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First Nigerian Republic
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The First Republic was the republican government of Nigeria between 1963 and 1966 governed by the first republican constitution.
Contents
[hide]
1 Founding (1963)
2 Presidents
3 Prime ministers
4 Political parties
5 Politics
6 Notable politicians
7 The coup
8 Civil war and beyond: 1966–79
9 See also
10 References
Founding (1963)[edit]
Although Nigeria gained independence from Britain on October 1st, 1960, the nation remained a Commonwealth Realm with Elizabeth II as titular head of state until the adoption of a new constitution in 1963 declaring the nation a republic.[1]
The name “Nigeria” is derived from the word “Niger” – the name of the river that constitutes the most remarkable geographical feature of the country. Nigeria is a country of 923,768 square kilometres, bound to the west by Benin, to the north by the Niger and Chad Republic, east by the Republic of Cameroon, and south by the Gulf of Guinea. The country gained independence from the British government on Oct, 1st 1960, and became a republic in 1963. The journey to independence started with some constitutional developments in Nigeria, these constitutional developments saw the country attaining self-rule in some quarters in 1957 and total independence on Oct. 1st 1960.

Presidents[edit]
Presidents during the Nigerian First Republic
President
Term
Party
Nnamdi Azikiwe October 1, 1963 - January 16, 1966 NCNC
Note: Nnamdi Azikiwe resigned from NCNC to become the First Governor-General of Nigeria from November 16, 1960[2] - September 30, 1963.
Prime ministers[edit]
Prime Ministers during the Nigerian First Republic
Prime Minister
Term
Party
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa October 1, 1963 - January 16, 1966 NPC
Political parties[edit]
Action Group (AG)
Borno Youth Movement (BYM)
Democratic Party of Nigeria and Cameroon (DPNC)
Dynamic Party (DP)
Igala Union (IU)
Igbira Tribal Union (ITU)
Midwest Democratic Front (MDF)
National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons/National Convention of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC)
National Independence Party (NIP)
Niger Delta Congress (NDC)
Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP)
Northern Elements Progressive Union (NEPU)
Northern People's Congress (NPC)
Northern Progressive Front (NPF)
Republican Party (RP)
United Middle Belt Congress (UMBC)
United National Independence Party (UNIP)
Zamfara Commoners Party (ZCP)
Politics[edit]
The country was split into three geopolitical regions—Western Region, Eastern Region and Northern Region—and its political parties took on the identities and ideologies of each region. The Nigerian People's Congress (NPC) represented the interests of the predominantly Hausa/Fulani Northern Region, the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)] (later renamed to "National Council of Nigerian Citizens") represented the predominantly Igbo Eastern Region, and the Action Group (AG) dominated the Yoruba Western Region. The NPC took control of the federal parliament, and formed a coalition government with the NCNC. The National Independence Party (NIP) formed by Professor Eyo Ita became the second political party in the old Eastern Region. Ahmadu Bello, the Sardauna of Sokoto, leader of the NPC, was poised to become the Prime Minister, but instead he chose to become the Premier of the Northern Region, and supported his deputy Tafawa Balewa's candidacy for Prime Minister. This raised suspicions amongst the southern politicians, who resented the idea of a federal government controlled by a regional leader through his designated proxy. In the end, Tafawa Balewa of NPC was named Prime Minister and Head of Government, and Nnamdi Azikiwe of NCNC was named President.
At Nigeria's independence, the Northern Region gained more seats in parliament than both Eastern and Western regions combined—this would cement Northern dominance in Nigerian politics for years to come. Resentment amongst southern politicians precipitated into political chaos in the country. Obafemi Awolowo, Premier of Western Region, was accused of attempting to overthrow the government. This followed a period of conflict between the AG regional government and the central government. In spite of the flimsiness of the evidence presented by the government's prosecutors, he was convicted. With incarceration of Awolowo, Samuel Akintola took over as the Premier of Western Region. Because Akintola was an ally of Ahmadu Bello, the undisputed strong man of Nigeria, Akintola was criticized as being a tool of the North.[3] As premier of the West, Akintola presided over the most chaotic era in Western Region—one which earned it the nickname "the Wild-Wild West". However, as late as Thursday, January 13, 1966, Balewa had announced that the federal government was not going to intervene in the West.[4] However, the very next day, Akintola, premier of the West met with his ally Ahmadu Bello, the Sardauna of Sokoto, premier of the North and party boss of NPC party to which Balewa belonged.[5] At the same time a top-level security conference in Lagos was taking place which was attended by most of the country's senior army officiers. All of this activity created rumors that the Balewa government would be forced to crack down on lawlessness in the West using military might.[6]
Notable politicians[edit]

Jaja Wachuku
Foreign Minister
(1961 - 1965)
Chief S.A Ajayi OFR (Federal Minister of Interior, minister of Forestry(state)
The coup[edit]
Main article: 1966 Nigerian coup d'état
The political unrest during the mid-1960s culminated into Nigeria's first military coup d'état. On 15 January 1966, Major Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu and his fellow rebel soldiers (most of who were of southern extraction) and were led by Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna of the Nigerian Army, executed a bloody takeover of all institutions of government. Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa, was assassinated along with the premier of Northern Nigeria, strong-man Ahmadu Bello the Sardauna of Sokoto,[7] Samuel Akintola, premier of the West[8] and Festus Okotie-Eboh, the Finance Minister. [1]. It is not clear whether President Azikiwe's life was spared because he was out of the country at the time, or whether he had been informed about the impending coup and was out of the country so that his life could be spared. Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi took control as the first Head of the Federal Military Government of Nigeria on January 16, 1966.[9]
Civil war and beyond: 1966–79[edit]
The republic would be torn by the secession of Biafra and the ensuing civil war from 1966–70. After the end of the war,the nation re-unified and military rule continued for another nine years, implementing Nigerianization of foreign businesses. Eventually, elections were held in 1979 leading the way to the Nigerian Second Republic.
See also[edit]
Nigerian Civil War
Nigerian Second Republic (1979–83)
Nigerian Third Republic (1993)
Nigerian Fourth Republic (1999–present)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ https://www.dawodu.com/const63.pdf The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1963)
Jump up ^ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Wilson_Robertson, retrieved August 9, 2017
Jump up ^ John de St. Jorre, The Nigerian Civil War (Hodder and Stroughto Publishers: London, 1972, p. 30
Jump up ^ John de St. Jorre, The Nigerian Civil War (Hodder and Stoughton Publishers: London, 1972) p. 30.
