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Body mass index
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Body mass index
Medical diagnostics
A graph of body mass index as a function of body mass and body height. The dashed lines represent subdivisions within a major class.
MeSH
D015992
MedlinePlus
007196
LOINC
39156-5
[edit on Wikidata]
The body mass index (BMI) or Quetelet index is a value derived from the mass (weight) and height of an individual. The BMI is defined as the body mass divided by the square of the body height, and is universally expressed in units of kg/m2, resulting from mass in kilograms and height in metres.
The BMI may also be determined using a table[note 1] or chart which displays BMI as a function of mass and height using contour lines or colours for different BMI categories, and which may use other units of measurement (converted to metric units for the calculation).[note 2]
The BMI is an attempt to quantify the amount of tissue mass (muscle, fat, and bone) in an individual, and then categorize that person as underweight, normal weight, overweight, or obese based on that value. However, there is some debate about where on the BMI scale the dividing lines between categories should be placed.[1] Commonly accepted BMI ranges are underweight: under 18.5 kg/m2, normal weight: 18.5 to 25, overweight: 25 to 30, obese: over 30. People of Asian descent have different associations between BMI, percentage of body fat, and health risks than those of European descent, with a higher risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease at BMIs lower than the WHO cut-off point for overweight, 25 kg/m2, although the cutoff for observed risk varies among different Asian populations.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Scalability
3 Categories
3.1 BMI in children (aged 2 to 20)
3.2 International variations
3.2.1 Hong Kong
3.2.2 Japan
3.2.3 Singapore
3.2.4 United States
4 Consequences of elevated level in adults
5 Applications
5.1 Public health
5.2 Clinical practice
5.3 Legislation
6 Limitations
6.1 Scaling
6.2 Ignores variation in physical characteristics
6.3 Does not differentiate between muscle mass and fat mass
6.4 Variation in definitions of categories
6.5 Variation in relationship to health
7 Alternatives
7.1 BMI Prime
7.2 Waist circumference
7.3 Surface-based body shape index
7.4 Modified body mass index
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
History[edit]
Obesity and BMI
The basis of the BMI was devised by Adolphe Quetelet, a Belgian astronomer, mathematician, statistician and sociologist, from 1830 to 1850 during which time he developed what he called "social physics".[3] The modern term "body mass index" (BMI) for the ratio of human body weight to squared height was coined in a paper published in the July 1972 edition of the Journal of Chronic Diseases by Ancel Keys and others. In this paper, Keys argued that what he termed the BMI was "...if not fully satisfactory, at least as good as any other relative weight index as an indicator of relative obesity"[4][5][6]
The interest in an index that measures body fat came with increasing obesity in prosperous Western societies. BMI was explicitly cited by Keys as appropriate for population studies and inappropriate for individual evaluation. Nevertheless, due to its simplicity, it has come to be widely used for preliminary diagnosis.[7] Additional metrics, such as waist circumference, can be more useful.[8]
The BMI is universally expressed in kg/m2, resulting from mass in kilograms and height in metres. If pounds and inches are used, a conversion factor of 703 (kg/m2)/(lb/in2) must be applied. When the term BMI is used informally, the units are usually omitted.
B M I = mass kg height m 2 = mass lb height in 2 × 703 {\displaystyle \mathrm {BMI} ={\frac {{\text{mass}}_{\text{kg}}}{{\text{height}}_{\text{m}}^{2}}}={\frac {{\text{mass}}_{\text{lb}}}{{\text{height}}_{\text{in}}^{2}}}\times 703}
BMI provides a simple numeric measure of a person's thickness or thinness, allowing health professionals to discuss weight problems more objectively with their patients. BMI was designed to be used as a simple means of classifying average sedentary (physically inactive) populations, with an average body composition.[9] For these individuals, the current value recommendations are as follow: a BMI from 18.5 up to 25 kg/m2 may indicate optimal weight, a BMI lower than 18.5 suggests the person is underweight, a number from 25 up to 30 may indicate the person is overweight, and a number from 30 upwards suggests the person is obese.[7][8] Some athletes (e.g. gymnasts, basketball and soccer players) have a high muscle to fat ratio and may have a BMI that is misleadingly high relative to their body fat percentage.[8]
Scalability[edit]
BMI is proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the square of the height. So, if all body dimensions double, and mass scales naturally with the cube of the height, then BMI doubles instead of remaining the same. This results in taller people having a reported BMI that is uncharacteristically high, compared to their actual body fat levels. In comparison, the Ponderal index is based on the natural scaling of mass with the third power of the height.
However, many taller people are not just "scaled up" short people but tend to have narrower frames in proportion to their height. Carl Lavie has written that, "The B.M.I. tables are excellent for identifying obesity and body fat in large populations, but they are far less reliable for determining fatness in individuals."[10]
Categories[edit]
A frequent use of the BMI is to assess how much an individual's body weight departs from what is normal or desirable for a person's height. The weight excess or deficiency may, in part, be accounted for by body fat (adipose tissue) although other factors such as muscularity also affect BMI significantly (see discussion below and overweight).[11]
The WHO regards a BMI of less than 18.5 as underweight and may indicate malnutrition, an eating disorder, or other health problems, while a BMI equal to or greater than 25 is considered overweight and above 30 is considered obese.[12] These ranges of BMI values are valid only as statistical categories.
Category
BMI (kg/m2)
BMI Prime
from
to
from
to
Very severely underweight 15 0.60
Severely underweight 15 16 0.60 0.64
Underweight 16 18.5 0.64 0.74
Normal (healthy weight) 18.5 25 0.74 1.0
Overweight 25 30 1.0 1.2
Obese Class I (Moderately obese) 30 35 1.2 1.4
Obese Class II (Severely obese) 35 40 1.4 1.6
Obese Class III (Very severely obese) 40 1.6
BMI in children (aged 2 to 20)[edit]
BMI for age percentiles for boys 2 to 20 years of age.
BMI for age percentiles for girls 2 to 20 years of age.
BMI is used differently for children. It is calculated in the same way as for adults, but then compared to typical values for other children of the same age. Instead of comparison against fixed thresholds for underweight and overweight, the BMI is compared against the percentile for children of the same sex and age.[13]
A BMI that is less than the 5th percentile is considered underweight and above the 95th percentile is considered obese. Children with a BMI between the 85th and 95th percentile are considered to be overweight.[14]
Recent studies in Britain have indicated that females between the ages 12 and 16 have a higher BMI than males of the same age by 1.0 kg/m2 on average.[15]
International variations[edit]
These recommended distinctions along the linear scale may vary from time to time and country to country, making global, longitudinal surveys problematic.
