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Immunity (medical)
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In biology, immunity is the balanced state of multicellular organisms having adequate biological defenses to fight infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion, while having adequate tolerance to avoid allergy, and autoimmune diseases.
Contents
1 Innate and adaptive
2 History of theories
3 Passive
3.1 Naturally acquired
3.2 Artificially acquired
3.3 Transfer of activated T-cells
4 Active
4.1 Naturally acquired
4.2 Artificially acquired
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Innate and adaptive[edit]
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Scheme of a Fc receptor
Immunity is the capability of multicellular organisms to resist harmful microorganisms from entering it. Immunity involves both specific and nonspecific components. The nonspecific components act as barriers or eliminators of a wide range of pathogens irrespective of their antigenic make-up. Other components of the immune system adapt themselves to each new disease encountered and can generate pathogen-specific immunity.[1]
An immune system may contain innate and adaptive components. The innate system in mammalians, for example, is composed of primitive bone marrow cells that are programmed to recognise foreign substances and react. The adaptive system is composed of more advanced lymphatic cells that are programmed to recognise self-substances and don't react. The reaction to foreign substances is etymologically described as inflammation, meaning to set on fire. The non-reaction to self-substances is described as immunity, meaning to exempt or as immunotolerance. These two components of the immune system create a dynamic biological environment where "health" can be seen as a physical state where the self is immunologically spared, and what is foreign is inflammatorily and immunologically eliminated. "Disease" can arise when what is foreign cannot be eliminated or what is self is not spared.
Innate immunity, also called native immunity, exists by virtue of an organisms constitution, that is its genetic make-up, without an external stimulation or a previous infection. It is divided into two types: (a) Non-Specific innate immunity, a degree of resistance to all infections in general. (b) Specific innate immunity, a resistance to a particular kind of microorganism only. As a result, some races, particular individuals or breeds in agriculture do not suffer from certain infectious diseases.
Adaptive immunity can be sub-divided depending on how the immunity was introduced in 'naturally acquired' through chance contact with a disease-causing agent, whereas 'artificially acquired immunity' develops through deliberate actions such as vaccination. Both naturally and artificially acquired immunity can be further subdivided depending on whether the host built up immunity itself by antigen as 'active immunity' and lasts long-term, sometimes lifelong. 'Passive immunity' is acquired through transfer (injection or infusion) of antibodies or activated T-cells from an immune host; it is short lived—usually lasting only a few months. The diagram below summarizes these divisions of immunity.
Adaptive immunity can also be divided by the type of immune mediators involved; humoral immunity is the aspect of immunity that is mediated by secreted antibodies, whereas cell mediated immunity involves T-lymphocytes alone. Humoral immunity is called active when the organism generates its antibodies, and passive when antibodies are transferred between individuals or species. Similarly, cell-mediated immunity is active when the organisms’ T-cells are stimulated, and passive when T cells come from another organism.[2]
History of theories[edit]
A representation of the cholera epidemic of the nineteenth century.
The concept of immunity has intrigued mankind for thousands of years. The prehistoric view of disease was that supernatural forces caused it, and that illness was a form of theurgic punishment for "bad deeds" or "evil thoughts" visited upon the soul by the gods or by one's enemies.[3] Between the time of Hippocrates and the 19th century, when the foundations of the scientific methods were laid, diseases were attributed to an alteration or imbalance in one of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile or black bile).[4] Also popular during this time before learning that communicable diseases came from germs/microbes was the miasma theory, which held that diseases such as cholera or the Black Plague were caused by a miasma, a noxious form of "bad air".[3] If someone were exposed to the miasma in a swamp, in evening air, or breathing air in a sickroom or hospital ward, they could get a disease.
The modern word "immunity" derives from the Latin immunis, meaning exemption from military service, tax payments or other public services.[5] The first written descriptions of the concept of immunity may have been made by the Athenian Thucydides who, in 430 BC, described that when the plague hit Athens: "the sick and the dying were tended by the pitying care of those who had recovered, because they knew the course of the disease and were themselves free from apprehensions. For no one was ever attacked a second time, or not with a fatal result".[5] The term "immunes", is also found in the epic poem "Pharsalia" written around 60 B.C. by the poet Marcus Annaeus Lucanus to describe a North African tribe's resistance to snake venom.[4]
The first clinical description of immunity which arose from a specific disease-causing organism is probably Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah ('A Treatise on Smallpox and Measles', translated 1848[6]) written by the Islamic physician Al-Razi in the 9th century. In the treatise, Al Razi describes the clinical presentation of smallpox and measles and goes on to indicate that exposure to these specific agents confers lasting immunity (although he does not use this term).[4] The first scientist who developed a full theory of immunity was Ilya Mechnikov after he revealed phagocytosis in 1882. With Louis Pasteur's germ theory of disease, the fledgling science of immunology began to explain how bacteria caused disease, and how, following infection, the human body gained the ability to resist further infections.[5]
Albert Edelfelt, Louis Pasteur in his laboratory, 1885.
The birth of active immunotherapy may have begun with Mithridates VI of Pontus.[7] To induce active immunity for snake venom, he recommended using a method similar to modern toxoid serum therapy, by drinking the blood of animals which fed on venomous snakes.[7] According to Jean de Maleissye, Mithridates assumed that animals feeding on venomous snakes acquired some detoxifying property in their bodies, and their blood must contain attenuated or transformed components of the snake venom. The action of those components might be strengthening the body to resist against the venom instead of exerting a toxic effect. Mithridates reasoned that, by drinking the blood of these animals, he could acquire the similar resistance to the snake venom as the animals feeding on the snakes.[7] Similarly, he sought to harden himself against poison and took daily sub-lethal doses to build tolerance. Mithridates is also said to have fashioned a 'universal antidote' to protect him from all earthly poisons.[4] For nearly 2000 years, poisons were thought to be the proximate cause of disease, and a complicated mixture of ingredients, called Mithridate, was used to cure poisoning during the Renaissance.[4] An updated version of this cure, Theriacum Andromachi, was used well into the 19th century.[8] In 1888 Emile Roux and Alexandre Yersin isolated diphtheria toxin, and following the 1890 discovery by Behring and Kitasato of antitoxin based immunity to diphtheria and tetanus, the antitoxin became the first major success of modern therapeutic Immunology.[4]
In Europe, the induction of active immunity emerged in an attempt to contain smallpox. Immunization, however, had existed in various forms for at least a thousand years.[5] The earliest use of immunization is unknown, however, around 1000 A.D. the Chinese began practicing a form of immunization by drying and inhaling powders derived from the crusts of smallpox lesions.[5] Around the fifteenth century in India, the Ottoman Empire, and east Africa, the practice of inoculation (poking the skin with powdered material derived from smallpox crusts) became quite common.[5] This practice was first introduced into the west in 1721 by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu.[5] In 1798, Edward Jenner introduced the far safer method of deliberate infection with cowpox virus, (smallpox vaccine), which caused a mild infection that also induced immunity to smallpox. By 1800 the procedure was referred to as vaccination. To avoid confusion, smallpox inoculation was increasingly referred to as variolation, and it became common practice to use this term without regard for chronology. The success and general acceptance of Jenner's procedure would later drive the general nature of vaccination developed by Pasteur and others towards the end of the 19th century.[4] In 1891, Pasteur widened the definition of vaccine in honour of Jenner and it then became essential to qualify the term, by referring to polio vaccine, measles vaccine etc.
