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Glacier National Park (Canada)
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For the park in the United States with the same name, see Glacier National Park (U.S.).
Glacier National Park
Parc national des Glaciers
IUCN category II (national park)
Rogers Pass, a central feature in the park
Location of Glacier National Park
Location
British Columbia, Canada
Nearest city
Revelstoke, British Columbia
Coordinates
51°18′0″N 117°31′7″W / 51.30000°N 117.51861°W / 51.30000; -117.51861Coordinates: 51°18′0″N 117°31′7″W / 51.30000°N 117.51861°W / 51.30000; -117.51861
Area
1,349 km2 (521 sq mi)
Established
October 10, 1886 (1886-10-10)
Governing body
Parks Canada
Website
http://www.pc.gc.ca/eng/pn-np/bc/glacier/index.aspx
Glacier National Park is one of seven national parks in British Columbia, and is part of a system of 43 parks and park reserves across Canada. Established in 1886, the park encompasses 1,349 km2 (521 sq mi), and includes a portion of the Columbia Mountains. It also contains the Rogers Pass National Historic Site.
The park's history is closely tied to two primary Canadian transportation routes, the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), completed in 1885, and the Trans-Canada Highway, completed in 1963. The pass in the centre of the park eluded explorers until 1881. The railway brought with it tourism, the establishment of Glacier National Park and the construction of a popular alpine hotel. The heavy winter snows and steep, avalanche-prone valleys of the park have been a major obstacle to transportation, necessitating much railway engineering and avalanche control measures.
The park contains high peaks, large, active glaciers, and one of Canada's largest cave systems. Its dense forests support populations of large mammals, birds, and alpine species. The region is noted for its heavy snowfall. The park has an extensive network of trails, three campgrounds, and four backcountry huts and cabins. Due to the major transportation routes that bisect it, Glacier National Park sees large numbers of visitors.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Rogers Pass
1.2 Glacier House
1.3 Mountaineering
1.4 Connaught Tunnel and the Trans-Canada Highway
2 Geography
2.1 Mountains
2.1.1 Major peaks and ranges
2.2 Glaciers
2.3 Rivers
3 Geology
3.1 Caves
4 Ecology
4.1 Flora
4.2 Fauna
5 Climate
5.1 Avalanche control
6 Facilities
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
History[edit]
The Selkirk Mountains were first noted by Europeans when explorer David Thompson of the North West Company skirted around them on the Columbia River in 1811. He named them Nelson's Mountains, after Lord Horatio Nelson, but they were later renamed after an executive for the rival Hudson's Bay Company, Lord Thomas Douglas Selkirk.[1]
Finding a pass through the Selkirks became a priority after construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway began. Completion of the railway was a condition of the Colony of British Columbia upon entering Canadian Confederation in 1867. In 1865, CPR surveyor Walter Moberly led an expedition up the Illecillewaet River (which he named, using the Okanangan word for "swift water"). Despite recently discovering Eagle Pass through the nearby Monashees, Moberly failed to find a pass through the Selkirks after getting sidetracked in the Tangier Creek drainage. His party refused to explore further due to the lateness of the season, and Moberly was forced to retreat.[2]
Rogers Pass[edit]
Main article: Rogers Pass (British Columbia)
An expedition led by Major Albert Bowman Rogers up the Illecillewaet discovered a viable pass in 1881. Rogers was awarded a five thousand dollar prize for locating a route through the mountains.[3] By 1885, the CPR had constructed a line through Rogers Pass and trains were traveling west to the Pacific for the first time in Canada. The federal government and the CPR quickly realized the tourism potential of the mountainous, heavily glaciated area. Following a trip by Prime Minister John A. Macdonald and his wife Agnes through the Rockies on the newly completed Trancontinental Railroad, he returned to Ottawa inspired, and led the creation of Glacier and Yoho National Parks, both established on October 10, 1886. They were the second and third national parks in the country, after Banff, a year earlier.[4]
Glacier House[edit]
Glacier House in 1909
The grade of the railway approaching Rogers Pass was too steep to allow for dining cars on the trains, so the CPR built a hotel west of the pass in 1886. This added to a collection of CPR-owned hotels across Canada, including Mount Stephen House in Yoho National Park, built in the same year and with the same floor plan. Glacier House, located near the terminus of the Illecillewaet Glacier (called the Great Glacier at the time), became a center for tourism, mountaineering, glaciology, and photography in the Selkirks. The hotel was expanded in 1905 and 1911. It was considered one of western Canada's premier tourist destinations at the turn of the twentieth century.[5]
The hotel attracted alpinists from around the world. Due to its elevation, climbers could be in the high alpine within hours of leaving their room. In 1899, the CPR contracted the services of several Swiss guides to assist the less mountain-savvy tourists through the high country. Throughout the Glacier House period, many first ascents were made on peaks within the park. The hotel also attracted naturalists and scientists keen to study the mountain environment. Mary Vaux Walcott and her brothers, George and William Vaux, visited the area many times, and began the first scientific studies of the Illecillewaet Glacier.[6]
Mountaineering[edit]
Glacier House is considered "the first center of alpinism" in North America by American Alpine Club historian William Lowell Putnam.[7] It saw an influx of European and American professional climbers in its first two decades of operation. William Spotswood Green was the first European climber to make note of the excellent climbing possibilities of peaks near the CPR line. Green and Henry Swanzy made the first recorded ascents of major peaks in the summer of 1888, climbing Mount Bonney and Green's Peak. Harold Topham, a British climber, made many first ascents in 1890 including Mount Fox; he later joined with Henry Forster, and two Swiss climbers, Emil Huber and Carl Sulzer to explore the southern peaks of the park. Huber and Sulzer also claimed the prized first ascent of the dramatic Mount Sir Donald.[8]
Arthur Oliver Wheeler, a cartographer, climber, and founding member of the Alpine Club of Canada (ACC), came to Glacier House in 1901. This started a thirty-year relationship with the northern Selkirks, which saw Wheeler map the region, publish large reference works on its geography, and explore much of the park's terrain.[9] An ACC hut near the Illecillewaet campground bears his name, as well as a peak and a pass. Professor Charles Ernest Fay, first president of the American Alpine Club, after visiting the park in the 1890s, publicized it in the club's magazine.[10] By the 1900s, almost all of the park's prominent peaks had seen human tracks.
