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Copyright Term Extension Act
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Copyright Term Extension Act
Long title
To amend the provisions of title 17, United States Code, with respect to the duration of copyright, and for other purposes.
Acronyms (colloquial)
CTEA
Enacted by
the 105th United States Congress
Effective
October 27, 1998
Citations
Public law
Pub.L. 105–298
Statutes at Large
112 Stat. 2827
Codification
Acts amended
Copyright Act of 1976
Titles amended
17 (Copyrights)
U.S.C. sections amended
17 U.S.C. §§ 108, 203(a)(2), 301(c), 302, 303, 304(c)(2)
Legislative history
Introduced in the Senate as S. 505 by Orrin Hatch on March 20, 1997
Passed the Senate on October 7, 1998 (unanimous consent)
Passed the House on October 7, 1998 (voice vote)
Signed into law by President Bill Clinton on October 27, 1998
United States Supreme Court cases
Eldred v. Ashcroft
Expansion of U.S. copyright law (assuming authors create their works 35 years before their death)
The Copyright Term Extension Act (CTEA) of 1998 extended copyright terms in the United States. It is one of several acts extending the terms of copyrights.
Following the Copyright Act of 1976, copyright would last for the life of the author plus 50 years, or 75 years for a work of corporate authorship. The 1976 Act also increased the extension term for works copyrighted before 1978 that had not already entered the public domain from twenty-eight years to forty-seven years, giving a total term of seventy-five years.
The 1998 Act extended these terms to life of the author plus 70 years and for works of corporate authorship to 120 years after creation or 95 years after publication, whichever endpoint is earlier.[1] Copyright protection for works published before January 1, 1978, was increased by 20 years to a total of 95 years from their publication date.
This law, also known as the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act, Sonny Bono Act, or (derisively) the Mickey Mouse Protection Act,[2] effectively "froze" the advancement date of the public domain in the United States for works covered by the older fixed term copyright rules. Under this Act, works made in 1923 or afterwards that were still protected by copyright in 1998 will not enter the public domain until 2019 or afterward (depending on the date of the product) unless the owner of the copyright releases them into the public domain before then. Unlike copyright extension legislation in the European Union, the Sonny Bono Act did not revive copyrights that had already expired. The Act did extend the terms of protection set for works that were already copyrighted, and is retroactive in that sense. However, works created before January 1, 1978, but not published or registered for copyright until recently, are addressed in a special section (17 U.S.C. § 303) and may remain protected until the end of 2047. The Act became Pub.L. 105–298 on October 27, 1998.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Political climate
2.1 Senate Report 104-315
2.2 Support
2.3 Opposition
2.4 March 25, 1998 House Debate
3 Challenges
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
6.1 Summary of copyright protection terms
6.2 Documentation from the United States government
6.3 Views of proponents
6.4 Views of opponents
Background[edit]
Under the international Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works of 1886, the signatory countries are required to provide copyright protection for a minimum term of the life of the author plus fifty years. Additionally, they are permitted to provide for a longer term of protection. The United States did not become a Berne signatory until 1988, but had previously provided for the minimum copyright term the convention required in the Copyright Act of 1976.
After the United States' accession to the Berne convention, a number of copyright owners successfully lobbied the U.S. Congress for another extension of the term of copyright, to provide for the same term of protection that exists in Europe. Since the 1993 Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection, member states of the European Union implemented protection for a term of the author's life plus seventy years.
The act was named in memory of the late Congressman Sonny Bono, who died nine months before the act became law: he had previously been one of twelve sponsors of a similar bill.
House members sympathetic to restaurant and bar owners, who were upset over ASCAP and BMI licensing practices, almost derailed the Act. As a result, the bill was amended to include the Fairness in Music Licensing Act, which exempted smaller establishments from needing a public performance license to play music.[3]
Both houses of the United States Congress passed the act as Public Law 105-298 with a voice vote.[4][5] President Bill Clinton signed the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998 on October 27, 1998.[6]
Political climate[edit]
Senate Report 104-315[edit]
The Senate Report[7] gave the official reasons for passing copyright extension laws and was originally written in the context of the Copyright Term Extension Act of 1995.[8]
The purpose of the bill is to ensure adequate copyright protection for American works in foreign nations and the continued economic benefits of a healthy surplus balance of trade in the exploitation of copyrighted works. The bill accomplishes these goals by extending the current U.S. copyright term for an additional 21 years. Such an extension will provide significant trade benefits by substantially harmonizing U.S. copyright law to that of the European Union while ensuring fair compensation for American creators who deserve to benefit fully from the exploitation of their works. Moreover, by stimulating the creation of new works and providing enhanced economic incentives to preserve existing works, such an extension will enhance the long-term volume, vitality and accessibility of the public domain.
The authors of the report believed that extending copyright protection would help the United States by providing more protection for their works in foreign countries and by giving more incentive to digitize and preserve works since there was an exclusive right in them. The report also included minority opinions by Herb Kohl and Hank Brown, who believed that the term extensions were a financial windfall to current owners of copyrighted material at the expense of the public's use of the material.
