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History of Jainism
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Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are Jaina rock-cut caves in Odisha linked to Mahameghavahana dynasty (Chedi), 1st-century BCE.[1]
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History of Jainism concerns a religion founded in Ancient India. Jains trace their history through twenty-four tirthankara and revere Rishabhanatha as the first tirthankara (in the present time-cycle). The last two tirthankara, the 23rd tirthankara Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE)[2][3] and the 24th tirthankara Mahavira (c. 599 – c. 527 BCE)[4] are considered historical figures,[5][6] though many historians date them both about a century later because the Mahavira is widely accepted as a contemporary of the Buddha, and significantly more historical evidence is available for the Buddha.[7] According to Jain texts, the 22nd Tirthankara Arshth-nemi[8] lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of Hindu god Krishna.[9][10] Jains consider their religion to be eternal.[11]
The two main sects of Jainism, the Digambara and the Śvētāmbara sect, likely started forming about the 3rd century BCE and the schism was complete by about 5th century CE.[12][13] These sects later subdivided into several sub-sects such as Sthānakavāsī and Terapanthis.[14] Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism in ancient and medieval India. Many of its historic temples were built near the Buddhist and Hindu temples in 1st millennium CE.[15][16] After the 12th-century, the temples, pilgrimage and naked ascetic tradition of Jainism suffered persecution during the Muslim rule, with the exception of Akbar whose religious tolerance and support for Jainism led to a temporary ban on animal killing during the Jain religious festival of Paryusan.[17]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 Tirthankaras and lineage
2.1 Mahavira
2.2 Parshvanatha
2.3 Neminatha
2.4 Rishabhanatha
2.5 Lineage
3 Schism
3.1 Ajivika
4 Political history
4.1 Mauryan Empire
4.2 Indo-Scythians
4.3 Hindu kings
5 Interaction with other religions
5.1 Buddhism
5.2 Hinduism
5.2.1 Shaivism
5.2.2 Lingayatism
5.2.3 Vaishnavism
5.2.4 Tirthankaras in Hindu temples
5.3 Islam
5.4 Christianity
6 British rule
7 Literature
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Citations
10.2 Sources
11 Further reading
12 External links
Origins[edit]
See also: Timeline of Jainism
The origins of Jainism are obscure.[18][19] The Jains claim their religion to be eternal, and consider Rishabhanatha to be the founder in the present time-cycle, and someone who lived for 8,400,000 purva years.[20] Rishabhanatha is among the first 22 of 24 Jain Tirthankaras who are considered to be mythical figure by historians.[21][20]
Different scholars have had different views on the origin. Some artifacts found in the Indus Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but this is highly speculative.[22][23][24] According to a 1925 proposal of Glasenapp, Jainism's origin can be traced to the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha, and he considers the first twenty-two tirthankaras as legendary mythical figures.[25] According to another proposal by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the first vice president of India, Jainism was in existence long before the Vedas were composed.[26]
Tirthankaras and lineage[edit]
The four Tirthankaras from the Mathura archaeological site (Kankali Tila).
The mythology in the Kalpa-Sutra mentions the four Tirthankaras; Rishabhanatha, Neminatha, Parshvanatha and Mahavira. They were revered in Jain artworks by about the start of the common era. In Buddhist sources, Mahavira is not mentioned as a founder of new tradition, but as part of an ascetic Nirgranthas (without knot) tradition. This has led scholars to conclude that Mahavira was not the founder, but a reformer of tradition already established by his predecessor Parsvanatha.[27] While Jain texts and tradition believes in 24 Tirthankaras, only the last two are generally acknowledged by historians to be based on historical figures who lived in the 1st millennium BCE.[28][7][29]
Mahavira[edit]
Main article: Mahavira
Mahavira, the 24th tirthankar of Jainism in current time cycle.
During the 6th century BCE, Mahāvīra became one of the most influential teachers of Jainism. Jains revere him as the twenty-fourth and last tirthankara of present cosmic age.[30] Though, Mahavira is sometimes mistakenly regarded as the founder, he appears in the tradition as one who, from the beginning, had followed a religion established long ago.[31]
Parshvanatha[edit]
Main article: Parshvanatha
There is reasonable historical evidence that the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha, the predecessor of Mahavira, lived somewhere in the 9th–7th century BCE.[5][32][33][34]
Neminatha[edit]
Main article: Neminatha
Neminatha was the predecessor of Parshvanatha, 84,000 years earlier, and 22nd Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. In the texts of Jainism, the Hindu god Krishna is stated to be a cousin of Neminatha,[10] and that Neminatha taught Krishna all the wisdom that he later gave to Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita. According to Jeffery D. Long, a professor of Religion known for his publications on Jainism, this connection between Krishna and Neminatha has been a historic reason for Jains to accept, read and cite the Bhagavad Gita as a spiritually important text, celebrate Krishna related festivals and intermingle with Hindus as spiritual cousins.[35]
Rishabhanatha[edit]
Main article: Rishabhanatha
Statue of Rishabhanatha, the 1st tirthankar of Jainism in current time cycle.
The Vedas mention the name Rishabha.[36] However, the context in the Rigveda, Atharvaveda and the Upanishads suggests that it means the bull, sometimes "any male animal" or "most excellent of any kind", or "a kind of medicinal plant".[37][note 1] Elsewhere it is an epithet for the Hindu god Shiva (Rudra).[40] Later Hindu mythical texts such as the Bhagavata Purana include Rishabha Jina as an avatar of Vishnu.[41],but according to Jainism Vishnu himself is a sacred soul who is going to be a thirthankar himself in the next era after this world ends and new world starts.
Lineage[edit]
After the death of Parshvanatha, his disciple Subhadatta became the head of the monks. Subhadatta was succeeded by Haridatta, Aryasamudra, Prabha and lastly Kesi.[42] Uttaradhyayana, a Svetambara text have records of a dialogue between Mahavira's disciple and Kesi; Kesi along with his community accepted Mahavira as a tirthankara and merged with him as a result.[43]
The Tirthankaras are believed in the Jain tradition to have attained omniscience, known as kevala jnana. After Mahavira, one of his disciples Sudharma Svami is said to have taken over the leadership.[44] He was the head of Jain community till 515 BCE.[45] After his death, Jambuswami, a disciple of Sudharma Svami became the head of the monks. He was the head till 463 BCE.[46] Sudharma Svami and Jambu Svami are also traditionally said to have attained keval jnana. It is said that no one after Jambu Svami has attained it till now.