Hong Kong[edit]
The Hospital Authority of Hong Kong recommends the use of the following BMI ranges:[16]
Category
BMI (kg/m2)
from
to
Underweight 18.5
Normal Range 18.5 23
Overweight—At Risk 23 25
Overweight—Moderately Obese 25 30
Overweight—Severely Obese 30
Japan[edit]
Japan Society for the Study of Obesity (2000):[17]
Category
BMI (kg/m2)
from to
Low 18.5
Normal 18.5 25
Obese (Level 1) 25 30
Obese (Level 2) 30 35
Obese (Level 3) 35 40
Obese (Level 4) 40
[18][clarification needed]
Singapore[edit]
In Singapore, the BMI cut-off figures were revised in 2005, motivated by studies showing that many Asian populations, including Singaporeans, have higher proportion of body fat and increased risk for cardiovascular diseases and diabetes mellitus, compared with Caucasians at the same BMI. The BMI cut-offs are presented with an emphasis on health risk rather than weight.
Health Risk
BMI (kg/m2)
Risk of developing problems such as nutritional deficiency and osteoporosis under 18.5
Low Risk (healthy range) 18.5 to 23
Moderate risk of developing heart disease, high blood pressure, stroke, diabetes 23 to 27.5
High risk of developing heart disease, high blood pressure, stroke, diabetes over 27.5
United States[edit]
In 1998, the U.S. National Institutes of Health and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention brought U.S. definitions in line with World Health Organization guidelines, lowering the normal/overweight cut-off from BMI 27.8 to BMI 25. This had the effect of redefining approximately 29 million Americans, previously healthy, to overweight.[19]
This can partially explain the increase in the overweight diagnosis in the past 20 years, and the increase in sales of weight loss products during the same time. WHO also recommends lowering the normal/overweight threshold for South East Asian body types to around BMI 23, and expects further revisions to emerge from clinical studies of different body types.[citation needed]
The U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of 1994 showed that 59.8% of American men and 51.2% of women had BMIs over 25.[20] Morbid obesity—a BMI of 40 or more—was found in 2% of the men and 4% of the women. A survey in 2007 showed 63% of Americans are overweight or obese, with 26% in the obese category (a BMI of 30 or more). As of 2014, 37.7% of adults in the United States were obese, categorized as 35.0% of men and 40.4% of women; class 3 obesity (BMI over 40) values were 7.7% for men and 9.9% for women.[21]
There are differing opinions on definition of underweight in females; doctors quote anything below 18.5 to 20 as underweight. The most frequently stated is 19. A BMI nearing 15 is usually defined as starvation and a BMI less than 17.5 as an informal criterion for the diagnosis of anorexia nervosa.[22][citation needed]
Body Mass Index values for males and females aged 20 and over, and selected percentiles by age: United States, 2011–2014.
Source: "Anthropometric Reference Data for Children and Adults: United States" from CDC DHHS[23]
Age
Percentile
5th
10th
15th
25th
50th
75th
85th
90th
95th
Men BMI (kg/m2)
20 years and over (total) 20.7 22.2 23.0 24.6 27.7 31.6 34.0 36.1 39.8
20–29 years 19.3 20.5 21.2 22.5 25.5 30.5 33.1 35.1 39.2
30–39 years 21.1 22.4 23.3 24.8 27.5 31.9 35.1 36.5 39.3
40–49 years 21.9 23.4 24.3 25.7 28.5 31.9 34.4 36.5 40.0
50–59 years 21.6 22.7 23.6 25.4 28.3 32.0 34.0 35.2 40.3
60–69 years 21.6 22.7 23.6 25.3 28.0 32.4 35.3 36.9 41.2
70–79 years 21.5 23.2 23.9 25.4 27.8 30.9 33.1 34.9 38.9
80 years and over 20.0 21.5 22.5 24.1 26.3 29.0 31.1 32.3 33.8
Age
Women BMI (kg/m2)
20 years and over (total) 19.6 21.0 22.0 23.6 27.7 33.2 36.5 39.3 43.3
20–29 years 18.6 19.8 20.7 21.9 25.6 31.8 36.0 38.9 42.0
30–39 years 19.8 21.1 22.0 23.3 27.6 33.1 36.6 40.0 44.7
40–49 years 20.0 21.5 22.5 23.7 28.1 33.4 37.0 39.6 44.5
50–59 years 19.9 21.5 22.2 24.5 28.6 34.4 38.3 40.7 45.2
60–69 years 20.0 21.7 23.0 24.5 28.9 33.4 36.1 38.7 41.8
70–79 years 20.5 22.1 22.9 24.6 28.3 33.4 36.5 39.1 42.9
80 years and over 19.3 20.4 21.3 23.3 26.1 29.7 30.9 32.8 35.2
Consequences of elevated level in adults[edit]
The BMI ranges are based on the relationship between body weight and disease and death.[24] Overweight and obese individuals are at an increased risk for the following diseases:[25]
Coronary artery disease
Dyslipidemia
Type 2 diabetes
Gallbladder disease
Hypertension
Osteoarthritis
Sleep apnea
Stroke
At least 10 cancers, including endometrial, breast, and colon cancer.[26]
Epidural lipomatosis [27]
Among people who have never smoked, overweight/obesity is associated with 51% increase in mortality compared with people who have always been a normal weight.[28]
Applications[edit]
Public health[edit]
The BMI is generally used as a means of correlation between groups related by general mass and can serve as a vague means of estimating adiposity. The duality of the BMI is that, while it is easy to use as a general calculation, it is limited as to how accurate and pertinent the data obtained from it can be. Generally, the index is suitable for recognizing trends within sedentary or overweight individuals because there is a smaller margin of error.[29] The BMI has been used by the WHO as the standard for recording obesity statistics since the early 1980s.
This general correlation is particularly useful for consensus data regarding obesity or various other conditions because it can be used to build a semi-accurate representation from which a solution can be stipulated, or the RDA for a group can be calculated. Similarly, this is becoming more and more pertinent to the growth of children, due to the fact that the majority of children are sedentary.[30]
Clinical practice[edit]
BMI categories are generally regarded as a satisfactory tool for measuring whether sedentary individuals are underweight, overweight, or obese with various exceptions, such as: athletes, children, the elderly, and the infirm.[citation needed] Also, the growth of a child is documented against a BMI-measured growth chart. Obesity trends can then be calculated from the difference between the child's BMI and the BMI on the chart.[citation needed] In the United States, BMI is also used as a measure of underweight, owing to advocacy on behalf of those with eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.[citation needed]
Legislation[edit]
In France, Israel, Italy and Spain, legislation has been introduced banning usage of fashion show models having a BMI below 18.[31] In Israel, a BMI below 18.5 is banned.[32] This is done in order to fight anorexia among models and people interested in fashion.
