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New Kids on the Block
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This article is about the band. For other uses, see New Kids on the Block (disambiguation).
New Kids on the Block
New Kids on the Block in concert, November 2008
Background information
Also known as
NKOTB
Origin
Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.
Genres
Pop, R&B, hip hop, blue-eyed soul
Years active
1984–1994, 2007–present
Labels
Columbia/CBS, Interscope, NKOTB Music
Associated acts
Backstreet Boys, NKOTBSB, Lady Gaga, Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch, Akon, Nicole Scherzinger, New Edition, Natasha Bedingfield, Ne-Yo, Boyz II Men, 98 Degrees, Nelly, TLC, Nick & Knight, Paula Abdul, Tommy Page
Website
nkotb.com
Members
Jonathan Knight
Jordan Knight
Joey McIntyre
Donnie Wahlberg
Danny Wood
Past members
Mark Wahlberg
Jamie Kelly
New Kids on the Block (also initialized as NKOTB) is an American boy band from Boston, Massachusetts. The band currently consists of brothers Jordan and Jonathan Knight, Joey McIntyre, Donnie Wahlberg, and Danny Wood. New Kids on the Block enjoyed success in the late 1980s and early 1990s and have sold more than 80 million records worldwide.[1][2] They won two American Music Awards in 1990 for Favorite Pop/Rock Band, Duo, or Group and Favorite Pop/Rock Album.[3] The group disbanded in 1994, reuniting in 2007.
After secretly reuniting in 2007 and recording a new record, the group released that new album and embarked on a concert tour in 2008. The album, entitled The Block, was released on September 2, 2008. New Kids on the Block was listed as number 16 on Rolling Stone's Top 25 Teen Idol Breakout Moments.[4] The group was on tour with the Backstreet Boys in 2011–12 as NKOTBSB. This collaboration first performed live together on November 21, 2010 at the American Music Awards on ABC[5] and again on 2011 New Year's on ABC's Dick Clark/Ryan Seacrest show.[6][7] The group received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on October 9, 2014. They are still touring as of 2017 with their Total Package Tour.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 1984–1985: Early career
1.2 1986: New Kids on the Block (debut album)
1.3 1988–1989: Hangin' Tough
1.4 1990: Step by Step
1.5 1992: Lip syncing allegations and popularity decline
1.6 1993–1994: Face the Music
1.7 1995–2007: Break-up
1.8 2008–2012: Reunion, The Block, & NKOTBSB
1.9 2013–present: 10, Touring and Thankful
2 Members
2.1 Current
2.2 Former
2.3 Touring musicians
3 Discography
3.1 Studio albums
3.2 With Backstreet Boys
3.3 Extended plays
4 Awards and nominations
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
1984–1985: Early career[edit]
In the early 1980s, Maurice Starr discovered R&B/pop quintet New Edition, and guided their early success. After breaking ties with them, Starr and his business partner, Mary Alford, sought to create a white counterpart act.[8] Fifteen-year-old Donnie Wahlberg immediately impressed Starr and Alford with his rapping skills, dancing ability and showmanship, becoming the group's first member. Wahlberg assisted in helping to recruit other members. Among them were his younger brother Mark including his best friends Danny Wood and Jamie Kelly. He also coaxed one-time schoolmate Jordan Knight - who sang an exceptional falsetto - into auditioning for Starr as well. Upon Knight's passing the audition, his older brother Jonathan was accepted into the group as well.[9]
As the group began to take shape, Mark Wahlberg left and was briefly replaced by Jamie Kelly. When a search was made to find a Michael Jackson-esque singer to fill the role, Starr replaced Mark with 12-year-old Joey McIntyre, whom the other members initially resented for being the one to replace their friend. With the final line-up in place, Starr rehearsed the boys diligently, after school and on weekends, and eventually secured the group [Nynuk][10] a recording contract at Columbia Records. However, the label demanded Starr change the name of the group. Subsequently, they settled on New Kids on the Block, after a rap song that Donnie Wahlberg had written and arranged for their first album.[9]
1986: New Kids on the Block (debut album)[edit]
Main article: New Kids on the Block (album)
In April 1986, Columbia Records released the group's self-titled debut album. The album, almost exclusively written and produced by Maurice Starr, featured mid 80s bubblegum pop material. The first single, "Be My Girl", received minor airplay around the group's native Boston, but failed to capture nationwide attention. The album's second single, "Stop It Girl", fared even worse. The New Kids went on tour around the New England states, singing wherever Starr could book them: in bars, school dances, and clubs. Nevertheless, Starr remained diligent and persuaded the label to allow the group to record a second album.
1988–1989: Hangin' Tough[edit]
Main article: Hangin' Tough
After the failure of the first album, Starr had the group back in the studio for most of 1987 and 1988 recording their second album. Dissatisfied with the excessively bubblegum sound of their first album, the group wanted to have more input on their look, direction and song material. As a result, Wahlberg, Wood and Jordan Knight received associate producer credit on the final product. The album's first single was "Please Don't Go Girl", a ballad released in the spring of 1988. Failure seemed destined a second time when the song became another that went unnoticed by the listening public, and Columbia Records made plans to drop the New Kids from the label. At the eleventh hour, however, a radio station in Florida began playing the song. Scoring listener approval, it soon became the most requested song on their play list. When Columbia caught wind of the positive response, they decided to keep the group on its roster and put more effort into promoting the single. Columbia decided to re-shoot a music video for "Please Don't Go Girl", hiring director Doug Nichol, and sent the video to thousands of radio stations across the country to show the group's visual appeal. National attention soon followed and "Please Don't Go Girl" eventually climbed to No. 10 on Billboard's Hot 100 Singles Chart—becoming the group's first hit.[11]
New Kids on the Block's second album, Hangin' Tough, was released to modest fanfare in September. In the meantime, the group began making national televised appearances on such music programs as Showtime at the Apollo, and Soul Train. Producer Maurice Starr then held auditions to secure a band of musicians suitable for touring with the New Kids approving musical director and Keyboardist Greg McPherson, bassist David Dyson, keyboardist Yasko Kubota, guitarist Nerida Rojas, and drummer Derrick Antunes. The New Kids later landed a spot as an opening act for fellow teen-pop act Tiffany on the U.S. leg of her concert tour. Sales of Hangin' Tough steadily increased as the group's national attention slowly rose. At year's end, the album's second single "You Got It (The Right Stuff)" was released. The song was given a huge boost when MTV took notice of the group and began playing the video in regular rotation, including an appearance on Club MTV. By early 1989, it cracked the top five.[11] The New Kids hit pay dirt with their next single, "I'll Be Loving You (Forever)", which reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 Singles chart in June.[11] The group had been scheduled to open for Tiffany once again on a second tour, but their sudden popularity caused a reversal, and she wound up opening for them (although the two acts were technically billed as "co-headliners").
