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The Duprees
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The Duprees are an American musical group of doo-wop style who had a series of hit records in the early 1960s.
Contents
[hide]
1 Career
2 Modern-day group
3 Discography
4 Chart performance
4.1 Albums chart
4.2 Singles chart
5 References
6 External links
Career[edit]
The group was founded in the early 1960s in Jersey City, New Jersey, by William L. Dickinson High School students Michael Arnone, Joe Santollo, John Salvato, Tom Bialoglow, and lead singer Joey Canzano (later known as Joey Vann). George Paxton, a former big band leader was impressed by the group's style and signed them to his Coed Records label. Their first single, "You Belong to Me", had been a hit for Jo Stafford in 1952.[1] The Duprees' version was given a big band backing by Paxton and reached the US top ten in 1962.
The group had more top 40 hits in the next few years. "My Own True Love" was a vocal adaptation of "Tara's Theme" from the soundtrack of Gone with the Wind and became the group's second hit. "Have You Heard" and "Why Don't You Believe Me" also reached the Top 40 charts and, like "You Belong to Me," were originally early 1950s female vocal hits (Joni James, in this case).[1] The group became known for mixing doo-wop vocals with big band arrangements. Tom Bialoglow left in 1963. Mike Kelly, who had recorded on the group's original demos for George Paxton, replaced Joey Vann as lead vocalist in 1964, and formally left the group in 1977. In the late 1960s and early 1970s they released an album under the name The Italian Asphalt & Pavement Company (or I. A. P. CO.), and had a minor hit called "Check Yourself." Mike Arnone kept the group going into the 1980s with Richie Rosato on lead, Al Latta on baritone, Bob Leszczak on first tenor, Bobby Wells on keyboards, and Duane O'Hara on drums. This group lasted from 1981-83.
Joe Santollo died in 1981, Joey Vann died in 1984, and Mike Arnone died in 2005. John Salvato is a booking agent. Mike Kelly, who sang briefly with The Chaperones in 2006, died of cancer on August 7, 2012.[2] Tommy Bialoglow had his own group called Twilight Time and currently performs with Joe Zisa & Friends "Jersey Tribute".
The Original Duprees (Joey Vann Canzano, Mike Kelly, John Salvato, Tom Bialoglow, Joe Santollo, and Mike Arnone) were inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 2006.
Modern-day group[edit]
In 1990, Mike Arnone took a back seat to performing so he could manage the group full-time. He died in 2005. The current edition of the Duprees are led by Tony Testa. He was one of the original guitarists for the Duprees during the early years. In 1989 Mike Arnone asked him to return to The Duprees as its Musical Director. Testa also sings bass, baritone and top falsetto parts for the group. Phil Granito has been with the Duprees since 1987. Jimmy Spinelli joined the group in 1989. Tommy Petillo is the group's fourth member who was the last lead singer to perform with the original Duprees.[3]
Discography[edit]
"You Belong to Me" (1962)
"Have You Heard" (1963)
"Total Recall" (1968)
Chart performance[edit]
Albums chart[edit]
You Belong to Me - #101 Billboard 200 (1962)
Have You Heard - (1963)
The Italian Asphalt & Pavement Company - (1970)
Singles chart[edit]
All chart listings are according to Billboard
"My Own True Love" - Pop Chart #13 (1962)
"You Belong to Me" - Pop Chart #7 (1962)
"Gone with the Wind" - Pop Chart #89 (1963)
"Have You Heard?" - Pop Chart #18 (1963)
"Why Don't You Believe Me" - Pop Chart #37 (1963)
"(It's No) Sin" - Pop Chart #74 (1964)
"Check Yourself" - Pop Chart #97 (1970)
"Delicious" - Disco Singles #3 (1975)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Richie Unterberger. "The Duprees". Allmusic. Retrieved 2012-08-09.
Jump up ^ Doc Rock. "The Dead Rock Stars Club 2012 July To December". Thedeadrockstarsclub.com. Retrieved 2012-08-09.
Jump up ^ Chere, Rich (October 17, 2011). "No harmony between past and present Duprees". The Star-Ledger.
http://www.nj.com/entertainment/music/index.ssf/2012/08/mike_kelly_of_the_duprees_dead.html
External links[edit]
Official website of the modern-day group
The Music of the Original Duprees on Facebook
Authority control
MusicBrainz: f2c0db29-f631-4212-8c4c-f419c2e91b07
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Duprees&oldid=817117159"
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Caritas Internationalis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Caritas Internationalis Group
Founded
9 November 1897[1]
(120 years ago)
Founder
Lorenz Werthmann
Focus
Humanitarian aid, International development and social service
Location
Vatican City
Area served
Worldwide
Key people
Luis Antonio Tagle, president
Website
http://www.caritas.org
The Caritas House in Caine Road, Mid-levels, Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong.
St. Nicholas Orphanage, established by Caritas in Novosibirsk, Russia.
Caritas Internationalis is a confederation of 165[2] Catholic relief, development and social service organisations operating in over 200 countries and territories worldwide.