Limitations[edit]
This graph shows the correlation between body mass index (BMI) and percent body fat (%BF) for 8550 men in NCHS' NHANES 1994 data. Data in the upper left and lower right quadrants suggest the limitations of BMI.[33]
The medical establishment[34] and statistical community[35] have both highlighted the limitations of BMI.
Mathematician Keith Devlin and the restaurant industry association Center for Consumer Freedom argue that the error in the BMI is significant and so pervasive that it is not generally useful in evaluation of health.[36][37] University of Chicago political science professor Eric Oliver says BMI is a convenient but inaccurate measure of weight, forced onto the populace, and should be revised.[38]
Scaling[edit]
The exponent in the denominator of the formula for BMI is arbitrary. The BMI depends upon weight and the square of height. Since mass increases to the 3rd power of linear dimensions, taller individuals with exactly the same body shape and relative composition have a larger BMI.[39]
The mathematician Prof Nick Trefethen, who observed this said, “BMI divides the weight by too large a number for short people and too small a number for tall people. So short people are misled into thinking that they are thinner than they are, and tall people are misled into thinking they are fatter.”[40]
For US adults, exponent estimates range from 1.92 to 1.96 for males and from 1.45 to 1.95 for females.[41][42]
Ignores variation in physical characteristics[edit]
The BMI overestimates roughly 10% for a large (or tall) frame and underestimates roughly 10% for a smaller frame (short stature). In other words, persons with small frames would be carrying more fat than optimal, but their BMI reflects that they are normal. Conversely, large framed (or tall) individuals may be quite healthy, with a fairly low body fat percentage, but be classified as overweight by BMI.[43]
For example, a height/weight chart may say the ideal weight (BMI 21.5) for a man 5 ft 10 in (178 cm) is 150 pounds (68 kg). But if that man has a slender build (small frame), he may be overweight at 150 pounds (68 kg) and should reduce by 10%, to roughly 135 pounds (61 kg) (BMI 19.4). In the reverse, the man with a larger frame and more solid build should increase by 10%, to roughly 165 pounds (75 kg) (BMI 23.7). If one teeters on the edge of small/medium or medium/large, common sense should be used in calculating one's ideal weight. However, falling into one's ideal weight range for height and build is still not as accurate in determining health risk factors as waist/height ratio and actual body fat percentage.[44]
Accurate frame size calculators use several measurements (wrist circumference, elbow width, neck circumference and others) to determine what category an individual falls into for a given height.[45] The BMI also fails to take into account loss of height through aging. In this situation, BMI will increase without any corresponding increase in weight.
Does not differentiate between muscle mass and fat mass[edit]
Assumptions about the distribution between muscle mass and fat mass are inexact. BMI generally overestimates adiposity on those with more lean body mass (e.g., athletes) and underestimates excess adiposity on those with less lean body mass. A study in June 2008 by Romero-Corral et al. examined 13,601 subjects from the United States' third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) and found that BMI-defined obesity (BMI > 30) was present in 21% of men and 31% of women.
Using body fat percentages (BF%), however, BF-defined obesity was found in 50% of men and 62% of women. While BMI-defined obesity showed high specificity (95% for men and 99% for women), BMI showed poor sensitivity (36% for men and 49% for women). Despite this undercounting of obesity by BMI, BMI values in the intermediate BMI range of 20–30 were found to be associated with a wide range of body fat percentages. For men with a BMI of 25, about 20% have a body fat percentage below 20% and about 10% have body fat percentage above 30%.[33]
BMI is particularly inaccurate for people who are very fit or athletic, as their high muscle mass can classify them in the overweight category by BMI, even though their body fat percentages frequently fall in the 10–15% category, which is below that of a more sedentary person of average build who has a normal BMI number.[citation needed] Body composition for athletes is often better calculated using measures of body fat, as determined by such techniques as skinfold measurements or underwater weighing and the limitations of manual measurement have also led to new, alternative methods to measure obesity, such as the body volume index.
Variation in definitions of categories[edit]
It is not clear where on the BMI scale the threshold for overweight and obese should be set. Because of this the standards have varied over the past few decades. Between 1980 and 2000 the U.S. Dietary Guidelines have defined overweight at a variety of levels ranging from a BMI of 24.9 to 27.1. In 1985 the National Institutes of Health (NIH) consensus conference recommended that overweight BMI be set at a BMI of 27.8 for men and 27.3 for women.
In 1998 a NIH report concluded that a BMI over 25 is overweight and a BMI over 30 is obese.[46] In the 1990s the World Health Organization (WHO) decided that a BMI of 25 to 30 should be considered overweight and a BMI over 30 is obese, the standards the NIH set. This became the definitive guide for determining if someone is overweight.
The current WHO and NIH ranges of normal weights are proved to be associated with decreased risks of some diseases such as diabetes type II; however using the same range of BMI for men and women is considered arbitrary, and makes the definition of underweight quite unsuitable for men.[47]
One study found that the vast majority of people labelled 'overweight' and 'obese' according to current definitions do not in fact face any meaningful increased risk for early death. In a quantitative analysis of a number of studies, involving more than 600,000 men and women, the lowest mortality rates were found for people with BMIs between 23 and 29; most of the 25–30 range considered 'overweight' was not associated with higher risk.[48]
Variation in relationship to health[edit]
A study published by Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) in 2005 showed that overweight people had a death rate similar to normal weight people as defined by BMI, while underweight and obese people had a higher death rate.[49]
A study published by The Lancet in 2009 involving 900,000 adults showed that overweight and underweight people both had a mortality rate higher than normal weight people as defined by BMI. The optimal BMI was found to be in the range of 22.5–25.[50]
High BMI is associated with type 2 diabetes only in persons with high serum gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase.[51]
In an analysis of 40 studies involving 250,000 people, patients with coronary artery disease with normal BMIs were at higher risk of death from cardiovascular disease than people whose BMIs put them in the overweight range (BMI 25–29.9).[52]
One study found that BMI had a good general correlation with body fat percentage, and noted that obesity has overtaken smoking as the world's number one cause of death. But it also notes that in the study 50% of men and 62% of women were obese according to body fat defined obesity, while only 21% of men and 31% of women were obese according to BMI, meaning that BMI was found to underestimate the number of obese subjects.[33]
A 2010 study that followed 11,000 subjects for up to eight years concluded that BMI is not a good measure for the risk of heart attack, stroke or death. A better measure was found to be the waist-to-height ratio.[53] A 2011 study that followed 60,000 participants for up to 13 years found that waist–hip ratio was a better predictor of ischaemic heart disease mortality.[54]
Alternatives[edit]
BMI Prime[edit]
BMI Prime, a modification of the BMI system, is the ratio of actual BMI to upper limit optimal BMI (currently defined at 25 kg/m2), i.e., the actual BMI expressed as a proportion of upper limit optimal. The ratio of actual body weight to body weight for upper limit optimal BMI (25 kg/m2) is equal to BMI Prime. BMI Prime is a dimensionless number independent of units. Individuals with BMI Prime less than 0.74 are underweight; those with between 0.74 and 1.00 have optimal weight; and those at 1.00 or greater are overweight. BMI Prime is useful clinically because it shows by what ratio (e.g. 1.36) or percentage (e.g. 136%, or 36% above) a person deviates from the maximum optimal BMI.
