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Language of Jesus
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It is generally agreed by historians that Jesus and his disciples primarily spoke Aramaic (Jewish Palestinian Aramaic), the common language of Judea in the first century AD, most likely a Galilean dialect distinguishable from that of Jerusalem.[1] The towns of Nazareth and Capernaum in Galilee, where Jesus spent most of his time, were Aramaic-speaking communities.[2] It is also likely that Jesus knew enough Koine Greek to converse with those not native to Palestine, and it is also possible that Jesus knew some Hebrew for religious purposes.[3][4][5]
Contents
1 Cultural and linguistic background
2 Aramaic phrases in the Greek New Testament
2.1 Talitha kum (Ταλιθὰ κούμ)
2.2 Ephphatha (Ἐφφαθά)
2.3 Abba (Ἀββά[ς])
2.4 Raca (Ρακά)
2.5 Mammon (Μαμωνάς)
2.6 Rabbuni (Ραββουνί)
2.7 Maranatha (Μαραναθά)
2.8 Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani (Ἠλί, Ἠλί, λιμὰ σαβαχθανί)
2.9 Jot and tittle (Ἰῶτα ἓν ἢ μία κεραία)
2.10 Korban (Κορβάν)
2.11 Sikera (Σίκερα)
2.12 Hosanna (Ὡσαννά)
3 Aramaic personal names in the New Testament
3.1 Boanerges (Βοανηργές)
3.2 Cephas (Κηφᾶς)
3.3 Thomas (Θωμᾶς)
3.4 Tabitha (Ταβιθά)
4 Aramaic place names in the New Testament
4.1 Gethsemane (Γεθσημανῆ)
4.2 Golgotha (Γολγοθᾶ)
4.3 Gabbatha (Γαββαθᾶ)
4.4 Akeldama (Ἀκελδαμά)
4.5 Pool of Bethesda (Βηθεσδά)
5 See also
6 Notes
Cultural and linguistic background[edit]
See also: Cultural and historical background of Jesus
Aramaic was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean during and after the Neo-Assyrian, Neo-Babylonian, and Achaemenid Empires (722–330 BC) and remained a common language of the region in the first century AD. In spite of the increasing importance of Greek, the use of Aramaic was also expanding, and it would eventually be dominant among Jews both in the Holy Land and elsewhere in the Middle East around 200 AD[6] and would remain so until the Islamic conquests in the seventh century.[7][8]
According to Dead Sea Scrolls archaeologist Yigael Yadin, Aramaic was the language of Hebrews until Simon Bar Kokhba's revolt (132 AD to 135 AD). Yadin noticed the shift from Aramaic to Hebrew in the documents he studied, which had been written during the time of the Bar Kokhba revolt. In his book, Bar Kokhba: The rediscovery of the legendary hero of the last Jewish Revolt Against Imperial Rome, Yigael Yadin notes, "It is interesting that the earlier documents are written in Aramaic while the later ones are in Hebrew. Possibly the change was made by a special decree of Bar Kokhba who wanted to restore Hebrew as the official language of the state".[9]
In another book by Sigalit Ben-Zion, Yadin said: "it seems that this change came as a result of the order that was given by Bar Kokhba, who wanted to revive the Hebrew language and make it the official language of the state."[10] Yadin points out that Aramaic was the lingua franca at the time.[11]
Hebrew historian Josephus comments on learning Greek in first century Judea:[12]
I have also taken a great deal of pains to obtain the learning of the Greeks, and understand the elements of the Greek language, although I have so long accustomed myself to speak our own tongue, that I cannot pronounce Greek with sufficient exactness; for our nation does not encourage those that learn the languages of many nations, and so adorn their discourses with the smoothness of their periods; because they look upon this sort of accomplishment as common, not only to all sorts of free-men, but to as many of the servants as please to learn them. But they give him the testimony of being a wise man who is fully acquainted with our laws, and is able to interpret their meaning; on which account, as there have been many who have done their endeavors with great patience to obtain this learning, there have yet hardly been so many as two or three that have succeeded therein, who were immediately well rewarded for their pains.
—  Antiquities of Jews XX, XI
In the first century AD, the Aramaic language was widespread throughout the Middle East, as is supported by the testimony of Josephus's The Jewish War.[13]
Josephus chose to inform people from what are now Iran, Iraq, and remote parts of the Arabian Peninsula about the war of the Jews against the Romans through books he wrote "in the language of our country", prior to translating into Greek for the benefit of the Greeks and Romans:
I have proposed to myself, for the sake of such as live under the government of the Romans, to translate those books into the Greek tongue, which I formerly composed in the language of our country, and sent to the Upper Barbarians; Joseph, the son of Matthias, by birth a Hebrew, a priest also, and one who at first fought against the Romans myself, and was forced to be present at what was done afterwards, [am the author of this work].
—  Jewish Wars (Book 1, Preface, Paragraph 1)
I thought it therefore an absurd thing to see the truth falsified in affairs of such great consequence, and to take no notice of it; but to suffer those Greeks and Romans that were not in the wars to be ignorant of these things, and to read either flatteries or fictions, while the Parthians, and the Babylonians, and the remotest Arabians, and those of our nation beyond Euphrates, with the Adiabeni, by my means, knew accurately both whence the war begun, what miseries it brought upon us, and after what manner it ended.
—  Jewish Wars (Book 1 Preface, Paragraph 2)
H. St. J. Thackeray (who translated Josephus' Jewish Wars from Greek into English) also points out, "We learn from the proem that the Greek text was not the first draft of the work. It had been preceded by a narrative written in Aramaic and addressed to "the barbarians in the interior", who are more precisely defined lower down as the natives of Parthia, Babylonia, and Arabia, the Jewish dispersion in Mesopotamia, and the inhabitants of Adiabene, a principality of which the reigning house, as was proudly remembered, were converts to Judaism (B. i, 3, 6). Of this Aramaic work the Greek is described as a "version" made for the benefit of the subjects of the Roman Empire, i.e. the Graeco-Roman world at large.[14]
In Acts 1:19, the "Field of Blood" was known to all the inhabitants of Jerusalem in their own language as Akeldama, which is the transliteration of the Aramaic words "Haqal Dama".[15]
Josephus differentiated Hebrew from his language and that of first-century Israel. Josephus refers to Hebrew words as belonging to "the Hebrew tongue" but refers to Aramaic words as belonging to "our tongue" or "our language" or "the language of our country".
