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Education in Nepal
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Education in Nepal 1
Ministry of Education
National education budget (2006)
Budget
$98.64 million
General details
Primary languages
Nepali and Maithili
System type
Central
Establishment
Enacted
Last amended
Education Act
August 9, 1971
January 28, 2004
Literacy (2011)
Total
65.9%
Male
75.1%
Female
57.4%
Enrollment
Total
6,373,003
Primary
4,030,045
Secondary
2,195,8352
Post secondary
147,123
Attainment
Secondary diploma
46.2%
Post-secondary diploma
Unavailable
1Source: Ministry of Education website
2Includes lower secondary, secondary, and higher secondary
Nepal's location relative to its neighbors, China and India
Education in Nepal was long based on home-schooling and gurukulas.[1] The first formal school, established in 1853, was intended for the elite. The birth of Nepalese democracy in 1951 opened its classrooms to a more diverse population.[1] Education in Nepal from the primary school to the university level has been modeled from the very inception on the Indian system, which is in turn the legacy of the old British Raj.[2]
Nepal's 1971 education plan hastened its development in the country.[1] In 1951 Nepal had 10,000 students in 300 schools and an adult literacy rate of five percent.[1] There were 49,000 schools in 2010,[1] and by 2015 the overall adult literacy rate was 63.9 percent (males 76.4 percent and females 53.1 percent).[3] It has already been more than half decade that public schools started imparting the education in the country. Curriculum developed in the country is not oriented towards the practical education. Public schools are criticized for not being able to provide quality education. Lower-caste discrimination, and indigenous bias are now the primary barriers to equitable access to education. After thorough review of secondary literature, analysis through macro perspective under the influence of critical pedagogy it is found lack of physical and infrastructures, textbooks, centralized curriculum, monolingual instructional, lack of constructive and critical pedagogical strategies, poverty and social exclusion are the major factors contributing for poor performance.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Administration
2 Structure
3 Crises and illiteracy
4 Textbooks
5 Tertiary Education
5.1 Universities
5.2 Medical colleges
5.3 Engineering colleges
6 {{anchor|Human capital flight in Nepal.Study abroad
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Administration[edit]
Schoolchildren in Kathmandu
The Ministry of Education is responsible for managing educational activities in Nepal. The Minister of Education (assisted by the state or assistant minister) is the political leader of the ministry. The ministry, as a part of the government, is headed by the Secretary of Education and consists of the central office and other offices at the regional and district levels. Its central office is primarily responsible for policy development, planning, monitoring, and evaluation.
The ministry has established directorates in each of the five development regions and education offices in each of Nepal's 75 districts to bring educational administration to the people. These decentralized offices are responsible for overseeing local informal and school-level educational activities. Regional directorates are primarily responsible for coordinating, monitoring and evaluating educational activities, and the district education offices provide services.
The National Center for Educational Development (NCED) [4] is Nepal's teacher-training body. It has 34 educational training centers (ETCs) to provide pedagogical support for teachers.
Nepal has two primary types of schools: community and institutional. Community (public) schools receive government grants, and institutional (private) schools are self-funded. Institutional schools are non-profit trusts or companies.
With one exception, all universities and academies are publicly managed and supported by public funding. Public universities also provide affiliation to private colleges. Academies of higher education are typically single-college institutes, and universities have constituent and affiliated colleges across Nepal.
Structure[edit]
Teacher and schoolchildren in Pokhara
Primary education in Nepal consists of grades one through five. Lower secondary levels are grades six through eight, and secondary levels cover grades nine and ten. Pre-primary education is available in some areas, and students usually begin grade one at age six. A national School Leaving Certificate (SLC) examination was conducted at the end of grade 10; according to the new Education Act, the national grade-12 examination will result in an SLC; the grade-10 examination will be known as the Secondary Education Examination (SEE).
Grades 11 and 12 are considered the higher secondary level. The Higher Secondary Education Board (HSEB) supervises higher secondary schools, most of which are private. These grades had been controlled by the university system, and awarded proficiency certificates. Although some universities still offer these programs, most of these grades are now part of the school system.
Higher education consists of bachelor's, master's, and Ph.D. levels. Depending upon the educational stream and subject, a bachelor's degree may require three to five years of study; two years is the typical course. Some universities offer M.Phil. and post-graduate diplomas.
