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Battle of Stoney Creek
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Coordinates: 43°13′07″N 79°45′52″W / 43.218493°N 79.764344°W / 43.218493; -79.764344
Battle of Stoney Creek
Part of the War of 1812

Battle of Stoney Creek as portrayed by C.W. Jefferys
Date
6 June 1813
Location
present day Stoney Creek, Ontario
Result
British victory
Belligerents
United Kingdom United States
Commanders and leaders
John Vincent
John Harvey John Chandler (WIA) (POW)
William H. Winder (POW)
Strength
700[1] 3,400 of which 1,328 engaged[2]
Casualties and losses
23 killed
136 wounded
52 captured
3 missing[3][4] 16 killed
38 wounded
100 captured[5][6]
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Queenston Heights
Frenchman's Creek
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The Battle of Stoney Creek was fought on 6 June 1813 during the War of 1812 near present-day Stoney Creek, Ontario. British units made a night attack on an American encampment. Due in large part to the capture of the two senior officers of the American force, and an overestimation of British strength by the Americans, the battle was a victory for the British, and a turning point in the defence of Upper Canada.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Battle
3 Casualties
4 Aftermath
5 Legacy
6 See also
7 Notes
8 Sources
8.1 Referenced in notes
8.2 General
9 External links
Background[edit]
On 27 May, the Americans had won the Battle of Fort George, forcing the British defenders of Fort George into a hasty retreat, with heavy casualties. The British commander, Brigadier General John Vincent, gathered in all his outposts along the Niagara River, disbanded the militia contingents in his force and retreated to Burlington Heights (at the west end of Burlington Bay), with about 1,600 men in total. The Americans under the overall leadership of General Henry Dearborn, who was elderly and ill, were slow to pursue. A brigade under Brigadier General William H. Winder first followed up Vincent, but Winder decided that Vincent's forces were too strong to engage, and halted at the Forty Mile Creek. Another brigade joined him, commanded by Brigadier General John Chandler, who was the senior, and took overall command. Their combined force, numbering 3,400, advanced to Stoney Creek, where they encamped on 5 June.[7] The two generals set up their headquarters at the Gage Farm.[8]
Vincent sent his Deputy Assistant Adjutant General, Lieutenant Colonel John Harvey, to reconnoitre the American position. Harvey recommended a night attack, reporting that "the enemy's guards were few and negligent; his line of encampment was long and broken; his artillery was feebly supported; several of his corps were placed too far to the rear to aid in repelling a blow which might be rapidly struck in front".[9] The American dispositions described by Harvey account for the statement in the post-battle report of the U.S. Assistant Adjutant-General that only 1,328 American troops were engaged against the British, out of Chandler's total force of 3,400.[2] A British column of five companies from the 1/8th (King's) Regiment of Foot and the main body of the 49th Regiment of Foot, about 700 men in all, was formed.[1] Although Vincent accompanied the column, he placed Harvey in command.[9]
At this point, the story of Billy Green comes to light. Billy Green was a 19-year-old local resident who had witnessed the advance of the Americans from the top of the Niagara Escarpment earlier in the day. Billy's brother-in-law, Isaac Corman, had been briefly captured by the Americans, but was released after he convinced them (truthfully)[10] that he was the cousin of American General William Henry Harrison. In order to be able to pass through the American lines, he was given the challenge response password for the day – "WIL-HEN-HAR" (an abbreviation of Harrison's name). He gave his word of honour that he would not divulge this to the British army. He kept his word, but did reveal the word to Billy Green, who rode his brother-in-law's horse part way, and ran on foot the rest of the way to Burlington Heights. Here, he revealed the password to Lieutenant James FitzGibbon. He was provided with a sword and uniform and used his knowledge of the terrain to guide the British to the American position.[11][12][13] Billy Green was present at the battle.
However, it has been suggested that the password was actually obtained by Lieutenant Colonel Harvey. According to an account given after the war by Frederick Snider, a neighbour of the Gages, Harvey had executed a ruse on the first sentry to be accosted. Pretending to be the American officer of the day making Grand Rounds, he approached the sentry and when challenged, came close to the sentry's ear as if to whisper the countersign. But with bayonet secreted in hand, he grabbed the surprised sentry by the throat and threw him to the ground. With the bayonet at his throat, the sentry gave up the password.[14] This suggestion illustrates the incomplete research into several aspects of the Battle of Stoney Creek. Snider gave this account not long before his death in 1877 [15][16] and his source for it was the April 1871 issue of The Canadian Literary Journal.[17] Snider was confusing Harvey with Colonel Murray, June 1813 with December 1813 and Stoney Creek with Youngstown near Fort Niagara. Snider makes several obvious errors, such as "the British General St. Vincent was found some days after wandering about in the woods nearly dead of hunger." His name was Vincent and he did not wander about the woods for days. Snider's source for the provenance of the countersign should thus be considered to be unreliable.[13]
Battle[edit]
An Ontario marker to the battle next to Battlefield House
Battlefield House was built ca. 1796
A civic marker affixed to Battlefield House
The British left their camp at Burlington Heights at 11:30 p.m. on 5 June. While Vincent was the senior officer present, the troops were placed under the conduct and direction of Lieutenant Colonel Harvey, who led them silently toward Stoney Creek.[1] They had removed the flints from their muskets to ensure that there were no accidental discharges and dared not utter even a whisper.[12] A sentry post of American soldiers was surprised and either captured or killed by bayonet.[18] Billy Green is said to have bayoneted one of the American sentries personally,[11] although this is not mentioned in any official British record. The British continued advancing toward the American campfires in silence. However at the repeated urging of Second Lieutenant Ephraim Shaler, the U.S. 25th Regiment which had earlier been camped there had been moved from their previous exposed position, leaving behind only the cooks who were preparing the troops' meal for the next day.[19] Shaler had returned to the original position when he heard a sentry cry out as he was being tomahawked after being shot with an arrow from one of John Norton's small band of First Nations warriors.