After Sudharma svami, there followed five sutrakevalis, i.e. those who were well versed in the scriptures, who headed the monks of the Jain community. Bhadrabahu was the last sutrakevali.[47] After Bhadrabahu, there were seven (or eleven) leaders.[46] Knowledge of the scriptures was progressively being lost with each in turn.
Schism[edit]
During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Acharya Bhadrabahu moved to Karnataka to survive a twelve-year-long famine. Sthulabhadra, a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu, stayed in Magadha. When followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned, there was a dispute between them regarding the authenticity of the Angas. Also, those who stayed at magadha started wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked. This is how the Digambara and Śvētāmbara sects arose, the Digambara being naked whereas the Svetambara were white clothed.[48] Digambara found this as being opposed to the Jain tenets which, according to them, required complete nudity for the monks. The presence of gymnosophists ("naked philosophers") in Greek records has been interpreted to be referring to Digambaras Jain Śramaṇa practice.[49]
Vallabhi council was formed at 454 CE.[50] At this council, Svetambara accepted their texts as the scriptures of Jainism. The Digambara sect completely rejects these scriptures as not being authentic. This 5th century event solidified the schism between these major traditions within Jainism.[12][13]
Ajivika[edit]
Main article: Ajivika
Jainism is related to an extinct Indian religious tradition named Ājīvika. The later is mentioned in ancient texts of Buddhism and Jainism, and it is attributed to Makkhali Gosala, a contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira.[51]
The Jain Bhagavati Sutra refers to the Ajivika founded as Gosala Mankhaliputta ("son of Mankhali"). The text depicts Gosala as having been a disciple of Mahavira's for a period of six years, after which the two had a falling out and parted ways.[51] The Bhagavati Sutra mentions a debate, disagreement and then "coming to blows" between factions led by Mahavira and by Gosala.[51] Jainism also flourished under the Nanda Empire (424–321 BCE).[52] Both Ajivika and Jainism championed asceticism. This is earliest documented schism between Mahavira and a likely disciple of his.[53]
The earliest archeological evidence is in the form of a naked headless torso discovered in 1937 near Patna (Bihar), which is called the "Lohanipur Torso". This has been dated by modern scholarship to about 2nd-century BCE. It is a highly polished stone artwork of precise human form, but it is unclear if it belongs to Jainism, Ajivikas or some other Indian religious ascetic tradition.[54][note 2] While it is not Buddhist, and is naked like the Jinas, it may also not be a Jain statue because it lacks the Jain iconography, and because similar high quality Jain artworks are missing for many centuries. Further, Jain artworks that have been found from the same period in north India show quite different forms and symbols. It may belong to Ajivikas or another ancient Indian naked ascetic tradition, but ruling out that it may indeed reflect Jainism arts in 2nd-century BCE is also not possible.[54][56] Ancient naked terracotta statues discovered in 1970s near Ayodhya are similar to the Lohanipur Torso, but terracotta arts are also missing in Jaina tradition and the Ayodhya terracotta statues too lack Jain iconography.[54][56]
Political history[edit]
Information regarding the political history of Jainism is uncertain and fragmentary. Jains consider the king Bimbisara (c. 558–491 BCE), Ajatashatru (c. 492–460 BCE), and Udayin (c. 460-440 BCE) of the Haryanka dynasty as a patron of Jainism.[52]
Mauryan Empire[edit]
Chandragupta Maurya built one of the largest empires in ancient India. According to Jain history, he then renounced it all, and became a Jain monk in 297 BCE.[57]
Tradition says that Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE), the founder of Mauryan Empire, became disciple of Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu during later part of his life.[58] According to historians, Chandragupta story appears in various versions in Buddhist, Jain and Hindu texts.[59] Broadly, Chandragupta was born in a humble family, abandoned, raised as a son by another family, then with the training and counsel of Chanakya of Arthashastra fame, Chandragupta either first gained power in the Nanda Empire then conquered the Punjab region, or vice versa, but ultimately built one of the largest empires in ancient India.[60][61][62] According to Jain history, late in his life, Chandragupta adopted Jainism, renounced the empire he built and handed over his power to his son, became a Jaina monk, and headed to meditate and pursue spirituality in the Deccan region, under the Jaina teacher Bhadrabahu at Shravanabelagola. There state Jain texts, he died by fasting, a Jaina ascetic method of ending one's life by choice (Sallenkana-Vrata).[60][63][61] Jaina legends state that there was a twelve-year famine that triggered him to perform the fast, but this legend is only found in the Jain textual tradition.[64][65]
Inscription about Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu and emperor-turned-monk Chandragupta Maurya (Shravanabelagola, Karnataka). This inscription has been dated to 1129 CE, about 1,400 years after the event.[66]
The Maurya dynasty started by Chandragupta has had a historic role on Indian religions. Ashoka (273–232 BCE), the grandson of Chandragupta was inspired by Buddhist ideologies. There is a reference to Jains in the edicts of Ashoka where the duties of dhammamahatma (law-authorities) are dealt with.[67] The inscription reads:[67]
Piyadasi, who is loved by the gods spoke thus: My supervisors of law are dealing with many connected with mercy, also with those which concern the ascetics and those which concern the house holders. They deal with the religious brotherhoods as well. I have made arrangements so that they will deal with the matter of Sangha (of the Buddhist community); similarly, I have made arrangements so they will deal with the Brahmans and also with the Ajivikas; I have also made arrangements that they deal with the Niganthas (Jainas); I have made arrangements so that they will deal with (all) the religious brotherhoods.