Support[edit]
Since 1990, The Walt Disney Company had lobbied for copyright extension.[9][10] The legalisation delayed the entry into the public domain of the earliest Mickey Mouse movies, leading detractors to the nickname "The Mickey Mouse Protection Act".[2]
In addition to Disney, California congresswoman Mary Bono (Sonny Bono's widow and Congressional successor), and the estate of composer George Gershwin supported the act. Mary Bono, speaking on the floor of the United States House of Representatives, said:
Actually, Sonny wanted the term of copyright protection to last forever. I am informed by staff that such a change would violate the Constitution. ... As you know, there is also [then-MPAA president] Jack Valenti's proposal for term to last forever less one day. Perhaps the Committee may look at that next Congress.[11]
Proponents of the Bono Act argue that it is necessary given that the life expectancy of humans has risen dramatically since Congress passed the original Copyright Act of 1790,[12] that a difference in copyright terms between the United States and Europe would negatively affect the international operations of the entertainment industry,[12][13] and that some works would be created under a longer copyright that would never be created under the existing copyright. They also claim that copyrighted works are an important source of income to the US[13][14] and that media such as VHS, DVD, Cable and Satellite have increased the value and commercial life of movies and television series.[13]
Proponents contend that Congress has the power to pass whatever copyright term it wants because the language "To promote the progress of science and useful arts" in the United States Constitution is not a substantive limitation on the powers of Congress, leaving the sole restriction that copyrights must only last for "limited times." However, in what respect the granted time must be limited has never been determined, thus arguably even an absurdly long, yet finite, duration would still be a valid limited time according to the letter of the Constitution as long as Congress was ostensibly setting this limit to promote the progress of science and useful arts. This was one of the arguments that prevailed in the Eldred v. Ashcroft case, when the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the CTEA. It is also pointed out by proponents that the extension did not prevent all works from going in the public domain. They note that the 1976 Copyright Act established that unpublished works created before 1978 would still begin entering the public domain January 1, 2003 (Known author: life of the author plus 70 years; anonymous/pseudoanonymous/unknown author/works-for-hire: 120 years from creation), and that the provision remained unaffected by the 1998 extension.[15] They also claim that Congress has actually increased the scope of the public domain since, for the first time, unpublished works will enter the public domain.[15]
Proponents believe that copyright encourages progress in the arts. With an extension of copyright, future artists have to create something original, rather than reuse old work, however, had the act been in place in the 1960s, it is unlikely that Andy Warhol would have been able to sell or even exhibit any of his work, since it all incorporated previously copyrighted material. Proponents contend that it is more important to encourage all creators to make new works instead of just copyright holders.[15]
Proponents say that copyright better preserves intellectual property like movies, music and television shows.[14][15] One example given is the case of the classic film It's a Wonderful Life.[14] Before Republic Pictures and Spelling Entertainment (who owned the motion picture rights to the short story and the music even after the film itself became public domain) began to assert their rights to the film, various local TV stations and cable networks broadcast the film endlessly. As New York Times reporter Bill Carter put it: "the film's currency was being devalued."[16]
Many different versions of the film were made and most if not all were in horrible condition.[17] After underlying rights to the film were enforced, it was given a high quality restoration that was hailed by critics. In addition, proponents note that once a work falls into the public domain there is no guarantee that the work will be more widely available or cheaper. Suggesting that quality copies of public domain works are not widely available, they argue that one reason for a lack of availability may be due to publishers' reluctance to publish a work that is in the public domain for fear that they will not be able to recoup their investment or earn enough profit.[14]
Proponents reject the idea that only works in the public domain can provide artistic inspiration. They note that opponents fail to take into account that copyright applies only to expressions of ideas and not the ideas themselves.[15] Thus artists are free to get ideas from copyrighted works as long as they don't infringe. Borrowing ideas and such are common in film, TV and music even with copyrighted works (see scènes à faire, idea-expression divide and stock character). Works such as parody benefit from fair use.
Proponents also question the idea that extended copyright is "corporate welfare." They state that many opponents also have a stake in the case, claiming that those arguing against copyright term extension are mostly businesses that depend on distributing films and videos that have lost their copyright.[14]
The most common argument against the CTEA is focused on the First Amendment. In Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises, however, the Court explained how a copyright "respects and adequately safeguards the freedom of speech protected by the First Amendment."[18] In following this approach, courts have held that copyrights are "categorically immune from challenges under the First Amendment."[18]
Opposition[edit]
The most common argument opposing the CTEA is focused on the First Amendment "because of the prospective and retrospective application of the CTEA."[18] The plaintiffs in Eldred v. Reno believed that "the CTEA failed to sustain the intermediate level of scrutiny test afforded by the First Amendment because the government did not have an 'important' interest to justify withholding speech."[18]
Critics of the CTEA argue that it was never the original intention for copyright protection to be extended in the United States. Attorney Jenny L. Dixon mentions that "the United States has always viewed copyright primarily as a vehicle for achieving social benefit based on the belief that encouragement of individual effort by personal gain is the best way to advance the public welfare;"[19] however, "the U.S. does not consider copyright as a 'natural right.'"[19] Dixon continues that with increased extensions on copyright protections, authors receive the benefits, while the public have more difficulty accessing these works, weakening public domain.[19] One such extension Dixon mentions is the protection of a copyrighted work for the author's life followed by two generations, which opponents argue that there is no legislation nor intention for this copyright protection.[19] "These constitutionally-grounded arguments 'for limitations on proprietary rights' are being rejected time and time again."[19]
Dennis S. Karjala, a law professor, led an effort to try to prevent the CTEA from being passed. He testified before the Committees on the Judiciary arguing "that extending the term of copyright protection would impose substantial costs on the United States general public without supplying any public benefit. The extension bills represent a fundamental departure from the United States philosophy that intellectual property legislation serve a public purpose."[20]
An editorial in The New York Times argued against the copyright extension on February 21, 1998. The article stated "When Senator Hatch laments that George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue will soon 'fall into the public domain,' he makes the public domain sound like a dark abyss where songs go, never to be heard again. In fact, when a work enters the public domain it means the public can afford to use it freely, to give it new currency."[21]
Image used by many criticizing Disney and the Act
Opponents of the Bono Act consider the legislation to be corporate welfare and have tried (but failed) to have it declared unconstitutional, claiming that such an act is not "necessary and proper" to accomplishing the Constitution's stated purpose of "promot[ing] the progress of science and useful arts".[22] They argue that most works bring most of the profits during the first few years and are pushed off the market by the publishers thereafter. Thus there is little economic incentive in extending the terms of copyrights except for the few owners of franchises that are wildly successful, such as Disney. They also point out that the Tenth Amendment can be construed as placing limits on the powers that Congress can gain from a treaty. More directly, they see two successive terms of approximately 20 years each (the Copyright Act of 1976 and the Bono Act) as the beginning of a "slippery slope" toward a perpetual copyright term that nullifies the intended effect and violates the spirit of the "for limited times" language of the United States Constitution, Article I, section 8, clause 8.[23]
Some opponents have questioned the proponents' life expectancy argument, making the comparison between the growth of copyright terms and the term of patents in relation to the growth of life expectancies. Life expectancies have risen from about 35 years in 1800 [24] to 77.6 years in 2002.[25] While copyright terms have increased threefold, from only 28 years total (under the Copyright Act of 1790), life expectancies have roughly doubled. Moreover, life expectancy statistics are skewed due to historically high infant mortality rates. Correcting for infant mortality, life expectancy has only increased by fifteen years between 1850 and 2000.[26] In addition, copyright terms have increased significantly since the 1790 act, but patent terms have not been extended in parallel, with 20-year terms of protection remaining the (presumably under the laws) adequate compensation for innovation in a technical field.[27] Seventeen prominent economists, including Kenneth Arrow, Ronald Coase, and Milton Friedman, submitted an amicus brief opposing the bill when it was challenged in court. They argued that the discounted present value of the extension was only a 1% increase for newly created works, while the increase in transaction costs created by extending the terms of old works would be very large and without any marginal benefit.[28] According to Lawrence Lessig, when asked to sign the brief, Friedman had originally insisted that "the word 'no-brainer' [appear] in it somewhere," but still agreed to sign it even though his condition was not met.[29]
Opponents also argue that the Act encourages "offshore production." For example, derivative works could be created outside the United States in areas where copyright would have expired, and that US law would prohibit these works to US residents. For example, a movie of Mickey Mouse playing with a computer could be legally created in Russia, but the movie would be refused admission for importation by US Customs because of copyright, resulting in a deprivation to American children. Similarly, the first Winnie-the-Pooh book was published in 1926 and would have been public domain in 2001.[30][31]
Opponents identify another possible harm from copyright extension: loss of productive value of private collections of copyrighted works. A person who collected copyrighted works that would soon "go out of copyright," intending to re-release them on copyright expiration, lost the use of his capital expenditures for an additional 20 years when the Bono Act passed. This is part of the underlying argument in Eldred v. Ashcroft.[32] The Bono Act is thus perceived to add an instability to commerce and investment, areas which have a better legal theoretical basis than intellectual property, whose theory is of quite recent development and is often criticized as being a corporate chimera. Conceivably, if one had made such an investment and then produced a derivative work (or perhaps even re-released the work in ipse), he could counter a suit made by the copyright holder by declaring that Congress had unconstitutionally made, ex post facto, a restriction on the previously unrestricted.