Vocational education begins after lower secondary education, and students can follow a two-year curriculum leading to a Technical School Leaving Certificate.[5] Universities also offer professional and technical degrees. In addition to the formal track, one-year programs focusing on skills development are also available.[5] The District Level Examination is given in grade eight. The new educational system has two levels: basic (grades one through eight) and secondary (grades nine through twelve).
Crises and illiteracy[edit]
Although the Chitwan District was declared 100% literate in 2014, many children in remote villages do not have access to education past the primary level.[6] The Chepang people have been called the "poorest of the poor" (in Nepal) by sociologists.[7] Students often leave primary schools after they learn to read and write, but without additional education these skills may be forgotten.[6] The April 2015 earthquake and 2015 blockade destroyed schools and severely impacted the nation's ability to keep its remaining schools open.
Textbooks[edit]
Government schools use Janak textbooks, and private schools use reference books such as Ekta, Read More, Reliant, Asia, and Vidyarthi. Government schools perform poorly in the SLC exam due to the lack of skilled teachers and neglect by the Ministry of Education of textbook reform.[citation needed]
Tertiary Education[edit]
See also: List of universities and colleges in Nepal
Universities[edit]
Nepal's first college was Tri-Chandra College, founded in 1918. Until 1985, Tribhuvan University was the country's only university. During the early 1980s, the government developed the concept of a multi-university system in which each school would have its own nature, content, and function.
The first new university was Mahendra Sanskrit University. It was followed by Kathmandu University (the first private university) in 1990 and Purbanchal and Pokhara Universities in 1995 and 1996, respectively.
Medical colleges[edit]
Medical colleges, mostly private, exist throughout Nepal. Local students are admitted after an entrance exam, and foreign students are admitted after an interview. To be eligible for admission to MBBS courses in Nepal’s medical colleges, students must pass the higher secondary examination in science or its equivalent. Medical education is regulated by the Medical Council of Nepal. In addition to accrediting the country's medical colleges, the council conducts the licensing examination for new doctors, makes policies related to curriculum, admission, terms and examinations and makes registration recommendations.
Engineering colleges[edit]
Engineering colleges also exist throughout Nepal, with most admitting local students through an entrance exam. Like the country's medical colleges, foreign students are admitted after an interview. To be eligible for admission to Nepalese engineering colleges, candidates are encouraged to pass the Intermediate in Science or have a diploma in engineering (or its equivalent).
The Institute of Engineering of Tribhuvan University is the country's oldest engineering school. It has four colleges, and 13 private engineering colleges are affiliated with it. The IOE's central campus is Pulchowk Campus, considered to the best engineering college in Nepal.[citation needed] Pulchowk offers bachelor's, master's and Ph.D. degrees in engineering. More than 16,000 students from around the world take the school's entrance examination.[citation needed]
Nepal Engineering College (NEC) in Changunarayan is the country's first private engineering college to offer bachelor's- and master's-level courses. Popular engineering fields in Nepal are architecture, civil engineering, computer engineering, electronics and communications, electrical and electronics, energy and rural engineering. The B.E. architecture courses take five years to complete, and other bachelor's-degree courses take four years.
{{anchor|Human capital flight in Nepal.Study abroad
Nepal ranks 11th in countries of origin for international students in the United States. According to "Open Doors 2009", the annual report on international academic mobility published by the Institute of International Education with support from the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs of the United States Department of State, the number of Nepali students enrolled in U.S. institutions of higher education increased from 8,936 in the 2007–08 academic year to 11,581 in 2008–09 (a 29.6-percent increase). In the 2006–07 academic year, Nepal ranked 13th among countries of origin of international students.
According to Terry J. White, counselor for public affairs at the U.S. Embassy in Kathmandu, "America's nearly 3,000 accredited schools of higher education continue to attract new students in what is becoming a highly competitive international 'market' around the world."[citation needed] The U.S. is the preferred destination for students from Nepal who want to study abroad because of the quality and prestige associated with an American degree. Another contributing factor is access to comprehensive, accurate information about study in the U.S. through EducationUSA offices in Nepal and increased activity by United States colleges and universities to attract students from Nepal. However, "a culture of disrespect" for humble Nepalese by U.S. Embassy staff has been reported by a co-founder of Nepali/American NGO, Possible Health.[8]
See also[edit]
Gender inequality in Nepal
Human rights in Nepal
List of schools in Nepal
List of engineering colleges in Nepal (intake capacity of engineering colleges)
List of universities and colleges in Nepal
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Deepak Raj Parajuli , Tapash Das. "Performance Of Community Schools In Nepal : A Macro Level Analysis" (PDF). International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research. Retrieved 9 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "Education System in Nepal".
