text:
Sympathetic magic
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Sympathetic magic, also known as imitative magic, is a type of magic based on imitation or correspondence.
Contents
[hide]
1 Similarity and contagion
2 Imitation
3 Correspondence
4 Hypotheses about prehistoric sympathetic magic
5 Popular culture
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Similarity and contagion[edit]
It has been said that the theory of sympathetic magic was first developed by Sir James George Frazer in The Golden Bough (1889); Richard Andree, however, anticipates Frazer, writing of 'Sympathie-Zauber' in his 1878 Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche. Frazer further subcategorised sympathetic magic into two varieties: that relying on similarity, and that relying on contact or 'contagion':
If we analyze the principles of thought on which magic is based, they will probably be found to resolve themselves into two: first, that like produces like, or that an effect resembles its cause; and, second, that things which have once been in contact with each other continue to act on each other at a distance after the physical contact has been severed. The former principle may be called the Law of Similarity, the latter the Law of Contact or Contagion. From the first of these principles, namely the Law of Similarity, the magician infers that he can produce any effect he desires merely by imitating it: from the second he infers that whatever he does to a material object will affect equally the person with whom the object was once in contact, whether it formed part of his body or not.[1]
Imitation[edit]
Imitation involves using effigies, fetishes or poppets to affect the environment of people, or occasionally people themselves. Voodoo dolls are an example of fetishes used in this way. Such as using a lock of hair on the doll creating a "link" between the doll and the person the hair came from so whatever happens to the doll will also happen on the person.
Correspondence[edit]
Correspondence is based on the idea that one can influence something based on its relationship or resemblance to another thing. Many popular beliefs regarding properties of plants, fruits and vegetables have evolved in the folk-medicine of different societies owing to sympathetic magic. This include beliefs that certain herbs with yellow sap can cure jaundice, that walnuts could strengthen the brain because of the nuts' resemblance to brain, that red beet-juice is good for the blood, that phallic-shaped roots will cure male impotence, etc.[2]
Many traditional societies believed that an effect on one object can cause an analogous effect on another object, without an apparent causal link between the two objects. For instance, many folktales feature a villain whose "life" exists in another object, and who can only be killed if that other object is destroyed. (Examples including Sauron's One Ring in The Lord of the Rings, and the Russian folktale of Koschei the Deathless. Compare Horcrux and lich.) Mircea Eliade wrote that in Uganda, a barren woman is thought to cause a barren garden, and her husband can seek a divorce on purely economic grounds.[3]
Hypotheses about prehistoric sympathetic magic[edit]
The term is most commonly used in archaeology in relation to Paleolithic cave paintings such as those in North Africa and at Lascaux in France. The theory is one of prehistoric human behavior, and is based on studies of more modern hunter-gatherer societies. The idea is that the paintings were made by Cro-Magnon shamans. The shamans would retreat into the darkness of the caves, enter into a trance state and then paint images of their visions, perhaps with some notion of drawing power out of the cave walls themselves. This goes some way towards explaining the remoteness of some of the paintings (which often occur in deep or small caves) and the variety of subject matter (from prey animals to predators and human hand-prints). In his book Primitive Mythology, Joseph Campbell stated that the paintings "...were associated with the magic of the hunt." For him, this sympathetic magic was akin to a participation mystique, where the paintings, drawn in a sanctuary of "timeless principle", were acted upon by rite.
In 1933, Leo Frobenius, discussing cave paintings in North Africa, pointed out that many of the paintings did not seem to be mere depictions of animals and people. To him, it seemed as if they were acting out a hunt before it began, perhaps as a consecration of the animal to be killed. In this way, the pictures served to secure a successful hunt. While others interpreted the cave images as depictions of hunting accidents or of ceremonies, Frobenius believed it was much more likely that "...what was undertaken [in the paintings] was a consecration of the animal effected not through any real confrontation of man and beast but by a depiction of a concept of the mind."
In 2005, Francis Thackeray published a paper in the journal Antiquity, in which he recognised that there was a strong case for the principle of sympathetic magic in southern Africa in prehistory. For example, a rock engraving from Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa (dated at 4000 years before the present, BP) showed a zebra which had probably been "symbolically wounded", with incisions on the rump being associated with wounds. Ochre on the engraved slab could represent blood. A prehistoric rock painting at Melikane in Lesotho shows what appear to be men (shamans) bending forward like animals, with two sticks to represent the front legs of an antelope. Thackeray suggests that these men, perhaps shamans or "medicine-men" dressed under animal skins, were associated with hunting rituals of the kind recorded by H. Lichtenstein in 1812 in South Africa, in which a hunter simulated an antelope which was symbolically killed by other hunters, in the belief that this was essential for a successful hunt. Such rituals could be represented in prehistoric art such as paintings at Melikane in Lesotho. Thackeray suggests that the Melikane therianthropes are associated with both trance and the principle of sympathetic hunting magic In 2005, in the journal Antiquity, Francis Thackeray suggests that there is even a photograph of such rituals, recorded in 1934 at Logageng in the southern Kalahari, South Africa. Such rituals may have been closely associated with both roan antelope and eland, and other animals.
In the Brandberg in Namibia, in the so-called "White Lady" panel recorded by the Abbe Henri Breuil and Harald Pager, there are "symbolic wounds" on the belly of a gemsbok-like therianthrope (catalogued as T1), which might relate to the principle of sympathetic hunting magic and trance, as suggested by Thackeray in 2013.
At the Apollo 11 cave in Namibia, Erich Wendt discovered mobile art about 30,000 years old, including a stone broken in two pieces, with a gemsbok-like therianthrope that closely resembles the Brandberg therianthrope which Thackeray catalogues as T1. Both examples of art may be related to sympathetic hunting magic and shamanism.
In 2013 Thackeray emphasised that in southern Africa, the principle of sympathetic hunting magic and shamanism (trance) were not mutually exclusive.
However, as with all prehistory, it is impossible to be certain due to the limited evidence and the many pitfalls associated with trying to understand the prehistoric mindset with a modern mind.
Popular culture[edit]
The concept of sympathetic magic features prominently in the Kingkiller Chronicle novel series by Patrick Rothfuss.
Merricat Blackwood in Shirley Jackson's We Have Always Lived in the Castle is a practitioner of sympathetic magic.
In Rick Riordan's The Kane Chronicles, sympathetic magic is practiced prominently.
The music duo Charming Disaster has a song called "Sympathetic Magic". A duet between the magic user and her target.[4]
See also[edit]
Cargo cult science
Contagion heuristic
Correspondence (theology)
Law of contagion
List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
Magic (paranormal)
Magical thinking
Natural magic
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "3: Sympathetic Magic; Part 1: The Principles of Magic", The Golden Bough, Bartleby, 1922 .
Jump up ^ Harrison, Regina (1989). Signs, songs, and memory in the Andes: translating Quechua language and culture. University of Texas Press. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-292-77627-2.
Jump up ^ Eliade, Mircea (1976). Beane, Wendell C; Doty, William G, eds. Myths, Rites, Symbols: A Mircea Eliade Reader. New York: Harper & Row. p. 385. ISBN 978-0-06-090510-1. OCLC 2136392.
Jump up ^ "Sympathetic magic lyrics". Bandcamp.com. Retrieved 16 August 2017.
Campbell, Joseph (1991). Arkana. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-019443-2. OCLC 470180186.
Frobenius, Leo (1993) [1933]. Kulturgeschichte Afrikas. Prolegomena zu einer historischen Gestaltlehre [A Cultural History of Africa] (in German). Wuppertal: Hammer. pp. 131–32. ISBN 978-3-87294-525-9. OCLC 311991077. (reprint of the 1954 Phaidon Verlag edition)
Thackeray, J.F. 2005. The wounded roan: a contribution to the relation of hunting and trance in southern African rock art. Antiquity 79:5-18.
