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Tropical Storm Allison
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This article is about the 2001 storm that hit southeast Texas. For other uses, see Tropical Storm Allison (disambiguation).
Tropical Storm Allison
Tropical storm (SSHWS/NWS)
Tropical Storm Allison near peak intensity on June 5
Formed
June 4, 2001
Dissipated
June 20, 2001
(Extratropical after June 18)
Highest winds
1-minute sustained: 60 mph (95 km/h)
Lowest pressure
1000 mbar (hPa); 29.53 inHg
Fatalities
41 direct, 14 indirect
Damage
$9 billion (2001 USD)
Areas affected
Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina, Virginia, District of Columbia, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Massachusetts
Part of the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season
Tropical Storm Allison was a tropical storm that devastated southeast Texas in June of the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season, and was also the third-highest in terms of rainfall in the United States, behind Hurricane Hiki in 1950, and Hurricane Harvey in 2017. An arguable example of the "brown ocean effect", Allison lasted unusually long for a June storm, remaining tropical or subtropical for 15 days, most of them over land dumping torrential rains. The storm developed from a tropical wave in the northern Gulf of Mexico on June 4, 2001, and struck the upper Texas coast shortly thereafter. It drifted northward through the state, turned back to the south, and re-entered the Gulf of Mexico. The storm continued to the east-northeast, made landfall on Louisiana, then moved across the southeast United States and Mid-Atlantic. Allison was the first storm since Tropical Storm Frances in 1998 to strike the northern Texas coastline.[1]
The storm dropped heavy rainfall along its path, peaking at over 40 inches (1,000 mm) in Texas. The worst flooding occurred in Houston, where most of Allison's damage occurred: 30,000 became homeless after the storm flooded over 70,000 houses and destroyed 2,744 homes. Downtown Houston was inundated with flooding, causing severe damage to hospitals and businesses. Twenty-three people died in Texas. Along its entire path, Allison caused $9 billion (2001 USD) in damage and 41 deaths. Aside from Texas, the places worst hit were Louisiana and southeastern Pennsylvania.
Following the storm, President George W. Bush designated 75 counties along Allison's path as disaster areas, which enabled the citizens affected to apply for aid. Allison was the first Atlantic tropical storm to have its name retired without ever having reached hurricane strength.
Contents
[hide]
1 Meteorological history
2 Preparations
3 Impact
3.1 Texas
3.2 Louisiana
3.3 Southeast United States
3.4 Mid-Atlantic and Northeast United States
4 Aftermath
4.1 Retirement
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Meteorological history[edit]
Map plotting the track and intensity of the storm, according to the Saffir–Simpson scale
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on May 21, 2001. It moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean, retaining little convection on its way. After moving across South America and the southwestern Caribbean Sea, the wave entered the eastern North Pacific Ocean on June 1. A low-level circulation developed on June 2, while it was about 230 miles (370 km) south-southeast of Salina Cruz, Mexico. Southerly flow forced the system northward, and the wave moved inland on June 3. The low-level circulation dissipated, though the mid-level circulation persisted. It emerged into the Gulf of Mexico on June 4, and developed deep convection on its eastern side.[2] Early on June 5, satellite imagery suggested that a tropical depression was forming in the northwest Gulf of Mexico, which was furthered by reports of wind gusts as high as 60 mph (95 km/h) just a few hundred feet above the surface, towards the east side of the system.[3]
At 1200 UTC on June 5, the disturbance developed a broad, low-level circulation, and was classified as Tropical Storm Allison, the first storm of the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season. Some intensification was projected, though it was expected to be hindered by cool offshore sea surface temperatures.[4] Due to the cold-core nature of the center, Allison initially contained subtropical characteristics. Despite this, the storm quickly strengthened to attain peak sustained winds of 60 mph (95 km/h), with tropical storm-force winds extending up to 230 miles (370 km) east of the center, and a minimum central pressure of 1000 mbar.[2] The storm initially moved very little, and the presence of several small vortices from within the deep convection caused difficulty in determining the exact center location.[5] Later in the day, several different track forecasts arose. One scenario had the cyclone tracking westward into Mexico. Another projected the storm moving east towards southern Louisiana. At the time, it was noted that little rain or wind persisted near the center, but rather to the north and east.[6] Under the steering currents of a subtropical ridge that extended in an east–west orientation across the southeast United States,[5] Allison weakened while nearing the Texas coastline, and struck near Freeport, Texas with 50 mph (80 km/h) winds.[2] Inland, the storm rapidly weakened, and the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories early on June 6.[7] Shortly after being downgraded to a tropical depression, surface observations showed an elongated circulation with a poorly defined center, which had reformed closer to the deep convection.[8]
Subtropical Storm Allison with an eye-like feature over Mississippi