Passive[edit]
Main article: Passive immunity
Passive immunity is the transfer of active immunity, in the form of readymade antibodies, from one individual to another. Passive immunity can occur naturally, when maternal antibodies are transferred to the foetus through the placenta, and can also be induced artificially, when high levels of human (or horse) antibodies specific for a pathogen or toxin are transferred to non-immune individuals. Passive immunization is used when there is a high risk of infection and insufficient time for the body to develop its own immune response, or to reduce the symptoms of ongoing or immunosuppressive diseases.[9] Passive immunity provides immediate protection, but the body does not develop memory, therefore the patient is at risk of being infected by the same pathogen later.[10]
Naturally acquired[edit]
Maternal passive immunity is a type of naturally acquired passive immunity, and refers to antibody-mediated immunity conveyed to a fetus by its mother during pregnancy. Maternal antibodies (MatAb) are passed through the placenta to the fetus by an FcRn receptor on placental cells. This occurs around the third month of gestation. IgG is the only antibody isotype that can pass through the placenta. Passive immunity is also provided through the transfer of IgA antibodies found in breast milk that are transferred to the gut of the infant, protecting against bacterial infections, until the newborn can synthesize its antibodies. Colostrum present in mothers milk is an example of active immunity. [10]
One of the first bottles of diphtheria antitoxin produced (Dated 1895).
Artificially acquired[edit]
See also: Temporarily induced immunity
Artificially acquired passive immunity is a short-term immunization induced by the transfer of antibodies, which can be administered in several forms; as human or animal blood plasma, as pooled human immunoglobulin for intravenous (IVIG) or intramuscular (IG) use, and in the form of monoclonal antibodies (MAb). Passive transfer is used prophylactically in the case of immunodeficiency diseases, such as hypogammaglobulinemia.[11] It is also used in the treatment of several types of acute infection, and to treat poisoning.[9] Immunity derived from passive immunization lasts for only a short period of time, and there is also a potential risk for hypersensitivity reactions, and serum sickness, especially from gamma globulin of non-human origin.[10]
The artificial induction of passive immunity has been used for over a century to treat infectious disease, and before the advent of antibiotics, was often the only specific treatment for certain infections. Immunoglobulin therapy continued to be a first line therapy in the treatment of severe respiratory diseases until the 1930s, even after sulfonamide lot antibiotics were introduced.[11]
Transfer of activated T-cells[edit]
Passive or "adoptive transfer" of cell-mediated immunity, is conferred by the transfer of "sensitized" or activated T-cells from one individual into another. It is rarely used in humans because it requires histocompatible (matched) donors, which are often difficult to find. In unmatched donors this type of transfer carries severe risks of graft versus host disease.[9] It has, however, been used to treat certain diseases including some types of cancer and immunodeficiency. This type of transfer differs from a bone marrow transplant, in which (undifferentiated) hematopoietic stem cells are transferred.
Active[edit]
The time course of an immune response. Due to the formation of immunological memory, reinfection at later time points leads to a rapid increase in antibody production and effector T cell activity. These later infections can be mild or even unapparent.
When B cells and T cells are activated by a pathogen, memory B-cells and T- cells develop, and the primary immune response results. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells will "remember" each specific pathogen encountered, and can mount a strong secondary response if the pathogen is detected again. The primary and secondary responses were first described in 1921 by English immunologist Alexander Glenny[12] although the mechanism involved was not discovered until later.This type of immunity is both active and adaptive because the body's immune system prepares itself for future challenges. Active immunity often involves both the cell-mediated and humoral aspects of immunity as well as input from the innate immune system.
Naturally acquired[edit]
Further information: Immune system
Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when a person is exposed to a live pathogen and develops a primary immune response, which leads to immunological memory.[9] This type of immunity is "natural" because deliberate exposure does not induce it. Many disorders of immune system function can affect the formation of active immunity such as immunodeficiency (both acquired and congenital forms) and immunosuppression.
Artificially acquired[edit]
Main articles: artificial induction of immunity and vaccination
Artificially acquired active immunity can be induced by a vaccine, a substance that contains antigen. A vaccine stimulates a primary response against the antigen without causing symptoms of the disease.[9] Richard Dunning coined the term vaccination, a colleague of Edward Jenner, and adapted by Louis Pasteur for his pioneering work in vaccination. The method Pasteur used entailed treating the infectious agents for those diseases, so they lost the ability to cause serious disease. Pasteur adopted the name vaccine as a generic term in honor of Jenner's discovery, which Pasteur's work built upon.
Poster from before the 1979 eradication of smallpox, promoting vaccination.
In 1807, Bavaria became the first group to require that their military recruits be vaccinated against smallpox, as the spread of smallpox was linked to combat.[13] Subsequently, the practice of vaccination would increase with the spread of war.
There are four types of traditional vaccines:[14]
Inactivated vaccines are composed of micro-organisms that have been killed with chemicals and/or heat and are no longer infectious. Examples are vaccines against flu, cholera, plague, and hepatitis A. Most vaccines of this type are likely to require booster shots.
Live, attenuated vaccines are composed of micro-organisms that have been cultivated under conditions which disable their ability to induce disease. These responses are more durable and do not generally require booster shots. Examples include yellow fever, measles, rubella, and mumps.
Toxoids are inactivated toxic compounds from micro-organisms in cases where these (rather than the micro-organism itself) cause illness, used prior to an encounter with the toxin of the micro-organism. Examples of toxoid-based vaccines include tetanus and diphtheria.
Subunit vaccines are composed of small fragments of disease-causing organisms. A characteristic example is the subunit vaccine against Hepatitis B virus.
Most vaccines are given by hypodermic or intramuscular injection as they are not absorbed reliably through the gut. Live attenuated polio and some typhoid and cholera vaccines are given orally in order to produce immunity based in the bowel.
See also[edit]
Antiserum
Antivenin
Heterosubtypic immunity
Hoskins effect
Immunology
Inoculation
Premunity
Vaccine-naive
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Immune System". kidshealth.org. Retrieved 2018-06-14.
Jump up ^ "Cell-mediated Immunity Vs. Humoral Immunity: A Precise Comparison". Bodytomy. Retrieved 2018-06-14.
