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Dolores O'Riordan
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Dolores O'Riordan
O'Riordan performing at Montreal in May 2012
Born
Dolores Mary Eileen O'Riordan[1]
(1971-09-06)6 September 1971
Ballybricken, County Limerick, Ireland
Died
15 January 2018(2018-01-15) (aged 46)
Mayfair, London, England
Resting place
Caherelly Cemetery
Herbertstown[2]
Occupation
Musician
singer
songwriter
Spouse(s)
Don Burton
(m. 1994; div. 2014)
Partner(s)
Olé Koretsky (2015–2018)
Children
3
Musical career
Genres
Alternative rock
post-grunge
celtic rock
Instruments
Vocals
guitar
keyboards
bass
Years active
1989–2018
Labels
Sanctuary
Cooking Vinyl
Associated acts
The Cranberries
D.A.R.K.
Signature
Dolores Mary Eileen O'Riordan (/oʊˈrɪərdən/; 6 September 1971 – 15 January 2018)[3] was an Irish musician, singer and songwriter. She led the rock band The Cranberries from 1990 until their break-up in 2003; they reunited in 2009.[4]
O'Riordan's first solo album, Are You Listening?, was released in May 2007 and was followed up by No Baggage in 2009. O'Riordan was known for her lilting mezzo-soprano voice,[5] her emphasised use of yodelling, and her strong Limerick accent.[6] She appeared as a judge on RTÉ's The Voice of Ireland during the 2013–14 season. In April 2014, O'Riordan joined and began recording new material with the trio D.A.R.K.
Contents
[hide]
1 Life and career
1.1 1971–1989: Childhood
1.2 1989–2003: The Cranberries and marriage
1.3 2003–2014: Solo career, other projects and divorce
1.4 2009–2018: The Cranberries reunion
1.5 2014–2018: D.A.R.K.
2 Personal life
3 Death
3.1 Tributes, reactions and legacy
4 Solo discography
4.1 Albums
4.2 Singles
4.3 Other appearances
4.4 Other contributions
5 References
6 External links
Life and career[edit]
1971–1989: Childhood[edit]
Dolores O'Riordan was born 6 September 1971 in Ballybricken, County Limerick, the youngest of nine children, two of whom died in infancy.[7] Her six siblings include Terence, Brendan, Donal, PJ, Joseph, and Angela.[8] Her father, Terence Patrick "Terry" O'Riordan (1937–2011),[8] was a farm labourer who was left unable to work due to brain damage caused by a motorbike accident in 1968.[9] Her mother, Eileen, was a school caterer. She attended Laurel Hill Coláiste FCJ school in Limerick. She later admitted in an interview in 1995 that she had neglected her lessons in favour of writing music and song, although at school she became head girl.[10] O'Riordan left school without any qualifications.[11][7][12]
In 2013, O'Riordan described how, from the age of eight, she was sexually abused for four years by someone she trusted.[13]
1989–2003: The Cranberries and marriage[edit]
Main article: The Cranberries
In 1989, brothers Mike (bass) and Noel (guitar) Hogan formed The Cranberry Saw Us with drummer Fergal Lawler and singer Niall Quinn, in Limerick, Ireland. Less than a year later, Quinn left the band.[14] The remaining band members then placed an advertisement for a female singer. O'Riordan responded to the advertisement and auditioned by writing lyrics and melodies to some existing demos.[15] When she returned with a rough version of "Linger", she was hired, and they recorded Nothing Left At All, a three-track EP released on tape by local record label Xeric Records, which sold 300 copies.[15] The group changed their name to "The Cranberries".[16] The owner of Xeric Studios, Pearse Gilmore, became their manager and provided the group with studio time to complete another demo tape, which he produced. It featured early versions of "Linger" and "Dreams", which were sent to record companies throughout the UK.[15]
This demo earned the attention of both the UK press and record industry and sparked a bidding war between major British record labels. Eventually, the group signed with Island Records.[15] As part of The Cranberries she released along with them five albums: Everybody Else Is Doing It, So Why Can't We? (1993), No Need to Argue (1994), To the Faithful Departed (1996), Bury the Hatchet (1999), and Wake Up and Smell the Coffee (2001), and a greatest-hits compilation, Stars: The Best of 1992–2002.[17]
The Cranberries performing on the Roxy Bar show at Bologna in 1995
O'Riordan has been recognised as a style icon, sporting a pixie cut or buzzed hair in the 1990s[18] and performing barefoot, saying "it just feels comfortable and honest to pull your toes along the ground."[19] On 18 July 1994, O'Riordan married Don Burton, the former tour manager of Duran Duran, at Holy Cross Abbey in Co. Tipperary. The couple had three children (Taylor (b. 1997), Molly (b. 2001), and Dakota (b. 2005).[20] In 1998, the couple bought a 61-hectare (150-acre) stud farm, called Riversfield Stud, located in Kilmallock, County Limerick, selling it in 2004. They then moved to Howth, County Dublin, and spent summers in a log cabin in Buckhorn, Ontario, Canada.[21][22]