Jump up ^ John de St. Jorre, The Nigerian Civil War, p. 30.
Jump up ^ John de St. Jorre, The Nigerian Civil War, p. 30.
Jump up ^ John de St. Jorre, The Nigerian Civil War p. 36.
Jump up ^ John de St. Jorre, The Nigerian Civil War, p. 35
Jump up ^ John de St. Jorre, The Nigerian Civil War, p. 39.
THE FIRST REPUBLIC
Nigeria - US State Department Profile
The History of Nigeria
Media Accountability and Democracy in Nigeria
The inside story of Nigeria's first military coup (1)

[show]
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Nigerian region governors and premiers in the First Republic
This is a list of Nigerian region governors and premiers in the First Republic (1960 - 1966).
Nigeria became independent on 1 October 1960 and became a republic on 1 October 1963. On 16 January 1966 a military coup brought Major General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi to power, terminating the first period of democratic rule. During this period an appointed governor was nominal head of state while an elected premier led the government.
Region
Period
Governor
Premier
Notes
Eastern Region
Oct 1960 - Jan 1966 Francis Akanu Ibiam Michael Okpara
Mid-Western Region
Aug 1963 - Feb 1964 Dennis Osadebay Dennis Osadebay (Administrator) Region created from part of Western Region on 8 August 1963
Feb 1964 - Jan 1966 Jereton Mariere Dennis Osadebay
Northern Region
Oct 1960 - 1962 Gawain Westray Bell Ahmadu Bello
1962 - Jan 1966 Kashim Ibrahim
Western Region
Oct 1960 - May 1962 Adesoji Aderemi Samuel Akintola
May 1962 - Dec 1962 Adesoji Aderemi Moses Majekodunmi (Administrator) Administrator appointed during political crisis
Jan 1963 - Jan 1966 Joseph Fadahunsi Samuel Akintola
See also List of Nigerian Region Military Governors (1966–1967)
[show]
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Heads of State of Nigeria
Queen (1960–1963)
Elizabeth II
President of the First Republic (1963–1966)
Azikiwe
Military regime (1966–1979)
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Gowon
Mohammed
Obasanjo
President of the Second Republic (1979–1983)
Shehu Shagari
Military regime (1983–1999)
Buhari
Babangida
Shonekan (interim)*
Abacha
Abubakar
President of the Fourth Republic (from 1999)
Obasanjo
Yar'Adua
Jonathan
Buhari
*civilian; headed transition to abortive Third Republic
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_Nigerian_Republic&oldid=803260134"
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1963 in Nigeria
1964 in Nigeria
1965 in Nigeria
1966 in Nigeria
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Jeep Wrangler Unlimited
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Jeep Wrangler Unlimited may refer to:
4-Door Jeep Wrangler (JKU) (produced 2007–present)
2-Door long wheelbase Jeep Wrangler (TJ) (produced 2004–2006) or the jeep wrangler (TJ) nighthawk
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This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Jeep Wrangler Unlimited.
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Fifth grade
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Fifth grade (called Grade 5 in some regions) is a year of education in many nations. In the United States, the fifth grade is the fifth and last school year of elementary school in most schools. It depends on the school district, the grade may be the second to last or last year of elementary school, the first year of middle school or the first year of intermediate school. Students are usually 10-11 years old unless the child has been held back. In England and Wales, the equivalent is Year 6. In Ireland the equivalent is 5th class.
See also[edit]
Primary education
Educational stage
Education in England
Education in Scotland
Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader?
References[edit]
Preceded by
Fourth grade Fifth grade
age 10-11 Succeeded by
Sixth grade
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Water cycle
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Diagram of the Water Cycle
The water cycle
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Earth's water cycle
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As the Earth's surface water evaporates, wind moves water in the air from the sea to the land, increasing the amount of freshwater on land.
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Water vapor is converted to clouds that bring fresh water to land in the form of rain snow and sleet
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Precipitation falls on the ground, but what happens to that water depends greatly on the geography of the land at any particular place.
The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different forms: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor.
The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. For instance, when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence climate.
The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through processes including erosion and sedimentation. The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
1.1 Processes
2 Residence times
3 Changes over time
4 Effects on climate
5 Effects on biogeochemical cycling
6 Slow loss over geologic time
7 History of hydrologic cycle theory
7.1 Floating land mass
7.2 Source of rain
7.3 Precipitation and percolation
7.4 Precipitation alone
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Description
The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates as water vapor into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapour. Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. The water vapour molecule H
2O has less density compared to the major components of the atmosphere, nitrogen and oxygen, N
2 and O
2. Due to the significant difference in molecular mass, water vapor in gas form gains height in open air as a result of buoyancy. However, as altitude increases, air pressure decreases and the temperature drops (see Gas laws). The lowered temperature causes water vapour to condense into a tiny liquid water droplet which is heavier than the air, such that it falls unless supported by an updraft. A huge concentration of these droplets over a large space up in the atmosphere become visible as cloud. Fog is formed if the water vapour condenses near ground level, as a result of moist air and cool air collision or an abrupt reduction in air pressure. Air currents move water vapour around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and water emerging from the ground (groundwater) may be stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs. In river valleys and floodplains, there is often continuous water exchange between surface water and ground water in the hyporheic zone. Over time, the water returns to the ocean, to continue the water cycle.
Processes
Many different processes lead to movements and phase changes in water
Precipitation
Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most precipitation occurs as rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet.[1] Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year, 398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.[2] The rain on land contains 107,000 km3 (26,000 cu mi) of water per year and a snowing only 1,000 km3 (240 cu mi).[3] 78% of global precipitation occurs over the ocean.[4]
Canopy interception
The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere rather than falling to the ground.
Snowmelt
The runoff produced by melting snow.
Runoff
The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
Infiltration
The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil moisture or groundwater.[5] A recent global study using water stable isotopes, however, shows that not all soil moisture is equally available for groundwater recharge or for plant transpiration.[6]
Subsurface flow
The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly and is replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.