Around the same time, a group of Vincent's staff officers who had come forward to watch the action let out a cheer.[19] Their men took up the cheer, relieving their tension but depriving them of the element of surprise that was their primary advantage given the lopsided number of troops they faced. Instead of striking fear in their adversaries, the yells served to direct their attention to where the British were, helping the rousing troops to focus their attention and musket fire and making it nearly impossible for officers' orders to be heard above the din. Any hope of catching the Americans unaware and bayoneting them in their sleep was now lost and the British fixed their flints to their muskets and attacked. Lieutenant James Fitzgibbon and three sergeants of the Light Company of the 49th were able to keep their men from taking up the shout "until a late stage of the affair, when firing on our side became general".[20] Gradually, the American troops began to recover from the initial surprise, recover their poise and start firing at the attacking British, at times from as far away as 200 yards (180 m). The American artillery also entered the fray after having previously been rendered useless due to the dampness settling into the powder.[21]
Holding the high ground, the Americans were able to pour both musket and artillery fire into the exposed British line and the line began to lose cohesion. For ammunition, the U.S. Twenty-Fifth Infantry was firing a variant of 'buck and ball', in this instance firing 12 buckshot balls instead of the usual .65 calibre ball and 3 buckshot. This effectively turned their muskets into shotguns.[22] Despite repeated charges by the British, the centre of the American line was holding and with the withering fire that the British line was sustaining, it was only a matter of time before they would have to retire.
A series of events coincided to change the course of the battle. General Winder ordered the U.S. 5th Infantry to protect the left flank. In doing so, he created a gap in the American line while at the same time leaving the artillery unsupported by infantry. Simultaneously, the other American commander, John Chandler, hearing musket shots from the far right of the American line and having already sent his staff officers off with other orders, rode out to investigate personally. But his horse fell (or was shot – Chandler used both excuses at different times) and he was knocked out in the fall.[23]
Major Charles Plenderleath, commanding the British 49th Regiment, was able to ascertain the position of the American artillery when two field guns fired in quick succession (43°13′07″N 79°45′52″W / 43.218493°N 79.764344°W / 43.218493; -79.764344). Realising the importance of possession of the guns, he gathered troops of Fitzgibbon's and other nearby companies to charge the guns before they could reload. First to volunteer for what could be a suicidal attack were 23-year-old Sergeant Alexander Fraser and his 21-year-old brother Peter, a corporal in Fitzgibbon's company,[24] with 20 to 30 others. With bayonets fixed, Plenderleath led the charge up Gage's Lane, volunteers following at a run, all fearing that the next discharge from the cannons might annihilate them. However, the U.S. 2nd Artillery under the command of Captain Nathaniel Towson at that moment responded to an order to cease firing,[24] unaware of the British troops advancing on their position. The gunners were without arms of their own.[23] The British charged the field guns, and when they were within a few yards of the gun emplacement, the men began yelling "Come on, Brant".[24] They set upon the helpless gunners, bayoneting man and horse, quickly overrunning and capturing the position[25] before continuing on to engage the U.S. 23rd Infantry which got off one round before the momentum of the 49th scattered them.[26] The remaining British forces followed soon after.[27]
At this point General Chandler, conscious again and aware of the commotion near his artillery but not of the reason, stumbled to the position to investigate. Thinking himself to be among the U.S. 23rd Infantry and intending to bring order back to the "new and undisciplined" troops,[28] he realised to his horror that the soldiers were British and Alexander Fraser immediately took him prisoner at bayonet point. Winder very shortly thereafter fell prey to the same mistake. Realising his error, he pulled his pistol, aiming it at Fraser who was poised to take him prisoner as he had Chandler. With his musket pointed at Winder's breast, Fraser told him menacingly "If you stir, sir; you die"[29] and Winder was made prisoner also, proffering his sword to Fraser.[30] Major Joseph Lee Smith of the 25th U.S. Infantry was very nearly captured himself but having made good his escape, alerted his men to make a quick withdrawal, thereby avoiding capture.[31] Command of the American forces fell to cavalry officer Colonel James Burn. The cavalry charged forward firing, but once again in the darkness, the Americans suffered from a case of mistaken identity – they were firing on their own U.S. 16th Infantry, who were themselves wandering around without their commander and firing at each other in confusion. Shortly afterwards, the Americans fell back, convinced that they had been defeated, when in fact they still retained a superior force.[32]