Howard Besser questioned the proponents' argument that "new works would not be created", which implies that the goal of copyright is to make the creation of new works possible. However, the Framers of the United States Constitution evidently thought that unnecessary, instead restricting the goal of copyright to merely "promot[ing] the progress of science and useful arts". In fact, some works created under time-limited copyright would not be created under perpetual copyright because the creator of a distantly derivative work does not have the money and resources to find the owner of copyright in the original work and purchase a license, or the individual or privately held owner of copyright in the original work might refuse to license a use at any price (though a refusal to license may trigger a fair use safety valve). Thus they argue that a rich, continually replenished, public domain is necessary for continued artistic creation.[33]
March 25, 1998 House Debate[edit]
The House debated the Copyright Term Extension Act (House Resolution 390) on March 25, 1998.[34] The term extension was almost completely supported, with only the mild criticism by Jim Sensenbrenner (Wisconsin) of "H.R. 2589 provides a very generous windfall to the entertainment industry by extending the term of copyright for an additional 20 years."[35] He suggested that it could be balanced by adding provisions from the Fairness in Music Licensing Act (H.R. 789). Lloyd Doggett (Texas) called the 'Fairness in Music Licensing Act' the 'Music Theft Act' and claimed that it was a mechanism to "steal the intellectual property of thousands of small businesspeople who are song writers in this land."[36] The majority of subsequent debate was over Sensenbrenner's House Amendment 532[37] to the CTEA. This amendment was over details of allowing music from radio and television broadcasts in small businesses to be played without licensing fees. An amendment to Sensenbrenner's amendment was proposed by Bill McCollum,.[38] The key differences between Sensenbrenner's proposal and McCollum's amendment were 1) local arbitration versus court lawsuits in rate disagreements, 2) all retail businesses versus only restaurants and bars, 3) 3500 square feet of general public area versus 3,500 square feet (330 m2) of gross area, 4) which music licensing societies it applied to (all versus ASCAP and BMI), and 5) freedom from vicarious liability for landlords and others leasing space versus no such provision.[39] After debate (and the first verse of American Pie[40]) the McCollum Amendment was rejected in by 259 to 150[41] and the Sensenbrenner amendment was passed by 297 to 112.[42] The Copyright Term Extension Act H.R. 2589 was passed.[43]
The term extension was supported for two key reasons. First, "copyright industries give us [(the United States)] one of our most significant trade surpluses." Second, the recently enacted legislation in the European Union had extended copyright there for 20 years, and so EU works would be protected for 20 years longer than US works if the US did not enact similar term extensions. Howard Coble also stated that it was good for consumers since "When works are protected by copyright, they attract investors who can exploit the work for profit."[44] The term extension portion was supported by Songwriters Guild of America, National Academy of Songwriters, the Motion Picture Association of America, the Intellectual Property Law Section of the American Bar Association, the Recording Industry Association of America, National Music Publishers Association, the Information Technology Association of America and others.[45]
Challenges[edit]
Publishers and librarians, among others, brought a lawsuit, Eldred v. Ashcroft, to obtain an injunction on enforcement of the act. Oral arguments were heard by the U.S. Supreme Court on October 9, 2002. On January 15, 2003 the court held the CTEA constitutional by a 7–2 decision.[46]
In 2003 the plaintiffs in the Eldred case began to shift their effort toward the U.S. Congress in support of a bill called the Public Domain Enhancement Act that would make the provisions of the Bono Act apply only to copyrights that had been registered with the Library of Congress.
See also[edit]
Anti-copyright
Copyright
Copyleft
Digital Millennium Copyright Act
Ex post facto law
Intellectual property
List of countries' copyright length
MPAA
Public domain
Rent seeking
RIAA
Software copyright
United States copyright law
European Union 95 year recording copyright extension proposal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ U.S. Copyright Office, Circular 1: Copyright Basics, pp. 5–6
^ Jump up to: a b Lawrence Lessig, Copyright's First Amendment, 48 UCLA L. Rev. 1057, 1065 (2001)
Jump up ^ William Patry, 1 Patry on Copyright § 1:97 (Thomson Reuters/West 2009)
Jump up ^ "THOMAS: Status of H.R. 2589". Thomas.loc.gov. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
Jump up ^ "THOMAS: Status of S. 505". Thomas.loc.gov. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Copyright Office: Annual Report 2002: Litigation". Copyright.gov. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
Jump up ^ "Senate Report 104-315". Thomas.loc.gov. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
Jump up ^ "S.483 - Copyright Term Extension Act of 1996". Congress.gov. 1996-07-10. Retrieved 2014-12-15.
Jump up ^ Greenhouse, Linda (2002-02-20). "Justices to Review Copyright Extension". New York Times. Retrieved 2016-02-12. The 1998 extension was a result of intense lobbying by a group of powerful corporate copyright holders, most visibly Disney, which faced the imminent expiration of copyrights on depictions of its most famous cartoon characters.
Jump up ^ Ota, Alan K. (1998-08-10). "Disney In Washington: The Mouse That Roars". CNN. Retrieved 2016-02-12.
Jump up ^ "H9952". Congressional Record. Government Printing Office. October 7, 1998. Retrieved 2007-10-30.