Thackeray, J.F. 2005. Eland, hunters and concepts of ‘sympathetic control’ expressed in southern African rock art. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 15,1:27-34.
Thackeray, J.F. & Le Quellec, J.-L. 2007. A symbolically wounded therianthrope at Melikane Rock Shelter, Lesotho. http://antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/thackeray1/index.html
Thackeray, J.F. 2013. The principle of “sympathetic magic” in the context of hunting, trance and southern African rock art. The Digging Stick 30 (1), 1-4.
External links[edit]
"3; Sympathetic magic", The Golden Bough, Project Gutenberg .
"5; Rainmaking as sympathetic magic", The Golden Bough, Project Gutenberg .
"Sympathetic magic", The Skeptic's Dictionary .
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The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air
Created by
Andy Borowitz
Susan Borowitz
Starring
Will Smith
James Avery
Janet Hubert-Whitten
Alfonso Ribeiro
Karyn Parsons
Tatyana M. Ali
Joseph Marcell
Daphne Maxwell Reid
Ross Bagley
Theme music composer
The Fresh Prince in association with A Touch of Jazz, Inc.
Opening theme
"Yo Home to Bel Air", performed by The Fresh Prince
Composer(s)
Quincy Jones
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
6
No. of episodes
148 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Quincy Jones
Andy Borowitz
Susan Borowitz
Kevin Wendle (Season 1)
Winifred Hervey (Seasons 2–3)
Gary H. Miller (Season 4–5)
Cheryl Gard (Mid-Late Season 5)
Jeff Pollack
Will Smith (Season 6)
Benny Medina
Producer(s)
Werner Walian
Lisa Rosenthal
Joel Madison
Leilani Downer
Joanne Curley-Kerner
Joel Markowitz
Location(s)
Hollywood Center Studios
Hollywood, California (1990–1991)
Sunset Gower Studios
Hollywood, California (1991–1993)
NBC Studios
Burbank, California (1993–1996)
Camera setup
Videotape; Multi-camera
Running time
23 minutes
Production company(s)
The Stuffed Dog Company
Quincy Jones Productions
(1990-1993)
(seasons 1–3)
Quincy Jones/David Salzman Entertainment
(1993-1996)
(seasons 4–6)
NBC Productions
Distributor
Warner Bros. Television Distribution
Release
Original network
NBC
Picture format
480i (SDTV)
Original release
September 10, 1990 (1990-09-10) – May 20, 1996 (1996-05-20)
External links
Website
The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air is an American sitcom that originally aired on NBC from September 10, 1990, to May 20, 1996. The show stars Will Smith as a fictionalized version of himself, a street-smart teenager from West Philadelphia who is sent to move in with his wealthy aunt and uncle in their Bel Air mansion after getting into a fight on a street basketball court. In the series, his lifestyle often clashes with the lifestyle of his relatives in Bel Air. The series ran for six seasons and aired 148 episodes.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Development
2 Plot
3 Cast and characters
3.1 Main
3.2 Recurring
4 Episodes
5 Crossovers and other appearances
6 Syndication
7 DVD releases
8 Awards and nominations
9 Possible reboot
10 Notes
11 References
12 External links
Development[edit]
The characters of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air. From top left: Hilary Banks, Geoffrey, Vivian Banks, Carlton Banks. From bottom left: Ashley Banks, Philip Banks, Will Smith.
In December 1989, NBC approached Will Smith, a popular rapper during the late 1980s.[3] The pilot episode began taping on May 1, 1990.[4] Season 1 first aired in September 1990, and ended in May 1991. The series finale was taped on Thursday, March 21, 1996.[5][6]
The theme song "Yo Home to Bel Air" was written and performed by Smith under his stage name, The Fresh Prince. The music was composed by Quincy Jones, who is credited with Smith at the end of each episode. The music often used to bridge scenes together during the show is based on a similar chord structure.
Plot[edit]
The theme song and opening sequence set the premise of the show. Will Smith is a street-smart teenager, born and raised in West Philadelphia. While playing street basketball, Will misses a shot and the ball hits a group of people, causing a confrontation that frightens his mother, who sends him to live with his aunt and uncle in the opulent neighborhood of Bel Air, Los Angeles.
Will's working-class background ends up clashing in various humorous ways with the upper-class world of the Banks family – Will's uncle Phil and aunt Vivian and their children, Will's cousins: Hilary, Carlton, and Ashley.
Cast and characters[edit]
Main article: List of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air characters
Main[edit]
Actor/actress
Character
Seasons
1
2
3
4
5
6
Will Smith Will Smith Main
James Avery Philip Banks Main
Janet Hubert-Whitten Vivian Banks Main
Daphne Maxwell Reid Main
Alfonso Ribeiro Carlton Banks Main
Karyn Parsons Hilary Banks Main
Tatyana M. Ali Ashley Banks Main
Joseph Marcell Geoffrey Butler Main
Ross Bagley Nicholas "Nicky" Banks Main
Recurring[edit]
Actor/actress
Character
Seasons
1
2
3
4
5
6
DJ Jazzy Jeff Jazz Recurring
Vernee Watson-Johnson Viola "Vy" Smith Recurring
Michael Weiner Kellogg Lieberbaum Recurring
Lisa Fuller Toni Recurring
Jenifer Lewis Helen Smith Recurring
Charlayne Woodard Janice Smith Recurring
Perry Moore Tyriq "Ty" Johnson Recurring
Brian Stokes Mitchell Trevor Collins-Newsworthy Recurring
Tyra Banks Jacqueline "Jackie" Ames Recurring
Nia Long Beullah "Lisa" Wilkes Recurring
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
Nielsen ratings[7]
First aired
Last aired
Rank
Rating
1 25 September 10, 1990 (1990-09-10) May 6, 1991 (1991-05-06) N/A N/A
2 24 September 9, 1991 (1991-09-09) May 4, 1992 (1992-05-04) 22 14.3[A]
3 24 September 14, 1992 (1992-09-14) May 10, 1993 (1993-05-10) 16 14.6[B]
4 26 September 20, 1993 (1993-09-20) May 23, 1994 (1994-05-23) 21 13.7[C]
5 25 September 19, 1994 (1994-09-19) May 15, 1995 (1995-05-15) N/A N/A
6 24 September 18, 1995 (1995-09-18) May 20, 1996 (1996-05-20) N/A N/A
Crossovers and other appearances[edit]
During the fall 1991–1992 season, NBC gained two hit television shows to anchor their Monday night lineup (Blossom aired immediately after The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air). To gain popularity between the two shows, Will Smith appeared in the Blossom episode "I'm with the Band" as himself under his rap stage name, The Fresh Prince. That same season, Karyn Parsons appeared in the Blossom episode "Wake Up Little Suzy" as Hilary Banks. Parsons also appeared in the Patti LaBelle sitcom Out All Night as Hilary.
In the House and Fresh Prince were both executive-produced by Winifred Hervey, David Salzman and Quincy Jones. During the second season's first episode, Alfonso Ribeiro and Tatyana Ali appeared as their Fresh Prince characters (Carlton and Ashley Banks) in the crossover episode "Dog Catchers". Later that season, James Avery (Phillip Banks) appeared as a mediator in the episode "Love on a One-Way Street".
In the Season 4 episode "My Pest Friend's Wedding", James Avery and Daphne Maxwell Reid (Vivian Banks) guest starred as Dr. Maxwell Stanton's parents (Stanton was played by Ribeiro). Both Avery and Reid portrayed the parents of Ribeiro's Fresh Prince character. Joseph Marcell, who played the wisecracking Geoffrey Butler on Fresh Prince, appeared as an officiating minister in the same episode.