Evaporation
The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere.[7] The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they are specifically referred to as evapotranspiration. Total annual evapotranspiration amounts to approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water, 434,000 km3 (104,000 cu mi) of which evaporates from the oceans.[2] 86% of global evaporation occurs over the ocean.[4]
Sublimation
The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor.[8]
Deposition
This refers to changing of water vapor directly to ice.
Advection
The movement of water — in solid, liquid, or vapor states — through the atmosphere. Without advection, water that evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over land.[9]
Condensation
The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog.[10]
Transpiration
The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air. Water vapor is a gas that cannot be seen.
Percolation
Water flows vertically through the soil and rocks under the influence of gravity.
Plate tectonics
Water enters the mantle via subduction of oceanic crust. Water returns to the surface via volcanism.
Water cycle thus involves many of the intermediate processes.
Residence times
Average reservoir residence times[11]
Reservoir
Average residence time
Antarctica 20,000 years
Oceans 3,200 years
Glaciers 20 to 100 years
Seasonal snow cover 2 to 6 months
Soil moisture 1 to 2 months
Groundwater: shallow 100 to 200 years
Groundwater: deep 10,000 years
Lakes (see lake retention time) 50 to 100 years
Rivers 2 to 6 months
Atmosphere 9 days
The residence time of a reservoir within the hydrologic cycle is the average time a water molecule will spend in that reservoir (see adjacent table). It is a measure of the average age of the water in that reservoir.
Groundwater can spend over 10,000 years beneath Earth's surface before leaving. Particularly old groundwater is called fossil water. Water stored in the soil remains there very briefly, because it is spread thinly across the Earth, and is readily lost by evaporation, transpiration, stream flow, or groundwater recharge. After evaporating, the residence time in the atmosphere is about 9 days before condensing and falling to the Earth as precipitation.
The major ice sheets - Antarctica and Greenland - store ice for very long periods. Ice from Antarctica has been reliably dated to 800,000 years before present, though the average residence time is shorter.[12]
In hydrology, residence times can be estimated in two ways. The more common method relies on the principle of conservation of mass and assumes the amount of water in a given reservoir is roughly constant. With this method, residence times are estimated by dividing the volume of the reservoir by the rate by which water either enters or exits the reservoir. Conceptually, this is equivalent to timing how long it would take the reservoir to become filled from empty if no water were to leave (or how long it would take the reservoir to empty from full if no water were to enter).
An alternative method to estimate residence times, which is gaining in popularity for dating groundwater, is the use of isotopic techniques. This is done in the subfield of isotope hydrology.
Changes over time
Time-mean precipitation and evaporation as a function of latitude as simulated by an aqua-planet version of an atmospheric GCM (GFDL’s AM2.1) with a homogeneous “slab-ocean” lower boundary (saturated surface with small heat capacity), forced by annual mean insolation.
Global map of annual mean evaporation minus precipitation by latitude-longitude
The water cycle describes the processes that drive the movement of water throughout the hydrosphere. However, much more water is "in storage" for long periods of time than is actually moving through the cycle. The storehouses for the vast majority of all water on Earth are the oceans. It is estimated that of the 332,500,000 mi3 (1,386,000,000 km3) of the world's water supply, about 321,000,000 mi3 (1,338,000,000 km3) is stored in oceans, or about 97%. It is also estimated that the oceans supply about 90% of the evaporated water that goes into the water cycle.[13]
During colder climatic periods more ice caps and glaciers form, and enough of the global water supply accumulates as ice to lessen the amounts in other parts of the water cycle. The reverse is true during warm periods. During the last ice age glaciers covered almost one-third of Earth's land mass, with the result being that the oceans were about 122 m (400 ft) lower than today. During the last global "warm spell," about 125,000 years ago, the seas were about 5.5 m (18 ft) higher than they are now. About three million years ago the oceans could have been up to 50 m (165 ft) higher.[13]
The scientific consensus expressed in the 2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Summary for Policymakers[14] is for the water cycle to continue to intensify throughout the 21st century, though this does not mean that precipitation will increase in all regions. In subtropical land areas — places that are already relatively dry — precipitation is projected to decrease during the 21st century, increasing the probability of drought. The drying is projected to be strongest near the poleward margins of the subtropics (for example, the Mediterranean Basin, South Africa, southern Australia, and the Southwestern United States). Annual precipitation amounts are expected to increase in near-equatorial regions that tend to be wet in the present climate, and also at high latitudes. These large-scale patterns are present in nearly all of the climate model simulations conducted at several international research centers as part of the 4th Assessment of the IPCC. There is now ample evidence that increased hydrologic variability and change in climate has and will continue to have a profound impact on the water sector through the hydrologic cycle, water availability, water demand, and water allocation at the global, regional, basin, and local levels.[15] Research published in 2012 in Science based on surface ocean salinity over the period 1950 to 2000 confirm this projection of an intensified global water cycle with salty areas becoming more saline and fresher areas becoming more fresh over the period:[16]
Fundamental thermodynamics and climate models suggest that dry regions will become drier and wet regions will become wetter in response to warming. Efforts to detect this long-term response in sparse surface observations of rainfall and evaporation remain ambiguous. We show that ocean salinity patterns express an identifiable fingerprint of an intensifying water cycle. Our 50-year observed global surface salinity changes, combined with changes from global climate models, present robust evidence of an intensified global water cycle at a rate of 8 ± 5% per degree of surface warming. This rate is double the response projected by current-generation climate models and suggests that a substantial (16 to 24%) intensification of the global water cycle will occur in a future 2° to 3° warmer world.[17]
An instrument carried by the SAC-D satellite launched in June, 2011 measures global sea surface salinity but data collection began only in June, 2011.[16][18]
