the subject of many museum exhibitions and retrospectives. Recent exhibitions include Degas: Drawings and Sketchbooks (The Morgan Library, 2010); Picasso Looks at Degas (Museu Picasso de Barcelona, 2010); Degas and the Nude (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 2011); Degas' Method (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, 2013); Degas's Little Dancer (National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., 2014) and Degas: A passion for perfection (Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 2017-2018).[61]
Gallery[edit]
Paintings[edit]
Male Nude, 1856, oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
Achille De Gas in the Uniform of a Cadet, 1856/57, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
The Bellelli Family, 1858–1867, Musée d'Orsay, Paris
Young Spartans Exercising, c. 1860–1862, National Gallery, London
Woman Seated beside a Vase of Flowers, 1865, oil on canvas, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
The Amateur, 1866, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
Édouard Manet and Mme. Manet, 1868–1869, Kitakyushu Municipal Museum of Art, Japan
Dancing Class, 1871, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
Ballet Rehearsal, 1873, The Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Rehearsal on Stage, 1874, Musée d'Orsay, Paris
Portrait of Miss Cassatt, Seated, Holding Cards, 1876–1878
At the Café-Concert: The Song of the Dog, 1875–1877
Fin d'Arabesque, with ballerina Rosita Mauri, 1877, Musée d'Orsay.
The Singer with the Glove, 1878, The Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Miss La La at the Cirque Fernando, 1879, The National Gallery, London
Dancer with a Bouquet of Flowers (Star of the Ballet) (with also ballerina Rosita Mauri), 1878
Stage Rehearsal, 1878–1879, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
Woman in Street Clothes, Portrait of Ellen Andrée, 1879, pastel on paper
Waiting, pastel on paper, 1880–1882.
Before the Race, 1882–84, oil on panel, The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore
The Millinery Shop, 1885, The Art Institute of Chicago
Dancers at the Bar, 1888, The Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C.
Woman in the Bath, 1886, Hill-Stead Museum, Farmington, Connecticut
The Tub, 1886, Musée d'Orsay, Paris, France
The Bath: Woman Supporting Her Back, c. 1887, pastel on paper, Honolulu Museum of Art
Kneeling Woman, 1884, Pushkin Museum, Moscow
Three Dancers in Yellow Skirts, c. 1891, oil on canvas, The Detroit Institute of Arts
After the Bath, Woman Drying her Nape, pastel on paper, 1898, Musée d'Orsay, Paris
After the Bath, Woman Drying Herself, c. 1884–1886, reworked between 1890 and 1900, pastel on wove paper, 40.5 × 32 cm, Musée Malraux, Le Havre
Portrait of Henri Michel-Lévy, Calouste Gulbenkian Museum
James-Jacques-Joseph Tissot (1836–1902), 1867, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
Portrait of Mlle. Hortense Valpinçon, c. 1871, Minneapolis Institute of Art
Deux danseuses, 1879 at the Shelburne Museum
Sculptures[edit]
Little Dancer of Fourteen Years
Cast posthumously in 1922 from a mixed-media sculpture modeled
c. 1879–1880
Bronze
Partly tinted, with cotton skirt and satin hair ribbon, on a wooden base
Metropolitan Museum of Art
New York City
Dancer Moving Forward, Arms Raised
c. 1882–1895
Cast posthumously 1919–1926
Bronze
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum
Thannhauser Galleries
New York City
The Spanish Dance
c. 1885
Cast posthumously in 1921
Bronze
46.3 × 14.3 cm
Ackland Art Museum
Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Seated Woman, Wiping Her Left Side
c. 1896–1911
Cast posthumously 1919–1926
Bronze
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum
Thannhauser Galleries
New York City
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Trachtman, Paul, Degas and His Dancers, Smithsonian Magazine, April 2003
^ Jump up to: a b Gordon and Forge 1988, p. 31
Jump up ^ Brown 1994, p. 11
Jump up ^ Turner 2000, p. 139
Jump up ^ Gordon and Forge 1988, p. 17
Jump up ^ Brown, Marilyn R (1994). Degas and the Business of Art. p. 14. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
Jump up ^ The family's ancestral name was Degas. Jean Sutherland Boggs explains that De Gas was the spelling, "with some pretentions, used by the artist's father when he moved to Paris to establish a French branch of his father's Neapolitan bank." While Edgar Degas's brother René adopted the still more aristocratic de Gas, the artist reverted to the original spelling, Degas, by age thirty. Baumann, et al. 1994, p. 98.