In September 1995, she performed Ave Maria along with Luciano Pavarotti; Princess Diana, who attended the live performance, told O'Riordan that the song brought her to tears.[23]
In 2003, the band decided to take a temporary time-out to experiment on solo projects.[24]
2003–2014: Solo career, other projects and divorce[edit]
In 2004, she appeared with the Italian artist Zucchero on the album Zu & Co., with the song "Pure Love". The album also featured other artists such as Sting, Sheryl Crow, Luciano Pavarotti, Miles Davis, John Lee Hooker, Macy Gray, and Eric Clapton. The same year she worked with composer Angelo Badalamenti of Twin Peaks fame on the Evilenko soundtrack, providing vocals on several tracks, including "Angels Go to Heaven", the movie's theme song.[25][26]
In 2005, she appeared on the Jam & Spoon's album Tripomatic Fairytales 3003 as a guest vocalist on the track "Mirror Lover".[27] She made a cameo appearance in the Adam Sandler comedy Click, released on 23 June 2006, as a wedding singer performing an alternate version of The Cranberries' "Linger", set to strings. Her first single, "Ordinary Day", was produced by BRIT Awards winner, Youth, whose previous credits included The Verve, Embrace, Primal Scream, U2, and Paul McCartney.[28] O'Riordan made an appearance live on The Late Late Show on 20 April 2007.[29]
O'Riordan promoting her debut solo album Are You Listening? in 2007
Are You Listening? was released in Ireland in 4 May 2007, in Europe on 7 May, and in North America on 15 May. "Ordinary Day" was its first single, released in late April. The video for "Ordinary Day" was shot in Prague. In August "When We Were Young" was released as the second single from the album.[30][31]
In 2006, O'Riordan was listed among the 10 richest women in Ireland.[32]
On 19 November 2007, she cancelled the remainder of her European Tour (Lille, Paris, Luxembourg, Warsaw, and Prague) due to illness.[33] In December she performed in a few small American clubs, including Des Moines, Nashville, and a well-received free show in Charlottesville, Virginia.[34] Her second album, No Baggage, featuring 11 tracks, was released in August 2009.[35]
In 2008, O'Riordan won an EBBA Award. Every year the European Border Breakers Awards recognise the success of ten emerging artists or groups who reached audiences outside their own countries with their first internationally released album in the past year.[36]
In 2009, O'Riordan and her family moved full-time to Buckhorn.[37] In August 2013, she returned to live in Ireland. O'Riordan and her husband Burton ended their relationship in late 2014 after 20 years together.[38] They later divorced.[39]
She appeared as a judge on RTÉ's The Voice of Ireland during the 2013–14 season.[40]
2009–2018: The Cranberries reunion[edit]
O'Riordan performing with her signature guitar at Paris in May 2010
In January 2009, the University Philosophical Society (Trinity College, Dublin) invited The Cranberries to reunite for a concert celebrating O'Riordan's appointment as an honorary member of the Society, which led the band members to consider reuniting for a tour and a recording session.[41][42][43]
On 25 August 2009, while promoting her solo album No Baggage in New York City on 101.9 RXP radio, O'Riordan announced the reunion of the Cranberries for a world tour. The tour began in North America in mid-November, followed by South America in mid-January 2010 and Europe in March 2010.[44] Also touring with the original members of The Cranberries was Denny DeMarchi, who played the keyboard for O'Riordan's solo albums.[45] The band played songs from O'Riordan's solo albums, many of the Cranberries' classics, as well as new songs. On 9 June 2010 The Cranberries performed at the Special Olympics opening ceremony at Thomond Park in Limerick; it was the first time the band had performed in their native city in over 15 years.[46]
On 26 May 2016, the band announced that they planned to start a tour in Europe. The first show was held on 3 June.[47] In December 2017 one month before her death Eminem released his album Revival which included a large sample from the song "Zombie" as the hook for his rap song "In Your Head."[48] O'Riordan remained on the band until her unexpected death on 15 January 2018.[40]
2014–2018: D.A.R.K.[edit]
Main article: D.A.R.K.