Glacial retreat is also an example of a changing water cycle, where the supply of water to glaciers from precipitation cannot keep up with the loss of water from melting and sublimation. Glacial retreat since 1850 has been extensive.[19]
Human activities that alter the water cycle include:
agriculture
industry
alteration of the chemical composition of the atmosphere
construction of dams
deforestation and afforestation
removal of groundwater from wells
water abstraction from rivers
urbanization
Effects on climate
The water cycle is powered from solar energy. 86% of the global evaporation occurs from the oceans, reducing their temperature by evaporative cooling.[20] Without the cooling, the effect of evaporation on the greenhouse effect would lead to a much higher surface temperature of 67 °C (153 °F), and a warmer planet.[citation needed]
Aquifer drawdown or overdrafting and the pumping of fossil water increases the total amount of water in the hydrosphere, and has been postulated to be a contributor to sea-level rise.[21]
Effects on biogeochemical cycling
While the water cycle is itself a biogeochemical cycle,[22] flow of water over and beneath the Earth is a key component of the cycling of other biogeochemicals. Runoff is responsible for almost all of the transport of eroded sediment and phosphorus[23] from land to waterbodies. The salinity of the oceans is derived from erosion and transport of dissolved salts from the land. Cultural eutrophication of lakes is primarily due to phosphorus, applied in excess to agricultural fields in fertilizers, and then transported overland and down rivers. Both runoff and groundwater flow play significant roles in transporting nitrogen from the land to waterbodies.[24] The dead zone at the outlet of the Mississippi River is a consequence of nitrates from fertilizer being carried off agricultural fields and funnelled down the river system to the Gulf of Mexico. Runoff also plays a part in the carbon cycle, again through the transport of eroded rock and soil.[25]
Slow loss over geologic time
Main article: Atmospheric escape
The hydrodynamic wind within the upper portion of a planet's atmosphere allows light chemical elements such as Hydrogen to move up to the exobase, the lower limit of the exosphere, where the gases can then reach escape velocity, entering outer space without impacting other particles of gas. This type of gas loss from a planet into space is known as planetary wind.[26] Planets with hot lower atmospheres could result in humid upper atmospheres that accelerate the loss of hydrogen.[27]
History of hydrologic cycle theory
Floating land mass
In ancient times, it was widely thought that the land mass floated on a body of water, and that most of the water in rivers has its origin under the earth. Examples of this belief can be found in the works of Homer (circa 800 BCE).
Source of rain
In the ancient near east, Hebrew scholars observed that even though the rivers ran into the sea, the sea never became full (Ecclesiastes 1:7). Some scholars conclude that the water cycle was described completely during this time in this passage: "The wind goeth toward the south, and turneth about unto the north; it whirleth about continually, and the wind returneth again according to its circuits. All the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea is not full; unto the place from whence the rivers come, thither they return again" (Ecclesiastes 1:6-7, KJV).[28] Scholars are not in agreement as to the date of Ecclesiastes, though most scholars point to a date during the time of Solomon, the son of David and Bathsheba, "three thousand years ago,[29] there is some agreement that the time period is 962-922 BCE.[30] Furthermore, it was also observed that when the clouds were full, they emptied rain on the earth (Ecclesiastes 11:3). In addition, during 793-740 BC[31] a Hebrew prophet, Amos, stated that water comes from the sea and is poured out on the earth (Amos 5:8, 9:6).
Precipitation and percolation
In the Adityahridayam (a devotional hymn to the Sun God) of Ramayana, a Hindu epic dated to the 4th century BC, it is mentioned in the 22nd verse that the Sun heats up water and sends it down as rain. By roughly 500 BCE, Greek scholars were speculating that much of the water in rivers can be attributed to rain. The origin of rain was also known by then. These scholars maintained the belief, however, that water rising up through the earth contributed a great deal to rivers. Examples of this thinking included Anaximander (570 BCE) (who also speculated about the evolution of land animals from fish[32]) and Xenophanes of Colophon (530 BCE).[33] Chinese scholars such as Chi Ni Tzu (320 BC) and Lu Shih Ch'un Ch'iu (239 BCE) had similar thoughts.[34] The idea that the water cycle is a closed cycle can be found in the works of Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (460 BCE) and Diogenes of Apollonia (460 BCE). Both Plato (390 BCE) and Aristotle (350 BCE) speculated about percolation as part of the water cycle.
Precipitation alone
In the Biblical Book of Job, dated between 7th and 2nd centuries BCE,[35] there is a description of precipitation in the hydrologic cycle,[36] "For he maketh small the drops of water: they pour down rain according to the vapour thereof; Which the clouds do drop and distil upon man abundantly" (Job 36:27-28, KJV).
Up to the time of the Renaissance, it was thought that precipitation alone was insufficient to feed rivers, for a complete water cycle, and that underground water pushing upwards from the oceans were the main contributors to river water. Bartholomew of England held this view (1240 CE), as did Leonardo da Vinci (1500 CE) and Athanasius Kircher (1644 CE).
The first published thinker to assert that rainfall alone was sufficient for the maintenance of rivers was Bernard Palissy (1580 CE), who is often credited as the "discoverer" of the modern theory of the water cycle. Palissy's theories were not tested scientifically until 1674, in a study commonly attributed to Pierre Perrault. Even then, these beliefs were not accepted in mainstream science until the early nineteenth century.[37]
See also
Water portal
Ecology portal
Bioprecipitation
Drought
Ecohydrology
Flood
Moisture advection
Moisture recycling
Planetary boundaries
Water use
References
Jump up ^ Arctic Climatology and Meteorology. Precipitation. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Dr. Art's Guide to Planet Earth. The Water Cycle. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ http://www3.geosc.psu.edu/~dmb53/DaveSTELLA/Water/global%20water/global_water.htm - Estimated Flows of Water in the Global Water Cycle
^ Jump up to: a b "Salinity - Science Mission Directorate".
Jump up ^ National Weather Service Northwest River Forecast Center. Hydrologic Cycle. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ Evaristo, Jaivime; Jasechko, Scott; McDonnell, Jeffrey J. (2015-09-03). "Global separation of plant transpiration from groundwater and streamflow". Nature. NPG. 525 (7567): 91–94. Bibcode:2015Natur.525...91E. doi:10.1038/nature14983. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 26333467.