Collectively and individually their claimed mission is to work to build a better world, especially for the poor and oppressed.[3] The first Caritas organisation was established by Lorenz Werthmann on 9 November 1897 in Germany.[1] Other national Caritas organisations were soon formed in Switzerland (1901) and the United States (Catholic Charities, 1910).
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Caritas national and regional agencies
2.1 Africa
2.2 Asia
2.3 Europe
2.4 North America, Central America and the Caribbean
2.5 Oceania
2.6 South America
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
History[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In July 1924, during the international Eucharistic Congress in Amsterdam, 60 delegates from 22 countries formed a conference, with headquarters at Caritas Switzerland in Lucerne. In 1928, the conference became known as Caritas Catholica. The delegates met every two years until the outbreak of the Second World War when all activities came to a standstill. Work resumed in 1947, with the approval of the Secretariat of State, and two conferences convened in Lucerne to help coordinate efforts and collaboration. Caritas was given a further endorsement when the Secretariat of State entrusted it with the official representation of all welfare organisations at the international level, especially at the United Nations. The Holy Year in 1950 saw the beginning of a union of Caritas organisations. Following a suggestion by Msgr Montini, then Substitute Secretary of State, and later Pope Paul VI, a study week, with participants from 22 countries, was held in Rome to examine the problems of Christian Caritas work. As a result, the decision was made to set up an international conference of Roman Catholic charities.
In December 1951, upon approval of the statutes by the Holy See, the first constitutive General Assembly of Caritas Internationalis took place. Founding members came from Caritas organisations in 13 countries: Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Netherlands, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States. The Church describes Caritas as its official voice “in relation to its teachings in the area of charity work”.[4]
In 1954, the Confederation changed its name to Caritas Internationalis to reflect the international presence of Caritas members on every continent.[4] As of 2015, the Confederation has 164 members working in over 200 countries and territories. Its General Secretariat is located in the Palazzo San Calisto, Vatican City. The current president is Luis Antonio Cardinal Tagle and the Secretary General is Michel Roy.[citation needed]
Caritas national and regional agencies[edit]
The full membership list of Caritas organisations includes:
Africa[edit]
45 national agencies in Sub-Saharan Africa
Chad – SECADEV (Caritas Chad) has partnered with the Canadian bishops' Development and Peace program to provide essential aid for Sudanese refugees in Chad, including access to water, financing for small businesses and agricultural projects.[5]
Egypt (part of MENA regional agency)
Kenya – Caritas Nairobi- operated by the Archdiocese of Nairobi
Nigeria – Caritas Nigeria claims to work with local diocesan Caritas to bring relief to displaced families in the North East region displaced because of attacks by Boko Haram.[6]
Uganda – Caritas Uganda (founded in 1970)[7]
Asia[edit]
24 national agencies including:
Bangladesh - Caritas Bangladesh
Cambodia – Caritas Cambodia
Hong Kong – Caritas Hong Kong operated by the Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong
Indonesia – Caritas Indonesia – KARINA
Caritas Bandung – operated by the Diocese of Bandung
Cordia Caritas Medan – operated by Archdiocese of Medan
Caritas Keuskupan Sibolga – operated by Roman Catholic Diocese of Sibolga
Caritas Keuskupan Agung Semarang – Karina KAS – operated by Archdiocese of Semarang
Caritas Tanjungkarang – operated by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Tanjungkarang
India - Caritas India claimed in its Decennial Report that the organization invested US$75 million on 14 major emergencies across the country during 2014-2015 period.[8]
Japan – Caritas Japan
Korea – Caritas Korea
Macau – Caritas de Macau – established the Family Casework & Assistance Service, Our Lady of Mt. Carmel Home for the Elderly, St. Luis Gonzaga Center for the Disabled and Institute of Social Work, the first Institute in Macau offering training for social workers.[9]
Philippines – Caritas Manila claims a focus on Education, Health, and Disaster Risk Reduction and Management as flagship programs.[10]
Singapore – Caritas Singapore
Vietnam – Caritas Việt Nam (26 members of the diocesan)
MENA regional agency Caritas MONA] with 17 national agencies including:
Cyprus
Jordan – Caritas Jordan has taken part in efforts to support displaced Syrians since December 2011 and is still active in addressing the needs of refugees.[11]
Lebanon – Caritas Lebanon works through different centers throughout the country, delivering food parcels, hygiene kits and blankets to refugee families from war-torn Syria. There is also medical assistance through mobile clinics and health centers.[12]
Syria
Europe[edit]
Nursery home of the German Caritas
Caritas Europa with 48 national agencies including:
Armenia- Armenian Caritas
Austria – Caritas Osterreich
Belgium – Caritas Catholica Belgica
Bosnia and Herzegovina – Caritas Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria – Caritas Bulgaria
Croatia – Caritas Republic of Croatia
Czech Republic – Charita Česká republika
Denmark – Caritas Danmark
England and Wales – where there are two Caritas agencies: CAFOD and Caritas – Social Action
