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1996 Mount Everest disaster
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1996 Mount Everest disaster
The summit of Mount Everest
Date
10 May 1996 – 11 May 1996 (1996-05-11)
Location
Mount Everest
Altitude 8,848 metres (29,029 ft)
Coordinates
27°59′17″N 86°55′30″E / 27.98806°N 86.92500°E / 27.98806; 86.92500Coordinates: 27°59′17″N 86°55′30″E / 27.98806°N 86.92500°E / 27.98806; 86.92500
Organised by
Adventure Consultants
Mountain Madness
Indo-Tibetan Border Police
Deaths
8
The 1996 Mount Everest disaster occurred on 10–11 May 1996, when eight people caught in a blizzard died on Mount Everest during attempts to descend from the summit. Over the entire season, 12 people died trying to reach the summit, making it the deadliest day and year on Mount Everest before the 16 fatalities of the 2014 Mount Everest avalanche and the 18 deaths resulting from avalanches caused by the April 2015 Nepal earthquake.[1] The 1996 disaster gained wide publicity and raised questions about the commercialization of Everest.[2]
Numerous climbers, including several large teams as well as some small partnerships and soloists, were high in altitude on Everest during the storm. While climbers died on both the North Face and South Col approaches, the events on the South Face were more widely reported. Journalist Jon Krakauer, on assignment from Outside magazine, was in a party led by guide Rob Hall that lost four climbers on the south side; he afterwards published the bestseller Into Thin Air (1997),[3] which related his experience. Anatoli Boukreev, a guide in Scott Fischer's party (which lost Scott Fischer, but no clients), felt impugned by Krakauer's book and co-authored a rebuttal book called The Climb: Tragic Ambitions on Everest (1997).[4] Beck Weathers, of Hall's expedition, and Lene Gammelgaard, of Fischer's expedition, wrote about their experiences of the disaster in their respective books, Left For Dead: My Journey Home from Everest (2000)[5] and Climbing High: A Woman's Account of Surviving the Everest Tragedy (2000).[6] In 2014, Lou Kasischke, also of Hall's expedition, published his own account of the tragedy in After the Wind: 1996 Everest Tragedy, One Survivor's Story (2014). Mike Trueman, who coordinated the rescue from Base Camp, has added to the story with The Storms: Adventure and Tragedy on Everest (May 2015). Graham Ratcliffe, who climbed to the South Col of Everest on 10 May, has documented in A Day To Die For (2011) that weather reports delivered to expedition leaders including Rob Hall and Scott Fischer before their planned summit attempts on 10 May forecast a major storm developing after 8 May and peaking in intensity on 11 May. As Hall and Fischer planned their summits for 10 May, portions of their teams summitted Everest during an apparent break in this developing storm only to descend into the full force of it late on 10 May.
Contents
[hide]
1 Climbers
1.1 Adventure Consultants
1.1.1 Guides
1.1.2 Clients
1.1.3 Sherpas
1.2 Mountain Madness
1.2.1 Guides
1.2.2 Clients
1.2.3 Sherpas
1.3 Taiwanese expedition
1.4 Indo-Tibetan Border Police
2 Progression
2.1 Delays reaching the summit
2.2 Descent in a blizzard
2.3 11 May
3 Analysis
3.1 Supplementary oxygen
3.2 Radios
4 List of fatalities
4.1 Other fatalities in 1996
5 In the media
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
9 External links
Climbers[edit]
The following is a list of climbers en route to the summit on 10 May 1996 via the South Col and Southeast Ridge, organized by expedition and role. All ages are as of 1996.
Adventure Consultants[edit]
The Adventure Consultants' 1996 Everest expedition, led by Rob Hall, consisted of these individuals.