Jump up ^ Werner 1969, p. 14
Jump up ^ Canaday 1969, p. 930–931
Jump up ^ Dunlop 1979, p. 19
Jump up ^ Gordon and Forge 1988, p. 43
Jump up ^ Thomson 1988, p. 48
Jump up ^ Gordon and Forge 1988, p. 23
^ Jump up to: a b Guillaud and Guillaud 1985, p. 29
Jump up ^ "Michael Musson and Odile Longer: Degas' aunt and uncle in New Orleans". Degaslegacy.com. 30 March 1973. Retrieved 18 March 2013.
Jump up ^ Guillaud and Guillaud 1985, p. 33
Jump up ^ Armstrong 1991, p. 25
Jump up ^ "In the final inventory of his collection, there were twenty paintings and eighty-eight drawings by Ingres, thirteen paintings and almost two hundred drawings by Delacroix. There were hundreds of lithographs by Daumier. His contemporaries were well represented—with the exception of Monet, by whom he had nothing." Gordon and Forge 1988, p. 37
Jump up ^ Gordon and Forge 1988, p. 26
Jump up ^ Gordon and Forge 1988, p. 34
Jump up ^ Canaday 1969, p. 929
^ Jump up to: a b Guillaud and Guillaud 1985, p. 56
^ Jump up to: a b Bade and Degas 1992, p. 6
Jump up ^ Thomson 1988, p. 211
Jump up ^ Gordon and Forge 1988, p. 41
Jump up ^ Clay 1973, p. 28.
Jump up ^ Gordon and Forge 1988, p. 11
Jump up ^ Vollard, Ambroise, Degas: an intimate portrait, Crown, New York, 1937, p. 56
Jump up ^ Armstrong 1991, p. 22
^ Jump up to: a b Roskill 1983, p. 33
Jump up ^ Baumann, et al. 1994, p. 151
Jump up ^ Dumas 1988, p. 9.
^ Jump up to: a b c Growe 1992
Jump up ^ Reff 1976, pp. 200–204
Jump up ^ Krämer 2007
Jump up ^ Guillaud and Guillaud 1985, p. 28
Jump up ^ Guillaud and Guillaud 1985, p. 50
Jump up ^ Kendall, Richard; et al. (1998). Degas and The Little Dancer. Yale University Press. pp. 78–85.
Jump up ^ Muehlig 1979, p. 6
^ Jump up to: a b Thomson 1988, p. 75
Jump up ^ Gerber, Louis. "Degas: A Strange New Beauty".
Jump up ^ Mannering 1994, pp. 70–77
Jump up ^ Rich, Daniel Catton, Edgar-Hilaire Germain Degas, H.N. Abrams, New York, 1952, p. 6
Jump up ^ Benedek "Style."
Jump up ^ Gordon and Forge 1988, p. 9
^ Jump up to: a b c Cohan, William D., "A Controversy over Degas", Artnews, April 2010. Retrieved 13 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Gordon and Forge 1988, p. 206
Jump up ^ Cohan, William D. "Brass Foundry Is Closing, but Debate Over Degas’s Work Goes On", The New York Times, 4 April 2016. retrieved 12 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Bailey, Martin, "Degas bronzes controversy leads to scholars' boycott", ''The Art Newspaper'', 31 May 2012". Theartnewspaper.com. Archived from the original on 19 August 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
Jump up ^ According to William Cohan, "a group of Degas experts" who convened in January 2010 to discuss the sculptures reached "universal agreement ... that these things were not what they were being advertised as", but declined to speak on the record, citing fear of litigation. Cohan, William D., "Shaky Degas Dancer Gets the Silent Treatment", BloombergView, 22 August 2011. Retrieved 13 August 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Werner 1969, p. 11
Jump up ^ [1] Archived 1 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Nochlin, Linda (1989). Politics of Vision: Essays on 19th Century Art And Society. Harper & Row.
Jump up ^ Bowness 1965, pp. 41–42
Jump up ^ Muehlig 1979, p. 7
Jump up ^ Guillaud and Guillaud 1985, p. 46
Jump up ^ Thomson 1988, p. 135
Jump up ^ Mannering 1994, pp. 6–7
Jump up ^ J. Paul Getty Trust
Jump up ^ Guillaud and Guillaud 1985, p. 48
Jump up ^ "Degas: A passion for perfection". Fitzwilliam Museum. Retrieved 23 November 2017.
Sources[edit]
Armstrong, Carol (1991). Odd Man Out: Readings of the Work and Reputation of Edgar Degas. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-02695-7
Auden, W.H.; Kronenberger, Louis (1966), The Viking Book of Aphorisms, New York: Viking Press
Bade, Patrick; Degas, Edgar (1992). Degas. London: Studio Editions. ISBN 1-85170-845-6
Baumann, Felix Andreas; Boggs, Jean Sutherland; Degas, Edgar; and Karabelnik, Marianne (1994). Degas Portraits. London: Merrell Holberton. ISBN 1-85894-014-1
Benedek, Nelly S. (2004). "Chronology of the Artist's Life". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on 2 May 2006. Retrieved 6 May 2006.