For instance, a person with BMI 34 kg/m2 has a BMI Prime of 34/25 = 1.36, and is 36% over their upper mass limit. In South East Asian and South Chinese populations (see § international variations), BMI Prime should be calculated using an upper limit BMI of 23 in the denominator instead of 25. BMI Prime allows easy comparison between populations whose upper-limit optimal BMI values differ.[55]
Waist circumference[edit]
Main articles: Waist-to-height ratio and Waist-to-hip ratio
Waist circumference is a good indicator of visceral fat, which poses more health risks than fat elsewhere. According to the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH), waist circumference in excess of 102 centimetres (40 in) for men and 88 centimetres (35 in) for (non-pregnant) women, is considered to imply a high risk for type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and CVD. Waist circumference can be a better indicator of obesity-related disease risk than BMI. For example, this is the case in populations of Asian descent and older people.[56] 94 centimetres (37 in) for men and 80 centimetres (31 in) for women has been stated to pose "higher risk", with the NIH figures "even higher".[57]
Waist-to-hip circumference ratio has also been used, but has been found to be no better than waist circumference alone, and more complicated to measure.[58]
A related indicator is waist circumference divided by height. The values indicating increased risk are: greater than 0.5 for people under 40 year of age, 0.5 to 0.6 for people aged 40–50, and greater than 0.6 for people over 50 years of age.[59]
Surface-based body shape index[edit]
The Surface-based Body Shape Index (SBSI) is far more rigorous and is based upon four key measurements: the body surface area, vertical trunk circumference, waist circumference and height. Data on 11,808 subjects from the National Health and Human Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) 1999–2004, showed that SBSI outperformed BMI, waist circumference, and A Body Shape Index (ABSI), an alternative to BMI.[60][61]
S B S I = ( H 7 / 4 ) ( WC 5 / 6 ) BSA VTC {\displaystyle \mathrm {SBSI} ={\frac {({\text{H}}^{7/4})({\text{WC}}^{5/6})}{\text{BSA VTC}}}}
A simplified, dimensionless form of SBSI, known as SBSI*, has also been developed.[61]
S B S I ⋆ = ( H 2 ) ( WC ) BSA VTC {\displaystyle \mathrm {SBSI^{\star }} ={\frac {({\text{H}}^{2})({\text{WC}})}{\text{BSA VTC}}}}
Modified body mass index[edit]
Within some medical contexts, such as familial amyloid polyneuropathy, serum albumin is factored in to produce a modified body mass index (mBMI). The mBMI can be obtained by multiplying the BMI by serum albumin, in grams per litre.[62]
See also[edit]
Allometry
Body adiposity index
Body Shape Index
Body volume index
Body water
Corpulence index
List of countries by Body Mass Index (BMI)
Obesity paradox
Pignet Index
Sagittal Abdominal Diameter (SAD)
Notes[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
Ferrera LA, ed. (2006). Focus on Body Mass Index And Health Research. New York: Nova Science. ISBN 978-1-59454-963-2.
Samaras TT, ed. (2007). Human Body Size and the Laws of Scaling: Physiological, Performance, Growth, Longevity and Ecological Ramifications. New York: Nova Science. ISBN 978-1-60021-408-0.
Sothern MS, Gordon ST, von Almen TK, eds. (2006). Handbook of Pediatric Obesity: Clinical Management (illustrated ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4200-1911-7.
External links[edit]
Look up body mass index in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
U.S. National Center for Health Statistics:
BMI Growth Charts for children and young adults
BMI calculator ages 20 and older
Authority control
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Texian Army
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Texan Army
Army of Texas
Army of the People
Sam Houston's call for the Army of Texas recruitment proclamation on December 12, 1835
Active
October 1, 1835 - April 21, 1836
Country
Republic of Texas
Allegiance
Republic of Texas
Consultation (Texian provisional government)
Constitution of the Republic of Texas
Type
Army
Role
Ground-based military warfare
Size
3,685-3,700 (approximated)
Engagements
Texas Revolution
Battle of Gonzales (1835)
Battle of Goliad (1835)
Battle of Concepción (1835)
Battle of Lipantitlán (1835)
Grass Fight (1835)
Siege of Béxar (1835)
Battle of San Patricio (1836)
Battle of Agua Dulce (1836)
Battle of the Alamo (1836)
Battle of Refugio (1836)
Battle of Coleto (1836)
Battle of San Jacinto (1836)
Commanders
Notable
commanders
Sam Houston (WIA)
James Fannin (POW) (Executed)
William Travis †
James Bowie †
Davy Crockett †
Frank W. Johnson
Edward Burleson
Stephen F. Austin
George Fisher
Philip Dimmitt
John Linn
George Collinsworth
Benjamin Milam
William Scott
William Ward (POW) (Executed)
George H. Burroughs
Thomas H. Breece
Robert C. Morris
Jack Shackelford
Juan Seguín
Plácido Benavides
Salvador Flores
Manuel Leal
The campaigns of the Texian Army during the Texas Revolution
The Texian Army, also known as the Army of Texas and the Army of the People, was a military organization consisting of volunteer and regular soldiers who fought against the Mexican army during the Texas Revolution. Approximately 3,700 men joined the army between October 2, 1835, during the Battle of Gonzales through the end of the war on April 21, 1836, at the Battle of San Jacinto. After gaining independence the Texian Army would be officially known as the Army of the Republic of Texas. In 1846, after the annexation of Texas by the United States, the Army of the Republic of Texas merged with the US Army. Sam Houston became the new commander in chief of the new Texas army.