Guides[edit]
Rob Hall – expedition leader (died near the South Summit)
Mike Groom
Andy Harris (disappeared near the South Summit while assisting Hall)
Clients[edit]
Frank Fischbeck (53) – attempted Everest three times, reached the South Summit in '94
Doug Hansen (46) – previously attempted Everest with Hall's team in '95 (disappeared near the South Summit while descending with Hall)
Stuart Hutchison (34) – youngest client on Hall's team; previous 8,000 m experiences included K2 winter expedition 1988, Broad Peak west ridge 1992, and Everest north side 1994
Lou Kasischke (53) – had climbed six of the Seven Summits
Jon Krakauer (41) – journalist on assignment from Outside magazine; an accomplished technical climber, but had no experience in climbing peaks over 8,000 m
Yasuko Namba (47) – had climbed the Seven Summits; became the oldest woman to summit Everest at the time (died on the South Col)
John Taske (56) – oldest climber on the Adventure Consultants team; no 8,000 m experience
Beck Weathers (49) – had been climbing for 10 years; he was also making a bid for the Seven Summits, but had no 8,000 m experience
Sherpas[edit]
Sardar Ang Dorje (29)
Arita
Chuldum
Kami
Lhakpa Chhiri
Ngawang Norbu
Tenzing
Lopsang
The Sherpas listed here were the climbing Sherpas hired by Rob Hall's Adventure Consultants.[7] There were many other Sherpas working at lower elevations, who performed duties vital to the Adventure Consultants and Mountain Madness expeditions. Most climbing Sherpas' duties require them to ascend at least as high as Camp III or IV, but not all of them summit. The expedition leaders intend for only a select few of their climbing Sherpas to summit. Legendary sardar Apa Sherpa was scheduled to accompany the Adventure Consultants group but withdrew due to family commitments.[8][9]
None of the clients on Hall's team had ever reached the summit of an 8,000 m peak, and only Fischbeck, Hansen and Hutchison had previous high-altitude Himalayan experience.
Hall had brokered a deal with Outside magazine for advertising space in exchange for a story about the growing popularity of commercial expeditions to Everest. Krakauer was originally slated to climb with Scott Fischer's Mountain Madness team, but Hall landed him, at least in part, by agreeing to reduce Outside's fee for Krakauer's spot on the expedition to less than cost. As a result, Hall was paying out-of-pocket to have Krakauer on his team.[10]
Mountain Madness[edit]
Scott Fischer was the lead climbing guide for the Mountain Madness expedition. The team included eight clients.
Guides[edit]
Scott Fischer – lead climbing guide (died on the Southeast ridge balcony 350m below the South Summit)
Neal Beidleman - professional outdoorsman
Anatoli Boukreev – professional mountaineer, in 1997 was awarded the David A. Sowles Memorial Award by the American Alpine Club.[11]
Clients[edit]
Martin Adams (47) – had climbed Aconcagua, Denali, and Kilimanjaro
Charlotte Fox (38) – had climbed all 53 of the 14,000 ft (4,267 m) peaks in Colorado and two 8,000 m peaks, Gasherbrum II, and Cho Oyu
Lene Gammelgaard (35) – accomplished mountaineer
Dale Kruse (45) – long-term personal friend of Fischer's; first to sign up
Tim Madsen (33) – climbed extensively in the Colorado and Canadian Rockies; no 8,000 m experience
Sandy Hill Pittman (41) – had climbed six of the Seven Summits
Pete Schoening (68) – one of the first to climb Gasherbrum I and Mount Vinson; known for single-handedly saving the lives of six team members during a mass fall in the American expedition on K2, 1953
Klev Schoening (38) – Pete's nephew; former US national downhill ski racer; no 8,000 m experience.