Ashoka's grandson Samprati (c. 224–215 BCE), is said to have converted into Jainism by a Jain monk named Suhasti according to the tradition. He lived in a place called Ujjain.[68] It is believed that he erected many Jain temples, and the temples whose origins are forgotten were often ascribed to him in later times.[68]
Emperor Kharavela of Mahameghavahana dynasty, was religiously tolerant, while being a patron of Jainism. Inscriptions found in Udayagiri mentions that he erected a statue of the Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara and made cave-dwellings for monks.[69] In first century CE, Acharya Bhutabali lead a group of Jain monks to the caves surrounding Madurai for spreading Jainism.[70]
Indo-Scythians[edit]
According to von Glasenapp there is a story, whose historical accuracy is doubtful.[71] The story states that Gardabhilla (c. 1st century BCE), the king of Ujjain, abducted a nun who was the sister of a Jain monk named Kalaka. The brother sought the help of the Indo-Scythian ruler Saka Sahi. The Saka went to war with Gardabhilla, defeated him, and expelled the king of Ujjain.[72] The Sakas settled in the new lands, and "danced like bees" around the foot of monk Kalaka.[72] The story continues to the son of the vanquished king Gardabhilla who was Vikramaditya. He is claimed to have defeated the Sakas, expelled them, himself followed Jainism and gave ancient India the Vikrami calendar with the zero date of 57 or 58 BCE.[73] The story is unlikely to be true because the expulsion of Sakas by Vikramaditya has no historical basis, Jains have not followed the Vikrami zero year and instead used Mahavira's moksha date as their zero year, and the use of the Vikrami calendar has been widespread in Hinduism.[74] According to Heinrich von Stietencron, Vikramaditya and Saka interaction occurred many centuries later.[75]
According to another Jain legend, king Salivahana of late 1st century CE was a patron of Jainism, as were many others in the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE. But, states von Glasenapp, the historicity of these stories are difficult to establish.[73]
Hindu dynasties helped build many Jaina temples. Above: Indra Sabha at the Ellora Caves.
Hindu kings[edit]
Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain centre between 2nd century BCE and the 5th century CE. Inscriptions from the 1st and 2nd century CE shows that the schism of Digambara/Svetambara had already happened.[76]
King Harshavardhana of 7th century, grew up in Shaivism following family, but he championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism.[77] King Ama of 8th-century converted to Jainism, and Jaina pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era.[78] Mularaja, the founder of Chalukya dynasty constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain.[79]
In the second half of the 1st century CE, Hindu kings sponsored and helped build major Jaina caves temples. For example, the Hindu Rashtrakuta dynasty started the early group of Jain temples,[15] and Yadava dynasty built many of the middle and later Jain group of temples at the Ellora Caves between 700 and 1000 CE.[80][81][16]
During the reign of king Bhima (1022–1064 CE), a Jain layman Vimala built many temples above Mount Abu. A famous Jain monk Hemacandra (born c. 1088 CE) was initiated at the age of eight by monk Devacandra. He was a prime figure; responsible for propagation of Jainism in Gujarat.[82]
Interaction with other religions[edit]
Buddhism[edit]
Mahavira and Buddha are generally accepted as contemporaries (circa 5th century BCE).[83][84] The interaction between Jainism and Buddhism began with the Buddha. Buddhist texts refer to Mahavira as Nigantha Nataputta.[85]
Buddhist scriptures record that during Prince Siddhartha's ascetic life (before he attained enlightenment and became Buddha) he undertook many fasts, penances and austerities, mentioned in the Jain tradition. In Majjhima Nikaya, Buddha shares his experience:[86]
“ Thus far, SariPutta, did I go in my penance? I went without clothes. I licked my food from my hands. I took no food that was brought or meant especially for me. I accepted no invitation to a meal. ”
The Buddha tried ascetic methods found in Jainism, abandoned that path and taught the Middle Way instead.[87] Many suttas of Buddhism acknowledge the Jain influence. The Samaññaphala Sutta (D i.47), for example states:
“ Nigantha Nataputta answered with fourfold restraint. Just as if a person, when asked about a mango, were to answer with a breadfruit; or, when asked about a breadfruit, were to answer with a mango: In the same way, when asked about a fruit of the contemplative life, visible here and now, Nigantha Nataputta answered with fourfold restraint. The thought occurred to me: 'How can anyone like me think of disparaging a brahman or contemplative living in his realm?' Yet I [Buddha] neither delighted in Nigantha Nataputta's words nor did I protest against them. Neither delighting nor protesting, I was dissatisfied. Without expressing dissatisfaction, without accepting his teaching, without adopting it, I got up from my seat and left."[88] ”
The Buddha disagreed with the Mahavira's concept of soul or self (jiva). Similarly, he found the Jain theory of karma and rebirths to be incompatible and inflexible to his own ideas for these.[89]
Beyond the times of the Mahavira and the Buddha, the two ascetic sramana religions competed for followers, as well merchant trade networks that sustained them.[90][91] Their mutual interaction, along with those of Hindu traditions have been significant, and in some cases the titles of the Buddhist and Jaina texts are same or similar but present different doctrines.[92] Jainism had a tradition of itinerant mendicants with less emphasis on a monastery style living for monks. Buddhism, in contrast, emphasized sangha or monasteries. According to Akira Hirakawa, the monasteries were easier targets for destruction and elimination, and Buddhism almost vanished from the Indian subcontinent after the Muslim invasions. In contrast, the roaming mendicants and the Jain tradition survived during this period of religious violence and turmoil.[90]
Hinduism[edit]
Jainism and Hinduism influenced each other. Jain texts declare some of the Hindu gods as blood relatives of legendary Tirthankaras. Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthankara for example is presented as a cousin of Krishna in Jain Puranas and other texts.[93][94] However, Jain scholars such as Haribhadra also wrote satires against Hindu gods, mocking them with novel outrageous stories where the gods misbehave and act unethically.[95][96] The Hindu gods are presented by some Jain writers as persecuting or tempting or afraid of or serving a legendary Jina before he gains omniscience. In other stories, one or more Jinas easily defeat the Hindu deities such as Vishnu, or Rama and Sita come to pay respect to a Jina at a major Jain pilgrimage site such as Mount Satrunjaya.[97] The medieval Jain scholars rewrote the Hindu mythologies into Jain versions. According to Paul Dundas, these satires were aimed at the Jain lay householder community, were means to inculcate piety and subvert the religious teachings offered by their Hindu neighbors.[95] Such literary freedoms were not limited to Jain scholars. Buddhist and Hindu scholars engaged in creating similar satire, mythology and parody-filled fiction targeting the Jains and each other.[98]
Emergence of major philosophical ideas within Hinduism impacted Jainism. According to a 1925 publication by von Glasenapp, around the 8th century CE, Śaṅkarācārya brought forward the doctrine of Advaita. The Vaishnavism and Shaivism also began to rise. This, states von Glasenapp, contributed to a decline of "Jaina church", particularly in South India.[99]
Shaivism[edit]
Shaivite poets like Sambandar, Appar (c. 7th century CE), Sundaramurti and Manikkavacakar introduced Jains to Shaivism. Under these influences, Jaina kings became Shaivite.[100] The rulers of Chola dynasty also supported Shaivism.