Connaught Tunnel and the Trans-Canada Highway[edit]
CPR workers attempt to rescue buried colleagues in the 1910 Rogers Pass avalanche
After its first winter in operation in 1886, it became clear to the CPR that the heavy snows of Rogers Pass were going to be a serious challenge. Extensive snow sheds were built to shelter the rails from frequent avalanches. These wood sheds became a fire hazard in the summer months, so a separate summer track was built. In 1910, while clearing one slide, another avalanche came down Avalanche Mountain, killing 62 men. More than half the workers killed in the slide were of Japanese descent.[11] In all, two hundred railway employees were killed between 1886 and 1916. In 1912, the CPR admitted defeat and started the construction of an eight-kilometer tunnel under the pass and Mount Macdonald. The Connaught Tunnel opened in 1916.[12]
The new tunnel bypassed Glacier House's siding, and the resulting lack of rail passengers spelled the end for the once-popular hotel. It was closed in 1925, and torn down four years later. The park saw few visitors besides campers from the Alpine Club of Canada's summer camps for the next thirty years. Until this point, automobile travelers crossing the Columbia Mountains had to use the circuitous "Big Bend Highway", which followed the upper reaches of the Columbia River north in a large loop. With the planned inundation of much of that valley by hydro projects outlined in the Columbia River Treaty, a new highway route was needed.[13] In 1963, the Trans-Canada Highway was built through Rogers Pass, bringing tourists back to the park in large numbers. Parks Canada built several new campgrounds and expanded the trail system.[14]
Geography[edit]
Glacier National Park, as seen from space
The park covers the northern part of the Selkirk Mountains, a sub-range of the Columbia Mountains. It contains numerous glaciers and large, swift waterways. The park is bisected by two major transportation routes, the Trans-Canada Highway and the Canadian Pacific Railway. The nearest towns are Revelstoke to the west, and Golden to the east. The only settlement in the park is the complex at the Rogers Pass summit.
Mountains[edit]
The Columbia Mountains rise from the plateaus of the Central Interior and extend eastward to the Rocky Mountain Trench. Geologically distinct from the nearby Rockies, the range is divided into four sub-ranges: the Cariboos, Monashees, Selkirks, and the Purcells. Glacier encompasses a portion of the northern Selkirks and a narrow strip of the northern Purcells. The topography of the park varies between rounded mountains and ridges in the east, north, and west, and sharp, steep-sided peaks in the central and southern regions. A.O. Wheeler measured many of the park's mountains in 1901 and 1902 using a complex system of fixed points and photographs.[15] In the early 20th century, the area was referred to as the "Canadian Alps".[16] Most names are from historical figures, including explorers, surveyors, mountaineers, and railway and Hudson's Bay Company executives.
Major peaks and ranges[edit]
The highest point in the park is Mount Dawson, at 3,377 metres (11,079 ft).[17] The precipitous Mount Sir Donald stands at 3,284 metres (10,774 ft),[18] Mount Macdonald at 2,883 metres (9,459 ft),[19] Mount McNicoll at 2,610 metres (8,560 ft),[20] and Mount Abbott at 2,465 metres (8,087 ft).[21] Peaks of the Hermit Range, the Bonney and Bostock Groups, the Van Horne Range, Purity Range and the Dawson Range, all lie wholly or in part within the park, including Uto Peak at 2,927 metres (9,603 ft)[22] in the Sir Donald Range.
Glaciers[edit]
Illecillewaet Glacier
The park has 131 glaciers over 0.05 square kilometres (0.019 sq mi) in size, covering 133 square kilometres (51 sq mi) of the park.[23] Throughout its history, North America has seen cycles of glaciation, where ice sheets advanced and retreated across the terrain. The last glacial period ended about 12,000 years ago, before which all but the highest peaks of the park were covered in ice. The movements of these rivers of ice formed the steep-sided, U-shaped valleys of the park. They also rounded the lesser peaks; ranges in the west of the park show this effect. The glaciers in the park are on whole shrinking and retreating; they are also some of the most studied glaciers in North America.