Syndication[edit]
The series was produced by NBC Productions in association with the Stuffed Dog Company and Quincy Jones Entertainment (later Quincy Jones-David Salzman Entertainment in 1993). After the show was released to syndication in 1994, the series was distributed by Warner Bros. Television, which continues to distribute the show worldwide (although NBCUniversal does own the series' copyright). WGN America was the first cable channel to acquire the series in 1997 and TBS acquired the series a year later, in 1998; both channels carried the series until the fall of 2003, though TBS reacquired the series in 2007.
The theme song was shown in the original TBS run, but after TBS re-acquired Fresh Prince in 2007, the opening credits were truncated and the theme song was removed and replaced with the instrumental version used as the show's closing theme. These versions also re-added portions of scenes cut from the original syndicated prints for some episodes, particularly those from Seasons 3 to 6. TBS continued to air the series up until September 2014, when Viacom Media Networks reaquired the rights to the series. Reruns also aired on WPIX-TV back to back weeknights at 6 pm and6:30 pm EST from 1994 until 2000, on weekdays 5 pm from 2000 to 2005, and sometimes on weekends, until 2007. The series was still rerunning on The WB's affiliation WPIX-TV until 2006. The series aired on Nick at Nite, from 2006 to 2009 and moved to Disney XD.
In July 2009, Disney XD acquired the rights to the series, though it was quickly moved from prime time to late night, and only episodes from Seasons 1 to 3 are aired, mainly because those episodes are more appropriate for young viewers as they do not contain as many mature themes, sexual content and strong language as later episodes. In August 2010, Disney XD stopped airing the show. ABC Family (now called Freeform) acquired the series in September 2008, though airing all 148 episodes; originally airing exclusively on Saturday nights, the series was added to ABC Family's weekday line up in late 2009. On September 29, 2014, Disney/ABC's rights to the show expired. Viacom Media Networks got the series back.
In October 2014, Viacom Media Networks also gave the series to BET, and it would also air on Centric. It was previously aired on MTV's retro block. The series is also re-aired on VH1. On November 2, 2015, the series started airing on the Family Channel in Canada. On January 1, 2017, the series was added to Netflix in the United Kingdom and Ireland. In 2014, Fresh Prince of Bel-Air started airing again in Nickelodeon's block night channel, Nick at Nite.
In 2017, the series began from the beginning on the 5* channel in the UK. MeTV will start airing the show in September 2018.[8]
DVD releases[edit]
Warner Home Video has released the complete series, seasons 1 to 6, on DVD in Region 1.[9] Seasons 1 to 4 have been released in Regions 2 and 4. Seasons 5 to 6 have been released in Region 2 in Germany, and in the complete series boxset in the United Kingdom.
DVD name
Ep #
Release dates
Region 1
Region 2
Region 4
The Complete First Season 25 February 8, 2005[10] February 21, 2005[11] April 13, 2005[12]
The Complete Second Season 24 October 11, 2005[13] November 21, 2005[14] March 1, 2006[15]
The Complete Third Season 24 February 14, 2006[16] June 26, 2006[17] August 9, 2006[18]
The Complete Fourth Season 26 August 8, 2006[19] January 22, 2007[20] December 6, 2006[21]
The Complete Fifth Season 25 May 11, 2010[22] June 18, 2010 2018
The Complete Sixth Season 24 April 19, 2011 May 6, 2011 2018
Awards and nominations[edit]
Awards
Outcome
Recipient(s)
Year
ASCAP Film and Television Music Awards:
Top TV Series Won Quincy Jones
Will Smith
DJ Jazzy Jeff 1994
Emmy Awards:
Outstanding Individual Achievement in Lighting Direction for a Comedy Series Nominated Art Busch 1996
Golden Globe Awards:
Best Performance by an Actor in a TV-Series – Comedy/Musical Nominated Will Smith 1994
Best Performance by an Actor in a TV-Series – Comedy/Musical Nominated[23] Will Smith 1993
Image Award:
Outstanding Comedy Series Nominated 1997
Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Won Alfonso Ribeiro 1996
Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series Nominated Will Smith 1997
Outstanding Youth Actor/Actress Won Tatyana M. Ali 1997
Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series Nominated Janet Hubert-Whitten 1991
Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series Nominated Nia Long 1996
Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series Nominated Daphne Maxwell Reid 1996
Kids' Choice Awards:
Favorite Television Actor Nominated Will Smith 1996
Favorite Television Show Nominated 1996
Favorite TV Actress Won Tatyana M. Ali 1996
NCLR Bravo Awards:
Outstanding Television Series Actor in a Crossover Role Nominated Alfonso Ribeiro 1996
TP de Oro:
Best Foreign Series (Mejor Serie Extranjera) Nominated 1996
Best Foreign Series (Mejor Serie Extranjera) Won 1994
Teen Choice Awards:
Choice TV Show: Throwback Nominated 2017
Choice TV Show: Throwback Pending 2018
TV Land Awards:
Best Broadcast Butler Nominated Joseph Marcell 2004
Favorite "Fish Out of Water" Nominated Will Smith 2004
Young Artist Awards:
Best Performance by an Actor Under Ten – Television Won Ross Bagley 1996
Best Performance by an Actor Under Ten in a TV Series Won Ross Bagley 1995
Best Youth Comedienne Nominated Tatyana M. Ali 1994
Best Young Actor Guest Starring in a Television Series Nominated Larenz Tate 1993
Best Young Actor Guest Starring or Recurring Role in a TV Series Nominated Tevin Campbell 1992
Best New Family Television Comedy Series Won 1991
YoungStar Award:
Best Performance by a Young Actress in a Comedy TV Series Won Tatyana M. Ali 1997
Possible reboot[edit]
On August 13, 2015, it was reported that a reboot of the show was in development by Overbrook Entertainment, with Will Smith serving as a producer.[24][25] In August 2016, during a promotional interview with the E! television network, for his then upcoming film Suicide Squad, Smith denied that a reboot was in development, saying that it would happen "...pretty close to when Hell freezes over."[26]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Tied with Empty Nest
Jump up ^ Tied with Hangin' with Mr. Cooper and The Jackie Thomas Show
Jump up ^ Tied with Dave's World
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air". TV.com. CBS Interactive. Retrieved January 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Coker, Cheo Hodari (May 20, 1996). "Good Night, 'Prince'". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Rohter, Larry (September 17, 1990). "'Fresh Prince of Bel Air' Puts Rap in Mainstream". The New York Times. Retrieved January 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Wolf, Matt (February 11, 1991). "'Fresh Prince' makes Marcell changed man". Kentucky New Era. Associated Press. Retrieved January 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Cerone, Daniel. "Rap's Prince Soon to Be TV Royalty?". Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Hollywood Minute". CNN. Cable News Network Inc. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Brooks, Tim; Marsh, Earle (2007). The Complete Directory to Prime Time Network and Cable TV Shows 1946-Present (Ninth Edition). Ballantine Books. p. 1693. ISBN 978-0-345-49773-4.