More top five singles from Hangin' Tough followed into the summer and fall, including the title track and "Cover Girl". Columbia Records also released the single "Didn't I (Blow Your Mind This Time)" (a cover of The Delfonics' classic hit), from the group's previously overlooked debut album. The song went No. 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 Singles[11] on the strength of the group's popularity and effectively jump-started the sales of that album as well. By the end of 1989, Hangin' Tough had climbed to number one on the Billboard 200 Albums Chart and had gone eight-times platinum. They, subsequently, became the first 'teen' act to garner five top ten hits from a single album.
Meanwhile, a top ten charting holiday album, Merry, Merry Christmas, was released in the fall—spawning another top 10 hit, "This One's for the Children" and going double platinum in the U.S. The proceeds were donated to United Cerebral Palsy, the New Kids' favorite charitable cause. Hangin' Tough would go on to spend 132 weeks on the chart, and in January 1990, the album won two American Music Awards for "Best Pop/Rock Album", and "Best Pop/Rock Group". With the success of "Didn't I (Blow Your Mind)", "Cover Girl", and "This One's For the Children", the group pulled off a rare feat of having three singles on the Billboard Hot 100 at the same time, but each from a different album.
Columbia Music Video also released a home video "Hangin' Tough", a documentary on the band directed by Doug Nichol and produced by Bryan Johnson, that included their four hit music videos and a live concert recorded during their 1989 tour. It achieved massive sales, earning a Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video nomination,[12] and was one of the biggest selling music videos of all time.[13]
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts declared April 24, 1989, "New Kids on the Block Day".
1990: Step by Step[edit]
Main article: Step by Step (New Kids on the Block album)
By early 1990, New Kids on the Block had become one of the most popular acts in the United States. The following May, they followed up Hangin' Tough with Step by Step, which featured slightly more than half of the songs co-written and produced by the members themselves. The first single, the title track, raced to number one on the Hot 100 Singles Chart[11] and became their biggest selling single. It was followed up with the top ten "Tonight", which extended the consecutive top ten singles chart run to nine records. "Let's Try It Again" hit No. 8 on the UK Singles Chart, whilst "Baby I Believe In You" went No. 1 on the Japanese Chart, further signifying the international appeal of the group. The album was eventually certified triple platinum, selling close to 20 million copies worldwide.[14]
The group performed an estimated two hundred concerts a year, with an extravagant worldwide concert tour that summer, called The Magic Summer Tour, sponsored by Coke. The tour ultimately grossed $74 million ($133 million, adjusted for inflation), making the group the top-grossing touring act in the country at the time and one of highest grossing concert tours of the decade. The tour had an overall attendance of 3.2 million people. Their 1990 pay-per-view special broke cable-TV history at the time. During this time, the group became heavily merchandised. NKOTB-licensed merchandise included lunch boxes, buttons, T-shirts, comic books, dolls, trading cards and even a Saturday morning cartoon in their likeness, which was developed by the writing and development team from Pangea Corporation and animated by DIC Entertainment. In 1991, sales for the group's merchandise were estimated at US$400 million.[15]
New Kids on the Block's official fan club had a membership of over 200,000 members and was one of the largest fan clubs in the United States.[16] Approximately 100,000 calls per week were dialed to 1-900-909-5KIDs, the Official NKOTB Hotline, as well. In 1991, the group topped Forbes list of highest paid entertainers, beating out the likes of Michael Jackson, Madonna, Prince and Bill Cosby.[17] Further capitalizing on the fame, at year's end, Columbia Records released No More Games/The Remix Album—a compilation of the group's biggest hits remixed, the album also brought along two more released songs in "Call It What You Want" (UK #12) and "Games" (UK #14) in which videos were also released.
The group released no new material in 1991, but went overseas and continued to tour throughout Europe and Asia. That summer, Wood and Wahlberg co-wrote and produced the debut album from Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch—headed by Mark Wahlberg, Donnie's brother and former New Kid. Mark Wahlberg's album scored a number one hit with "Good Vibrations", and a platinum album.[18][19]
1992: Lip syncing allegations and popularity decline[edit]
By late 1990, David Dyson assumed the role of musical director. In early 1992, the group released the stand-alone single "If You Go Away", the only new track on the compilation H.I.T.S.. The song peaked at No. 16 on the US charts and No. 9 in the UK charts. Meanwhile, as the music industry was still reeling from the Milli Vanilli lip-syncing scandal, the group found themselves accused of lip-syncing by Gregory McPherson, also a music teacher at Berklee College of Music, who was listed as an associate producer and string arranger on the group's third album, Step by Step. McPherson alleged that Maurice Starr sang the vocals while the group lip-synced to pre-recorded vocals during their live performances. McPherson also filed a breach of contract and creative infringement lawsuit against Starr.
The group immediately responded to the allegations and interrupted the Australian leg of their tour to fly to Los Angeles to perform live on The Arsenio Hall Show.[20] After performing a medley of their previous hits and their new single, the group (along with Starr) was interviewed by Hall. The group admitted to singing with a backing track during live performances and also admitted that Starr sang harmony on some background vocals.[21][22]
On February 10, 1992, the New Kids filed a defamation lawsuit against McPherson regarding his lip-syncing allegations. In April 1992, McPherson dropped his suit against Starr and released a statement recanting his previous allegations stating, "They [The New Kids] did sing lead on their vocals".[22]
By the time the lip-syncing allegations surfaced, the group was starting to experience a backlash. Despite their success, the group was regularly dismissed by critics for their attempts to promote themselves as an urban act and their practice of using backing vocals for live performances. The group's record sales also began to decline due to a shift in musical tastes to gangsta rap and grunge music.[23]
1993–1994: Face the Music[edit]
Main article: Face the Music (New Kids on the Block album)
In 1993, after having split from Maurice Starr, the group shortened their name to the initialism NKOTB. In January 1994, their fourth studio album, Face the Music, was released. Their first studio album in close to four years, Face the Music was a musical departure from the group's previous efforts. Nearly all the songs were written and/or co-produced by the group. In spite of some positive critical reception, the album failed to live up to commercial expectation.[24] The album's final single to chart was "Dirty Dawg" (which featured a rap cameo by Nice & Smooth & Live Instrumentals & Background Vocals by Larry Thomas), peaking at No. 66 on the Billboard Hot 100.[11][25] The follow-up single, "Never Let You Go", failed to chart in the U.S., but did reach No. 42 in the UK Singles Chart and No. 18 in the Canadian charts.
NKOTB went on tour to support the album, playing smaller venues such as clubs and theaters, as opposed to the arenas and stadiums they were once accustomed to. After experiencing increased panic attacks and anxiety, Jonathan Knight left the band. Shortly thereafter, the remaining four decided to officially disband the group.[26]
1995–2007: Break-up[edit]
After the group's split, most of the group members started families and began to venture into other avenues. Jonathan Knight and Danny Wood maintained low profiles, while the other three continued their careers individually. Wahlberg, in particular, followed the lead of his younger brother, Mark Wahlberg, and started an acting career. McIntyre and Jordan Knight recorded solo albums in 1999.