The glaciers of the park have been dramatically reduced in size in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Precise measurements of glacial areas started with the Vaux family and A.O. Wheeler in the 1900s. Modern measurements using satellite imagery began with Simon Ommaney's work in the 1980s. Regular inventories of the parks glaciers have been performed since, with the latest collating data up to 2011. The most recent inventory noted a reduction of 19.4 square kilometres (7.5 sq mi) of glacial surface area from 2000 to 2011.[23]
Due to its location near the highway and railway, the Illecillewaet Glacier is the most visited and photographed. Formerly known as the Great Glacier, it was a major tourist attraction during the Glacier House period from 1886 to 1925. The glacier's terminus, formerly a short walk from the Glacier House site, has retreated far up the mountainside. The névé of the glacier spreads far to the south, also spawning the Geikie Glacier. Most of the large glacial features are south of the Trans-Canada corridor. Other large features include the Deville, Dawson, Asulkan, Bishops, Black, Duncan, Grand, and Avalanche. The park's glaciers have a variety of appearances, with high altitude features smooth and uniform, cracked and riddled with crevasses on the slopes, and black with debris on the valley bottoms. In summer, many of the glaciers take on a red tint; this is the result of a variety of snow algae known as watermelon snow. [24]
Rivers[edit]
All watercourses in the park are part of the Columbia River drainage basin. Park rivers are swift-running and glacially-fed, and have helped carve out the steep valleys and canyons. They carry much silt and rocky debris with them, and often have a milky white appearance. In the summer months, these rivers have noticeable diurnal cycles; they run high in the afternoons as the snow and ice melt is at its peak, then drop considerably with lower nighttime temperatures.[25]
The major rivers are the Illecillewaet, the Beaver, and the headwaters of the Incomappleux and Duncan Rivers. Large creeks and brooks include Mountain, Cougar (which runs underground through the Nakimu Caves), and Battle. The Beaver and Illecillewaet flood occasionally; 1983 and 2012 saw flooding damage to the highway and railway.[25]
Geology[edit]
Eagle Peak (left), Uto Peak, and Mount Sir Donald
The geology of the northern Selkirks reveals the tremendous tectonic changes that have shaped the terrain of western North America. Like much of British Columbia, the region was first studied by the prolific surveyor and geologist Dr. George Mercer Dawson in 1890. Topographical maps were first produced by A.O. Wheeler in the early 1900s, and in the 1970s, Wheeler's grandson, Dr. John Wheeler, conducted an extensive geological survey from land and air.[26]
From Rogers Pass, layers of quartzite and slate are visible, revealing the fact that the range was part of a large, silty continental shelf 600 million years ago. 185 million years ago, successive plate movements from the west began to crumple and compress this material, driving some of it deep underground, and some into the heights of the Selkirks. Lime from coral and other organic life was compressed into limestone, which is seen in the Cougar Brook area. Veins of marble are present in the metamorphic rock of the high peaks.[27] Although erosion and the effects of the glaciers are constantly grinding down the mountain peaks, the pressure of the underlying rock continues to drive them upward. Geologists have classed the rocks of the Columbia Mountains into groups, several of which appear in the northern Selkirks. The slates are in the Horsethief Creek and Lardeau groups, quartzite is in the Hamill group, limestone is part of the Badshot Formation, while the metamorphic rocks are classed in the Shuswap Metamorphic Complex.[28]
Caves[edit]
The limestone strata in the park is subject to water erosion by Cougar Brook, a process that has formed the Nakimu Caves. First discovered in 1907, and originally named the Caves of Cheops, then Deutchmann Caves,[29] this 6-kilometer (3.7 mi) long cave system is one of the largest in Canada. The limestone is broken down and softened by carbonic acid in the brook's water. The water also contains pulverised rock from glacial processes, which serve to further etch and cut new passages in the rock.[30] The caves contain a large concentration of a rare substance known as moonmilk - this is a suspension of calcium carbonate kept intact by bacteria.[31] Due to its sensitive nature, and damage done to cave environments by early tourists, Parks Canada has closed the caves to the general public. Access by organized groups and experienced speleologists is allowed with a permit.[32]
Ecology[edit]
A Columbian ground squirrel at Rogers Pass
Glacier National Park covers a range of habitats, from lush temperate rainforest in the western valleys, to inhospitable ice- and rock-covered alpine areas, to drier fir and pine forests on the eastern boundary. Four of British Columbia's biogeoclimatic zones are found within the park: Interior cedar/hemlock, Engelmann spruce/subalpine fir, Interior Douglas-fir in the eastern extremities, and alpine tundra at high elevations.[33] Parks Canada characterizes these zones as "rainforest, snow forest, and no forest". Animal life in the park ranges from large mammals like caribou and grizzly bear to bird species such as Steller's jay and the golden eagle.
Flora[edit]
The valleys on the western side of the park support dense wet forests, with a thick understory. The widest valleys, such as the Illecillewaet, contain a rare wetlands environment, featuring skunk cabbage and water hemlock. Outside of the wetlands, the lower valleys are covered by Western Red cedar, western white pine, western hemlock, Interior douglas fir, and white birch. Ground species include devil's club, blueberries, liverwort, and fern species.[33]
At middle elevations, the subalpine zone appears. This forest has Engelmann spruce, mountain hemlock, and subalpine fir. The understory is thick here with rhododendron and berry species, as well as deep beds of moss and lichens. At higher elevations, this forest opens up to meadows and slide chutes, which are covered in a lush growth of grasses, herbaceous shrubs, and alpine wildflowers.[33] Parks botanists and others have identified 546 species of flowering plants in the park.[34] Late July to mid-September see an impressive display of alpine blooms.