Finland – Suomen Caritas ry
France – where the Caritas agency is Secours catholique
Germany – Caritas Deutschland
Greece - Κάριτας Ελλάς
Hungary – Katolikus Karitász
Ireland – where the Caritas agency is Trócaire
Italy – Caritas Italiana
Lithuania – Caritas Lithuania
Luxembourg – Caritas Luxembourg
Malta – Caritas Malta
Moldova – Caritas Moldova
Netherlands – where the Caritas agency is CORDAID
Norway – Caritas Norge
Poland – Caritas Polska
Portugal – Caritas Portugal – Caritas Portuguesa
Romania – Confederația Caritas România
Russia – Caritas in the European Part of Russia
Scotland – where the Caritas agency is SCIAF
Serbia – Caritas Republic of Serbia
Slovakia – Slovenská katolícka charita
Slovenia – Slovenska Karitas
Spain – Cáritas Española
Sweden – Caritas Sverige
Switzerland – Caritas Switzerland
Ukraine - Карітас України (Caritas Ukraine) claims to focus its activities in the sphere of health care – including home care and palliative care; assistance to children and youth, in activities related to migrant processes, and assistance to individuals in crisis situations.[13]
North America, Central America and the Caribbean[edit]
Antillas
Canada – Canadian Catholic Organization for Development and Peace (Caritas Canada)[14]
Costa Rica
Cuba – Caritas Cuba
Dominican Republic
El Salvador – Caritas El Salvador
Guatemala – Caritas Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Mexico – Caritas Mexico
Nicaragua
Panamá
Puerto Rico
United States – Catholic Relief Services, Catholic Charities USA, Caritas USA, formerly Caritas Christi Health Care
Oceania[edit]
6 regional agencies, including:
Australia – Caritas Australia claims involvement in peacebuilding and reconciliation programs in Brazil, Sri Lanka, The Philippines, Papua New Guinea and elsewhere.[15]
New Zealand – Caritas Aotearoa New Zealand
Papua New Guinea – Caritas PNG
Caritas Samoa claims to give assistance to low income families, provides capacity-building initiatives for women, help with the improvement of rural waters supplies, and provides assistance to address needs caused by natural disasters.[2]
South America[edit]
Argentina – Caritas Argentina
Bolivia – Caritas de Bolivia
Brasil – Caritas Brasil
Chile – Caritas de Chile
Colombia
Ecuador Caritas de Ecuador
Perú – Cáritas Perú
Uruguay – Caritas Uruguay
Venezuela – Caritas de Venezuela
See also[edit]
Catholic social teaching
Fidesco International
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "The History of Caritas in Germany". Caritas Deutschland. Archived from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 27 October 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Caritas means charity – In Samoan it means Alofa", Samoa Observer, 13 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Caritas Internationalis Archived 9 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b "History - Caritas Internationalis". Caritas Internationalis. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Sudan/Darfur". Development and Peace. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Boko Haram threatens Nigeria's Home of Peace - Caritas Internationalis". Caritas Internationalis. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Caritas Uganda". Retrieved 12 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Caritas India sees surge in local donors ucanews.com". Ucanews.com. Retrieved 9 September 2016.
Jump up ^ "Caritas". Retrieved 24 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Caritas Manila - History". Retrieved 24 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Caritas Jordan Humanitarian Respond towards Syrian Refugees in Jordan". Retrieved 24 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Temperature drop in Lebanon leaving Syrian refugees out in cold - Caritas Internationalis". Caritas Internationalis. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "What is Caritas?", Caritas Ukraine Archived 6 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Caritas Canada". Development and Peace. Retrieved 24 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Peacebuilding and reconciliation, Caritas Australia; accessed 19 November 2016.
External links[edit]
Caritas Internationalis
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Colonial American military history
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Colonial American military history is the military record of the Thirteen Colonies from their founding to the American Revolution in 1775.
George Washington in 1772 as colonel of the Virginia Regiment; painting by Charles Willson Peale
Contents
[hide]
1 Rangers
2 Militia
3 Indian wars
4 Dutch wars
5 Spanish wars
6 France and Britain at war
6.1 King William's War: 1689–1697
6.2 Queen Anne's War
6.3 Father Rale's War
6.4 King George's War
6.5 Father Le Loutre's War
6.6 French and Indian War: 1754–63
6.6.1 Pennsylvania
6.6.2 Acadia / Nova Scotia
6.6.3 New York
6.6.4 Louisbourg
6.6.5 Canada
6.6.6 Legacy
7 Pontiac's rebellion
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
10.1 Historiography and memory
Rangers[edit]
Main article: United States Army Rangers
Rangers in North America served in the 17th and 18th-century wars between colonists and Native American tribes. The British regulars were not accustomed to frontier warfare and so Ranger companies were developed. Rangers were full-time soldiers employed by colonial governments to patrol between fixed frontier fortifications in reconnaissance, providing early warning of raids. In offensive operations, they were scouts and guides, locating villages and other targets for task forces drawn from the militia or other colonial troops.