^ Jump up to: a b "Senator Orrin Hatch’s Introduction of The Copyright Term Extension Act of 1997". 1997-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Senator Dianne Feinstein's Statement before Congress". 1997-03-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Excerpts of Bruce A. Lehman’s statement before Congress". 1995-09-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Scott M. Martin (September 24, 2002). "The Mythology of the Public Domain: Exploring the Myths Behind Attacks on the Duration of Copyright Protection". Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review. Loyola Law Review. 36 (1): 280. ISSN 1533-5860. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
Jump up ^ Carter, Bill (1994-12-19). "THE MEDIA BUSINESS; Television". New York Times: D10. Retrieved 2010-11-27.
Jump up ^ See Two Days of Christmas Classics, TORONTO STAR, December 24, 1999, At E1.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Grzelak, Victoria A. (2002). "Mickey Mouse & Sonny Bonno Go to Court: The Copyright Term Extension Act and its Effect on Current and Future Rights". Retrieved May 25, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Dixon, Jenny L. "The Copyright Term Extension Act: Is Life Plus Seventy Too Much". Retrieved May 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ Karjala, Dennis. "Opposing Copyright Extension, Legislative Materials (105th Congress), Statement of Copyright and Intellectual Property Law Professors in Opposition to H.R. 604, H.R. 2589, and S.505". Retrieved 22 August 2015.
Jump up ^ "Keeping Copyright in Balance". New York Times. February 21, 1998.
Jump up ^ "BRIEF OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY LAW PROFESSORS AS AMICI CURIAE SUPPORTING PETITIONERS" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-01-21.
Jump up ^ "Cornell University Law School – United States Constitution". Law.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
Jump up ^ "Life Expectancies in 1800s". Answers.com. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
Jump up ^ "Life Expectancies in 20002". Medical News Today. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
Jump up ^ http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0005140.html
Jump up ^ "United States Patent and Trademark Office – General Information". Uspto.gov. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
Jump up ^ "BRIEF OF GEORGE A. AKERLOF, KENNETH J. ARROW, TIMOTHY F. BRESNAHAN, JAMES M. BUCHANAN, RONALD H. COASE, LINDA R. COHEN, MILTON FRIEDMAN, JERRY R. GREEN, ROBERT W. HAHN, THOMAS W. HAZLETT, C. SCOTT HEMPHILL, ROBERT E. LITAN, ROGER G. NOLL, RICHARD SCHMALENSEE, STEVEN SHAVELL, HAL R. VARIAN, AND RICHARD J. ZECKHAUSER AS AMICI CURIAE IN SUPPORT OF PETITIONERS" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 22 August 2015.
Jump up ^ Lawrence Lessig. ""only if the word ‘no-brainer’ appears in it somewhere": RIP Milton Friedman". Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 22 August 2015. No doubt the highpoint of the Eldred v. Ashcroft case was when I learned Friedman would sign our “Economists’ Brief“: As it was reported to me, when asked, he responded: “Only if the world [sic] ‘no brainer’ appears in it somewhere.” A reasonable man, he signed even though we couldn’t fit that word in.
Jump up ^ Macavinta, Courtney. "CNET – Copyright extension law". News.cnet.com. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
Jump up ^ "Winnie the Pooh – FAQ – Your Frequently Asked Questions X". Lavasurfer.com. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
Jump up ^ "Salon.com Technology | Mickey Mouse vs. The People". Archive.salon.com. 2002-02-21. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
Jump up ^ Howard Besser, The Erosion of Public Protection: Attacks on the concept of Fair Use, Paper delivered at the Town Meeting on Copyright & Fair Use, College Art Association, Toronto, February 1998. Retrieved 2010-07-27.
Jump up ^ Congressional Record, Volume 144, 1998, H1456-H1483, March 25, 1998
Jump up ^ Congressional Record, Volume 144, 1998, H1459
Jump up ^ Congressional Record, Volume 144, 1998, H1457
Jump up ^ http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.uscongress/legislation.105hamdt532 "Handle Problem Report (Library of Congress)". Hdl.loc.gov. Retrieved 2011-02-06.
Jump up ^ http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.uscongress/legislation.105hamdt533 "Handle Problem Report (Library of Congress)". Hdl.loc.gov. Retrieved 2011-02-06.
Jump up ^ Congressional Record, Volume 144, 1998, H1470-H1471
Jump up ^ Congressional Record, Volume 144, 1998, H1471
Jump up ^ Congressional Record, Volume 144, 1998, H1482
Jump up ^ Congressional Record, Volume 144, 1998, H1482-H1483
Jump up ^ Congressional Record, Volume 144, 1998, H1483
Jump up ^ Congressional Record, Volume 144, 1998, Coble, North Carolina, H1458
Jump up ^ Congressional Record, Volume 144, 1998, H1463
Jump up ^ Timothy B. Lee (October 25, 2013). "15 years ago, Congress kept Mickey Mouse out of the public domain. Will they do it again?". Washington Post.
External links[edit]
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Works related to Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act at Wikisource
Summary of copyright protection terms[edit]
Cornell Copyright Information Center, "Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States"
Documentation from the United States government[edit]
S.505: Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act
Senate Report No. 104-315
Public Law 105-298
Transcript of oral arguments in Eldred vs. Ashrcroft -(pdf)
Views of proponents[edit]
Copyright Extension.com
Mythology of the public domain: Exploring the myths behind attacks on the duration of copyright by Scott Martin
The National Music Publishers' Association, Inc
The American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers
Paper by Liebowitz and Margolis, archived at the Social Science Research Network website
Views of opponents[edit]
The Eric Eldred Act Archived January 2, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
Sonny Bono Copyright Extension Act opposition by Damian Yerrick.
New York Times editorial, 4/30/2001, Let the Stories Go
Litman Decries Overbroad Copyright Protection and Mouse Trapped by Mike Godwin
Discussion on Elvis Copyrights expiring in the UK
Article in Findlaw's Writ by Chris Sprigman
coverage of opposition by attorney Lawrence Lessig
Digital Copyright by Jessica Litman
Opposing Copyright Extension
Thomas Maucalay on Copyright Law
"Melancholy Elephants", a cautionary story by Spider Robinson. He later backed away from that position (while noting the irony) in a column collected in his 2004 The Crazy Years
Quotation from Marybeth Peters
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copyright_Term_Extension_Act&oldid=799085135"
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Minister (Christianity)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A Lutheran minister wearing a Geneva gown and bands. Ministers may wear distinctive clothing, called vestments, when presiding over a service of worship.