The depression drifted northward until reaching Lufkin, Texas, where it stalled due to a high pressure system to its north.[2] While stalling over Texas, the storm dropped excessive rainfall, peaking at just over 40 inches (1,033 mm) in northwestern Jefferson County.[9] On June 7, the subtropical ridge off Florida weakened, while the ridge west of Texas intensified. This steered Tropical Depression Allison to make a clockwise loop, and the storm began drifting to the southwest. As the center reached Huntsville, Texas, a heavy rain band began to back build from Louisiana westward into Liberty County, Texas, which had caused additional flooding.[10] At the time, the system had a minimum central pressure of about 1004 mb and maximum sustained winds of about 10 mph (16 km/h).[11] Late on June 9 and early on June 10, Allison's remnants reentered reached the Gulf of Mexico and emerged over open waters.[12] The low once again became nearly stationary about 60 mi (100 km) south of Galveston, Texas, and despite more favorable upper-level winds, it showed no signs of redevelopment.[13] Due to dry air and moderate westerly wind shear, the storm transformed into a subtropical cyclone. While the subtropical depression moved eastward, a new low level circulation redeveloped to the east, and Allison quickly made landfall on Morgan City, Louisiana on June 11.[2] At around the same time, the surface center reformed to the east-northeast of its previous location, aligning with the mid-level circulation.[14] Strong thunderstorms redeveloped over the circulation, and Allison strengthened into a subtropical storm over southeastern Louisiana.[2] The storm intensified further to attain sustained winds of 45 mph (70 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of about 1000 mb near Mclain, Mississippi, accompanied by a well-defined eye-like feature.[15]
Subtropical Depression Allison over North Carolina on June 15
The storm was officially downgraded to a subtropical depression at 0000 UTC on June 12. Somewhat accelerating, the depression tracked to the east-northeast through Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina before becoming nearly stationary near Wilmington, North Carolina.[2] The depression drifted through North Carolina and sped to the northeast for a time in response to an approaching cold front.[16] Though satellite and radar imagery show the system was well-organized, the system slowed and moved erratically for a period of time,[17] executing what appeared to be a small counterclockwise loop.[18] The storm began tracking in a generally northeasterly direction, and crossed into the southern Delmarva Peninsula on June 16.[19] The subtropical remnants reached the Atlantic on June 17, and while located east of Atlantic City, New Jersey, winds began to restrengthen, and heavy rains formed to the north of the circulation. The low was interacting with a frontal boundary, and started merging with it, as it accelerated to the northeast at 13 mph (21 km/h).[20] The remnants of Allison briefly reintensified to a subtropical storm through baroclinic processes, though it became extratropical while south of Long Island.[2] By later on June 17, the low was situated off the coast of Rhode Island, spreading a swath of precipitation over New England.[21] The remnants of the tropical storm were then absorbed by the frontal boundary by June 18, and eventually passed south of Cape Race, Newfoundland on June 20, where the extratropical cyclone dissipated.[2]
Preparations[edit]
Main article: Effects of Tropical Storm Allison in Texas
Shortly after the storm formed, officials in Galveston County, Texas issued a voluntary evacuation for the western end of Galveston Island, as the area was not protected by the Galveston Seawall.[2] The ferry from the island to the Bolivar Peninsula was closed, while voluntary evacuations were issued in Surfside in Brazoria County.[22] When the National Hurricane Center issued the first advisory on Allison, officials issued Tropical Storm Warnings from Sargent, Texas to Morgan City, Louisiana.[23] After the storm made landfall, flash flood watches and warnings were issued for numerous areas in eastern Texas.[24] During the flood event, the National Weather Service in Houston issued 99 flash flood warnings with an average lead time of 40 minutes. With an average lead time of 24 minutes, the National Weather Service in Lake Charles, Louisiana issued 47 flash flood warnings. With an average lead time of 39 minutes, the National Weather Service in New Orleans/Baton Rouge issued 87 flash flood warnings, of which 30 were not followed by a flash flood.[25]
In Tallahassee, Florida, a shelter opened the day before Allison's movement northward through the area, seven staff members housing 12 people. Two other shelters were on standby. Teams informed citizens in the Florida Panhandle of flood dangers.[26]
Impact[edit]
Death Tolls by State
Area
Deaths
Texas 23
Louisiana 1
Mississippi 1
Florida 8
Virginia 1
Pennsylvania 7
Total
41
Tropical Storm Allison was a major flood disaster throughout its path from Texas to the Mid-Atlantic. The worst of the flooding occurred in Houston, Texas, where over 35 inches (890 mm) of rain fell. Allison caused over $9 billion in damage (2001 USD, $12 billion 2014 USD), making it the costliest tropical storm on record in the United States. The storm also killed 41 people directly, including 27 who drowned. This ties Allison with a tropical storm in 1917 as the second-deadliest tropical storm to affect the US; only surpassed by the 1925 Florida tropical storm which killed 73 people.[2]
Texas[edit]
Main article: Effects of Tropical Storm Allison in Texas
Combined with waves on top, areas of Galveston Island experienced a wall of water 8 feet (2.5 m) in height, creating overwash along the coastline. The storm caused winds of up to 43 mph (69 km/h) at the Galveston Pier. While Allison was stalling over Texas, it dropped very heavy rainfall across the state.[2] Minimal beach erosion was reported.[27] Flash flooding continued for days,[10] with rainfall amounts across the state peaking at just over 40 inches (1,033 mm) in northwestern Jefferson County. In the Port of Houston, a total of 36.99 inches (940 mm) was reported.[9] Houston experienced torrential rainfall in a short amount of time. The six-day rainfall in Houston amounted to 38.6 inches (980 mm).[28] Houston Hobby Airport received 20.84 inches of rain from June 5 to 10, 2001, while Bush Intercontinental Airport received 16.48 inches. [29] The deluge of rainfall flooded 95,000 automobiles and 73,000 houses throughout Harris County.[1] Tropical Storm Allison destroyed 2,744 homes, leaving 30,000 homeless with residential damages totaling to $1.76 billion (2001 USD, $2.29 billion 2012 USD).[28]