According to a Shaivite legend, an alleged massacre of 8,000 Jain monks happened in the 7th-century which is claimed for the first time in an 11th-century Tamil language text of Nambiyandar Nambi on Sampantar.[101] According to this text, a 7th-century Shaivite saint defeated the Jain monks in a series of debates and contests on philosophy, and thereby converted a Jain Pandyan king, variously called "Koon Pandiyan" or "Sundara Pandyan" in the legend, to Shaivism. Subsequently, the king allegedly ordered the impalement of 8,000 Jains. This event is not mentioned in texts of Campantar, nor any other Hindu or Jain texts for four centuries.[102][103][104] After Nampi Antar's work, the story appears in many inconsistent versions. Scholars question whether this story is a fiction created in the 11th-century, or reflects an actual massacre.[105][106][107] K. A. Nilakanta Sastri states that the story is "little more than an unpleasant legend and cannot be treated as history".[108]
Lingayatism[edit]
During the 11th century, Basava, a minister to the Jaina king Bijjala II, succeeded in converting numerous Jains to Lingayatism which was hostile to Jains. They destroyed various temples belonging to Jains and adapted them to their use.[100] A saint named Ekdanta Ramaya further propagated Lingayatism. He convinced Bijjala II to grant a land near Abdlur for a temple of Shiva.[109] Lingayatism gradually expanded. It was the state religion of Telugu and Kannada speaking territories like Wodeyar of Mysore and Ummatur (1399–1610), Nayaks of Keladi (1550–1763).[109] They were hostile to Jains. In 1683, they stamped linga symbol in the main basati of Jains in Halebid. Jains were forced to perform Shiva rites.[110]
Vaishnavism[edit]
According to von Glasenapp, it is said Hoysala King Bittideva (c. 1108–1152 CE) converted from Jainism and became a follower of Ramanuja, then ordered the Jains to be thrown in an oil mill and crushed if they did not convert.[111] According to T. K. Tukol, the rule of Bittideva did not persecute or force convert Jains. He converted, but his queen Shantaladevi remained a Jaina. She was the patron of art and built Jain temples.[112] Bittideva’s general and prime minister Gangaraja, states Tukol, was "a Jaina who under the guidance of his Guru Subhachandra did many acts of piety and religion to advance the cause of Jainism".[112] Bittideva employed a female general who was a Jaina lady named Jakkiyabbe. His era saw temples being installed for all 24 Tirthankaras.[112]
The Vijayanagara Empire king Bukkaraya-I, states von Glasenapp, ensured that both Vaishnava and Jaina traditions enjoyed same cultural and religious freedoms, and helped repair Jain temples.[111] Anandatirtha, a Hindu thinker, preached a dualistic theology, which attracted many Jains to convert to Hinduism.[111]
Tirthankaras in Hindu temples[edit]
The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain Tirthankara within its premises in a place of honor.[113][114] Similarly numerous temple complexes feature both Hindu and Jain monuments, with Badami cave temples and Khajuraho among some of the most well known.[115][116]
Islam[edit]
The Muslim invaders who conquered parts of Northern India, like Mahmud Ghazni (1001 CE) and Mohammad Ghori (1175 CE), oppressed the Jaina community.[117]
Jainism faced persecution during and after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent.[118] This period witnessed destruction of Jain temples, their pilgrimage centers and other forms of persecution. There were significant exceptions, such as Emperor Akbar (1542–1605) whose legendary religious tolerance, out of respect for Jains, ordered release of caged birds and banned killing of animals on the Jain festival of Paryusan.[119] After Akbar, Jains faced an intense period of Muslim persecution in the 17th-century.[120]
Jain scholars of the Mughal era debated religious ideas with Muslim scholars.[121] Hiravijaya, in chapters thirteen and fourteen of Hirasaubhagya for example, presents the interaction and views of the two religions. The text mentions him stating to a Muslim sheikh, that "a creator god (called khuda) is impossible, one who presides over others, allots reward and punishment", instead it is karma that determines man's ultimate destiny. He asserts that the two religions are different, Islam involves violence, while Jainism is based on compassion.[121] Jain scholars were supportive of Akbar and Jain texts praise his religious tolerance.[121]
According to Paul Dundas, in and after the 12th century, Muslim destruction caused Jain scholars to revisit their theory of Ahimsa (non-violence). For example, Jinadatta Suri in 12th century, wrote during a time of widespread destruction of Jain temples and blocking of Jaina pilgrimage by Muslim armies, that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody" in self-defense would not lose any merit.[122]
Christianity[edit]
Colonial era Christian missions wrote about Jainism, but typically stereotyping it as "a coldly austere religion of pure asceticism, with no 'heart', preoccupied only with not harming microorganisms". The discussion emphasized the ascetic extremes, rather than the values. They criticized the Jain theories on non-violence stating that this value is essentially equal to "doing nothing", because it entails not "hurting" other beings, but does not demand the "positive ethic of helping someone suffering".[123] According to Jeffrey Long, these missionary writings were a distortion of Jain theology because Jainism does teach, value and has a historic record of charity, and compassion is an essential value in Jainism for spiritual development.[123]
Some Christian writers critiqued Jainism for its cosmology, with extraordinary time scales and cyclic time periods. However, states Long, the genesis theories in Christianity and other religions suffer from equivalent issues and they present the world to have been created few thousand years ago, in a short period of time.[124] Similarly, historic Christian writers critiqued the lack of "saving grace" in Jainism. For example, Sinclair Stevenson wrote in 1915 that the "heart of Jainism was empty because it lacked the saving grace of Jesus".[125]
British rule[edit]
The British colonial rule era, according to von Glasenapp in 1925, allowed Jains to pursue their religion without persecutions they had faced before.[126] Further, the British government promoted trade, which allowed members of the Jain community to pursue their traditional economic activity. According to von Glasenapp, Jain businessmen and Jainism thrived during this period, and they used their financial success during the British Raj to rebuild Jain temples. For example, the Dharmanatha temple was built in Ahmedabad (Gujarat) in 1848.[126] The British census reported a drop in Jain population between 1891 and 1921, from 1.417 million to 1.179 million. This may be from the Jain conversions to Hinduism and causes such as famines and epidemics.[126][127][128]
M. Whitney Kelting in 2001 states, in contrast, that the British merchants actually took over the trades in Gujarat and Maharashtra which Jains traditionally engaged in. This was in part responsible for major Jain community migrations during the British colonial era.[127]