A Methodist minister wearing a cassock, vested with a surplice and stole, with preaching bands attached to his clerical collar
In Christianity, a minister is a person authorized by a church, or other religious organization, to perform functions such as teaching of beliefs; leading services such as weddings, baptisms or funerals; or otherwise providing spiritual guidance to the community. The term is taken from Latin minister ("servant", "attendant"), which itself was derived from minus ("less").[1]
In Roman Catholic, Anglican, Oriental Orthodox, Nordic Lutheran, and Eastern Orthodox Churches, the concept of a priesthood is emphasised. In other Christian denominations, such as the Baptist, Congregationalist, Methodist, Presbyterian and Reformed Churches, the title usually refers to a member of the ordained clergy who leads a congregation or participates in a role in a parachurch ministry; such a person may serve as a presbyter, pastor, preacher, bishop, chaplain or elder.
With respect to ecclesiastical address, many ministers are styled as "The Reverend"; however, some use "Pastor" or "Father" as a title.
Contents
[hide]
1 Roles and duties
2 Training and qualifications
2.1 New Testament
3 Related titles and types of Christian ministries
3.1 Bishops, priests, and deacons
3.2 Pastors
3.3 Clergy
3.4 Dominie, Dominee, Dom, Don
3.5 Chaplains and padres
3.6 Elder
3.7 Types of ministries in non-denominational church
4 Leaders and pastoral agents
4.1 Monsignor
4.2 Prelate
4.3 Father
4.4 Archbishop
5 Issues
6 Styles and forms of address
6.1 Anglican
6.2 Roman Catholic
6.3 Orthodox
6.3.1 Greek and other Orthodox churches
6.3.2 Armenian Apostolic
7 See also
8 References
Roles and duties[edit]
The Church of England defines the ministry of priests as follows:
Priests are called to be servants and shepherds among the people to whom they are sent. With their Bishop and fellow ministers, they are to proclaim the word of the Lord and to watch for the signs of God's new creation. They are to be messengers, watchmen and stewards of the Lord; they are to teach and to admonish, to feed and provide for his family, to search for his children in the wilderness of this world's temptations, and to guide them through its confusions, that they may be saved through Christ forever. Formed by the word, they are to call their hearers to repentance and to declare in Christ's name the absolution and forgiveness of their sins.
With all God's people, they are to tell the story of God's love. They are to baptize new disciples in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, and to walk with them in the way of Christ, nurturing them in the faith. They are to unfold the Scriptures, to preach the word in season and out of season, and to declare the mighty acts of God. They are to preside at the Lord's table and lead his people in worship, offering with them a spiritual sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving. They are to bless the people in God's name. They are to resist evil, support the weak, defend the poor, and intercede for all in need. They are to minister to the sick and prepare the dying for their death. Guided by the Spirit, they are to discern and foster the gifts of all God's people, that the whole Church may be built up in unity and faith.[2]
Ministers may perform some or all of the following duties:
assist in co-ordinating volunteers and church community groups
assist in any general administrative service
conduct marriage ceremonies, funerals and memorial services, participate in the ordination of other clergy, and confirming young people as members of a local church
encourage local church endeavors
engage in welfare and community services activities of communities
establish new local churches
keep records as required by civil or church law
plan and conduct services of public worship
preach
pray and encourage others to be theocentric (that is, God-focused)
preside over sacraments (also called ordinances) of the church. Such as:
the Lord's Supper (a name derived from 1 Corinthians 11:20), also known as the Lord's Table (taken from 1 Corinthians 10:21), or Holy Communion, and
the Baptism of adults or children (depending on the denomination)
provide leadership to the congregation, parish or church community, this may be done as part of a team with lay people in roles such as elders
refer people to community support services, psychologists or doctors
research and study religion, Scripture and theology
supervise prayer and discussion groups, retreats and seminars, and provide religious instruction
teach on spiritual and theological subjects
train leaders for church, community and youth leadership
work on developing relationships and networks within the religious community
provide pastoral care in various contexts
provide personal support to people in crises, such as illness, bereavement and family breakdown
visit the sick and elderly to counsel and comfort them and their families
administer Last Rites when designated to do so [3]
the first style of ministering is the player coach style. In this style, the pastor is a "participant in all the processes that the church uses to reach people and see them transformed
the second style of ministering is the delegating style, in which the minister develops members of the church to point that they can be trusted
the third style of ministering is the directing style where the minister gives specific instructions and then supervises the congregation closely
the last and fourth style of ministering is the combination style, which a minister allows directional ministering from a pastoral staff member
mention prayer of salvation to those interested in becoming a believer
Training and qualifications[edit]
Depending on the denomination the requirements for ministry vary. All denominations require that the minister has a sense of calling. In regards to training, denominations vary in their requirements, from those that emphasize natural gifts to those that also require advanced tertiary education qualifications, for example, from a seminary, theological college or university.
New Testament[edit]
One of the clearest references is found in 1 Timothy 3:1-16, which outlines the requirements of a bishop (episkopos: Koine Greek ἐπίσκοπος, interpreted as elder by some denominations):
This is a true saying, if a man desire the office of a bishop, he desireth a good work. A bishop then must be blameless, the husband of one wife, vigilant, sober, of good behaviour, given to hospitality, apt to teach; Not given to wine, no striker, not greedy of filthy lucre; but patient, not a brawler, not covetous; One that ruleth well his own house, having his children in subjection with all gravity; (For if a man know not how to rule his own house, how shall he take care of the church of God?) Not a novice, lest being lifted up with pride he fall into the condemnation of the devil. Moreover he must have a good report of them which are without; lest he fall into reproach and the snare of the devil. Likewise must the deacons be grave, not doubletongued, not given to much wine, not greedy of filthy lucre; Holding the mystery of the faith in a pure conscience. And let these also first be proved; then let them use the office of a deacon, being found blameless. Even so must their wives be grave, not slanderers, sober, faithful in all things. Let the deacons be the husbands of one wife, ruling their children and their own houses well.
—  King James Version
Related titles and types of Christian ministries[edit]
Bishops, priests, and deacons[edit]
The Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, Lutheran and some Methodist churches have applied the formal, church-based leadership or an ordained clergy in matters of either the church or broader political and sociocultural import. The churches have three orders of ordained clergy:
Bishops are the primary clergy, administering all sacraments and governing the church.
Priests administer the sacraments and lead local congregations; they cannot ordain other clergy, however, nor consecrate buildings.
In some denominations, deacons play a non-sacramental and assisting role in the liturgy.
Francis of Assisi with the ecclesiastical tonsure. Francis was an ordained deacon.
Gilbert White, Anglican priest and pioneering naturalist and ornithologist.
Metropolitan Vladimir of Kiev, the first bishop to be martyred at the time of the Russian Revolution
Until the Reformation, the clergy were the first estate but were relegated to the secular estate in Protestant Northern Europe. After compulsory celibacy was abolished during the Reformation, the formation of a partly hereditary priestly class became possible, whereby wealth and clerical positions were frequently inheritable.[citation needed] Higher positioned clergy formed this clerical educated upper class.