Contents
[hide]
1 Organization
2 Formation and structure
3 Demographics
3.1 Republic Army
3.1.1 Texian regular army and permanent volunteer units
3.1.2 United States volunteer auxiliary corps units
4 History
4.1 Offensive maneuvers (October – December 1835)
4.2 Restructuring (December 1835 – February 1836)
4.3 Defensive maneuvers (March – April 1836)
5 Texian Army Flags
6 Uniforms, weapons, and equipment
7 End of hostilities and independence
8 Retention as permanent defensive force for the Republic of Texas (1836-1845)
9 See also
10 Notable soldiers
11 Notes
12 References
13 Sources
14 External links
Organization[edit]
When Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821, the former Spanish province of Texas became part of the Mexican state Coahuila y Tejas.[1] Many of the people who lived in Texas, which had included the land north of the Medina and the Nueces Rivers, 100 miles (161 km) northeast of the Rio Grande,[2] west of San Antonio de Bexar, and east of the Sabine River,[2][3][4] wished to be a separate state again. For the first time, the government of Texas encouraged immigrants from the United States to settle its lands.[5] By 1834, an estimated 30,000 English speakers lived in Texas,[6] compared to only 7,800 of Spanish heritage.[7] The bankrupt Mexican government was unable to offer Texas much military support.[5][8] Many of the settlements had created small militias to protect themselves against raids by Indian tribes.
Texian Army volunteers elected Stephen F. Austin their first commander-in-chief.
General and President of Mexico Antonio López de Santa Anna issued orders to the Mexican Army to show no quarter to the Texian Army rebels
Under President Antonio López de Santa Anna the government of Mexico began to drift towards a more centralist form.[9] In 1835 Santa Anna revoked the Constitution of 1824 and began reigning as a dictator. In various parts of the country federalists revolted.[10]
In September 1835, Colonel Domingo Ugartechea, the military commander of the Mexican forces at San Antonio de Bexar set troops to recover a small cannon that had been given to the people of Gonzales for protection. When the Mexican troops, under Lieutenant Francisco de Castañeda, reached Gonzales, the head of the local militia, Captain Albert Martin, convinced the troops to wait for several days.[11] Martin then sent messengers to other English-speaking settlements, asking for reinforcements to help protect the cannon.[12]
Within several days, militias from Fayette County and Columbus arrived. In Gonzales, the forces combined to form a single force. The militiamen held an election and chose John Henry Moore as their captain, Joseph Washington Elliot Wallace as a lieutenant colonel, and Edward Burleson as major.[12] The first military action taken by the new army was the Battle of Gonzales on October 2, 1835. After a skirmish, the Mexican troops withdrew to San Antonio, leaving the cannon with the Texians.[13] After the battle ended, disgruntled colonists continued to assemble in Gonzales, eager to put a decisive end to Mexican control over the area.[14] The Committee of Safety at San Felipe named the gathering "The Army of the People."[15]
Within a week, the men had taken the Mexican post at Goliad.[13] On October 11, the disorganized volunteers elected Stephen F. Austin, who had settled Texas's first English-speaking colonists in 1821, as their commander-in-chief.[14] Austin had only two months of military experience in the Missouri First Regiment of Mounted Militia under Colonel Alexander McNair, where he earned the rank of quartermaster sergeant, but he saw no combat.[16]
Formation and structure[edit]
The structure of the Texian Army was relatively fluid. Originally, it was composed entirely of volunteers or militia, who came and went at will.[13] To become an officer, a man must simply have had enough money or charisma to convince others to serve under him. In the first half of the Texas Revolution, many of the units and individual volunteers came from the United States. The United States volunteer units in the Army represented ten states; from New Orleans, Louisiana the New Orleans Greys, from Alabama the Red Rovers, Huntsville Rovers, and Mobile Greys, from Mississippi the Mississippi Guards and Natchez Mustangs, from New York the 1st New York Battalion and 2nd New York Battalion and from other states the Georgia Volunteers, Kentucky Mustangs, Missouri Invincibles, North Carolina Volunteers, and Tennessee Mounted Volunteers, and Union Guards
By the end of the war, the army had grown to include three distinct divisions. Members of the regular army enlisted for two years and were subject to army discipline and the army's chain of command. A squad of permanent volunteers enlisted for the duration of the war. This group was permitted to elect its own officers, outside the oversight of the army commander-in-chief. Most of the men who joined the permanent volunteers had settled in Texas before the war had begun, both Tejano and Texians. The last unit was the volunteer auxiliary corps, comprising primarily recent arrivals from the United States who officially enlisted for a six-month term.[17] On November 24, 1835, the Texas provisional government authorized the creation of ranging companies of rifleman.[17] Robert "Three-legged Willie" Williamson was asked to raise three of these companies with 56 men each.[18] Rangers were to be paid $1.25 per day.[18]
Texian soldiers fighting in the Battle of Gonzales, the first battle of the Texas Revolution
Texian soldiers in the victory at the Battle of Goliad which was followed by the Goliad Massacre
Demographics[edit]
In 1836, Texas had a population of 40,000 people. Approximately 2,000 of the citizens served in the army at some point between October 1835 and April 1846. At 5% of the population, this is extraordinarily high.[19] The army was augmented with volunteers from the United States. Still, Historian Paul Lack argues that "for a people of such fabled militance, the Texians turned out for army duty in the period of crisis at a low rate of participation".[19]
Overall, 3,685 men served in the Army of the People between October 1, 1835 and April 21, 1836. Forty percent of them had emigrated after October 1. Of the Texians, 57.8% were residents of the Department of the Brazos, 10.4% of the Department of Bexar, and 31.7% from the Department of Nacogdoches.[20] Of the men who arrived in Texas after October 1, 1835, not all of these additions were American citizens; many were recent immigrants from Europe who were seeking adventure and potential riches in Texas. Through the course of the Texas Revolution, one in seven of the English-speaking settlers in Texas joined the army. One in three adult male Tejanos, that is, Spanish-speaking settlers in Texas, joined the army.[21]
The composition of the army changed dramatically over time, with four distinct waves:
the army of October – December 1835, which participated in the battles of Gonzales, Goliad and the Siege of Bexar
the army from January through March 1836
the army of mid-March through April, 1836, which participated in the Battle of San Jacinto
the army of May – September 1836
The early army was composed predominantly of Texas residents, with every municipality represented. Over 1,300 men volunteered for the army in October and November 1835. Of these, approximately 1,100–1,500 were residents of Texas, with an average date of emigration of 1830.[22][Note 1] Half of the men were married. Roughly 51% of them came from the Department of the Brazos, an area in central Texas which consisted of the colonies established by Stephen F. Austin and Green DeWitt, as well as some of the area granted to Sterling C. Robertson. An additional 15% of the volunteers were from the Department of Bexar, where most citizens were Tejano, and which was partially occupied by Mexican troops. Thirty-four percent of the volunteers came from the Nacogdoches district of far East Texas, an area where homes and families were not under threat.[22]
