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List of earthquakes in California
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Probabilistic seismic hazard map
Although the written history of California is not long, records of earthquakes exist that affected the Spanish missions that were constructed beginning in the late 18th century. Those records ceased when the missions were secularized in 1834, and from that point until the California Gold Rush in the 1840s, records were sparse. Other sources for the occurrence of earthquakes usually came from ship captains and other explorers. The earliest known earthquake was documented in 1769 by the Spanish explorers and Catholic missionaries of the Portolá expedition as they traveled northward from San Diego along the Santa Ana River near the present site of Los Angeles. For the period 1850–2004, there was about one potentially damaging event per year on average, though many of these did not cause loss of life or property damage.[1][2]
The few damaging earthquakes that occurred in the American Midwest and the East Coast were well known (1755 Cape Ann, 1811–12 New Madrid, 1886 Charleston), and it became apparent to settlers that the earthquake hazard situation was much different in the West. While the 1812 San Juan Capistrano, 1857 Fort Tejon, and 1872 Lone Pine shocks were only moderately destructive in mostly unpopulated areas, the 1868 Hayward event affected the thriving financial hub that is the San Francisco Bay Area, with damage from Santa Rosa in the north to Santa Cruz in the south. By this time, scientists were well aware of the threat, but seismology was still in its infancy. Reactions following destructive events in the late 19th and early 20th centuries included real estate developers, press, and boosters minimizing and downplaying the risk out of fear that the ongoing economic boom would be negatively affected.[3][4]
California earthquakes (1769–2000)
According to seismologist Charles Richter, the 1906 San Francisco earthquake moved the United States Government into acknowledging the problem. Prior to that, no agency was specifically focused on researching earthquake activity. The United States Weather Bureau did record when they happened and several United States Geological Survey scientists had briefly disengaged from their regular duties of mapping mineral resources to write reports on the New Madrid and Charleston events, but no trained geologists were working on the problem until the Coast and Geodetic Survey was made responsible after 1906. The outlook improved when professor Andrew Lawson brought the state's first monitoring program online at the University of California, Berkeley in 1910 with seismologist Harry Wood, who was later instrumental in getting the Caltech Seismological Laboratory operational in the 1920s.[3][5]
Early developments at the Caltech lab in Pasadena included an earthquake observation network using their own custom built short period seismometers, the Richter magnitude scale, and an updated version of the Mercalli intensity scale. In 1933, the Long Beach earthquake occurred in a populated area and damaged or destroyed a large number of public school buildings in Long Beach and Los Angeles. Some decades later, the San Fernando earthquake affected the San Fernando Valley north of Los Angeles with heavy damage to several hospitals. In both cases, the perception of those involved with policy making in California was changed, and state laws and building codes were modified (but not without much debate) to require commercial and residential properties to be built to withstand earthquakes. Higher standards were established for fire stations, hospitals, and schools and construction of dwellings was also restricted near known active faults.[4][5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Tectonic setting
2 Earthquakes
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Tectonic setting[edit]
See also: Los Angeles Basin, Mendocino Fracture Zone, and Salton Trough
During the last 66 million years, nearly the entire west coast of North America was dominated by a subduction zone, with the Farallon Plate subducting beneath the North American Plate. Presently, the Juan de Fuca Plate (with its Explorer and Gorda satellite plates) and the Rivera and Cocos Plates are the only remnants of the once much larger Farallon Plate. The plate margin that remains in California is that of the strike-slip San Andreas Fault (SAF), the diffuse Pacific–North American plate boundary that extends east into the Basin and Range Province of eastern California and western Nevada (a seismically active area called Walker Lane) and southwest into the California Continental Borderland region off the central and southern coasts. This system of faults terminates in the north at the Mendocino Triple Junction, one of the most seismically active regions in the state, where earthquakes are occasionally the result of intraplate deformation within the Gorda Plate. It terminates in the south at the Salton Sea where displacement transitions to a series of spreading centers and transform faults, beginning with the Brawley Seismic Zone in the Imperial Valley.[6]
In the San Francisco Bay Area, the San Andreas system of faults spans offshore and into the East Bay area, with the bulk of the faults lying to the east of the main SAF. There is a 70% probability that one of these faults will generate a M6.7 or greater earthquake before 2030, including the Hayward Fault Zone, which has gone beyond its average return period of 130 years. While the SAF north of San Francisco is quiet, the central SAF segment near San Juan Bautista is where fault creep was first studied, and to the south is where the recurring Parkfield earthquakes occur. The secondary faults lay to the west of the main SAF at the extreme southern portion, including the active and young San Jacinto Fault Zone, which may be taking over as the primary boundary south of Cajon Pass. A paleoseismic investigation using Lidar revealed that more than 5 meters (16 ft) of slip has accumulated since the 1857 event on the southern SAF, which borders the Mojave Desert to the north and east of the Greater Los Angeles Area. Near the Transverse Ranges, reverse and thrust faults have produced damaging earthquakes in Santa Barbara and the San Fernando Valley.[6]
Earthquakes[edit]
Date
Area
Mag.