The British colonial government in India, as well as Indian princely states, passed laws that made monks roaming naked in streets a crime, one that led to arrest. This law particularly impacted the Digambara tradition monks.[129] The Akhil Bharatiya Jaina Samaj opposed this law, and argued that it interfered with the religious rights of Jains. Acharya Shantisagar entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and he was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces.[129] Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by British Raj and prompted their discontinuance.[130] The colonial era laws that banned naked monks were abolished after India gained independence.[131]
Literature[edit]
Main article: Jain Aagams § History
It is unclear when Jain scriptures were written down, with oldest surviving Jain manuscripts dated to the 11th-century CE.[132] Jain literature, like those of Buddhism and Hinduism, is believed to have been transmitted by an oral tradition. The texts were largely lost over time. The Svetambara tradition has a collection of Agamas and texts, which it believes to be ancient.[132] However, the Digambara sect of Jainism rejects the authority of the Jain Aagams in the Svetambara tradition.[133][134] They believe that by the time of Dharasena, the twenty-third teacher after Indrabhuti Gautama, knowledge of only one Anga was there. This was about 683 years after the Nirvana of Mahavira. After Dharasena's pupils Pushpadanta and Bhutabali, even that was lost.[134]
In course of time, the canons of svetambara were also getting lost.[135] About 980 to 993 years after the death of Mahavira, a council was held at Vallabhi in Gujarat. This was headed by Devardhi Ksamashramana.[135][136] It was found that the 12th Anga, the Ditthivaya, was lost too. The other Angas were written down.[135] This is a traditional account of schism.[137] According to Svetambara, there were eight schisms (Nihvana).[138]
According to Digambara tradition, Ganadhara knew fourteen Purva and eleven Anga. Knowledge of Purva was lost around 436 years after Mahavira and Anga were lost around 683 years after Mahavira.[139] The texts that do not belong to Anga are called Angabahyas. There were fourteen Angabahyas. The first four Angabahayas, Samayika, chaturvimasvika, Vandana and Pratikramana corresponds to sections of second Mulasutra of Svetambara. The only texts of Angabahyas which occurs in Svetambara texts are Dasavaikalika, Uttaradhyayana and Kalpavyavahara.[140]
Umaswati's Tattvartha Sutras are accepted as authoritative texts by all Jain traditions.[141][142] Kundakunda's mystical texts are revered in the Digambara tradition.[143]
See also[edit]
Jain cosmology
Indus Valley Civilization
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ For example: ऋषभं मा समानानां सपत्नानां विषासहिम् । हन्तारं शत्रूणां कृधि विराजं गोपतिं गवाम् ॥१॥ – Rigveda 10.166.1[38] Other examples of Rishabha appearing in the Vedic literature include verses 6.16.47 of Rigveda, 9.4.14-15 of Atharvaveda, 3.7.5.13 and 4.7.10.1 of Taittiriya Brahmana, etc.[39]
Jump up ^ A Svetambara text refers to Hindu ascetics where both its monks and nuns chose nudity as a part of their monastic lifestyle.[55]
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
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Jump up ^ Zimmer 1953, p. 222.
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Jump up ^ Helen 2009, pp. 1–266.
^ Jump up to: a b Sangave 2001, pp. 104, 129.
Jump up ^ Zimmer 1953, p. x, 180–181.
^ Jump up to: a b Price 2010, pp. 104–105.
^ Jump up to: a b Fohr 2015, pp. 21–22.
Jump up ^ Peter Flügel (2002), Terapanth Svetambara Jain Tradition, in Melton, J.G. and Baumann, G., (eds.), Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, ABC-CLIO, ISBN 978-1576072233, pp. 1266-1267
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^ Jump up to: a b Lisa Owen (2012). Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora. BRILL Academic. pp. 1–10. ISBN 978-9004206298.
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Jump up ^ Flügel 2012, p. 975.
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Jump up ^ Rishabhanatha, in Encyclopaedia Britannica, Editors of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2010
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Jump up ^ Arishtanemi: JAINA SAINT, Encyclopaedia Britannica
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Jump up ^ John R. Hinnells (1991). Who’s Who of World Religions. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 145–146. ISBN 978-1-349-09500-1.
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Jump up ^ Naomi Appleton (2016). Shared Characters in Jain, Buddhist and Hindu Narrative: Gods, Kings and Other Heroes. Routledge. pp. 17–21, 32–35, 61–69, 86–95, 177. ISBN 978-1-317-05574-7.
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^ Jump up to: a b M. Whitney Kelting (2001). Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen, Mandal Singing, and the Negotiations of Jain Devotion. Oxford University Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0-19-803211-3.
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Jump up ^ Natubhai Shah 2004, p. 56.
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Jump up ^ Singh 2008, p. 444.
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^ Jump up to: a b c Winternitz 1988, pp. 415–416
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Jump up ^ Winternitz 1988, p. 417.
Jump up ^ Winternitz 1988, p. 455
Jump up ^ Jaini 1998, p. 82.
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Sources[edit]
Balcerowicz, Piotr (2015), Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism (1st ed.), Routledge, ISBN 9781317538530
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Cort, John E. (2010) [1953], Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-538502-1
Dalal, Roshen (2010), Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide, Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6
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Fohr, Sherry (2015), Jainism: A Guide for the Perplexed, Bloomsbury Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4742-2756-8
Heehs, Peter (2002), Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience, New York University Press, ISBN 978-0-8147-3650-0
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Hudson, D Dennis (2008), The Body of God: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-970902-1
Jain, Kailash Chand (1991), Lord Mahāvīra and His Times, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0805-8
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Singh, Upinder (2016), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, Pearson Education, ISBN 978-93-325-6996-6
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Singh, Ram Bhushan Prasad (2008), Jainism In Early Medieval Karnataka, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3323-4
von Stietencron, Heinrich (2005), Hindu Myth, Hindu History, Religion, Art, and Politics, Orient Blackswan, ISBN 978-81-7824-122-7
von Glasenapp, Helmuth (1925), Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation [Der Jainismus: Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion], Shridhar B. Shrotri (trans.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Reprinted: 1999), ISBN 81-208-1376-6
Oliver Freiberger (2006). Asceticism and Its Critics: Historical Accounts and Comparative Perspectives. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1997-1901-3.