Jump up ^ "CIA world Fact book". The World Factbook. CIA. 2015.
Jump up ^ "National Center for Educational Development".
^ Jump up to: a b "World TVET Database Nepal - Vocational Education in Nepal" (PDF). UNESCO-UNEVOC / Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training Nepal. January 2014. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Kathmandu Post- Children in Chitwan deprived of education past primary level".
Jump up ^ Beine, Caughley and Shrestha. 2012. Chepang Then and Now: Life and Change Among the Chepang of Nepal. Blurb Books.
Jump up ^ Maru, Duncan (August 2, 2017). "Culture of Disrespect Plagues US Embassy in Nepal". HuffPost. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
External links[edit]
Ministry of Education, Nepal
World data on Education: Nepal, UNESCO-IBE(2010-2011) - Overview of the Nepalese education system
Vocational education in Nepal, UNESCO-UNEVOC - Overview of the Nepalese vocational education system
"Bringing the Poorest into Schools", World Bank (2009)
- Report on higher education and TVET in Nepal, Asian Development Bank (2016)
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Stomach
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about the internal organ. For the middle part of the body, see Abdomen. For other uses, see Stomach (disambiguation).
"Cardia" redirects here. For the ancient Greek colony, see Cardia (Thrace).
"Gastric" redirects here. For the sauce flavoring, see Gastrique.
It has been suggested that Stomach bed be merged into this article. (Discuss) Proposed since July 2018.
Stomach
The stomach is located centre left in the human body.
1. Body of stomach 2. Fundus 3. Anterior wall 4. Greater curvature 5. Lesser curvature 6. Cardia 9. Pyloric sphincter 10. Pyloric antrum 11. Pyloric canal 12. Angular incisure 13. Gastric canal 14. Rugae[1]
Details
Precursor
Foregut
System
Digestive system
Artery
Right gastric artery, left gastric artery, right gastro-omental artery, left gastro-omental artery, short gastric arteries
Vein
Right gastric vein, left gastric vein, right gastroepiploic vein, left gastroepiploic vein, short gastric veins
Nerve
Celiac ganglia, vagus nerve[2]
Lymph
Celiac lymph nodes[3]
Identifiers
Latin
Ventriculus
Greek
Gaster
MeSH
D013270
TA
A05.5.01.001
FMA
7148
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The stomach (from ancient Greek στόμαχος, stomachos, stoma means mouth) is a muscular, hollow organ in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and many other animals, including several invertebrates. The stomach has a dilated structure and functions as a vital digestive organ. In the digestive system the stomach is involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication (chewing).
In humans and many other animals, the stomach is located between the oesophagus and the small intestine. It secretes digestive enzymes and gastric acid to aid in food digestion. The pyloric sphincter controls the passage of partially digested food (chyme) from the stomach into the duodenum where peristalsis takes over to move this through the rest of the intestines.
Contents
1 Structure
1.1 Sections
1.2 Blood supply
1.3 Histology
1.4 Gastric glands
2 Development
3 Function
3.1 Digestion
3.2 Absorption
3.3 Control of secretion and motility
3.4 Stomach acid
3.5 Stomach as nutrition sensor
4 Gene and protein expression
5 Clinical significance
5.1 Diseases
5.2 Surgery
6 History
6.1 Etymology
7 Other animals
8 Additional images
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Structure[edit]
Sections of the human stomach
In humans, the stomach lies between the oesophagus and the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). It is in the left upper part of the abdominal cavity. The top of the stomach lies against the diaphragm. Lying behind the stomach is the pancreas. A large double fold of visceral peritoneum called the greater omentum hangs down from the greater curvature of the stomach. Two sphincters keep the contents of the stomach contained; the lower oesophageal sphincter (found in the cardiac region), at the junction of the oesophagus and stomach, and the pyloric sphincter at the junction of the stomach with the duodenum.