The alpine meadows continue into the harsh alpine tundra zone, where poor soil, heavy snowfall, cold temperatures, and a very short growing season discourage all but the hardiest sedge grasses, heathers, and lichens.[33]
Fauna[edit]
Glacier's rich forests support a large wildlife population, which Parks staff monitor regularly. There are fifty-three mammal species found within the park.[35] Bears dominate the snow zone; the berry-rich avalanche slides provide an important food source for both black and grizzly species. They spend the winters in deep dens hibernating. Other predators include the timber wolf, coyote, red fox, wolverine, cougar, and lynx.[36]
Mountain goats are the most common ungulates in Glacier National Park; a 1985 study counted 300 in the high peaks and valleys of the park.[37] Caribou migrate through certain park valleys, while elk, mule and white-tailed deer can be found throughout. The deep snows of winter drive most ungulates out of the park into the lower elevations of the nearby Rocky Mountain Trench and Columbia valleys. Moose are seen in the park on rare occasions. Several species of squirrels are found in the lower forests, and alpine mammals include pika, hoary marmots, and martens.[36]
Glacier has 235 observed bird species, but the majority are migratory and only seen in the summer months. The 30 species who are year-round residents include woodpeckers, golden eagles, owls, ravens, Steller's jays, and golden-crowned kinglets. Unpredictable explosions of pine siskins, sometimes reaching hundreds of thousands in number, will appear and stay year round, but be gone the next year. American dippers feed in the many waterfalls and cascades of the park.[38]
Climate[edit]
Snow accumulation on the Arthur O. Wheeler Hut near the Illecillewaet campground
Located within the Interior Wetbelt, precipitation is a major environmental factor in the area. The park straddles two prevalent weather systems, with warmer, wetter air from the Pacific meeting the colder, drier air of continental weather systems.[33] The moist air is driven to higher elevations by the mass of the Columbia Mountains. The result is frequent rain and snowstorms, especially during winter months. The mean annual precipitation in subalpine areas is 1.995 metres (6 ft 6.5 in)[39] This contributes to the large icefields and glaciers that cover much of the park's high elevations. Rogers Pass can receive up to 17 metres (56 ft) of snow over the course of a winter.[39]
The eastern edge of the park, along the Purcells, is in the rain shadow and is relatively drier. The area can see wide variations in temperature and weather due to the extreme topography.[39] Winter temperatures in the Selkirks are moderate compared to similar elevations in the Rockies to the east, with summer average highs reaching the high teens Celsius.
showClimate data for Glacier National Park Rogers Pass, elev. 1,340 metres (4,400 ft) (1981−2010)
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °C (°F)
3.3
(37.9) 6.1
(43) 12.8
(55) 17.0
(62.6) 27.0
(80.6) 29.0
(84.2) 32.0
(89.6) 32.8
(91) 28.0
(82.4) 21.0
(69.8) 7.2
(45) 4.0
(39.2) 32.8
(91)
Average high °C (°F)
−6.1
(21) −3.5
(25.7) 1.9
(35.4) 6.6
(43.9) 11.1
(52) 16.4
(61.5) 19.8
(67.6) 19.7
(67.5) 13.5
(56.3) 4.9
(40.8) −2.6
(27.3) −7.0
(19.4) 6.2
(43.2)
Daily mean °C (°F)
−8.3
(17.1) −6.6
(20.1) −2.1
(28.2) 2.1
(35.8) 5.8
(42.4) 10.3
(50.5) 13.1
(55.6) 12.8
(55) 8.0
(46.4) 1.8
(35.2) −4.5
(23.9) −9.1
(15.6) 1.9
(35.4)
Average low °C (°F)
−10.5
(13.1) −9.7
(14.5) −6.1
(21) −2.5
(27.5) 0.4
(32.7) 4.2
(39.6) 6.3
(43.3) 5.8
(42.4) 2.5
(36.5) −1.3
(29.7) −6.3
(20.7) −11.2
(11.8) −2.4
(27.7)
Record low °C (°F)
−34.5
(−30.1) −31
(−24) −26.7
(−16.1) −21.1
(−6) −8
(18) −2.2
(28) −2.2
(28) −3.0
(26.6) −8.9
(16) −19.4
(−2.9) −34.5
(−30.1) −38.9
(−38) −38.9
(−38)
Average precipitation mm (inches)
220.2
(8.669) 133.6
(5.26) 109.5
(4.311) 81.1
(3.193) 75.4
(2.969) 89.9
(3.539) 94.7
(3.728) 87.8
(3.457) 90.9
(3.579) 138.1
(5.437) 199.8
(7.866) 176.8
(6.961) 1,494.6
(58.843)
Average rainfall mm (inches)
10.1
(0.398) 4.7
(0.185) 20.9
(0.823) 40.2
(1.583) 67.6
(2.661) 89.7
(3.531) 94.7
(3.728) 87.8
(3.457) 89.0
(3.504) 89.3
(3.516) 32.6
(1.283) 3.4
(0.134) 630.0
(24.803)
Average snowfall cm (inches)
210.1
(82.72) 128.8
(50.71) 88.6
(34.88) 40.9
(16.1) 7.8
(3.07) 0.16
(0.063) 0.0
(0) 0.0
(0) 1.9
(0.75) 48.9
(19.25) 164.2
(64.65) 173.4
(68.27) 864.7
(340.43)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.2 mm)
21.5 16.5 17.7 15.4 16.8 17.9 16.4 14.8 13.8 18.0 20.9 20.5 210.2
Average rainy days (≥ 0.2 mm)
0.93 1.3 5.9 11.3 16.0 17.9 16.4 14.8 13.7 13.3 4.0 0.42 115.9
Average snowy days (≥ 0.2 cm)
21.3 16.3 15.5 8.3 2.5 0.15 0.0 0.0 0.48 7.7 19.3 20.4 112.0
Source: Environment Canada.[40]
Avalanche control[edit]
Maintaining the Trans-Canada Highway through the snowy Rogers Pass is a constant battle. Parks Canada works with provincial highways crews and the Canadian Armed Forces to keep the highway open as much as possible. Parks staff play both a research and prevention role by monitoring snowpack levels and predicting avalanche probability, as well as working with the Canadian Forces to trigger controlled avalanches. The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery operate 105mm Howitzer cannons, based at circular gun positions along the highway. The highway is closed to traffic, shells are fired at trigger points identified by Parks forecasters, and smaller, more controlled avalanches are started.[41]