Benedek, Nelly S. (2004). "Degas's Artistic Style". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on 12 November 2006. Retrieved 6 May 2006.
Bowness, Alan. ed. (1965) "Edgar Degas." The Book of Art Volume 7. New York: Grolier Incorporated :41.
Brettell, Richard R.; McCullagh, Suzanne Folds (1984). Degas in The Art Institute of Chicago. New York: The Art Institute of Chicago and Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-86559-058-3
Brown, Marilyn (1994). Degas and the Business of Art: a Cotton Office in New Orleans. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-271-00944-6
Canaday, John (1969). The Lives of the Painters Volume 3. New York: W.W. Norton and Company Inc.
Clay, Jean (1973). Impressionism. Secaucus, N.J.: Chartwell. ISBN 0399110399
Dorra, Henri. Art in Perspective New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.:208
Dumas, Ann (1988). Degas's Mlle. Fiocre in Context. Brooklyn: The Brooklyn Museum. ISBN 0-87273-116-2
Dunlop, Ian (1979). Degas. New York, N.Y: Harper & Row. OCLC 5583005
"Edgar Degas, 1834–1917." The Book of Art Volume III (1976). New York: Grolier Incorporated:4.
Gordon, Robert; Forge, Andrew (1988). Degas. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-1142-6
Growe, Bernd; Edgar Degas (1992). Edgar Degas, 1834–1917. Cologne: Benedikt Taschen. ISBN 3-8228-0560-2
Guillaud, Jaqueline; Guillaud, Maurice (editors) (1985). Degas: Form and Space. New York: Rizzoli. ISBN 0-8478-5407-8
Hartt, Frederick (1976). "Degas" Art Volume 2. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc.: 365.
"Impressionism." Praeger Encyclopedia of Art Volume 3 (1967). New York: Praeger Publishers: 952.
J. Paul Getty Trust "Walter Richard Sickert." 2003. 11 May 2004.
Kendall, Richard; Degas, Edgar; Druick, Douglas W.; Beale, Arthur (1998). Degas and The Little Dancer. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07497-2
Krämer, Felix (May 2007). "'Mon tableau de genre': Degas's 'Le Viol' and Gavarni's 'Lorette'". The Burlington Magazine 149 (1250).
Mannering, Douglas (1994). The Life and Works of Degas. Great Britain: Parragon Book Service Limited.
Muehlig, Linda D. (1979). Degas and the Dance, 5–27 April May 1979. Northampton, Mass.: Smith College Museum of Art.
Peugeot, Catherine, Sellier, Marie (2001). A Trip to the Orsay Museum. Paris: ADAGP: 39.
Reff, Theodore (1976). Degas: the artist's mind. [New York]: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0-87099-146-9
Roskill, Mark W. (1983). "Edgar Degas." Collier's Encyclopedia.
Thomson, Richard (1988). Degas: The Nudes. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. ISBN 0-500-23509-0
Tinterow, Gary (1988). Degas. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art and National Gallery of Canada.
Turner, J. (2000). From Monet to Cézanne: Late 19th-century French Artists. Grove Art. New York: St Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-22971-2
Werner, Alfred (1969) Degas Pastels. New York: Watson-Guptill. ISBN 0-8230-1276-X
Coverage of the Degas debate By Martin Bailey. News, Issue 236, June 2012
Further reading[edit]
Capriati, Elio (2009). I Segreti di Degas. Milano: Mjm Editore. ISBN 978-88-95682-68-6.
Dumas, Ann, et al. (1997).The Private Collection of Edgar Degas at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: Distributed by H.N. Abrams.
Valery, Paul (1989). Degas, Manet, Morisot. Princeton University Press.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Edgar Degas.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Edgar Degas
Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Edgar Degas.
Edgar Degas at Norton Simon Museum, Pasadena, California
Degas, Sickert and Toulouse Lautrec at Tate
Edgar Degas Gallery at MuseumSyndicate
Edgar Degas paintings & interactive timeline
Union List of Artist Names, Getty Vocabularies. ULAN Full Record Display for Edgar Degas. Getty Vocabulary Program, Getty Research Institute. Los Angeles.