The Southwest Freeway, near Downtown Houston, lies under water due to flooding from Tropical Storm Allison
Several hospitals in the Texas Medical Center, the largest medical complex in the world, experienced severe damage from the storm, which hit quickly and with unexpected fury on a Friday evening. The Baylor College of Medicine experienced major damage, totaling $495 million (2001 USD, $643 million 2012 USD). The medical school lost 90,000 research animals, 60,000 tumor samples, and 25 years of research data. The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, across the street, lost thousands of laboratory animals. Throughout the Medical Center, damage totaled to over $2 billion (2001 USD, $2.6 billion 2012 USD).[28]
Buffalo Bayou and White Oak Bayou at Main Street after Tropical Storm Allison hit Houston
The underground tunnel system, which connects most large office buildings in downtown Houston, was submerged, as were many streets and parking garages adjacent to Buffalo Bayou. At the Houston Theater District, also in downtown, the Houston Symphony, Houston Grand Opera, and Alley Theater lost millions of dollars of costumes, musical instruments, sheet music, archives and other artifacts. By midnight on June 9 nearly every freeway and major road in the city was under several feet of water, forcing hundreds of motorists to abandon their vehicles for higher ground.[28]
Despite massive flooding damage to entire neighborhoods there were no drowning deaths in flooded homes. In the area, there were twelve deaths from driving, six from walking, three from electrocution, and one in an elevator.[1] Elsewhere in Texas, a man drowned when swimming in a ditch in Mauriceville.[25] Damage totaled to $5.2 billion (2001 USD, $6.8 billion 2012 USD) throughout Texas.[30]
Louisiana[edit]
Flooding in Chackbay, Louisiana
While making its first landfall, Allison's large circulation dropped severe rains on southwest Louisiana.[31] Days later, Allison hit the state as a subtropical storm, dropping more heavy rains to the area. Rainfall totals peaked at 29.86 inches (758 mm) in Thibodaux, the highest rainfall total in Louisiana from a tropical cyclone since another Tropical Storm Allison in 1989.[32] Most of the southeastern portion of the state experienced over 10 inches of rain (255 mm).[9] Winds were generally light, peaking at 38 mph (61 km/h) sustained in Lakefront with gusts to 53 mph (85 km/h) in Bay Gardene. The storm produced a storm surge of 2.5 feet (0.75 m) in Cameron as it was making landfall in Texas.[2] While moving northward through Texas, the outer bands of the storm produced an F1 tornado near Zachary, damaging several trees and a power line. A man was killed when a damaged power line hit his truck.[33]
When Allison first made landfall, heavy rainfall flooded numerous houses and businesses. Minor wind gusts caused minor roof damage to 10 houses in Cameron Parish, while its storm surge flooded portions of Louisiana Highway 82.[34] When the system returned, more rainfall occurred, flooding over 1,000 houses in St. Tammany Parish,[35] 80 houses in Saint Bernard Parish,[36] and hundreds of houses elsewhere in the state. The flooding also forced 1,800 residents from their homes in East Baton Rouge Parish.[37] The deluge left numerous roads impassable, while runoff resulted in severe river flooding. The Bogue Falaya River in Covington crested past its peak twice to near-record levels.[35] The Amite and Comite Rivers reached their highest levels since 1983. In addition, the levee along the Bayou Manchac broke, flooding roadways and more houses.[37] Damage in Louisiana totaled to $65 million (2001 USD, $84 million 2012 USD).[28]
Southeast United States[edit]
Rainfall totals from Allison
In Mississippi, Allison produced heavy rainfall of over 10 inches (255 mm) in one night,[38] while some areas in the southwestern portion of the state received over 15 inches (380 mm).[9] The flooding damaged numerous houses and flooded many roadways.[38] Thunderstorms from the storm produced four tornadoes,[2] including one in Gulfport, Mississippi that damaged 10 houses.[39] Severe thunderstorms in George County damaged 15 houses, destroyed 10, and injured 5 people.[40] Damage in Mississippi totaled to over $1 million (2001 USD, $1.3 million 2012 USD).[38][39][40] Rainfall in Alabama was moderate, with areas near Mobile experiencing more than 10 inches (255 mm).[9] Heavy rainfall closed several roads in Crenshaw County.[41] The storm, combined with a high pressure, produced coastal flooding in southern Alabama.[42] Allison produced an F0 tornado in southwest Mobile County that caused minor roof damage[43] and another F0 tornado in Covington County that caused minor damage to six homes and a church.[43]
The storm, combined with a high pressure system, produced a strong pressure gradient, resulting in strong rip currents off the coast of Florida. The currents prompted sirens, which are normally used for storm warnings, to be activated in Pensacola Beach.[44] The rip currents killed 5 off the coast of Florida.[45] Outer rain bands from the storm dropped heavy rainfall across the Florida Panhandle of over 11 inches (280 mm) in one day. The Tallahassee Regional Airport recorded 10.13 inches (257 mm) in 24 hours, breaking the old 24‑hour record set in 1969.[46] Throughout the state, Allison destroyed 10 homes and damaged 599, 196 severely, primarily in Leon County.[47] Including the deaths from rip currents, Allison killed eight people in Florida[2] and caused $20 million (2001 USD, $26 million 2012 USD) in damage.[46]