Josephus refers to a Hebrew word with the phrase "the Hebrew tongue": "But the affairs of the Canaanites were at this time in a flourishing condition, and they expected the Israelites with a great army at the city Bezek, having put the government into the hands of Adonibezek, which name denotes the Lord of Bezek, for Adoni in the Hebrew tongue signifies Lord."[16]
In this example, Josephus refers to an Aramaic word as belonging to "our language": "This new-built part of the city was called 'Bezetha,' in our language, which, if interpreted in the Grecian language, may be called 'the New City.'"[17]
On several occasions in the New Testament, Aramaic words are called Hebrew. For example, in John 19:17 (KJV), the gospel-writer narrates that Jesus, "bearing his cross[,] went forth into a place called the place of a skull, which is called in the Hebrew Golgotha." The last word is, in fact, Aramaic. The word "Golgotha" is a transliteration of an Aramaic word, because -tha in Golgotha is the Aramaic definite article on a feminine noun in an emphatic state.[18]
Aramaic phrases in the Greek New Testament[edit]
Main article: Language of the New Testament
The Greek New Testament transliterates a few Semitic words.[19] When the text itself refers to the language of such Semitic glosses, it uses words meaning "Hebrew"/"Jewish",[20] but this term is often applied to unmistakably Aramaic words and phrases;[21][22] for this reason, it is often interpreted as meaning "the (Aramaic) vernacular of the Jews" in recent translations.[23] The "Semitisms" are mainly words attributed to Jesus by the Gospel of Mark, and perhaps had a special significance because of this.
A very small minority believes that most or all of the New Testament was originally written in Aramaic.[24][25] However, such theories are rejected by mainstream Biblical scholarship. Traditionally, parts of the Church of the East (Nestorian church) have also claimed originality for the Aramaic New Testament, but it is considered by scholars to be a translation from Greek. Instead, the consensus among mainstream academia is that although it is possible that there may be Aramaic source materials that underpin some portions of the New Testament, the New Testament was compiled and redacted in the Greek language. Scholars are also in agreement that there was at one time an early Aramaic/Hebrew version of a Jewish-Christian gospel, but its relation to the Greek gospels is not completely clear because of a lack of sources.
Talitha kum (Ταλιθὰ κούμ)[edit]
See also: Daughter of Jairus
Mark 5:41
And taking the hand of the child, he said to her, "Talitha kum", which translates as, "Little girl, I say to you, get up."
This verse gives an Aramaic phrase, attributed to Jesus bringing the girl back to life, with a transliteration into Greek, as ταλιθὰ κούμ. A few Greek manuscripts (Codex Sinaiticus, Vaticanus) of Mark's Gospel have this form of the text, but others (Codex Alexandrinus, the text-type known as the Majority Text, and also the Latin Vulgate) write κοῦμι (koumi, cumi) instead. The latter is in the Textus Receptus and is the version which appears in the KJV.
The Aramaic is ṭlīthā qūm. The word ṭlīthā is the feminine form of the word ṭlē, meaning "young". Qūm is the Aramaic verb 'to rise, stand, get up'. In the feminine singular imperative, it was originally qūmī. However, there is evidence that in speech, the final -ī was dropped so the imperative did not distinguish between masculine and feminine genders. The older manuscripts, therefore, used a Greek spelling that reflected pronunciation whereas the addition of an 'ι' was perhaps due to a bookish copyist.
In square script Aramaic, it could be טליתא קומי or טלתא קומי.
Ephphatha (Ἐφφαθά)[edit]
See also: Healing the deaf mute of Decapolis
Mark 7:34
And looking up to heaven, he sighed and said to him, "Ephphatha," which is 'be opened'.
Once again, the Aramaic word is given with the transliteration, only this time, the word to be transliterated is more complicated. In Greek, the Aramaic is written ἐφφαθά. This could be from the Aramaic ethpthaḥ, the passive imperative of the verb pthaḥ, 'to open', since the th could assimilate in western Aramaic. The pharyngeal ḥ was often omitted in Greek transcriptions in the Septuagint (Greek Old Testament) and was also softened in Galilean speech.[26]
In Aramaic, it could be אתפתח or אפתח. This word was adopted as the official motto of Gallaudet University, the United States' most prominent school for the deaf.
Abba (Ἀββά[ς])[edit]
See also: Agony in the Garden
Mark 14:36
"Abba, Father," he said, "everything is possible for you. Take this cup from me. Yet not what I will, but what you will."
Abba, an originally Aramaic form borrowed into the Greek Old Testament as a name (2Chr 29:1) [though a feminine one, standing for the Hebrew Abijah (אביה)], common in Mishnaic Hebrew and still used in Modern Hebrew[27] (written Αββά[ς] in Greek, and ’abbā in Aramaic), is immediately followed by the Greek equivalent (Πατήρ) with no explicit mention of it being a translation. The phrase Abba, Father is repeated in Romans 8:15 and Galatians 4:6. In Aramaic, it would be אבא.
Note, the name Barabbas is a Hellenization of the Aramaic Bar Abba (בר אבא), literally "Son of the Father".
Raca (Ρακά)[edit]
See also: Matthew 5:22
Matthew 5:22
But I say unto you, That whosoever is angry with his brother [without a cause] shall be in danger of the judgment: and whosoever shall say to his brother, Raca, shall be in danger of the council: but whosoever shall say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of hell fire.
(The bracketed text does not appear in all recensions and is absent in the Latin Vulgate.)
Raca, or Raka, in the Aramaic and Hebrew of the Talmud, means empty one, fool, empty head.
In Aramaic, it could be ריקא or ריקה.
Mammon (Μαμωνάς)[edit]
Main article: Mammon
See also: Matthew 6:24
Gospel of Matthew 6:24
No one can serve two masters: for either they will hate the one, and love the other; or else they will hold to the one, and despise the other. You cannot serve God and mammon.
Luke 16:9–13
And I say unto you, Make to yourselves friends of the mammon of unrighteousness; that, when ye fail, they may receive you into everlasting habitations. He that is faithful in that which is least is faithful also in much: and he that is unjust in the least is unjust also in much. If therefore ye have not been faithful in the unrighteous mammon, who will commit to your trust the true riches? And if ye have not been faithful in that which is another man's, who shall give you that which is your own? No servant can serve two masters: for either he will hate the one, and love the other; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. Ye cannot serve God and mammon.