Works and literature on Edgar Degas
The Complete Set of Edgar Degas Bronzes at the M.T. Abraham Foundation
Edgar Degas exhibition catalogs and letter from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
Impressionism : a centenary exhibition, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, December 12, 1974 – February 10, 1975, fully digitized text from The Metropolitan Museum of Art libraries
Edgar Degas in American public collections, on the French Sculpture Census website
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BNE: XX1096561
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CiNii: DA01909952
GND: 118524291
ISNI: 0000 0001 2129 7200
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Cholecystokinin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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CCK
Identifiers
Aliases
CCK, cholecystokinin
External IDs
MGI: 88297 HomoloGene: 583 GeneCards: CCK
[hide]Gene location (Human)
Chr.
Chromosome 3 (human)[1]
Band
3p22.1
Start
42,257,825 bp[1]
End
42,266,207 bp[1]
[show]Gene location (Mouse)
Chr.
Chromosome 9 (mouse)[2]
Band
9 72.43 cM|9 F4
Start
121,489,824 bp[2]
End
121,495,694 bp[2]
[hide]RNA expression pattern
More reference expression data
[show]Gene ontology
Molecular function
• hormone activity
• protein binding
• neuropeptide hormone activity
Cellular component
• perikaryon
• extracellular region
• terminal bouton
• neuronal cell body
• dendrite
• axon hillock
• axon initial segment
• extracellular space
• axon
Biological process
• regulation of sensory perception of pain
• eating behavior
• behavioral fear response
• negative regulation of appetite
• protein kinase C-activating G-protein coupled receptor signaling pathway
• positive regulation of mitochondrial depolarization
• positive regulation of glutamate secretion
• positive regulation of cell proliferation
• positive regulation of protein oligomerization
• positive regulation of peptidyl-tyrosine phosphorylation
• positive regulation of apoptotic process
• activation of cysteine-type endopeptidase activity involved in apoptotic process
• signal transduction
• release of cytochrome c from mitochondria
• apoptotic process
• neuron migration
• axonogenesis
• regulation of receptor activity
• G-protein coupled receptor signaling pathway
Sources:Amigo / QuickGO
Orthologs
Species
Human Mouse
Entrez
885
12424
Ensembl
ENSG00000187094
ENSMUSG00000032532
UniProt
P06307
P09240
RefSeq (mRNA)
NM_000729
NM_001174138
NM_031161
NM_001284508
RefSeq (protein)
NP_000720
NP_001167609
NP_001271437
NP_112438
Location (UCSC)
Chr 3: 42.26 – 42.27 Mb Chr 3: 121.49 – 121.5 Mb
PubMed search
[3] [4]
Wikidata
View/Edit Human View/Edit Mouse
Effects of cholecystokinin on the gastrointestinal tract. Cholecystokinin is secreted by I-cells in the small intestine and induces contraction of the gallbladder, relaxes the sphincter of Oddi, reduces of gastric acid secretion, increases bile acid production in the liver, delays gastric emptying, and induces digestive enzyme production in the pancreas.
Cholecystokinin (CCK or CCK-PZ; from Greek chole, "bile"; cysto, "sac"; kinin, "move"; hence, move the bile-sac (gallbladder)) is a peptide hormone of the gastrointestinal system responsible for stimulating the digestion of fat and protein. Cholecystokinin, previously called pancreozymin, is synthesized and secreted by enteroendocrine cells in the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine. Its presence causes the release of digestive enzymes and bile from the pancreas and gallbladder, respectively, and also acts as a hunger suppressant.[5][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
2 Function
2.1 Gastrointestinal
2.1.1 Digestion
2.1.2 Satiety
2.2 Neurological
2.2.1 Anxiogenic
2.2.2 Panicogenic
2.2.3 Hallucinogenic
3 Interactions
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Structure[edit]
The existence of CCK was first suggested in 1905 by the British physiologist Joy Simcha Cohen. It is a member of the gastrin/cholecystokinin family of peptide hormones and is very similar in structure to gastrin, another gastrointestinal hormone. CCK and gastrin share the same five C-terminal amino acids. CCK is composed of varying numbers of amino acids depending on post-translational modification of the 150-amino acid precursor, preprocholecystokinin.[7] Thus, the CCK peptide hormone exists in several forms, each identified by the number of amino acids it contains, e.g., CCK58, CCK33, CCK22 and CCK8. CCK58 assumes a helix-turn-helix configuration.[8] Biological activity resides in the C-terminus of the peptide. Most CCK peptides have a sulfate-group attached to a tyrosine located seven residues from the C-terminus.[7] This modification is crucial for the ability of CCK to activate the cholecystokinin A receptor. Nonsulfated CCK peptides also occur, which consequently cannot activate the CCK-A receptor.[9]
Function[edit]
CCK plays important physiologic roles both as a neuropeptide in the central nervous system and as a peptide hormone in the gut.[10] It participates in a number of physiological processes such as digestion, satiety and anxiety.