Over Georgia, the storm dropped heavy rainfall of 10 inches (255 mm) in 24 hours in various locations. The deluge caused rivers to crest past their banks, including the Oconee River at Milledgeville which peaked at 33.7 feet (10.3 m). The rainfall, which was heaviest across the southwestern portion of the state, washed out several bridges and roads, and flooded many other roads. Georgia governor Roy Barnes declared a state of emergency for seven counties in the state.[48] The storm also spawned two tornadoes.[2] In South Carolina, Allison's outer bands produced 10 tornadoes[2] and several funnel clouds, though most only caused minor damage limited to a damaged courthouse, snapped trees[49] and downed power lines.[50] Allison produced from 12 to 16 inches (305 to 406 mm) of rainfall in North Carolina, closing nearly all roads in Martin County and damaging 25 homes.[51] The severe flooding washed out a bridge in eastern Halifax County[52] and flooded numerous cars.[32] Wet roads caused nine traffic accidents throughout the state.[2]
Mid-Atlantic and Northeast United States[edit]
Damage from flooding in Pennsylvania
In Virginia, Allison produced light rainfall, with the southeastern and south-central portions of the state experiencing over 3 inches (76 mm).[9] A tree in a saturated ground fell over and killed one person.[53] Allison also produced one tornado in the state.[2] Washington, D.C. experienced moderate rainfall from the storm, totaling to 2.59 inches (66 mm) in Georgetown.[54] In Maryland, rainfall from Tropical Depression Allison totaled to 7.5 inches (190 mm) in Denton, closing eleven roads and causing washouts on 41 others. The Maryland Eastern Shore experienced only minor rainfall from one to two inches (25 to 50 mm). Damage was light, and no deaths were reported.[55] In Delaware, the storm produced moderate rainfall, peaking at 4.2 inches (106 mm) in Greenwood. No damage was reported.[56]
Allison, in combination with an approaching frontal boundary, dropped heavy rainfall across southeastern Pennsylvania, peaking at 10.17 inches (258 mm) in Chalfont in Bucks County and over 3 inches (76 mm) in portions of Philadelphia. The rainfall caused rivers to rise, with the Neshaminy Creek in Langhorne peaking at 16.87 feet (5.1 m). Several other rivers and creeks in southeastern Pennsylvania crested at over 10 feet (3 m). The rainfall downed numerous weak trees and power lines, leaving 70,000 without power during the storm. The flooding washed out several roads and bridges, including a few SEPTA rail lines. In addition, the rainfall destroyed 241 homes and damaged 1,386 others. Flooding at a Dodge dealership totaled 150 vehicles. Hundreds of people were forced to be rescued from damaged buildings from flood waters. The flooding dislodged a clothes dryer in the basement of the "A" building of the Village Green Apartment Complex in Upper Moreland Township, breaking a natural gas line. The gas leak resulted in an explosion and an ensuing fire that killed six people. Firefighters were unable to render assistance as the building was completely surrounded by floodwaters. Additionally, one man drowned in his vehicle in a river.[57] Damage in Pennsylvania totaled to $215 million (2001 USD, $279 million 2012 USD).[28]
In New Jersey, the storm produced heavy rainfall, peaking at 8.1 inches (205 mm) in Tuckerton. The rains also caused river flooding, including the north branch of the Metedeconk River in Lakewood which crested at 8 feet (2.5 m). The flooding, severe at places, closed several roads, including numerous state highways.[58] Gusty winds of up to 44 mph (71 km/h) in Atlantic City downed weak trees and power lines, leaving over 13,000 without power. Several people had to be rescued from high waters, though no fatalities occurred in the state. Overall damage was minimal.[59]
Tropical Storm Allison caused flash flooding in New York, dropping up to 3 inches (75 mm) of rain in one hour in several locations and peaking at 5.73 inches (146 mm) in Granite Springs. The rains also caused river flooding, including the Mahwah River which crested at 3.79 feet (1.2 m). Allison's rainfall damaged 24 houses and several stores, while the flooding closed several major highways in the New York City area. Overall damage was light, and no fatalities occurred in New York due to Allison.[60] Similarly, rainfall in Connecticut peaked at 7.2 inches (183 mm) in Pomfret,[61] closing several roads and causing minor damage to numerous houses. The Yantic River at Yantic crested at 11.1 feet (3.4 m),[61] while a state road was closed when a private dam in Hampton failed from the rainfall.[61] In Rhode Island, Allison produced up to 7.1 inches (180 mm) of rainfall in North Smithfield, washing out several roads and houses, and destroying a log house in Foster.[62]
An isolated severe thunderstorm in the outer bands of Allison produced an F1 tornado in Worcester and Middlesex Counties in Massachusetts, impacting over 100 trees and damaging one house and one small camper. A microburst in Leominster and another in Shirley damaged several trees. Lightning from the storm hit two houses, causing significant damage there but little elsewhere. Allison also produced moderate rainfall in the state, mainly ranging from 3 to 5 inches (75 to 125 mm). The rainfall caused drainage and traffic problems. Damage in Massachusetts totaled to $400,000 (2001 USD, $520,000 2012 USD).[63]
Aftermath[edit]
Main article: Effects of Tropical Storm Allison in Texas
Within weeks of the disaster, President George W. Bush declared 75 counties in Texas,[64] southern Louisiana,[65] southern Mississippi,[66] northwestern Florida,[67] and southeastern Pennsylvania as disaster areas.[68] The declarations allowed affected citizens to receive aid for temporary housing, emergency home repairs, and other serious disaster-related expenses. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) also provided 75% for the cost of debris removal, emergency services related to the disaster, and repairing or replacing damaged public facilities, such as roads, bridges and utilities.[64]
Aid from the American Red Cross