MMI
Deaths
Injuries
Total damage / notes
2014-08-24 North Bay 6.0 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII 1 ~200 $362 million–$1 billion
2014-03-28 Los Angeles Area 5.1 Mw 7000600000000000000♠ VI Few $10.8 million [7]
2013-05-13 Eastern 5.7 Mw 7000800000000000000♠VIII 1 Damage at Canyondam [8]
2010-04-04 Baja California 7.2 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII 2–4 100–233 $1.15 billion
2010-01-09 North Coast 6.5 Mw 7000600000000000000♠ VI 35 $21.8–43 million
2008-07-29 Los Angeles Area 5.5 Mw 7000600000000000000♠ VI 8 Limited
2007-10-30 South Bay 5.6 Mw 7000600000000000000♠ VI Limited
2003-12-22 Central Coast 6.6 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII 2 40 $250–300 million
2000-09-03 North Bay 5.0 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII 41 $10–50 million
1999-10-16 Eastern 7.1 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII 4–5 Limited
1994-12-26 North Coast 5.5 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII $2.1–5 million [7]
1994-01-17 Los Angeles Area 6.7 Mw 7000900000000000000♠ IX 57 8,700+ $13–$40 billion
1992-06-28 Inland Empire 6.5 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII Some Moderate / triggered
1992-06-28 Inland Empire 7.3 Mw 7000900000000000000♠ IX 3 400+ $92 million
1992-04-26 North Coast 6.6 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII Damage / triggered
1992-04-26 North Coast 6.5 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII Damage / triggered
1992-04-25 North Coast 7.2 Mw 7000900000000000000♠ IX 98–356 $48.3–75 million / tsunami
1992-04-22 Inland Empire 6.3 Ms 7000700000000000000♠ VII 32 Light–moderate [7]
1991-08-17 North Coast 6.2 Ms 7000700000000000000♠ VII Slight damage / landslides [7]
1991-06-28 Los Angeles Area 5.6 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII 1 100–107 $33.5–40 million
1990-02-28 Los Angeles Area 5.7 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII 30 $12.7 million
1989-10-17 Santa Cruz Mountains 6.9 Mw 7000900000000000000♠ IX 63 3,757 $5.6–6 billion / tsunami
1989-08-08 Santa Cruz Mountains 5.4 ML 7000700000000000000♠ VII 1 Minor
1987-11-24 Imperial Valley 6.5 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII Triggered [9]
1987-11-23 Imperial Valley 6.1 Mw 7000600000000000000♠ VI $3 million [9]
1987-10-01 Los Angeles Area 5.9 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII 8 200 $213–358 million
1986-07-21 Eastern 6.2 Mw 7000600000000000000♠ VI 2 $2.7 million / sequence
1986-07-13 South Coast 5.8 Mw 7000600000000000000♠ VI 1 $700,000 [10]
1986-07-08 Inland Empire 6.0 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII 29–40 $4.5–6 million
1986-03-31 South Bay 5.6 Mw 7000600000000000000♠ VI 6 Minor [11]
1984-04-24 South Bay 6.2 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII 21–27 $7.5–8 million
1983-05-02 Central Valley 6.2 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII 94 $10 million
1981-04-26 Imperial Valley 5.9 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII $1–3 million [12]
1980-11-08 North Coast 7.3 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII 6 $2–2.75 million
1980-05-25 Eastern 6.2 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII 9 $1.5 million / swarm [13]
1980-01-26 East Bay 5.4 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII Doublet [14]
1980-01-24 East Bay 5.8 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII $11.5 million / doublet [15]
1979-10-15 Imperial Valley 6.4 Mw 7000900000000000000♠ IX 91 $30 million
1979-08-06 South Bay 5.7 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII 16 $500,000
1978-08-13 Central Coast 5.8 Mw 7000700000000000000♠VII 65 $12 million [16]
1975-08-01 Butte County 5.7 ML 7000800000000000000♠ VIII 10 $3 million [7]
1973-02-21 South Coast 5.8 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII Several $1 million
1971-02-09 Los Angeles Area 6.5–6.7 Mw 7001110000000000000♠ XI 58–65 200–2,000 $505–553 million
1969-10-01 North Bay 5.7 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII Doublet
1969-10-01 North Bay 5.6 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII 1 $8.35 million / doublet
1968-04-08 Imperial Valley 6.5 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII Damage / rockslides [17]
1957-03-22 Bay Area 5.7 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII 1 40 $1 million
1954-12-21 North Coast 6.5 ML 7000700000000000000♠ VII 1 Several $2.1 million [18]
1952-08-22 Central Valley 5.8 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII 2 Several $10 million
1952-07-21 Central Valley 7.3 Mw 7001110000000000000♠XI 12 Hundreds $60 million
1948-12-04 Inland Empire 6.4 Mw 7000700000000000000♠ VII Several Minor
1941-11-14 Los Angeles Area 5.4 Ms 7000800000000000000♠ VIII $1.1 million [19]
1941-06-30 Central Coast 5.9 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII $100,000 [20]
1940-05-18 Imperial Valley 6.9 Mw 7001100000000000000♠ X 9 20 $6 million
1933-03-10 South Coast 6.4 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII 115–120 $40 million
1932-06-06 North Coast 6.4 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII 1 3 Severe
1927-11-04 Central Coast 7.3 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII Moderate / tsunami [21]
1925-06-29 Central Coast 6.8 Mw 7000900000000000000♠ IX 13 $8 million
1923-01-22 North Coast 7.2 Ms 7000800000000000000♠ VIII Severe / tsunami [22]
1920-06-21 Los Angeles Area 4.9 ML 7000800000000000000♠ VIII More than $100,000 [23]
1918-04-21 Inland Empire 6.7 Mw 7000900000000000000♠ IX 1 Several $200,000
1915-06-22 Imperial Valley 5.5 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII Additional damage / doublet [24]
1915-06-22 Imperial Valley 5.5 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII 6 $900,000 / doublet [24]
1911-07-01 South Bay 6.6 Ms 7000800000000000000♠ VIII Damage at Lick Observatory [25]
1906-04-18 Imperial Valley 6.3 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII Damage / triggered [26][27]
1906-04-18 Northern–Central 7.8 Mw 7001110000000000000♠ XI 700–3,000+ Conflagration / tsunami
1899-12-25 Inland Empire 6.7 Mw 7000900000000000000♠ IX 6 $50,000 or more [28]
1898-03-30 North Bay 5.8–6.4 Mw 7000850000000000000♠ VIII–IX $350,000 / moderate
1892-04-21 Central Valley 6.2 MLa 7000900000000000000♠ IX Doublet
1892-04-19 North Bay 6.4 MLa 7000900000000000000♠ IX 1 $225,000–250,000 / doublet
1892-02-23 Baja California 7.1–7.2 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII Moderate
1873-11-23 North Coast 6.7 MLa 7000800000000000000♠ VIII Damage / ground cracks [29]
1872-03-26 Eastern 7.4–7.9 Mw 7001100000000000000♠ X 27 56 $250,000 / limited
1868-10-21 Bay Area 6.3–6.7 Mw 7000900000000000000♠ IX 30 $350,000 / moderate
1865-10-08 Santa Cruz Mountains 6.3 MLa 7000800000000000000♠ VIII $500,000 [30]
1857-01-09 Central–Southern 7.9 Mw 7000900000000000000♠ IX 2 Severe
1838-06 Bay Area 6.8–7.2 Mw 7000800000000000000♠ VIII Minor
1812-12-21 Central Coast 7.1 MLa 7000800000000000000♠ VIII 1 Tsunami [31]
1812-12-08 South Coast 6.9–7.5 7000800000000000000♠ VII–IX 40 Moderate
Stover & Coffman 1993 uses various seismic scales. Mla is a local magnitude that is equivalent to ML (Richter magnitude scale) and is used for events that occurred prior to the instrumental period. It is based on the area of perceptibility (as presented on isoseismal maps). Mw = moment magnitude scale and Ms = surface wave magnitude. The inclusion criteria for adding events are based on WikiProject Earthquakes' notability guideline that was developed for stand alone articles. The principles described are also applicable to lists. In summary, only damaging, injurious, or deadly events should be recorded.