The battle lasted less than 45 minutes, but its intensity led to heavy casualties on both sides.[1] As dawn broke, Harvey ordered the outnumbered British to fall back into the woods in order to hide their small numbers. They succeeded in carrying away two of the captured guns, and spiked two more, leaving them on the ground owing to their inability to move them.[1] They later watched from a distance as the Americans returned to their camp after daybreak, burned their provisions and tents and retreated toward Forty Mile Creek (present day Grimsby, Ontario). By afternoon on 6 June, the British occupied the former site of the American camp.[27]
For much of the morning of 6 June, General Vincent was missing. He had been injured after a fall from his horse during the battle and was found wandering in a state of confusion, convinced that the entire British force had been destroyed. He was finally located about seven miles from the battle scene; his horse, hat and sword all missing.[8][33]
Casualties[edit]
The British casualty return gave 23 killed, 136 wounded and 55 missing.[3] Of the men reported as "missing", 52 were captured by the Americans.[4]
The American casualty return for 6 June gave 17 killed, 38 wounded and 7 officers (2 brigadier-generals, 1 major, 3 captains and 1 lieutenant) and 93 enlisted men missing.[5] The British report of prisoners taken on the morning of 6 June corresponds exactly to the American list of "missing" as concerns the number and ranks of the captured officers but gives 94 enlisted men captured,[6] indicating that one of the Americans who was presumed to have been killed in the casualty return was in fact captured. Of the seven officers who were captured on the morning of 6 June, three (Gen. Chandler, Captain Peter Mills and Captain George Steele) were wounded,[34] which suggests that a substantial number of the enlisted prisoners may also have been wounded.
Killed in action at the Battle of Stoney Creek, 6 June 1813 (as listed on the Stoney Creek Battlefield Monument): Samuel Hooker, Joseph Hunt, James Daig, Thomas Fearnsides, Richard Hugill, George Longley, Laurence Mead, John Regler, John Wale, Charles Page, James Adams, Alexander Brown, Michael Burke, Henry Carroll, Nathaniel Catlin, Martin Curley, Martin Donnolly, Peter Henley, John Hostler, Edward Killoran, Edward Little, Patrick Martin, John Maxwell. The names of the American dead are not recorded.
Aftermath[edit]
Casualties in the fight had been roughly even, but the Americans had been shaken. It is most probable that if their generals had not been captured, the battle might have turned out quite differently.[8] However, the British had a reasonable claim to victory in this battle. Under the de facto leadership of Colonel Harvey, and with some good fortune, they had successfully forced the Americans back toward the Niagara River. American forces would never again advance so far from the Niagara.
At Forty Mile Creek, the retreating American troops were met by reinforcements under Dearborn's second-in-command, Major General Morgan Lewis. Dearborn had ordered Lewis to proceed to Stoney Creek to attack the British, but almost as the two groups met, the British fleet under Captain Sir James Lucas Yeo appeared in Lake Ontario. The American armed vessels under Commodore Isaac Chauncey had abruptly vanished when they heard that Yeo and troops under Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost had attacked their own base at Sackett's Harbor, New York. (The Battle of Sackett's Harbor was a defeat for the British, but large quantities of stores and equipment had mistakenly been set on fire by the Americans, hampering the Americans' efforts to build large fighting vessels.)
With Yeo threatening his communications, which ran for 40 miles (64 km) along the edge of the lake, Lewis decided to retreat at once to Fort George, leaving a large quantity of tents, arms and supplies for the British to acquire. The British vigorously followed up the American withdrawal. A skirmish on 7 June brought in 12 more prisoners; a captain and 11 enlisted men.[6] During 8–10 June 80 more prisoners were taken,[35] making a total American loss, during 6–10 June, of 16 killed, 38 wounded and 192 captured: total 230 men.
Stoney Creek Battlefield Monument
The Americans retired into a small defensive perimeter around Fort George, where they remained until abandoning the fort and retreating across the Niagara River into U.S. territory in December.[36]
Brigadier General Winder was later exchanged and subsequently commanded the Tenth Military District around Washington, where he attracted censure following the burning of Washington.
Legacy[edit]
Battlefield House remains from the time of the battle, and is a museum located within Battlefield Park. They are located very near the site of the battle and, with a knoll across the street where a separate monument stands, comprises Battle of Stoney Creek National Historic Site.[37][38] The park's stone tower, was dedicated exactly 100 years after the battle. It was unveiled following a signal given by Queen Mary in England, via the transatlantic telegraph cable, and commemorates British soldiers who died in the fight. The Gage farm house is also preserved and serves as a museum. The battle is re-enacted annually on the weekend closest to 6 June.[39]
Re-enactors (in UK uniforms) fire muskets toward the "Americans" in this annual commemoration of the June 6, 1813 Battle of Stoney Creek
The 2016 event was the 35th such re-enactment.[40]
"More dearly than their lives they held those principles and traditions of British Liberty of which Canada is the inheritor." – inscription on the Stoney Creek Battlefield Monument
The battle is commemorated in the song Billy Green from the 1999 album From Coffee House to Concert Hall by the late Canadian folk singer Stan Rogers.