Facilities[edit]
Mount Macdonald
Although the park sees over four million visitors each year, the majority are only passing through on the Trans-Canada Highway. About 15% stop to use park facilities.[42] Of the visitors who experience the park from outside their vehicles, two-thirds are from outside of Canada.[43] There are 140 kilometers (87 mi) of established hiking trails in the park.[44]
The Parks Canada administration and Rogers Pass Discovery Centre are located at Rogers Pass. The interpretive program for Glacier and Mount Revelstoke National Parks is based at the centre. It includes a theatre, an exhibit hall with railway models, natural history displays and wildlife specimens, and a bookstore.[45]
There are three campgrounds in the park. Illecillewaet is the largest, with two smaller campgrounds located at Loop Brook and Sir Donald.[46] There are also five designated backcountry camping areas. Parks and the Alpine Club of Canada maintain four alpine huts and cabins for backcountry users. The Wheeler Hut is the oldest and largest, and is located near the Illecillewaet camping area. The Asulkan hut sits at 2,100 metres (6,900 ft) on the Asulkan Pass, the Sapphire Col hut is a basic shelter near The Dome, and the Glacier Circle cabin in the Beaver River valley is a base for travelling in the southern areas of the park.[47] None of the camping facilities in the park are maintained during winter months.
See also[edit]
Geography of Canada portal
Glacier National Park (U.S.)
List of National Parks of Canada
National Parks of Canada
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Woods 1987, p. 58.
Jump up ^ Boles 2006, p. 132.
Jump up ^ Putnam 1982, p. 20.
Jump up ^ "History". Glacier National Park. Parks Canada. Retrieved 6 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Putnam 1982, p. 37-40.
Jump up ^ Putnam 1982, p. 81-87.
Jump up ^ Putnam 1982, p. Preface.
Jump up ^ Putnam 1982, p. 67-76.
Jump up ^ Putnam 1982, p. 93.
Jump up ^ Putnam 1982, p. 100.
Jump up ^ "Avalanche Sweeps Scores into Canyon; Sixty-two Canadian Pacific Workmen Crushed to Death in Rocky Mountain Pass". The New York Times. 5 March 1910. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Woods 1987, p. 59.
Jump up ^ Bradley, Ben (2011). "A Questionable Basis for Establishing a Major Park': Politics, Roads, and the Failure of a National Park in British Columbia's Big Bend Country". In Campbell, Claire. A Century of Parks Canada, 1911-2011 (PDF). Calgary, AB: University of Calgary Press. ISBN 9781552385265.
Jump up ^ Woods 1987, p. 63.
Jump up ^ Woods 1987, p. 13.
Jump up ^ Putnam 1982, p. 67.
Jump up ^ "Mount Dawson". Bivouac Mountaineering Directory. Bivouac.com. Archived from the original on 21 March 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Mount Sir Donald". Bivouac.com. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Mount Macdonald". Bivouac.com. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
Jump up ^ "Mount McNicoll". Bivouac.com. Retrieved 2013-04-28.
Jump up ^ "Mount Abbott". Bivouac.com. Retrieved 2010-01-16.
Jump up ^ "Uto Peak". Bivouac.com. Retrieved 2009-01-03.
^ Jump up to: a b Svendson, Jamie; Roger Wheate (October 2012). "2011 Glacier Inventory: Glacier National Park & Mount Revelstoke National Park". Parks Canada: 13. Archived from the original on 2013-09-26.
Jump up ^ Woods 1987, p. 26-28.
^ Jump up to: a b Woods 1987, p. 17-18.
Jump up ^ Woods 1987, p. 13-14.
Jump up ^ Woods 1987, p. 15-16.
Jump up ^ Woods 1987, p. 16.
Jump up ^ Putnam 1982, p. 94.
Jump up ^ Woods 1987, p. 19-20.
Jump up ^ Finkelstein, Maxwell. "Glacier National Park". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica-Dominion. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Nakimu Caves: The valley of hazards". Glacier National Park. Parks Canada. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Paquet 1990, p. 332.
Jump up ^ Woods 1987, p. 53.
Jump up ^ Woods 1987, p. 44.
^ Jump up to: a b Paquet 1990, p. 333.
Jump up ^ Woods 1987, p. 43.
Jump up ^ Woods 1987, p. 45-47.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Weather and Climate". Glacier National Park of Canada. Parks Canada.
Jump up ^ "Glacier NP Rogers Pass". Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010. Environment Canada. Retrieved October 31, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Snow War". Glacier National Park. Parks Canada. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "2.1 Regional Setting". Glacier National Park Management Plan. Parks Canada. Archived from the original on 9 February 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
Jump up ^ MacGregor, Roy (Sep 6, 2012). "Get out and explore the remote splendour of Glacier National Park". Globe and Mail. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Fast Facts". Glacier National Park. Parks Canada. Archived from the original on 8 February 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Woods 1987, p. 64.