High Church Anglicanism and High Church Lutheranism tend to emphasise the role of the clergy in dispensing the Christian Sacrament. The countries, that were once a part of the Swedish Empire, i.e. Finland and the Baltics, have more markedly preserved Catholic traditions and introduced far less Reformed (that is, Calvinistic or Zwinglian) theology and hence the role of bishops, priests and deacons are notably more visible.
Bishops, priests and deacons have traditionally officiated over of acts worship, reverence, rituals and ceremonies. Among these central traditions have been baptism, Confirmation, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, marriage, the Mass or the Divine Service, and coronations. These so-called "social rituals" have formed a part of human culture for tens of thousands of years. Anthropologists see social rituals as one of many cultural universals.
Scene of baptism. Stained glass, Paris, last quarter of the 12th century. From the Sainte-Chapelle of Paris.
A bishop administering Confirmation. Rogier van der Weyden, The Seven Sacraments, 15th century.
Wedding of Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark) and Alexander III of Russia
"Extreme Unction", part of The Seven Sacraments (1445)
Consecration of William Evan Sanders as Episcopal Bishop Coadjutor of Tennessee, St. Mary's Episcopal Cathedral in Memphis
A penitent confessing his sins in the former Latin rite Catholic, now Ukrainian Byzantine Rite Greek-Catholic church of the Bernhardines in Lviv, Ukraine
Funeral of Manfred von Richthofen, Bertangles Cemetery, France, 22 April 1918, George H. Marshall
The term rector (from the Latin word for ruler) or vicar may be used for priests in certain settings, especially in the Roman Catholic and Anglican traditions.
In the Episcopal Church in the United States, a parish, which is responsible for its own finances, is overseen by a rector. A bishop is nominally in control of a financially assisted parish but delegates authority to a vicar (related to the prefix "vice" meaning substitute or deputy).
Pastors[edit]
The term "pastor" means "shepherd" and is used several times in the New Testament to refer to church workers. Many Protestants use the term as a prenominal title (e.g., Pastor Smith) or as a job title (like Senior Pastor or Worship Pastor).
Clergy[edit]
The English word clergy derives from the same root as clerk and can be traced to the Latin clericus which derives from the Greek word kleros meaning a "lot" or "portion" or "office". The term Clerk in Holy Orders is still the technical title for certain Christian clergy, and its usage is prevalent in ecclesiastical and Canon Law. Holy Orders refer to any recipient of the Sacrament of Ordination, both the Major Orders (bishops, priests and deacons) and the now less known Minor Orders (Acolyte, Lector, Exorcist and Porter) who, save for certain reforms made at the Second Vatican Council in the Roman Catholic Church, were called clerics or Clerk, which is simply a shorter form of Cleric. Clerics were distinguished from the laity by having received, in a formal rite of introduction into the clerical state, the tonsure or corona (crown) which involved cutting hair from the top and side of the head leaving a circlet of hair which symbolised the Crown of Thorns worn by Christ at His crucifixion.
Though Christian in origin, the term can be applied by analogy to functions in other religious traditions. For example, a rabbi can be referred to as being a clergy member.
Parson is a similar term often applied to ordained priests or ministers. The word is a variant on the English word person from the Latin persona used as a legal term for one having jurisdiction.
Dominie, Dominee, Dom, Don[edit]
The similar words "Dominie", "Dominee" and "Dom", all derived from the Latin domine (vocative case of Dominus "Lord, Master"), are used in related contexts. Dominie, derived directly from Dutch, is used in the United States, "Dominee", derived from Dutch via Afrikaans is used in South Africa as the title of a pastor of the Dutch Reformed Church. In Scottish English dominie is generally used to mean just schoolmaster. In various Romance languages, shortened forms of Dominus (Dom, Don) are commonly used for Catholic priests (sometimes also for lay notables as well) for example Benedictine Monks are titled Dom, as in the style Dom Knight.[4][5]
Chaplains and padres[edit]
Chaplain as in English or almoner (preferred in many other languages) or their equivalents refer to a minister who has another type of pastoral "target group" than a territorial parish congregation (or in addition to one), such as a military units, schools and hospitals.
The Spanish word Padre ("father") is often informally used to address military chaplains, also in English and Portuguese (Brazil).
Elder[edit]
Elders (in Greek, πρεσβυτερος [presbuteros]; see Presbyter) in Christianity are involved in the collective leadership of a local church or of a denomination.
Some Presbyterian denominations call their ministers teaching elders. Ruling elders are ordained laymen who govern the church along with the teaching elders as the Church session.
In the Assemblies of God and the Metropolitan Community Church Elders are the most senior leaders serving, leading, and supervising the worldwide denomination. In the Metropolitan Community Church an Elder can be a lay person or clergy.
Types of ministries in non-denominational church[edit]
Such as men's ministry, women's ministry, youth ministry, kids ministry, singles and campus ministries, married couples ministry, because it gives each congregation member of different backgrounds and age groups to have a chance to fellowship with people in a closer life group to them.
Leaders and pastoral agents[edit]
Lay people, volunteers, pastoral agents, community leaders are responsible to bring teaching the gospel in the forefront helping the clergy to evangelize people. Agents ramify in many ways to act and be in touch with the people in daily life and developing religious projects, socio-political and infrastructural.
Jehovah's Witnesses consider every baptized Witness to be a "minister"; the religion permits any qualified baptized adult male to perform a baptism, funeral, or wedding.[6] Typically, however, each such service is performed by an elder or a "ministerial servant" (that is, a deacon), one of the men appointed to "take the lead" in local congregations. Witnesses do not use "elder" or any other term as a title, and do not capitalize the term.[7] They do not accept payment and are not salaried employees or considered "paid clergy", but they receive donations from members of the congregation to help them with their everyday expenses. The religion's Governing Body may appoint any adult baptized male as an elder, but more typically assigns certain other committees (typically, at branch offices) to make such appointments on its behalf; appointment is said to be "by holy spirit" because "the qualifications [are] recorded in God's spirit-inspired Word" and because appointing committees "pray for holy spirit".[8]
In many evangelical churches a group (multiple elders as opposed to a single elder)[9] of (non-staff) elders serve as the spiritual "shepherds" or caretakers of the congregation,[10] usually giving spiritual direction to the pastoral staff, enforcing church discipline, etc. In some denominations these elders are called by other names, i.e.; traditionally "Deacons" in many Baptist churches function as spiritual leaders.[11] In some cases these elders are elected and serve fixed terms. In other cases they are not elected but rather they are "recognized by the congregation as those appointed by the Holy Spirit (Acts 20:28) and meeting the qualifications of 1 Timothy 3:1-7."[12]
Monsignor[edit]
Monsignor is an ecclesiastical title of honor bestowed on some priests.