Steven Paul Hopkins (2002). Singing the Body of God: The Hymns of Vedantadesika in Their South Indian Tradition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-802930-4.
Thomas, Edward (1877), "Jainism or The early faith of Asoka", Nature, London: Trübner & co., 16 (407), Bibcode:1877Natur..16..329., doi:10.1038/016329a0
Winternitz, Maurice (1988) [1983], A History of Indian Literature: Buddhist literature and Jaina literature, II, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0265-9
Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952], Campbell, Joseph, ed., Philosophies Of India, London, E.C. 4: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6
Further reading[edit]
James Forlong (1897), Short Studies in the Science of Comparative Religions: Embracing All the Religions of Asia, B. Quaritch, archived from the original on 2008
External links[edit]
Jain, Kailasha Chandra. "Jainism Literature Center – Antiquity of Jainism".
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Christmas in Mexico
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Part of a nativity scene from the Church of the Company of Jesus in the city of Oaxaca. Joseph and Mary are dressed in Oaxacan costume.
Christmas in Mexico is celebrated during a season that begins in early December to January 6, with one other related event on February 2. During this entire time, one can see nativity scenes, poinsettias and Christmas trees. The season begins with celebrations related to the Virgin of Guadalupe, the patroness of Mexico, followed by traditions such as Las Posadas and pastorelas.
There is a mass and feast on Christmas Eve, the arrival of the Three Wise Men on January 6 ending with Candlemas and the presentation of Child Jesus images at churches. These traditions are a mixture of remnants from the pre-Hispanic period, Spanish traditions, traditions created during Mexico’s colonial period and later adaptations from German and United States Christmas traditions.
Contents
[hide]
1 Christmas season in Mexico
2 Nativity scenes
3 Pastorelas
4 Feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe
5 Las Posadas
6 Christmas Eve/Christmas Day/New years
7 Los Santos Inocentes
8 New Year’s Eve
9 Three Kings' Day (Epiphany)
10 Candlemas
11 Regional Christmas season traditions
12 See also
13 References
Christmas season in Mexico[edit]
Altar of the Saint Augustinus Church in Miguel Hidalgo, Federal District decorated for Christmas.
The Christmas season in Mexico runs from December 5 to February with one last related celebration on February 2. These various traditions incorporate remnants of indigenous practice, customs from Spain, novel Mexican inventions from the colonial period and later Germanic and U.S. elements.[1][2][3] Market activity begins to grow in late November, with traditional markets swelling and new tianguis (street) markets appearing with stalls dedicated to selling gifts and decorations which include traditional poinsettias and nativity scenes as well as items such as Christmas trees, ornaments / electric light and even reindeer figures.[1]
Starting in December, many homes, businesses and other buildings are decorated with poinsettias, which are called "noche buena" (from the Spanish phrase that means "good night" referring to Christmas Eve) .[1] Mexico is the origin of the poinsettia. In the pre-Hispanic period, they were called cuetlaxochitl, and a favorite in the mid winter when they were a symbol of the new life that they believed that fallen warriors received, returning as hummingbirds and butterflies to drink the nectar.[4] A modern Mexican legend says that the poinsettia was once a weed that miraculously turned into a beautiful flower so that a child could present it to the infant Jesus.[5] The name for this plant is also used to refer to a dark bock-style beer which is only available during the Christmas season.[1][6]
Christmas tree and lights in the main plaza of the city of Chihuahua.
Since the later 20th century, Mexico has adopted a number of German and U.S. Christmas traditions.[2] Christmas trees were originally imported into Mexico for the expatriate community, but have since become more popular with the Mexican population, either placed with more traditional nativity scenes or in some other location. Christmas trees have become more common as personal incomes rise and tree prices fall, with artificial trees easily available in places like Wal-Mart, Costco and Mexican chain stores. Live trees are also common and Christmas tree production in Mexico is now a large industry. For poorer families that cannot afford live trees, alternatives are small artificial trees, or even branches from local trees or shrubs.[6][7]
In 2009, Mexico hosted the world’s largest Christmas tree according to Guinness at 110.35 meters (approximately 362 feet) high and weighing 330 tons on Glorieta de la Palma on Paseo de la Reforma .[8] Santa Claus, still in his traditional red winter clothing, appears as well. Before Christmas Day it is not uncommon to see stands with Santa for children to have their picture taken. After Christmas Day, these stands have one or more Wise Men.[2]
Many children now get presents from both Santa Claus and the Wise Men, although they tend to get more from the Wise Men "because there are three of them".[2] Many public Christmas season celebrations mix Mexican and foreign traditions. Mexico City sponsors a Christmas season set up on the city’s main square or Zocalo, complete with a towering Christmas tree and an ice rink which has become a tradition. Nativity scenes are placed here and along Paseo de la Reforma.[9]
During the season it is common to hear Christmas music, both traditional and contemporary. Traditional music includes villancicos (akin to Christmas carols) with popular songs being "Los pastores a Belén", "Riu, riu, chiu: El lobo rabioso" and "Los peces en el río". Contemporary music includes Spanish covers of foreign music, such as Jingle Bells.
Nativity scenes[edit]
Niño Dios (Child Jesus) dressed in Tzotzil costume.