O'Riordan began recording new material with Jetlag, a collaboration between Andy Rourke of The Smiths and Olé Koretsky, in April 2014. They then formed a trio under the name D.A.R.K. Their first album, Science Agrees, was released in September 2016.[49][50]
As well as with The Cranberries, O'Riordan remained on the band until her unexpected death in January 2018.[40]
Personal life[edit]
O'Riordan was raised as a Roman Catholic. Her mother is a devout Catholic who chose her daughter's name in reference to the Lady of the Seven Dolours.[51]
She admired Pope John Paul II,[52] whom she met twice, in 2001 and 2002.[53] She performed at the invitation of Pope Francis in 2013 at the Vatican's annual Christmas concert.[54]
In November 2014, O'Riordan was arrested and charged in connection with air rage on an Aer Lingus flight from New York to Shannon. During the flight she grew verbally and physically abusive with crew. When police were arresting her, she resisted, reminding them her taxes paid their wages and shouting "I'm the Queen of Limerick! I'm an icon!", headbutting one Garda officer and spitting at another.[55] Later she told the media that she had been stressed from living in New York hotels following the end of her 20-year marriage.[56] The judge hearing her case agreed to dismiss all charges if she apologised in writing to her victims and contributed €6,000 to the court poor box.[55]
In May 2017, she publicly discussed her bipolar disorder, which she said had been diagnosed two years earlier.[57] That same month, the Cranberries cited her back problems as the reason for cancelling the second part of the group's European tour. In late 2017, O'Riordan said she was recovering and performed at a private event.[58][59]
Death[edit]
Wikinews has related news: Irish rock band The Cranberries' lead singer Dolores O'Riordan dies at 46
On 15 January 2018, at the age of 46, while in London for a recording session, O'Riordan died suddenly at the London Hilton on Park Lane hotel in Mayfair.[40][60]
The cause of death was not immediately made public;[61] police said it was not being treated as suspicious.[62] The coroner's office said the results of its inquiry would not be released until 3 April at the earliest.[63] On 3 April the inquest was cancelled with no new date announced.[64]
Funeral plans included a service reserved for extended family and close friends.[65] A three-day memorial in her hometown, with O'Riordan lying in repose, lasted from 20–22 January at St Joseph's church. O'Riordan's songs were played, while photographs of the singer performing and one of her with the Pope were placed along the walls.[66][67][68]
On 23 January, she was buried after a service at Saint Ailbe's Roman Catholic Church, Ballybricken, County Limerick; it began with the studio recording of "Ave Maria" as sung by O'Riordan and Luciano Pavarotti. At the end of the service the Cranberries' song "When You're Gone" was played. Among the attendees at her funeral were her mother, Eileen; her three children, Taylor, Molly, and Dakota and their father, O'Riordan's former husband, Don Burton; her sister, Angela, and brothers Terence, Brendan, Donal, Joseph, and PJ; Cranberries members Noel Hogan, Mike Hogan, and Fergal Lawler; former rugby union player Ronan O'Gara,[69] and her boyfriend Olé Koretsky.[70] O'Riordan was buried alongside her father.[71]
Tributes, reactions and legacy[edit]
The President of Ireland, Michael D. Higgins, was one of the first to pay tribute.[72] Other early tributes came in from across the music world, including Dave Davies (of the Kinks), Hozier, and Kodaline.[73] The Taoiseach of Ireland, Leo Varadkar, also paid tribute to O'Riordan.[74] Polish President Andrzej Duda paid tribute as well.[75] Also, as a tribute, the Avett Brothers covered The Cranberries song "Linger".[76] On 18 January, the heavy metal band Bad Wolves released a cover of "Zombie" (originally by The Cranberries), which charted on multiple Billboard charts[77][78] O'Riordan was supposed to have performed the song with the band, but died before recording it.[77] On 28 January, a children's choir from New York City sang The Cranberries song "Dreams" in O'Riordan's memory.[79]
Solo discography[edit]
This section contains O'Riordan's solo discography. For releases with The Cranberries, see The Cranberries discography.
Albums[edit]
Title
Album details
Peak chart positions
Sales
IRE
[80]
BEL
[81]
FRA
[81]
GER
[81]
ITA
[82]
SWI
[81]
UK
[83]
US
[84]
Are You Listening?