Prelate[edit]
A prelate is a member of the clergy having a special canonical jurisdiction over a territory or a group of people.
Usually, a prelate is a bishop. Prelate sometimes refers to the clergy of a state church with a formal hierarchy, and suggests that the prelate enjoys legal privileges and power as a result of clerical status.
Father[edit]
"Father" is a term of address for priests and deacons in some churches, especially the Roman Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican traditions.
"Padre" (Spanish word for father, used in Brazil too) is frequently used in the military of English-speaking countries.
A priest of the regular clergy.
A pre-Scholastic Christian writer accepted by the church as an authoritative witness to its teaching and practice (see Fathers of the Church: those who were not completely orthodox but nonetheless had a major impact on Christianity, such as Origen and Tertullian, are called "ecclesiastical writers" instead).
"Mama" is the local native language term for English speaking Anglican priests in the Anglican Church of Melanesia. It means "father" in several local languages in Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands.
Archbishop[edit]
In Christianity, an archbishop is an elevated bishop, responsible for all churches belonging to a religious group of a particular district.
A bishop at the head of an ecclesiastical province or one of equivalent honorary rank.
Issues[edit]
There are contrasting views on the level of compensation given to ministers relative to the religious community. There is often an expectation that they and their families will shun ostentation. However, there are situations where they are well rewarded for successfully attracting people to their religious community or enhancing the status or power of the community.
The ordination of women has increasingly become accepted within many global religious faith groups, with some women now holding the most senior positions in these organizational hierarchies. There is disagreement between various global church denominations, and within membership of denominations, regarding whether women can be ministers.
There was notable contention over the issue of ordination of practicing homosexuals in the 1980s within the United Church of Canada, and in the 1990s and early 21st century within the Presbyterian Church USA. The Episcopal Church, the American branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion, was as of 2016[update] divided over the issue of ordination of practising homosexuals. This conflict severely damaged relationships between Anglicans in North America and in the third world, especially Africa and southeast Asia, and has caused a schism in the American Anglican church.
Styles and forms of address[edit]
Main article: Ecclesiastical titles and styles
In the majority of churches, ordained ministers are styled "The Reverend". However, as stated above, some are styled "Pastor" and others do not use any religious style or form of address, and are addressed as any other person, e.g. as Mr, Ms, Miss, Mrs or by name.
Anglican[edit]
An Anglican minister delivers a homily, dressed in choir habit with Canterbury cap
In Anglican churches the style for ordained ministers varies according to their office, as below.[13][14]
Priests and deacons, from ordination onwards—The Reverend
Priests and deacons appointed as canons—The Reverend Canon
Deans (or Provosts) of a cathedral church—The Very Reverend
Archdeacons of a diocese or region—The Venerable
Bishops (diocesan, suffragan, or coadjutor)—The Right Reverend
Archbishops (and other primate bishops)—The Most Reverend
In all cases, the formal style should be followed by a Christian name or initial, e.g. the Reverend John Smith, or the Reverend J. Smith, but never just the Reverend Smith.
These are formal styles. In normal speech (either addressing the clergy or referring to them) other forms of address are often used. For all clergy this may include the titles "Father" (male) or "Mother" (female), particularly in the Anglo-Catholic tradition, or simply the appropriate secular title (Mister, Doctor, etc.) for that person, particularly in the evangelical tradition; it is also increasingly common to dispense with formal addresses and titles in favour of verbal address simply by given name. Bishops may be addressed as "My Lord", and less formally as "Bishop". Similarly, archbishops may be addressed as "Your Grace", and less formally as "Archbishop". The titles "My Lord" and "Your Grace" refer to the places held by these prelates in the Church of England within the order of precedence of the state; however, the same titles are also extended to bishops and archbishops of other Anglican churches, outside England. As Anglicanism represents a broad range of theological opinion, its presbyterate includes priests who consider themselves no different in any respect from those of the Roman Catholic Church, some parishes and dioceses in "Low Church" or Evangelical circles prefer to use the title presbyter or "minister" in order to distance themselves from the more sacrificial theological implications which they associate with the word "priest". While priest is the official term for a member of the presbyterate in every Anglican province worldwide, the ordination rite of certain provinces (including the Church of England) recognizes the breadth of opinion by adopting the title The Ordination of Priests (also called Presbyters).[15]
Roman Catholic[edit]
In the Roman Catholic Church the form of address depends on the office the person holds, and the country in which he is being addressed as they are usually identical to the titles used by their feudal or governmental equals. In most English-speaking countries the forms of address are:
A priest is usually referred to as Father, and sometimes as Your Reverence or Reverend Father.
A monsignor is addressed as "Monsignor."
A bishop is addressed as Your Excellency or, less formally, Excellency. In Britain and some other countries they are formally addressed as My Lord or My Lord Bishop.
An archbishop is also addressed as Your Excellency or, less formally, Excellency. In Britain and some other countries they are formally addressed as Your Grace.
A cardinal is addressed as Your Eminence.
The Pope of the Roman Catholic Church is often addressed as Holy Father or Your Holiness.
In France, secular priests (diocesan priests) are addressed "Monsieur l'Abbé" or, if a parish priest, as "Monsieur le Curé". In Germany and Austria priests are addressed as "Hochwürden" (meaning "very worthy") or with their title of office (Herr Pfarrer, i.e. Mr. Parson). in Italy as "Don" followed by his name (e.g. "Don Luigi Perrone").
Religious priests (members of religious orders) are addressed "Father" in all countries (Père, Pater, Padre etc.).
Up until the 19th century secular clergy in English-speaking countries were usually addressed as "Mister" (which was, in those days, a title reserved for gentleman, those outside the gentry being called by name and surname only), and only priests in religious orders were formally called "Father". In the early 19th century it became customary to call all priests "Father".
In the Middle Ages, before the Reformation, secular priests were entitled as knights, with the prefix "Sir". See examples in Shakespeare's plays like Sir Christopher Urswick in Richard III. This is closer to the Italian and Spanish "Don" which derives from the Latin "Dominus" meaning "Lord;" in English, the prefix "Dom" is used for priests who are monks, a prefix which was spelled "Dan" in Middle English. The French "Monsieur" (like the German "Mein Herr", the Italian "Signor" and the Spanish "Señor") also signifies "My Lord", a title commonly used in times past for any person of rank, clerical or lay.