A few weeks after Allison, FEMA opened six disaster recovery centers across southeast Texas, which provided recovery information to those who applied for disaster assistance.[69] The American Red Cross and the Salvation Army opened 48 shelters at the peak of need for people driven from their homes, which served nearly 300,000 meals. The National Disaster Medical System deployed a temporary hospital to Houston with 88 professionals, aiding nearly 500 people.[70] Thirty-five volunteer services provided aid for the flood victims in Texas, including food, clothing, and volunteers to help repair the houses.[71] After nearly 50,000 cars were flooded and ruined, many people attempted to sell the cars across the country without telling of the car's history.[72] Following the extreme flooding, a mosquito outbreak occurred, though FEMA provided aid to control the problem.[73] By six months after the storm, around 120,000 Texas citizens applied for federal disaster aid, totaling to $1.05 billion (2001 USD, $1.36 billion 2012 USD).[74]
Like in Texas, a mosquito outbreak occurred in Louisiana. Only pesticides acceptable to the US Environmental Protection Agency and the US Fish and Wildlife Service were allowed to be used.[75] FEMA officials warned homeowners of the dangers of floodwaters, including mold, mildew, and bacteria.[76] By three months after the storm, just under 100,000 Louisiana citizens applied for federal aid, totaling to over $110 million (2001 USD, $143 million 2012 USD). $25 million (2001 USD, $32 million 2012 USD) of the total was for business loans, while an additional $8 million was for public assistance for communities and state agencies.[77] More than 750 flood victims in Florida applied for governmental aid, totaling to $1.29 million (2001 USD, $1.5 million 2007 USD).[78] In Pennsylvania, 1,670 flood victims applied for federal aid, totaling to $11.5 million (2001 USD, $14.3 million 2012 USD). $3.4 million (2001 USD, $4.4 million 2012 USD) of the total was to replace a SEPTA rail bridge over Sandy Run in Fort Washington.[79]
Retirement[edit]
See also: List of retired Atlantic hurricane names
Due to extreme destruction, the name Allison was retired in spring 2002, and will never again be used in the Atlantic basin; the 2001 incarnation of Allison was the only Atlantic tropical system to have its name retired without reaching hurricane strength until the name Erika was retired following a storm in 2015. The name was replaced with Andrea in the 2007 season.
See also[edit]
Houston portal
Tropical cyclones portal
Hurricane Harvey
1960 Texas tropical storm
Tropical Storm Amelia (1978)
Tropical Storm Claudette (1979)
Tropical Storm Alberto (1994)
Tropical Storm Lee (2011)
Tropical Cyclone
List of tropical cyclones
List of Atlantic hurricanes
List of wettest tropical cyclones in the United States
Timeline of the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season
List of North Carolina hurricanes (1980–present)
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^ Jump up to: a b National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Report for Florida (3)". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-06-07.
Jump up ^ Gathana Parmenas (2001). "Detailed Damage Assessment Summary in Florida". Retrieved 2006-05-18.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Report for Georgia". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-06-08.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Report for South Carolina". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-06-08.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Report for South Carolina (2)". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-06-08.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Report for North Carolina". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-06-08.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Report for North Carolina". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-06-08.
Jump up ^ USA Today.com (2001-07-03). "Allison was weak, but a killer". Retrieved 2006-06-02.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Record Details for Tropical Storm Allison in Washington D.C.". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-05-26.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Record Details for Tropical Storm Allison in Maryland". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-05-26.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Record Details for Tropical Storm Allison in Delaware". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-05-26.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Record Details for Tropical Storm Allison in Pennsylvania". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-05-26.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Record Details for Tropical Storm Allison in New Jersey". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-05-26.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Record Details for Tropical Storm Allison in New Jersey". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-05-26.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Record Details for Tropical Storm Allison in New York". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-05-26.
^ Jump up to: a b c National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Record Details for Tropical Storm Allison in Connecticut". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-05-26.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Record Details for Tropical Storm Allison in Rhode Island". Archived from the original on March 3, 2012. Retrieved 2006-05-26.
Jump up ^ National Climatic Data Center (2001). "Event Record Details for Tropical Storm Allison in Massachusetts". Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. Retrieved 2006-05-31.
^ Jump up to: a b FEMA (2001). "Texas Severe Storms & Flooding". Archived from the original on 2012-03-15. Retrieved 2006-06-13.
Jump up ^ Fema (2001). "Louisiana Tropical Storm Allison". Archived from the original on 2012-01-05. Retrieved 2006-06-11.
Jump up ^ FEMA (2001). "Mississippi Tropical Storm Allison". Archived from the original on 2012-01-06. Retrieved 2006-06-11.
Jump up ^ FEMA (2001). "Florida Tropical Storm Allison". Archived from the original on 2012-01-06. Retrieved 2006-06-11.