Sherpas[edit]
Sardar Lopsang Jangbu Sherpa (23)
"Big" Pemba
Ngawang Dorje
Ngawang Sya Kya
Ngawang Tendi
Ngawang Topche (died a few months later from HAPE he contracted during hauling duties to Camp II)
Tashi Tshering
Tendi c
c.^ The Sherpas listed here were the climbing Sherpas hired by Scott Fischer's Mountain Madness expedition.[7] Ngawang Topche was hospitalized in April; he had developed high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) while ferrying supplies above Base Camp. He was not on the mountain during the summit attempt of 10 May. Topche died from his illness that June.[citation needed]
Schoening had decided, while still at Base Camp (5,380 m/17,700 ft), not to make the final push to the summit. The team began the assault on the summit on 6 May, bypassing Camp I (5,944 m/19,500 ft) and stopping at Camp II (6,500 m/21,300 ft) for two nights. However, Kruse suffered from altitude sickness and possible high altitude cerebral edema (HACE), and stopped at Camp I. Fischer descended from Camp II and escorted Kruse back to Base Camp for treatment.[citation needed]
Taiwanese expedition[edit]
"Makalu" Gau Ming-Ho led a five-member team to Everest that day.[12]
The previous day (9 May), Taiwanese team member Chen Yu-Nan had died following a fall on the Lhotse Face.
Indo-Tibetan Border Police[edit]
Main article: 1996 Indo-Tibetan Border Police expedition to Mount Everest
Half the climbing team from the Indo-Tibetan Border Police North Col expedition from India (Subedar Tsewang Samanla, Lance Naik Dorje Morup, and Head Constable Tsewang Paljor) died on the Northeast Ridge.
Progression[edit]
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Delays reaching the summit[edit]
Shortly after midnight on 10 May 1996, the Adventure Consultants expedition began a summit attempt from Camp IV, atop the South Col (7,900 m/25,900 ft). They were joined by six client climbers, three guides, and sherpas from Scott Fischer's Mountain Madness company, as well as an expedition sponsored by the government of Taiwan.
The expeditions quickly encountered delays. The climbing sherpas and guides had not set the fixed ropes by the time the team reached the Balcony (8,350 m/27,395 ft), and this cost the climbers almost an hour. There is some question as to the cause of this failure, which cannot now be resolved as the expedition leaders perished.[13]
Upon reaching the Hillary Step (8,760 m/28,740 ft), the climbers again discovered that no fixed line had been placed, and they were forced to wait an hour while the guides installed the ropes. Because some 33 climbers were attempting the summit on the same day, and Hall and Fischer had asked their climbers to stay within 150 m of each other, there was a bottleneck at the single fixed line at the Hillary Step. Hutchison, Kasischke, and Taske returned towards Camp IV as they feared they would run out of supplementary oxygen due to the delays.
Climbing without supplemental oxygen, guide Boukreev from the Mountain Madness team reached the summit (8,848 m/29,029 ft) first at 13:07.[14] Many of the climbers had not yet reached the summit by 14:00, the last safe time to turn around to reach Camp IV before nightfall.
Boukreev began his descent to Camp IV at 14:30, having spent nearly 1.5 hours at or near the summit helping others complete their climb. By that time, Hall, Krakauer, Harris, Beidleman, Namba, and Mountain Madness clients Martin Adams and Klev Schoening had reached the summit,[14] and the remaining four Mountain Madness clients had arrived. After this time, Krakauer noted that the weather did not look so benign. At 15:00 snow started to fall, and the light was diminishing.