^ Jump up to: a b Lindquester, Gary J. (2006) Introduction to the History of disease. Archived 2006-07-21 at the Wayback Machine. Disease and Immunity, Rhodes College.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Silverstein, Arthur M. (1989) History of Immunology (Hardcover) Academic Press. Note: The first six pages of this text are available online at: (Amazon.com easy reader)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Gherardi E. The Concept of Immunity. History and Applications. Archived 2007-01-02 at the Wayback Machine. Immunology Course Medical School, University of Pavia.
Jump up ^ A "al-Razi". 2003 The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press (from Answers.com, 2006.)
^ Jump up to: a b c Maleissye J (1991). Histoire Du Poison'.' Paris: Francois Bourin, ISBN 2-87686-082-1 (in French. Translated in Japanese: Hashimoto I, Katagiri T, translators (1996). [History of Poison]. Tokyo: Shin-Hyoron, Ltd., ISBN 4-7948-0315-X C0020).
Jump up ^ ^ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). "article name needed". Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (first ed.). James and John Knapton, et al. "Mithridate".
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Microbiology and Immunology On-Line Textbook: USC School of Medicine
^ Jump up to: a b c Janeway, Charles; Paul Travers; Mark Walport; Mark Shlomchik (2001). Immunobiology; Fifth Edition. New York and London: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-4101-6. .
^ Jump up to: a b Keller, Margaret A.; E. Richard Stiehm (Oct 2000). "Passive Immunity in Prevention and Treatment of Infectious Diseases". Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 13 (4): 602–614. doi:10.1128/CMR.13.4.602-614.2000. ISSN 0893-8512. PMC 88952  . PMID 11023960.
Jump up ^ Glenny, A.T.; Südmerson, H.J. (1921). "Notes on the production of immunity to diphtheria toxin". J. Hyg. 21: 176–220.
Jump up ^ National Institutes of Health "Smallpox – A Great and Terrible Scourge" Variolation
Jump up ^ Immunization: You call the shots. Archived 2006-09-29 at the Wayback Machine. The National Immunization Program at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
External links[edit]
The Center for Modeling Immunity to Enteric Pathogens (MIEP)
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Who Are You When I'm Not Looking
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Who Are You When I'm Not Looking"
Single by Blake Shelton
from the album All About Tonight
Released
September 6, 2010
Format
Music download
Genre
Country
Length
3:09
Label
Reprise Nashville
Songwriter(s)
Earl Bud Lee
John Wayne Wiggins
Producer(s)
Scott Hendricks
Blake Shelton singles chronology
"All About Tonight"
(2010) "Who Are You When I'm Not Looking"
(2010) "Honey Bee"
(2011)
"All About Tonight"
(2010) "Who Are You When I'm Not Looking"
(2010) "Honey Bee"
(2011)
"Who Are You When I'm Not Looking" is a song written by Earl Bud Lee and John Wayne Wiggins and recorded by American country music artist Joe Nichols for his 2007 album Real Things.[1] Blake Shelton covered the song for his EP All About Tonight, from which it was released as a single in September 2010. His version debuted at number 51 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart in September 2010.[2]
Contents
1 Content
2 Music video
3 Critical reception
4 Chart performance
4.1 Year-end charts
4.2 Certifications and sales
5 References
6 External links
Content[edit]
The song is a ballad in which the narrator wants to know the characteristics his lover's hiding from him (e.g. "Do you paint your toes 'cause you bite your nails?").
Music video[edit]
The Blake Shelton music video premiered on October 1, 2010 during CMT's Big New Music Weekend. It was voted GAC's No. 1 video of 2010.
Critical reception[edit]
Matt Bjorke of Roughstock gave the song a four-out-of-five-star rating, calling it a "list song," but the lyrics "an emotion in which anyone who has been in love will certainly relate to."[3] Jim Malec of American Twang gave the song a thumbs-up review, calling it an "intimate rumination on the mystery of a beautiful, graceful woman."[4] Karlie Justus of Engine 145 gave the song a thumbs-up. She thought that Blake Shelton's performance was "flatter" than Joe Nichols's, but said that the lyrics were "grounded and honest."[1] Gary Graff of Billboard also described the song positively, saying that it "mixes humor and pathos with a sweet melody and a wry attitude."[5]
Chart performance[edit]
"Who Are You When I'm Not Looking" debuted at number fifty-one on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs for the week of September 18, 2010. It became Shelton's eighth number one single on the country chart dated March 5, 2011. It has sold 1,098,000 copies in the United States as of June 2013.[6]
Chart (2010–11)
Peak
position
Canada (Canadian Hot 100)[7] 72
US Billboard Hot 100[8] 46
US Hot Country Songs (Billboard)[9] 1
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (2011)
Position
US Country Songs (Billboard)[10] 32
Certifications and sales[edit]
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales
United States (RIAA)[11]
Platinum 1,098,000[6]
*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Justus, Karlie (October 27, 2010). "Blake Shelton – "Who Are You When I'm Not Looking"". Engine 145. Retrieved October 29, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Who Are You When I'm Not Looking" Debuts at #51
Jump up ^ Bjorke, Matt (September 7, 2010). "Blake Shelton – "Who Are You When I'm Not Looking"". Roughstock. Retrieved 2010-10-15.
Jump up ^ Malec, Jim (September 8, 2010). "Blake Shelton – "Who Are You When I'm Not Looking"". American Twang. Retrieved 2010-10-15.
Jump up ^ Graff, Gary (July 30, 2010). "All About Tonight review". Billboard. Retrieved October 29, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Paul Grein (June 12, 2013). "Week Ending June 9, 2013. Songs: Pretty Fly For A White Guy". Chart Watch. Yahoo Music.
Jump up ^ "Blake Shelton Chart History (Canadian Hot 100)". Billboard. Retrieved January 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Blake Shelton Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard. Retrieved January 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Blake Shelton Chart History (Hot Country Songs)". Billboard. Retrieved January 29, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Best of 2011: Country Songs". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. 2011. Retrieved December 10, 2011.
Jump up ^ "American single certifications – Blake Shelton – Who Are You When I%27m Not Looking". Recording Industry Association of America. Retrieved March 17, 2013. If necessary, click Advanced, then click Format, then select Single, then click SEARCH
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
hide
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Blake Shelton singles
Discography
Blake Shelton
"Austin"
"All Over Me"
"Ol' Red"
The Dreamer
"The Baby"
"Heavy Liftin'"
"Playboys of the Southwestern World"
Blake Shelton's Barn & Grill
"Some Beach"
"Goodbye Time"
"Nobody but Me"
Pure BS
"Don't Make Me"
"The More I Drink"
"Home"
Startin' Fires
"She Wouldn't Be Gone"
"I'll Just Hold On"
Red River Blue
"Honey Bee"
"God Gave Me You"
"Drink on It"
"Over"
Based on a True Story...