In 1999, MTV attempted to reunite the group and get them to perform on that year's VMAs. All of the members were on board for the project, except Jonathan. Without him, the performance did not happen.[27]
In 2004, Aamer Haleem, host of VH1's Bands Reunited, also attempted to convince each of the members of New Kids on the Block to reunite for a one-night performance for the show. This time Jonathan agreed. However, McIntyre, Wahlberg, and Wood all declined. While Wood and Wahlberg declined on-camera interviews, McIntyre cited that the only way he would perform with the band was if the group would make the decision to reunite permanently.[28]
2008–2012: Reunion, The Block, & NKOTBSB[edit]
In April 2008, after months of speculation, Wahlberg confirmed to CNN that the group had reunited with plans to record new material and to stage a tour.[29] The following month, the group released their first single since reuniting, "Summertime".[30][31] The cover of the single featured the name "New Kids on the Block", re-lengthened from the initials NKOTB.
On August 12, 2008, they released their second single, "Single", featuring R&B singer Ne-Yo, followed by the release of the group's first studio album in fourteen years, The Block. The album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Top Pop Albums Chart and No. 2 on the Billboard 200 in September 2008.[32] It was certified Gold in October 2008, in Canada.[33]
The group's reunion tour, New Kids on the Block: Live, began at Toronto's Air Canada Centre on September 18, 2008. They toured the US with Natasha Bedingfield and Lady Gaga as supporting acts. There are 48 total concerts scheduled for Canada and the United States, nine in the United Kingdom, one in Ireland, one in France, one in Amsterdam, Netherlands and two in Germany. A NKOTB-sponsored "theme" concert cruise (for their fans) departed from Miami, Florida and traveled to the Bahamas from May 15–18, 2009. The group also announced the Full Service Tour for 2009, featuring Jesse McCartney and Jabbawockeez.[34]
Group member Jordan Knight announced a new concert cruise for 2010.[35] After the tour, each member took a break on doing other endeavors. McIntyre recorded a few songs written and produced by fellow musicians such as himself, Drew Ryan Scott from boy band After Romeo, Brent Paschke, and Gabe Lopez. Wahlberg worked on his own music as well, releasing a single called "I Got It" featuring Aubrey O'Day (formerly from Danity Kane) and "Rise and Grind" featuring Roscoe Umali.
On Friday, August 13, 2010, tickets went on sale for the third annual NKOTB cruise which will take place aboard the Carnival Destiny, leaving from Miami, FL on Thursday, May 12, 2011 to Nassau and Half Moon Cay, Bahamas and returning to Miami, FL on Monday, May 16, 2011. Once again, the cruise sold out the same day it went on sale, with thousands of fans on a 'waitlist' standing by for any openings on the boat due to cancellations.
On August 18, 2010, an 'unofficial' announcement was made that NKOTB and the Backstreet Boys will be touring together in 2011 after the successful surprise collaboration performance at Radio City Music Hall on June 19, 2010. On October 8, 2010, Brian Littrell, a member of the Backstreet Boys, gave the tour a 78% chance of happening. He also stated that he and Wahlberg had been working on songs together.[36]
On November 3, 2010, an official announcement was made that NKOTB and BSB will be touring together in the summer of 2011 along with Jordin Sparks and Ashlyne Huff.[37] In May 2011, Matthew Morrison confirmed during an interview on talk show Chelsea Lately that he would also be joining the tour.[38] The NKOTBSB Tour began on May 25, 2011 and ended in June 2012. They also released a compilation album NKOTBSB which included 2 new songs.
On June 22, 2012, NKOTB was among 24 celebrities selected by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for 2013.[39]
McIntyre stated during Summer Mixtape Festival that they were making a new album and unlike their previous album The Block, there will be no collaboration on it.[40]
2013–present: 10, Touring and Thankful[edit]
On January 22, 2013, the group appeared on The View and announced that they were going to release a new single titled "Remix (I Like The)" on January 28 and a new album titled 10 would be released on April 2, 2013 via Kobalt Label Services. During the show, they also announced that they were going to tour North America with 98 Degrees and Boyz II Men as their opening acts in summer 2013.[41] 10 was released on April 2, 2013, which met mixed to positive reviews from music critics. The group also appeared on television series to promote the album including The Today Show, The View, and an iHeartRadio concert release party. The album made its debut at number 6 on the Billboard 200 chart marking their 5th top 10 studio album in the US.
The group, along with Boyz II Men performed on the Boston Strong telethon on May 30, 2013.
On February 3, 2014 the band announced their European Tour 2014. The official website described the tour: 'Kicking-off at the Annex in Stockholm on May 6 and culminating at Clyde Auditorium in Glasgow on June 1, the shows will take place at some of the most intimate venues across Europe, giving our fans a rare opportunity to get up-close-and-personal with the band.' Following the tour the group met up in New York to embark on the 6th annual NKOTB Cruise. Also, in the Spring of 2014 they announced a limited engagement in Las Vegas. The show titled New Kids On The Block After Dark ran for 4 consecutive nights from July 10–13, 2014 at The AXIS at Planet Hollywood.
On October 9, 2014, the group received their star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.[42]
In January 2015, the group announced they would be embarking on a summer tour called The Main Event, with the surviving members of TLC and Nelly.
The group played themselves on an episode of Fuller House Season 2 on Netflix titled, "New Kids in the House." They performed multiple songs including, "The Right Stuff," and "Please Don't Go Girl." The episode was released on December 9, 2016.[43]
In November 2016, the group announced a new tour called The Total Package Tour with Paula Abdul & Boyz II Men. The 44-city North American tour spans from May 12 to July 16 and marks Abdul's first tour in more than 20 years.[44] In March 2017 during an appearance on The Late Late Show with James Corden they performed the new single "One More Night" from the upcoming EP Thankful. The EP was released on May 12 to coincide with the start of the tour.