2 Clement 6
Now the Lord declares, "No servant can serve two masters." If we desire, then, to serve both God and mammon, it will be unprofitable for us. "For what will it profit if a man gain the whole world, and lose his own soul?" This world and the next are two enemies. The one urges to adultery and corruption, avarice and deceit; the other bids farewell to these things. We cannot, therefore, be the friends of both; and it behoves us, by renouncing the one, to make sure of the other. Let us reckon that it is better to hate the things present, since they are trifling, and transient, and corruptible; and to love those [who are to come,] as being good and incorruptible. For if we do the will of Christ, we shall find rest; otherwise, nothing shall deliver us from eternal punishment, if we disobey His commandments. (Roberts-Donaldson)
In Aramaic, it could be ממון (or, in the typical Aramaic "emphatic" state suggested by the Greek ending, ממונא). This is usually considered to be an originally Aramaic word borrowed into Rabbinic Hebrew,[28] but its occurrence in late Biblical Hebrew and, reportedly, in 4th century Punic may indicate that it had a more general "common Semitic background".[29]
In the New Testament, the word Μαμωνᾶς Mammon, is declined like a Greek word whereas many of the other Aramaic and Hebrew words are treated as indeclinable foreign words.
Rabbuni (Ραββουνί)[edit]
See also: Noli me tangere
John 20:16
Jesus saith unto her, Mary. She turned herself, and saith unto him, Rabboni; which is to say, Master. (KJV)
Also in Mark 10:51. Hebrew form rabbi used as title of Jesus in Matthew 26:25,49; Mark 9:5, 11:21, 14:45; John 1:38, 1:49, 4:31, 6:25, 9:2, 11:8.
In Aramaic, it would have been רבוני.
Maranatha (Μαραναθά)[edit]
Main article: Maranatha
Didache 10 (Prayer after Communion)
Let grace come, and let this world pass away. Hosanna to the God (Son) of David! If any one is holy, let him come; if any one is not so, let him repent. Maranatha. Amen. (Roberts-Donaldson)
1 Corinthians 16:22
If any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be Anathema Maranatha.
Depending on how one selects to split the single Greek expression of the early manuscripts into Aramaic, it could be either מרנא תא (marana tha, "Lord, come!") or מרן אתא (maran atha, "Our Lord has come").
Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani (Ἠλί, Ἠλί, λιμὰ σαβαχθανί)[edit]
Main article: Sayings of Jesus on the cross
Matthew 27:46
Around the ninth hour, Jesus shouted in a loud voice, saying "Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani?" which is, "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?"
Mark 15:34
And at the ninth hour, Jesus shouted in a loud voice, "Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?" which is translated, "My God, my God, for what have you forsaken me?"
This phrase, among the Sayings of Jesus on the cross, is given in these two versions. The Matthean version of the phrase is transliterated in Greek as Ἠλί, Ἠλί, λιμὰ σαβαχθανί. The Markan version is Ἐλωΐ, Ἐλωΐ, λιμὰ σαβαχθανί (elōi rather than ēli and lama rather than lema).
Overall, both versions appear to be Aramaic rather than Hebrew because of the verb שבק (šbq) "abandon", which is originally Aramaic.[27][30] The "pure" Biblical Hebrew counterpart to this word, עזב (‘zb) is seen in the first line of Psalm 22, which the saying appears to quote. Thus, Jesus is not quoting the canonical Hebrew version (ēlī ēlī lāmā ‘azabtānī) attributed in some Jewish interpretations to King David cited as Jesus' ancestor in Matthew's Genealogy of Jesus if the Eli, Eli version of Jesus' outcry is taken; he may be quoting the version given in an Aramaic Targum (surviving Aramaic Targums do use šbq in their translations of the Psalm 22 [31]).
The Markan word for "my god", Ἐλωΐ, definitely corresponds to the Aramaic form אלהי, elāhī. The Matthean one, Ἠλί, fits in better with the אלי of the original Hebrew Psalm, as has been pointed out in the literature; however, it may also be Aramaic because this form is attested abundantly in Aramaic as well.[30][32]
In the next verse, in both accounts, some who hear Jesus' cry imagine that he is calling for help from Elijah (Ēlīyā in Aramaic).
Almost all ancient Greek manuscripts show signs of trying to normalize this text. For instance, the peculiar Codex Bezae renders both versions with ηλι ηλι λαμα ζαφθανι (ēli ēli lama zaphthani). The Alexandrian, Western and Caesarean textual families all reflect harmonization of the texts between Matthew and Mark. Only the Byzantine textual tradition preserves a distinction.
The Aramaic word form šəḇaqtanī is based on the verb šəḇaq/šāḇaq, 'to allow, to permit, to forgive, and to forsake', with the perfect tense ending -t (2nd person singular: 'you'), and the object suffix -anī (1st person singular: 'me').
In Hebrew, the saying would be "אֵלִי אֵלִי, לָמָה עֲזַבְתָּנִי", the Aramaic phrase would be "ܐܝܠܝ ܐܝܠܝ ܠܡܐ ܫܒܩܬܢܝ" or "ܐܠܗܝ ܐܠܗܝ ܠܡܐ ܫܒܩܬܢܝ".
Jot and tittle (Ἰῶτα ἓν ἢ μία κεραία)[edit]
See also: Matthew 5:18
Matthew 5:18
For assuredly, I say to you, till heaven and earth pass away, one jot or one tittle will by no means pass from the Law (that is, the Torah) till all is fulfilled.
The quotation uses them as an example of extremely minor details. In the Greek text translated as English jot and tittle is found iota and keraia. Iota is the smallest letter of the Greek alphabet (ι), but since only capitals were used at the time the Greek New Testament was written (Ι) and because the Torah was written in Hebrew, it probably represents the Hebrew yodh (י) which is the smallest letter of the Hebrew alphabet. Keraia is a hook or serif.
Korban (Κορβάν)[edit]
See also: Judas Iscariot § Death
Matthew 27:6
But the chief priests, taking the pieces of silver, said, ‘It is not lawful to put them into the treasury, since they are blood money.’