Jump up ^ Arctic Climatology and Meteorology. Evaporation. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ Arctic Climatology and Meteorology. Sublimation. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ Arctic Climatology and Meteorology. Advection. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ Arctic Climatology and Meteorology. Condensation. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ PhysicalGeography.net. CHAPTER 8: Introduction to the Hydrosphere. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ Jouzel, J. .; Masson-Delmotte, V. .; Cattani, O. .; Dreyfus, G. .; Falourd, S. .; Hoffmann, G. .; Minster, B. .; Nouet, J. .; Barnola, J. M.; Chappellaz, J.; Fischer, H.; Gallet, J. C.; Johnsen, S.; Leuenberger, M.; Loulergue, L.; Luethi, D.; Oerter, H.; Parrenin, F.; Raisbeck, G.; Raynaud, D.; Schilt, A.; Schwander, J.; Selmo, E.; Souchez, R.; Spahni, R.; Stauffer, B.; Steffensen, J. P.; Stenni, B.; Stocker, T. F.; Tison, J. L. (2007). "Orbital and Millennial Antarctic Climate Variability over the Past 800,000 Years". Science. 317 (5839): 793–796. Bibcode:2007Sci...317..793J. doi:10.1126/science.1141038. PMID 17615306.
^ Jump up to: a b http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycleoceans.html USGS, The Water Cycle: Water Storage in Oceans - Retrieved on 2008-05-14
Jump up ^ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, WG1 Summary for Policymakers Archived 1996-01-01 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ The World Bank, 2009 "Water and Climate Change: Understanding the Risks and Making Climate-Smart Investment Decisions". pp. xv. Retrieved 2011-10-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Justin Gillis (April 26, 2012). "Study Indicates a Greater Threat of Extreme Weather". The New York Times. Retrieved April 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ Paul J. Durack; Susan E. Wijffels & Richard J. Matear (27 April 2012). "Ocean Salinities Reveal Strong Global Water Cycle Intensification During 1950 to 2000". Science. 336 (6080): 455–458. Bibcode:2012Sci...336..455D. doi:10.1126/science.1212222. PMID 22539717.
Jump up ^ NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (June 1, 2009). "Aquarius Mission Overview". NASA. Retrieved June 2, 2009.
Jump up ^ U.S. Geologic Survey. GLACIER RETREAT IN GLACIER NATIONAL PARK, MONTANA. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ "Water Cycle — Science Mission Directorate". Retrieved 7 January 2009.
Jump up ^ "Rising sea levels attributed to global groundwater extraction". University of Utrecht. Retrieved February 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ The Environmental Literacy Council. Biogeochemical Cycles. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ The Environmental Literacy Council. Phosphorus Cycle. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet. Nitrogen and the Hydrologic Cycle. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ NASA's Earth Observatory. The Carbon Cycle. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
Jump up ^ Nick Strobel (June 12, 2010). "Planetary Science". Archived from the original on September 28, 2010. Retrieved September 28, 2010.
Jump up ^ Rudolf Dvořák (2007). Extrasolar Planets. Wiley-VCH. pp. 139–140. ISBN 978-3-527-40671-5. Retrieved 2009-05-05.
Jump up ^ Morris, Henry M. (1988). Science and the Bible (Trinity Broadcasting Network Edition, 1988 ed.). Chicago, IL: Moody Press. p. 15.
Jump up ^ Morris, Henry M. (1988). Science and the Bible (Trinity Broadcasting Network Edition, 1988 ed.). Chicago, IL: Moody Press. p. 15.
Jump up ^ Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (1993). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 369. ISBN 0195046455.
Jump up ^ Merrill, Eugene H.; Rooker, Mark F.; Grisanti, Michael A. (2011). The World and the Word. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic. p. 430. ISBN 9780805440317.
Jump up ^ Kazlev, M.Alan. "Palaeos: History of Evolution and Paleontology in science, philosophy, religion, and popular culture : Pre 19th Century".
Jump up ^ http://philosophy.unc.edu/people/faculty/james-lesher/xenophanes%20scepticism.pdf (page 9-10)
Jump up ^ Science?, Symposium on the Basis of Civilization--Water (1 January 2004). "The Basis of Civilization--water Science?". International Association of Hydrological Science – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. (1993). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 369. ISBN 0195046455.
Jump up ^ Morris, Henry M. (1988). Science and the Bible (Trinity Broadcasting Network Edition, 1988 ed.). Chicago, IL: Moody Press. p. 15.
Jump up ^ http://hydrologie.org/ACT/OH2/actes/03_dooge.pdf
Further reading
Anderson, J. G.; Wilmouth, D. M.; Smith, J. B.; Sayres, D. S. (2012). "UV Dosage Levels in Summer: Increased Risk of Ozone Loss from Convectively Injected Water Vapor". Science. 337 (6096): 835. Bibcode:2012Sci...337..835A. doi:10.1126/science.1222978. PMID 22837384.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Water cycle.
The Water Cycle, United States Geological Survey
The Water Cycle for Kids, United States Geological Survey
The water cycle, from Dr. Art's Guide to the Planet.
Water cycle slideshow, 1 Mb Flash multilingual animation highlighting the often-overlooked evaporation from bare soil, from managingwholes.com.
Will the wet get wetter and the dry drier? - Climate research summary from NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory including text, graphics, and animations
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text:
Meteor Crater
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For meteorite-created craters in general, see Impact crater.
"Barringer Crater" redirects here. For the crater on the Moon, see Barringer (lunar crater).
Meteor Crater
Barringer Crater
Meteor Crater, also known as Barringer Crater
Impact crater/structure
Confidence
Confirmed[1]
Diameter
1.186 kilometers (0.737 mi)
Depth
170 meters (560 ft)
Rise
45 meters (148 ft)
impactor diameter
50 meters (160 ft)
Age
50,000 years
Exposed
Yes
Drilled
Yes
Bolide type
Iron meteorite
Location
Location
Coconino County, Arizona
Coordinates
35°1′38″N 111°1′21″W / 35.02722°N 111.02250°W / 35.02722; -111.02250Coordinates: 35°1′38″N 111°1′21″W / 35.02722°N 111.02250°W / 35.02722; -111.02250
Country
United States
State
Arizona
Meteor Crater
Location of Meteor Crater in Arizona
Access
Interstate 40
U.S. National Natural Landmark
Designated
November 1967
The Holsinger meteorite is the largest discovered fragment of the meteorite that created Meteor Crater and it is exhibited in the crater visitor center.
The Barringer Meteor Crater from space. The Diablo Canyon arroyo is to the west (left). The ghost town of Diablo Canyon, for which the meteorite is named, is on the canyon just to the north and out of the picture.