See also[edit]
Alquist Priolo Special Studies Zone Act
California earthquake forecast
Field Act
Geography of California
Southern California Earthquake Center
Timeline of the Portolá expedition
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Toppozada, T. R.; Branum, D. (2004), "California earthquake history", Annals of Geophysics, Istituto Nazionale Geofisica e Vulcanologia, 47 (2–3): 509–512
Jump up ^ Ellsworth, W. L. (1990), "Earthquake history, 1769–1989", The San Andreas Fault System, California – USGS Professional Paper 1515, United States Geological Survey, pp. 156, 157, ISBN 978-0607716269
^ Jump up to: a b Hough, S. E. (2007), Richter's Scale: Measure of an Earthquake, Measure of a Man, Princeton University Press, pp. 51–61, ISBN 978-0691128078
^ Jump up to: a b Geschwind, C. (2001). California Earthquakes: Science, Risk, and the Politics of Hazard Mitigation. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 3–22, 105–114, 165, 181. ISBN 978-0801865961.
^ Jump up to: a b Goodstein, J. R. (2006), Millikan's School: A History of the California Institute of Technology, W. W. Norton & Company, pp. 125–152, ISBN 978-0393329988
^ Jump up to: a b Yeats, R. (2012), Active Faults of the World, Cambridge University Press, pp. 19, 80–83, 89–94, 96–114, ISBN 978-0521190855
^ Jump up to: a b c d e National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS), Significant Earthquake Database, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K
Jump up ^ Chapman, K.; Gold, M. B.; Boatwright, J.; Sipe, J.; Quitoriano, V.; Dreger, D.; Hardebeck, J. (2016), Faulting, Damage, and Intensity in the Canyondam Earthquake of May 23, 2013, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2016-1145, pp. 1, 13, doi:10.3133/ofr20161145
^ Jump up to: a b Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 98, 179, 180
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 97, 177
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 97, 176, 177
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 96, 168, 169
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 95, 168
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 95, 166, 167
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 94, 166, 167
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 94, 163
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 91, 154
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 88, 148
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 82, 137
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 82, 136
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 77, 128
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 77, 125
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 76, 124
^ Jump up to: a b Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 76, 121
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 75, 120
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 75, 105
Jump up ^ Meltzner, A. J.; Wald, D. J. (2003), "Aftershocks and Triggered Events of the Great 1906 California Earthquake", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Seismological Society of America, 93 (5): 2,160, 2,164, 2,166, 2,169, 2,170, doi:10.1785/0120020033
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 74, 113
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 73, 108
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 73, 104
Jump up ^ Stover & Coffman 1993, pp. 72, 100
Sources
Stover, C. W.; Coffman, J. L. (1993), Seismicity of the United States, 1568–1989 (Revised), U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1527, United States Government Printing Office
Wood, H. O. (1916), "The earthquake problem in the western United States", Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Seismological Society of America, 6 (4): 197–217
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Earthquakes in California.
Look up earthquake in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Information by Region-California – USGS
Southern California Earthquake Data Center
Putting Down Roots in Earthquake Country – Earthquake Country Alliance
Broadband Seismic Data Collection Center – University of California, San Diego
What Will Happen After The 'Big One' Hits SoCal? – KCET
Little-known quake, tsunami hazards lurk offshore of Southern California – American Geophysical Union
[hide]
v
t
e
Earthquakes in California
Very Large
(7.0–7.9)
1812 San Juan Capistrano (6.9–7.5)
1838 San Andreas (6.8–7.2)
1857 Fort Tejon (7.9)
1872 Lone Pine (7.4–7.9)
1892 Laguna Salada (7.1–7.2)
1906 San Francisco (7.8)
1952 Kern County (7.3)
1980 Eureka (7.3)
1992 Cape Mendocino (7.2)
1992 Landers (7.3)
1999 Hector Mine (7.1)
2010 Baja California (7.2)
Large
(6.0–6.9)
1868 Hayward (6.3–6.7)
1892 Vacaville–Winters (6.4, 6.2)
1898 Mare Island (5.8–6.4)
1918 San Jacinto (6.7)
1925 Santa Barbara (6.8)
1932 Eureka (6.4)
1933 Long Beach (6.4)
1940 El Centro (6.9)
1948 Desert Hot Springs (6.4)
1971 San Fernando (6.5–6.7)
1979 Imperial Valley (6.4)
1983 Coalinga (6.2)
1984 Morgan Hill (6.2)
1986 North Palm Springs (6.0)
1986 Chalfant Valley (6.2)
1989 Loma Prieta (6.9)
1992 Big Bear (6.5)
1994 Northridge (6.7)
2003 San Simeon (6.6)
2010 Eureka (6.5)
2014 South Napa (6.0)
Moderate
(5.0–5.9)
1957 San Francisco (5.7)
1969 Santa Rosa (5.6, 5.7)
1973 Point Mugu (5.8)
1979 Coyote Lake (5.7)
1987 Whittier Narrows (5.9)
1990 Upland (5.7)
1991 Sierra Madre (5.6)
2000 Yountville (5.0)
2007 Alum Rock (5.6)
2008 Chino Hills (5.5)
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text:
Who Put the Bomp (in the Bomp, Bomp, Bomp)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Who Put the Bomp (in the Bomp, Bomp, Bomp)"
Single by Barry Mann
from the album Who Put the Bomp
B-side
"Love, True Love"
Released
1961
Genre
Doo-wop
Bubblegum pop (Sugaryline version)
Length
2:46
Label
ABC-Paramount
Songwriter(s)
Barry Mann
Gerry Goffin
"Who Put the Bomp (in the Bomp, Bomp, Bomp)" is a doo-wop style hit song from 1961 co-written (with Gerry Goffin) and recorded by Barry Mann. The song was originally released as a single on the ABC-Paramount label (10237).