"Sure Be Cool If You Did"
"Boys 'Round Here"
"Mine Would Be You"
"Doin' What She Likes"
"My Eyes"
Bringing Back the Sunshine
"Neon Light"
"Lonely Tonight"
"Sangria"
"Gonna"
If I'm Honest
"Straight Outta Cold Beer"
"She's Got a Way with Words"
"Came Here to Forget"
"A Guy with a Girl"
"Go Ahead and Break My Heart"
"Friends"
"Savior's Shadow"
"Every Time I Hear That Song"
Texoma Shore
"I'll Name the Dogs"
"I Lived It"
Collaborations
"The Truth About Men"
"Just a Fool"
"Medicine"
"You Make It Feel Like Christmas"
Other songs
"Hillbilly Bone"
"All About Tonight"
"Who Are You When I'm Not Looking"
"Footloose"
"Over You"
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Who_Are_You_When_I%27m_Not_Looking&oldid=847147633"
Categories:
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text:
Georgia in the American Civil War
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Georgia in the Civil War" redirects here. For the internal conflict from 1991 to 1993 in the Republic of Georgia, see Georgian Civil War.
State of Georgia
Nickname(s): "The Peach State"

Flag (unofficial)
Seal

Map of the United States with Georgia highlighted.
Capital
Milledgeville
Largest City
Savannah
Admission to confederacy
February 4, 1861 (5th)
Population
1,082,757 total
• 620,527 free
• 462,230 slave
Forces supplied
133,486 total
• 18,253 killed
Major garrisons/armories
Fort Pulaski
Governor
Joseph E. Brown
Senators
Benjamin Harvey Hill
John Wood Lewis, Sr.
Herschel Vespasian Johnson
Representatives
List
Restored to the Union
July 15, 1870
Part of a series on the
History of the
State of Georgia
Pre-Columbian
European Exploration
Colonial Georgia
American Revolution
Antebellum Period
American Civil War
Reconstruction
Postbellum Economic Growth
Agrarian Unrest and Disfranchisement
Progressive Era
Civil Rights Movement
Sun Belt growth and the New Right
Georgia (U.S. state) portal
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Facsimile of the 1861 Ordinance of Secession signed by 293 delegates to the Georgia Secession Convention at the statehouse in Milledgeville, Georgia January 21, 1861
Confederate States
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American Civil War
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Georgia was one of the original seven slave states that formed the Confederate States in February 1861, triggering the U.S. Civil War. The state governor, Democrat Joseph E. Brown, wanted locally raised troops to be used only for the defence of Georgia, in defiance of Confederate president Jefferson Davis, who wanted to deploy them on other battlefronts. When the Union blockade prevented Georgia from exporting its plentiful cotton in exchange for key imports, Brown ordered farmers to grow food instead, but the breakdown of transport systems led to desperate shortages.
There was not much fighting in Georgia until September 1863, when Confederates under Braxton Bragg defeated William S. Rosecrans at Chickamauga Creek. In May 1864, William T. Sherman started pursuing the Confederates towards Atlanta, which he captured in September, in advance of his March to the Sea. This six-week campaign destroyed much of the civilian infrastructure of Georgia, decisively shortening the war. When news of the march reached Robert E. Lee's army in Virginia, whole Georgian regiments deserted, feeling they were needed at home. The Battle of Columbus, fought on the Georgia-Alabama border on April 16, 1865, is reckoned by some criteria to have been the last battle of the war.
Contents
[hide]
1 Secession
2 Home front
2.1 Unionism
2.2 Food shortages
2.3 Deserter and layout gangs
2.4 Debate over the use of slaves as soldiers
3 Battles in Georgia
4 The Atlanta Campaign
5 Sherman's March to the Sea
6 Last battles
6.1 List of battles fought in Georgia
7 Re-entry to the Union
8 Civil War sites in Georgia
9 See also
10 Notes
11 Further reading
11.1 Primary sources
12 External links
Secession[edit]
See also: Origins of the American Civil War
In December 1860, Georgian governor Joseph E. Brown, a passionate believer in slavery and southern states' rights, opined that the election of Abraham Lincoln, an anti-slavery Republican, to the U.S. presidency would result in the ending of slavery in the United States. He called upon Georgians to resist anti-slavery interventions, declaring that failure to do so would result in the emancipation of their slaves:
What will be the result to the institution of slavery, which will follow submission to the inauguration and administration of Mr. Lincoln as the President... it will be the total abolition of slavery... I do not doubt, therefore, that submission to the administration of Mr. Lincoln will result in the final abolition of slavery. If we fail to resist now, we will never again have the strength to resist.
—  Joseph E. Brown, letter, (December 7, 1860), emphasis added.[1]
The following month, in January 1861, the Georgia Secession Convention issued an Ordinance of Secession, in which it outlined the causes that motivated the state to declare its secession from the Union. The ordinance cited the views of U.S. president-elect Abraham Lincoln and that of the Republican Party against "the subject of African slavery", anti-slavery sentiment in northern free states, and perceived support among northerners for equality for African Americans as reasons for Georgia's declaring of secession:
The people of Georgia having dissolved their political connection with the Government of the United States of America, present ... the causes which have led to the separation. For the last ten years we have had numerous and serious causes of complaint against our non-slaveholding confederate States, with reference to the subject of African slavery. ... The party of Lincoln, called the Republican party, under its present name and organization is of recent origin. It is admitted to be an anti-slavery party ... anti-slavery is its mission and its purpose. ... The prohibition of slavery in the territories, hostility to it everywhere, the equality of the black and white races ... were boldly proclaimed by its leaders, and applauded by its followers. ... The prohibition of slavery in the territories is the cardinal principle of this organization. ... These are the men who say the Union shall be preserved. ... Such are the opinions and such are the practices of the Republican Party ... if we submit to them, it will be our fault and not theirs.
—  Georgia Secession Convention, Georgia Declaration of Causes of Secession, January 29, 1861.[2]
In a February 1861 speech to the Virginia secession convention, Georgian Henry Lewis Benning stated that the main reason as to why Georgia declared secession from the Union was due to "a deep conviction on the part of Georgia, that a separation from the North-was the only thing that could prevent the abolition of her slavery."[3][4]
William L. Harris, one Mississippian secession commissioner, told a meeting of the Georgian general assembly that the Republicans wanted to implement "equality between the white and negro races" and thus secession was necessary for the slave states to resist their efforts.[5]
Contemporary Georgian religious leaders also supported slavery. One Georgian preacher condemned Republicans and abolitionists, stating that their anti-slavery views ran contrary to the teachings of the Christian religion, saying that such groups' views were "diametrically opposed to the letter and spirit of the Bible, and as subversive of all sound morality, as the worst ravings of infidelity."[3]
Home front[edit]
Governor Joseph E. Brown was a leading secessionist and led efforts to remove the state from the Union and into the Confederacy. A firm believer in state's rights, he defied the Confederate government's wartime policies. He resisted the Confederate military draft and tried to keep as many soldiers at home as possible to fight invading forces.[6] Brown challenged Confederate impressment of animals, goods, and slaves. Several other governors followed his lead.[7] During the war, Georgia sent nearly 100,000 men to battle for the Confederacy, mostly to the Virginian armies. Despite secession, many southerners in North Georgia remained loyal to the Union.