In December 2017, they released an expanded version of the EP titled Thankful (Unwrapped), now including the Target-only track "We Were Here" (featuring DMX) as well as three newly-recorded holiday songs, their new material of holiday music in 28 years. Additionally, they announced a short-film documentary filmed during their summer tour will be released on December 9th.[45][46]
Members[edit]
Current[edit]
Donnie Wahlberg (1984–1994, 2007–present)
Jordan Knight (1984–1994, 2007–present)
Joey McIntyre (1985–1994, 2007–present)
Jonathan Knight (1984–1994, 2007–present)
Danny Wood (1984–1994, 2007–present)
Former[edit]
Mark Wahlberg (1984–1985)
Jamie Kelly (1985)
Touring musicians[edit]
Greg McPherson (Musical director/keys) (1989–90)
David Dyson (bassist) (1989-1992) (Musical director/bassist) (1990–92)
Nerida Rojas (guitar) (1989-1990)
Rob Sachs (guitar) (1990-1992)
Yasko Kubota (keyboards) (1989-1992; died 2015)
Derrick Antunes (drums) (1989-1992)
Kevin Antunes (2nd keyboards) (1990-1992)
Discography[edit]
Main article: New Kids on the Block discography
Studio albums[edit]
New Kids on the Block (1986)
Hangin' Tough (1988)
Merry, Merry Christmas (1989)
Step by Step (1990)
No More Games: The Remix Album (1990)
H.I.T.S (1991)
Tour Souvenir Collection (1991)
Face the Music (1994)
Greatest Hits (1999)
Super Hits (2001)
#1 Hits (2005)
New Kids on the Block: Greatest Hits (2008)
The Block (2008)
10 (2013)
With Backstreet Boys[edit]
NKOTBSB (2011)
Extended plays[edit]
Thankful (2017)
Awards and nominations[edit]
Year
Association
Category
Nominated work
Result
1990 Grammy Awards Best Music Video, Long Form "Hangin' Tough" Nominated
1990 American Music Awards Favorite Pop/Rock Band/Duo/Group Won
Favorite Pop/Rock Album Hangin' Tough Won
1991 Favorite Pop/Rock Band/Duo/Group Nominated
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to New Kids On The Block.
Official Website
New Kids on the Block at AllMusic
New Kids on the Block discography at Discogs
New Kids on the Block on IMDb
[show]
v
t
e
New Kids on the Block
Jonathan Knight
Jordan Knight
Joey McIntyre
Donnie Wahlberg
Danny Wood
Studio albums
New Kids on the Block (1986)
Hangin' Tough (1988)
Merry, Merry Christmas (1989)
Step by Step (1990)
Face the Music (1994)
The Block (2008)
10 (2013)
EPs
Thankful (2017)
Compilations
No More Games/The Remix Album (1990)
H.I.T.S. (1991)
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Indian Act
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The Indian Act (An Act respecting Indians, French: Loi sur les Indiens), (the Act) is a Canadian Act of Parliament that concerns registered Indians, their bands, and the system of Indian reserves.[1][2] First passed in 1876 and still in force with amendments, it is the primary document which defines how the Government of Canada interacts with the 614 First Nation bands in Canada and their members. Throughout its long history the Act has been an ongoing subject of controversy and has been interpreted in different ways by both Aboriginal Canadians and non-Aboriginal Canadians. The legislation has been amended many times, including "over twenty major changes" made by 2002.[3]
The Act is very wide-ranging in scope, covering governance, land use, healthcare, education, and more on Indian reserves. Notably, the original Indian Act does two things affecting all indigenous peoples in Canada:
It says how reserves and bands can operate. The Act sets out rules for governing Indian reserves, defines how bands can be created and spells out the powers of "band councils". Bands do not have to have reserve lands to operate under the act.[4]
It defines who is, and who is not recognized as an "Indian". The Act defines a number of types of Indian people who are not recognized as "registered" or "status" Indians and who are therefore denied membership in bands.[4]
The Act's existence is necessitated by the fact that First Nations (historically called "Indians") relate differently to the state because of inherited legal arrangements such as the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and various treaties, and because Canada's constitution specifically assigns Native issues to the federal, rather than provincial governments, by the terms of Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867. The Indian Act replaces any laws on the topic passed by a local legislature before a province joined Canadian Confederation, creating a definitive national policy on the subject. The Act is not a treaty; it is Canada's legal response to the treaties. Nevertheless, its unilateral nature, imposed on indigenous peoples by the Canadian government in contrast to the treaties, is itself a source of discontent among Native peoples in Canada.
Contents
[hide]
1 Original rationale and purpose
2 Definitions
2.1 "Reserve"
2.2 "Band"
2.3 "Indian"
2.3.1 Loss of status prior to 1985 amendments
2.3.1.1 Discriminatory definition issues
3 Policies enacted via the Indian Act
3.1 Gender discrimination
3.2 Residential schools
3.3 Bans on religious ceremonies ("Potlatch Law")
3.4 Restriction on access to the courts
3.5 Tax exemption
4 Relation to the Constitution
4.1 Section 88
5 History of proposed and actual changes
5.1 List of precursors and amendments
5.1.1 Pre-Confederation
5.1.2 Post-Confederation
5.2 Attempts to repeal or replace
5.2.1 Failed major changes
5.2.2 Opt-outs
6 Case law
7 See also
8 Further reading
9 References
9.1 Citations
9.2 Bibliography
10 External links
Original rationale and purpose[edit]
Main article: Indian enfranchisement in Canada
"The great aim of our legislation has been to do away with the tribal system and assimilate the Indian people in all respects with the other inhabitants of the Dominion as speedily as they are fit to change."
John A Macdonald, 1887[5]
The Indian Act was first passed in 1876 as a consolidation of various laws concerning indigenous peoples enacted by the separate colonies of British North America prior to Canadian Confederation, most notably the Gradual Civilization Act passed by the Parliament of the Province of Canada in 1857 and the Gradual Enfranchisement Act of 1869.[5] The Indian Act was passed by the Parliament of Canada under the provisions of Section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867, which provides Canada's federal government exclusive authority to govern in relation to "Indians and Lands Reserved for Indians". It was an attempt to codify rights promised to Native peoples by British King George III in the Royal Proclamation of 1763, while at the same time enforcing Euro-Canadian standards of "civilization". The purpose of the act, as stated by its drafters, was to administer Indian affairs in such a way that Indian people would feel compelled to renounce their Indian status and join Canadian civilization as full members: a process called enfranchisement.
The idea of enfranchisement predated the 1876 version of Indian Act and survived in some form until 1985. Upon the introduction in 1857 by the Taché-Macdonald administration of the Gradual Civilization Act and until 1961, the enfranchisement process was compulsory for men of age 21 able to read and write English.[6]
Reserves, under this legislation, were islands within Canada to which were attached a different set of rights. "Enfranchisement" derives from the idea of "franchise", which has gradually been degraded as "vote". Indigenous people with the franchise were allowed to vote for representatives, were expected to pay taxes and lived "off-reserve". By contrast, groups of people who lived on a reserve were subject to a different set of rights and obligations. One needed to descend from an Indian to be allowed to live on a reserve.
The tenure of land in a reserve was limited to the collective, or tribe, by virtue of a Crown protectorate. Interactions between enfranchised citizens and Indians were subject to strict controls; for example, the enfranchised were forbidden by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 to traffic in alcohol or land with Indians. It was hoped through means of fiduciary duty voluntarily taken up by the Crown to preserve the Indian identity, but this was later vitiated by the compulsory enfranchisement scheme of the Gradual Civilization Act. The 1985 amendment to the Indian Act extinguished the idea of enfranchisement.
Definitions[edit]
"Reserve"[edit]
Main article: Indian reserve
Under the section entitled "Reserves" in the Indian Act, it is stated that reserves are "to be held for use and benefit of Indians.[4]
18. (1) "Subject to this Act, reserves are held by Her Majesty for the use and benefit of the respective bands for which they were set apart, and subject to this Act and to the terms of any treaty or surrender, the Governor in Council may determine whether any purpose for which lands in a reserve are used or are to be used is for the use and benefit of the band. Marginal note:Use of reserves for schools, etc."