The father of American ranging is Colonel Benjamin Church (c. 1639–1718).[1] He was the captain of the first Ranger force in America (1676).[2] Church was commissioned by Plymouth Colony Governor Josiah Winslow to form the first ranger company for King Philip's War. He later employed the company to raid Acadia during King William's War and Queen Anne's War.
Benjamin Church designed his force primarily to emulate Native American patterns of war. Toward this end, he endeavored to learn from Native Americans how to fight like Native Americans.[1] Americans became rangers exclusively under the tutelage of the Indian allies. (Until the end of the colonial period, rangers depended on Indians as both allies and teachers.)[3] Church developed a special full-time unit mixing white colonists, selected for frontier skills, with friendly Native Americans to carry out offensive strikes against hostile Native Americans in terrain where normal militia units were ineffective.
Under Church served the father and grandfather of two famous rangers of the eighteenth century: John Lovewell and John Gorham, respectively.[4] Rogers' Rangers was established in 1751[5] by Major Robert Rogers, who organized nine Ranger companies in the American colonies. These early American light infantry units organized during the French and Indian War were called "Rangers" and are often considered to be the spiritual birthplace of the modern Army Rangers.
Militia[edit]
The beginning of the United States military lies in local governments which created militias that enrolled nearly all free white men. The British Army and Royal Navy handled international wars. The militia was not employed as a fighting force in major operations outside the local jurisdiction. Instead, the colony asked for (and paid) volunteers (e.g., Rangers), many of whom were also militia members. The local Indian threat ended by 1725 in most places, after which the militia system was little used except for local ceremonial roles.
The militia system was revived at the end of the colonial era, as the American Revolution approached; weapons were accumulated and intensive training began. The militia played a major fighting role in the Revolution, especially in expelling the British from Boston in 1776 and capturing the invading British Army at Saratoga in 1777. However most of the fighting was handled by the Continental Army, comprising regular soldiers.[6]
Indian wars[edit]
Military actions in the colonies were the result of conflicts with Native Americans in the early years of the British colonization of North America, such as in the Anglo-Powhatan Wars between 1610 and 1646, the Pequot War of 1637, King Philip's War in 1675, the Susquehannock war in 1675–77,[7] and the Yamasee War in 1715. Father Rale's War (1722–1725) happened in Maine and Nova Scotia. There also occurred slave uprisings, such as the Stono Rebellion in 1739. Finally, there was Father Le Loutre's War, which also involved Acadians, in the lead-up to the French and Indian War.
Dutch wars[edit]
Main article: Anglo-Dutch Wars
Kieft's War was a conflict between Dutch settlers and Indians in the colony of New Netherland from 1643 to 1645. The fighting involved raids and counter-raids. It was bloody in proportion to the population; more than 1,600 natives were killed at a time when the European population of New Amsterdam was only 250.
Spanish wars[edit]
The British fought the Spanish in the War of Jenkins' Ear, 1739–1748. After 1742 the war merged into the larger War of the Austrian Succession involving most of the powers of Europe. Georgia beat back a Spanish invasion of Georgia in 1742, and some sporadic border fighting continued. The war merged into King George's War, which ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.
France and Britain at war[edit]
Beginning in 1689, the colonies also frequently became involved in a series of four major wars between Britain and France for control of North America, the most important of which were Queen Anne's War, in which the British won French Acadia (Nova Scotia), and the final French and Indian War (1754–1763), when France lost all of Canada. This final war gave thousands of colonists military experience, including George Washington, which they put to use during the American Revolution.
Britain and France fought a series of four French and Indian Wars, followed with another war in 1778 when France joined the Americans in the American Revolution. The French settlers in New France were outnumbered 15–1 by the 13 American colonies,[8] so the French relied heavily on Indian allies.
The wars were long and bloody, causing immense suffering for everyone involved. In the long run, the Indians were the biggest losers; many were on the losing side, as Spain and France were defeated. When the British finally won full control, the Indian power was sharply limited. Frontier settlers were exposed to sudden Indian raids; many were killed or captured, and even more were forced back from the frontier. One profitable form of wartime activity in which colonists engaged was privateering—legalized piracy against enemy merchant ships. Another was hunting enemy Indians for the purpose of scalping them and claiming the cash bounty offered by colonial governments.[9]
King William's War: 1689–1697[edit]
Main article: King William's War
"I have no reply to make to your general other than from the mouth of my cannons and muskets." Frontenac famously rebuffs the English envoys at the Battle of Quebec (1690)
King William's War (1689–97) (also known as the "Nine Years' War" and the "War of the League of Augsburg") was a phase of the larger Anglo-French conflict for colonial domination throughout the world. New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy were able to thwart New England expansion into Acadia by raiding settlements south of present-day Maine, whose border New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine.[10]
Sir William Phips moved with his New England militia in 1690 to take the French strongholds at Port Royal and at Quebec, the latter commanded by Comte de Frontenac, the governor of New France. Phips conquered the capital of Acadia and various other communities in the colony (e.g., Battle of Chedabucto). (Present-day Maine and New Brunswick remained contested territories between New England and New France.) Phips's written ultimatum demanding Fontenac's surrender at Quebec prompted Frontenac to say that his reply would come only "from the mouths of my cannon and muskets."