Jump up ^ citation needed
Jump up ^ "The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air DVD news: Announcement for The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air - The Complete 6th Season". TVShowsOnDVD.com. May 25, 2007. Archived from the original on January 15, 2011. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air, The: The Complete First Season DVD @ DVD Empire". Dvdempire.com. February 8, 2005. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air - The Complete First Series DVD: Amazon.co.uk: Will Smith, James Avery, Janet Hubert-Whitten, Alfonso Ribeiro, Karyn Parsons, Tatyana M. Ali, Joseph Marcell: DVD". Amazon.co.uk. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Buy Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air, The - The Complete 1st Season (5 Disc Set) @ EzyDVD". Ezydvd.com.au. April 27, 2005. Archived from the original on April 13, 2011. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air, The: The Complete Second Season DVD @ DVD Empire". Dvdempire.com. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air - The Complete Second Series DVD: Amazon.co.uk: Will Smith, James Avery, Janet Hubert-Whitten, Alfonso Ribeiro, Karyn Parsons, Tatyana M. Ali, Joseph Marcell, DJ Jazzy Jeff, Ellen Falcon: DVD". Amazon.co.uk. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Buy Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air, The - The Complete 2nd Season (4 Disc Set) @ EzyDVD". Ezydvd.com.au. Archived from the original on April 13, 2011. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air, The: The Complete Third Season DVD @ DVD Empire". Dvdempire.com. February 14, 2006. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air - The Complete Third Season DVD: Amazon.co.uk: Will Smith, James Avery, Karyn Parsons, Alfonso Ribeiro, Tatyana M. Ali, Joseph Marcell: DVD". Amazon.co.uk. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Buy Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air, The - The Complete 3rd Season (4 Disc Set) @ EzyDVD". Ezydvd.com.au. August 9, 2006. Archived from the original on February 14, 2010. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air, The: The Complete Fourth Season DVD @ DVD Empire". Dvdempire.com. August 8, 2006. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air - Series 4 [DVD]: Amazon.co.uk: Will Smith: DVD". Amazon.co.uk. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Buy Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air, The - The Complete 4th Season (4 Disc Set) @ EzyDVD". Ezydvd.com.au. December 6, 2006. Archived from the original on February 14, 2010. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air, The: The Complete Fifth Season DVD @ DVD Empire". Dvdempire.com. November 5, 2010. Retrieved March 25, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Awards for The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air". Imdb.com. Retrieved August 7, 2008.
Jump up ^ Lovett, Jamie (August 13, 2015). "Will Smith Producing A Fresh Prince Of Bel Air Reboot". Comicbook.com. Retrieved August 13, 2015.
Jump up ^ ""Fresh Prince of Bel-Air" Reboot in the Works - thenewbenjamin". thenewbenjamin. Archived from the original on August 14, 2015.
Jump up ^ Loughrey, Clarisse (August 2, 2016). "Will Smith says Fresh Prince of Bel-Air reboot will happen when 'hell freezes over'". The Independent. Retrieved August 4, 2016.
External links[edit]
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VO2 max
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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VO2 max (also maximal oxygen consumption, maximal oxygen uptake, peak oxygen uptake or maximal aerobic capacity) is the maximum rate of oxygen consumption measured during incremental exercise.[1][2] The name is derived from V - volume, O2 - oxygen, max - maximum. Maximal oxygen consumption reflects the cardiorespiratory fitness of an individual and is an important determinant of their endurance capacity during prolonged exercise.
Contents
[hide]
1 Health
2 Expression
3 Measurement
3.1 Fick equation
4 Estimation
4.1 Uth–Sørensen–Overgaard–Pedersen estimation
4.2 Cooper test
4.3 Multi-stage fitness test
4.4 Rockport fitness walking test
4.5 Firstbeat method
5 Levels
6 Limiting factors
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Health[edit]
VO2 max is widely used as an indicator of health. In 2016, the American Heart Association published a scientific statement[3] recommending that cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), quantifiable as VO2 max, be regularly assessed and utilized as a clinical vital sign. This statement was based on mounting evidence that lower fitness levels are associated with high risk of cardiovascular disease, all-cause mortality, and mortality rates stemming from various types of cancers. In addition to risk assessment, the AHA recommendation cited the value measuring fitness for validating exercise prescription, physical activity counseling, and improving both patient management and patient health.
Expression[edit]
VO2 max is expressed either as an absolute rate in (for example) litres of oxygen per minute (L/min) or as a relative rate in (for example) millilitres of oxygen per kilogram of body mass per minute (e.g., mL/(kg·min)). The latter expression is often used to compare the performance of endurance sports athletes. However, VO2 max generally does not vary linearly with body mass, either among individuals within a species or among species, so comparisons of the performance capacities of individuals or species that differ in body size must be done with appropriate statistical procedures, such as analysis of covariance.[1][2]
Measurement[edit]
VO2 max measurement through a modern metabolic cart during a graded exercise test on a treadmill
Accurately measuring VO2 max involves a physical effort sufficient in duration and intensity to fully tax the aerobic energy system. In general clinical and athletic testing, this usually involves a graded exercise test (either on a treadmill or on a cycle ergometer) in which exercise intensity is progressively increased while measuring:
ventilation and
oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration of the inhaled and exhaled air.
VO2 max is reached when oxygen consumption remains at a steady state despite an increase in workload.
Fick equation[edit]
Main article: Fick principle
VO2 max is properly defined by the Fick equation:
V O 2 m a x = Q × ( C a O 2 − C v O 2 ) {\displaystyle \mathrm {VO_{2}\;max} =Q\times \ (\mathrm {C_{a}O_{2}} -\mathrm {C_{v}O_{2}} )} , when these values are obtained during an exertion at a maximal effort.
where Q is the cardiac output of the heart, CaO2 is the arterial oxygen content, and CvO2 is the venous oxygen content.
(CaO2 – CvO2) is also known as the arteriovenous oxygen difference.[4]
Estimation[edit]
Tests measuring VO2 max can be dangerous in individuals who are not considered normal healthy subjects, as any problems with the respiratory and cardiovascular systems will be greatly exacerbated in clinically ill patients. Thus, many protocols for estimating VO2 max have been developed for those for whom a traditional VO2 max test would be too risky. These generally are similar to a VO2 max test, but do not reach the maximum of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems and are called sub-maximal tests.
Uth–Sørensen–Overgaard–Pedersen estimation[edit]
Another estimate of VO2 max, based on maximum and resting heart rates, was created by a group of researchers from Denmark.[5] It is given by:
V O 2 max ≈ HR max HR rest × 15.3 mL / ( kg·minute ) . {\displaystyle {\text{V}}{\ce {O2}}{\text{ max}}\approx {\frac {{\text{HR}}_{\text{max}}}{{\text{HR}}_{\text{rest}}}}\times 15.3{\text{ mL}}/({\text{kg·minute}}).}
This equation uses the ratio of maximum heart rate (HRmax) to resting heart rate (HRrest) to predict VO2 max. The researchers cautioned that the conversion rule was based on measurements on well-trained men aged 21 to 51 only, and may not be reliable when applied to other sub-groups. They also advised that the formula is most reliable when based on actual measurement of maximum heart rate, rather than an age-related estimate.
Cooper test[edit]
Kenneth H. Cooper conducted a study for the United States Air Force in the late 1960s. One of the results of this was the Cooper test in which the distance covered running in 12 minutes is measured. Based on the measured distance, an estimate of VO2 max [in mL/(kg·min)] is:[6]
V O 2 m a x ≈ d 12 − 504.9 44.73 {\displaystyle \mathrm {VO_{2}\;max} \approx {d_{12}-504.9 \over 44.73}}
where d12 is distance (in metres) covered in 12 minutes
An alternative equation is:
V O 2 m a x ≈ ( 35.97 ∗ d m i l e s 12 ) − 11.29 {\displaystyle \mathrm {VO_{2}\;max} \approx {(35.97*dmiles_{12})-11.29}}
where dmiles12 is distance (in miles) covered in 12 minutes,
Multi-stage fitness test[edit]
There are several other reliable tests and VO2 max calculators to estimate VO2 max, most notably the multi-stage fitness test (or beep test).[7]
Rockport fitness walking test[edit]
Estimation of VO2 max from a timed one-mile track walk with duration t, incorporating gender, age, body weight in pounds (BW), and heart rate (HR) at the end of the mile.[8] The factor x is 6.3150 for males, 0 for females. BW is in lbs, time is in minutes.