—  R.S., c. I-6, s. 18. Indian Act[7][4]
18. (2) "The Minister may authorize the use of lands in a reserve for the purpose of Indian schools, the administration of Indian affairs, Indian burial grounds, Indian health projects or, with the consent of the council of the band, for any other purpose for the general welfare of the band, and may take any lands in a reserve required for those purposes, but where an individual Indian, immediately prior to the taking, was entitled to the possession of those lands, compensation for that use shall be paid to the Indian, in such amount as may be agreed between the Indian and the Minister, or, failing agreement, as may be determined in such manner as the Minister may direct."
—  DIANA, R.S., c. I-6, s. 18. Indian Act[7]
"Band"[edit]
Main article: Band government
In the Indian Act, updated to April 2013, the term "band",[4]
"means a body of Indians (a) for whose use and benefit in common, lands, the legal title to which is vested in Her Majesty, have been set apart before, on or after September 4, 1951, (b) for whose use and benefit in common, moneys are held by Her Majesty, or (c) declared by the Governor in Council to be a band for the purposes of this Act."
—  Indian Act[7]
"Indian"[edit]
Main article: Indian Register
Fundamental to Canada's ability to interact with First Nations peoples is the question of defining who they are (e.g. who are the "Indians" of the Indian Act?), and this aspect of the legislation has been an ongoing source of controversy throughout its history. Not all people who self-identify as "Aboriginal" are considered "Indians" under the terms of the act. Only those on the official Indian Register maintained by the federal government (or a local "band list" in some cases) are Status Indians, subject to the full legal benefits and restrictions of the Indian Act. Notably this excludes Métis people, Inuit people, and so-called Non-Status Indians. Various amendments and court decisions have repeatedly altered the rules regarding who is eligible for Indian Status. Many bands now maintain their own band lists.
Loss of status prior to 1985 amendments[edit]
This section may contain too much repetition or redundant language. Please help improve it by merging similar text or removing repeated statements. (August 2014)
Though people accepted into band membership under band rules may not be status Indians, Bill C-31 clarified that various sections of the Indian Act would apply to such members. The sections in question are those relating to community life (e.g., land holdings). Sections relating to Indians (Aboriginal people) as individuals (in this case, wills and taxation of personal property) were not included. Prior to 1985, Indians could lose status in a variety of ways including the following:
marrying a man who was not a status Indian
enfranchisement (until 1960, an Indian could vote in federal elections only by renouncing Indian status)[8]
having at the age of 21 a mother and paternal grandmother who did not have status before marriage
being born out of wedlock to a mother with status and a father without.
These provisions interfered with the matrilineal cultures of many First Nations, whereby children were born to the mother's clan and people, and gained their status in the tribe from her family. Often property and hereditary leadership passed through the maternal line.
In Attorney General of Canada v. Lavell (1974), these laws were upheld despite arguments made under the Canadian Bill of Rights. The Indian Act was amended in 1985 (Bill C-31)[4] to restore status to people who had lost it in one of these ways, and to their children.
Discriminatory definition issues[edit]
This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (August 2014)
Bonita Lawrence (2003)[9] discusses a feminist position on the relationship between federal definition and Indian identity in Canada. Until 1985, subsection 12(1)(b) of the act "discriminated against Indian women by stripping them and their descendants of their Indian status if they married a man without Indian status."[10] Under subsection 12(2) of the act, "'illegitimate' children of status Indian women could also lose status if the alleged father was known not to be a status Indian and if the child's status as an Indian was "protested" by the Indian agent." Further, subparagraph 12(1)(a)(iv), which Lawrence calls the "double mother" clause, "removed status from children when they reached the age of 21 if their mother and paternal grandmother did not have status before marriage." Much of the discrimination stems from the Indian Act amendments and modifications in 1951.
She discusses the struggles of Jeannette Corbiere Lavell and Yvonne Bédard in the early 1970s, two women who had both lost their Indian status for marrying white men. The Supreme Court of Canada ruled that the Indian Act was not discriminatory, as the pair gained the legal rights of white women at the same time they lost the status of Indian women, in a parallel to R. v. Drybones (supra). In 1981, Sandra Lovelace, a Maliseet woman from western New Brunswick forced the issue by taking her case to the United Nations Human Rights Committee, contending that she should not have to lose her own status by her marriage. The Canadian law was amended in 1985.[10]
Policies enacted via the Indian Act[edit]
Gender discrimination[edit]
In the 1951 amendments to the Indian Act, paragraph 12(1)(b) initiated that a status Indian woman who married a man who was not a status Indian became non-status.[11] Subjecting Aboriginal female status to that of their father or husband, the Canadian government applied gender bias requirements to the legal status of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Without legal status, Aboriginal women are unable to access treaty benefits, practice inherent rights to live on their reserve, inherit family property or be buried on reserve with ancestors.[11] Restricted from access to their native community, Aboriginal women without legal status were unable to participate in ceremonies and rituals on their traditional land. However, these conditions did not apply to status Indian men who married non-status women; these men were able to keep their status.[11] Section 12, paragraph 1(b) of the Indian Act worked to disadvantage the position of Aboriginal women and can be considered an attempt to demolish Aboriginal families and alienate Aboriginal women from their land. Inflicting gender discriminatory laws the Canadian government marginalized and disadvantaged Aboriginal women. Section 12 gained the attention of female movements contributing to a variety of proposals for reform.[12] Amended in 1985 through the introduction of Bill C-31, section 12 was removed and status was reinstated to those affected.
As stated in Bill C-31 women who lost their status as a result of marrying a man who was not a status Indian can apply for reinstatement and regain status under subsection 6(1).[13] However, the children of reinstated women are subject to registration under subsection 6(2).[12] Aboriginal people registered under section 6(2) are unable to transmit status to future generations.[13] Thus, by reinstating women under section 6 of the Indian Act the Canadian government failed to completely remove gender discrimination from its legislation. Since, the children of reinstated women have restrictions on their status, and status Indian men continue to hold greater quality of status then women. Bill C-31 amendments create a new system for classifying status Indians that maintains gender discrimination.[13] Patriarchy continued to be inflicted on Aboriginal peoples in Canada even after the 1985 Indian Act amendments. Female movements expressed that Bill C-31 failed to eliminate all gender discrimination from the Indian Act, and in 2010 the Canadian government introduced Bill C-3 (Act to Promote Gender Equality in Indian Registration).[13]
Bill C-3 amendments to the Indian Act (Gender Equity in Indian Registration Act[14] - GEIRA) permitted Aboriginal women reinstated under subsection 6(2) to be eligible for 6(1) status.[15] Creating paragraph 6(1)(c.1) registration, reinstated Aboriginal women could only be eligible for registration under 6(1) if they had non-status children.[15] Since it was the children of Aboriginal women who had been affected by restrictions under subsection 6(2) legal registration, only women who had children were eligible to be registered under subsection 6(1) of the Indian Act. Continuing to place restrictions on the status of reinstated women, Bill C-3 does not remove all gender bias provisions from the Indian Act.