After the Texas victory in Bexar in early December, men began leaving the army and returning home. By the end of February 1836, fewer than 600 men remained in the army.[23] A total of 917 men served in the army for varying lengths of time in January – March 1836. In a sharp contrast from the army of a few months prior, these men were predominantly newcomers to Texas. The overwhelming majority—78%—had arrived from the United States since the outbreak of hostilities in October. They had an average age of 27, and almost two-thirds were single. Of the Texians who continued to participate, 57% were from the areas most at risk of Mexican attempts to reassert control over its national territory—Bexar, Gonzales, Matagorda and Jackson—despite the small population of these areas. When examined in the context of the political districts, 59% of the Texians were from the Brazos department and 23% from Bexar.[24]
The army suffered significant losses at the battles of the Alamo and Coleto. The provisional government passed conscription laws,[25] which should have resulted in about 4,000 men joining the army.[26] The laws were impossible to enforce due to the fact that most citizens had fled as part of the Runaway Scrape.[25] By the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, new commander Sam Houston had a total of 1,282 recruits in the army. Of these, about 250 were ill, at camp, or on scouting missions at the time of the battle.[26]
The average date of emigration was 1835; 21% of the men had arrived in Texas after October 1, 1835, and almost 18% had arrived between January 1 and October 1, 1835.[27] Approximately 60% of the soldiers were single, and their average age was 28. In many families, the younger sons joined the army while the fathers escorted the women and younger children east, away from the advancing Mexican army.[28] 67% of the Texians who volunteered were from the Brazos Department, an impressive number considering the heavy losses many of these areas had sustained in the March fighting. 25% were from the Nacogdoches district, fewer than had served in 1835. Only 5% of the Texians were from the Bexar District. This number was low both because many of the volunteers had perished at the Alamo or Coleto and because the area was now occupied by the Mexican army. It was not only difficult for men to leave the area, but it was unwise to leave their families. The majority of the men from Bexar who served in April were cavalry officers under the command of Colonel Juan Seguin.[28]
An additional 623 men served in April outside of Houston's army. Less is known about these men, who had no central command or location. It is estimated that 31% were recent arrivals from the United States. They were older, with an average age of 34, and over 41% of them came from the Nacogdoches district. Historian Paul Lack described these men as a home guard, a "last line of defense" for the Texians.[27]
398 men served in both 1835 and April 1836. Of these, 58% were single, with an average age of 30, and 26% had arrived in Texas after the war began. Of the Texians, 63% were from the Brazos district, 11% from Bexar, and 26% from Nacogdoches.[29] Lack posits that many of those who chose not to re-enlist in April 1836 believed that they had done their duty. For the most part, they were older and, as they had been in Texas longer, they had more to protect.[19]
Believing the hostilities were over, by the end of May, most of the Texas residents had left the army, which shrank to 400 men. With fears of a Mexican counterattack spreading, more volunteers arrived from the United States. By June, the ranks had increased to 1300–1700 men, and by September to 2,500 men, spread across 53 companies. Of those in the army in September, 1,800 had come to Texas after the Battle of San Jacinto.[30]
Republic Army[edit]
Texian regular army and permanent volunteer units[edit]
Texas Rangers (paramilitary unit)
Infantry (militia)
Mounted Volunteers (militia)
Mounted Gunmen (militia)
Mounted Riflemen (militia)
Spies (militia)
Ranging Corps. (militia)
Mounted Rangers (militia)
Army
Minute Men (militia)
Juan Seguín's Mexican Tejano Volunteers (militia)
United States volunteer auxiliary corps units[edit]
Alabama Red Rovers (Alabama Volunteers) (Courtland, Alabama)
Georgia Battalion (Georgia Volunteers) (Macon, Georgia)
Huntsville Rovers (Huntsville, Alabama)
Kentucky Mustangs
Mississippi Guards
Missouri Invincibles
Mobile Greys (Alabama Volunteers) (Mobile, Alabama)
Natchez Mustangs (Natchez, Mississippi)
New Orleans Greys (New Orleans, Louisiana)
1st New York Battalion
2nd New York Battalion
North Carolina Volunteers
Tennessee Mounted Volunteers (Tennessee Volunteers)
Union Guards (?)
Davy Crockett leading Texian defenders in the Battle of the Alamo which depicted him wielding his rifle as a club against Mexican troops who have breached the walls of the old Spanish mission
History[edit]
Offensive maneuvers (October – December 1835)[edit]
Further information: Siege of Bexar
Several days after Austin took command, the army marched towards Bexar to confront General Martin Perfecto de Cos, who had recently arrived to command the remaining Mexican troops in Texas.[13]
Restructuring (December 1835 – February 1836)[edit]
Main article: Army of the Republic of Texas
The regular division of the Army was officially established on December 12. Any man who enlisted in the regular division would receive $24 in cash, the rights to 800 acres (320 ha) of land, and instant Texas citizenship. Those who joined the volunteer auxiliary corps would receive 640 acres (260 ha) of land if they served two years, while those who served 1 year would receive 320 acres (130 ha).[31] A month later the establishment of a Legion of Cavalry would be authorized.[32]
The commander of the regular forces, Sam Houston, called for 5,000 men to enlist in the regular army but had difficulty convincing men to join. Many of the arrivals from the United States did not want to be under a more strict military control, and instead informally joined the volunteer units that had gathered in other parts of Texas. These volunteer soldiers were in many cases more impassioned than the Texas settlers. Although the provisional Texas government was still debating whether the troops were fighting for independence or for separate statehood, on December 20, 1835, the Texian garrison at Goliad voted unanimously to issue a proclamation of independence, stating "that the former province and department of Texas is, and of right ought to be, a free, sovereign and independent state".[31]
The provisional government had originally placed Houston in charge of the regular forces, but in December the council gave secret orders to James Fannin, Frank W. Johnson, and Dr. James Grant to prepare forces to invade Mexico.[31] Houston was then ordered to travel to East Texas to broker a treaty that would allow the Cherokee to remain neutral in the conflict. Johnson and Grant gathered 300 of the 400 men garrisoned in Bexar and left to prepare for the invasion.[33]
The government was woefully short of funds. On January 6, 1836, Colonel James C. Neill, commander of the remaining 100 troops in Bexar, wrote to the council: " there has ever been a dollar here I have no knowledge of it. The clothing sent here by the aid and patriotic exertions of the honorable Council, was taken from us by arbitrary measures of Johnson and Grant, taken from men who endured all the hardships of winter and who were not even sufficiently clad for summer, many of them having but one blanket and one shirt, and what was intended for them given away to men some of whom had not been in the army more than four days, and many not exceeding two weeks."[33]
For the next several months it was unclear who was in charge of the Texian army—Fannin, Johnson, Grant, or Houston.[34] On January 10, Johnson issued a call to form a Federal Volunteer Army of Texas which would march on Matamoros during the Matamoros Expedition.[34]
The Texian Army of Sam Houston soundly defeats Mexican forces at the Battle of San Jacinto ending the hostilities of the Texas Revolution.