Jump up ^ FEMA (2001). "Pennsylvania Tropical Storm Allison". Archived from the original on 2012-03-15. Retrieved 2006-06-11.
Jump up ^ FEMA (2001). "Disaster Recovery Centers To Open". Archived from the original on 2012-03-15. Retrieved 2006-06-14.
Jump up ^ FEMA (2001). "Mobile Military Hospital Provides Emergency Care For Houston's Citizens". Archived from the original on 2012-03-15.
Jump up ^ FEMA (2001). "Quiet Heroes — Voluntary Agencies". Archived from the original on September 20, 2005. Retrieved 2006-06-14.
Jump up ^ FEMA (2001). "Buyer Beware: Flood-Damaged Cars Being Sold". Archived from the original on September 20, 2005. Retrieved 2006-06-14.
Jump up ^ FEMA (2001). "FEMA Funding Mosquito Control". Archived from the original on 2012-03-15. Retrieved 2006-06-14.
Jump up ^ FEMA (2001). "Six Months After Allison, Disaster Assistance Reaches $1.05 Billion". Archived from the original on 2012-03-15. Retrieved 2006-06-14.
Jump up ^ FEMA (2001). "Responsible Response to Mosquitoes". Archived from the original on 2010-06-08. Retrieved 2006-06-14.
Jump up ^ FEMA (2001). "Drying Out, Cleaning Up After Allison". Archived from the original on 2010-06-08. Retrieved 2006-06-14.
Jump up ^ FEMA (2001). "Summary Of Louisiana Disaster Assistance". Archived from the original on 2010-06-08. Retrieved 2006-06-14.
Jump up ^ FEMA (2001). "$1.2 Million Approved For Florida's Allison Flood Victims". Archived from the original on 2011-09-17. Retrieved 2006-06-14.
Jump up ^ FEMA (2001). "Disaster Aid, Loans for Pennsylvanians Near $11.5 Million". Archived from the original on 2010-06-08. Retrieved 2006-06-14.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tropical Storm Allison.
National Hurricane Center Tropical Cyclone Report on Allison
US National Hurricane Center Tropical Storm Allison advisory archive
Affects Of Tropical Storm Allison In Houston
wpc Rainfall Summary for Allison
NWS Service Assessment (PDF)
Tropical Storm Allison Recovery Project Community resources and continuing research of the continued flood threat to Houston
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Royal Proclamation of 1763
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"Indian Magna Carta" redirects here. This term has also been applied to the United States Indian Reorganization Act.
A portion of eastern North America; the 1763 "proclamation line" is the border between the red and the pink areas
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The Royal Proclamation of 1763 was issued October 7, 1763, by King George III following Great Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America after the end of the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War, which forbade all settlement past a line drawn along the Appalachian Mountains.[1] It rendered worthless land grants given by the British government to Americans who fought for the crown against France. The Proclamation angered American colonists who wanted to continue their westward expansion into new farm lands and wanted to keep their control of local government. The Royal Proclamation continues to be of legal importance to First Nations in Canada. The 1763 proclamation line is similar to the Eastern Continental Divide's path running northwards from Georgia to the Pennsylvania–New York border, and north-eastwards past the drainage divide on the St. Lawrence Divide from there northwards through New England.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Provisions
2.1 New colonies
2.2 Native lands
2.2.1 Proclamation line
3 Legacy
3.1 Indigenous People of Treaty Six Territory
3.2 United States
3.3 250th anniversary celebrations
4 See also
5 Footnotes
6 Sources
7 Further reading
7.1 Canada
8 External links
Background[edit]
Main article: Great Britain in the Seven Years' War
The Treaty of Paris was the official conclusion of the Seven Years' War, of which the French and Indian War was the North American theater. Under this treaty, France ceded ownership to Britain all of continental North America east of the Mississippi River, including Quebec, and the rest of Canada. Spain received all French territory west of the Mississippi. Both Spain and Britain received some French islands in the Caribbean. France kept a few small islands used by fishermen,[2] modern-day Haiti and the rich sugar island of Guadeloupe.
Provisions[edit]
New colonies[edit]
The Eastern (orange line) in the southern areas, and St. Lawrence (magenta line) watershed boundaries in the northern areas of this map more-or-less defined almost all of the Royal Proclamation's western boundaries
Besides regulating colonial expansion, the Proclamation of 1763 dealt with the management of inherited French colonies from the French and Indian War. It established government for four areas: Quebec, West Florida, East Florida, and Grenada.
Native lands[edit]
Some Native American peoples—primarily in the Great Lakes region—had a long and close relationship with France, and were dismayed to find that they were now under British sovereignty. They missed the amicable relationship with the French, along with the gifts they bestowed upon them, neither of which they had with the British. Pontiac's Rebellion (1763–66), a war launched by a group of natives around the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley, was an unsuccessful effort by the western tribes to push the British back. However tribes were able to take over a large number of the forts which commanded the waterways involved in trade within the region and export to Great Britain. The Proclamation of 1763 had been in the works before Pontiac's Rebellion, but the outbreak of the conflict hastened the process.[3] British officials hoped the proclamation would reconcile American Indians to British rule and help to prevent future hostilities.
Proclamation line[edit]
New borders drawn by the Royal Proclamation of 1763.