Unionism[edit]
Approximately 5,000 Georgians served in the U.S. Army in units such as the 1st Georgia Infantry Battalion,[8] the 1st Alabama Cavalry Regiment, and a number of East Tennessean regiments.[9]
Georgia's Rabun County in particular, which did not declare secession from the Union,[10] was highly Unionist, described by some as being "almost a unit against secession." One of the county's residents recalled in 1865 that "You cannot find a people who were more averse to secession than were the people of our county", stating that "I canvassed the county in 1860–61 myself and I know that there were not exceeding twenty men in this county who were in favor of secession."[11]
The dividing lines were often not as clear as they are sometimes viewed in Rabun county during this period. In A Separate Civil War: Communities in Conflict in the Mountain South, Jonathan Dean Sarris examines the wartime experiences of Fannin and Lumpkin counties. Within these two counties, Unionist and Confederate leaning factions fought brutally directly within the home front between 1861 and 1865. Sarris argues that there is a "complex web of local, regional, and national loyalties that connected pre-industrial mountain societies" and that these loyalties are among the major factors that determine the leanings of these mountain towns.[12] The Madden Branch Massacre in Fannin county was one of several atrocities that occurred as the mountain counties divided into pro and anti-Confederate factions. On November 29, 1864, six Georgians trying to enlist in the U.S. Army - Thomas Bell, Harvey Brewster, James T. Hughes, James B. Nelson, Elijah Robinson, Peter Parris, and Wyatt J. Parton - were executed by the notorious Confederate guerilla John P. Gatewood, "the long-haired, red-bearded beast from Georgia."[13]
While concentrated in the mountains and large cities, Unionism in Georgia was not confined to those areas and could be found in areas across the state.[14]
Food shortages[edit]
By summer 1861, the Union naval blockade virtually shut down the export of cotton and the import of manufactured items. Food that normally came by rail from the Northern states were halted. The governor and legislature pleaded with planters to grow less cotton and more food. The planters refused because at first, they thought the Union would not or could not fight. The planters then saw cotton prices in Europe soared and they expected Europe to soon intervene and break the blockade. The legislature imposed cotton quotas and made it a crime to grow an excess, but the food shortages continued to worsen, especially in the towns.[15] In more than a dozen instances across the state, poor white women raided stores and captured supply wagons to get such necessities as bacon, corn, flour, and cotton yarn.[16]
In some cases, Confederate armies forcibly seized food from Georgians and South Carolinians. The Georgian governor lamented that such seizures of food "have been ruinous to the people of the northeastern part of the State."[17]
As conditions at home worsened late in the war more and soldiers deserted the army to attend to their suffering farms and families.[18]
Deserter and layout gangs[edit]
During the course of the war, some Georgians banded together to resist Confederate authorities. Some were Unionists in their beliefs, but others were anti-Confederate due to Confederate government's policy of impressment and conscription. Deserter gangs were made up of those who had deserted from Confederate forces. Layout gangs consisted of those who had avoided conscription by hiding out. Pro-Confederate Georgians often derided these groups as Tories. Some groups consisted of both deserters and draft evaders. The mountains of north Georgia were one location where many such groups operated. Others operated in the swamps of the Alapaha River in Berrien, Coffee, Echols County, Georgia, and Irwin counties. The Okefenokee Swamp was another location that several anti-Confederate forces occupied during the course of the war. Black Jack Island and Soldiers Camp Island are two locations within the swamp where over 1,000 deserters were reported to have hidden. By 1864, the Wiregrass Region of Georgia was no longer fully controlled by the Confederate government due to layout and deserter gangs.[14]
During the same time, the backcountry of Pulaski, Montgomery, and Telfair counties in the area of Gum Swamp Creek in modern-day Dodge County had become home to similar groups.[19]
Debate over the use of slaves as soldiers[edit]
Late in the war, when it was suggested that the Confederacy use its slaves as soldiers, many Confederate newspapers, such as the Atlanta Southern Confederacy in Macon, vehemently objected to the idea of armed black men in the Confederate army, saying that it was incongruous with the Confederacy's goals and views regarding African Americans and slavery. The newspaper said that using black men as soldiers would be an embarrassment to Confederates and their children, saying that although African Americans should be used for slave labor, they should not be used as armed soldiers, opining that:
Such an act on our part, would be a stigma on the imperishable pages of history, of which all future generations of Southrons would be ashamed. These are some of the additional considerations which have suggested themselves to us. Let us put the negro to work, but not to fight.
—  Atlanta Southern Confederacy, (January 20, 1865), Macon, Georgia.[20][21]
Georgian Confederates such as Democrat Howell Cobb supported the Macon newspaper's view, saying that the Confederates using black soldiers was "suicidal" and would run contrary to the Confederacy's ideology. Opposing such a move, Cobb stated that African Americans were untrustworthy and innately lacked the qualities to make good soldiers, and that using them would cause many Confederates to quit the army:
The proposition to make soldiers of our slaves is the most pernicious idea that has been suggested since the war began. It is to me a source of deep mortification... You cannot make soldiers of slaves, nor slaves of soldiers. The moment you resort to negro soldiers your white soldiers will be lost to you; and one secret of the favor with which the proposition is received in portions of the army is the hope that when negroes go into the Army they will be permitted to retire... [Y]ou can't trust negroes... [D]on't arm them... If slaves make good soldiers our whole theory of slavery is wrong... [T]hey are wanting in every qualification of a soldier.
—  Howell Cobb, letter to James A. Seddon, (January 1865).[22][23][24][25]
Despite these protests, a law to raise troops from the slave population was passed by the Confederate Congress on March 13, 1865. By mid-April, a few recruiting stations had been established in Macon, Georgia, but the results of these efforts are unknown.[26]
Battles in Georgia[edit]
Georgia was relatively free from warfare until late 1863. A total of nearly 550 battles and skirmishes occurred within the state, with the majority occurring in the last two years of the conflict. The first major battle in Georgia was a Confederate victory at the Battle of Chickamauga in 1863, which was the last major Confederate victory in the west. In 1864 Union general William T. Sherman's armies invaded Georgia as part of the Atlanta Campaign. Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston fought a series of battles, the largest being the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain, trying to delay Union armies for as long as possible as he retreated toward Atlanta. Johnston's replacement, Gen. John Bell Hood, attempted several unsuccessful counterattacks at the Battle of Peachtree Creek and the Battle of Atlanta, but Sherman captured Atlanta on September 2, 1864.