In Aramaic (קרבנא) it refers to the treasury in the Temple in Jerusalem, derived from the Hebrew Korban (קרבן), found in Mark 7:11 and the Septuagint (in Greek transliteration), meaning religious gift or offering.
The Greek κορβανᾶς is declined as a Greek noun, much like other examples.
Sikera (Σίκερα)[edit]
See also: Zechariah (priest)
Luke 1:15
for he will be great in the sight of the Lord. He must never drink wine or strong drink; even before his birth he will be filled with the Holy Spirit.
Hosanna (Ὡσαννά)[edit]
See also: Triumphal entry into Jerusalem
Mark 11:9
Then those who went ahead and those who followed were shouting, Hosanna! Blessed is the one who comes in the name of the Lord!
This word is derived from הושע נא. It is generally considered to be a quote from Psalms 118:25 "O Lord, save (us)", but the original Biblical Hebrew form was הושיעה נא. The shortened form הושע could be either Aramaic or Hebrew.[33][34]
Aramaic personal names in the New Testament[edit]
Personal names in the New Testament come from a number of languages; Hebrew and Greek are most common. However, there are a few Aramaic names as well. The most prominent feature in Aramaic names is bar (Greek transliteration βαρ, Aramaic bar), meaning 'son of', a common patronym prefix. Its Hebrew equivalent, ben, is conspicuous by its absence. Some examples are:
Matthew 10:3 – Bartholomew (Βαρθολομαῖος from bar-Tōlmay, perhaps "son of furrows" or "ploughman").
Matthew 16:17 – Simon bar-Jona (Σίμων Βαριωνᾶς from Šim‘ōn bar-Yōnā, "Simon son of Jonah").
John 1:42 – Simon bar-Jochanan ("Simon son of John").
Matthew 27:16 – Barabbas (Βαραββᾶς from bar-Abbā, "son of the father").
Mark 10:46 – Bartimaeus (Βαρτιμαῖος possibly from combination of Aramaic bar and Greek timaeus meaning "honorable" or "highly prized", perhaps "honorable son").
Acts 1:23 – Barsabbas (Βαρσαββᾶς from bar-Šabbā, "son of the Sabbath").
Acts 4:36 – Joseph who is called Barnabas (Βαρνάβας from bar-Navā meaning "son of prophecy", "the prophet", but given the Greek translation υἱὸς παρακλήσεως; usually translated as "son of consolation/encouragement", the Greek could mean "invocation" as well).
Acts 13:6 – Bar-Jesus (Βαριησοῦς from bar-Išo, "son of Jesus/Joshua").
Boanerges (Βοανηργές)[edit]
Mark 3:17
And James, the son of Zebedee, and John, the brother of James, and he gave them the name Boanerges, which is Sons of Thunder.
Jesus surnames the brothers James and John to reflect their impetuosity. The Greek rendition of their name is Βοανηργές (Boanērges).
There has been much speculation about this name. Given the Greek translation that comes with it ('Sons of Thunder'), it seems that the first element of the name is bnē, 'sons of' (the plural of 'bar'), Aramaic (בני). This is represented by βοάνη (boanē), giving two vowels in the first syllable where one would be sufficient. It could be inferred from this that the Greek transliteration may not be a good one. The second part of the name is often reckoned to be rḡaš ('tumult') Aramaic (רגיש), or rḡaz ('anger') Aramaic (רגז). Maurice Casey, however, argues that it is a simple misreading of the word for thunder, r‘am (due to the similarity of s to the final m). This is supported by one Syriac translation of the name as bnay ra‘mâ. The Peshitta reads ܒܢܝ ܪܓܫܝ bnay rḡešy, which would fit with a later composition for it, based on a Byzantine reading of the original Greek.
Cephas (Κηφᾶς)[edit]
John 1:42
He brought him to Jesus. Jesus looked at him and said, "You are Simon son of John, you shall be called Cephas", which is translated 'Peter'. (New International Version)
1 Corinthians 1:12
But I say that each of you says "I am of Paul", or "I am of Apollos", or "I am of Cephas", or "I am of Christ".
Galatians 1:18 NRSV
Then after three years I did go up to Jerusalem to visit Cephas and stayed with him for fifteen days;
In these passages, 'Cephas' is given as the nickname of the apostle better known as Simon Peter. The Greek word is transliterated Κηφᾶς (Kēphâs).
The apostle's given name appears to be Simon, and he is given the Aramaic nickname, kēpā, meaning 'rock' or 'stone'. The final sigma (ς) is added in Greek to make the name masculine rather than feminine. That the meaning of the name was more important than the name itself is evidenced by the universal acceptance of the Greek translation, Πέτρος (Petros). It is not known why Paul uses the Aramaic name rather than the Greek name for Simon Peter when he writes to the churches in Galatia and Corinth.[35] He may have been writing at a time before Cephas came to be popularly known as Peter. According to Clement of Alexandria, there were two people named Cephas: one was Apostle Simon Peter, and the other was one of Jesus' Seventy Apostles.[36] Clement goes further to say it was Cephas of the Seventy who was condemned by Paul in Galatians 2 for not eating with the Gentiles, though this is perhaps Clement's way of deflecting the condemnation from Simon Peter. In any case the relationship of Paul of Tarsus and Judaism (which this involves) is still disputed.
In Aramaic, it could be כיפא.
Thomas (Θωμᾶς)[edit]
John 11:16
Then Thomas, who was called Didymus, said to his co-disciples, "Now let us go that we might die with him!"
Thomas (Θωμᾶς) is listed among the disciples of Jesus in all four gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. However, it is only in John's Gospel that more information is given. In three places (John 11:16, 20:24 and 21:2), he is given the name Didymus (Δίδυμος), the Greek word for a twin. In fact, "the Twin" is not just a surname, it is a translation of "Thomas". The Greek Θωμᾶς—Thōmâs—comes from the Aramaic tōmā, "twin". Therefore, rather than two personal names, Thomas Didymus, there is a single nickname, the Twin. Christian tradition gives him the personal name Judas, and he was perhaps named Thomas to distinguish him from others of the same name.
In Aramaic, it could be ܬܐܘܡܐ.
Tabitha (Ταβιθά)[edit]
Acts 9:36
In Joppa, there was a disciple named Tabitha, which is translated Dorcas.