V O 2 m a x ≈ 132.853 − 0.0769 B W − 0.3877 age − 3.2649 t − 0.1565 H R + x {\displaystyle \mathrm {VO_{2}\;max} \approx 132.853-0.0769BW-0.3877{\text{age}}-3.2649t-0.1565HR+x}
Firstbeat method[edit]
The Firstbeat method of VO2 max estimation, of which a patent application was filed in 2012,[9] is widely licensed and used in consumer technology applications.[10] The first consumer fitness device utilizing the Firstbeat method of VO2 max estimation was the Garmin Forerunner 620, released in 2013.[11] Since then, Suunto, Jabra, Huawei, and PulseOn[12] have also introduced products that utilize the Firstbeat method.[13]
The method relies on an analysis of the linear relationship between oxygen consumption and running speed, meaning that the oxygen cost of running increases when running speed increases. To facilitate analysis and enhance accuracy, timed segments of recorded activity data are identified on the basis of heart rate ranges and reliability; and only the most reliable segments are utilized. This allows the method to be applied to freely performed running, walking and cycling activities and diminishes the need for dedicated fitness testing protocols. The calculation requires user basic anthropometric data (age, gender, height, weight, etc.), heartbeat data (internal workload), and a measure of external workload.[14]
External workload running/walking: movement speed obtained from either GPS or accelerometer sensors
External workload cycling: power output expressed in watts and measured by a power meter.
VO2 max estimates provided by the Firstbeat method are most accurate during running activities that utilize GPS to capture external workload data. This combination has been validated to be 95% accurate compared to laboratory testing.[14] Because the Firstbeat estimation method is sub-maximal in nature, accuracy of the estimate is strongly tied to validity of the HRmax value used in the calculation.[14]
Levels[edit]
The average untrained healthy male will have a VO2 max of approximately 35–40 mL/(kg·min).[15][16] The average untrained healthy female will score a VO2 max of approximately 27–31 mL/(kg·min).[15] These scores can improve with training and decrease with age, though the degree of trainability also varies very widely: conditioning may double VO2 max in some individuals, and will never improve it in others. In one study, 10% of participants showed no benefit after completing a 20-week conditioning program, although the other 90% of the test subjects all showed substantial improvements in fitness to varying degree.[17][18]
In sports where endurance is an important component in performance, such as cycling, rowing, cross-country skiing, swimming and running, world-class athletes typically have high VO2 maxima. Elite male runners can consume up to 85 mL/(kg·min), and female elite runners can consume about 77 mL/(kg·min).[19] Five time Tour de France winner Miguel Indurain is reported to have had a VO2 max of 88.0 at his peak, while cross-country skier Bjørn Dæhlie measured at 96 mL/(kg·min).[20] Dæhlie's result was achieved out of season, and physiologist Erlend Hem who was responsible for the testing stated that he would not discount the possibility of the skier passing 100 mL/(kg·min) at his absolute peak. Norwegian cyclist Oskar Svendsen is thought to have recorded the highest VO2 max of 97.5 mL/(kg·min), when aged 18.[21]
The highest values in absolute terms for humans are often found in rowers, as their much greater bulk makes up for a slightly lower VO2 max per kg. Elite oarsmen measured in 1984 had VO2 max values of 6.1±0.6 L/min and oarswomen 4.1±0.4 L/min.[22] Rowers are interested in both absolute values of VO2 max and in lung capacity, and the fact that they are measured in similar units means that the two are often confused. British rower Sir Matthew Pinsent is variously reported to have had a VO2 of 7.5 L/min[23] or 8.5 L/min, although the latter may represent confusion with his lung capacity of 8.5 litres.[24] New Zealand sculler Rob Waddell has one of the highest absolute VO2 max levels ever tested.[25]
Values have been measured in some other animal species: thoroughbred horses have a VO2 max of around 180 mL/(kg·min). Siberian dogs running in the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race have VO2 max values as high as 240 mL/(kg·min).[26]
Limiting factors[edit]
The factors affecting VO2 are often divided into supply and demand.[27] Supply is the transport of oxygen from the lungs to the mitochondria (including lung diffusion, stroke volume, blood volume, and capillary density of the skeletal muscle) while demand is the rate at which the mitochondria can reduce oxygen in the process of oxidative phosphorylation.[27] Of these, the supply factor is often considered to be the limiting one.[27][28] However, it has also been argued that while trained subjects probably are supply limited, untrained subjects can indeed have a demand limitation.[29]
Tim Noakes, a professor of exercise and sports science at the University of Cape Town, describes a number of factors that may affect VO2 max: age, sex, fitness and training, changes in altitude, and action of the ventilatory muscles.[30] Noakes also asserts that VO2 max is a relatively poor predictor of performance in runners due to variations in running economy and fatigue resistance during prolonged exercise.[30]
Cardiac output, pulmonary diffusion capacity, oxygen carrying capacity, and other peripheral limitations like muscle diffusion capacity, mitochondrial enzymes, and capillary density are all examples of VO2 max determinants. The body works as a system. If one of these factor is sub-par, then the whole system loses its normal capacity to function properly.[29]
The drug erythropoietin (EPO) can boost VO2 max by a significant amount in both humans and other mammals.[31] This makes EPO attractive to athletes in endurance sports, such as professional cycling. By 1998 it had become widespread in cycling and led to the Festina affair[32][33] as well as being mentioned ubiquitously in the USADA 2012 report on the US Postal team.[34] Greg LeMond has suggested establishing a baseline for riders' VO2 max (and other attributes) to detect abnormal performance increases.[35]
See also[edit]
Anaerobic exercise
Arteriovenous oxygen difference
Cardiorespiratory fitness
Comparative physiology
VDOT
Oxygen pulse
Respirometry
Training effect
vVO2max
Running economy
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Clemente C. J.; Withers P. C.; Thompson G. G. (2009). "Metabolic rate and endurance capacity in Australian varanid lizards (Squamata; Varanidae; Varanus)". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 97 (3): 664–676. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2009.01207.x.
^ Jump up to: a b Dlugosz E. M., Chappell M. A., Meek T. H., Szafrañska P., Zub K., Konarzewski M., Jones J. H., Bicudo J. E. P. W., Careau V., Garland T., Jr (2013). "Phylogenetic analysis of mammalian maximal oxygen consumption during exercise". Journal of Experimental Biology. 216 (24): 4712–4721. PMID 24031059. doi:10.1242/jeb.088914. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Ross, Robert; Blair, Steven N.; Arena, Ross; Church, Timothy S.; Després, Jean-Pierre; Franklin, Barry A.; Haskell, William L.; Kaminsky, Leonard A.; Levine, Benjamin D. (2016-01-01). "Importance of Assessing Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Clinical Practice: A Case for Fitness as a Clinical Vital Sign: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association". Circulation: CIR.0000000000000461. ISSN 0009-7322. PMID 27881567. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000461.
Jump up ^ "Arteriovenous oxygen difference". Sports Medicine, Sports Science and Kinesiology. Net Industries and its Licensors. 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Uth, Niels; Henrik Sørensen; Kristian Overgaard; Preben K. Pedersen (January 2004). "Estimation of VO2max from the ratio between HRmax and HRrest--the Heart Rate Ratio Method". Eur J Appl Physiol. 91 (1): 111–5. PMID 14624296. doi:10.1007/s00421-003-0988-y.
Jump up ^ "Cooper's Formula VO2 Max Calculator".