Released: 4 May 2007
Label: Sanctuary
Formats: CD, digital download
15 38 11 39 2 10 28 77
No Baggage
Released: 21 August 2009
Label: Cooking Vinyl, Rounder
Formats: CD, digital download
80 75 30 77 6 25 — —
Europe: 30,000[85]
"—" denotes items that did not chart or were not released in that territory.
Singles[edit]
Year
Title
Peak chart positions
Album
IRE
[80]
ITA
[82]
2004 "Pure Love" (with Zucchero) — — Zu & Co.
2007 "Ordinary Day" 50 2 Are You Listening?
"When We Were Young" — —
2009 "The Journey" — — No Baggage
"Switch Off the Moment" — —
"—" denotes items that did not chart or were not released in that territory.
Other appearances[edit]
Title
Year
Other artist(s)
Comment
"Soon Is Never Enough"
1992 Moose Backing vocals[86]
"Carousel"
1993 Touch of Oliver Backing vocals[87]
"The Sun Does Rise"
1994 Jah Wobble Duet[88]
"Pure Love"
2004 Zucchero Duet[89]
"Mirror Lover"
2005 Jam & Spoon Vocals[27]
"The Butterfly"
2006 Angelo Badalementi Vocals
"Senza Fiato"
2007 Giuliano Sangiorgi Duet[90]
Other contributions[edit]
Title
Year
Album
Comment
"God Be with You"
1997 The Devil's Own [91]
"It's Only Rock 'n' Roll"
1999 Single With supergroup Artists for Children's Promise
"Ave Maria"
2004 The Passion of the Christ: Songs Inspired By Solo track[92]
"Angels Go to Heaven"
Evilenko Vocals; film soundtrack[25][26]
"The Woodstrip/There's No Way Out"
"Linger"
2006 Click Film soundtrack[93]
"Centipede Sisters"
2008 Roll Play 2 Television soundtrack[94]
"Cryopian D"
2015 Like a Puppet Show Vocals and mixed; vinyl-only release[95]
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Moose – Soon Is Never Soon Enough. 18 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Touch of Oliver featuring Dolores O'Riordan – Carousel. 25 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "Биография солистки The Cranberries Долорес О'Риордан". РИА Новости (in Russian). 15 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Zucchero & Dolores O'riordan- Pure Love. 12 December 2007.
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External links[edit]
Find more aboutDolores O'Riordanat Wikipedia's sister projects
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Silver fox (animal)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A silver fox
The silver fox is a melanistic form of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Silver foxes display a great deal of pelt variation: some are completely black except for a white coloration on the tip of the tail, some are bluish-grey, and some may have a cinereous color on the sides. Historically, silver foxes were among the most valued furbearers, and their skins were frequently worn by nobles in Russia, Western Europe, and China.[1] Wild silver foxes do not naturally reproduce exclusively with members of the same coat morph and can be littermates with the common red variety,[2] though captive populations bred for their fur and as pets are almost exclusively mated with members of the same color.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Range
3 History of fur use
3.1 Pelt standards
3.2 In North America
3.3 In Eurasia
4 Behavior
4.1 Mating behavior
4.1.1 Competition capacity
4.2 Feeding
5 Domestication
5.1 Initial experimentation
5.2 Current project status
6 In culture
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Description[edit]
An adult silver fox
The silver fox's long outer hair can extend as much as two inches (5 cm) beyond the shorter underfur on different parts of the fox's body, particularly under the throat, behind the shoulders, on the sides and the tail. The hair of the underfur is brown at the base, and silver grey tipped with black further along the follicle. The hair is soft, glossy and was once reputed to be finer than that of the pine marten. The uniformly blackish brown or chocolate colored underfur, which is unusually long and dense, measures in some places two inches and is exceedingly fine. It surrounds the whole body even to the tail, where it is a little coarser and woollier. The fur is shortest on the forehead and limbs, and is finer on the fox's underbelly. When viewed individually, the hairs composing the belly fur exhibit a wavy appearance. There are scarcely any long hairs on the ears, which are thickly clothed with fur. The soles of the feet are so thickly covered with woolly hair that no callous spots are visible.[4] Silver foxes tend to be more cautious than red foxes.[5]
When bred with another member of the same color morph, silver foxes will produce silver coated offspring, with little variation in this trend after the third generation. When mated to pure red foxes, the resulting cubs will be fiery red in overall coat color, and will have blacker markings on the belly, neck and points than average red foxes. When one such fiery red fox is mated with a silver one, the litter is almost always 50% silver and 50% red. Fiery red parents may occasionally produce a silver cub, the usual proportion being one in four. Occasionally, the colors of mixed foxes blend rather than segregate. The blended offspring of a silver and red fox is known as a cross fox.[3]
Range[edit]
Red foxes, including the silver form, are one of the most widely distributed carnivorous species in the world, ranging over much of the northern hemisphere and Australia. Their abundance in a wide variety of habitats can be attributed to introduction by humans into new habitats for fox-hunting.