In this song, Mann sings about the frequent use of nonsense lyrics in doo-wop music, and how his girl fell in love with him after listening to several such songs.
Examples of the type of song referred to include the Marcels' version of "Blue Moon" (in which they sing "Bomp bomp ba bomp, ba bomp ba bomp bomp" and "dip-de-dip-de-dip")[1] and the Edsels' "Rama-Lama-Ding-Dong", both of which charted earlier the same year.[2] The spoken part is a reference to the song "Little Darlin'" by the Diamonds. "Boogidy shoo" can be found in the lyrics to "Pony Time" by Chubby Checker, released earlier that year. Mann was backed up by The Halos,[3] a doo-wop group of its own renown that had a single top-40 hit with "Nag" and also sang on Curtis Lee's hit "Pretty Little Angel Eyes."
The song inspired the title of an eponymous music magazine.
The song fits into the category of "self-referential" songs. Rock songs are often about rock, reggae songs about reggae, rap songs about rap, etc. In this particular song that aspect is accentuated by the fact that Mann is a songwriter singing about songwriters.
Chart performance[edit]
The single debuted on Billboard's Hot 100 on August 7, 1961, and remained for twelve weeks, peaking at #7.[2] Mann's version did not chart in the UK, though a cover version by the Viscounts reached # 21 there in September, 1961, and another version by Showaddywaddy charted at # 37 in August 1982.[4]
In popular culture[edit]
The song has been covered or referenced by:
The Viscounts (on the album Who Put the Bomp—The Pye Anthology) (1961)
Showaddywaddy, "Who put the Bomp in the Bomp a Bomp a Bomp a Bomp" (1982)
Sharon, Lois & Bram on their 1995 album Let's Dance!
The Overtones on their 2013 album Saturday Night at the Movies
Bobby and Jerry ("We're the guys" who put the bomp...)
The Heebee-jeebees (on their live album Surgical Strike)
Jan and Dean (who claim "We put the bomp..."[5])
Le Tigre ("Who took the bomp?" is incorporated into Deceptacon on their self-titled album Le Tigre)
Frankie Lymon (who claims "I put the bomp...", and opens the song with the "Oo-wah, oo-wah" that opened his hit song with the Teenagers, "Why Do Fools Fall in Love")
Me First and the Gimme Gimmes (on the album Blow in the Wind)
The Muppets
The Real Group (on their album Debut)
The Wurzels
Ol' 55 on their album, The Vault (1980).
A parody, "Who'll Put a Bomb on Saddam Saddam Saddam" was introduced in the political satirists Capitol Steps' 1990 album, Sheik, Rattle and Roll. A later parody titled "Who put the Bomb in Tehran, Tehran, Tehran" was produced by Capitol Steps and included in their book Sixteen Scandals and the accompanying CD.[6]
The song "We Go Together" in the Broadway musical and subsequent film Grease includes a similar mix of nonsensical lyrics. The versions of "We Go Together" on the 1993 London cast recording and movie soundtrack include a bit of "Who Put the Bomp" sung in counterpoint at the end.
In the Full House episode "Joey Goes Hollywood" (Season 4, episode 23), the song is referenced in the pilot of a fictitious TV show, Surf's Up, with Frankie Avalon.
A parody titled "Who Put the Mush" was written and performed by The McCalmans. In an inversion of the original song, the singer's girlfriend leaves him due to the nonsense lyrics in his folk music.[7] It was released in 1994 on the album Songs From Scotland.[8]
Bentley Rhythm Ace had a track called "Who Put the Bom in the Bom Bom Diddleye Bom" on their debut album.
The Mugar Omni Theater at the Boston Museum of Science introduction/audio check is Leonard Nimoy reciting "Who Put the Bomp"
The song was parodied by Bob Rivers as "Who Put the Stump?", involving, from the perspective of an angel on top of a Christmas tree, the tree being inserted up the angel's rectum. The lyrics include "Who put the stump in my rump ba-bump ba-bump".[9]
The song is referenced in Swedish comedy group Grotesco's sketch "The Trial", a parody of American courtroom dramas in which the characters speak broken English without subtitles for a confused Swedish audience.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Marsh, Dave, The Heart of Rock & Soul: The 1001 Greatest Singles Ever Made, 1999, Da Capo Press; ISBN 0-306-80901-X
^ Jump up to: a b Top Pop Singles 1955-1996, © 1997, Record Research Inc.; ISBN 0-89820-122-5
Jump up ^ Marv Goldberg's R&B Notebooks - The Arthur Crier Story
Jump up ^ everyhit.com
Jump up ^ Perhaps with good reason: their version of "Heart and Soul", released earlier the same year, features their added lyrics "Bom ba bom, bom ba dip, da dip, dip..."
Jump up ^ Strauss, William (Bill) and Newport, Elaina, Sixteen Scandals: 20 Years of Sex, Lies and Other Habits of Our Great Leaders, 2002, Sourcebooks MediaFusion; ISBN 1-57071-890-3.
Jump up ^ Susannes Folksong Notizen - English Notes - Who Put The Mush, accessed 2013-09-22
Jump up ^ All Music - Who Put The Mush, accessed 2013-09-22
Jump up ^ 'Rump' Song Got Us Suspended, Central Florida DJs Say, Orlando News. The lyrics are available on Rivers' web site
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TNT
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
For other uses, see TNT (disambiguation).