Jump up ^ [Leger, Luc A., and J_ Lambert. "A maximal multistage 20-m shuttle run test to predict\ dot VO2 max." European journal of applied physiology and occupational physiology 49.1 (1982): 1-12.]
Jump up ^ Kilne G, et al. (1987). "Estimation of VO2 max from a one mile track walk, gender, age and body weight". Med Sci. Sports Exerc. 19: 253–259.
Jump up ^ "US Patent Application for METHOD AND SYSTEM FOR DETERMINING THE FITNESS INDEX OF A PERSON Patent Application (Application #20140088444 issued March 27, 2014) - Justia Patents Search". patents.justia.com. Retrieved 2017-03-20.
Jump up ^ "VO2max Fitness Level - Firstbeat". Firstbeat. Retrieved 2017-07-11.
Jump up ^ "Garmin Forerunner 620 In-Depth Review". DC Rainmaker. Retrieved 2017-03-20.
Jump up ^ PulseOn
Jump up ^ "Consumer Products - Firstbeat". Firstbeat. Retrieved 2017-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c Firstbeat Technologies (2014-11-11). "Automated Fitness Level (VO2max) Estimation with Heart Rate and Speed Data" (PDF). www.firstbeat.com.
^ Jump up to: a b Heyward, V (1998). "Advance Fitness Assessment & Exercise Prescription, 3rd Ed". p. 48.
Jump up ^ Guyton, A.; Hall, J.E. (2011). "Textbook of Medical Physiology, 12th Ed.". pp. 1035–1036.
Jump up ^ Bouchard, Claude; Ping An; Treva Rice; James S. Skinner; Jack H. Wilmore; Jacques Gagnon; Louis Perusse; Arthus S. Leon; D. C. Rao (September 1, 1999). "Familial aggregation of VO(2max) response to exercise training: results from the HERITAGE Family Study". Journal of Applied Physiology. 87 (3): 1003–1008. PMID 10484570. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
Jump up ^ Kolata, Gina (February 12, 2002). "Why Some People Won't Be Fit Despite Exercise". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
Jump up ^ Noakes, Tim (2001). The Lore of Running. (3rd edition) Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-88011-438-7
Jump up ^ VO2 max faq
Jump up ^ If all goes to plan, big future predicted for junior world champion Oskar Svendsen
Jump up ^ Hagerman, FC (Jul–Aug 1984). "Applied physiology of rowing". Sports Med. 1 (4): 303–26. PMID 6390606. doi:10.2165/00007256-198401040-00005.
Jump up ^ Bailey, James. "Intensity (3 of 6)". Q-power indoor rowing team.
Jump up ^ "What happens in a VO2 max test?". BBC Sport. 2009. - see an example here [1], which suggests that although British rower Pete Reed has recorded a lung capacity of 11.68 litres,(Hounslow Chronicle) Pinsent still regards his VO2 record as safe. A large lung capacity appears to be a particular advantage for rowing as it allows a rower to row more strokes at one breath per stroke.
Jump up ^ Gough, Martin (17 June 2009). "Monsters wanted". BBC.
Jump up ^ Cornell Science News
^ Jump up to: a b c Bassett D.R Jr.; Howley E.T. (2000). "Limiting factors for maximum oxygen uptake and determinants of endurance performance". Med Sci Sports Exerc. 32 (1): 70–84. doi:10.1097/00005768-200001000-00012.
Jump up ^ Bassett D.R Jr.; Howley E.T. (1997). "Maximal oxygen uptake: "classical" versus "contemporary" viewpoints". Med Sci Sports Exerc. 29 (5): 591–603. doi:10.1097/00005768-199705000-00002.
^ Jump up to: a b Wagner P.D. (2000). "New ideas on limitations to VO2max". Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews. 28 (1): 10–4.
^ Jump up to: a b Noakes, Tim (2003). The Lore of Running. (4th edition) Oxford University Press ISBN 0-87322-959-2
Jump up ^ Kolb E. M. (2010). "Erythropoietin elevates V.O2, max but not voluntary wheel running in mice". Journal of Experimental Biology. 213 (3): 510–519. doi:10.1242/jeb.029074.
Jump up ^ Lundby C.; Robach P.; Boushel R.; Thomsen J. J.; Rasmussen P.; Koskolou M.; Calbet J. A. L. (2008). "Does recombinant human Epo increase exercise capacity by means other than augmenting oxygen transport?". Journal of Applied Physiology. 105 (2): 281. PMID 18535134. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.90484.2008.
Jump up ^ Lodewijkx Hein F.M.; Brouwer Bram (2011). "EPO EPIDEMIC IN CYCLING: Some Empirical Notes on the ‗Epo Epidemic' in Professional Cycling". Open University. 82 (4): 740–754. PMID 22276416. doi:10.5641/027013611X13275192112069.
Jump up ^ USADA U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team Investigation, Oct 2012, retr 2012 10 20 from usada.org
Jump up ^ Greg LeMond’s suggestions for a credible future for cycling Conal Andrews, July 28, 2010, Velo Nation, retr 2012 10 20
External links[edit]
VO2 max Calculator - the Rockport Walking Test
So What Exactly is VO2?
Values by age, mL/(kg·min)
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text:
Double-barrelled name
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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See also: Compound surname
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In the Western tradition of surnames, there are several types of double surname (also double-barrelled surname[1]). If the two names are joined with a hyphen, it may also be called a hyphenated surname.
In British tradition, a double surname is heritable, and mostly taken in order to preserve a family name which would have become extinct due to the absence of male descendants bearing the name, connected to the inheritance of a family estate. Examples include Harding-Rolls and Stopford Sackville.
In Hispanic tradition, double surnames are the norm, and not an indication of social status. A person will take the (first) surname of their father, followed by the (first) surname of their mother (i.e. their maternal grandfather's surname). The double surname itself is not heritable. These names are combined without hyphen (but optionally combined using y "and"). In addition to this, there are heritable double surnames (apellidos compuestos) which are combined with a hyphen.
In German tradition, double surnames are taken upon marriage, written with or without hyphen, combining the husband's surname with the wife's (more recently the sequence has become optional under some legislations). These double surnames are "alliance names" (Allianznamen) and as such not heritable.
Contents
1 British tradition
2 Iberian tradition
3 Continental Germanic tradition
4 Scandinavia
5 Poland
6 Russia
7 Turkish tradition
8 Recent developments
9 Non-Western surname traditions
10 See also
11 References
British tradition[edit]
Further information: English surname, Scottish surname, and Name change § Historical usage
A few British upper-class families have "triple-barrelled" surnames (e.g. Anstruther-Gough-Calthorpe; Cave-Browne-Cave; Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound; Heathcote-Drummond-Willoughby; Smith-Dorrien-Smith; Vane-Tempest-Stewart). Not all of those with multiple names were of the peerage; landed gentry such as George Henry Lane-Fox Pitt-Rivers consolidated the estates and wealth of several families in their multiple names. These are sometimes created when one spouse has a double-barrelled name and the other has a single surname. Nowadays, such names are almost always abbreviated in everyday use to a single or double-barrelled version. There are even a few "quadruple-barrelled" surnames (e.g. Hepburn-Stuart-Forbes-Trefusis, Hovell-Thurlow-Cumming-Bruce, Montagu-Stuart-Wortley-Mackenzie, Plunkett-Ernle-Erle-Drax and Stirling-Home-Drummond-Moray). The surname of the extinct family of the Dukes of Buckingham and Chandos was the quintuple-barrelled Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville.