At the outset, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 defined the jurisdictional limits of the conquered territory. Out of what had been the Canada colony of New France, a diminutive new colony, the Province of Quebec was carved. The territory northeast of the St. John River on the Labrador coast was placed under the Newfoundland Colony.[4] The lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement, to the great disappointment of the land speculators of Virginia and Pennsylvania, who had started the Seven Years' War to gain these territories.[5] The proclamation created a boundary line (often called the proclamation line) between the British colonies on the Atlantic coast and American Indian lands (called the Indian Reserve) west of the Appalachian Mountains. The proclamation line was not intended to be a permanent boundary between the colonists and Aboriginal lands, but rather a temporary boundary which could be extended further west in an orderly, lawful manner.[6][7] It was also not designed as an uncrossable boundary; people could cross the line, just not settle past it. Its contour was defined by the headwaters that formed the watershed along the Appalachians. All land with rivers that flowed into the Atlantic was designated for the colonial entities, while all the land with rivers that flowed into the Mississippi was reserved for the native Indian population. The proclamation outlawed the private purchase of Native American land, which had often created problems in the past. Instead, all future land purchases were to be made by Crown officials "at some public Meeting or Assembly of the said Indians". Furthermore, British colonials were forbidden to settle on native lands, and colonial officials were forbidden to grant ground or lands without royal approval. The proclamation gave the Crown a monopoly on all future land purchases from American Indians.
British colonists and land speculators objected to the proclamation boundary since the British government had already assigned land grants to them. Many settlements already existed beyond the proclamation line,[3] some of which had been temporarily evacuated during Pontiac's War, and there were many already granted land claims yet to be settled. For example, George Washington and his Virginia soldiers had been granted lands past the boundary. Prominent American colonials joined with the land speculators in Britain to lobby the government to move the line further west. Their efforts were successful, and the boundary line was adjusted in a series of treaties with the Native Americans. In 1768 the Treaty of Fort Stanwix and the Treaty of Hard Labour, followed in 1770 by the Treaty of Lochaber, opened much of what is now Kentucky and West Virginia to British settlement.
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Indigenous People of Treaty Six Territory[edit]
For more details on Canadian Aboriginal legacy, see The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples.
The Royal Proclamation continued to govern the cession of Indigenous land in British North America, especially Upper Canada and Rupert's Land. The proclamation forms the basis of land claims of Indigenous peoples in Canada – First Nations, Inuit, and Métis. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 is thus mentioned in Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
According to historian Colin Calloway, "[settler] scholars disagree on whether the proclamation recognized or undermined tribal sovereignty".[8] The proclamation established the important precedent that the indigenous population had certain rights to the lands they occupied.
Some see the Royal Proclamation of 1763 as a "fundamental document" for First Nations land claims and self-government.[9] It is “the first legal recognition by the British Crown of Aboriginal rights"[10] and imposes a fiduciary duty of care on the Crown. The intent and promises made to the native in the Proclamation have been argued to be of a temporary nature, only meant to appease the Native peoples who were becoming increasingly resentful of “settler encroachments on their lands”[11] and were capable of becoming a serious threat to British colonial settlement.[12][13] Advice given by a merchant to the Board of Trade on August 30, 1764, expressed that
The Indians all know we cannot be a Match for them in the midst of an extensive woody Country...from whence I infer that if we are determined to possess Our Posts, Trade & ca securely, it cannot be done for a Century by any other means than that of purchasing the favour of the numerous Indian inhabitants.[14]
Some historians believe that “the British were trying to convince Native people that there was nothing to fear from the colonists, while at the same time trying to increase political and economic power relative to First Nations and other European powers.”[15] Others argue that the Royal Proclamation along with the subsequent Treaty of Niagara, provide for an argument that “discredits the claims of the Crown to exercise sovereignty over First Nations”[16] and affirms Aboriginal “powers of self-determination in, among other things, allocating lands.”[17]
United States[edit]
USA Proclamation of 1763 Silver Medal. Franklin Mint Issue 1970.
The influence of the Royal Proclamation of 1763 on the coming of the American Revolution has been variously interpreted. Many historians argue that the proclamation ceased to be a major source of tension after 1768, since the aforementioned treaties opened up extensive lands for settlement. Others have argued that colonial resentment of the proclamation contributed to the growing divide between the colonies and the mother country. Some historians argue that even though the boundary was pushed west in subsequent treaties, the British government refused to permit new colonial settlements for fear of instigating a war with Native Americans, which angered colonial land speculators.[18] Others argue that the Royal Proclamation imposed a fiduciary duty of care on the Crown.[citation needed]
George Washington was given 20,000 acres (81 km2) of wild land in the Ohio region for his services in the French and Indian War. In 1770, Washington took the lead in securing the rights of him and his old soldiers in the French War, advancing money to pay expenses in behalf of the common cause and using his influence in the proper quarters. In August 1770, it was decided that Washington should personally make a trip to the western region, where he located tracts for himself and military comrades and eventually was granted letters patent for tracts of land there. The lands involved were open to Virginians under terms of the Treaty of Lochaber of 1770, except for the lands located 2 miles south of Fort Pitt, now known as Pittsburgh.[19]
In the United States, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 ended with the American Revolutionary War because Great Britain ceded the land in question to the United States in the Treaty of Paris (1783). Afterward, the U.S. government also faced difficulties in preventing frontier violence and eventually adopted policies similar to those of the Royal Proclamation. The first in a series of Indian Intercourse Acts was passed in 1790, prohibiting unregulated trade and travel in Native American lands. In 1823, the U.S. Supreme Court case Johnson v. M'Intosh[20] established that only the U.S. government, and not private individuals, could purchase land from Native Americans.