Defensive maneuvers (March – April 1836)[edit]
The Mexican army returned to Texas in February and initiated a siege of the garrison in San Antonio on February 23.[35] The commander at the Alamo, William B. Travis, sent numerous letters to the Texas settlements, begging for reinforcements.[36] Men began to gather in Gonzales to prepare to reinforce the garrison.[37] Before they left, the Mexican army launched the Battle of the Alamo, and all of the Texian soldiers who had been stationed in Bexar were killed.[38] This left two branches of the Texian Army: Fannin's 400 men at Goliad[39] and Neill's 400 men at Gonzales,[40] who soon reported to Houston. On hearing the news of the massacre at the Alamo, Houston ordered his army to retreat and burned the town of Gonzales as they left. He ordered Fannin to bring his men and join the rest of the army.[41] Fannin's force was defeated at the Battle of Coleto Creek, and on March 27 Fannin and his men were executed at the Goliad Massacre. A few soldiers escaped, and 80 soldiers who had just arrived from the United States and had no weapons were spared.[42]
As news spread of the defeats at the Alamo and Goliad, men flocked to the Texian army. By early April, Houston commanded about 800 men.[43] The Texas Revolution essentially ended on April 21, when the Texian Army routed a Mexican force and captured Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto.[43]
For six months David G. Burnet, ad interim President of the Republic, had diligently maintained the army laws set forth by the Consultation in December 1835. The 1835–36 Regular Army of Texas would never consist of more than 100 soldiers and would never approach the Consultation's number goal of 560 infantry, 560 artillery and 384 cavalry, in the permanent "Regular Army" of Texas. However, the goal of independence was achieved, nonetheless.

Texian Army Flags[edit]
Come and Take It Flag
This flag design made reference to the cannon used by Texian Army troops under the command of John Henry Moore at the Battle of Gonzales on October 2, 1835. The Texian cannon on the flag with motto "Come and Take It" was used during the battle to antagonize the Mexican Army to try and capture the cannon.
Brown’s Independence Flag
This flag had a “Bloody Arm” design and was supposedly used by Captain William S. Brown during the Mexican Army’s Siege of Bexar from October 12 - December 11, 1835.
Scott's Liberals Flag
This flag was used by the “Liberals” under the command of Captain William Scott at the Battle of Concepcion on October 28, 1835.
New Orleans Greys Flag
This flag emblazoned with the American bald eagle was used by the First Company of New Orleans Greys volunteers under the commands of Captain Thomas H. Breece and Robert C. Morris participated in driving the Mexican Army from San Antonio and many were captured and later killed in the Goliad Massacre. Elements of the New Orleans Grays fought in the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836.
Red Rovers Flag
This flag had a solid red field design and was used by the Red Rovers of Alabama under the command of Captain Jack Shackelford at the Battle of Coleto from March 19-20, 1836 and the Battle of Goliad on October 9, 1836. After the Goliad battle the Red Rovers and James Fannin’s troops were captured and killed in the Goliad Massacre
Troutman Flag
This flag designed by Joanna Troutman was used by the Georgia Battalion under the command of William Ward marched Macon, Georgia to participate in the fight against Mexico and were killed in the Battle of the Alamo in 1836
Alamo Flag
This flag made reference to the Mexican Constitution of 1824 and to the original design of the 1821 Mexican tri-color flag following independence from Spain. The flag was allegedly used by the co-commanders of the Alamo William Barret Travis and James Bowie who the flew flag during the Siege of the Alamo from March-April 1836.
Coahuila y Tejas Flag
This flag was originally designed to be used jointly as an independence flag by the former Mexican states of Coahuila and Tejas from 1824–1835 with the tri-color field of the 1824 national flag of Mexico and the two yellow stars representing the sovereign nations of Coahuila y Tejas. The flag was allegedly raised by the Texian Army in 1836 inside the Alamo in defiance of the besieging Mexican Army.
San Felipe Flag
This flag was allegedly designed by Gail Borden of condensed milk fame. The flag was used by the San Felipe Militia of the Texian Army under the command of Captain Moseley Baker and First Lieutenant John P. Borden, brother of Gail Borden supposedly flown at the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836.
Burroughs' Ohio Flag
This flag emblazoned with the American bald eagle and the white Texas star on a blue field of the Zavala Flag imposed in the background design was used by Captain George H. Burroughs and his Zanesville, Ohio militia company flew at the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836.
San Jacinto Liberty Flag
This flag had a “Lady Liberty” design and was used by the Second Regiment of the Texian Army under the command of Colonel Sidney Sherman at the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836.
Zavala Flag
This flag was the first official flag of the Republic of Texas designed by Texas Constitutional delegate, Lorenzo de Zavala, being in use as early as March 1836 which would have been the last official flag of the Texian Army.
Uniforms, weapons, and equipment[edit]
Neither the regular nor volunteer components of the Texian Army were issued specific uniforms.[21] Several of the companies that formed in the United States, including the New Orleans Greys, purchased U.S. Army surplus uniforms before they arrived.[44] Other companies had more loosely defined "uniforms", such as wearing matching hunting shirts.[17]
Texian volunteer Noah Smithwick wrote a description of the volunteer army as it looked in October 1835:
Words are inadequate to convey an impression of the appearance of the first Texas army as it formed in marching order. ... Buckskin breeches were the nearest approach to uniform and there was wide diversity even there, some of them being new and soft and yellow, while others, from long familiarity with rain and grease and dirt, had become hard and black and shiny. ... Boots being an unknown quantity, some wore shoes and some moccasins. Here a broad brimmed sombrero overshadowed the military cap at its side; there, a tall “beegum” rode familiarly beside a coonskin cap, with the tail hanging down behind, as all well regulated tails should do ... here a bulky roll of bed quilts jostled a pair of “store ” blankets; there the shaggy brown buffalo robe contrasted with a gaily colored checkered counterpane on which the manufacturer had lavished all the skill of dye and weave known to art ... in lieu of a canteen, each man carried a Spanish gourd.... Here a big American horse loomed above the nimble Spanish pony, there a half-broke mustang pranced beside a sober methodical mule. A fantastic military array to a casual observer, but the one great purpose animating every heart clothed us in a uniform more perfect in our eyes than was ever donned by regulars on dress parade.[17]
The Commander-in-Chief of the Texian Army Sam Houston lying wounded with his troops at the surrender of the Mexican Army commanded by the Mexican general Santa Anna which brought an end to the war
End of hostilities and independence[edit]
Retention as permanent defensive force for the Republic of Texas (1836-1845)[edit]
Main article: Army of the Republic of Texas
See also[edit]
Texas Revolution
List of Texas Revolution battles
Mexican Army
Republic of Texas
Army of the Republic of Texas
Texas Ranger Division
United States Army
Texas Navy
Green Mountain Boys
Nauvoo Legion
California Republic (Bear Flaggers)
Texas Military Forces
Texas Army National Guard
Texas Air National Guard
Texas State Guard
Texas Ranger Division
Notable soldiers[edit]
Gail Borden
Henry Eustace McCulloch
William Whitaker Reed
Joel Walter Robison
Martin Varner
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ If the recent arrivals from the United States are considered, the average date of emigration rises to 1832. Lack (1992), pp. 114–5.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Manchaca (2001), p. 161.