Gastrointestinal[edit]
CCK is synthesized and released by enteroendocrine cells in the mucosal lining of the small intestine (mostly in the duodenum and jejunum), called I cells, neurons of the enteric nervous system, and neurons in the brain.[5] It is released rapidly into the circulation in response to a meal. The greatest stimulator of CCK release is the presence of fatty acids and/or certain amino acids in the chyme entering the duodenum.[7] In addition, release of CCK is stimulated by monitor peptide (released by pancreatic acinar cells), CCK-releasing protein (via paracrine signalling mediated by enterocytes in the gastric and intestinal mucosa), and acetylcholine (released by the parasympathetic nerve fibers of the vagus nerve).[11]
Once in the circulatory system, CCK has a relatively short half-life.[12]
Digestion[edit]
CCK mediates digestion in the small intestine by inhibiting gastric emptying. It stimulates the acinar cells of the pancreas to release a juice rich in pancreatic digestive enzymes (hence an alternate name, pancreozymin) that catalyze the digestion of fat, protein, and carbohydrates. Thus, as the levels of the substances that stimulated the release of CCK drop, the concentration of the hormone drops as well. The release of CCK is also inhibited by somatostatin and pancreatic peptide. Trypsin, a protease released by pancreatic acinar cells, hydrolyzes CCK-releasing peptide and monitor peptide, in effect turning off the additional signals to secrete CCK.[13]
CCK also causes the increased production of hepatic bile, and stimulates the contraction of the gall bladder and the relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi (Glisson's sphincter), resulting in the delivery of bile into the duodenal part of the small intestine.[5][6] Bile salts form amphipathic lipids, micelles that emulsify fats, aiding in their digestion and absorption.[5]
Satiety[edit]
As a peptide hormone, CCK mediates satiety by acting on the CCK receptors distributed widely throughout the central nervous system. The mechanism for hunger suppression is thought to be a decrease in the rate of gastric emptying.[14] CCK also has stimulatory effects on the vagus nerve, effects that can be inhibited by capsaicin.[15] The stimulatory effects of CCK oppose those of ghrelin, which has been shown to inhibit the vagus nerve.[16]
The effects of CCK vary between individuals. For example, in rats, CCK administration significantly reduces hunger in adult males, but is slightly less effective in younger subjects, and even slightly less effective in females. The hunger-suppressive effects of CCK also are reduced in obese rats.[17]
Neurological[edit]
CCK is found extensively throughout the central nervous system, with high concentrations found in the limbic system.[18] CCK is synthesized as a 115 amino acid preprohormone, that is then converted into multiple isoforms.[18] The predominant form of CCK in the central nervous system is the sulfated octapeptide, CCK-8S.[18]
Anxiogenic[edit]
In both humans and rodents, studies clearly indicate that elevated CCK levels causes increased anxiety.[12] The site of the anxiety-inducing effects of CCK seems to be central with specific targets being the basolateral amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, peraqueductal grey, and cortical regions.[12][19]
Panicogenic[edit]
The CCK tetrapeptide fragment CCK-4 (Trp-Met-Asp-Phe-NH2) reliably causes anxiety and panic attacks (panicogenic effect) when administered to humans and is commonly used in scientific research for this purpose of in order to test new anxiolytic drugs.[19][20] Positron emission tomography visualization of regional cerebral blood flow in patients undergoing CCK-4 induced panic attacks show changes in the anterior cingulate gyrus, the claustrum-insular-amygdala region, and cerebellar vermis.[18]
Hallucinogenic[edit]
Several studies have implicated CCK as a cause of visual hallucinations in Parkinson’s disease. Mutations in CCK receptors in combination with mutated CCK genes potentiate this association. These studies also uncovered potential racial/ethnic differences in the distribution of mutated CCK genes.[10]
Interactions[edit]
CCK has been shown to interact with the Cholecystokinin A receptor located mainly on pancreatic acinar cells and Cholecystokinin B receptor mostly in the brain and stomach. CCKB receptor also binds gastrin, a gastrointestinal hormone involved in stimulating gastric acid release and growth of the gastric mucosa.[21][22][23] CCK has also been shown to interact with calcineurin in the pancreas. Calcineurin will go on to activate the transcription factors NFAT 1–3, which will stimulate hypertrophy and growth of the pancreas. CCK can be stimulated by a diet high in protein, or by protease inhibitors.[24] CCK has been shown to interact with orexin neurons, which control appetite and wakefulness (sleep).[25] CCK can have indirect effects on sleep regulation.[26]
CCK in the body cannot cross the blood-brain barrier, but certain parts of the hypothalamus and brainstem are not protected by the barrier.