Jump up ^ "Front Country Campgrounds". Glacier National Park. Parks Canada. Archived from the original on 26 March 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Huts And Cabins". Glacier National Park. Parks Canada. Archived from the original on 26 March 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
References[edit]
Boles, Glen W.; Laurilla, Roger W.; Putnam, William L. (2006). Canadian Mountain Place Names. Vancouver: Rocky Mountain Books. ISBN 9781894765794.
Paquet, Maggie (1990). Parks of British Columbia and the Yukon. North Vancouver, B.C.: Maia Publishing. ISBN 9780969456803.
Putnam, William Lowell (1982). The great glacier and its house : the story of the first center of Alpinism in North America, 1885-1925. New York, NY: American Alpine Club. ISBN 9780930410131.
Woods, John G. (1987). Glacier country : Mount Revelstoke and Glacier National Parks. Vancouver, BC: Douglas & McIntyre, in co-operation with Environment Canada, Parks. ISBN 0888945418.
Further reading[edit]
Dawson, George M. Note on the Geological Structure of the Selkirk Range. Rochester, NY: Geological Society of America, 1891.
Wheeler, A. O. The Selkirk Mountains: A Guide for Mountain Climbers and Pilgrims Winnipeg, Man, Stovel Co., 1912.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Glacier National Park (Canada).
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Glacier National Park (British Columbia).
Official website
Map of the park
Climbing to the Clouds Virtual exhibit from North Vancouver Museum
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Happy Trails (song)
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"Happy Trails"
Single by Roy Rogers and Dale Evans
Released
1952 (1952)
Genre
Country, folk, theme song
Label
RCA Victor
Songwriter(s)
Dale Evans
"Happy Trails to You" redirects here. For Julie Hecht story collection, see Happy Trails to You: Stories.
"Happy Trails" by Dale Evans, was the theme song for the 1940s and 1950s radio program and the 1950s television show starring Roy Rogers and Dale Evans Rogers, always sung over the end credits of the program. Happy Trails was released in 1952 as a 78 RPM and 45 RPM by Rogers and Evans with the Whippoorwills and Orchestra on RCA Victor Records. It was re-issued in 1957 as a 45 RPM record on RCA Victor/Bluebird. Members of the Western Writers of America chose it as one of the Top 100 Western songs of all time.[1]
In 1951, Foy Willing wrote a song titled "Happy Trails" for the Republic Pictures movie, Spoilers of the Plains, starring Roy Rogers with Foy Willing and the Riders of the Purple Sage. Subsequently, the first three notes of Foy's song and the title were used by Dale Evans in writing her version of "Happy Trails" for both the original The Roy Rogers Show and the short-lived The Roy Rogers and Dale Evans Show, which aired on ABC in 1962. Dale's is the version that is popularly played and sung today, albeit without giving credit to Foy Willing.[2]
Cover versions[edit]
There have been numerous notable covers of Dale Evans' version of the song.
Janis Joplin left a taped recording of the song as a birthday greeting for John Lennon on October 1, 1970, three days before her death. Lennon, whose birthday was October 9, later told Dick Cavett that her taped greeting arrived at his home after her death.[3][citation needed]
In 1969, Quicksilver Messenger Service released an album called Happy Trails, on which the song appears.
Van Halen covered the song on their 1982 album, Diver Down, and usually the band would end live performances they did with their first lead singer, David Lee Roth, with that song.
Randy Travis covered the song with Rogers on his 1990 album Heroes & Friends.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Western Writers of America (2010). "The Top 100 Western Songs". American Cowboy. Archived from the original on 10 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Willing, Sharon Lee (October 16, 2006). No One to Cry To. Wheatmark. p. 80. ISBN 1-58736-686-X.
Jump up ^ palejewel676 (2006-12-08), John Lennon and Yoko Ono Dick Cavett Show Excerpt 4 of 6, retrieved 2016-06-09
External links[edit]
"Happy Trails" at the Roy Rogers Website
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Happy_Trails_(song)&oldid=807764354"
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Television theme songs
Western music (North America)
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Second Liberian Civil War
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Second Liberian Civil War
Part of the Liberian Civil Wars

Liberian government soldiers fighting in the Old Bridge in Monrovia.
Date
21 April 1999[1] – 18 August 2003
(4 years, 3 months and 4 weeks)
Location
Liberia
Result
LURD/MODEL victory
Charles Taylor exiled to Nigeria
Transitional Government of Liberia installed
Accra Peace Agreement signed
United Nations Mission in Liberia deployed
Belligerents
Liberian government
Armed Forces of Liberia
ATU
SOD
SSS
NPFL militias
RUF
Rebel groups:
LURD
MODEL
Supported by:
Sierra Leone
Guinea
United Kingdom
United States
Commanders and leaders
Charles Taylor
Benjamin Yeaten
Chucky Taylor
Sam Bockarie Sekou Conneh
Thomas Nimely
Casualties and losses
150,000–300,000 people killed[2]
The Second Liberian Civil War began in 1999 when a rebel group backed by the government of neighbouring Guinea, the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), emerged in northern Liberia. In early 2003, a second rebel group, the Movement for Democracy in Liberia, emerged in the south, and by June–July 2003, Charles Taylor's government controlled only a third of the country.
The capital Monrovia was besieged by LURD, and the group's shelling of the city resulted in the deaths of many civilians. Thousands of people were displaced from their homes as a result of the conflict.
The Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement was signed by the warring parties on August 18, 2003 marking the political end of the conflict and beginning of the country's transition to democracy under the National Transitional Government of Liberia which was led by interim President Gyude Bryant until the Liberian general election of 2005.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
1.1 Rebels approach Monrovia
1.2 Siege of Monrovia (July–August 2003)
1.3 President Taylor resigns (August 2003)
2 Child soldiers
3 United Nations peacekeeping
4 Women of Liberia
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Overview[edit]
The First Liberian Civil War ended with the Liberian general election, 1997 in which Charles Taylor took power.
The second civil war began in April 1999, when Liberian dissidents under the banner of the Organization of Displaced Liberians invaded Liberia from Guinea.[3] Guinea became LURD’s main source of military and financial support. By July 2000, the various dissident groups had coalesced as the LURD led by Sekou Conneh. The dissidents were thought to be mostly Mandinka and Krahn fighters of the former ULIMO-J and ULIMO-K.[4]
Also important in forming LURD was an alliance, brokered by ECOMOG-SL Nigerian chief General Maxwell Khobe, between Liberian dissidents and the Sierra Leonean Kamajors hunter militia, including chiefs Samuel Hinga Norman and Eddie Massally.[4] Against the dissidents Taylor deployed irregular ex-National Patriotic Front of Liberia fighters with his more privileged units, such as the Anti-Terrorist Unit, positioned to ensure the irregulars did fight.
Simultaneous September 2000 counter-attacks on Guinea from Liberia and Sierra Leone by RUF – still loyal to Taylor and Guinean dissidents – achieved initial success.[5] By January 2001, however, Taylor’s forces were pushed back inside Sierra Leone and Liberia. The insurgents were posing a major threat to the Taylor government. Liberia was now engaged in a complex three-way conflict with Sierra Leone and the Guinea Republic.
By the beginning of 2002, both of these countries were supporting LURD, while Taylor was supporting various opposition factions in both countries. By supporting — practically creating — the SL rebels, the Revolutionary United Front, Taylor also drew the enmity of the British and Americans. British and U.S. pressure on Taylor increased with rising financial support for Guinea and U.S./U.K.-proposed sanctions, a weaker version of which were imposed by U.N. Security Council May 2001.
Rebels approach Monrovia[edit]
A technical with a mounted machine gun, Monrovia.
By mid-February 2002 LURD troops were just 44 kilometres from Monrovia, at Klay Junction, and Taylor was forced to declare a state of emergency.[6] The February 2002 ICG report says that this attack was made by pursuing ‘a strategy of infiltration of south-western Liberia through the thick bush of Southern Lofa, looping around government strongholds and disrupting supply lines... while LURD claims between 300 and 500 men were assigned to that mission, ... the number that actually attacked was likely closer to twenty.’ Any image of a large force gradually pushing toward Monrovia is mistaken; ‘hit and run’ raids, rather than a continuous advance, seem to have been the pattern.[7]
Through the first half of 2002 LURD mounted raids in Bomi, Bong, and Montserrado counties, hitting, in addition to Klay Junction, Gbarnga and Tubmanburg, each time temporarily seizing control from government fighters.[7] In May, an attack on Arthington, less than 20 kilometres from the capital, apparently prompted panic in Monrovia. The state of emergency was lifted in September 2002, after, the government claimed, the township of Bopolu had been retaken.[8]
In early 2003, a second rebel group, the Ivoirian-backed Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL), emerged in the south, and by the summer of 2003, Taylor's government controlled only a third of the country. Despite some setbacks, by mid-2003 LURD controlled the northern third of the country and was threatening the capital. The capital Monrovia was besieged by LURD, and that group's shelling of the city resulted in the deaths of many civilians. Thousands of people were displaced from their homes as a result of the conflict.
A new bout of fighting began in March 2003 after a relative lull and by early May, LURD and MODEL had gained control of nearly two thirds of the country, and were threatening Monrovia. Regional and wider pressure led to the convening of a conference in Accra by the then Chair of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), President John Kufuor of Ghana, on June 4, 2003.
Siege of Monrovia (July–August 2003)[edit]
Further information: Siege of Monrovia
By July 2003 Monrovia appeared to be in danger of being occupied and devastated despite ongoing peace talks.[9] The U.S. established Joint Task Force Liberia, built around a U.S. navy amphibious group with the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit aboard, positioned off the West African coast.
In July 2003 the United States (US) sent a small number of troops to bolster security around the US embassy in Monrovia, which had come under attack during Operation Shining Express. On July 25, 2003, the Southern Europe Task Force at Vicenza, Italy was designated the lead U.S. Army command for the operation.
On 29 July 2003, LURD declared a ceasefire.[10] ECOWAS sent two battalions of Nigerian peacekeepers to Liberia. The first Nigerian battalion detached from the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone, and the second came from Nigeria itself.[11]
President Taylor resigns (August 2003)[edit]
President Taylor resigned on August 11, 2003, ahead of the Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) which formed the negotiated end to the war, and was flown into exile in Nigeria. An arrest warrant for Taylor for war crimes committed by his Revolutionary United Front rebel allies in Sierra Leone was later issued by Interpol but Nigeria refused to deport him for a time unless they receive a specific request from Liberia. Vice-President Moses Blah replaced Taylor.
On August 14, rebels lifted their siege of Monrovia and 200 American soldiers landed to support a West African peace force. Thousands of people danced and sang as American troops and ECOMIL, the Nigerian-led West African forces, took over the port and bridges which had split the capital into government and rebel-held zones. An estimated 1,000 people had been killed in Monrovia between July 18 and August 14.[12]
Moses Blah handed over power to the National Transitional Government of Liberia on October 14, 2003. However, the transitional government exercised no real authority in the country, 80% of which was controlled by the rebel groups.