The Atlanta Campaign[edit]
Main article: Atlanta Campaign
Union Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman invaded Georgia from the vicinity of Chattanooga, Tennessee, beginning in May 1864, opposed by the Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston. Johnston's Army of Tennessee withdrew toward Atlanta in the face of successive flanking maneuvers by Sherman's group of armies. In July, the Confederate president, Jefferson Davis replaced Johnston with the more aggressive John Bell Hood, who began challenging the Union Army in a series of damaging frontal assaults. Hood's army was eventually besieged in Atlanta and the city fell on September 2, setting the stage for Sherman's March to the Sea and hastening the end of the war.
Sherman's March to the Sea[edit]
Main article: Sherman's March to the Sea
A map showing Sherman's March to the Sea from November to December 1864.
In November 1864, Sherman stripped his army of non-essentials, burned the city of Atlanta, and left it to the Confederates. He began his famous Sherman's March to the Sea, living off the land then burning plantations, wrecking railroads, killing livestock, and freeing slaves. Thousands of escaped slaves followed him as he entered Savannah on December 22.[27] After the loss of Atlanta, the governor withdrew the state's militia from the Confederate forces to harvest crops for the state and the army. The militia did not try to stop Sherman.[28]
Sherman's March was devastating to both Georgia and the Confederacy in terms of economics and psychology. Sherman himself estimated that the campaign had inflicted $100 million (about $1.4 billion in 2012 dollars)[29] in damages, about one fifth of which "inured to our advantage" while the "remainder is simple waste and destruction."[30] His army wrecked 300 miles (480 km) of railroad and numerous bridges and miles of telegraph lines. It seized 5,000 horses, 4,000 mules, and 13,000 head of cattle. It confiscated 9.5 million pounds of corn and 10.5 million pounds of fodder, and destroyed uncounted cotton gins and mills.[31]
Sherman's campaign of total war extended to Georgian civilians. In July 1864, during the Atlanta campaign, Sherman ordered approximately 400 Roswell mill workers, mostly women, arrested as traitors and shipped as prisoners to the North with their children. There is little evidence that more than a few of the women ever returned home.[32]
The memory of Sherman's March became iconic and central to the "Myth of the Lost Cause" and neo-Confederates. The crisis was the setting for Margaret Mitchell's 1936 novel Gone with the Wind and the subsequent 1939 film. Most important were many "salvation stories" that tell not what Sherman's army destroyed, but what was saved by the quick thinking and crafty women on the home front, or by a Union soldier's appreciation of the beauty of homes and the charm of Southern women.[33]
Last battles[edit]
In December 1864, Sherman captured Savannah before leaving Georgia in January 1865 to begin his Carolinas Campaign. However, there were still several small fights in Georgia after his departure. On April 16, 1865, the Battle of Columbus, was fought on the Georgia-Alabama border. In 1935, the state legislature officially declared this engagement as the "last battle of the War Between the States." [34]
List of battles fought in Georgia[edit]
Battle of Adairsville
Battle of Allatoona
Battle of Atlanta
Battle of Brown's Mill
Battle of Buck Head Creek
Battle of Chickamauga
Battle of Columbus
Battle of Dallas
Battle of Dalton I
Battle of Dalton II
Battle of Davis' Cross Roads
Battle of Ezra Church
Battle of Fort McAllister (1863)
Battle of Fort McAllister (1864)
Battle of Fort Pulaski
Battle of Griswoldville
Battle of Jonesborough
Battle of Kennesaw Mountain
Battle of Kolb's Farm
Battle of Lovejoy's Station
Battle of Marietta
Battle of New Hope Church
Battle of Peachtree Creek
Battle of Pickett's Mill
Battle of Resaca
Battle of Ringgold Gap
Battle of Rocky Face Ridge
Battle of Utoy Creek
Battle of Waynesboro
Re-entry to the Union[edit]
Main article: Georgia during Reconstruction
The war left most of Georgia devastated, with many dead and wounded, and the state's economy in shambles. The slaves were emancipated in 1865, and Reconstruction started immediately after the hostilities ceased. The state remained poor well into the twentieth century. Georgia did not re-enter the Union until June 15, 1870, as the last of the former Confederate states to be re-admitted.
Civil War sites in Georgia[edit]
Georgia road sign
Many of Georgia's Civil War battlefields, particularly those around Atlanta, have been lost to modern urban development. However, a number of sites have been well preserved, including Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park and Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park. Other Civil War-related sites include Stone Mountain, Fort Pulaski, and the Atlanta Cyclorama, as well as Confederate Memorial Park.[35]
A number of antebellum mansions and plantations in Georgia are preserved and open to the public, particularly around Atlanta and Savannah. Portions of the Civil War-era Western & Atlantic Railroad have historical markers commemorating events during the war, including several sites associated with the Andrews Raid. Another area near Atlanta with Civil War history is in the Sweet Water Creek State Park in Douglas County, Georgia. At this location is one of the last standing buildings burned by General Sherman's army, New Manchester Mill.
See also[edit]
American Civil War portal
Georgia (U.S. state) portal
List of Georgia Confederate Civil War regiments
List of Georgia Union Civil War units
Confederate States of America
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Secession Debated. pp. 145–159. Retrieved September 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ State of Georgia (January 29, 1861). "Georgia Declaration of Causes of Secession". Journal of the public and secret proceedings of the Convention of the people of Georgia. Georgia: State of Georgia. Archived from the original on February 13, 2015. Retrieved February 13, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Rhea, Gordon (January 25, 2011). "Why Non-Slaveholding Southerners Fought". Civil War Trust. Civil War Trust. Archived from the original on March 21, 2011. Retrieved March 21, 2011.
Jump up ^ Benning, Henry L. (February 18, 1861). "Speech of Henry Benning to the Virginia Convention". Proceedings of the Virginia State Convention of 1861. pp. 62–75. Retrieved March 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ Dew, Charles B. Apostles of Disunion. p. 29. Retrieved March 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ Scaife, William R.; Bragg, William Harris (2004). Joe Brown's Pets: The Georgia Militia, 1862-1865. Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780865548831.
Jump up ^ Parks, Joseph H. (1977). Joseph E. Brown of Georgia. Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 9780807124659.
Jump up ^ Seibert, David. "Georgians in the Union Army". GeorgiaInfo: an Online Georgia Almanac. Digital Library of Georgia. Retrieved 14 November 2016.
Jump up ^ The Georgia Historical Society. "Georgians in the Union Army". Retrieved August 6, 2015.