The most traditional and important Christmas decoration is the nativity scene. Generally set up by December 12 and left on display at least until February 2 and found in homes, businesses and churches. They were introduced in the early colonial period with the first Mexican monks teaching the indigenous people to carve the figures.[4][6] The basic set up is similar to those in other parts of the world, with a focus on the Holy Family, surrounded by angels, shepherds, Wise Men and animals, which are sheltered by a portal, which can take the shape of a cave, stone house or cabin. Above the scene is a star, often with an electric light.[1][10]
Since the colonial period, a number of purely Mexican twists have been added, starting with the use of Spanish moss covering the base.[4][6] The scene is missing the figure of the Child Jesus until Christmas Eve. Although all other images are generally proportional to the rest of the scene, the image of Jesus is much larger, almost that of a life sized baby. This image is not only central to the nativity scene but is also important to a tradition of bringing the image to church on February 2 to be blessed.[4]
Traditional figures are made from ceramic or plaster. One of the more traditional areas that produces ceramic figures for nativity scenes is the Guadalajara area, especially the towns of Tonalá and Tlaquepaque.[1] From late November into December, the Tonalá market has dozens of stalls that sell nothing but supplies for nativity scenes.[4] In addition to the more usual figures, Mexican nativity scenes have a number of unique ones. These include native Mexican plants and animals such as nopal cactus and turkeys, women making tortillas, fish in a river (referent to a popular Mexican carol), a crowing rooster (reference to Christmas Eve) and even images of Lucifer to hide in the shadows (a reference to the pastorelas).[1][4][6]
Nativity scenes can be found in all sizes and complexities. The large-scale nativity scenes can be quite elaborate, with multiple landscapes and even entire villages.[1][4] These usually start with a base of sturdy brown paper, crumpled to simulate a landscape sometimes with the support of multi-tiered bases. Over this base, moss, sawdust, sand, colored paper, paint and more are used to recreate deserts, grassland, rivers and lakes.[4][6] Over these are a wide variety of structures and figures which can include houses, churches, wells, vendors with carts of fruits and vegetables, playing children, musicians, dancers, cooking food, and more, all surrounding the center in which is the Holy Family. The nativity scene of the main church in Chapala has featured imagery from all over the world including wooden shoes, an igloo, figures to represent Africans and exotic animals.[4]
Pastorelas[edit]
The noche buena (poinsettia) is native to Mexico and is widely used as a decoration during Christmas time.
Pastorelas, which roughly means “shepherds’ plays,” are theatrical works done by both amateur and professional groups during the Christmas season. They were originally developed in the early colonial period as a didactic tool to teach the Christmas story.[1][6] The traditional pastorela begins with an angel telling the shepherds of the birth of Christ. The shepherds then follow the star of Bethlehem but are plagued on the way by attempts by the Devil to keep them from arriving. However, good triumphs in the end and the shepherds arrive.[6][11]
The script of the plays is often improvised by the actors and varies immensely and can include elements such as jokes, jeers, slang, songs, bawdy humor, discussions, cigarettes, tequila and even ladies of the evening, mostly focusing on the interaction with and struggle against Satan and his tricks.[1][4] The most traditional of these plays are found in rural areas. Variations exist from a focus on Mary and Joseph’s travel to Bethlehem, battles between the Archangel Michael and the Devil and registering with authorities to even ones with feminist themes.[1][10][11]
Feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe[edit]
The Christmas season begins with celebrations in honor of the Virgin of Guadalupe, Mexico’s patron saint. On December 3, a nine-day novena is begun in honor of the Virgin of Guadalupe, which ends on her feast day of December 12.[4] The most important event related to this time is the pilgrimage to her basilica in the north of Mexico City, with people coming to pay respects by all means of transportation from airplanes to bicycles to walking. This pilgrimage is undertaken by a large number of Mexican Catholics, regardless of race or class. For example, every year hundreds of members of the Japanese Mexican community (which is mainly Catholic) make the pilgrimage in kimonos.[12]
The area in and around the basilica begins to crowd with lights, fireworks and indigenous people dancing starting at dusk on December 11 and goes on all night and into the next day. This image of the Virgin Mary is honored in all of Mexico in various ways. In the city of Oaxaca, the main event is at Parque Llano on December 11, with small boys dressed as Juan Diego at the church to be blessed. In the very early morning hours of the 12th, the song Las Mañanitas is sung to the Virgin Mary.[1]
Las Posadas[edit]
Breaking a piñata at a Posada.
From December 16 to 24 there are a series of procession and parties called Las Posadas (from the word for inn), for many children the most anticipated part of the Christmas season.[4][5] The tradition was begun by Spanish evangelists to teach the Christmas story to the indigenous people and ostensibly to substitute the rituals related to the birth of the god Huitzilopochtli.[1][4]
Today they are most often performed in rural areas and in the lower-class neighborhoods of cities. The first part consists of a procession. The most traditional version heads out after dark each of the nine evenings from a local church. A girl and boy are chosen to play Mary and Joseph in costume, sometimes with Mary riding a donkey. The rest of the procession carries candles, paper lanterns and/or decorated staves and often an empty manger. If no one is dressed as Mary and Joseph, the procession generally carries a nativity scene.[1]
Las Posadas generally serves as a way to maintain community bonds with neighborhood.[1] In one variation, the procession arrives at a house and divides in two. One half remains outside and sings a traditional song to ask for shelter. The other sings the response from inside, and the ritual ends with everyone inside. The other variation has the procession go to three houses singing, two of which "reject" the party until the third house accepts.[1][6]
The piñata started as a medium by which the Evangelists used to teach Christian beliefs to the natives. With the traditional star-shaped piñata still being broken by children during the Posadas.[1] Like the procession, the Mexican piñata has symbolic and didactic meaning. The vessel represents Satan who has all the goods of the world, decorated to attract people. There are most traditionally seven points to represent the seven cardinal sins. The stick represents the Christian faith to defeat evil and release the treasure for all.[4][10]
After piñatas there is meal which usually includes tamales, atole, buñuelos and a hot drink called ponche, which is made from seasonal fruits such as tejocote, guava, plum, mandarin orange, orange and/or prune, sweetened with piloncillo, a kind of brown sugar, and spiced with cinnamon or vanilla. For adults rum or tequila may be added. Ponche recipes vary greatly in Mexico. The Colima version usually includes milk, sugar, orange leaves, vanilla and grated coconut.[10]
At the end of a posada, guests received a small gift called an aguinaldo, usually a package with cookies, dried and fresh fruit and candy. Then carols called villancicos are sung. A very old tradition has the song sung to the nativity scene to the newborn Child Jesus.[10]
Christmas Eve/Christmas Day/New years[edit]
A Christmas tree decoration with polyhedrons at the Universum Museum in Mexico City.