Captain Leone Sextus Denys Oswolf Fraudatifilius Tollemache-Tollemache de Orellana Plantagenet Tollemache-Tollemache is sometimes quoted as the man with the most ever "barrels" in his surname (six), but in fact all but the last two of these (Tollemache-Tollemache) were forenames.[citation needed]
Many double-barrelled names are written without a hyphen, which can cause confusion as to whether the surname is double-barrelled or not. Notable persons with unhyphenated double-barrelled names include prime minister David Lloyd George, the composer Ralph Vaughan Williams, astronomer Robert Hanbury Brown, actors Kristin Scott Thomas and Helena Bonham Carter (although she has said the hyphen is optional)[2] comedian Sacha Baron Cohen (however, his cousin Professor Simon Baron-Cohen opted for the hyphen) and Sylvia Llewelyn Davies.
Iberian tradition[edit]
Further information: Iberian naming customs, Spanish naming customs, Portuguese name, and Hispanic American naming customs
When a person is born, the custom is for them to take the first surname of the father and then the first surname of the mother. Thus, when D. Julio Iglesias de la Cueva and Dª Isabel Preysler Arrastía had a son called Enrique, he legally was Enrique Iglesias Preysler. Where the optional conjunction y (and) is used, the example would become "Enrique Iglesias y Preysler" (never used in the case of Enrique Iglesias; see for example José Ortega y Gasset). On the other hand, actual double-barrelled names exist (called apellidos compuestos), such as García-Huidobro, Cruz-Coke. For example, Luciano Cruz-Coke Carvallo is the son of Mr. Carlos Cruz-Coke Ossa and Ms. Lucía Carvallo Arriagada. In every day use Mr. Cruz-Coke Carvallo is Mr. Cruz-Coke, never Mr. Cruz. Such names usually reflect the same case as in Anglo-Saxon tradition: the survival of a family name that would be lost without this practice. Another common case is to find double-barrelled names with the use of the conjunction "de" (of). In Iberian tradition this commonly indicates a toponymic surname or a noble family name. Toponymic family such as the surnames García De las Heras, Pérez de Arce or the very common Ortiz de Zárate combine a regular family name with the place that family resides. For example, the "Ortiz" resides in the Basque town of Zarate, in Euskal Herria. The least common double-barreled names that use the particle "de" are the nobiliary ones, such as the Álvarez de Toledo, Ramírez de Arellano or Fernández de Córdoba. In these cases, the first surname indicates the original name of the family, whereas the second surname denotes the nobiliary feud of that family. In this case, the conjunction "de" (of) reflects that the family used to be the feudal lords of that place. Thus, the Ramírez were the lords of the village of Arellano, in Navarre.
Álava, Spain is notorious for its incidence of true compound surnames, known as "apellido compuesto alavés" (Álava compound surname). Unlike other true compound surnames, which resulted from the merging of a previously paternal and maternal surname, the Álava compound surname is characterized for having the first portion of the surname as a patronymic, normally a Spanish patronymic (i.e. from the Castilian language) or more unusually a Basque language patronymic, followed by the preposition "de", with the second part of the surname being a local toponymic surname from Álava. While this form of compound surname can be found in other regions of Spain, albeit scarcely, it is only in Álava that it has persisted. These type of customary compound surnames used to be found throughout Guipúzcoa, Navarra, Soria, Logroño, and most of Green Spain generally (i.e. the Spanish northern maritime façade exposed to the Atlantic Ocean which runs along the coastal strip lying north of the Cantabrian and Basque mountains, along the Bay of Biscay.)
In Portugal, where most of the population have two to four surnames (apelidos de família), the practice of using a double combination of surnames is very common. The person can either use a paternal and a maternal surname combined (Aníbal Cavaco Silva) or use a double last name that has been passed down through one of the parents (António Lobo Antunes). The last surname (normally the paternal one) is usually considered the "most important", but people may choose to use another one, often favouring the more sonant or less common of their surnames in their daily or professional life (such as Manuel Alegre or José Manuel Barroso, who is known in Portugal by his double surname Durão Barroso). The use of more than two surnames in public life is less common, but not unusual (see Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen).
One historic early aviator, Alberto Santos-Dumont, is known to have not only often used an equals sign (=) between his two surnames in place of a hyphen, but also seems to have preferred that practice, to display equal respect for his father's French ethnicity and the Brazilian nationality of his mother.[3]
Continental Germanic tradition[edit]
Further information: German surname
In Germany a double surname (German: Doppelname) is generally joined with a single hyphen. Other types of double surnames are not accepted by German name law. However, exceptions are made for immigrants and for marriages where the double surname already was the official name of one partner before marriage.[citation needed] A 1993 law forbids surnames with more than two components.[4] Prior to this, it was permitted for adults (e.g., Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm and formerly Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann-Maier-Leibniz[4]) but their children would not inherit the name.[4] The 1993 ban was upheld by the Constitutional Court in 2009.[4] The crew members of the famous First World War light cruiser SMS Emden were allowed to add the name Emden with a hyphen to their surname as a special honour after World War I.
In Switzerland double surnames are traditionally written with a hyphen and combine the surnames of a married couple with the husband's surname in first place and the wife's second. This double name is called "alliance name" (German: Allianzname). The first name as such, however, is the official family name, which will be inherited by their legitimate children. So, for example, if Werner Stauffacher is married to Gertrud Baumgarten, both can use the name Stauffacher-Baumgarten. Their children Heinrich and Verena, however, bear only the surname Stauffacher. Prominent bearers of an alliance name are Micheline Calmy-Rey (former Federal Minister for Foreign Affairs), Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf (former Federal Minister for Finance), and Johann Schneider-Ammann (Federal Minister for the Economy). Lately, based on feminist pressure, wives have been permitted by law to place their maiden name before the family name. This double name is written without a hyphen and is borne by the wife only. So, in the example above, the wife's name is Gertrud Baumgarten Stauffacher, while her husband's is Werner Stauffacher. Again, the children's names remain Heinrich and Verena Stauffacher.
Doubling of surnames is also practised by the Dutch. An example is the name of Dutch footballer Jan Vennegoor of Hesselink. According to The Guardian, his name derives from "the 17th century, when two farming families in the Enschede area of the Netherlands intermarried. Both the Vennegoor and Hesselink names carried equal social weight, and so – rather than choose between them – they chose to use both. 'Of' in Dutch translates to 'or', which means that a strict translation of his name reads Jan Vennegoor or Hesselink."[5][6]
Scandinavia[edit]
Further information: Scandinavian surnames
Denmark has a tradition of double surnames originating in the 19th century. This was a result of two naming acts obliging commoners to adopt heritable surnames, passed first for the Duchy of Schleswig in 1771, and then for Denmark proper in 1828. Most people chose their patronymic as their heritable surname, resulting in an overwhelming dominance of a few surnames.
In order to avoid the risk of mistaken identity, many Danes started using their mothers' maiden names as a heritable middle name (similar to the Russian or Hispanic system), rather than as a second given name (as in the Anglo-Saxon system). One such case in point is the fact that three successive prime ministers of Denmark all share the same last name, Rasmussen, and so they are usually referred to by their middle name, viz. Nyrup, Fogh and Løkke, respectively.
Today, however, the order of the names invariably places the patronymic -sen at the end, regardless of whether that name has been passed down by the father or mother, or adopted through marriage. Unlike in the Russian or Hispanic systems, this surname-style middle name is not considered a proper last name in official documents, unless hyphenated into one compound name.
Poland[edit]
Further information: Polish name
In Poland a double surname (Polish: nazwisko złożone) is generally joined with a hyphen and by law includes only one hyphen. Polish surnames (nazwisko (N. sg.)), like those in most of Europe, are hereditary and generally patrilineal, i.e., passed from the father on to his children. A married woman usually adopts her husband's name. However, other combinations are legally possible. The wife may keep her maiden name (nazwisko panieńskie) or add her husband's surname to hers, thus creating a double name (nazwisko złożone). A married man can also adopt his wife's surname, or add it to his. Polish triple-barreled surnames are known to exist; an example is the one borne by Ludwik Kos-Rabczewicz-Zubkowski, a university professor and writer, living in Canada.