TNT
Names
Preferred IUPAC name
2-Methyl-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene
Other names
2,4,6-Trinitromethylbenzene
2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene
2,4,6-Trinitrotoluol
TNT
Tolite
Trilite
Trinitrotoluol
Trinol
Tritolo
Tritolol
Triton
Tritone
Trotol
Trotyl
Identifiers
CAS Number
118-96-7 Y
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
Abbreviations TNT
ChEMBL
ChEMBL1236345 N
ChemSpider
8073 N
DrugBank
DB01676 Y
ECHA InfoCard 100.003.900
EC Number 204-289-6
KEGG
C16391 N
PubChem CID
11763
RTECS number XU0175000
UNII
H43RF5TRM5 Y
UN number 0209 – Dry or wetted with < 30% water
0388, 0389 – Mixtures with trinitrobenzene, hexanitrostilbene
InChI[show]
InChI=1S/C7H5N3O6/c1-4-6(9(13)14)2-5(8(11)12)3-7(4)10(15)16/h2-3H,1H3 N
Key: SPSSULHKWOKEEL-UHFFFAOYSA-N N
InChI=1/C7H5N3O6/c1-4-6(9(13)14)2-5(8(11)12)3-7(4)10(15)16/h2-3H,1H3
InChI=1/C7H5N3O6/c1-4-2-3-5(8(11)12)7(10(15)16)6(4)9(13)14/h2-3H,1H3
Key: FPKOPBFLPLFWAD-UHFFFAOYAR
SMILES[show]
Cc1c(cc(cc1[N+](=O)[O-])[N+](=O)[O-])[N+](=O)[O-]
Properties
Chemical formula
C7H5N3O6
Molar mass 227.13 g·mol−1
Appearance Pale yellow solid. Loose "needles", flakes or prills before melt-casting. A solid block after being poured into a casing.
Density 1.654 g/cm3
Melting point 80.35 °C (176.63 °F; 353.50 K)
Boiling point 240.0 °C (464.0 °F; 513.1 K) (decomposes)[1]
Solubility in water
0.13 g/L (20 °C)
Solubility in ether, acetone, benzene, pyridine soluble
Vapor pressure 0.0002 mmHg (20°C)[2]
Explosive data
Shock sensitivity Insensitive
Friction sensitivity Insensitive to 353 N
Detonation velocity 6900 m/s
RE factor 1.00
Hazards
Safety data sheet ICSC 0967
EU classification (DSD) (outdated)
E Explosive
T Toxic
N Dangerous for the environment
R-phrases (outdated) R2, R23/24/25, R33, R51/53
S-phrases (outdated) (S1/2), S35, S45, S61
NFPA 704
4
2
4
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
LD50 (median dose)
795 mg/kg (rat, oral)
660 (mouse, oral)[3]
LDLo (lowest published)
500 mg/kg (rabbit, oral)
1850 mg/kg (cat, oral)[3]
US health exposure limits (NIOSH):
PEL (Permissible)
TWA 1.5 mg/m3 [skin][2]
REL (Recommended)
TWA 0.5 mg/m3 [skin][2]
IDLH (Immediate danger)
500 mg/m3[2]
Related compounds
Related compounds
picric acid
hexanitrobenzene
2,4-Dinitrotoluene
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
N verify (what is Y N ?)
Infobox references
Trinitrotoluene (/ˌtraɪˌnaɪtroʊˈtɒljuiːn/;[4][5] TNT), or more specifically 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, is a chemical compound with the formula C6H2(NO2)3CH3. This yellow solid is sometimes used as a reagent in chemical synthesis, but it is best known as an explosive material with convenient handling properties. The explosive yield of TNT is considered to be the standard measure of bombs and other explosives. In chemistry, TNT is used to generate charge transfer salts.
Contents
1 History
2 Preparation
3 Applications
4 Explosive character
5 Energy content
6 Detection
7 Safety and toxicity
8 Ecological impact
8.1 Aqueous solubility
8.2 Soil adsorption
8.3 Chemical breakdown
8.4 Biodegradation
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
History[edit]
Chunks of explosives-grade TNT
Trinitrotoluene melting at 81 °C (178 °F)
M107 artillery shells. All are labelled to indicate a filling of “Comp B” (mixture of TNT and RDX) and have fuzes fitted
Analysis of TNT production by branch of the German army between 1941 and the first quarter of 1944 shown in thousands of tons per month
Detonation of the 500-ton TNT explosive charge as part of Operation Sailor Hat in 1965. The white blast-wave is visible on the water surface and a shock condensation cloud is visible overhead.
World War I-era HE artillery shell for a 9.2 inch howitzer, with copper driving band. The green band (marked “Trotyl”) indicates that the grenade is blind or use as exercise. Coloring of sharp fired grenades may vary depending on country, etc. Yellow ring is common too sharp and red for older projectiles, etc. Blue = Exercise, White = Phosphorus, Gray = Smoke
TNT was first prepared in 1863 by German chemist Julius Wilbrand[6] and originally used as a yellow dye. Its potential as an explosive was not appreciated for several years, mainly because it was so difficult to detonate and because it was less powerful than alternatives. Its explosive properties were first discovered by another German chemist, Carl Häussermann, in 1891.[7] TNT can be safely poured when liquid into shell cases, and is so insensitive that it was exempted from the UK’s Explosives Act 1875 and was not considered an explosive for the purposes of manufacture and storage.[8]
The German armed forces adopted it as a filling for artillery shells in 1902. TNT-filled armour-piercing shells would explode after they had penetrated the armour of British capital ships, whereas the British Lyddite-filled shells tended to explode upon striking armour, thus expending much of their energy outside the ship.[8] The British started replacing Lyddite with TNT in 1907.
The United States Navy continued filling armor-piercing shells with explosive D after some other nations had switched to TNT; but began filling naval mines, bombs, depth charges, and torpedo warheads with burster charges of crude grade B TNT with the color of brown sugar and requiring an explosive booster charge of granular crystallized grade A TNT for detonation. High-explosive shells were filled with grade A TNT, which became preferred for other uses as industrial chemical capacity became available for removing xylene and similar hydrocarbons from the toluene feedstock and other nitrotoluene isomer byproducts from the nitrating reactions.[9]
Preparation[edit]
In industry, TNT is produced in a three-step process. First, toluene is nitrated with a mixture of sulfuric and nitric acid to produce mononitrotoluene (MNT). The MNT is separated and then renitrated to dinitrotoluene (DNT). In the final step, the DNT is nitrated to trinitrotoluene (TNT) using an anhydrous mixture of nitric acid and oleum. Nitric acid is consumed by the manufacturing process, but the diluted sulfuric acid can be reconcentrated and reused. After nitration, TNT is stabilized by a process called sulfitation, where the crude TNT is treated with aqueous sodium sulfite solution to remove less stable isomers of TNT and other undesired reaction products. The rinse water from sulfitation is known as red water and is a significant pollutant and waste product of TNT manufacture.[10]
Control of nitrogen oxides in feed nitric acid is very important because free nitrogen dioxide can result in oxidation of the methyl group of toluene. This reaction is highly exothermic and carries with it the risk of a runaway reaction leading to an explosion.