The term "minister" is used by the Catholic Church in some cases, such as the head of the Franciscans being the Minister General.[16]
In the Greek-Catholic Church, all clergy are called "Father", including deacons, who are titled "Father Deacon", "Deacon Father", or simply "Father". Depending on the institution, seminarians may be titled "Brother", "Brother Seminarian", "Father Seminarian" or simply "Father". Their wives are usually addressed as "presvytera", "matushka" or "khourriyye" as in the Orthodox world and also by their first names. Greek-Catholic Patriarchs are addressed as Your Beatitude. Eastern clergy are usually addressed by their Christian or ordination name, not their surname.
Orthodox[edit]
Greek and other Orthodox churches[edit]
The form of address for Orthodox clergy varies according to order, rank and level of education. The most common forms are the following:[17]
Addressee's Title
Form of Address
Salutation
The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople His All Holiness ... Archbishop of Constantinople and New Rome, Ecumenical Patriarch Your All Holiness
Other Patriarchs His Beatitude Patriarch ... of ... Your Beatitude
Archbishops of independent Churches, Greece, Cyprus, etc. His Beatitude Archbishop ... of ... Your Beatitude
Archbishops of Crete, America, Australia, England (under Ecumenical Patriarchate) His Eminence Archbishop ... of ... Your Eminence
Metropolitans His Eminence Metropolitan ... of ... Your Eminence
Titular Metropolitans His Excellency Metropolitan ... of ... Your Excellency
Bishop / Titular Bishop His Grace Bishop ... of ... Your Grace
Archimandrite The Very Reverend Father Dear Father
Priest (Married and Celibate) Reverend Father Dear Father
Deacon Reverend Deacon Dear Father
Abbot The Very Reverend Abbot Dear Father
Abbess The Reverend Mother Superior Reverend Mother
Monk Father Dear Father
Nun Sister Dear Sister
Armenian Apostolic[edit]
The form of address to the clergy of the Armenian Apostolic Church (belongs to the family of Oriental Orthodox Churches [18]) is almost the same.
Addressee's Title
Form of Address
Salutation
Catholicos of All Armenians[19] His Holiness, Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians [20] Your Holiness
Catholicos of Cilicia[21] His Holiness, Catholicos of Cilicia[22] Your Holiness
Patriarch[23] His Beatitude, the Armenian Patriarch of ... Your Beatitude
Archbishop His Eminence Your Eminence
Bishop His Grace Your Grace
Supreme Doctor Monk (Tsayraguyn Vardapet; Armenian: ծայրագույն վարդապետ) The Right Reverend Father Right Reverend Father
Doctor Monk (Vardapet; Armenian: վարդապետ) The Right Reverend Father Right Reverend Father
Celibate priest (Armenian: աբեղայ) The Very Reverend Father Very Reverend Father
Archpriest (Armenian: ավագ քահանայ) Archpriest Father Dear Father
Priest (Married; Armenian: քահանայ) Reverend Father Dear Father
Deacon Reverend Father Dear Father
Monk Brother Dear Brother
Nun Sister Dear Sister
See also[edit]
Christianity portal
Anglican ministry
Ecclesiastical titles and styles
Five-Fold Ministry
Ministers and elders in the Church of Scotland
Quaker Recorded Minister
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Etymologically, a minister is a person of 'lower' status, a 'servant'. The word goes back via Old French ministre to Latin minister 'servant, attendant', which was derived from 'minus', 'less'." http://www.word-origins.com/definition/minister.html[permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Common Worship Ordination Services Paperback. Church House Publishing. 2007. pp. 123–. ISBN 978-0-7151-2131-3.
Jump up ^ "Last Rites explanation". Beliefnet.com. 17 February 2011. Retrieved 3 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Dominie". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
Jump up ^ "Dom". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. September 2005. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
Jump up ^ "Applying the General Priesthood Principle", The Watchtower, February 1, 1964, page 86, "Among the witnesses of Jehovah any adult, dedicated and baptized male Christian who is qualified may serve in such ministerial capacities as giving public Bible discourses and funeral talks, performing marriages and presiding at the Lord's evening meal or supper. There is no clergy class."
Jump up ^ "Jehovah's Sheep Need Tender Care", The Watchtower, January 15, 1996, page 15, "Christian elders are appointed by the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, and care is exercised not to use such terms as "pastor," "elder," or "teacher" as titles."
Jump up ^ "Chapter 4: Why Respect Authority?", "Keep Yourselves in God's Love", ©2008 Watch Tower, page 43, "Elders are appointed by holy spirit. (Acts 20:28) How so? In that such men must first meet the qualifications recorded in God's spirit-inspired Word. (1 Timothy 3:1-7, 12; Titus 1:5-9) Further, the elders who evaluate a brother's qualifications pray earnestly for the guidance of Jehovah's holy spirit."
Jump up ^ See Acts 20:17; Titus 1:5; James 5:14; 1 Peter 5:1 for examples of a plurality of elders in a church
Jump up ^ See Acts 20:28; 1 Peter 5:2
Jump up ^ Though this is changing as many churches desire to become increasingly "influenced by a more biblically informed hermeneutic" http://www.xpastor.org/cases/2006_deacons_mark_%20hudgins.pdf, see pg. 6
Jump up ^ Biblical Eldership, A.Strauch, Littleton, CO: Lewis & Roth, 1995.
Jump up ^ See "How to address the Clergy" in Crockford Clerical Directory, including the online version.
Jump up ^ Forms of clerical address outlined at Debretts Archived 2012-07-23 at Archive.is etiquette guide.
Jump up ^ Anglican Church of Canada. "Minister or Priest?".
Jump up ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Minister". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Jump up ^ Greetings & Salutations to Orthodox Clergy
Jump up ^ See Orthodox Churches (Oriental) Archived 2008-07-24 at the Wayback Machine. and A List of Eastern and Oriental Orthodox WCC Member Churches.
Jump up ^ See Catholicos of All Armenians.
Jump up ^ For official documents such as Encyclicals, the lengthened title is as follows: ..., Servant of Jesus Christ, By the Mercy of God and the Will of the Nation, Chief Bishop and Catholicos of All Armenians, Supreme Patriarch of the Pan-National Pre-Eminent Araratian See, the Apostolic Mother Church of Universal Holy Etchmiadzin. See Catholicos of All Armenians Archived 2011-07-05 at Archive.is
Jump up ^ See Catholicos of Cilicia.
Jump up ^ See Biographical sketch of H. H. Aram I Keshishian, Catholicos of Cilicia Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine..
Jump up ^ There are two patriarchal sees in the [Armenian Apostolic Church] - the Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem and the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople.
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