In North America, silver foxes occur mostly in the northwestern part of the continent. In the 19th century, silver foxes were sometimes collected from Labrador, the Magdalen Islands, and they were rarely taken from the mountainous regions of Pennsylvania and the wilder portions of New York. They were occasionally found in Nova Scotia. According to Sir John Richardson, it was uncommon for trappers to collect more than 4–5 silver foxes in any one season, in areas where silver foxes were present, despite the trappers’ tendency to prioritize them above all other fur-bearers once they were discovered.[1] Silver foxes comprise up to 8% of Canada's red fox population.[6]
In the former Soviet Union, silver foxes occur mostly in forest zones and forest–tundra belts, particularly in middle and eastern Siberia and the Caucasus mountains. They are very rare in steppes and deserts.[5]
History of fur use[edit]
In the richness and beauty of its splendid fur the Silver-gray Fox surpasses the beaver or sea otter, and the skins are indeed so highly esteemed that the finest command extraordinary prices, and are always in demand.
—  John James Audubon, quoted from The Imperial Collection of Audubon Animals, 1967
Pelt standards[edit]
Silver fox fur
Captive silver foxes being fed
In order for the pelt to be considered of suitable quality, certain criteria must be met. First, there must be a section of glossy black fur on the neck with a bluish cast. The silver hairs must contain pure bands that are neither white nor prominent. The most valued furs had an even distribution of silver hair, as patches of silver hair gave the coat a flaky appearance, which was considered undesirable. Second, the fur must have "silkiness", which refers to the softness of the fur, and was judged by a client running his hand over the pelt. Third, the coat must have a sheen, which reflects the health of the coat and the animal from which it came, as well as the finesse of the hairs. Finally, the fur must weigh at least one pound, with value increasing along with size. Heavy fur is considered to be more durable and handsome.[7]
In North America[edit]
The fur of a silver fox was once considered by the natives of New England to be worth more than 40 American beaver skins. A chieftain accepting a gift of silver fox fur was seen as an act of reconciliation.[8] The records of the Hudson's Bay Company indicate that 19–25% of fox skins traded in British Columbia in the years 1825–1850 were silver, as were 16% of those traded in Labrador.[2] The fur was almost always sold to Russian and Chinese traders.[9] Before the practice of fur farming was eventually refined on Prince Edward Island, it was standard practice to release free ranging silver foxes into small islands, where they quickly starved to death. Fur farmers on Prince Edward Island gained success by breeding and caring for their foxes in captivity. The farmers recognized the foxes' monogamous habits and permitted their studs to mate for life with a single female, contributing to their success. The fur of captive bred foxes was of a better quality than that of free ranging ones (worth $500–1,000 rather than $20–30) because of improved care and diet. These silver foxes were bred strictly with members of their own color morph, and by the third generation, all residual traces of red or cross ancestry disappeared. The fur trade was picked up by the Fromm brothers in the 1930s. They funded the development of the distemper vaccine and vitamin D tablets to prevent the foxes from getting rickets. They also allowed the foxes to roam relatively free as they would otherwise damage their pelts and they were fed daily. The largest silver fox the Fromms' had was over 20 lbs.[3]
In Eurasia[edit]
Silver foxes in Russian fur farms are of North American stock, and are selectively bred in order to remove as much brown from the fur as possible, as the presence of brown fur lowers the pelt's value.[5] Estonia began farming silver foxes in 1924, after receiving 2,500 foundation specimens from Norway to Mustajõe farm. The numbers of Estonian silver fox farms steadily increased in the following decades. During the Soviet period, the silver fox industry boomed due to government subsidies and a focus on selectively breeding foxes for greater fertility than fur quality.[10]
Behavior[edit]
See also: Red fox § Behaviour
The silver fox morph is very behaviorally similar to the red morph. One common behavior is scent marking. This behavior is used as a display of dominance, but may also be used to communicate the absence of food from foraging areas as well as social records.[11]
Mating behavior[edit]
See also: Red fox § Reproduction and development, and Fox § Sexual characteristics