In the laboratory, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene is produced by a two-step process. A nitrating mixture of concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids is used to nitrate toluene to a mixture of mono- and di-nitrotoluene isomers, with careful cooling to maintain temperature. The nitrated toluenes are then separated, washed with dilute sodium bicarbonate to remove oxides of nitrogen, and then carefully nitrated with a mixture of fuming nitric acid and sulfuric acid. Towards the end of the nitration, the mixture is heated on a steam bath. The trinitrotoluene is separated, washed with a dilute solution of sodium sulfite and then recrystallized from alcohol.
Applications[edit]
TNT is one of the most commonly used explosives for military, industrial, and mining applications. TNT has been used in conjunction with hydraulic fracturing, a process used to recover oil and gas from shale formations. The technique involves displacing and detonating nitroglycerin in hydraulically induced fractures followed by wellbore shots using pelletized TNT.[11]
TNT is valued partly because of its insensitivity to shock and friction, with reduced risk of accidental detonation compared to more sensitive explosives such as nitroglycerin. TNT melts at 80 °C (176 °F), far below the temperature at which it will spontaneously detonate, allowing it to be poured or safely combined with other explosives. TNT neither absorbs nor dissolves in water, which allows it to be used effectively in wet environments. To detonate, TNT must be triggered by a pressure wave from a starter explosive, called an explosive booster.
Although blocks of TNT are available in various sizes (e.g. 250 g, 500 g, 1,000 g), it is more commonly encountered in synergistic explosive blends comprising a variable percentage of TNT plus other ingredients. Examples of explosive blends containing TNT include:
Amatex: (ammonium nitrate and RDX)[12]
Amatol: (ammonium nitrate[13])
Ammonal: (ammonium nitrate and aluminium powder plus sometimes charcoal).
Baratol: (barium nitrate and wax[14])
Composition B (RDX and paraffin wax[15])
Composition H6
Cyclotol (RDX)[16]
Ednatol
Hexanite[17] (hexanitrodiphenylamine[18][19])
Minol
Octol
Pentolite
Picratol
Tetrytol
Torpex
Tritonal
Explosive character[edit]
Upon detonation, TNT decomposes as follows:
2 C7H5N3O6 → 3 N2 + 5 H2O + 7 CO + 7 C
2 C7H5N3O6 → 3 N2 + 5 H2 + 12 CO + 2 C
The reaction is exothermic but has a high activation energy in the gas phase (~62 kcal/mol). The condensed phases (solid or liquid) show markedly lower activation energies of roughly 35 kcal/mol due to unique bimolecular decomposition routes at elevated densities.[20] Because of the production of carbon, TNT explosions have a sooty appearance. Because TNT has an excess of carbon, explosive mixtures with oxygen-rich compounds can yield more energy per kilogram than TNT alone. During the 20th century, amatol, a mixture of TNT with ammonium nitrate was a widely used military explosive.
TNT can be detonated with a high velocity initiator or by efficient concussion.[21] For many years, TNT used to be the reference point for the Figure of Insensitivity. TNT had a rating of exactly 100 on the "F of I" scale. The reference has since been changed to a more sensitive explosive called RDX, which has an F of I rating of 80.
Energy content[edit]
See also: TNT equivalent
Cross-sectional view of Oerlikon 20 mm cannon shells (dating from circa 1945) showing color codes for TNT and pentolite fillings
The heat of detonation utilized by NIST is 4184 J/g (4.184 MJ/kg).[22] The energy density of TNT is used as a reference point for many other explosives, including nuclear weapons, the energy content of which is measured in equivalent kilotons (~4.184 terajoules) or megatons (~4.184 petajoules) of TNT. The heat of combustion is 14.5 megajoules per kilogram, which requires that some of the carbon in TNT react with atmospheric oxygen, which does not occur in the initial event.[23]
For comparison, gunpowder contains 3 megajoules per kilogram, dynamite contains 7.5 megajoules per kilogram, and gasoline contains 47.2 megajoules per kilogram (though gasoline requires an oxidant, so an optimized gasoline and O2 mixture contains 10.4 megajoules per kilogram).
Detection[edit]
Various methods can be used to detect TNT including optical and electrochemical sensors and explosive-sniffing dogs. In 2013, researchers from the Indian Institutes of Technology using noble-metal quantum clusters could detect TNT at the sub-zeptomolar (10−18 mol/m3) level.[24]
Safety and toxicity[edit]
TNT is poisonous, and skin contact can cause skin irritation, causing the skin to turn a bright yellow-orange color. During the First World War, munition workers who handled the chemical found that their skin turned bright yellow, which resulted in their acquiring the nickname "canary girls" or simply "canaries."
People exposed to TNT over a prolonged period tend to experience anemia and abnormal liver functions. Blood and liver effects, spleen enlargement and other harmful effects on the immune system have also been found in animals that ingested or breathed trinitrotoluene. There is evidence that TNT adversely affects male fertility.[25] TNT is listed as a possible human carcinogen, with carcinogenic effects demonstrated in animal experiments (rat), although effects upon humans so far amount to none [according to IRIS of March 15, 2000].[26] Consumption of TNT produces red urine through the presence of breakdown products and not blood as sometimes believed.[27]
Some military testing grounds are contaminated with TNT. Wastewater from munitions programs including contamination of surface and subsurface waters may be colored pink because of the presence of TNT. Such contamination, called "pink water", may be difficult and expensive to remedy.