Residential schools[edit]
Main article: Canadian Indian residential school system
An 1884 amendment to the Act mandated education for Indian children, to bring them to read and write English. The now infamous Indian Residential School system subjected children to forced conversions, sickness, abuse and what has been described as an attempt at Genocide by the recent Truth and Reconciliation Commission. The Canadian Indian residential school system can be seen as an attempt to force Indians off their lands, sever family ties and diminish traditional Indian culture, for which on 11 June 2008 the government of Canada apologized.[16]
Bans on religious ceremonies ("Potlatch Law")[edit]
In 1885 an amendment to the Indian Act banned the Potlach ceremony of the West Coast peoples. The Potlatch ban drove traditional ceremonies underground. A similar amendment in 1895 banned the Sun Dance of the Plains peoples, which was not lifted until 1951.
Restriction on access to the courts[edit]
A 1927 amendment (Section 141) forbid any first nation or band from retaining a lawyer for the purpose of making a claim against Canada, and further forbid them from raising money to retain a lawyer, on punishment of imprisonment.[17][18]
Tax exemption[edit]
Section 87 exempts Indians from paying taxes on two types of property: (a) the interest of an Indian or a band in reserve lands or surrendered lands; and (b) the personal property of an Indian or a band situated on a reserve[19]
Relation to the Constitution[edit]
The rights exclusive to Indians in the Indian Act [4] are beyond legal challenge under the Constitution Act, 1982. Section 25 of the Constitution Act, 1982 provides that the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms shall not be interpreted as negating Aboriginal, treaty or other rights of Canada's Aboriginal peoples.
Section 88[edit]
Section 88 of the Indian Act states that provincial laws may affect Aboriginals if they are of "general application", meaning that they affect other people as well as Aboriginals. Hence, provincial laws are incorporated into federal law, since otherwise the provincial laws would be unconstitutional.[20] In Kruger and al. v. The Queen (1978), the Supreme Court found that provincial laws with a more significant impact on Aboriginals than other people can be upheld, as "There are few laws which have a uniform impact."
Constitutional scholar Peter Hogg argues that in Dick v. The Queen (1985), the Supreme Court "changed its mind about the scope of s. 88." Section 88 could now protect provincial laws relating to primary Aboriginal issues and even limiting Aboriginal rights.[21]
History of proposed and actual changes[edit]
List of precursors and amendments[edit]
Pre-Confederation[edit]
1839: "Act for the Protection of the Indians in Upper Canada"
1850: "An Act for the Protection of the Indians in Upper Canada from imposition, and the property occupied or enjoyed by them from trespass and injury" (13&14 Vic. c.74)
1850: "An Act for the Protection of the Indians in Lower Canada from imposition, and the property occupied or enjoyed by them from trespass and injury" (13&14 Vic. c.42)
1857: "Act to Encourage the Gradual Civilization of Indian Tribes in this Province, and to Amend the Laws Relating to Indians" (20 Vic. c.26) through compulsory enfranchisement[6]
1859: "An Act respecting Civilization and Enfranchisement of certain Indians"[22]
Post-Confederation[edit]
1868: "An Act providing for the organisation of the Department of the Secretary of State of Canada, and for the management of Indian and Ordnance Lands"[23] was created.
1869: "An Act for the gradual enfranchisement of Indians, the better management of Indian affairs, and to extend the provisions of the Act 31st Victoria, Chapter 42" introduced changes to the enfranchisement process.
1874: "An Act to amend certain Laws respecting Indians, and to extend certain Laws relating to matters connected with Indians to the Provinces of Manitoba and British Columbia" extended westward the effect of Canadian legislation regarding Indians.
1876: "An Act to amend and consolidate the laws respecting Indians" (the original "Indian Act") was passed.
1879: "An Act to amend 'The Indian Act, 1876'" amended the act to allow "half-breeds" to withdraw from treaty; to allow punishment for trespassing on reserves; to expand the powers of chief and council to include punishment by fine, penalty or imprisonment; and to prohibit houses of prostitution.[24]
1880: "An Act to amend and consolidate the laws respecting Indians" passed.
1881: Amended to make officers of the Indian Department, including Indian Agents, legal justices of the peace, able to enforce regulations. The following year they were granted the same legal power as magistrates.[25] Further amended to prohibit the sale of agricultural produce by Indians in Prairie Provinces without an appropriate permit from an Indian agent.[25] This prohibition is, as of 2008[update], still included in the Indian Act, though it is not enforced.[26]
1884: Amended to force attendance of Indian youth in school. Amended to prevent elected band leaders who have been deposed from office from being re-elected.
1884: Amended to prohibit the potlatch and Tamanawas dances.[27][28]
1894: Amended to remove band control of non-natives living on reserve. This power now rested exclusively in the hands of the Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs.[29]
1895: Amended to extend the ban on potlatch and Tamanawas dances to outlaw all dances, ceremonies and festivals that involved the wounding of animals or humans, or the giving away of money or goods.[28]
1905: Amended to allow Aboriginal people to be removed from reserves near towns with more than 8,000 residents.[30]
1906: Amended to allow 50% of the sale price of reserve lands to be given to band members, following the surrender of that land.
1911: Amended to allow municipalities and companies to expropriate portions of reserves, without surrender, for roads, railways, and other public works.[30] Further amended to allow a judge to move an entire reserve away from a municipality if it was deemed "expedient."[29] These amendments were also known as the "Oliver Act".
1914: Amended to require western Indians to seek official permission before appearing in "Aboriginal costume" in any "dance, show, exhibition, stampede or pageant."[25]
1918: Amended to allow the Superintendent-General to lease out uncultivated reserve lands to non-Aboriginals if the new lease-holder used it for farming or pasture.[29]
1920: Amended to make it mandatory for Aboriginal parents to send their children to Indian residential school. (Indian Act, 1920 s.10(1)) Also amended to allow the Department of Indian Affairs to ban hereditary rule of bands.[30] Further amended to allow for the involuntary enfranchisement (and loss of treaty rights) of any status Indian considered fit by the Department of Indian Affairs, without the possession of land previously required for those living off reserve. Repealed two years later but reintroduced in a modified form in 1933.[29]
1927: Amended to prevent anyone (Aboriginal or otherwise) from soliciting funds for Indian legal claims without a special license from the Superintendent-General. This effectively prevented any First Nation from pursuing Aboriginal land claims.[25]
1930: Amended to prevent a pool hall owner from allowing entrance to an Indian who "by inordinate frequenting of a pool room either on or off an Indian reserve misspends or wastes his time or means to the detriment of himself, his family or household". The owner could face a fine or a one-month jail term.[25]
1936: Amended to allow Indian agents to direct band council meetings, and to cast a deciding vote in the event of a tie.[29]
1951: Amended to allow the sale and slaughter of livestock without an Indian Agent permit. Status women are allowed to vote in band elections. Attempts to pursue land claims and the use of religious ceremonies (such as potlatches) are no longer prohibited by law. Further amended for the compulsory enfranchisement of First Nations women who married non-status men (including Métis, Inuit and non-status Indian, as well as non-Aboriginal men), thus causing them to lose their status, and denying Indian status to any children from the marriage.[29]
1961: Amended to end the compulsory enfranchisement of men or bands.