Silver foxes exist in seasonally monogamous pairs for the breeding months of December to April, and most matings occur in January and February. Female silver foxes are monestrous (having 1 estrus cycle per year) with estrus lasting 1–6 days and parturition occurring after about 52 days of gestation.[11] During or approaching estrus, the vulva of silver foxes increases in size and tumescence, indicating the sexual readiness or condition of the fox.[12]
Female silver foxes generally breed during their first autumn, but a number of factors that contribute to their breeding success. Age, food, population density, and mating system (polygyny or monogamy) all affect impregnation success rates and litter size. Higher population density leads to a higher incidence of failure in producing pups. Silver foxes have litters that typically range from 1 to 14 pups, with the average being 3 to 6 pups. Litter size generally increases with age and abundance of food.[11] Scientists have observed an increase in reproductive success with age in silver fox morphs, which may be attributable to yearlings breeding an average of nine days after adults.[12] Success in larger litters depends highly on the availability of extra-parental care via the assistance of unmated females. This is particularly notable in higher density populations, where some females fail to produce pups.[11]
Silver foxes engage in a system of biparental care, which is associated with their seasonal monogamous mating scheme. For a given litter, males contribute a large investment in the offspring by both feeding and protecting the den. While the pups are early in development, the male secures food for the nursing vixen. Whereas males are more vigilant in defending the den, females also defend their offspring aggressively.[12]
Competition capacity[edit]
In captivity, differential reproductive success can be attributed to variation in the competition capacity among individual females. Competition capacity is defined as the ability of individuals to dominate resources such as food or nesting sites. The competition capacity of the mother directly influences the fitness of her offspring. In one experiment where vixens, whose competition capacities were categorized as high, medium, or low, were bred under standard farming conditions, competition capacity was positively associated with the number of healthy offspring raised to weaning. This study has led to the use of competition capacity as a more encompassing measure of reproductive fitness for the silver fox. Some vixens have also been noted to engage in infanticide. These vixens generated more weaned cubs during their next reproductive cycle than those who did not engage in infanticide. This may suggest the conservation of efforts or investment to increase future reproductive success. Infanticidal vixens infrequently adopt and help to raise the young of neighboring vixens after eating their own.[13]
Feeding[edit]
While silver foxes are opportunistic feeders and will consume any food presented to them, they prefer a more carnivorous diet when meat is available. When meat is scarce, they rely more heavily on plant material.[14] Like the red morph, the silver fox adapts different strategies when hunting different prey. When hunting smaller mammals, the foxes adapt a "mousing position" from which they can locate prey based on sound. Subsequently, the foxes launch themselves, pin prey to the ground using their forepaws, and kill it by biting. Quicker terrestrial prey requires more practiced behavior, often involving stalking and rapid pursuit. When prey escapes to hidden caches or burrows, foxes are known to occasionally nap beside the entrances and lie in wait for prey to reemerge.[11]
Domestication[edit]
Main article: Domesticated silver fox
The domestication of the red fox has produced the silver fox, oftentimes referred to as the Siberian fox. This domestication is due to selective breeding, resulting in tamer and more dog-like foxes.
The domestication began in the Soviet Union and Russia in 1959, and has occurred over 50 years of experimentation. The lead scientist involved with this project was Dmitry Belyayev, and remains today a project under Lyudmila Trut with The Institute of Cytology and Genetics in Novosibirsk. The original domestication was intended to show how selection can work with aggression and behavioral traits,[15] and be further extrapolated to demonstrate that the dog could be domesticated from wolves.[15] Some observed behavioral traits include: tail-wagging when happy, barking and vocalization, and ear floppiness (typically a character observed in domesticated dogs).