TNT is prone to exudation of dinitrotoluenes and other isomers of trinitrotoluene. Even small quantities of such impurities can cause such effect. The effect shows especially in projectiles containing TNT and stored at higher temperatures, e.g. during summer. Exudation of impurities leads to formation of pores and cracks (which in turn cause increased shock sensitivity). Migration of the exudated liquid into the fuze screw thread can form fire channels, increasing the risk of accidental detonations; fuze malfunction can result from the liquids migrating into its mechanism.[28] Calcium silicate is mixed with TNT to mitigate the tendency towards exudation.[29]
Ecological impact[edit]
Because of its use in construction and demolition, TNT has become the most widely used explosive, and thus its toxicity is the most characterized and reported. Residual TNT from manufacture, storage, and use can pollute water, soil, atmosphere, and biosphere.
The concentration of TNT in contaminated soil can reach 50 g/kg of soil, where the highest concentrations can be found on or near the surface. In Sept. of 2001, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) declared TNT a pollutant whose removal is priority.[30] The USEPA maintains that TNT levels in soil should not exceed 17.2 gram per kilogram of soil and 0.01 milligrams per liter of water.[31]
Aqueous solubility[edit]
Dissolution is a measure of the rate that solid TNT in contact with water is dissolved. The relatively low aqueous solubility of TNT causes the dissolution of solid particles to be continuously released to the environment over extended periods of time.[32] Studies have shown that the TNT dissolved slower in saline water than in freshwater. However, when salinity was altered, TNT dissolved at the same speed (Figure 2).[33] Because TNT is moderately soluble in water, it can migrate through subsurface soil, and cause groundwater contamination.[34]
Soil adsorption[edit]
Adsorption is a measure of the distribution between soluble and sediment adsorbed contaminants following attainment of equilibrium. TNT and its transformation products are known to adsorb to surface soils and sediments, where they undergo reactive transformation or remained stored.[35] The movement or organic contaminants through soils is a function of their ability to associate with the mobile phase (water) and a stationary phase (soil). Materials that associate strongly with soils move slowly through soil. Materials that associate strongly with water move through water with rates approaching that of ground water movement.
The association constant for TNT with a soil is 2.7 to 11 liters per kilogram of soil.[36] This means that TNT has a one- to tenfold tendency to adhere to soil particulates than not when introduced into the soil.[32] Hydrogen bonding and ion exchange are two suggested mechanisms of adsorption between the nitro functional groups and soil colloids.
The number of functional groups on TNT influences the ability to adsorb into soil. Adsorption coefficient values have been shown to increase with an increase in the number of amino groups. Thus, adsorption of the TNT decomposition product 2,4-diamino-6-nitrotoluene (2,4-DANT) was greater than that for 4-amino-2,6-dinitrotoluene (4-ADNT), which was greater than that for TNT.[32] Lower adsorption coefficients for 2,6-DNT compared to 2,4-DNT can be attributed to the steric hindrance of the NO3 group in the ortho position.
Research has shown that in freshwater environments, with a high abundances of Ca2+, the adsorption of TNT and its transformation products to soils and sediments may be lower than observed in a saline environment, dominated by K+ and Na+. Therefore, when considering the adsorption of TNT, the type of soil or sediment and the ionic composition and strength of the ground water are important factors.[37]
The association constants for TNT and its degradation products with clays have been determined. Clay minerals have a significant effect on the adsorption of energetic compounds. Soil properties, such as organic carbon content and cation exchange capacity had significant impacts of the adsorption coefficients reported in the table below.
Additional studies have shown that the mobility of TNT degradation products is likely to be lower “than TNT in subsurface environments where specific adsorption to clay minerals dominates the sorption process.”[37] Thus, the mobility of TNT and its transformation products are dependent on the characteristics of the sorbent.[37] The mobility of TNT in groundwater and soil has been extrapolated from “sorption and desorption isotherm models determined with humic acids, in aquifer sediments, and soils”.[37] From these models, it is predicted that TNT has a low retention and transports readily in the environment.[30]
Compared to other explosives, TNT has a higher association constant with soil, meaning it adheres more with soil than with water. Conversely, other explosives, such as RDX and HMX with low association constants (ranging from 0.06 to 7.3 L/kg and 0 to 1.6 L/kg respectively) can move more rapidly in water.[32]
Chemical breakdown[edit]
TNT is a reactive molecule and is particularly prone to react with reduced components of sediments or photodegradation in the presence of sunlight. TNT is thermodynamically and kinetically capable of reacting with a wide number of components of many environmental systems. This includes wholly abiotic reactants, like photons, hydrogen sulfide, Fe2+, or microbial communities, both oxic and anoxic.
Soils with high clay contents or small particle sizes and high total organic carbon content have been shown to promote TNT transformation. Possible TNT transformations include reduction of one, two, or three nitro-moieties to amines and coupling of amino transformation products to form dimers. Formation of the two monoamino transformation products, 2-ADNT and 4-ADNT are energetically favored, and therefore are observed in contaminated soils and ground water. The diamino products are energetically less favorable, and even less likely are the triamino products.
The transformation of TNT is significantly enhanced under anaerobic conditions as well as under highly reducing conditions. TNT transformations in soils can occur both biologically and abiotically.[37]
Photolysis is a major process that impacts the transformation of energetic compounds. The alteration of a molecule in photolysis occurs in the presence of direct absorption of light energy by the transfer of energy from a photosensitized compound. Phototransformation of TNT “results in the formation of nitrobenzenes, benzaldehydes, azodicarboxylic acids, and nitrophenols, as a result of the oxidation of methyl groups, reduction of nitro groups, and dimer formation.”[32]
Evidence of the photolysis of TNT has been seen due to the color change to pink of the wastewaters when exposed to sunlight. Photolysis was more rapid in river water than in distilled water. Ultimately, photolysis affects the fate of TNT primarily in the aquatic environment but could also affect the reaction when exposed to sunlight on the soil surface.[37]
Biodegradation[edit]
The ligninolytic physiological phase and manganese peroxidase system of fungi can cause a very limited amount of mineralization of TNT in a liquid culture; though not in soil. An organism capable of the remediation of large amounts of TNT in soil has yet to be discovered.[38] Both wild and transgenic plants can phytoremediate explosives from soil and water.[39]
See also[edit]
TNT equivalent
RE factor
List of explosives used during World War II
Dynamite
IMX-101
Table of explosive detonation velocities
Phlegmatized
Environmental fate of TNT
References[edit]
Jump up ^ 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene. inchem.org
^ Jump up to: a b c d "NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards #0641". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
^ Jump up to: a b "2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene". Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health Concentrations (IDLH). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
Jump up ^ "Trinitrotoluene". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
Jump up ^ "Trinitrotoluene". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House.