The disciple's name is given both in Aramaic (Ταβιθά) and Greek (Δορκάς). The Aramaic name is a transliteration of Ṭḇīthā, the female form of טביא (Ṭaḇyā).[37] Both names mean 'gazelle'.
It may be just coincidence that Peter's words to her in verse 40, "Tabitha, get up!" (Ταβιθᾶ ἀνάστηθι), are similar to the "talitha kum" phrase used by Jesus.
In Aramaic, it could be טביתא.
Aramaic place names in the New Testament[edit]
Gethsemane (Γεθσημανῆ)[edit]
Matthew 26:36
Then Jesus went with them to a place called Gethsemane.
Mark 14:32
And they went to a place that has the name Gethsemane.
The place where Jesus takes his disciples to pray before his arrest is given the Greek transliteration Γεθσημανῆ (Gethsēmanē). It represents the Aramaic Gath-Šmānē, meaning 'the oil press' or 'oil vat' (referring to olive oil).
In Aramaic, it could be ܓܕܣܡܢ. This place name is more properly an Aramaized version of an original Hebrew place name. Gath גת is a normal word for press in Hebrew, generally used for a wine press not an olive press though; and shemanei שמני is the Hebrew word shemanim שמנים meaning "oils", the plural form of the word shemen שמן, the primary Hebrew word for oil, just in an Aramaic plural form (-ei instead of the Hebrew plural suffix -im). The word in Aramaic for "oil" is more properly mišḥa (משחא), as also attested in Jewish writings in Aramaic from the Galilee (see Caspar Levias, A Grammar of Galilean Aramaic, Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1986).
Golgotha (Γολγοθᾶ)[edit]
Mark 15:22
And they took him up to the place Golgotha, which is translated Place of the Skull.
John 19:17
And carrying his cross by himself, he went out to the so-called Place of the Skull, which is called in 'Hebrew' Golgotha.
Gagūltā Aramaic, means 'skull'. The name appears in all of the gospels except Luke, which calls the place simply Kranion (Κρανίον) 'the Skull' in Greek, with no Semitic counterpart. The name 'Calvary' is taken from the Latin Vulgate translation, Calvaria.
In Aramaic, it could be ܓܓܘܠܬܐ. Though this word has the Aramaic final form -ta / -tha, it is otherwise also closer to the Hebrew word for skull, gulgolet גולגולת, than to the Aramaic form.
Gabbatha (Γαββαθᾶ)[edit]
John 19:13
When Pilate heard these words, he brought Jesus outside and sat on the judge's bench at a place called The Stone Pavement, or in Hebrew, Gabbatha.
The place name appears to be Aramaic. According to Josephus, War, V.ii.1, #51, the word Gabath means high place, or elevated place, so perhaps a raised flat area near the temple. The final "א" could then represent the emphatic state of the noun.
In Aramaic, it could be גבהתא.
Akeldama (Ἀκελδαμά)[edit]
Acts 1:19
And this became known to all the inhabitants of Jerusalem, so that field was called, in their own dialect, Akeldama, that is Field of Blood.
The place of Judas Iscariot's death is clearly named Field of Blood in Greek. However, the manuscript tradition gives a number of different spellings of the Aramaic. The Majority Text reads Ἀκελδαμά (Akeldama); other manuscript versions give Ἀχελδαμάχ (Acheldamach), Ἁκελδαμά (Hakeldama), Ἁχελδαμά (Hacheldama) and Ἁκελδαμάχ (Hakeldamach). Despite these variant spellings the Aramaic is most probably ḥqēl dmā, 'field of blood'. While the seemingly gratuitous Greek sound of kh [x] at the end of the word is difficult to explain, the Septuagint similarly adds this sound to the end of the Semitic name Ben Sira to form the Greek name for the Book of Sirakh (Latin: Sirach). The sound may be a dialectic feature of either the Greek speakers or the original Semitic language speakers.
In Aramaic, it could be חקל דמא.
Pool of Bethesda (Βηθεσδά)[edit]
John 5:2
Now there is in Jerusalem near the Sheep Gate a pool, which in Aramaic is called Bethesda and which is surrounded by five covered colonnades.
Bethesda was originally the name of a pool in Jerusalem, on the path of the Beth Zeta Valley, and is also known as the Sheep Pool. Its name in Aramaic means "House of Grace". It is associated with healing. In John 5, Jesus was reported healing a man at the pool.
For other Aramaic place names in the New Testament beginning with beth ("house of"), see Bethabara, Bethany, Bethphage and Bethsaida.
In Aramaic, "Bethesda" could be spelled בית חסדא.
See also[edit]
Semitic languages
Aramaic primacy
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Allen C. Myers, ed. (1987). "Aramaic". The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. p. 72. ISBN 0-8028-2402-1. It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Palestine in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73)
Jump up ^ Aramaic language - Encyclopædia Britannica
Jump up ^ Barr, James (1970). "Which language did Jesus speak? – some remarks of a Semitist". Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester. 53 (1): 9–29.
Jump up ^ Porter, Stanley E. (1997). Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament. Brill. pp. 110–112. ISBN 90-04-09921-2.
Jump up ^ Hoffmann, R. Joseph (1986). Jesus in history and myth. Prometheus Books. p. 98. ISBN 0-87975-332-3.
Jump up ^ Sáenz-Badillos, Ángel; Elwolde, John (1996), A history of the Hebrew language, pp. 170–71, There is general agreement that two main periods of RH (Rabbinical Hebrew) can be distinguished. The first, which lasted until the close of the Tannaitic era (around 200 CE), is characterized by RH as a spoken language gradually developing into a literary medium in which the Mishnah, Tosefta, baraitot and Tannaitic midrashim would be composed. The second stage begins with the Amoraim, and sees RH being replaced by Aramaic as the spoken vernacular, surviving only as a literary language. Then it continued to be used in later rabbinic writings until the tenth century in, for example, the Hebrew portions of the two Talmuds and in midrashic and haggadic literature
Jump up ^ Frederick E. Greenspahn. An Introduction to Aramaic - Second Edition, 2003. ISBN 1-58983-059-8.
Jump up ^ Aramaic Language: The Language of Christ Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine.. Mountlebanon.org. Retrieved on 2014-05-28.
Jump up ^ Yadin, Yigael (1971). Bar-Kokhba; the rediscovery of the legendary hero of the second Jewish revolt against Rome. New York: Random House. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-297-00345-8.