Initial experimentation[edit]
Research regarding Mendelian genetics was prohibited by Joseph Stalin under the Soviet regime. This prohibition and resulting Lysenkoism, along with his 1948 loss of job as the head of the Department of Fur Animal Breeding at Moscow's Central Research Laboratory of Fur Breeding,[16] led Belyayev to conceal his work on domestication under the veil of animal physiology research. Belyayev was interested in dog diversity, and wanted to know more about how genes change throughout time. He believed that behavior has strong biological and physiological roots, with strong relations to hormones and neurochemicals. Thus, he decided to study the silver fox and to observe how the fox responds to selective pressures for tame behavior.[15]
Belyayev started the Institute of Cytology and Genetics, still under the guise of research regarding animal physiology. Lyudmila Trut, a graduate student working under Belyayev, collected the calmest foxes available on fur farms. Throughout many generations of selectively mating the tamest foxes, Belyayev and Trut began to notice promising signs of tamer behavior, such as when the dogs would lick the researchers' faces or less-aggressive floppy ears. She came up with a categorization system for these generations: Class III were animals that fled from experimenters, or were aggressive towards humans; Class II foxes were those that allowed themselves be handled, but developed no emotional response to the experimenters. Class I foxes were those that were friendly, acting almost dog-like with their whining and tail-wagging. There was also a Class IE for sixth generation foxes, called the "domesticated elite", which displayed the behaviors such as whimpering for attention, sniffing and licking the experimenters, and eagerness for human contact.[15] By the tenth generation, almost one out of five foxes fell into the Class IE category. With more generations they discovered a higher proportion of domesticated foxes. These results led the scientists at the Institute to research domestication of other animals, such as rats in 1972, mink, and river otters.[16]
The collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in declining funds towards scientific research, complicating Belyayev's and Trut's research continuation. They had difficulties even keeping the foxes alive. Belyayev died in 1985 before he could salvage the Institute, so Trut fought to maintain the fox research. Throughout this struggle, Anna Kukekova, a postdoc at Cornell for molecular genetics, became interested in the topic of fox-farm research. She, along with Trut, worked to complete Belyayev's fox domestication research after she received a grant from the National Institutes of Health (NIH).[16]
Belyayev's and Trut's original interest in fox domestication was based in the belief that selection for behavior, such as tameness, mimicked past natural selection with ancestral dogs. This quality was thought to be the most significant indicator of how well adaptation would occur amongst dogs and humans.
The project has caused changes in the domesticated foxes in comparison to the wild silver foxes in regards to morphology and temperament. For example, the domesticated silver foxes have been seen to have molted or spotted colored fur and they have become tamer. The changes in temperament are believed to be a result of a lower production of adrenaline, and the selection for tameness has cause the expression of dog-like behaviors, such as raised tail and coming into heat every six months rather than annually.[15]
Current project status[edit]
Since the initiation of fox domestication, more research and experimentation has been performed. DNA microarrays were utilized to find the differences in genetic expression between domesticated, non-domesticated (farm-raised), and wild foxes. It was found that there was a difference of forty gene expressions between the domesticated and non-domesticated foxes. Although there was a difference in the genes of the three groups, the experimenters did not look into the behavioral and functional consequences of these differences.[17] However, in 2007, a study was performed that explored the genetic basis of tame and aggressive behavior in the foxes using QTL mapping.[18]
In culture[edit]
Main article: Foxes in culture
The silver fox appears in the stories of many cultures. The Achomawi people of Northern California tell a myth about two creators: the wise silver fox stemming from fog and the amoral trickster coyote from the clouds. The myth reveals that while the coyote slept, the silver fox used its hair combings to create landmasses. It then thought of trees, rocks, fruits, and other resources, and created those too. However, the coyote could not employ self-control and ate everything up at will after it awoke. The story tells a moral lesson, portraying the silver fox as a wise being and creator of sorts while suggesting the coyote as a lazy and impulsive animal. Similarly the silver fox has often been represented on totem poles.[19]
The silver fox also appears as a symbol on the Prince Edward Island coat of arms. In the late 1800s, the rare silver fox was native to the region, and its pelt was highly valued around the world. It was on the island that the art and science of breeding furbearing animals was developed and refined. Consequently, fur farming became an important part of the 20th century economy of the province and Wisconsin. The Fromm brothers started their fur trading company in Central Wisconsin in the 1930s which led to the development of the distemper vaccine. The silver fox has come to symbolize the wit and wisdom of the islanders. In regards to its fur breeding history, it has come to symbolize the ingenuity and perseverance involved in industry.[20]
In addition, the silver fox has been represented in different forms of media. On television, in films, and in comic books, Silver Fox is a character in the Wolverine superhero series.[21] In literature, the characters Scarface and Lady Blue from The Animals of Farthing Wood are silver foxes.[22] Recently, it has evolved another meaning in our everyday speech.
See also[edit]
Cross fox (animal)
Domesticated silver fox
List of domesticated animals
Experimental evolution
Genomics of domestication
Neoteny
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Audubon, John James (1967). The Imperial Collection of Audubon Animals. p. 307. ASIN B000M2FOFM.