The New England militia had to reckon with Quebec's formidable natural defenses, its superior number of soldiers, and the coming of winter, and Phips finally sailed back to Boston with his hungry, smallpox-ridden, and demoralized force. His failure shows a growing recognition of the need to replicate European combat techniques and to move closer to England's war policy in order to achieve military success.[11]
The Iroquois suffered heavily in King William's War and were brought into the French trading network, along with other western Indians. The colonists' treatment of Indian tribes after King Philip's War led directly the Wabanaki tribe's involvement in the war. It retained significant power relative to the colonists, unlike tribes in southern New England, and rejected attempts to exert authority over them. Treaties made during 1678–84 included concessions to Indian sovereignty, but such concessions were largely ignored in practice.[citation needed] Expanding settlements fueled tensions and led to Indian threats of a repeat of the violence of King Philip's War and offered an opportunity to the French, who wanted to counter English influence in the region. The lack of stability and authority evidenced by the imprisonment of Governor Andros in 1689 combined with existing grievances and French encouragement led to Wabanaki attacks on settlements on the Northeast coast, a pattern that was repeated until the withdrawal of the French in 1763.[12]
Queen Anne's War[edit]
Main article: Queen Anne's War
Francis Nicholson, commander during the Conquest of Acadia
Queen Anne's War (1702–1713) was the second war for control of the continent and was the counterpart of the War of the Spanish Succession in Europe. The conflict also involved a number of American Indian tribes and Spain, which was allied with France.
Carolina governor James Moore led an unsuccessful attack in 1702 on St. Augustine, the capital of Spanish Florida, and led one of several raiding expeditions in 1704-6 that wiped out much of Florida's Indian population. Thomas Nairne, the Province of Carolina's Indian agent, planned an expedition of British soldiers and their Indian allies to destroy the French settlement at Mobile and the Spanish settlement at Pensacola. The expedition never materialized, but the British did supply their allies with firearms, which the Tallapoosas used in their siege of Pensacola. These warriors proved their effectiveness in combining native tactics and European arms, but the English failed to compensate them adequately and seriously underestimated their importance as the key to the balance of power in the southeastern interior. Consequently, the Tallapoosas and other tribes had shifted allegiance to the other side by 1716 and prepared to use what they had learned against South Carolina settlements.[13]
The French and Wabanaki Confederacy sought to thwart New England expansion into Acadia, whose border New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine.[10] Toward this end, they executed raids against targets in Massachusetts (including present-day Maine), starting with Northeast Coast Campaign.
In 1704, French and Indian forces attacked a number of villages and Deerfield, Massachusetts was prepared for an attack. The attack came during the night of 28 February 1704; much of the village was burned, many were killed, and others were taken captive. Seventeen of the captives were killed along the way to Canada, as they were injured and could not keep up, and starvation took additional lives.
Major Benjamin Church retaliated by raiding Acadia (see Raid on Grand Pre) and captured prisoners for ransom, the most famous Acadian captive being Noel Doiron. Eventually, 53 New England captives returned home, including one of the targets of the invaders, the Reverend John Williams. His accounts of the experience made him famous throughout the colonies.[14] South Carolina was especially vulnerable, and Charleston repulsed an attempted raid by French and Spanish fleets in the summer of 1706.
French privateers inflicted serious losses on New England's fishing and shipping industries. The privateering was finally curbed in 1710 when Britain provided military support to its American colonists resulting in the British Conquest of Acadia (which became peninsular Nova Scotia), the main base used by the privateers.[15] The war ended with a British victory in 1713. By the Treaty of Utrecht, Britain gained Acadia, the island of Newfoundland, the Hudson Bay region, and the Caribbean island of St. Kitts. France was required to recognize British authority over the Iroquois.
Following Queen Anne's War, relations deteriorated between Carolina and the nearby Indian populations, resulting in the Yamasee War of 1715. Father Rale's War a few years later, shifted power in the northeast.