Russia[edit]
In Russia, double-barreled surnames are somewhat uncommon, but normal and accepted practice, often associated with some families of note wishing to preserve both of their lineages. Federal law #143-FZ "On Civil State Acts" explicitly allows double-barreled names in its Article 28, but limits such compound surnames to two parts only.
Turkish tradition[edit]
Turkish tradition offers options to couples after the marriage for the naming conventions. Renewing the national identity card to reflect the naming changes has two options, one is to use man's surname for the newly formed family's surname, the second is to use two surnames for the family noting that one is the bride's maiden name, the latter is the groom's surname. This highlights the equal importance of men and women in Turkish history, by giving legal opportunity to use whichever is preferable for partners.
Another double-barreled naming custom in Turkey, is that the grandfather of a newborn to give the first name, while the father of the newborn issues a middle name which is known as "Göbek Adı" in Turkish.[7] In other words, "Gobek Adi" is the name that's been given to newborn while his/her umbilical cord is being cut. In the surname section, the tradition is to use the paternal heritage surname. For example; Cahit Sıtkı Tarancı, Melih Cevdet Anday, Falih Rıfkı Atay and so on.
Recent developments[edit]
Since the late 20th century, increasingly liberal legislation on the inheritance of legal surnames in many Western countries has led to the emergence of various non-traditional or ad hoc coinages of combined surnames.[clarification needed] For example, Hispanic American politician Antonio Villar and his wife Corina Raigosa adopted the "blended" surname Villaraigosa upon their marriage in 1987.[8]
In some cases, courts in member states of the European Union have refused to register children under the surname given according to a foreign naming tradition.[9]
In France a practice abolished in 2010[10] was to use two consecutive hyphens -- (not the same as a "long hyphen" or dash, or with a double hyphen) to distinguish between recently formed double surnames and ancient hyphenated family names (French: nom composé). The use of double surnames is legal but not customary. Children traditionally take on their father's surname (or, more recently, optionally their mother's).
In Canada, especially Quebec, it is common for children born since the 1970s to bear both parents' surnames, with no established rules as to whether the father's or mother's name should come first. (In Quebec, under the provisions of the Civil Code enacted in 1980,[11] both spouses must retain their original surnames upon marriage.) This situation was frequent enough that naming laws had to be amended in the early 1990s when those with double surnames began to marry, and wished themselves to give their children double surnames. In such cases, any combination involving at most two elements of the father's or the mother's surname is permitted.[12]
Non-Western surname traditions[edit]
A Chinese compound surname is a Chinese surname using more than one character. Many of these surnames derive from noble and official titles, professions, place names and other areas, to serve for a purpose. Some are originally non-Han, while others were created by joining two one-character family names. Only a few of these names (e.g. Ouyang, Shangguan, Sima, Situ) survive in modern times. Many clans eventually took on a single-character surname for various reasons. A small minority of Koreans and Vietnamese also have compound surnames. In 2007, PRC officials suggested that parents should be encouraged to create two-syllable (two-character) surnames for their children by combining their parents' (one-syllable) surnames; this could make people's names more unique, and "could help solve the problem of widely recurring names".[13]
In India, double surnames are comparatively common, especially in Bengal, examples including Roy Chaudhury (sometimes written as Chowdhury), Ghosh Dastidar, Das Gupta, Dutta Roy, etc.[citation needed]. In recent years, a few notable married women have been keeping their maiden surnames resulting in a double-barred name such as Arati Ankalikar-Tikekar, Padmaja Phenany Joglekar.
The Filipino naming tradition is derived from the Hispanic system, but was influenced by the American (Anglo-Saxon) naming tradition when the Philippines became a United States colony in 1901. A child customarily will carry the mother's maiden name as his middle name and carry the father's surname. When the female marries, she keeps her maiden surname and adds the husband's surname, but does not typically hyphenate it. So, when Maria Santos Aguon marries José Lujan Castro, her name becomes Maria Aguon Castro and their children will typically carry the middle name Aguon, and the surname Castro.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Dual naming
Double name
Name blending
List of double placenames
References[edit]
Jump up ^ The term "double-barrelled surname" was in origin used for British double names indicative of (partially) aristocratic background; so in Thomas Innes of Learney, The Clans, Septs and Regiments of the Scottish Highlands (1970), p. 186. Earlier usage prefers "double-barrelled name" in reference to the British double surnames, the more specific "double-barrelled surname" is a recharacterization after the recent tendency to use "double-barrelled name" for the fashion of hyphenated given names. The term "double-barrelled (sur)name" appears to have been coined in the Victorian era, originally with a sarcastic undertone implying pomposity; e.g.:
"It is looked on as a public blessing, a boon to the general good-humor, when a statesman is endowed with a double-barreled name. It brings on a perpetual feu de joie of squibs, and makes him so much the more agreeable to everybody but himself." Lippincott's Monthly Magazine, a Popular Journal of General Literature, Volume 18, 1876, p. 385.
"The hero, who was a prince, had a sort of double-barreled name, which would defy all sorts at pronunciation; and so had the heroine. They were names which, no doubt, would be instrumental in selling any fever and ague mixture should they be affixed to it." Puck, Puck Publishing Company, 1878, p. 21.
"an extravagant superfluity of new-coined phraseology and technical terms, which every distinguished person's illness elicits from some fashionable physician with a double-barreled surname and none denoting Christianity." Robert Joshua Leslie, John Leslie (bishop of Clogher), The life and times of ... John Leslie, bishop of the Isles, and of Raphoe and Clogher, 1885, p. 157.
But it is now also used more generally of any double surname (an example for this is Azoulai, The Question of Competence in the European Union (2014:180) using "double-barrelled" to refer to a Danish double surname.
Jump up ^ Los Angeles Times Magazine, November 1999
Jump up ^ Gray, Carroll F. (November 2006). "The 1906 Santos=Dumont No. 14bis". World War I Aeroplanes. 194: 4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kirchner, Stephanie (6 May 2009). "German Court Upholds Ban on Extra-Long Names". Time. Retrieved 2009-05-19.
Jump up ^ "Why is Jan Vennegoor of Hesselink so named?". The Guardian. 4 August 2004.
Jump up ^ Paolo Bandini (30 August 2006). "Lost and found in the international wilderness". The Guardian. London.
Jump up ^ Turkish Language Institute (2017-03-20). "Göbek Adı". TDK.
Jump up ^ Sheri & Bob Stritof (2007-07-26). "Corina Raigosa and Antonio Villaraigosa Marriage Profile". Marriage.about.com. Archived from the original on 7 June 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
Jump up ^ "For instance, in Garcia Avello, a case in which Belgium refused to register children of dual nationality with the surname of both parents following the Spanish tradition [...] in Grunkin and Paul [... a German court] refused to recognize a child's double-barrelled surname as determined and registered in Denmark, where he lived, because the child was a German national." Loïc Azoulai, The Question of Competence in the European Union, OUP Oxford, 2014, p. 180.
Jump up ^ Lichfield, John (8 January 2010). "Double-hyphen surname law gets both barrels". The Independent. Retrieved 2011-04-05.
Jump up ^ A Short History of the Civil Code Archived 2005-12-18 at the Wayback Machine., Government of Quebec
Jump up ^ Section 51 of the Civil Code of Quebec, in LexUM
Jump up ^ Name game: most Chinese use 3 characters, some use 10 or more, Xinhua, 2007-12-12.
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