The Meteor Crater from 36,000 feet
Meteor Crater is a meteorite impact crater approximately 37 miles (60 km) east of Flagstaff and 18 miles (29 km) west of Winslow in the northern Arizona desert of the United States. Because the United States Board on Geographic Names commonly recognizes names of natural features derived from the nearest post office, the feature acquired the name of "Meteor Crater" from the nearby post office named Meteor.[2] The site was formerly known as the Canyon Diablo Crater and fragments of the meteorite are officially called the Canyon Diablo Meteorite.[3] Scientists refer to the crater as Barringer Crater in honor of Daniel Barringer, who was first to suggest that it was produced by meteorite impact.[4] The crater is privately owned by the Barringer family through their Barringer Crater Company, which proclaims it to be the "best preserved meteorite crater on Earth".[5][6]
Despite its importance as a geological site, the crater is not protected as a national monument, a status that would require federal ownership. It was designated a National Natural Landmark in November 1967.[7]
Meteor Crater lies at an elevation of about 1,740 m (5,710 ft) above sea level. It is about 1,200 m (3,900 ft) in diameter, some 170 m (560 ft) deep, and is surrounded by a rim that rises 45 m (148 ft) above the surrounding plains. The center of the crater is filled with 210–240 m (690–790 ft) of rubble lying above crater bedrock.[1] One of the interesting features of the crater is its squared-off outline, believed to be caused by existing regional jointing (cracks) in the strata at the impact site.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Formation
2 Discovery and investigation
2.1 Albert E. Foote
2.2 Grove Karl Gilbert
2.3 Daniel Barringer
2.4 Eugene M. Shoemaker
3 Geology
4 Today
4.1 Recent history
5 See also
6 Notes
7 External links
Formation[edit]
The crater was created about 50,000 years ago during the Pleistocene epoch, when the local climate on the Colorado Plateau was much cooler and damper.[9][10] The area was an open grassland dotted with woodlands inhabited by woolly mammoths and giant ground sloths.[11][12]
Since the crater's formation, the rim is thought to have lost 15–20 m (49–66 ft) of height at the rim crest due to natural erosion. Similarly, the basin of the crater is thought to have approximately 30 m (98 ft) of additional post-impact sedimentation from lake sediments and of alluvium.[13] These erosion processes are the reason that very few remaining craters are visible on Earth, since many have been erased by these geological processes. The relatively young age of Meteor Crater, paired with the Arizona climate, have allowed this crater to remain almost unchanged since its formation. The lack of erosion that preserved the crater's shape helped lead to this crater being the first crater recognized as an official impact crater from a natural celestial body.[14]
The object that excavated the crater was a nickel-iron meteorite about 50 meters (160 feet) across. The speed of the impact has been a subject of some debate. Modeling initially suggested that the meteorite struck at up to 20 kilometers per second (12 miles per second) but more recent research suggests the impact was substantially slower, at 12.8 kilometers per second (8.0 miles per second). It is believed that about half of the impactor's bulk was vaporized during its descent.[15] Impact energy has been estimated at about 10 megatons. The meteorite was mostly vaporized upon impact, leaving few remains in the crater.[16]
Discovery and investigation[edit]
The crater came to the attention of scientists following its discovery by American settlers in the 19th century. Dubbed the Canyon Diablo crater – from Canyon Diablo, Arizona, the closest community to the crater in the late 19th century, 12 miles (19 km) north-west of the crater but now a ghost town – it had initially been ascribed to the actions of a volcano. This was not an unreasonable assumption, as the San Francisco volcanic field lies only about 40 miles (64 km) to the west.[17]
Aerial view of Arizona Meteor Crater, September 2010
Looking into the crater from the north rim. The rust colored area on the far (south) rim is where the last mining for the meteorite occurred in 1929 and is believed to be the site of the bulk of the meteorite. Rock around the south rim is uplifted.
Albert E. Foote[edit]
In 1891, the mineralogist Albert E. Foote presented the first scientific paper about the meteorites of Northern Arizona. Several years earlier, Foote had received an iron rock for analysis from a railroad executive. Foote immediately recognized the rock as a meteorite and led an expedition to search and retrieve additional meteorite samples. The team collected samples ranging from small fragments to over 600 pounds. Foote identified several minerals in the meteorites, including diamond, albeit of little commercial value. His paper to the Association for the Advancement of Science provided the first geological description of the crater to a scientific community.[18]
Grove Karl Gilbert[edit]
In November 1891, Grove Karl Gilbert, chief geologist for the U.S. Geological Survey, investigated the crater and concluded that it was the result of a volcanic steam explosion.[18] Gilbert had assumed that if it were an impact crater then the volume of the crater, as well as meteoritic material, should be present on the rim. Gilbert also assumed a large portion of the meteorite should be buried in the crater and that this would generate a large magnetic anomaly. Gilbert's calculations showed that the volume of the crater and the debris on the rim were roughly equivalent, so that the mass of the hypothetical impactor was missing, nor were there any magnetic anomalies. Gilbert argued that the meteorite fragments found on the rim were coincidental. Gilbert publicized his conclusions in a series of lectures.[19] In 1892, however, Gilbert would be among the first to propose that the Moon's craters were caused by impact rather than volcanism.[20]
Daniel Barringer[edit]
In 1903, mining engineer and businessman Daniel M. Barringer suggested that the crater had been produced by the impact of a large iron-metallic meteorite. Barringer's company, the Standard Iron Company, staked a mining claim to the land and received a land patent signed by Theodore Roosevelt for 640 acres (2.6 km2) around the center of the crater in 1903.[21][22][23] The claim was divided into four quadrants coming from the center clockwise from north-west named Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. In 1906, Roosevelt authorized the establishment of a newly named Meteor, Arizona, post office (the closest post office before was 30 miles (48 km) away in Winslow, Arizona).[24]
Standard Iron Company conducted research on the crater's origins between 1903 and 1905. It concluded that the crater had indeed been caused by an impact. Barringer and his partner, the mathematician and physicist Benjamin Chew Tilghman, documented evidence for the impact theory in papers presented to the U.S. Geological Survey in 1906 and published in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia.[25]