1985: Indian Act amended to void the enfranchisement process. Amended to allow status Indian women the right to keep or regain their status even after "marrying out" and to grant status to the children (but not grandchildren) of such a marriage. This amendment was debated in Parliament as Bill C-31. Under this amendment, full status Indians are referred to as 6–1. A child of a marriage between a status (6–1) person and a non-status person qualifies for 6–2 (half) status. If that child grows up and in turn married a non-status person, the child of that union would be non-status. If a 6–2 marries a 6–1 or another 6–2, the children revert to 6–1 status. Blood quantum is disregarded, or rather, replaced with a "two generation cut-off clause".[31] Under amendments to the Indian Act (Bill C-31), Michel Band members have individual Indian status restored. No provision made in Bill C-31 for the restoration of status under the Band enfranchisement provision that was applied to the Michel Band. According to Thomas King, around half of status Indians are currently marrying non-status people, meaning this legislation accomplishes complete legal assimilation in a matter of a few generations.[31]
2000: Amended to allow band members living off reserves to vote in band elections and referendums.[32]
2011: Gender Equity in Indian Registration Act (Bill C-3) amended provisions of the Indian Act that the Court of Appeal for British Columbia found to be unconstitutional in the case of McIvor v. Canada. The bringing into force of Bill C-3 on January 31, 2011, ensured that eligible grandchildren of women who lost status as a result of marrying non-status men became entitled to registration (Indian status). As a result of this legislation approximately 45,000 persons became newly entitled to registration.[33]
2012: Jobs and Growth Act (Bill C-45).
2013: 200,000 Métis and 400,000 non-status Indians are included in the federal responsibility for Indians after a 13-year legal dispute.[34]
2016 Changes to the Jobs and Growth Act (Bill C-45)
Attempts to repeal or replace[edit]
Numerous failed attempts have been made by Canadian parliamentarians to repeal or replace the Indian Act without success. Those changes that have been made have been piecemeal reforms, rather than sweeping revisions.
Failed major changes[edit]
The Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian policy or "the White Paper" (1969) – would have abolished reserves and all other markers of "special status" and assimilated Indians fully into Canada. Failed due to First Nations' opposition (e.g. "the Red Paper") and withdrawn in 1971.
The Manitoba Framework Agreement – a 1994 agreement between the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs and the Minister of Indian Affairs, it created a regional pilot project to dismantle the Department of Indian Affairs' regional structure in Manitoba. It was deemed unsuccessful and discontinued in 2004.
The Indian Act Optional Modification Act (Bill C-79) – introduced in 1996, it would have devolved certain powers to bands, but was opposed by most bands as being too limited and not respecting the principle of Aboriginal self-government as endorsed by the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. It died in parliament at the start of the 1997 election.
The First Nations Governance Act (Bill C-7) – introduced in 2002, it would have allowed bands to amend their own leadership selection processes and devolved some other powers. It was opposed by most bands and died in Parliament in 2003.
Senate Proposals (several) – the most recent is An Act for the Recognition of Self-Governing First Nations (Bill S-216) initiated by Senator Gerry St. Germain in May 2006 which would have allowed bands to write their own constitutions, subject to vetting by the Auditor General. Died in Parliament in September 2007
Opt-outs[edit]
Since the 1990s, several pieces of legislation have been passed allowing individual bands to opt out of a particular section of the Indian Act if an agreement is signed between the band and the government putting alternative measures in place. These are called "Sectoral Legislative Arrangements". The band remains subject to the Act except for the section in question.
First Nations Land Management Act (FNLMA) - enacted in 1999, it allows opt-outs of 34 land-related sections of the Indian Act and allows bands to create their own codes on land use and environmental stewardship. Fourteen bands originally signed on, by 2013 there were over 30 bands involved.
First Nations Fiscal Management Act (FNFMA) - enacted in 2005, allows bands to issue their own bonds
First Nations Oil and Gas and Moneys Management Act (FNOGMMA) - enacted in 2005, allows bands to opt to take over the management of funds held in trust for them by the Crown, or to assume management of oil and gas resources on their reserves
First Nations Commercial and Industrial Development Act (FNCIDA) - since 2006 has allowed a band to request the federal government to create regulations for a particular industry on reserve that mirror those of the surrounding province. Amended in 2010 by the First Nations Certainty of Land Title Act (FNCLTA) which creates a registry similar to a provincial land titles registry for on-reserve real estate.
Case law[edit]
Main category: Canadian Indigenous case law
The 1895 amendment of the Indian Act (Section 114) criminalized many Aboriginal ceremonies, which resulted in the arrest and conviction of numerous Aboriginal people for practising their basic traditions.[35] These arrests were based on Aboriginal participation in festivals, dances and ceremonies that involved the wounding of animals or humans, or the giving away of money or goods. The Dakota people (Sioux) who settled in Oak River, Manitoba, in 1875 were known to conduct "give-away dances", also known as the "grass dance".[36] The dance ceremony involved the giving away and exchange of blankets and horses; thus it breached Section 114 of the Indian Act.[28] As a result, Wanduta, an elder of the Dakota community, was sentenced to four months of hard labour and imprisonment on January 26, 1903.[37]
According to Canadian historian Constance Backhouse, the Aboriginal "give-away dances" were ceremonies more commonly known as potlatches that connected entire communities politically, economically and socially.[38] These dances affirmed kinship ties, provided elders with opportunities to pass on insight, legends and history to the next generation, and were a core part of Aboriginal resistance to assimilation.[38] It is estimated that between 1900 and 1904, 50 Aboriginal people were arrested and 20 were convicted for their involvement in such dances.[39] The Indian Act was amended in 1951 to allow religious ceremonies, including the "give-away dance".[28]
In R. v. Jim (1915), the British Columbia Supreme Court found that Aboriginal hunting on Indian reserves should be considered under federal jurisdiction under both the constitution and the Indian Act. The case involved whether Aboriginals were subject to provincial game laws when hunting on Indian reserves.
The act was at the centre of the 1969 Supreme Court case R. v. Drybones, regarding the conflict of a clause forbidding Indians to be drunk off the reserve with the Bill of Rights. The case is remembered for having been one of the few in which the Bill of Rights prevailed in application to Indian rights.