The last posada is early Christmas Eve. What follows is a late night Mass called the Mass of the Rooster.[6] It originated about six years after the arrival of the Spanish, when Father Pedro de Gante began a celebration of Christmas with a late night Mass. The name comes from the tradition that the birth of Christ was announced by the crowing of a rooster. The celebration became popular among the newly converted indigenous as it included elements from the old celebrations for the god Huitzilopochtli such as fireworks, torches, sparklers and plays along with food and dancing.[4]
Following the Mass, there is a traditional midnight feast. Traditional dishes include bacalao, reconstituted dried cod cooked with onions, tomato sauce, olives and more. Another is revoltijo de romerita, which is green in a mole or pepita sauce, with potatoes and often dried shrimp. The most luxurious item on the menu used to be suckling pig but this has mostly been replaced by turkey or ham. After dinner adults drink ponche or cider and children play with sparklers, called luces de Belen (Bethlehem lights).[1]
The rest of Christmas Day is quiet in Mexico as families recuperate from the festivities the night before, often eating leftovers from the midnight dinner.[4][6]
Los Santos Inocentes[edit]
December 28 is Mexico’s version of April Fools' Day called Los Santos Innocentes (The Sainted Innocents) originally to commemorate those boys killed by King Herod with the aim of avoiding the arrival of Christ.[1] It is also said that on this day one must can borrow any item and not have to return it. In the 19th century, elaborate ruses would be concocted to get the gullible to lend things on this day. If successful, the victorious prankster would send a note to the lender and a gift of sweets or small toys in memory of the children killed by Herod with the note saying "Innocent little dove who allowed yourself to be deceived, knowing that on this day, nothing should be lent.” This then developed into a day of pranks in general.[4] This even includes newspapers printing false wild stories on that day.[1] This is also celebrated online as well in recent years.
New Year’s Eve[edit]
New Year’s Eve falls during this time as well. It is celebrated much like most of the rest of the world with some exceptions. One notable tradition is the eating of twelve grapes rapidly along with the twelve chimes of the clock at midnight (a tradition shared with other Latin countries), to bring luck for each of the months of the coming year. Fireworks are common and in very rural areas the festivities may include shots fired in the air as well. In some parts of Veracruz, December 31 is reserved to honor elderly men with the Fiesta del Hombre Viejo.[1]
Three Kings' Day (Epiphany)[edit]
Girl with balloon and note to send to the Three Wise Men on the night before Three Kings' Day.
A rosca or rosca de reyes
The next major event in the Christmas season is Epiphany called Día de los Tres Reyes Magos (Three Kings’ Day). This day celebrates when the Three Wise Men arrived to visit the Child Jesus bearing gifts. On the night of January 5, children traditionally leave a shoe by the doorway where the Wise Men will enter, although this is not done in all parts of Mexico.[2][4]
Another variation of this is sending the note in a helium balloon into the sky. Inside is a thoughtful note explaining why they have been good or bad that year and the gifts they would like if deemed worthy. In the morning after opening the presents, a round sweet bread called a rosca is served, it is baked with dried fruit and tiny images of the infant Jesus inside. Whoever gets one of these figures in his/her slice must pay for tamales for Candlemas on February 2. The rosca is served with tamales and atole.[2][4]
Candlemas[edit]
Candlemas is celebrated on February 2, as it commemorates the presentation of the Child Jesus to the temple. On this day, people bring their images of the Child Jesus to be blessed. These are elaborately dressed, traditionally in christening gowns but many other costumes have since appeared as well. Afterwards, tamales and atole are shared, purchased by the people who found the miniature Jesus images on January 6.[1]
Regional Christmas season traditions[edit]
There are various regional Christmas season traditions.[1] In Alvarado and Tlacotalpan, there is the Fiesta Negrohispana, which is a celebration of African identity in Mexico which runs from December 16 to the 24th.[1]
In Oaxaca, a major event during this time is the feast day of the patroness of the state, the Virgin of Solitude on December 18. She is honored with precessions called calendas, with allegorical floats and costumes. The traditional food for this is called buñuelos, a fried pastry covered in sugar. In coastal areas, her image is often brought to shore by boat, accompanied by other boats with brass bands.[1]
In the city of Oaxaca on December 23, there is a unique event called La Noche de los Rabanos (Night of the Radishes). Oversized radishes are carved into elaborate figures. Originally these were for nativity scenes but today there is a major competition in which the vegetables are carved in all kinds of figures.[1]
In the Xochimilco borough of Mexico City, January 6 is important as the day that the best known Child Jesus image, the Niñopa, changes “hosts” or the family that will take care of the over 400-year-old image for the year. In the Nativitas section of the borough, there is a parade of the Wise Men, sometimes with real camels.[2]
See also[edit]
Mexico portal
Christmas portal
Culture of Mexico
Religion in Mexico
Public holidays in Mexico
Mexican Christmas Dishes
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Christmas in Mexico.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Kastelein, v (2001). "A Mexican Christmas". Business Mexico, suppl. Special Edition 2001. 10/11 (12/1): 82–85.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Preston, Julia (November 8, 1997). "Mexico City: Day of the Three Kings". New York Times Magazine. 6 (part 2) (8): 2.
Jump up ^ Cevallos, Diego (December 6, 2003). "Mexico: One million return home for Christmas from U.S.". Global Information Network. New York. p. 1.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s King, Judy (December 1, 1999). "Christmas holidays in Mexico: Festivals of light, love and peace". Mexconnect newsletter. ISSN 1028-9089. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b Flagg, Ann (1999). "Los Posadas, Christmas in Mexico". Instructor (1999). 110 (4): 38.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Hoyt Palfrey, Dale (December 1, 1997). "Feliz navidad: Making merry in Mexico". Mexconnect newsletter. ISSN 1028-9089. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
Jump up ^ Meacham, Bradley (November 30, 2000). "Christmas Tree Farms Turn to Mexico As Demand Slips in U.S.". Knight Ridder Tribune Business News. Washington, D.C. p. 1.
Jump up ^ "Mexico City erects world's largest Christmas tree: MEXICO-CHRISTMASTREE". EFE News Service. Madrid. December 6, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Mexico City Celebrates Christmas on Ice: December Brings Festive Sights and Activities to the Distrito Federal". PR Newswire. New York. December 19, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Dumois, Luis (December 1, 1998). "Mexico's Christmas posadas, pastorelas and nacimientos". Mexconnect newsletter. ISSN 1028-9089. Retrieved November 30, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Christmas in Mexico". Weekend All Things Considered. Washington, D.C.: National Public Radio. December 21, 1996. p. 1.
Jump up ^ "Colonia japonesa en México visita Guadalupe en 54º peregrinación anual". Aciprensa. Retrieved 19 December 2014.
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