See also[edit]
Battlefield House (Stoney Creek)
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Letter, Lt. Col. Harvey to Col. Baynes – 6 June 1813, Cruikshank, p. 7.
^ Jump up to: a b Cruikshank, p. 41.
^ Jump up to: a b J. Harvey, DAAG., Cruikshank, p. 10.
^ Jump up to: a b Cruikshank, p. 30.
^ Jump up to: a b J. Johnson, Asst. Adj. Gen., Cruikshank, p. 25.
^ Jump up to: a b c Cruikshank, p. 12.
Jump up ^ H. F. Wood, The Many Battles of Stoney Creek, in Zaslow (ed), p. 57.
^ Jump up to: a b c Extract – Niles' Register – Vol 11, pp.116–119, 19 October 1816, Cruikshank, pp. 30–38.
^ Jump up to: a b Zaslow, p. 58.
Jump up ^ "The Adventures of Billy Green, "The Scout"". Archived from the original on 10 May 2008. Retrieved 29 June 2009. – Also see Genealogy of Benjamin Harrison IV – who is indicated as being grandfather to William Henry Harrison (via Benjamin Harrison V), and also to Issac Corman (via Sarah Harrison).
^ Jump up to: a b "Battlefield House Museum – Billy Green, the Scout". Retrieved 26 May 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Berton, pp. 72–80.
^ Jump up to: a b "Green, Philip E.J. 2013. Billy Green the Scout and the Battle of Stoney Creek (June 5-6, 1813). Issue 20, May 3013. War of 1812 Magazine." (PDF). Retrieved 2013-06-06.
Jump up ^ Elliot Strange Fatality, p. 115.
Jump up ^ "Frederick G. Snider (1793 - 1877) - Find A Grave Memorial". Findagrave.com. 2010-12-08. Retrieved 2013-06-06.
Jump up ^ Clark et al., footnotes 34, 35.
Jump up ^ Lubell et al., footnote 44.
Jump up ^ Letter, Lt. James FitzGibbon to Rev. James Somerville – 7 June 1813, Cruikshank, p. 12.
^ Jump up to: a b Elliot, p. 119.
Jump up ^ Stanley, p. 18.
Jump up ^ Elliot, p. 123.
Jump up ^ Elliot, p. 121.
^ Jump up to: a b Elliot, p. 134.
^ Jump up to: a b c Elliot, p. 136.
Jump up ^ Hitsman, p. 150.
Jump up ^ Elliot, p. 137.
^ Jump up to: a b Letter, Brigadier General Vincent to Sir George Prevost – 6 June 1813, Cruikshank, p. 8.
Jump up ^ Niles' Weekly Register – 19 October 1816, Battle of Stoney Creek.
Jump up ^ Elliot, p. 138.
Jump up ^ Letter, Brigadier General Chandler to General Dearborn – 18 June 1813, Cruikshank, p. 25.
Jump up ^ Cruikshank, p. 23.
Jump up ^ Berton, p. 78.
Jump up ^ Berton, p. 79.
Jump up ^ Heitman, Volume 2, pp. 17, 31 and 37.
Jump up ^ Cruikshank, p. 64.
Jump up ^ Berton, pp. 79–80.
Jump up ^ Battle of Stoney Creek. Directory of Federal Heritage Designations. Parks Canada. Retrieved 23 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Battle of Stoney Creek. Canadian Register of Historic Places. Retrieved 23 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Battlefield House Museum and Park". Archived from the original on 10 June 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
Jump up ^ Lennie, Laura (May 27, 2015). "Annual Re-enactment of the Battle of Stoney Creek just around the corner". Hamilton News. Metroland (a division of the Toronto Star). Retrieved June 5, 2016. Each year, we strive to ensure that the re-enactment is an event that not only commemorates what occurred at the site over 200 years ago, but also provides historical information related to what was occurring around the world in the early 19th century,” Ramsay said. Hundreds of re-enactors ... participate ...
Sources[edit]
Referenced in notes[edit]
Berton, Pierre (1981). Flames Across the Border, 1813 – 1814. Canada: Random House Canada. ISBN 0-385-65838-9.
Clark, D. B.; Green, D. A.; Lubell, M. (2011). Billy Green and Balderdash (PDF). Hamilton, Ontario, Canada: Stoney Creek Historical Society. ISBN 978-0-9868772-1-6.
Cruikshank, E. A. (ed.) (c. 1908). The Documentary History of the Campaign Upon the Niagara Frontier – Part VI. Welland, Ontario: Lundy's Lane Historical Society. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Elliott, James E. (2009). Strange Fatality: The Battle of Stoney Creek, 1813. Toronto: Robin Brass Studio. ISBN 1-896941-58-3.