The stomach is surrounded by parasympathetic (stimulant) and sympathetic (inhibitor) plexuses (networks of blood vessels and nerves in the anterior gastric, posterior, superior and inferior, celiac and myenteric), which regulate both the secretory activity of the stomach and the motor (motion) activity of its muscles.
In adult humans, the stomach has a relaxed, near empty volume of about 75 millilitres.[4] Because it is a distensible organ, it normally expands to hold about one litre of food.[5] The stomach of a newborn human baby will only be able to retain about 30 millilitres.
Sections[edit]
In classical anatomy, the human stomach is divided into four sections, beginning at the gastric cardia,[6] each of which has different cells and functions.
The cardia is where the contents of the oesophagus empty into the stomach. The cardia is defined as the region following the "z-line" of the gastroesophageal junction, the point at which the epithelium changes from stratified squamous to columnar. Near the cardia is the lower oesophageal sphincter.[7] Recent research has shown that the cardia is not an anatomically distinct region of the stomach but a region of the oesophageal lining damaged by reflux.[8]
The fundus (from Latin, "bottom") is formed by the upper curvature of the organ.
The body is the main, central region.
The pylorus (from Greek, "gatekeeper") is the lower section of the organ that facilitates emptying the contents into the small intestine.
Blood supply[edit]
Schematic image of the blood supply to the human stomach: left and right gastric artery, left and right gastroepiploic artery and short gastric artery.[9]
The lesser curvature of the human stomach is supplied by the right gastric artery inferiorly, and the left gastric artery superiorly, which also supplies the cardiac region. The greater curvature is supplied by the right gastroepiploic artery inferiorly and the left gastroepiploic artery superiorly. The fundus of the stomach, and also the upper portion of the greater curvature, is supplied by the short gastric artery which arises from the splenic artery.
Histology[edit]
Micrograph showing a cross section of the human stomach wall in the body portion of the stomach. H&E stain.
Main article: Gastrointestinal wall
Like the other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, the human stomach walls consist of an outer mucosa, inner submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa.
The gastric mucosa of the stomach consists of the epithelium and the lamina propria (composed of loose connective tissue), with a thin layer of smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosae separating it from the submucosa beneath. The submucosa lies under the mucosa and consists of fibrous connective tissue, separating the mucosa from the next layer. Meissner's plexus is in this layer. The muscularis externa lies beneath the submucosa and is unique from other organs of the gastrointestinal tract, consisting of three layers:
The inner oblique layer: This layer is responsible for creating the motion that churns and physically breaks down the food. It is the only layer of the three which is not seen in other parts of the digestive system. The antrum has thicker skin cells in its walls and performs more forceful contractions than the fundus.
The middle circular layer: At this layer, the pylorus is surrounded by a thick circular muscular wall, which is normally tonically constricted, forming a functional (if not anatomically discrete) pyloric sphincter, which controls the movement of chyme into the duodenum. This layer is concentric to the longitudinal axis of the stomach.
Auerbach's plexus (AKA myenteric plexus) is found between the outer longitudinal and the middle circular layer and is responsible for the innervation of both (causing peristalsis and mixing)
The outer longitudinal layer is responsible for moving the bolus towards the pylorus of the stomach through muscular shortening.
The stomach also possesses a serosa, consisting of layers of connective tissue continuous with the peritoneum.