Fragment of the Cañon Diablo Meteorite
Barringer's arguments were met with skepticism, as there was a reluctance at the time to consider the role of meteorites in terrestrial geology. He persisted and sought to bolster his theory by locating the remains of the meteorite. At the time of discovery, the surrounding plains were covered with about 30 tons of large oxidized iron meteorite fragments. This led Barringer to believe that the bulk of the impactor could still be found under the crater floor. Impact physics was poorly understood at the time and Barringer was unaware that most of the meteorite vaporized on impact. He spent 27 years trying to locate a large deposit of meteoric iron, and drilled to a depth of 419 m (1,375 ft) but no significant deposit was ever found.[26]
Barringer, who in 1894 was one of the investors who made $15 million in the Commonwealth silver mine in Pearce, Cochise County, Arizona, had ambitious plans for the iron ore.[27] He estimated from the size of the crater that the meteorite had a mass of 100 million tons.[19] The current estimate of 300,000 tons for the impactor is only three-tenths of one percent of Barringer's estimate. Iron ore of the type found at the crater was valued at the time at $125/ton, so Barringer was searching for a lode he believed to be worth more than a billion 1903 dollars.[27]
Despite Barringer's findings and other excavations in the early 20th century, geologists' skepticism continued until the 1950s when planetary science gained in maturity and understanding of cratering processes increased.[28] Professor Herman Leroy Fairchild, an early promoter of impact cratering, argued Barringer's case in an article in Science in 1930.[15][29]
Eugene M. Shoemaker[edit]
Meteor Crater
It was not until 1960 that later research by Eugene Merle Shoemaker confirmed Barringer's hypothesis. The key discovery was the presence in the crater of the minerals coesite and stishovite, rare forms of silica found only where quartz-bearing rocks have been severely shocked by an instantaneous overpressure. It cannot be created by volcanic action; the only known mechanisms of creating it is naturally through an impact event, or artificially through a nuclear explosion.[21][30] Shoemaker was uniquely aware of this as he had been researching the shocked mineral formations that were formed after the nuclear detonation testing in the Nevada desert. Therefore, when similar minerals were seen at the Barringer Crater, he was certain that a similar kind of sudden shock compression was responsible for the crater, which effectively ruled out the then more mainstream view that the crater was the result of a comparatively less sudden volcanic eruption.
Shoemaker's deduction is considered the first definitive proof of an extraterrestrial impact on the Earth's surface. Since then, numerous impact craters have been identified around the world, though Meteor Crater remains one of the most visually impressive owing to its size, young age and lack of vegetative cover.
Geologists used the nuclear detonation that created the Sedan crater, and other such craters from the era of atmospheric nuclear testing, to establish upper and lower limits on the potential energy of the meteor impactor.[31]
Geology[edit]
The impact created an inverted stratigraphy, so that the layers immediately exterior to the rim are stacked in the reverse order to which they normally occur; the impact overturned and inverted the layers to a distance of one to two kilometers outward from the crater's edge.[32][33] Specifically, climbing the rim of the crater from outside, one finds:
Coconino Sandstone (sandstone formed 265 million years ago) nearest the top of the rim
Toroweap Formation (limestone formed 255 million years ago)
Kaibab Formation (dolomite formed 250 million years ago)
Moenkopi Formation (mudstone formed 245 million years ago) nearest the outer foot of the rim
Panoramic view from upper deck
Panoramic from the lower viewing deck
Today[edit]
Closeup of old mine shaft at the bottom of the crater. Note astronaut cutout and flag attached to fence (inset) full size image
Meteor Crater is a popular tourist attraction privately owned by the Barringer family through the Barringer Crater Company, with an admission fee charged to see the crater. The Meteor Crater Visitor Center on the north rim features interactive exhibits and displays about meteorites and asteroids, space, the solar system and comets. It features the American Astronaut Wall of Fame and such artifacts on display as an Apollo boilerplate command module (BP-29), a 1,406 pound meteorite found in the area, and meteorite specimens from Meteor Crater that can be touched. Formerly known as the Museum of Astrogeology, the Visitor Center includes a movie theater, a gift shop, and observation areas with views inside the rim of the crater. Guided tours of the rim are offered daily.
Recent history[edit]
Meteor Crater, 2010
During the 1960s and 1970s, NASA astronauts trained in the crater to prepare for the Apollo missions to the Moon.[34]
On August 8, 1964, a pair of commercial pilots in a Cessna 150 flew low over the crater. After crossing the rim, they could not maintain level flight. The pilot attempted to circle in the crater to climb over the rim. During the attempted climb out, the aircraft stalled, crashed and caught fire. It is commonly reported that the plane ran out of fuel, but this is incorrect. Both occupants were severely injured but survived their ordeal.[35] A small portion of the wreckage not removed from the crash site remains visible.[36]
In 2006, a project called METCRAX (for METeor CRAter eXperiment) investigated "the diurnal buildup and breakdown of basin temperature inversions or cold air pools and the associated physical and dynamical processes accounting for their evolving structure and morphology."[37][38]
See also[edit]
Barringer Medal
List of impact craters on Earth
Elugelab – a smaller-volume nuclear blast crater, despite being created by an object with an almost identical estimated energy release as the Barringer event, 10.4 megaton.
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Barringer". Earth Impact Database. University of New Brunswick. Retrieved 2008-12-30.
Jump up ^ "J. P. Barringer's acceptance speech." Meteoritics, vol. 28, p. 9 (1993). Retrieved on the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System.
Jump up ^ La Pas, L. (1943). "Remarks on four notes recently published by C. C. Wylie", Popular Astronomy, vol. 51, p. 341
Jump up ^ Grieve, R.A.F. (1990) "Impact Cratering on the Earth", Scientific American, 262 (4), 66–73.
Jump up ^ "Barringer Meteorite Crater * Meteorites Craters and Impacts". Barringercrater.com. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
Jump up ^ "Meteor Crater". Meteor Crater. Retrieved 2012-11-24.
Jump up ^ "Barringer Meteor Crater". US Dept of Interior, National Park Service. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Shoemaker, Eugene M.; Susan W. Kieffer (1979). Guidebook to the Geology of Meteor Crater, Arizona. Tempe, Arizona: Center for Meteorite Studies, Arizona State University. p. 45.