Green, Philip E. J. (2013). Billy Green the Scout and the Battle of Stoney Creek (June 5-6, 1813) (PDF). on-line journal: War of 1812 Magazine, Issue 20, May 2013.
Heitman, Francis B. (1965) [1903]. Historical Register and Dictionary of the United States Army, from its Organization, 29 September 1789, to 2 March 1903. (Two volumes). Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Hitsman, J. Mackay (1999). The Incredible War of 1812 – A military History. Cap-Saint-Ignace, Quebec: Robin Brass Studio. ISBN 1-896941-13-3.
Lubell, M.; Clark, D. A.; Green, D. (2012). Billy Green and More Balderdash (PDF). Hamilton, Ontario, Canada: Stoney Creek Historical Society.
Stanley, George F. G. (1991). Battle in the Dark: Stoney Creek, June 6, 1813. Toronto: Balmuir Book Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-919511-46-0.
Zaslow, Morris (1964). The Defended Border: Upper Canada and the War of 1812. Toronto: The Macmillan Company of Canada Limited. ISBN 0-7705-1242-9.
General[edit]
John R. Elting, Amateurs to Arms, Da Capo Press, New York, 1995, ISBN 0-306-80653-3.
Jon Latimer, 1812: War with America, Harvard University Press, 2007, ISBN 0-674-02584-9.
External links[edit]
City of Hamilton museum site for Battlefield House Museum and Park
Monument to Engagement at Forty Mile Creek
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Stellar nucleosynthesis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Stellar nucleosynthesis is the theory explaining the creation (nucleosynthesis) of chemical elements by nuclear fusion reactions between atoms within the stars. Stellar nucleosynthesis has occurred continuously since the original creation of hydrogen, helium and lithium during the Big Bang. It is a highly predictive theory that today yields excellent agreement between calculations based upon it and the observed abundances of the elements. It explains why the observed abundances of elements in the universe grow over time and why some elements and their isotopes are much more abundant than others. The theory was initially proposed by Fred Hoyle in 1946,[1] who later refined it in 1954.[2] Further advances were made, especially to nucleosynthesis by neutron capture of the elements heavier than iron, by Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge, William Alfred Fowler and Hoyle in their famous 1957 B2FH paper,[3] which became one of the most heavily cited papers in astrophysics history.
Stars evolve because of changes in their composition (the abundance of their constituent elements) over their lifespans, first by burning hydrogen (main sequence star), then helium (red giant star), and progressively burning higher elements. However, this does not by itself significantly alter the abundances of elements in the universe as the elements are contained within the star. Later in their lives, low-mass stars will slowly eject their atmosphere via stellar wind, forming planetary nebula, while higher mass stars will eject mass via sudden catastrophic events called supernova. The term supernova nucleosynthesis is used to describe the creation of elements during the evolution and explosion of a pre-supernova massive star (12–35 times the mass of the sun). Those massive stars are the most prolific source of new isotopes from carbon (Z = 6) to nickel (Z = 28).
The advanced sequence of burning fuels is driven by gravitational collapse and its associated heating, resulting in the subsequent burning of carbon, oxygen and silicon. However, most of the nucleosynthesis in the mass range A = 28–56 (from silicon to nickel) is actually caused by the upper layers of the star collapsing onto the core, creating a compressional shock wave rebounding outward. The shock front briefly raises temperatures by roughly 50%, thereby causing furious burning for about a second. This final burning in massive stars, called explosive nucleosynthesis or supernova nucleosynthesis, is the final epoch of stellar nucleosynthesis.
A stimulus to the development of the theory of nucleosynthesis was the discovery of variations in the abundances of elements found in the universe. The need for a physical description was already inspired by the relative abundances of isotopes of the chemical elements in the solar system. Those abundances, when plotted on a graph as a function of atomic number of the element, have a jagged sawtooth shape that varies by factors of tens of millions (see history of nucleosynthesis theory).[4] This suggested a natural process that is not random. A second stimulus to understanding the processes of stellar nucleosynthesis occurred during the 20th century, when it was realized that the energy released from nuclear fusion reactions accounted for the longevity of the Sun as a source of heat and light.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Key reactions
2.1 Hydrogen fusion
2.2 Helium fusion
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links
History[edit]
In 1920, Arthur Eddington proposed that stars obtained their energy from nuclear fusion of hydrogen to form helium and also raised the possibility that the heavier elements are produced in stars.
In 1920, Arthur Eddington, on the basis of the precise measurements of atomic masses by F.W. Aston and a preliminary suggestion by Jean Perrin, proposed that stars obtained their energy from nuclear fusion of hydrogen to form helium and raised the possibility that the heavier elements are produced in stars.[6][7][8] This was a preliminary step toward the idea of nucleosynthesis. In 1928, George Gamow derived what is now called the Gamow factor, a quantum-mechanical formula that gave the probability of bringing two nuclei sufficiently close for the strong nuclear force to overcome the Coulomb barrier. The Gamow factor was used in the decade that followed by Atkinson and Houtermans and later by Gamow himself and Edward Teller to derive the rate at which nuclear reactions would proceed at the high temperatures believed to exist in stellar interiors.