See also[edit]
Antianalgesia
Cholecystokinin antagonist
Proglumide
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000187094 - Ensembl, May 2017
^ Jump up to: a b c GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000032532 - Ensembl, May 2017
Jump up ^ "Human PubMed Reference:".
Jump up ^ "Mouse PubMed Reference:".
^ Jump up to: a b c d Johnson LR (2013). Gastrointestinal Physiology (Eighth ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier/Mosby. ISBN 978-0-323-10085-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Bowen R (28 January 2001). "Cholecystokinin". Colorado State University. Archived from the original on 17 March 2016. Retrieved 6 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Chaudhri O, Small C, Bloom S (July 2006). "Gastrointestinal hormones regulating appetite". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 361 (1471): 1187–209. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1856. PMC 1642697  . PMID 16815798.
Jump up ^ Reeve JR, Eysselein VE, Rosenquist G, Zeeh J, Regner U, Ho FJ, Chew P, Davis MT, Lee TD, Shively JE, Brazer SR, Liddle RA (May 1996). "Evidence that CCK-58 has structure that influences its biological activity". The American Journal of Physiology. 270 (5 Pt 1): G860–8. PMID 8967499.
Jump up ^ Agersnap M, Rehfeld JF (August 2014). "Measurement of nonsulfated cholecystokinins". Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation. 74 (5): 424–31. doi:10.3109/00365513.2014.900695. PMID 24734780.
^ Jump up to: a b Lenka A, Arumugham SS, Christopher R, Pal PK (May 2016). "Genetic substrates of psychosis in patients with Parkinson's disease: A critical review". Journal of the Neurological Sciences. 364: 33–41. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2016.03.005. PMID 27084212.
Jump up ^ Chey WY, Chang T (2001-01-01). "Neural hormonal regulation of exocrine pancreatic secretion". Pancreatology. 1 (4): 320–35. PMID 12120211.
^ Jump up to: a b c Skibicka KP, Dickson SL (December 2013). "Enteroendocrine hormones - central effects on behavior". Current Opinion in Pharmacology. 13 (6): 977–82. doi:10.1016/j.coph.2013.09.004. PMID 24091195.
Jump up ^ Liddle RA (September 1995). "Regulation of cholecystokinin secretion by intraluminal releasing factors". The American Journal of Physiology. 269 (3 Pt 1): G319–27. PMID 7573441.
Jump up ^ Shillabeer G, Davison JS (February 1987). "Proglumide, a cholecystokinin antagonist, increases gastric emptying in rats". The American Journal of Physiology. 252 (2 Pt 2): R353–60. PMID 3812772.
Jump up ^ Holzer P (July 1998). "Neural injury, repair, and adaptation in the GI tract. II. The elusive action of capsaicin on the vagus nerve". The American Journal of Physiology. 275 (1 Pt 1): G8–13. PMID 9655678.
Jump up ^ Kobelt P, Tebbe JJ, Tjandra I, Stengel A, Bae HG, Andresen V, van der Voort IR, Veh RW, Werner CR, Klapp BF, Wiedenmann B, Wang L, Taché Y, Mönnikes H (March 2005). "CCK inhibits the orexigenic effect of peripheral ghrelin". American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology. 288 (3): R751–8. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00094.2004. PMID 15550621.
Jump up ^ Fink H, Rex A, Voits M, Voigt JP (November 1998). "Major biological actions of CCK--a critical evaluation of research findings". Experimental Brain Research. 123 (1-2): 77–83. doi:10.1007/s002210050546. PMID 9835394.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bowers ME, Choi DC, Ressler KJ (December 2012). "Neuropeptide regulation of fear and anxiety: Implications of cholecystokinin, endogenous opioids, and neuropeptide Y". Physiology & Behavior. 107 (5): 699–710. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.03.004. PMC 3532931  . PMID 22429904.
^ Jump up to: a b Zwanzger P, Domschke K, Bradwejn J (September 2012). "Neuronal network of panic disorder: the role of the neuropeptide cholecystokinin". Depression and Anxiety. 29 (9): 762–74. doi:10.1002/da.21919. PMID 22553078.
Jump up ^ Bradwejn J (July 1993). "Neurobiological investigations into the role of cholecystokinin in panic disorder". Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience. 18 (4): 178–88. PMC 1188527  . PMID 8104032.
Jump up ^ Harikumar KG, Clain J, Pinon DI, Dong M, Miller LJ (January 2005). "Distinct molecular mechanisms for agonist peptide binding to types A and B cholecystokinin receptors demonstrated using fluorescence spectroscopy". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 280 (2): 1044–50. doi:10.1074/jbc.M409480200. PMID 15520004.