Jump up ^ Zion, Sigalit (2009). A roadmap to the heavens an anthropological study of hegemony among priests, sages, and laymen. Boston: Academic Studies Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-1-934843-14-7.
Jump up ^ Book "Bar Kokhba: The rediscovery of the legendary hero of the last Jewish Revolt Against Imperial Rome" p. 234
Jump up ^ The Antiquities of the Jews, by Flavius Josephus. Gutenberg.org. Retrieved on 2014-05-28.
Jump up ^ Josephus: Jewish War, Book 1 (a) - translation. Attalus.org. Retrieved on 2014-05-28.
Jump up ^ Josephus with an English Translation by H. St. J. Thackeray, M.A., in Nine Volumes, II the Jewish War, Books I-III, Introduction, page ix
Jump up ^ Book "What do Jewish People think about Jesus?" by Dr. Michael Brown, Page 39
Jump up ^ Josephus' Antiquities Book 5. Chapter 2. Paragraph 2
Jump up ^ Wars Book 5, Chapter 4, Paragraph 2
Jump up ^ Book "Introduction to Syriac" by Wheeler Thackston, Page 44
Jump up ^ For a complete list of all transliterated words in the Synoptic Gospels, see Joshua N. Tilton and David N. Bivin, "Greek Transliterations of Hebrew, Aramaic and Hebrew/Aramaic Words in the Synoptic Gospels" at jerusalemperspective.com
Jump up ^ E.g.Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14: têi hebraḯdi dialéktôi, lit.'in the Hebrew dialect/language.' On the meaning of this phrase, see Randall Buth and Chad Pierce, "Hebraisti in Ancient texts: Does Ἑβραϊστί Ever Mean 'Aramaic'?" in Randall Buth and R. Steven Notley (eds.) The Language Environment of First Century Judaea, Brill, Leiden, 2014, p. 64-109.
Jump up ^ Fitzmyer, Joseph A. A Wandering Armenian: Collected Aramaic Essays. P.43: "The adverb Ἑβραïστί (and its related expressions) seems to mean 'in Hebrew', and it has often been argued that it means this and nothing more. As is well known, it is used at times with words and expressions that are clearly Aramaic. Thus in John 19:13, Ἑβραιστὶ δὲ Γαββαθᾶ is given as an explanation of the Lithostrotos, and Γαββαθᾶ is a Grecized form of the Aramaic word gabbětā, 'raised place.'"
Jump up ^ The Cambridge History of Judaism: The late Roman-Rabbinic period. 2006. P.460: "Thus in certain sources Aramaic words are termed "Hebrew," ... For example: Ancient Greek: η επιλεγομενη εβραιστι βηθεσδα "which is called in the Hebrew tongue Bethesda" (John 5.2). This is not a Hebrew name but rather an Aramaic one: בית חסדא, "the house of Hisda".
Jump up ^ E.g. Geoffrey W.Bromley (ed.)The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, W.B.Eeerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan 1979, 4 vols. vol.1 sub.'Aramaic' p.233: 'in the Aramaic vernacular of Palestine
Jump up ^ Matthew Black. An Aramaic Approach to the Gospels and Acts. Hendrickson Publishers Marketing, LLC, 1998. ISBN 1565630866.
Jump up ^ Glenn David Bauscher. 2007. The Original Aramaic New Testament in Plain English. ISBN 978-1-4357-1289-8.
Jump up ^ Kutscher, E.Y.. (1976). Studies in Galilean Aramaic.
^ Jump up to: a b Greenspahn, Frederick E. 2003. An introduction to Aramaic. P.25
Jump up ^ Fernández, Miguel Pérez and John Elwolde. 1999. An Introductory Grammar of Rabbinic Hebrew. P.5
Jump up ^ Fitzmyer, Joseph A. 1979. A Wandering Aramean: Collected Aramaic Essays. P.12
^ Jump up to: a b Davies, William D. and Dale C. Allison. 1997. Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew. Volume III. P.624
Jump up ^ The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon Archived 2010-04-19 at the Wayback Machine.
Targum Psalms 22 Archived 2014-04-13 at the Wayback Machine. Hebrew Union College - Jewish Institute of Religion
Jump up ^ Williams P.J. 2004. The linguistic background to Jesus' Dereliction Cry. The New Testament in its first century setting (ed. Williams P.J., Andre D. Clarke et al.) p. 7-8.
Jump up ^ Brunson, Andrew. 2003. Psalm 118 in the Gospel of John: An Intertextual Study on the New Exodus Pattern in the Theology of John. P.204
Jump up ^ Balz, Horst. Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament, Volume 3. P.509
Jump up ^ Bauer's Lexicon: Gal 1:18; 2:9,11,14; 1Cor 1:12; 3:22; 9:5; 15:5; also 1Clement 47:3
Jump up ^ Eusebius, Church History, Book 1, Chapter 12, Paragraph 2
Jump up ^ The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon – Entry for "ṭbyʾ"
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Beasts of No Nation
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This article is about the book. For the film, see Beasts of No Nation (film).
Beasts of No Nation
Author
Uzodinma Iweala
Country
United States
Genre
War drama
Publisher
Harper Perennial
Publication date
2005
Beasts of No Nation is a 2005 novel by the Nigerian-American author Uzodinma Iweala,[1][2] that takes its title from Fela Kuti's 1989 album with the same name.[3] The book was adapted as a film in 2015.
The novel follows the journey of a young boy, Agu, who is forced to join a group of soldiers in an unnamed West African country.[4] While Agu fears his commander and many of the men around him, his fledgling childhood has been brutally shattered by the war raging through his country, and he is at first conflicted by simultaneous revulsion by and fascination with the mechanics of war. Iweala does not shy away from explicit, visceral detail and paints a complex, difficult picture of Agu as a child soldier. The book does not give any direct clue as to which country it takes place in, and it remains undisclosed. The book is notable for its confrontational, immersive first-person narrative.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot summary
2 Film adaptation
3 External links
4 References
Plot summary[edit]
The novel is about a West African boy named Agu who is forced to become a child soldier. When war came to his family's small village, Agu’s mother and sister are able to leave with the UN peacekeepers, but Agu is ordered to stay behind and fight with his father and the other men of the village. When soldiers attack the village the men realize that whether they hide or not they will eventually be killed. They mount an attack but Agu runs away at his father's wishes.