Father Rale's War[edit]
Main article: Father Rale's War
War continued in Acadia, however. Father Rale's War (1722–1725), also known as Dummer's War, was a series of battles between New England and the Wabanaki Confederacy, who were allied with New France. After the New England Conquest of Acadia in 1710, mainland Nova Scotia was under the control of New England, but both present-day New Brunswick and virtually all of present-day Maine remained contested territory between New England and New France. New France established Catholic missions among the three largest native villages in order to secure their claim to the region: one on the Kennebec River (Norridgewock), one further north on the Penobscot River (Penobscot), and one on the St. John River (Medoctec).[16][17]
The war began on two fronts when New England expanded through Maine and when New England established a settlement at Canso, Nova Scotia. Maine fell to the New Englanders with the defeat of Father Sébastien Rale at Norridgewock and the subsequent retreat of the Indians from the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers to St. Francis and Becancour, Quebec.[18]
King George's War[edit]
Main article: King George's War
The Capture of Louisburg, 1745 by Peter Monamy
King George's War (1744–48) was the North American phase of the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1745, naval and ground forces from Massachusetts captured the strategic French base on Cape Breton Island in the Siege of Louisbourg. During the war, the French made four attempts to regain Acadia by capturing the capital Annapolis Royal, the most famous attempt being the failed Duc d'Anville Expedition. They regained fortress Louisbourg at the peace treaty.
The French led Indian allies in numerous raids, such as the one on Nov. 28, 1745 which destroyed the village of Saratoga, New York, killing and capturing more than one hundred of its inhabitants. The war merged into War of Jenkin's Ear against Spain and ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748.
Father Le Loutre's War[edit]
Main article: Father Le Loutre's War
Within Acadia and Nova Scotia, Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755) began when the British founded Halifax. During Father Le Loutre's War, New France established three forts along the border of present-day New Brunswick to protect it from a New England attack from Nova Scotia. The war continued until British victory at Fort Beausejour, which dislodged Father Le Loutre from the region, thereby ending his alliance with the Maliseet, Acadians, and Mi'kmaq.[19]
French and Indian War: 1754–63[edit]
Main article: French and Indian War
Provincial troops, as distinct from the militias, were raised by the 13 colonial governments in response to annual quotas established by the British commanders-in-chief. These troops saw service in most campaigns and employment throughout North America during the Seven Years' War.
Pennsylvania[edit]
The war began in 1754 as Virginia militia led by Colonel George Washington advanced into French-held territory near modern-day Pittsburgh. Washington was captured at Fort Necessity after ambushing a French company and released. He returned with the 2,100 British regulars and American colonials under British General Edward Braddock, which was decisively destroyed at the Battle of the Monongahela in July 1755.[20] [21]
Acadia / Nova Scotia[edit]
St. John River Campaign: raid on Grimrose (present day Gagetown, New Brunswick). This is the only contemporaneous image of the Expulsion of the Acadians.
Despite the British Conquest of Acadia in 1710, Acadia/ Nova Scotia remained dominated by Catholic Acadians and Mi'kmaq. The British did not make a concerted military effort to control the region until 1749 when they founded Halifax, which sparked Father Le Loutre's War. The French and Indian War spread to the region with a British victory in the Battle of Beausejour (1755). Immediately after this battle the New England and British forces engaged in numerous military campaigns, which became known as the Expulsion of the Acadians.
New York[edit]
British defenders at Fort William Henry (at the southern end of Lake George) were surrounded by an overwhelming French force and their Indian allies from many tribes in August 1757. The British surrendered to the French after being offered terms that included protection from the Indians. Nonetheless, the Indian warriors' customs permitted the enslavement of some captured enemy soldiers and the scalping of others, and they ignored French efforts to prevent the massacre. They killed or captured hundreds of the surrendered British force, including women, children, servants, and slaves. Some of those scalped had smallpox, and the scalps were brought to numerous Indian villages as trophies, where they caused an epidemic that killed thousands of Indians.
In early July 1758, British General James Abercromby with a force of over 15,000 attacked General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and his garrison of 3,500 French and Canadian troops at Fort Carillon, which overlooked Lake Champlain. The British had 44 cannons, the heaviest weighing more than 5,000 pounds. The fort was later called Ticonderoga by the British, and it controlled access to French Canada. Abercromby's force included 5,825 red-coated British regulars, including the Royal Highlanders. He had 9,000 colonials from Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and New Jersey. Some 400 Mohawk warriors joined in. Abercromby's attack became disorganized and he suffered the worst British defeat of the war, with over 2,000 killed. He retreated and the campaign ended in failure.
Louisbourg[edit]
Siege of Louisbourg (1758)
Meanwhile, Lord Jeffrey Amherst captured the great French stronghold of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island (now part of Nova Scotia). Amherst's large British naval force of over 170 ships and 13,000 men came under furious attack by French defenders until British General James Wolfe found a safe landing spot out of sight of the French. The ultimately successful siege lasted seven weeks. With the fall of Louisbourg, the New England and British forces engaged in the second phase of the Expulsion of the Acadians from the region.
Canada[edit]
In London, Prime Minister William Pitt named Amherst as his new commander-in-chief of North America for 1759. The Louisbourg victory opened the St. Lawrence River to British incursions, and Amherst devised a three-pronged attack against French Canada: a push up the St. Lawrence to attack Quebec, another northward invasion from Albany by way of lakes George and Champlain, and pressure against the French in the west at Fort Niagara. The 1759 battle for Quebec City was fought on the Plains of Abraham and decided the future of Canada, as British forces under General James Wolfe defeated the French army of General Louis-Joseph Montcalm. Both generals were killed.