In Corbiere v. Canada (1999), voting rights on reserves were extended under Section Fifteen of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
See also[edit]
Aboriginal peoples in Canada portal
Aboriginal Protection Act 1869 and Half-Caste Act (Australia)
Canadian Aboriginal law
Indian Health Transfer Policy (Canada)
Numbered Treaties
Status of First Nations treaties in British Columbia
The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples
The Potlatch Ban
Further reading[edit]
John F. Leslie (2002). "The Indian Act: An Historical Perspective". Canadian Parliamentary Review. 25 (2). This article by John F. Leslie, a research consultant with Public History Inc., is an edited version of the testimony Leslie's testimony to the House of Commons Standing Committee on Aboriginal Affairs on March 12, 2002. The article provides a detailed step-by-step description of amendments to the Indian Act. It also provides detailed information about other laws related to the Indian Act. "In 2001 the Minister of Aboriginal Affairs, Robert Nault, announced that the government would be introducing legislation to overhaul the Indian Act. In anticipation of this legislation in February 2002, the House of Commons Standing Committee on Aboriginal Affairs began hearing from various witnesses on issues relating to the Act. For the sake of simplicity, this article uses the term "Indian" throughout. The Constitution states that Canada’s Aboriginal Peoples are Indians, Métis and Inuit, but the Indian Act does not apply to Métis and the 1951 Indian Act specifically excludes Inuit from its operation.[40]"
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Belanger 2014, p. 117.
Jump up ^ Belanger 2014, p. 115.
Jump up ^ John F. Leslie (2002). "The Indian Act: An Historical Perspective". Canadian Parliamentary Review. 25 (2).
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Indian Act, S.C. 1876, c. {{{chapter}}}, as amended by 1880, and 1894, and 1920, and 1927, and 1951, ([{{{link}}} Indian Act] at CanLII). October 22, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/government-policy/the-indian-act.html#origins
^ Jump up to: a b "1857 "Gradual Civilization Act", 20 Vic., c.26". For 'compulsory' text, see section 3.
^ Jump up to: a b c Branch, Legislative Services. "Consolidated federal laws of canada, Indian Act". laws-lois.justice.gc.ca.
Jump up ^ "Chapter 3: Modernization, 1920–1981". A History of the Vote in Canada. Elections Canada. Retrieved May 9, 2014.
Jump up ^ Lawrence 2003.
^ Jump up to: a b Lawrence 2003, p. 13.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hanson 2009
^ Jump up to: a b Furi & Wherret 2003
^ Jump up to: a b c d NWAC 1998
Jump up ^ Branch, Legislative Services. "Consolidated federal laws of canada, Gender Equity in Indian Registration Act".
^ Jump up to: a b ICTI 2015
Jump up ^ CTV News (2008-06-11). "Harper apologizes for residential school abuse". CTV. Archived from the original on 2008-07-09.
Jump up ^ http://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/home/government-policy/the-indian-act.html#potlatch
Jump up ^ Conspiracy of Legislation: The Suppression of Indian Rights in Canada CHIE F JO E MATHIAS and GARY R. YABSLEY, pp 35-36
Jump up ^ Leslie J. Pinder. ""The Indian Act Taxation Exemption – Beguiling Simplicity" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Hogg, p. 598.
Jump up ^ Hogg, pp. 598–599.
Jump up ^ ""An Act respecting the civilization and enfranchisement of certain Indians" Statutes of Canada, 22 Vic. (1859) c.9" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "An Act providing for the organisation of the Department of the Secretary of State of Canada, and for the management of Indian and Ordnance Lands" Dominion Statutes, 1868 c.42 Archived 2015-05-02 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ CHAP. 34. An Act to amend "The Indian Act, 1876.", Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples Archived 2008-02-09 at the Wayback Machine., page 25
Jump up ^ s.32 – Sale or Barter of Produce, Indian Act ( R.S., 1985, c. I-5 )
Jump up ^ An Act further to amend "The Indian Act, 1880," S.C. 1884 (47 Vict.), c. 27, s. 3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Backhouse 1999, p. 63.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples Archived 2007-12-11 at the Canadian Government Web Archive, page 24
^ Jump up to: a b c History of the Canadian Peoples, 1867–present, Alvin Finkel & Margaret Conrad, 1998
^ Jump up to: a b King, Thomas. The Truth about Stories. 2003
Jump up ^ "Amendments to the Indian Band Election Regulations and the Indian Referendum Regulations" Archived 2008-06-10 at the Wayback Machine., November 20, 2000, Department of Indian and Northern Affairs.
Jump up ^ "Gender Equity in the Indian Registration Act", June 28, 2012, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada.
Jump up ^ "Federal Court grants rights to Métis, non-status Indians".
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1999, p. 68.
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1999, p. 72.
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1999, p. 79.
^ Jump up to: a b Backhouse 1999, p. 64.
Jump up ^ Backhouse 1999, p. 69.
Jump up ^ Note about author
Bibliography[edit]
Backhouse, Constance (November 20, 1999), Colour-Coded:A Legal History of Racism in Canada, 1900–1950, Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, p. 455, ISBN 0-8020-4712-2
Belanger, Yale D. (2014). Ways of Knowing An Introduction to Native Studies in Canada. Toronto, ON: Nelson.
Lawrence, Bonita (2003), "Gender, Race, and the Regulation of Native Identity in Canada and the United States: An Overview", Hypatia, 18 (2): 3–31, doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.2003.tb00799.x
"Indian Act, RSC 1985, c I-5", GC, 2013, retrieved October 22, 2013
"Legislative Summary of Bill C-31, Indian Act", GC, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 1985, retrieved October 23, 2013
Hanson, Erin (2009). "The Indian Act". Indigenous Foundations. University of British Columbia. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Furi, Megan & Wherret, Jill. “Indian Status and Band Membership Issues.” Political and Social Affairs Division. 2003. Parliament of Canada. Web. 6 April. 2015.
Native Women’s Association of Canada. “Implementing Bill C-31.” A Summary of Issues. 1988. NWAC Overview. Web. 6 April. 2015.
Indigenous Corporate Training Inc. “Indian Act and Women’s Status: Discrimination Via Bill C-31 and Bill C-3.” Working Effectively with Aboriginal Peoples. 2015. ICTI. Web. 6 April. 2015.
External links[edit]
The Indian Act
"Indian Act, RSC 1985, c I-5", GC, 2013, retrieved October 22, 2013
"Legislative Summary of Bill C-31, Indian Act", GC, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 1985, retrieved October 23, 2013
Information sheet on Bill C-31, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: David N. Johnson, 1996–2002, archived from the original on 2009-07-30 This web page uploaded on 1997 on www.johnco.com has re-published materials from various sources. This page is part of a series of "information sheets produced by the Communications Branch, Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development regarding the Report to Parliament on the Implementation of the 1985 Changes to the Indian Act, The Impacts of the 1985 Amendments to the Indian Act (Bill C-31) produced for the Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Ottawa, Ontario."
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