Agu hides and is soon found by soldiers, who coerce him to join their rebel force. In a bloody initiation, the commander forces him to kill an unarmed man.
As Agu is forced to leave his childhood behind, he reminisces about the past: his family, his love of reading and school, his dream of becoming an important doctor, and how he used to read the Bible every day. He thinks about how he and his friend used to play at war and how this war is not the same. He fears that God hates him for killing others, but he soon forces himself to believe that this is what God wants, because “he is soldier and this is what soldiers do in war.” He befriends a mute boy named Strika, and together they face the crimes and hardships of war: looting, rape, killing, and starvation.
Agu loses track of time, understanding only that he was a child before that war but has become a man in a seemingly never-ending trial by fire. He wants to stop killing but fears that so doing will get him killed by the Commandant. During this time of war Agu and the army have very little to eat, so they eat what they can: rats, small game, goats, and sometimes other people. The food is not cooked enough for fear that others will see the fire, and the water is known to contain human feces. Agu and other children in the battalion are raped by the Commandant in return for small tokens. While Agu hates the rape he does not resist as he fears he will be killed by the Commandant if he does so.
The Commandant eventually takes the battalion to the village of his birth where they visit a brothel. Commandant's second in command, Luftenant, is stabbed by a prostitute while he is choking and beating her and is replaced by a soldier named Rambo, thus named because of his bloodthirst.
His wish to escape the army finally comes true when Rambo leads a successful revolt against the Commandant in a period of agonising lack of basic necessities. Starved, exhausted and bereaved of his only friend, Strika, Agu joins the disbanded soldiers to try to make their way home. Agu ultimately leaves his fellow soldiers.
In time, he comes under the care of a missionary shelter/hospital run by a preacher and a white woman, Amy. Agu gets new clothes and all the food and sleep he wants and regains his health and strength. However, after having lived through a bloody guerrilla war, the Bible no longer holds any meaning for him. Amy invites him to share his thoughts and feelings, and Agu tells her he would like to be a doctor and save lives so as to redeem his sins. He also tells her about all of the evils he has had to commit during the war.
Film adaptation[edit]
Main article: Beasts of No Nation (film)
A feature film was adapted by Cary Fukunaga, starring Abraham Attah as Agu and Idris Elba as the commander. It premiered on Netflix on October 16, 2015.[5]
External links[edit]
Audio recording: Uzodinma Iweala reading from Beasts of No Nation at the Key West Literary Seminar, 2008.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Smith, Ali (3 September 2005). "The lost boys". The Observer. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Baker, Simon (4 December 2005). "A Boy Soldier's Heart of Darkness". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Geoff Wisner, review of Beasts of No Nation, Indiegogo Café, 14 February 2006.
Jump up ^ Egbedi, Hadassah (16 October 2015). "Exclusive Interview With Uzodinma Iweala, Author, Beasts of No Nation". Ventures Africa. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Netflix feature films". Deadline. July 2015.
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Data loss
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Data loss is an error condition in information systems in which information is destroyed by failures or neglect in storage, transmission, or processing. Information systems implement backup and disaster recovery equipment and processes to prevent data loss or restore lost data.
Data loss is distinguished from data unavailability, which may arise from a network outage. Although the two have substantially similar consequences for users, data unavailability is temporary, while data loss may be permanent. Data loss is also distinct from data breach, an incident where data falls into the wrong hands, although the term data loss has been used in those incidents.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Types
2 Cost
3 Prevention
4 Data recovery
4.1 Initial steps upon data loss
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Types[edit]
Procedural
Intentional Action
Intentional deletion of a file or program
Unintentional Action
Accidental deletion of a file or program
Misplacement of CDs or Memory sticks
Administration errors
Inability to read unknown file format
Failure
Power failure, resulting in data in volatile memory not being saved to permanent memory.
Hardware failure, such as a head crash in a hard disk.
A software crash or freeze, resulting in data not being saved.
Software bugs or poor usability, such as not confirming a file delete command.
Business failure (vendor bankruptcy), where data is stored with a software vendor using Software-as-a-service and SaaS data escrow has not been provisioned.
Data corruption, such as file system corruption or database corruption.
Disaster
Natural disaster, earthquake, flood, tornado, etc.
Fire
Crime
Theft, hacking, SQL injection, sabotage, etc.
A malicious act, such as a worm, virus, hacker or theft of physical media.
Studies show hardware failure and human error are the two most common causes of data loss, accounting for roughly three quarters of all incidents.[2] Another cause of data loss is a natural disaster, which is a greater risk dependant on where the hardware is located. While the probability of data loss due to natural disaster is small, the only way to prepare for such an event is to store backup data in a separate physical location. As such, the best backup plans always include at least one copy being stored off-site.[3]
Cost[edit]
The cost of a data loss event is directly related to the value of the data and the length of time that it is unavailable yet needed. For an enterprise in particular, the definition of cost extends beyond the financial and can also include time. Consider:
The cost of continuing without the data
The cost of recreating the data
The cost of notifying users in the event of a compromise
Prevention[edit]
The frequency of data loss and the impact can be greatly mitigated by taking proper precautions, those of which necessary can vary depending on the type of data loss. For example, multiple power circuits with battery backup and a generator only protect against power failures, though using an Uninterruptable Power Supply can protect your drive against sudden power spikes. Similarly, using a journaling file system and RAID storage only protect against certain types of software and hardware failure. For hard disk drives, which are a physical storage medium, ensuring minimal vibration and movement will help protect against damaging the components internally, as can maintaining a suitable drive temperature.[4]
Regular data backups are an important asset to have when trying to recover after a data loss event, but they do not prevent user errors or system failures. As such, a data backup plan needs to be established and run in unison with a disaster recovery plan in order to lower risk.
Data recovery[edit]
Main article: Data Recovery
Media that's suffered a catastrophic electronic failure requires data recovery in order to salvage its contents.
Data recovery is often performed by specialized commercial services that have developed often proprietary methods to recover data from physically damaged media. Service costs at data recovery labs are usually dependent on type of damage and type of storage medium, as well as the required security or cleanroom procedures.