Legacy[edit]
Anderson (2006) suggests that the war played a pivotal precipitating role in the American Revolution. He believes that the United States has become an imperial nation through the influence of this war, and suggests that it should perhaps be known as "the War That Made America."
The Fort William Henry massacre has shaped American cultural attitudes toward Indians. It was only one of many episodes of indiscriminate bloodshed and captive-taking and deranged relations between Indians and Anglo-American colonists. Even in Pennsylvania, a colony that had never known an Indian war before 1755, resentment against Indians became something like a majority sentiment by 1764. Most Indian groups sided with the British in the Revolution, and the animosity only grew.[22]
American novelist James Fenimore Cooper wrote The Last of the Mohicans in 1826, a widely read novel that was adapted for several Hollywood films. Cooper refers to the dangerous "savages" and shows their willingness to kill. The book creates a lasting impression of the untrustworthiness and dangerousness of Indians in general, according to Michael Hilger. One long-standing theme in American popular culture has portrayed the Indians as revenge-seeking savages looking to scalp their enemies.[23]
The victory of Wolfe over Montcalm was a decisive moment in shaping the self-image of British Canada, while Francophone Canada has refused to allow commemorations.[24]
Pontiac's rebellion[edit]
Main article: Pontiac's Rebellion
Zone of action in Pontiac's Rebellion
In 1760, British commander Lord Amherst abruptly ended the distribution of gifts of ironware, weapons, and ammunition to the Indians, a French practice that the Indians had become dependent upon. Chief Pontiac (1720–1769) was a chief of the Ottawa tribe who assumed leadership in the Detroit area; other chiefs in the loose confederation of tribes directed attacks on all British forts in the Great Lakes area in the spring of 1763. Eight outposts were overrun, and English supply lines were cut across Lake Erie; assaults failed on Fort Detroit and Fort Pitt. At this point, news arrived of the complete French capitulation and withdrawal from North America, and the uprising quickly collapsed. Few American military units were involved, as British regulars handled the action. London issued a proclamation in October 1763 forbidding whites to enter Indian territory west of the Appalachian Mountains, hoping to minimize future conflict and laying plans for an Indian satellite state in the Great Lakes region.[25]
By expelling the French Empire from North America, the British victory made it impossible for the Iroquois and other native groups to play rival powers against one another. The Indians who had been allied with France realized their weak position when the British began to treat them as conquered foes. They reacted with violence to Britain's abrupt changes in the terms of trade and suspension of diplomatic gift giving, launching an insurrection by driving British troops from western forts and sending raiding parties that caused panic as refugees fled east. The Indian coalition forced the British to rescind the offending policies and renew giving gifts. By 1764, the various tribes came to terms with Britain, and Indian leaders realized that their war-fighting ability was crippled. Without a competing empire to arm and supply them, they simply could not keep fighting once they ran out of gunpowder and lead.[26]
The Proclamation of 1763 angered American settlers eager to move west; they largely ignored it, and saw the imperial government as an ally of the Indians and an obstacle to their goals. As Dixon (2007) argues, "Frustrated by their government's inability to contend with the Indians, back country settlers concluded that the best way to insure security was to rely on their own devices." Such actions eventually pushed them into direct conflict with the British government and ultimately proved one of the main forces leading to backcountry support for the American Revolution.[27]
See also[edit]
Military history of the United States
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b John Grenier. The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier. Cambridge University Press. 2005. p. 35
Jump up ^ John Grenier. The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier. Cambridge University Press. 2005. p. 33
Jump up ^ John Grenier, p. 33-34
Jump up ^ The first way of war: American war making on the frontier, 1607–1814 By John Grenier, p. 38
Jump up ^ Churchill's Wizards: The British Genius for Deception, 1914–1945 (Rankin, Nicholas). p. 454 (2008 paperback)
Jump up ^ John Shy, A People Numerous and Armed: Reflections on the Military Struggle for American Independence (2nd ed. 2008)
Jump up ^ See "The Susquehannock War 1675-77"
Jump up ^ In 1690, New France had about 12,000 inhabitants, while the American colonists numbered over 200,000. By 1760, the numbers were about 60,000 and 1.6 million, respectively.
Jump up ^ Anderson (1960)
^ Jump up to: a b William Williamson. The history of the state of Maine. Vol. 2. 1832. p. 27; Griffiths, E. From Migrant to Acadian. McGill-Queen's University Press. 2005. p.61; Campbell, Gary. The Road to Canada: The Grand Communications Route from Saint John to Quebec. Goose Lane Editions and The New Brunswick Heritage Military Project. 2005. p. 21.