Jump up ^ Wilbrand, J. (1863). "Notiz über Trinitrotoluol". Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. 128 (2): 178–179. doi:10.1002/jlac.18631280206.
Jump up ^ Peter O. K. Krehl (2008). History of Shock Waves, Explosions and Impact: A Chronological and Biographical Reference. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 404. ISBN 978-3-540-30421-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Brown GI (1998). The Big Bang: a History of Explosives. Sutton Publishing. pp. 151–153. ISBN 0-7509-1878-0.
Jump up ^ Fairfield AP (1921). Naval Ordnance. Lord Baltimore Press. pp. 49–52.
Jump up ^ Urbanski T (1964). Chemistry and Technology of Explosives. 1. Pergamon Press. pp. 389–91. ISBN 0-08-010238-7.
Jump up ^ Miller, J. S.; Johansen, R. T. (1976). "Fracturing Oil Shale with Explosives for In Situ Recovery" (PDF). Shale Oil, Tar Sand and Related Fuel Sources. American Chemical Society: 151. Retrieved 27 March 2015.
Jump up ^ Campbell J (1985). Naval weapons of World War Two. London: Conway Maritime Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-0-85177-329-2.
Jump up ^ U.S. Explosive Ordnance, Bureau of Ordnance. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Navy. 1947. p. 580.
Jump up ^ Explosives – Compounds
Jump up ^ Military Specification MIL-C-401
Jump up ^ Cooper PW (1996). Explosives Engineering. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-18636-8.
Jump up ^ DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY:Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms GlobalSecurity.org Retrieved 2011-12-02
Jump up ^ [secondary source] webpages:submarine torpedo explosive Retrieved 2011-12-02
Jump up ^ scribd.com website showing copy of a North American Intelligence document see:page 167 Retrieved 2011-12-02
Jump up ^ Furman et al. (2014), Decomposition of Condensed Phase Energetic Materials: Interplay between Uni- and Bimolecular Mechanisms, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2014, 136 (11), pp 4192–4200. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja410020f
Jump up ^ Merck Index, 13th Edition, 9801
Jump up ^ NIST Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI): Appendix B8—Factors for Units Listed Alphabetically
Jump up ^ Babrauskas, Vytenis (2003). Ignition Handbook. Issaquah, WA: Fire Science Publishers/Society of Fire Protection Engineers. p. 453. ISBN 0-9728111-3-3.
Jump up ^ Grad, Paul (April 2013). "Quantum clusters serve as ultra-sensitive detectors". Chemical Engineering.
Jump up ^ Toxicological Profile for 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene. atsdr.cdc.gov
Jump up ^ from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) within the NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Trinitrotoluene
Jump up ^ "2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene" (PDF). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Retrieved 2010-05-17.
Jump up ^ Akhavan J (2004). The Chemistry of Explosives. Royal Society of Chemistry. pp. 11–. ISBN 978-0-85404-640-9.
Jump up ^ "Explosive & Propellant Additives". islandgroup.com.
^ Jump up to: a b Esteve-Núñez A, Caballero A, Ramos JL (2001). "Biological degradation of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene". Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 65 (3): 335–52, table of contents. doi:10.1128/MMBR.65.3.335-352.2001. PMC 99030  . PMID 11527999.
Jump up ^ Ayoub K, van Hullebusch ED, Cassir M, Bermond A (2010). "Application of advanced oxidation processes for TNT removal: A review". J. Hazard. Mater. 178 (1–3): 10–28. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.02.042. PMID 20347218.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Pichte J (2012). "Distribution and Fate of Military Explosives and Propellants in Soil: A Review". Applied and Environmental Soil Science. 2012: 1–33. doi:10.1155/2012/617236.
Jump up ^ Brannon JM, Price CB, Yost SL, Hayes C, Porter B (2005). "Comparison of environmental fate and transport process descriptors of explosives in saline and freshwater systems". Mar. Pollut. Bull. 50 (3): 247–51. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2004.10.008. PMID 15757688.
Jump up ^ Halasz A, Groom C, Zhou E, Paquet L, Beaulieu C, Deschamps S, Corriveau A, Thiboutot S, Ampleman G, Dubois C, Hawari J (2002). "Detection of explosives and their degradation products in soil environments". J Chromatogr A. 963 (1–2): 411–8. PMID 12187997.
Jump up ^ Douglas TA, Johnson L, Walsh M, Collins C (2009). "A time series investigation of the stability of nitramine and nitroaromatic explosives in surface water samples at ambient temperature". Chemosphere. 76 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.02.050. PMID 19329139.
Jump up ^ Haderlein SB, Weissmahr KW, Schwarzenbach RP (January 1996). "Specific Adsorption of Nitroaromatic Explosives and Pesticides to Clay Minerals". Environmental Science & Technology. 30 (2): 612–622. doi:10.1021/es9503701.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Pennington JC, Brannon JM (February 2002). "Environmental fate of explosives". Thermochimica Acta. 384 (1–2): 163–172. doi:10.1016/S0040-6031(01)00801-2.
Jump up ^ Hawari J, Beaudet S, Halasz A, Thiboutot S, Ampleman G (2000). "Microbial degradation of explosives: biotransformation versus mineralization". Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 54 (5): 605–18. doi:10.1007/s002530000445. PMID 11131384.
Jump up ^ Panz K, Miksch K (2012). "Phytoremediation of explosives (TNT, RDX, HMX) by wild-type and transgenic plants". J. Environ. Manage. 113: 85–92. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.08.016. PMID 22996005.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Trinitrotoluene.
Dynamite and TNT at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
free software website sonicbomb.com containing a video bank and additionally pages for discussion of nuclear device testing Video showing detonation [Published on 2005-12-20] : Operation Blowdown
youtube.com video showing the shockwave and typical black smoke cloud from detonation of 160 kilograms of pure TNT
liveleak.com video of demolition training using half pound blocks of pure TNT
CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Authority control
GND: 4308177-0
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