File system corruption can frequently be repaired by the user or the system administrator. For example, a deleted file is typically not immediately overwritten on disk, but more often simply has its entry deleted from the file system index. In such a case, the deletion can be easily reversed.
Successful recovery from data loss generally requires implementation of an effective backup strategy. Without an implemented backup strategy, recovery requires reinstallation of programs and regeneration of data. Even with an effective backup strategy, restoring a system to the precise state it was in prior to the Data Loss Event is extremely difficult. Some level of compromise between granularity of recoverability and cost is necessary. Furthermore, a Data Loss Event may not be immediately apparent. An effective backup strategy must also consider the cost of maintaining the ability to recover lost data for long periods of time.
A highly effective backup system would have duplicate copies of every file and program that were immediately accessible whenever a Data Loss Event was noticed. However, in most situations, there is an inverse correlation between the value of a unit of data and the length of time it takes to notice the loss of that data. Taking this into consideration, many backup strategies decrease the granularity of restorability as the time increases since the potential Data Loss Event. By this logic, recovery from recent Data Loss Events is easier and more complete than recovery from Data Loss Events that happened further in the past.
Recovery is also related to the type of Data Loss Event. Recovering a single lost file is substantially different from recovering an entire system that was destroyed in a disaster. An effective backup regimen has some proportionality between the magnitude of Data Loss and the magnitude of effort required to recover. For example, it should be far easier to restore the single lost file than to recover the entire system.
Initial steps upon data loss[edit]
If data loss occurs, a successful recovery must ensure that the deleted data is not over-written. For this reason — one should avoid all write operations to the affected storage device. This includes not starting the system to which the affected device is connected. This is because many operating systems create temporary files in order to boot, and these may overwrite areas of lost data — rendering it unrecoverable. Viewing web pages has the same effect — potentially overwriting lost files with the temporary html and image files created when viewing a web page. File operations such as copying, editing, or deleting should also be avoided.
Upon realizing data loss has occurred, it is often best to shut down the computer and remove the drive in question from the unit. Re-attach this drive to a secondary computer with a write blocker device and then attempt to recover lost data. If possible, create an image of the drive in order to establish a secondary copy of the data. This can then be tested on, with recovery attempted, abolishing the risk of harming the source data.
See also[edit]
Computer Science portal
Computing portal
Data spill
Data truncation
List of data recovery software
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Data Spill Management Guide". asd.gov.au. December 24, 2014. Retrieved January 23, 2015. A data spill is sometimes referred to as unintentional information disclosure or a data leak.
Jump up ^ The cost of lost data - Graziadio Business Report
Jump up ^ Leopando, Jonathan (2 April 2013). "World Backup Day: The 3-2-1 Rule". TrendLabs Security Intelligence Blog. Trend Micro. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Connor, Chris (2 November 2013). "Data Loss Prevention: 10 Tips to Prevent Hard Drive Failure". Data Storage Digest. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
External links[edit]
SaaS Data Loss: Your Online Data Isn’t Safe
Data Loss Prevention
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Data_loss&oldid=847183093"
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This page was last edited on 23 June 2018, at 14:05 (UTC).
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Turn Back the Hands of Time
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Not to be confused with If I Could Turn Back the Hands of Time or If I Could Turn Back Time.
"Turn Back the Hands of Time"
Single by Tyrone Davis
from the album Turn Back the Hands of Time
B-side
"I Keep Coming Back"
Released
February 1970
Format
7" single
Genre
R&B, Soul
Length
2:35
Label
Dakar Records
Songwriter(s)
Jack Daniels
Bonnie Thompson
Producer(s)
Willie Henderson
"Turn Back the Hands of Time" is a song recorded by American R&B singer Tyrone Davis. The song was co-written by Jack Daniels and Bonnie Thompson and produced by Willie Henderson. Daniels and Thompson wrote "Turn Back the Hands of Time" based on the relationship problems that Daniels was having at the time. Daniels had co-written Davis's 1968 hit "Can I Change My Mind" and the recording session for "Turn Back the Hands of Time" included some of the same musicians from "Can I Change My Mind".
"Turn Back the Hands of Time" was released as a single in February 1970 and became Davis's second major hit, spending two weeks at number one on Billboard's R&B Singles chart and reaching number three on its Pop chart.[1] The single was also certified gold by the RIAA for sales of one million copies. "Turn Back the Hands of Time" is from the album of the same name that MTV says "ranks among the best soul LP's of its time".[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Use in media
2 Chart history
2.1 Weekly charts
2.2 Year-end charts
3 Personnel
4 Other versions
5 References
Use in media[edit]
The song appears in the 1995 movie, Nine Months.
Chart history[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1970)
Peak
position
US Billboard Hot 100[3] 3
US Billboard R&B 1
US Cash Box Top 100[4] 4
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1970)
Rank
US Billboard Hot 100[5] 51
US Cash Box [6] 32
Personnel[edit]
Background vocals by Barbara Acklin, Eugene Record & Robert Lester
Bass guitar by Bernard Reed
Drums by Quinton Joseph
Guitar by Carl Woolfolk
Keyboards by Floyd Morris
Lead vocals by Tyrone Davis
Written by Jack Daniels & Bonnie Thompson
Produced by Willie Henderson
Arranged by Tom-Tom Washington
Other versions[edit]
Checkmates, Ltd. released a version of the song on their 1971 album, Life.[7]
References[edit]
"Turn Back the Hands of Time" song review on Allmusic website
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (2004). Top R&B/Hip-Hop Singles: 1942-2004. Record Research. p. 147.
Jump up ^ "About Tyrone Davis". mtv.com. MTV. Retrieved 2014-08-24.
Jump up ^ Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-1990 - ISBN 0-89820-089-X
Jump up ^ Cash Box Top 100 Singles, May 30, 1970
Jump up ^ Musicoutfitters.com
Jump up ^ Cash Box Year-End Charts: Top 100 Pop Singles, December 26, 1970
Jump up ^ Checkmates, Ltd., Life Retrieved January 29, 2016.
Preceded by
"ABC" by The Jackson 5 Billboard Best Selling Soul Singles number one
May 2–9, 1970 Succeeded by
"Love on a Two-Way Street" by The Moments

This 1970s R&B/soul music song-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
v
t
e
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Turn_Back_the_Hands_of_Time&oldid=830007277"
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This page was last edited on 12 March 2018, at 04:13.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
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