Child soldiers[edit]
Unidentified Liberian rebel fighters, including child soldiers.
Both LURD and Charles Taylor made extensive use of children press ganged into military service as soldiers or ammunition porters. The use of child soldiers was prolific by both sides, regardless of prohibitions of the practice in the Geneva Convention. Observers from Human Rights Watch described a deadly and chaotic siege of Monrovia, with many very young fighters shooting "shiny toys" they had not been trained to use.[13]
Drugs made up an integral part of Liberian wartime culture. Child soldiers and other combatants were routinely addicted to cocaine, khat, and other drugs as a means of control. Several warlords felt that cocaine made soldiers more effective in battle.[14]
United Nations peacekeeping[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In November 1997, following the completion of the mandate of the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia UNOMIL on 30 September, the United Nations established the United Nations Peace-building Support Office in Liberia (UNOL), headed by a representative of the Secretary-General. That first United Nations post-conflict peace-building support office was tasked primarily with assisting the government in consolidating peace following the July 1997 multiparty elections.
On September 11, 2003, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan recommended deployment of the peacekeeping mission, the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL), to maintain the peace agreement. The UN Security Council approved the mission on September 19 in Resolution 1509. Nigeria sent in peacekeepers as part of the interim ECOMIL Economic Community of West African States force. UNMIL was made up of over 15,000 personnel, including both military and civilian troops.
The bulk of the personnel were armed military troops, but there were also civilian policemen, as well as political advisers and humanitarian aid workers. On October 1, the first peacekeepers changed their berets and became a UN force, with many more troops earmarked. During three days of riots in Monrovia in October 2004, nearly 400 people were wounded and 15 killed. The UN slowly built up its forces in the country, with 5,500 projected to be in place by November 2003, and worked to disarm the various factions. However, instability in neighbouring countries, an incomplete disarmament process, and general discontent threatened Liberia's fragile peace.
Women of Liberia[edit]
Main article: Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace
A group of Liberian women headed by Leymah Gbowee formed an organization called "Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace" and forced a meeting with President Charles Taylor, extracting a promise from him to attend peace talks in Ghana. A delegation of women organized nonviolence protests and continued to apply pressure on the warring factions during the peace process. They staged a silent protest outside of the Presidential Palace, bringing about an agreement during the stalled peace talks.[15]
Working together, over 3,000 Christian and Muslim women mobilized their efforts, and as a result, the women were able to achieve peace in Liberia after a 14-year civil war and helped bring to power the country's first female president.[16] The story is told in the 2008 documentary film Pray the Devil Back to Hell.[17] Ellen Johnson Sirleaf is the first modern elected female head of state in Africa.
See also[edit]
Living in Emergency: Stories of Doctors Without Borders (documentary film about Médecins Sans Frontières's work in Liberia after the war)
General:
History of Liberia
References[edit]
Specific
Jump up ^ "THE ROOTS OF THE SECOND LIBERIAN CIVIL WAR". connection.ebscohost.com. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Lydia Polgreen, "A Master Plan Drawn in Blood", NY Times, April 2, 2006
Jump up ^ International Crisis Group, ‘Liberia: The Key to Ending Regional Instability,’ 24 April 2002, p.8
^ Jump up to: a b ICG, ‘Liberia: The Key to Ending Regional Instability,’ 24 April 2002, p.3
Jump up ^ [1][dead link]
Jump up ^ International Crisis Group, April 2002, p.7, Adebayo, Liberia's Civil War, 2002, p.235
^ Jump up to: a b Mats Utas, Fluid Research Fields: Studying Excombatant Youth in the Aftermath of the Liberian Civil War, p.213, in Chapter 11, Children and Youth on the Front Line: ethnography, armed conflict and displacement, Dr Jo Boyden & J. de Berry, Oxford and New York: Berghahn Books, 2004.
Jump up ^ BBC News Africa, ‘Liberia ends state of emergency,’ Saturday, 14 September 2002.
Jump up ^ S/2003/875, para 9, see also Dr T. Jaye, Liberia: an analysis of post-Taylor politics, Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 30, Issue 98, Dec 2003
Jump up ^ Agencies (29 July 2003). "Liberian rebels declare ceasefire". Theguardian.com. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Peacekeepers 'rushing' to Liberia". Theguardian.com. 24 July 2003. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Rebels Lift Siege of Starving Monrovia - General". Redorbit.com. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Bank’s Services for Arms Dealers in Conflict with Its Own Policy - International Consortium of Investigative Journalists". Icij.org. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "The VICE Guide to Liberia". Vice. Retrieved 2014-09-13.
Jump up ^ "African women look within for change". Edition.cnn.com. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "Bill Moyers Journal . PRAY THE DEVIL BACK TO HELL - PBS". Pbs.org. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
Jump up ^ "mediaglobal.org". Mediaglobal.org. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
General
International Crisis Group, ‘Liberia: The Key to Ending Regional Instability,’ 24 April 2002
Gerdes, Felix: Civil War and State Formation: The Political Economy of War and Peace in Liberia, Frankfurt/New York: Campus Verlag & University of Chicago Press, 2013
Further reading[edit]
Käihkö, Ilmari. "Bush Generals and Small Boy Battalions: Military Cohesion in Liberia and Beyond." (PhD thesis, Uppsala, 2016).
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Second Liberian Civil War.
Insight on Conflict.Liberia
United Nations Mission in Liberia website
Text of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, U.S. Institute of Peace
Photo gallery by Chris Hondros
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