Gastric glands[edit]
Main article: Gastric glands
In humans, different types of cells are found at the different layers of the gastric glands:
Layer of stomach Name Secretion Region of stomach Staining
Isthmus of gland Foveolar cells Mucus gel layer Fundic, cardiac, pyloric Clear
Body of gland Parietal (oxyntic) cells Gastric acid and intrinsic factor Fundic only Acidophilic
Base of gland Chief (zymogenic) cells Pepsinogen and gastric lipase Fundic only Basophilic
Base of gland Enteroendocrine (APUD) cells Hormones gastrin, histamine, endorphins, serotonin, cholecystokinin and somatostatin Fundic, cardiac, pyloric –
Human cardiac glands (at cardia)
Human pyloric glands (at pylorus)
Human fundic glands (at fundus)
Development[edit]
In early human embryogenesis, the ventral part of the embryo abuts the yolk sac. During the second week of development, as the embryo grows, it begins to surround parts of the sac. The enveloped portions form the basis for the adult gastrointestinal tract.[10] The sac is surrounded by a network of vitelline arteries. Over time, these arteries consolidate into the three main arteries that supply the developing gastrointestinal tract: the celiac artery, superior mesenteric artery, and inferior mesenteric artery. The areas supplied by these arteries are used to define the foregut, midgut, and hindgut.[10] The surrounded sac becomes the primitive gut. Sections of this gut begin to differentiate into the organs of the gastrointestinal tract, and the esophagus, and stomach form from the foregut.[10]
Function[edit]
Digestion[edit]
Main article: Human digestive system
In the human digestive system, a bolus (a small rounded mass of chewed up food) enters the stomach through the oesophagus via the lower oesophageal sphincter. The stomach releases proteases (protein-digesting enzymes such as pepsin) and hydrochloric acid, which kills or inhibits bacteria and provides the acidic pH of 2 for the proteases to work. Food is churned by the stomach through muscular contractions of the wall called peristalsis – reducing the volume of the fundus, before looping around the fundus[11] and the body of stomach as the boluses are converted into chyme (partially digested food). Chyme slowly passes through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum of the small intestine, where the extraction of nutrients begins. Depending on the quantity and contents of the meal, the stomach will digest the food into chyme within anywhere between forty minutes and a few hours. The average human stomach can comfortably hold about a litre of food.
Gastric juice in the stomach also contains pepsinogen. Hydrochloric acid activates this inactive form of enzyme into the active form, pepsin. Pepsin breaks down proteins into polypeptides.
Absorption[edit]
Although the absorption in the human digestive system is mainly a function of the small intestine, some absorption of certain small molecules nevertheless does occur in the stomach through its lining. This includes:
Water, if the body is dehydrated
Medication, like aspirin
Amino acids[12]
10–20% of ingested ethanol (e.g. from alcoholic beverages)[13]
Caffeine[14]
To a small extent water-soluble vitamins (most are absorbed in the small intestine)[15]
The parietal cells of the human stomach are responsible for producing intrinsic factor, which is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12. B12 is used in cellular metabolism and is necessary for the production of red blood cells, and the functioning of the nervous system.
Control of secretion and motility[edit]
The movement and the flow of chemicals into the stomach are controlled by both the autonomic nervous system and by the various digestive hormones of the digestive system:
Gastrin The hormone gastrin causes an increase in the secretion of HCl from the parietal cells, and pepsinogen from chief cells in the stomach. It also causes increased motility in the stomach. Gastrin is released by G cells in the stomach in response to distension of the antrum, and digestive products (especially large quantities of incompletely digested proteins). It is inhibited by a pH normally less than 4 (high acid), as well as the hormone somatostatin.
Cholecystokinin Cholecystokinin (CCK) has most effect on the gall bladder, causing gall bladder contractions, but it also decreases gastric emptying and increases release of pancreatic juice which is alkaline and neutralizes the chyme. CCK is synthesized by I-cells in the mucosal epithelium of the small intestine.
Secretin In a different and rare manner, secretin, produced in the small intestine, has most effects on the pancreas, but will also diminish acid secretion in the stomach.
Gastric inhibitory peptide Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) decreases both gastric acid release and motility.
Enteroglucagon Enteroglucagon decreases both gastric acid and motility.
Other than gastrin, these hormones all act to turn off the stomach action. This is in response to food products in the liver and gall bladder, which have not yet been absorbed. The stomach needs to push food into the small intestine only when the intestine is not busy. While the intestine is full and still digesting food, the stomach acts as storage for food.