Jump up ^ Rabun County Comprehensive Plan - Chapter 7 - Historical Cultural Archived July 24, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Foner, Eric (March 1989). "The South's Inner Civil War: The more fiercely the Confederacy fought for its independence, the more bitterly divided it became. To fully understand the vast changes the war unleashed on the country, you must first understand the plight of the Southerners who didn't want secession". American Heritage. Vol. 40 no. 2. American Heritage Publishing Company. p. 2. Archived from the original on December 18, 2013. Retrieved December 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Sarris, Jonathan Dean (2006). A Separate Civil War: Communities in Conflict in the Mountain South. Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press. p. 2. ISBN 0-8139-2549-5.
Jump up ^ Sarris, Jonathan D. (1993). "Anatomy of an Atrocity: The Madden Branch Massacre and Guerrilla Warfare in North Georgia, 1861-1865". The Georgia Historical Quarterly. 77 (4): 679–710. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Williams, David; Williams, Teresa Crisp; Carlson, David (2002). Plain Folk in a Rich Man's War: Class and Dissent in Confederate Georgia. Gainesville, Florida: University of Florida Press. ISBN 978-0813028361.
Jump up ^ Thompson, Clara Mildred (1915). Reconstruction In Georgia: Economic, Social, Political 1865-1872. Columbia University Press. pp. 14–17, 22.
Jump up ^ Williams, Teresa Crisp; Williams, David (Spring 2002). "'The Women Rising': Cotton, Class, and Confederate Georgia's Rioting Women". Georgia Historical Quarterly. Georgia Historical Society. 86 (12): 49–83. JSTOR 40584640.
Jump up ^ Foner, Eric (March 1989). "The South's Inner Civil War: The more fiercely the Confederacy fought for its independence, the more bitterly divided it became. To fully understand the vast changes the war unleashed on the country, you must first understand the plight of the Southerners who didn't want secession". American Heritage. Vol. 40 no. 2. American Heritage Publishing Company. p. 3. Archived from the original on December 18, 2013. Retrieved December 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Weitz, Mark A. (2005). A Higher Duty: Desertion among Georgia Troops during the Civil War. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9780803298552.
Jump up ^ Wetherington, Mark V. (2005). Plain Folk's Fight: The Civil War and Reconstruction in Piney Woods Georgia. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press. pp. 222–223, 239, 276.
Jump up ^ "Atlanta Southern Confederacy". Macon, Georgia. January 20, 1865. We perceive the public journals continue to urge the measure of putting negroes into the army, and we hear people talking on the street corners in favor of the measure. Put arms in the hands of the slaves, and make them fight for us, they say. We have heretofore expressed our opinion in opposition to this measure, and shall not now repeat what we then said. In continuation of our formerly expressed views, we may add a few additional suggestions now. One speedy practical result of putting negroes in the army would be the peopling of all the swamps of the South with runaway negro deserters. Trained to the use of fire arms, they would depredate everywhere on cattle, hogs, etc., and would soon be forced to resort to robbery and plunder to gain subsistence. Attempts to arrest them would be resisted, and the horrors of a servile war would be realized. Very large numbers would desert and pursue this sort of life. If they did not do this, they would desert to the enemy. With the enemy they know they would get freedom at once. With us, they would get freedom after the war, taking our promises as true. There would exist an immediate certainty of freedom on one side; an uncertainty on the other. A well disposed, faithful, and intelligent slave in this region was recently asked by his master some questions on this very point. The view I have taken of the subject in the above remarks, are simply the views of the slave referred to, and constitutes the substance of his reply to his master. Put, said the negro, the slave into any other position in the service you choose-let him dig, drive teams, build roads, do any other duty, but do not call on him to fight... The negro is willing to work for us, but not to fight for us. We were passing into the car-shed of this city two days since. Some idle and vicious looking boys were directing some saucy conversation to a negro man of stalwart frame who stood near them. One of the boys said to the negro, "Uncle, why don't you go and fight?" "What I fight for?' asked the Ebon. "For your country," replied the boy. The negro scowled and said instantly, "I have no country to fight for." Now we think the negro was mistaken. We think his lot an enviable one, and that they constitute a privileged class in the community. As the toil of brain and muscle is daily renewed, amid uncertainties, for the procurement of bread for our wife and little ones, we often feel how happy we should be were we the slave of some good and provident owner. Then simple daily toil would fill the measure of duty, and comfortable food and clothing would be the assured reward. While, therefore, we think the negro was mistaken — that the South is emphatically his country while slavery exists — yet we have no idea he can be convinced of the fact sufficiently to take up arms and fight bravely for our cause as his cause, for our country as his country. But waiving all this, and supposing them to fight, and to so greatly aid us that we win our independence, what then? The fighting negroes are to be freed. What are we to do with them 1 Let them remain among us? If so, those who remain slaves may be so in name, but they will not be so in reality. Shall the free slaves then be sent out of the country1 out of the country whose independence they fought to obtain? Certainly no such reward as perpetual exile would-be either honorable to us, or just to them. Such an act on our part, would be a stigma on the imperishable pages of history, of which all future generations of Southrons would be ashamed. These are some of the additional considerations which have suggested themselves to us. Let us put the negro to work, but not to fight.
Jump up ^ Durden, Robert F. (1875). The Gray and the Black: The Confederate Debate on Emancipation. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University. pp. 156–58.
Jump up ^ Cobb, Howell (January 1865). "Letter to James A. Seddon". Archived from the original on March 8, 2016. Retrieved March 8, 2016. The proposition to make soldiers of our slaves is the most pernicious idea that has been suggested since the war began. It is to me a source of deep mortification and regret to see the name of that good and great man and soldier, General R. E. Lee, given as authority for such a policy. My first hour of despondency will be the one in which that policy shall be adopted. You cannot make soldiers of slaves, nor slaves of soldiers. The moment you resort to negro soldiers your white soldiers will be lost to you; and one secret of the favor with which the proposition is received in portions of the army is the hope that when negroes go into the Army they will be permitted to retire. It is simply a proposition to fight the balance of the war with negro troops. You can't keep white and black troops together, and you can't trust negroes by themselves. It is difficult to get negroes enough for the purpose indicated in the President's message, much less enough for an Army. Use all the negroes you can get, for all the purposes for which you need them, but don't arm them. The day you make soldiers of them is the beginning of the end of the revolution. If slaves make good soldiers our whole theory of slavery is wrong. But they won't make soldiers. As a class they are wanting in every qualification of a soldier. Better by far to yield to the demands of England and France and abolish slavery and thereby purchase their aid, than resort to this policy, which leads as certainly to ruin and subjugation as it is adopted; you want more soldiers, and hence the proposition to take negroes into the Army. Before resorting to it, at least try every reasonable mode of getting white soldiers. I do not entertain a doubt that you can, by the volunteering policy, get more men into the service than you can arm. I have more fears about arms than about men, For Heaven's sake, try it before you fill with gloom and despondency the hearts of many of our truest and most devoted men, by resort to the suicidal policy of arming our slaves.