Jump up ^ Aloj L, Caracò C, Panico M, Zannetti A, Del Vecchio S, Tesauro D, De Luca S, Arra C, Pedone C, Morelli G, Salvatore M (March 2004). "In vitro and in vivo evaluation of 111In-DTPAGlu-G-CCK8 for cholecystokinin-B receptor imaging". Journal of Nuclear Medicine. 45 (3): 485–94. PMID 15001692.
Jump up ^ Galés C, Poirot M, Taillefer J, Maigret B, Martinez J, Moroder L, Escrieut C, Pradayrol L, Fourmy D, Silvente-Poirot S (May 2003). "Identification of tyrosine 189 and asparagine 358 of the cholecystokinin 2 receptor in direct interaction with the crucial C-terminal amide of cholecystokinin by molecular modeling, site-directed mutagenesis, and structure/affinity studies". Molecular Pharmacology. 63 (5): 973–82. doi:10.1124/mol.63.5.973. PMID 12695525.
Jump up ^ Gurda GT, Guo L, Lee SH, Molkentin JD, Williams JA (January 2008). "Cholecystokinin activates pancreatic calcineurin-NFAT signaling in vitro and in vivo". Molecular Biology of the Cell. 19 (1): 198–206. doi:10.1091/mbc.E07-05-0430. PMC 2174201  . PMID 17978097.
Jump up ^ Tsujino N, Yamanaka A, Ichiki K, Muraki Y, Kilduff TS, Yagami K, Takahashi S, Goto K, Sakurai T (August 2005). "Cholecystokinin activates orexin/hypocretin neurons through the cholecystokinin A receptor". The Journal of Neuroscience. 25 (32): 7459–69. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1193-05.2005. PMID 16093397.
Jump up ^ Kapas L (2010). Metabolic signals in sleep regulation: the role of cholecystokinin (PDF). The Journal of Neuroscience (PhD thesis). University of Szeged.
External links[edit]
Media related to Cholecystokinin at Wikimedia Commons
Cholecystokinin at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
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GLP-1
Agonists: Albiglutide
Beinaglutide
Dulaglutide
Efpeglenatide
Exenatide
GLP-1
Langlenatide
Liraglutide
Lixisenatide
Oxyntomodulin
Semaglutide
Taspoglutide
GLP-2
Agonists: Elsiglutide
Glepaglutide
GLP-2
Teduglutide
Others
Propeptides: Preproglucagon
Proglucagon
Glucagon
Agonists: Dasiglucagon
Glucagon
Oxyntomodulin
Antagonists: Adomeglivant
L-168,049
LGD-6972
Propeptides: Preproglucagon
Proglucagon
GnRH
Agonists: Peptide: Avorelin
Azagly-nafarelin
Buserelin
Deslorelin
Fertirelin
GnRH
Gonadorelin
Goserelin
Histrelin
Leuprorelin (leuprolide)
Lutrelin
Nafarelin
Peforelin
Triptorelin
Zoptarelin doxorubicin
Antagonists: Peptide: Abarelix
Acyline
Cetrorelix
Degarelix
Detirelix
Ganirelix
Iturelix
Ozarelix
Prazarelix
Ramorelix
Teverelix (antarelix); Non-peptide: ASP-1707
Elagolix
KLH-2109 (OBE-2109)
Relugolix
Sufugolix
Gonadotropin
LH/CG
Agonists: Choriogonadotropin alfa
Human chorionic gonadotropin
Luteinizing hormone
Lutropin alfa
Menotropin (human menopausal gonadotropin)
FSH
Agonists: Corifollitropin alfa
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Follitropin alfa
Follitropin beta
Follitropin epsilon
Menotropin (human menopausal gonadotropin)
Urofollitropin
Varfollitropin alfa
NAMs: ADX-61623
Growth factor
See here instead.
Insulin
Agonists: Chaetochromin (4548-G05)
Insulin-like growth factor 1
Insulin-like growth factor 2
Insulin
Insulin aspart
Insulin degludec
Insulin detemir
Insulin glargine
Insulin glulisine
Insulin lispro
Mecasermin
Mecasermin rinfabate
Antagonists: BMS-754807
S661
S961
Kinase inhibitors: Linsitinib
Antibodies: Xentuzumab (against IGF-1 and IGF-2)
Kisspeptin
Agonists: Kisspeptin
Kisspeptin-10
Antagonists: Kisspeptin-234
Leptin
Agonists: Leptin
Metreleptin
MCH
MCH1
Agonists: Melanin concentrating hormone
Antagonists: ATC-0065
ATC-0175
GW-803430
NGD-4715
SNAP-7941
SNAP-94847
MCH2
Agonists: Melanin concentrating hormone
Melanocortin
See here instead.