Stomach acid[edit]
Main article: Gastric acid
Epidermal growth factor (EGF) results in cellular proliferation, differentiation, and survival.[16] EGF is a low-molecular-weight polypeptide first purified from the mouse submandibular gland, but since then found in many human tissues including the submandibular gland, and the parotid gland. Salivary EGF, which seems also regulated by dietary inorganic iodine, plays also an important physiological role in the maintenance of oro-oesophageal and gastric tissue integrity. The biological effects of salivary EGF include healing of oral and gastroesophageal ulcers, inhibition of gastric acid secretion, stimulation of DNA synthesis, and mucosal protection from intraluminal injurious factors such as gastric acid, bile acids, pepsin, and trypsin and from physical, chemical, and bacterial agents.[17]
Sequence of total-body scintigraphies of a woman after intravenous injection of iodine-123 demonstrating iodine uptake by the gastric mucosa
Stomach as nutrition sensor[edit]
The human stomach can "taste" sodium glutamate using glutamate receptors[18] and this information is passed to the lateral hypothalamus and limbic system in the brain as a palatability signal through the vagus nerve.[19] The stomach can also sense, independently of tongue and oral taste receptors, glucose,[20] carbohydrates,[21] proteins,[21] and fats.[22] This allows the brain to link nutritional value of foods to their tastes.[20]
Gene and protein expression[edit]
Further information: Bioinformatics § Gene and protein expression
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and nearly 70% of these genes are expressed in the normal stomach.[23][24] Just over 150 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the stomach compared to other organs, with only some 20 genes being highly specific. The corresponding specific proteins expressed in stomach are mainly involved in creating a suitable environment for handling the digestion of food for uptake of nutrients. Highly stomach-specific proteins include GKN1, expressed in the mucosa; pepsinogen PGC and the lipase LIPF, expressed in chief cells; and gastric ATPase ATP4A and gastric intrinsic factor GIF, expressed in parietal cells.[25]
Clinical significance[edit]
An endoscopy of a normal stomach of a healthy 65-year-old woman.
Diseases[edit]
Main article: Stomach disease
A series of radiographs can be used to examine the stomach for various disorders. This will often include the use of a swallow barium. Another method of examination of the stomach, is the use of an endoscope. A gastric emptying scan is considered the gold standard to assess gastric emptying rate.[26]
A large number of studies have indicated that most cases of peptic ulcers, and gastritis, in humans are caused by Helicobacter pylori infection, and an association has been seen with the development of stomach cancer.[27]
A stomach rumble is actually noise from the intestines. The stomach has to regenerate a new layer of mucus every two weeks, or else damage to the epithelium may result.
Surgery[edit]
In humans, many bariatric surgery procedures involve the stomach, in order to lose weight. A gastric band may be placed around the cardia area, which can adjust to limit intake. The anatomy of the stomach may be modified, or the stomach may be bypassed entirely.
Surgical removal of the stomach is called a gastrectomy, and removal of the cardia area is a called a cardiectomy. "Cardiectomy" is a term that is also used to describe the removal of the heart.[28][29][30] A gastrectomy may be carried out because of gastric cancer or severe perforation of the stomach wall.
History[edit]
There were previously conflicting statements in the academic anatomy community[31][32][33] over whether the cardia is part of the stomach, part of the oesophagus or a distinct entity. Modern surgical and medical textbooks have agreed that "The gastric cardia is now clearly considered to be part of the stomach."[34][35]
Etymology[edit]
The word stomach is derived from the Latin stomachus which is derived from the Greek word stomachos (στόμαχος), ultimately from stoma (στόμα), "mouth".[36] The words gastro- and gastric (meaning related to the stomach) are both derived from the Greek word gaster (γαστήρ, meaning "belly"[37][38]).[39]
Other animals[edit]
Comparison of stomach glandular regions from several mammalian species. Frequency of glands may vary more smoothly between regions than is diagrammed here. Asterisk (ruminant) represents the omasum, which is absent in Tylopoda (Tylopoda also has some cardiac glands opening onto ventral reticulum and rumen[40]) Many other variations exist among the mammals.[41][42]
Yellow
Oesophagus
Green
Glandular epithelium
Purple
Cardiac glands
Red
Gastric glands
Blue
Pyloric glands
Dark blue
Duodenum
Although the precise shape and size of the stomach varies widely among different vertebrates, the relative positions of the oesophageal and duodenal openings remain relatively constant. As a result, the organ always curves somewhat to the left before curving back to meet the pyloric sphincter. However, lampreys, hagfishes, chimaeras, lungfishes, and some teleost fish have no stomach at all, with the oesophagus opening directly into the anus. These animals all consume diets that either require little storage of food, or no pre-digestion with gastric juices, or both.[43]
The gastric lining is usually divided into two regions, an anterior portion lined by fundic glands, and a posterior with pyloric glands. Cardiac glands are unique to mammals, and even then are absent in a number of species. The distributions of these glands vary between species, and do not always correspond with the same regions as in humans. Furthermore, in many non-human mammals, a portion of the stomach anterior to the cardiac glands is lined with epithelium essentially identical to that of the oesophagus. Ruminants, in particular, have a complex stomach, the first three chambers of which are all lined with oesophageal mucosa.[43]
In birds and crocodilians, the stomach is divided into two regions. Anteriorly is a narrow tubular region, the proventriculus, lined by fundic glands, and connecting the true stomach to the crop. Beyond lies the powerful muscular gizzard, lined by pyloric glands, and, in some species, containing stones that the animal swallows to help grind up food.[43]
In insects there is also a crop. The insect stomach is called the midgut.