Jump up ^ Roddy, D. J.; E. M. Shoemaker (1995). "Meteor Crater (Barringer Meteorite Crater), Arizona: summary of impact conditions". Meteoritics. 30 (5): 567.
Jump up ^ Nishiizumi, K.; Kohl, C.P.; Shoemaker, E.M.; Arnold, J.R.; Klein, J.; Fink, D.; Middleton, R. (1991). "In situ 10Be-26Al exposure ages at Meteor Crater, Arizona". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 55 (9): 2699–2703. Bibcode:1991GeCoA..55.2699N. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(91)90388-L.
Jump up ^ Kring, David (1997). "Air blast produced by the Meteor Crater impact event and a reconstruction of the affected environment". Meteoritics and Planetary Science. 32 (4): 517–30. doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.1997.tb01297.x.
Jump up ^ Kring, David. "Barringer Meteor Crater and Its Environment". Lunar and Planetary Institute. Retrieved 2014-02-12.
Jump up ^ Poelchau, Michael; Kenkmann, Thomas; Kring, David (2009). "Rim uplift and crater shape in Meteor Crater: Effects of target heterogeneities and trajectory obliquity". Journal of Geophysical Research. AGU. 114 (E1). doi:10.1029/2008JE003235. Retrieved 11 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Meteorite Crater – The shape of the land, Forces and changes, Spotlight on famous forms, For More Information". scienceclarified.com.
^ Jump up to: a b Melosh HJ; Collins GS (2005). "Planetary science: Meteor Crater formed by low-velocity impact". Nature. 434 (7030): 157. Bibcode:2005Natur.434..157M. PMID 15758988. doi:10.1038/434157a.
Jump up ^ Schaber, Gerald G. "A Chronology of Activities from Conception through the End of Project Apollo (1960–1973)", 2005, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2005-1190. (PDF)
Jump up ^ McCall, Gerald Joseph Home; Bowden, A. J.; Howarth, Richard John (17 August 2017). "The History of Meteoritics and Key Meteorite Collections: Fireballs, Falls and Finds". Geological Society of London – via Google Books.
^ Jump up to: a b Kring, David (2007). Guidebook to the Geology of Barringer Meteorite Crater. Houston, Texas: Lunar and Planetary Institute.
^ Jump up to: a b "Crater History: Investigating a Mystery". The Barringer Crater Company. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Burke, John G. (1986). Cosmic Debris: Meteorites in History. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 276. ISBN 0520056515.
^ Jump up to: a b Oldroyd, David Roger, ed. (2002). The Earth Inside and Out: Some Major Contributions to Geology in the Twentieth Century. Geological Society. pp. 28–32. ISBN 1-86239-096-7.
Jump up ^ McCall, G.J.H.; Bowden, A.J.; Howarth, R.J., eds. (2006). The History of Meteoritics and Key Meteorite Collections. Geological Society. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-86239-194-9.
Jump up ^ Barringer, B. (December 1964). "Daniel Moreau Barringer (1860–1929) and His Crater (the beginning of the Crater Branch of Meteoritics)". Meteoritics. Meteoritical Society. 2 (3): 186. Bibcode:1964Metic...2..183B. doi:10.1111/j.1945-5100.1964.tb01428.x.
Jump up ^ "1983Metic..18..159H Page 162". articles.adsabs.harvard.edu.
Jump up ^ Barringer, D.M. (1906). "Coon Mountain and its Crater." Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia, 57:861–86. PDF
Jump up ^ Smith, Dean. The Meteor Crater Story. Meteor Crater Enterprises, Inc. pp. 17–25.
^ Jump up to: a b Southgate, Nancy; Barringer, Felicity (2002). A Grand Obsession: Daniel Moreau and His Crater. Barringer Crater Co.
Jump up ^ "Progress in Wide Search for Meteor". June 25, 1928. Retrieved 2010-07-13.
Jump up ^ Fairchild HL (1930). "Nature and fate of the Meteor Crater bolide". Science. 72 (1871): 463–66. Bibcode:1930Sci....72..463F. PMID 17800007. doi:10.1126/science.72.1871.463.
Jump up ^ Shoemaker, Eugene M. (1987). "Meteor Crater, Arizona", Geological Society of America Centennial Field Guide – Rocky Mountain Section.
Jump up ^ "Keyah Math – Numerical Solutions for Culturally Diverse Geology". keyah.asu.edu.
Jump up ^ Kring, David (2007). Guidebook to the Geology of Barringer Meteorite Crater, Arizona. Houston, Texas: Lunar and Planetary Institute.
Jump up ^ "Basic Stratigraphy of Barringer Meteor Crater". Department of Planetary Science, University of Arizona. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "Apollo Lunar Training". nau.edu.
Jump up ^ Harro Ranter. "ASN Aircraft accident 08-AUG-1964 Cessna 150 N6050T". aviation-safety.net.
Jump up ^ Plane Crash At Meteor Crater Revisited, September 1, 2008 Meteorite-times.com
Jump up ^ "University of Utah METCRAX page".
Jump up ^ "METCRAX". utah.edu.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Barringer Crater.
Wikisource has the text of the 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article Crater Mound, Arizona.
Barringer Crater official site
Meteor Crater Visitor Center – official site
USGS Meteor Crater Sample Collection – historical documents, interactive map and sample requests
Geographic data related to Meteor Crater at OpenStreetMap
Impact Meteor Crater Viewer Google Maps Page with Locations of Meteor Craters around the world
CNN: New computer analysis shows that the meteor may have been traveling more slowly than previously thought
Computer generated movie based on satellite imagery and topography data
Aerial Exploration of the Barringer Structure
Geologic Map of the Eastern Quarter of the Flagstaff 30ʹ x 60ʹ Quadrangle, Coconino County, Northern Arizona United States Geological Survey
Herman Leroy Fairchild: An Early Promoter and Defender of Meteorite Impact Cratering – includes details of early investigations into Meteor Crater
3 Dimensional stereoscopic image pair of the Barringer Crater by Volkan Yuksel (arranged for crossed-eye viewing technique)
Guidebook to the Geology of Barringer Meteorite Crater, Arizona (a.k.a. Meteor Crater)
"Mine Shaft is Sunk to Solve Meteor Mystery" Popular Mechanics, January 1930
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