250th anniversary celebrations[edit]
In October 2013 the 250th anniversary of the Royal Proclamation was celebrated in Ottawa with a meeting of Indian leaders and Governor-General David Johnston.[21] The Aboriginal movement Idle No More held birthday parties for this monumental document at various locations across Canada.[22]
See also[edit]
Indian removal
Indian barrier state
Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which mentions the 1763 Royal Proclamation
Old Northwest
Northwest Territory
Old Southwest
Southwest Territory
Indian Reserve (1763)
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ Royal Proclamation I
Jump up ^ Fred Anderson, Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754-1766 (2007)
^ Jump up to: a b Gordon S. Wood, The American Revolution, A History. New York, Modern Library, 2002 ISBN 0-8129-7041-1, p.22
Jump up ^ W. J. Eccles, France in America, Fitzhrenry & Whiteside Limited 1972, p220
Jump up ^ Jack M. Sosin, Whitehall and the Wilderness (University of Nebraska Pres. 1961 p. 146
Jump up ^ Harvey Markowitz, American Indians (1995) p. 633
Jump up ^ Louis De Vorsey, The Indian boundary in the southern colonies, 1763–1775 (1966) p. 39.
Jump up ^ Calloway, Scratch of a Pen, 93.
Jump up ^ Borrows, Wampum, 155.
Jump up ^ Douglas R. Francis, Richard Jones and Donald B. Smith, Origins: Canadian History to Confederation 6th ed. (Toronto: Nelson Education Ltd., 2009), 157.
Jump up ^ Francis et al., Origins, 156.
Jump up ^ Jack Stagg, Anglo-Indian Relations In North America to 1763 and An Analysis of the Royal Proclamation of 7 October 1763, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Research Branch, 1981, 356.
Jump up ^ Borrows, Wampum, 158–159.
Jump up ^ Quoted in Native Liberty, Crown Sovereignty: The Existing Aboriginal Right of Self-Government in Canada, Bruce Clark. (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990), 81.
Jump up ^ Borrows, "Wampum," 160.
Jump up ^ Borrows, Wampum, 164.
Jump up ^ Borrows, Wampum, 165.
Jump up ^ Woody Holton (August 1994). "The Ohio Indians and the Coming of the American Revolution in Virginia". The Journal of Southern History. 60 (3): 453–78. doi:10.2307/2210989.
Jump up ^ "Letter from George Washington to George Mercer dated November 7, 1771, at Williamsburg". The writings of George Washington from the original manuscript sources. p. 68.
Jump up ^ 21 U.S. (8 Wheat.) 543 (1823)
Jump up ^ CBC.ca: "Royal Proclamation of 1763, Canada's 'Indian Magna Carta,' turns 250" 6 Oct 2013
Jump up ^ G+M "Royal Proclamation’s 250th anniversary has First Nations reflecting on their rights" 7 October 2013
Sources[edit]
Abernethy, Thomas Perkins (1959) [1937]. Western Lands and the American Revolution. New York: Russell & Russell.
Borrows, John (1997). "Wampum at Niagara: The Royal Proclamation, Canadian Legal History, and Self-Government". In Asch, Michael. Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada. Vancouver: UBC Press. ISBN 0-7748-0580-3.
Calloway, Colin (2006). The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530071-8.
Further reading[edit]
Marshall, Peter. "Sir William Johnson and the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, 1768." Journal of American Studies (1967) 1#2 pp 149–179. doi:10.1017/S0021875800007830
Sosin, Jack. Whitehall and the wilderness: The Middle West in British colonial policy, 1760-1775 (1961), the standard scholarly history of the proclamation and its effects.
Stuart, Paul. The Indian Office: Growth and Development of an American Institution, 1865-1900 (UMI Research Press, 1979)
Canada[edit]
Cashin, Edward J. "Governor Henry Ellis and the Transformation of British North America." Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994.
Fenge, Terry and Jim Aldridge (eds.), Keeping Promises: The Royal Proclamation of 1763, Aboriginal Rights, and Treaties in Canada, 2015, McGill-Queen's University Press
Lawson, Philip. The Imperial Challenge: Quebec and Britain in the Age of the American Revolution. Montreal/Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1989.
Roth, Christopher F. (2002) "Without Treaty, without Conquest: Indigenous Sovereignty in Post-Delgamuukw British Columbia." Wicazo Sa Review, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 143–165.
Stonechild, Blair A. "Indian-White Relations in Canada, 1763 to the Present." In Encyclopedia of North American Indians, ed. Frederick E. Hoxie, 277–81. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1996.
Tousignant, Pierre. "The Integration of the Province of Quebec into the British Empire, 1763–91. Part 1: From the Royal Proclamation to the Quebec Act." In Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 4. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Royal Proclamation of 1763
The London Gazette of October 4, 1763 Issue:10354 p.1 Complete text as published in The London Gazette
Complete text of the Royal Proclamation, 1763
Royal Proclamation of 1763 - Chickasaw.TV
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