Information about the stomach in echinoderms or molluscs can be found under the respective articles.
Additional images[edit]
Greater omentum and stomach of humans
Human stomach
A more realistic image, showing the celiac artery and its branches in humans; the liver has been raised, and the lesser omentum and anterior layer of the greater omentum removed.
An autopsy of a human stomach. 2012 Instituto Nacional de Cardiología
Human stomach
The gastrointestinal wall of the human stomach.
Endoscopic image of human fundic gland polyposis.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stomach.
Gut flora
Gastroesophageal reflux disease
Proton pump inhibitors
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Look up stomach in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Stomach at the Human Protein Atlas
"Stomach" article from the Encyclopedia of Nursing & Allied Health, from enotes.com
Digestion of proteins in the stomach or tiyan
Site with details of how ruminants process food
Medical diagram of gastric blood supply
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text:
Shadow zone
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Shadowzone (disambiguation).
Seismic shadow zone (from USGS)
Part of a series on
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A seismic shadow zone is an area of the Earth's surface where seismographs can only barely[1] detect an earthquake after its seismic waves have passed through the Earth. When an earthquake occurs, seismic waves radiate out spherically from the earthquake's focus. The primary seismic waves are refracted by the liquid outer core of the Earth and are not detected between 104° and 140° (between approximately 11,570 and 15,570 km or 7,190 and 9,670 mi) from the epicenter. The secondary seismic waves cannot pass through the liquid outer core and are not detected more than 104° (approximately 11,570 km or 7,190 mi) from the epicenter.[2][3] P waves that have been converted to s-waves on leaving the outer core may be detected beyond 140 degrees.
The reason for this is that the velocity for P-waves and S-waves is governed by both the different properties in the material which they travel through and the different mathematical relationships they share in each case. The three properties are: incompressibility ( k {\displaystyle k} ), density ( p {\displaystyle p} ) and rigidity ( u {\displaystyle u} ). P-wave velocity is equal to ( k + 4 3 u ) / p {\displaystyle {\sqrt {(k+{\tfrac {4}{3}}u)/p}}} whereas S-wave velocity is equal to ( u / p ) {\displaystyle {\sqrt {(u/p)}}} and so S-wave velocity is entirely dependent on the rigidity of the material it travels through. Liquids, however, have zero rigidity, hence always making the S-wave velocity overall zero and as such S-waves lose all velocity when travelling through a liquid. P-waves, however, are only partially dependent on rigidity and as such still maintain some velocity (if greatly reduced) when travelling through a liquid.[4] Analysis of the seismology of various recorded earthquakes and their shadow zones, led geologist Richard Oldham to deduce in 1906 the liquid nature of the Earth's outer core.[5]
See also[edit]
Seismic wave
Ray tracing (physics)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Planet Interiors".
Jump up ^ "Earthquake Glossary - shadow zone". USGS. Retrieved May 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ "PX266 Geophysics - Extra Material - Seismic shadow zones". University of Warwick. Retrieved May 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ Armstrong, D.; Mugglestone, F.; Richards, R.; Stratton, F. (2008). "OCR AS and A2 Geology". Pearson Education: 14.
Jump up ^ Bragg, William (1936). "Tribute to Deceased Fellows of the Royal Society". Science. American Association for the Advancement of Science. 84 (2190): 544. Bibcode:1936Sci....84..539B. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17834950. doi:10.1126/science.84.2190.539.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shadow_zone&oldid=804896864"
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values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

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