In 1939, in a paper entitled "Energy Production in Stars", Hans Bethe analyzed the different possibilities for reactions by which hydrogen is fused into helium[9]. He defined two processes that he believed to be the sources of energy in stars. The first one, the proton–proton chain reaction, is the dominant energy source in stars with masses up to about the mass of the Sun. The second process, the carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle, which was also considered by Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker in 1938, is more important in more massive main-sequence stars. These works concerned the energy generation capable of keeping stars hot. A clear physical description of the proton–proton chain and of the CNO cycle appears in a 1968 textbook[5]. Bethe's two papers did not address the creation of heavier nuclei, however. That theory was begun by Fred Hoyle in 1946 with his argument that a collection of very hot nuclei would assemble thermodynamically into iron[1]. Hoyle followed that in 1954 with a large paper describing how advanced fusion stages within massive stars would synthesize the elements from carbon to iron in mass[2]. This is the first work of stellar nucleosynthesis[10]. It and Hoyle's 1954 paper provided the roadmap to how the most abundant elements on Earth had been synthesized within stars from their initial hydrogen and helium, making clear how those abundant elements increased their galactic abundances as the galaxy aged.
Hoyle's theory was expanded to other processes, beginning with the publication of a review paper in 1957 by Burbidge, Burbidge, Fowler and Hoyle (commonly referred to as the B2FH paper).[3] This review paper collected and refined earlier research into a heavily cited picture that gave promise of accounting for the observed relative abundances of the elements; but it did not itself enlarge Hoyle's 1954 picture for the origin of primary nuclei as much as many assumed, except in the understanding of nucleosynthesis of those elements heavier than iron by neutron capture. Significant improvements were made by Alastair G. W. Cameron and by Donald D. Clayton. Cameron presented his own independent approach[11] (following Hoyle's approach for the most part) of nucleosynthesis. He introduced computers into time-dependent calculations of evolution of nuclear systems. Clayton calculated the first time-dependent models of the S-process[12] and of the R-process,[13] as well as of the burning of silicon into the abundant alpha-particle nuclei and iron-group elements,[14][15] and discovered radiogenic chronologies[16] for determining the age of the elements. The entire research field expanded rapidly in the 1970s.
Cross section of a supergiant showing nucleosynthesis and elements formed.
Key reactions[edit]
A version of the periodic table indicating the origins – including stellar nucleosynthesis – of the elements. Elements above 94 are manmade and are not included.
The most important reactions in stellar nucleosynthesis:
Hydrogen fusion:
Deuterium fusion
The proton–proton chain
The carbon–nitrogen–oxygen cycle
Helium fusion:
The triple-alpha process
The alpha process
Fusion of heavier elements:
Lithium burning: a process found most commonly in brown dwarfs
Carbon-burning process
Neon-burning process
Oxygen-burning process
Silicon-burning process
Production of elements heavier than iron:
Neutron capture:
The R-process
The S-process
Proton capture:
The Rp-process
The P-process
Photodisintegration
Hydrogen fusion[edit]
Main articles: Proton–proton chain reaction, CNO cycle, and Deuterium fusion
Proton–proton chain reaction
CNO-I cycle
The helium nucleus is released at the top-left step.
Hydrogen fusion (nuclear fusion of four protons to form a helium-4 nucleus[17]) is the dominant process that generates energy in the cores of main-sequence stars. It is also called "hydrogen burning", which should not be confused with the chemical combustion of hydrogen in an oxidizing atmosphere. There are two predominant processes by which stellar hydrogen fusion occurs: proton-proton chain and the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle. Ninety percent of all stars, with the exception of white dwarfs, are fusing hydrogen by these two processes.
In the cores of lower-mass main-sequence stars such as the Sun, the dominant energy production process is the proton–proton chain reaction. This creates a helium-4 nucleus through a sequence of chain reactions that begin with the fusion of two protons to form a deuterium nucleus (one proton plus one neutron) along with an ejected positron and neutrino.[18] In each complete fusion cycle, the proton–proton chain reaction releases about 26.2 MeV.[18] The proton–proton chain reaction cycle is relatively insensitive to temperature; a 10% rise of temperature would increase energy production by this method by 46%, hence, this hydrogen fusion process can occur in up to a third of the star's radius and occupy half the star's mass. For stars above 35% of the Sun's mass,[19] the energy flux toward the surface is sufficiently low and energy transfer from the core region remains by radiative heat transfer, rather than by convective heat transfer.[20] As a result, there is little mixing of fresh hydrogen into the core or fusion products outward.