Jump up ^ K. A. J. McLay, "Wellsprings of a 'World War': an Early English Attempt to Conquer Canada During King William's War, 1688–97," Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 2006 34(2): 155–175,
Jump up ^ Jenny Hale Pulsipher, "'Dark Cloud Rising from the East': Indian Sovereignty and the Coming of King William's War in New England," New England Quarterly 2007 80(4): 588–613
Jump up ^ Steven Oatis, "'To Eat up a Village of White Men': Anglo-Indian Designs on Mobile and Pensacola, 1705–1715," Gulf South Historical Review 1998 14(1): 104–119,
Jump up ^ John Demos, The Unredeemed Captive: A Family Story from Early America (1995)
Jump up ^ Verner W. Crane, "The Southern Frontier in Queen Anne's War," American Historical Review Vol. 24, No. 3 (Apr., 1919), pp. 379–395 JSTOR 1835775
Jump up ^ "Meductic Indian Village / Fort Meductic National Historic Site of Canada". Parks Canada. Retrieved December 20, 2011.
Jump up ^ John Grenier, The Far Reaches of Empire. University of Oklahoma Press, 2008, p. 51, p. 54.
Jump up ^ New Englanders safely settled the land, but Massachusetts did not officially lay claim to the entire Penobscot watershed until the treaty of 1752, and the Pownall Expedition led by Governor Thomas Pownall in 1759 established Fort Pownall on Cape Jellison in what is now Stockton Springs.
Jump up ^ John Grenier. The Edge of Empire: War In Nova Scotia. 2008.
Jump up ^ "The Battle of the Monongahela". World Digital Library. 1755. Retrieved 2013-08-03.
Jump up ^ All sites referenced lie within the geographical and historical boundaries of Pennsylvania
Jump up ^ Anderson (2006)
Jump up ^ Michael Hilger, From Savage to Nobleman: Images of Native Americans in Film (1995); Peter C. Rollins and John E. O'Connor, eds., Hollywood's Indian: The Portrayal of the Native American in Film (1998).
Jump up ^ See Desmond Morton, "Who really won on the Plains of Abraham?" Financial Post Nov. 10, 2009
Jump up ^ Howard H. Peckham, Pontiac and the Indian Uprising (1947); Richard Middleton, Pontiac's War: Its Causes, Course, and Consequences (2007)
Jump up ^ Anderson (2006); David Dixon, Never Come to Peace Again: Pontiac's Uprising and the Fate of the British Empire in North America (2005).
Jump up ^ David Dixon, Never Come to Peace Again: Pontiac's Uprising and the Fate of the British Empire in North America (2005), quoting p. xii
Further reading[edit]
Allison, William Thomas, Jeffrey Grey, and Janet G. Valentine. American Military History (Routledge, 2016), Ch 1.
Anderson, Fred. The War That Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War (2006), excerpt and text search
Campbell, Alexander V. The Royal American Regiment: An Atlantic Microcosm, 1755–1772 (U of Oklahoma Press, 2014).
Drenth, Wienand and Jonathon Riley. The First Colonial Soldiers: A Survey of British overseas territories and their garrisons, 1650 - 1714. Volume 2: The Americas and the Caribbean (Eindhoven: Drenth Publishing, 2015)
Ferling, John E. Struggle for a Continent: The Wars of Early America (1993), to 1763
Gallay, Alan, ed. Colonial Wars of North America, 1512–1763: An Encyclopedia (1996) excerpt and text search
Grenier, John. The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814 (Cambridge University Press, 2005)
Leach, Douglas Edward. Arms for Empire: A Military History of the British Colonies in North America, 1607–1763 (1973)
Lee, Wayne E. "Fortify, Fight, or Flee: Tuscarora and Cherokee Defensive Warfare and Military Culture Adaptation." Journal of Military History (2004) 68.3 pp: 713-770. in Project MUSE
Little, Ann. Abraham in Arms: War and Gender in Colonial New England (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007)
Martin, James Kirby, and Mark Edward Lender. A Respectable Army: The Military Origins of the Republic, 1763-1789 (John Wiley & Sons, 2015).
Martino-Trutor, Gina Michelle. "Her Extraordinary Sufferings and Services": Women and War in New England and New France, 1630-1763" PhD Dissertation, U of Minnesota, 2012. online
Peckham, Howard H. The Colonial Wars (1965), excerpt and text search
Rodger, N. A. M. The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815 (2006)
Starkey, Armstrong. European and Native American Warfare 1675-1795 (Routledge, 2002)
Warren, Jason W. Connecticut Unscathed: Victory in the Great Narragansett War, 1675–1676 (U of Oklahoma Press, 2014).
Zelner, Kyle F. A Rabble in Arms: Massachusetts Towns and Militiamen during King Philip's War (New York: New York University Press, 2009) excerpt and text search
Historiography and memory[edit]
Blackburn, Marc K. Interpreting American Military History at Museums and Historic Sites (Rowman & Littlefield, 2016).
Carp, E. Wayne. "Early American Military History: A Review of Recent Work," Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 94 (1986) 259–84
Grenier, John. "Recent Trends in the Historiography on Warfare in the Colonial Period (1607–1765)." History Compass (2010) 8#4 pp: 358-367. DOI: 10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00657.x
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Colonial_American_military_history&oldid=800437170"
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Colonization history of the United States
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