Neuropeptide FF
Agonists: Neuropeptide AF
Neuropeptide FF
Neuropeptide SF (RFRP-1)
Neuropeptide VF (RFRP-3)
Antagonists: BIBP-3226
RF9
Neuropeptide S
Agonists: Neuropeptide S
Antagonists: ML-154
SHA-68
Neuropeptide Y
Y1
Agonists: Neuropeptide Y
Peptide YY
Antagonists: BIBO-3304
BIBP-3226
BVD-10
GR-231118
PD-160170
Y2
Agonists: 2-Thiouridine 5'-triphosphate
Neuropeptide Y
Neuropeptide Y (13-36)
Peptide YY
Peptide YY (3-36)
Antagonists: BIIE-0246
JNJ-5207787
SF-11
Y4
Agonists: GR-231118
Neuropeptide Y
Pancreatic polypeptide
Peptide YY
Antagonists: UR-AK49
Y5
Agonists: BWX-46
Neuropeptide Y
Peptide YY
Antagonists: CGP-71683
FMS-586
L-152,804
Lu AA-33810
MK-0557
NTNCB
Velneperit (S-2367)
Neurotensin
NTS1
Agonists: Neurotensin
Neuromedin N
Antagonists: Meclinertant
SR-142948
NTS2
Agonists: Neurotensin
Antagonists: Levocabastine
SR-142948
Opioid
See here instead.
Orexin
OX1
Agonists: Orexin (A, B)
Antagonists: ACT-335827
ACT-462206
Almorexant
Filorexant
Lemborexant
SB-334867
SB-408124
SB-649868
Suvorexant
TCS-1102
OX2
Agonists: Orexin (A, B)
SB-668875
Antagonists: ACT-335827
ACT-462206
Almorexant
EMPA
Filorexant
JNJ-10397049
Lemborexant
MK-1064
SB-649868
Seltorexant
Suvorexant
TCS-1102
TCS-OX2-29
Oxytocin
See here instead.
Prolactin
Agonists: Growth hormone
Human placental lactogen
Placental growth hormone (growth hormone variant)
Prolactin
S179D-hPRL
Somatotropin
Antagonists: Δ1–9-G129R-hPRL
Δ1–14-G129R-hPRL
G120K-hGH
G129R-hPRL
Prolactin modulators: Prolactin inhibitors: D2 receptor agonists (e.g., bromocriptine, cabergoline); Prolactin releasers: D2 receptor antagonists (e.g., domperidone, metoclopramide, risperidone)
Estrogens (e.g., estradiol)
Progestogens (e.g., progesterone)
PTH
Agonists: Abaloparatide
Parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP)
Semparatide
Teriparatide
Relaxin
Agonists: Insulin-like factor 3
Relaxin (1, 2, 3)
Serelaxin
Somatostatin
See here instead.
Tachykinin
See here instead.
TRH
Agonists: Azetirelin
Fertirelin
Montirelin
Orotirelin
Posatirelin
Protirelin
Rovatirelin
Taltirelin
TRH (TRF)
TSH
Agonists: Thyrotropin alfa
TSH (thyrotropin)
Vasopressin
See here instead.
VIP/PACAP
VIPR1
Agonists: Peptide: Bay 55-9837
LBT-3393
PACAP
VIP
VIPR2
Agonists: Peptide: LBT-3627
PACAP
VIP
PAC1
Agonists: PACAP
PACAP (1-27)
PACAP (1-38)
Antagonists: PACAP (6-38)
Unsorted
PHI
PHM
PHV
Others
Endogenous: Adrenomedullin
Apelin
Asprosin
Bombesin
Calcitonin
Carnosine
CART
CLIP
DSIP
Enteroglucagon
Formyl peptide
GALP
GIP
GRP
Integrin ligands (collagens, fibrinogen, fibronectin, laminins, ICAM-1, ICAM-2, osteopontin, VCAM-1, vitronectin)
Kininogens
Motilin
Natriuretic peptides (ANP, BNP, CNP, urodilatin)
Nesfatin-1
Neuromedin B
Neuromedin N
Neuromedin S
Neuromedin U
Obestatin
Osteocalcin
Resistin
Secretin
Thymopoietin
Thymosins
Thymulin
Urotensin-II
VGF
Exogenous: Lifitegrast (LFA-1 antagonist)
See also
Receptor/signaling modulators
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cholecystokinin&oldid=818087397"
Categories:
Genes on human chromosome 3
Cholecystokinin
Anxiogenics
Hepatology
Intestinal hormones
Neuropeptides
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Genomic location for CCK

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