In higher-mass stars, the dominant energy production process is the CNO cycle, which is a catalytic cycle that uses nuclei of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen as intermediaries and in the end produces a helium nucleus as with the proton-proton chain.[18] During a complete CNO cycle, 25.0 MeV of energy is released. The difference in energy production of this cycle, compared to the proton–proton chain reaction, is accounted for by the energy lost through neutrino emission.[18] The CNO cycle is very temperature sensitive, a 10% rise of temperature would produce a 350% rise in energy production. About 90% of the CNO cycle energy generation occurs within the inner 15% of the star's mass, hence it is strongly concentrated at the core.[21] This results in such an intense outward energy flux that convective energy transfer become more important than does radiative transfer. As a result, the core region becomes a convection zone, which stirs the hydrogen fusion region and keeps it well mixed with the surrounding proton-rich region.[22] This core convection occurs in stars where the CNO cycle contributes more than 20% of the total energy. As the star ages and the core temperature increases, the region occupied by the convection zone slowly shrinks from 20% of the mass down to the inner 8% of the mass.[21] Our Sun produces 10% of its energy from the CNO cycle.
The type of hydrogen fusion process that dominates in a star is determined by the temperature dependency differences between the two reactions. The proton–proton chain reaction starts at temperatures about 7006400000000000000♠4×106 K,[23] making it the dominant fusion mechanism in smaller stars. A self-maintaining CNO chain requires a higher temperature of approximately 7007160000000000000♠16×106 K, but thereafter it increases more rapidly in efficiency as the temperature rises, than does the proton-proton reaction.[24] Above approximately 7007170000000000000♠17×106 K, the CNO cycle becomes the dominant source of energy. This temperature is achieved in the cores of main sequence stars with at least 1.3 times the mass of the Sun.[25] The Sun itself has a core temperature of about 7007157000000000000♠15.7×106 K. As a main sequence star ages, the core temperature will rise, resulting in a steadily increasing contribution from its CNO cycle.[21]
Helium fusion[edit]
Main articles: Triple-alpha process and Alpha process
Main sequence stars accumulate helium in their cores as a result of hydrogen fusion, but the core does not become hot enough to initiate helium fusion. Helium fusion first begins when a star leaves the red giant branch after accumulating sufficient helium in its core to ignite it. In stars around the mass of the sun, this begins at the tip of the red giant branch with a helium flash from a degenerate helium core and the star moves to the horizontal branch where it burns helium in its core. More massive stars ignite helium in their cores without a flash and execute a blue loop before reaching the asymptotic giant branch. Despite the name, stars on a blue loop from the red giant branch are typically not blue in color, but are rather yellow giants, possibly Cepheid variables. They fuse helium until the core is largely carbon and oxygen. The most massive stars become supergiants when they leave the main sequence and quickly start helium fusion as they become red supergiants. After helium is exhausted in the core of a star, it will continue in a shell around the carbon-oxygen core.[17][20]
In all cases, helium is fused to carbon via the triple-alpha process. This can then form oxygen, neon, and heavier elements via the alpha process. In this way, the alpha process preferentially produces elements with even numbers of protons by the capture of helium nuclei. Elements with odd numbers of protons are formed by other fusion pathways.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Hoyle, F. (1946). "The synthesis of the elements from hydrogen". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 106 (5): 343–383. Bibcode:1946MNRAS.106..343H. doi:10.1093/mnras/106.5.343.
^ Jump up to: a b Hoyle, F. (1954). "On Nuclear Reactions Occurring in Very Hot STARS. I. The Synthesis of Elements from Carbon to Nickel". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 1: 121. Bibcode:1954ApJS....1..121H. doi:10.1086/190005.
^ Jump up to: a b Burbidge, E. M.; Burbidge, G. R.; Fowler, W.A.; Hoyle, F. (1957). "Synthesis of the Elements in Stars" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 29 (4): 547–650. Bibcode:1957RvMP...29..547B. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547.
Jump up ^ Suess, H. E.; Urey, H. C. (1956). "Abundances of the Elements". Reviews of Modern Physics. 28 (1): 53–74. Bibcode:1956RvMP...28...53S. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.28.53.
^ Jump up to: a b Clayton, D. D. (1968). Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis. University of Chicago Press.
Jump up ^ Eddington, A. S. (1920). "The internal constitution of the stars". The Observatory. 43: 341–358. Bibcode:1920Obs....43..341E.
Jump up ^ Eddington, A. S (1920). "The Internal Constitution of the Stars". Nature. 106 (2653): 14. Bibcode:1920Natur.106...14E. doi:10.1038/106014a0.
Jump up ^ Selle, D. (October 2012). "Why the Stars Shine" (PDF). Guidestar. Houston Astronomical Society. pp. 6–8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-12-03.
Jump up ^ Bethe, H. A. (1939). "Energy Production in Stars". Physical Review. 55 (5): 434–456. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.55.434.
Jump up ^ Clayton, D. D. (2007). "HISTORY OF SCIENCE: Hoyle's Equation". Science. 318 (5858): 1876–1877. doi:10.1126/science.1151167.
Jump up ^ Cameron, A. G. W. (1957). Stellar Evolution, Nuclear Astrophysics, and Nucleogenesis (PDF) (Report). Atomic Energy of Canada. Report CRL-41.