^ Jump up to: a b Edmondson (2000), p. 6.
Jump up ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 10.
Jump up ^ Manchaca (2001), p. 162.
^ Jump up to: a b Manchaca (2001), p. 164.
Jump up ^ Manchaca (2001), p. 201.
Jump up ^ Manchaca (2001), p. 172.
Jump up ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 75.
Jump up ^ Barr (1990), p. 2.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), p. 6.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), p. 7.
^ Jump up to: a b Hardin (1994), p. 8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Todish et al. (1998), p. 8.
^ Jump up to: a b Barr (1990), p. 6.
Jump up ^ Lack (1992), p. 111.
Jump up ^ Cantrell, Gregg (1999). Stephen F. Austin Empresario of Texas (1st ed.). New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 50–53. ISBN 0-300-07683-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Todish et al. (1998), p. 14.
^ Jump up to: a b Todish et al. (1998), p. 15.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lack (1992), p. 132.
Jump up ^ Lack (1992), p. 133.
^ Jump up to: a b Todish et al. (1998), p. 13.
^ Jump up to: a b Lack (1992), pp. 114–5.
Jump up ^ Lack (1992), p. 121.
Jump up ^ Lack (1992), pp. 122–3.
^ Jump up to: a b Lack (1992), p. 124.
^ Jump up to: a b Lack (1992), p. 125.
^ Jump up to: a b Lack (1992), pp. 128–9.
^ Jump up to: a b Lack (1992), pp. 126–7.
Jump up ^ Lack (1992), p. 130.
Jump up ^ Lack (1992), p. 134.
^ Jump up to: a b c Todish et al. (1998), p. 28.
Jump up ^ Thomas W. Cutrer, "ARMY OF THE REPUBLIC OF TEXAS," Handbook of Texas Online [1], accessed April 23, 2011. Published by the Texas State Historical Association.
^ Jump up to: a b Todish et al. (1998), p. 29.
^ Jump up to: a b Todish et al. (1998), p. 30.
Jump up ^ Todish et al. (1998), p. 40.
Jump up ^ Edmondson (2000), pp. 302, 312, 345.
Jump up ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 375.
Jump up ^ Nofi (1992), p. 133.
Jump up ^ Edmondson (2000), p. 377.
Jump up ^ Lindley (2003), p. 310.
Jump up ^ Todish et al. (1998), p. 67.
Jump up ^ Todish et al. (1998), p. 68.
^ Jump up to: a b Todish et al. (1998), p. 69.
Jump up ^ Hardin (1994), p. 60.
Sources[edit]
Barr, Alwyn (1990). Texans in Revolt: the Battle for San Antonio, 1835. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77042-1.
Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 1-55622-678-0.
Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad – A Military History of the Texas Revolution. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-73086-1.
Lack, Paul D. (1992). The Texas Revolutionary Experience: A Political and SOcial History 1835–1836. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 0-89096-497-1.
Lindley, Thomas Ricks (2003). Alamo Traces: New Evidence and New Conclusions. Lanham, MD: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 1-55622-983-6.
Manchaca, Martha (2001). Recovering History, Constructing Race: The Indian, Black, and White Roots of Mexican Americans. The Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long Series in Latin American and Latino Art and Culture. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-75253-9.
Nofi, Albert A. (1992). The Alamo and the Texas War of Independence, September 30, 1835 to April 21, 1836: Heroes, Myths, and History. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books, Inc. ISBN 0-938289-10-1.
Todish, Timothy J.; Todish, Terry; Spring, Ted (1998). Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: A Comprehensive Guide to the Battle of the Alamo and the Texas Revolution. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. ISBN 978-1-57168-152-2.
External links[edit]
Flags of Texas Independence
Texas Army - Uniforms of the Republic of Texas (Texas Military Forces Museum.org)
Preceded by
Mexican Tejas Militia
1823-1835 Texian Army
1835-1836 Succeeded by
Army of the Republic of Texas
1836-1845
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Texian_Army&oldid=832195300"
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Get Outta Dodge
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the idiom, see Wiktionary:get out of Dodge.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Get Outta Dodge
Studio album by Huevos Rancheros
Released
September 30, 1996
Genre
Alternative rock
instrumental rock
Label
Mint Records
Huevos Rancheros chronology
Dig In!
(1995)Dig In!1995 Get Outta Dodge
(1996) The Wedge
(1999)The Wedge1999
Get Outta Dodge is the third studio album by Huevos Rancheros, a Canadian indie rock band. It was released on September 30, 1996, on Mint Records. It was licensed out to Konkurrent Records in the Netherlands. The title refers to the expression "Get out of Dodge", an exhortation that was given in the drama series, Gunsmoke, to villains whom the heroes wanted out of Dodge City, Kansas.
Get Outta Dodge was the first album with new bassist Tom Kennedy, who replaced Graham Evans.
The album was a Juno Award nominee for Best Alternative Album at the Juno Awards of 1998.[1]
Track listing[edit]
All songs written by Brent J. Cooper, Tom Kennedy and Richie Lazarowich, except where noted.
"What a Way to Run a Railroad"
"Interstate Death Toll"
"Shadow of the Apache"
"Smartbomb" (Cooper/Evans/Lazarowich)
"Get Outta Dodge" (Cooper/Evans/Lazarowich)
"Night of the Iguana"
"The Lonely Bull" (Sol Lake)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Top Canadian talent up for Juno awards". Vancouver Province, February 12, 1998.
This 1990s indie rock album-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
v
t
e
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Get_Outta_Dodge&oldid=843050554"
Categories:
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This page was last edited on 26 May 2018, at 14:36 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
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