^ Jump up to: a b Macdonald, David (1987). Running with the Fox. Unwin Hyman. p. 224. ISBN 0-04-440199-X.
^ Jump up to: a b c Laut, Agnes C. The Fur Trade of America, Kessinger Publishing, 2004. ISBN 0-7661-9616-X
Jump up ^ The quadrupeds of North America, Volume 3 by John James Audubon and John Bachman, by illustrated by John Woodhouse Audubon, published by V.G. Audubon, 1854
^ Jump up to: a b c Mammals of the Soviet Union Vol.II Part 1a, Sirenia and Carnivora (Sea cows; Wolves and Bears), V.G Heptner and N.P Naumov editors, Science Publishers, Inc. USA. 1998. ISBN 1-886106-81-9
Jump up ^ Red Fox, New York's Wildlife Resources, Number 11, 1982
Jump up ^ Laut, Agnes (1921). The fur trade of America. New York: Macmillan.
Jump up ^ Morton, Thomas (1972). New English Canaan: Or, New Canaan (Research Library of Colonial Americana). New York: Arno Press. p. 188. ISBN 0-405-03309-5.
Jump up ^ Robinson, H. M. The Great Fur Land; Or, Sketches of Life in the Hudson's Bay Territory, BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2009. ISBN 1-115-73924-7
Jump up ^ Saveli, Olev. "Fur Farming in Estonia" (PDF). Estonian University of Life Sciences. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 March 2012. Retrieved 5 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Larivière, Serge; Maria Pasitschniak-Arts (27 December 1996). "Vulpes vulpes". Mammalian Species. 537: 1–11. doi:10.2307/3504236.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sheldon, William G. (August 1949). "Reproductive Behavior of Foxes in New York State". Journal of Mammalogy. 30 (3): 236–246. doi:10.2307/1375313.
Jump up ^ Jour, Bakken M. (1993). "Reproduction in farmed Silver fox vixens, Vulpes vulpes, in relation to own competition capacity and that of neighbouring vixens". Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics. 110 (1-6). doi:10.1111/j.1439-0388.1993.tb00742.x.
Jump up ^ Hockman, Gregory J.; Joseph A. Chapman (October 1983). "Comparative Feeding Habits of Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and Gray Foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) in Maryland". American Midland Naturalist. 110 (2): 276–285. doi:10.2307/2425269.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Trut, Lyudmila N. (March–April 1999). "Early Canid Domestication: The Farm-Fox Experiment" American Scientist 87 (2) 160–169.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ratliff, Evan. "Animal Domestication: Taming the Wild", "National Geographic", March 2011.
Jump up ^ Lindberg, Julia; Björnerfeldt, Susanne; Saetre, Peter; Svartberg, Kenth; Seehuus, Birgitte; Bakken, Morten; Vilà, Carles; Jazin, Elena (2005). "Selection for tameness has changed brain gene expression in silver foxes" Current Biology 15 (22) R915–6. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.11.009. PMID 16303546.
Jump up ^ Kukekova, Anna V.; Trut, L. N.; Chase, K.; Shepeleva, D. V.; Vladimirova, A. V.; Kharlamova, A. V.; Oskina, I. N.; Stepika, A. et al. (2007). "Measurement of Segregating Behaviors in Experimental Silver Fox Pedigrees". Behavior Genetics 38 (2) 185–94. doi:10.1007/s10519-007-9180-1. PMC 2374754. PMID 18030612.
Jump up ^ Adams Leeming, David. Creation Myths of the World: An Encyclopedia, Volume 1. pp. 31–32.
Jump up ^ "Island Information: Armorial Bearings".
Jump up ^ "Silver Fox".
Jump up ^ Dann, Colin. The Animals of Farthing Wood. Mammoth.
External links[edit]
The Domestic fox
Fox Domestication: website from Cornell University with detailed information (videos and articles)
Article in The New York Times
Nice Rats, Nasty Rats: Maybe It's All in the Genes, New York Times
CBBC News Article
My Little Zebra - New Scientist article
The Fox Farm Experiment, American Scientist
"New Nice" WNYC RadioLab Story; contains audio, video, interviews, and other links. (Public Radio)
Soviet Scientist Turns Foxes Into Puppies
Horizon S48E08 (2010): The Secret Life of the Dog - BBC
Explorer: How Man Tamed the Wild - National Geographic
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silver_fox_(animal)&oldid=836981582"
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