Jump up ^ Clayton, D. D.; Fowler, W. A.; Hull, T. E.; Zimmerman, B. A. (1961). "Neutron capture chains in heavy element synthesis". Annals of Physics. 12 (3): 331–408. doi:10.1016/0003-4916(61)90067-7.
Jump up ^ Seeger, P. A.; Fowler, W. A.; Clayton, D. D. (1965). "Nucleosynthesis of Heavy Elements by Neutron Capture". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 11: 121–126. Bibcode:1965ApJS...11..121S. doi:10.1086/190111.
Jump up ^ Bodansky, D.; Clayton, D. D.; Fowler, W. A. (1968). "Nucleosynthesis During Silicon Burning". Physical Review Letters. 20 (4): 161–164. Bibcode:1968PhRvL..20..161B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.20.161.
Jump up ^ Bodansky, D.; Clayton, D. D.; Fowler, W. A. (1968). "Nuclear Quasi-Equilibrium during Silicon Burning". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 16: 299. Bibcode:1968ApJS...16..299B. doi:10.1086/190176.
Jump up ^ Clayton, D. D. (1964). "Cosmoradiogenic Chronologies of Nucleosynthesis". The Astrophysical Journal. 139: 637. doi:10.1086/147791.
^ Jump up to: a b Jones, Lauren V. (2009), Stars and galaxies, Greenwood guides to the universe, ABC-CLIO, pp. 65–67, ISBN 0-313-34075-7
^ Jump up to: a b c d Böhm-Vitense, Erika (1992), Introduction to Stellar Astrophysics, 3, Cambridge University Press, pp. 93–100, ISBN 0-521-34871-4
Jump up ^ Reiners, A.; Basri, G. (March 2009). "On the magnetic topology of partially and fully convective stars". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 496 (3): 787–790. arXiv:0901.1659  . Bibcode:2009A&A...496..787R. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200811450.
^ Jump up to: a b de Loore, Camiel W. H.; Doom, C. (1992), Structure and evolution of single and binary stars, Astrophysics and space science library, 179, Springer, pp. 200–214, ISBN 0-7923-1768-8
^ Jump up to: a b c Jeffrey, C. Simon (2010), "Stellar structure and evolution: an introduction", in Goswami, A.; Reddy, B. E., Principles and Perspectives in Cosmochemistry, Springer, pp. 64–66, ISBN 3-642-10368-5
Jump up ^ Karttunen, Hannu; Oja, Heikki (2007), Fundamental astronomy (5th ed.), Springer, p. 247, ISBN 3-540-34143-9
Jump up ^ Reid, I. Neill; Hawley, Suzanne L. (2005), New light on dark stars: red dwarfs, low-mass stars, brown dwarfs, Springer-Praxis books in astrophysics and astronomy (2nd ed.), Springer, p. 108, ISBN 3-540-25124-3
Jump up ^ Salaris, Maurizio; Cassisi, Santi (2005), Evolution of stars and stellar populations, John Wiley and Sons, pp. 119–123, ISBN 0-470-09220-3
Jump up ^ Schuler, S. C.; King, J. R.; The, L.-S. (2009), "Stellar Nucleosynthesis in the Hyades Open Cluster", The Astrophysical Journal, 701 (1): 837–849, arXiv:0906.4812  , Bibcode:2009ApJ...701..837S, doi:10.1088/0004-637X/701/1/837
Further reading[edit]
Bethe, H. A. (1939). "Energy Production in Stars". Physical Review. 55 (1): 103. Bibcode:1939PhRv...55..103B. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.55.103.
Bethe, H. A. (1939). "Energy Production in Stars". Physical Review. 55 (5): 434–456. Bibcode:1939PhRv...55..434B. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.55.434.
Hoyle, F. (1954). "On Nuclear Reactions occurring in very hot stars: Synthesis of elements from carbon to nickel". Astrophysical Journal Supplement. 1: 121–146. Bibcode:1954ApJS....1..121H. doi:10.1086/190005.
Clayton, Donald D. (1968). Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Ray, A. (2004). "Stars as thermonuclear reactors: Their fuels and ashes". arXiv:astro-ph/0405568  [astro-ph].
G. Wallerstein; I. Iben Jr.; P. Parker; A.M. Boesgaard; G.M. Hale; A. E. Champagne; et al. (1997). "Synthesis of the elements in stars: forty years of progress" (PDF). Reviews of Modern Physics. 69 (4): 995–1084. Bibcode:1997RvMP...69..995W. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.995. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-26. Retrieved 2006-08-04.
Woosley, S. E.; A. Heger; T. A. Weaver (2002). "The evolution and explosion of massive stars". Reviews of Modern Physics. 74 (4): 1015–1071. Bibcode:2002RvMP...74.1015W. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.74.1015.
Clayton, Donald D. (2003). Handbook of Isotopes in the Cosmos. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82381-1.
External links[edit]
How the Sun Shines by John N. Bahcall
Nucleosynthesis in NASA's Cosmicopia
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v
t
e
Nuclear processes
Radioactive
decay
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nucleosynthesis
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(n-p) reaction
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