Jump up ^ Hall, Andy (January 8, 2015). "Real Confederates Didn't Know About Black Confederates". Dead Confederates: A Civil War Blog. WordPress. Archived from the original on March 8, 2016. Retrieved March 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Chisholm, Hugh (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11 ed.). Cambridge University Press. Archived from the original on 2016-03-08. Retrieved March 8, 2016.
Jump up ^ Levin, Kevin (January 7, 2015). "The Most Pernicious Idea: 150 Years Later". Civil War Memory. Archived from the original on January 9, 2015. Retrieved January 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ Clarence L. Mohr, On The Threshold of Freedom: Masters and Slaves in Civil War Georgia (LSU Press edition, 2001), pp. 283-284.[1]
Jump up ^ Trudeau, Noah Andre (2008). Southern Storm: Sherman's March to the Sea. HarperCollins. ISBN 9780061860102.
Jump up ^ Wetherington, Mark V. (2005). Plain Folk's Fight: The Civil War and Reconstruction in Piney Woods Georgia. University of North Carolina Press. p. 207. ISBN 9780807877043.
Jump up ^ "Inflation Calculator website". s. Morgan Friedman. Archived from the original on 21 July 2007. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
Jump up ^ McPherson, James M. (1996). Drawn with the Sword:Reflections on the American Civil War: Reflections on the American Civil War. Oxford University Press. p. 82. ISBN 9780199727834.
Jump up ^ Kennett, Lee (1995). Marching through Georgia: The Story of Soldiers and Civilians During Sherman's Campaign. HarperCollins. p. 309. ISBN 9780062028990.
Jump up ^ Dillman, Caroline Matheny (8 December 2003). "Deportation of Roswell Mill Women". New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Hume, Janice; Roessner, Amber (March 2009). "Surviving Sherman's March: Press, Public Memory, and Georgia's Salvation Mythology". Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly. Association for Education in Journalism & Mass Communication. 86 (1): 119–137. doi:10.1177/107769900908600108.
Jump up ^ "ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF THE STATE OF GEORGIA 1935" (DOC). Georgia Legislative Documents. 28 March 1935. Retrieved 30 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Miles, Jim (2001). Civil War Sites in Georgia. Thomas Nelson Incorporated. ISBN 9781558539044.
Further reading[edit]
Further information: Sherman's March to the Sea § Further reading
Brady, Lisa M. Brady. War upon the Land: Military Strategy and the Transformation of Southern Landscapes during the American Civil War (University of Georgia Press, 2012)
Brown, Barry L. and Gordon R. Elwell. Crossroads of Conflict: A Guide to Civil War Sites in Georgia (2010)
Bryan, T. Conn. Confederate Georgia (1953), the standard scholarly survey
Davis, Stephen, What the Yankees Did to Us: Sherman's Bombardment and Wrecking of Atlanta. (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2012). ISBN 0881463981
DeCredico, Mary A. Patriotism for Profit: Georgia's Urban Entrepreneurs and the Confederate War Effort (1990).
Ecelbarger, Gary The Day Dixie Died: The Battle of Atlanta (2010), ISBN 978-0312563998.
Fowler, John D. and David B. Parker, eds. Breaking the Heartland: The Civil War in Georgia (2011)
Frank, Lisa Tendrich. The Civilian War: Confederate Women and Union Soldiers During Sherman's March (LSU Press, 2015)
Gourley, Bruce T. Diverging Loyalties: Baptists in Middle Georgia During the Civil War (2011)
Harrington, Hugh T. Civil War Milledgeville: Tales from the Confederate Capital of Georgia (2005)
Hill, Louise Biles. Joseph E. Brown and the Confederacy. (1972)
Inscoe, John C. (2011). The Civil War in Georgia: A New Georgia Encyclopedia Companion. University of Georgia Press.
Johnson, Michael P. Toward A Patriarchal Republic: The Secession of Georgia (1977)
Jones, Charles Edgeworth (1909). Georgia in the War: 1861–1865. Augusta, Georgia: Foote and Davies.
Miles, Jim. To the Sea: A History and Tour Guide of the War in the West, Sherman's March Across Georgia and Through the Carolinas, 1864–1865 (2002)
Mohr, Clarence L. On the Threshold of Freedom: Masters and Slaves in Civil War Georgia (1986)
Parks, Joseph H. Joseph E. Brown of Georgia Louisiana State University Press (1977) 612 pages; Governor of Georgia
Savas, Theodore P., and David A. Woodbury. The Campaign for Atlanta and Sherman's March to the Sea Volume 1. Casemate Publishers, 2013, covers Atlanta campaign
Smith, Derek. Civil War Savannah. Savannah, Ga: Frederic C. Beil, 1997. ISBN 0-913720-93-3.
Wallenstein, Peter. "Rich Man's War, Rich Man's Fight: Civil War and the Transformation of Public Finance in Georgia," Journal of Southern History (1984) 50#1 pp 15–42 in JSTOR
Wetherington, Mark V. Plain Folk's Fight: The Civil War and Reconstruction in Piney Woods Georgia (2009) excerpt and text search
Whelchel, Love Henry. Sherman's March and the Emergence of the Independent Black Church Movement: From Atlanta to the Sea to Emancipation (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014)
Whites, Lee Ann. The Civil War as a Crisis in Gender: Augusta, Georgia, 1860–1890 (2000) excerpt and text search
Primary sources[edit]
Bailey, Anne J. and Walter J. Fraser. Portraits of Conflict: A Photographic History of Georgia in the Civil War (1996)
Myers, Robert Manson, ed. The Children of Pride: A True Story of Georgia and the Civil War (1972)
"Rebel Yell: The Civil War Diary of John Thomas Whatley, CSA", edited by John Wilson Cowart, is the diary of a confederate soldier whose work included preparing for the defense of Savannah, Georgia. The diary documents his life from March 2, 1862, till November 27, 1864.
External links[edit]
Find more aboutGeorgia in the American Civil Warat Wikipedia's sister projects
Media from Wikimedia Commons
Data from Wikidata
A contemporary broadside of Georgias Ordinance of Secession
Declaration of Causes of Seceding States - Ordinances of Secession of Georgia, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas
University of Georgia website for Georgia in the Civil War
National Park Service map of Civil War sites in Georgia
Civil War Sites in Georgia
This Week in Georgia Civil War History Site from GeorgiaInfo
Cobb County Civil War historical markers on a map.
http://portcolumbus.org/
The Madden Branch Massacre historical marker
William Clayton Fain: Georgia Unionist historical marker

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Georgia in the American Civil War
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