Hall's Sirdar, Ang Dorje Sherpa, and other climbing sherpas waited at the summit for the clients. Near 15:00, they began their descent. On the way down, Ang Dorje encountered client Doug Hansen above the Hillary Step and ordered him to descend. Hansen did not respond verbally, but shook his head and pointed upward, toward the summit.[15] When Hall arrived at the scene, the sherpas offered to take Hansen to the summit, but Hall sent the sherpas down to assist the other clients, and instructed them to stash oxygen canisters on the route. Hall said he would remain to help Hansen, who had run out of supplementary oxygen.[15]
Scott Fischer did not summit until 15:45. He was exhausted from the ascent and becoming increasingly ill, possibly suffering from HAPE, HACE, or a combination of both. Others, including Doug Hansen and Makalu Gau, reached the summit even later.[13]
Descent in a blizzard[edit]
Boukreev recorded that he reached Camp IV by 17:00. The reasons for Boukreev's decision to descend ahead of his clients are disputed.[16] Boukreev maintained that he wanted to be ready to assist struggling clients farther down the slope, and to retrieve hot tea and extra oxygen if necessary.[17] Krakauer sharply criticized Boukreev's decision not to use bottled oxygen.[18] Boukreev's supporters (who include G. Weston DeWalt, Boukreev's co-author of The Climb (1997)) state that using bottled oxygen gives a false sense of security.[19] Krakauer and his supporters point out that, without bottled oxygen, Boukreev was unable to directly help his clients descend,[20] and that Boukreev said that he was going down with client Martin Adams,[20] but later descended faster and left Adams behind.[20]
The worsening weather began causing difficulties for the descending team members. The blizzard on the southwest face of Everest was reducing visibility, burying the fixed ropes, and obliterating the trail back to Camp IV that the teams had broken on the ascent.
Fischer, helped by Lopsang Jangbu Sherpa, was unable to descend below the Balcony (8,350 m/27,395 ft) in the storm. Sherpas left Makalu Gau (at 8,230 m/27,000 ft by Gau's account[21]) with Fischer and Lopsang when Gau, too, became unable to proceed. Eventually, Lopsang was persuaded by Fischer to descend and leave him and Gau.[13]
Hall radioed for help, saying that Hansen had fallen unconscious but was still alive. At 17:30 Adventure Consultants guide Andy Harris, carrying supplementary oxygen and water, began climbing alone from the South Summit (8,749 m/28,700 ft) toward Hansen and Hall at the top of Hillary Step.[citation needed]
Krakauer's account notes that by this time, the weather had deteriorated into a full-scale blizzard. "Snow pellets borne on 70-mph winds stung my face."[22] Boukreev gives 18:00 as "the onset of a blizzard".[14]
Several climbers became lost on the South Col. Mountain Madness members Beidleman (Guide), Klev Schoening, Fox, Madsen, Pittman, and Gammelgaard, along with Adventure Consultant members Mike Groom, Beck Weathers and Yasuko Namba wandered in the blizzard until midnight. When they could no longer walk, they huddled some 20 m from a dropoff of the Kangshung Face.[23]
Near midnight, the blizzard cleared sufficiently for the team to see Camp IV, some 200 m away. Beidleman, Groom, Schoening, and Gammelgaard set off to find help. Madsen and Fox remained on the mountain with the group, to shout for the rescuers. Boukreev located the climbers and brought Pittman, Fox, and Madsen to safety. Boukreev had prioritized Pittman, Fox, and Madsen (all of whom were from his Mountain Madness expedition) over Namba (from the Adventure Consultants expedition), who seemed close to death; he did not see Weathers (also from the Adventure Consultants expedition). Having made two forays to rescue these three climbers, Boukreev, in common with all other climbers then at Camp IV, was exhausted and felt not able to make another attempt to reach Namba and Weathers from the Adventure Consultants expedition.[citation needed]
11 May[edit]
On 11 May, at 04:43, Hall radioed Base Camp and said he was on the South Summit (8,749 m/28,700 ft). He reported that Harris had reached the two men, but Hansen, who had been with him since the previous afternoon, was now "gone", and Harris was missing. Hall was not breathing bottled oxygen because his regulator was too choked with ice.
By 09:00, Hall had fixed his oxygen mask but indicated that his frostbitten hands and feet were making it difficult to traverse the fixed ropes. Later in the afternoon, he radioed Base Camp, asking them to call his wife, Jan Arnold, on the satellite phone. During this last communication, he reassured her that he was reasonably comfortable and told her, "Sleep well, my sweetheart. Please don't worry too much." Shortly thereafter, he died. His body was found on 23 May by mountaineers from the IMAX expedition, but was left there as requested by his wife, who said she thought he was "where he'd liked to have stayed". They did, however, bring her back his wedding band. The bodies of Doug Hansen and Andy Harris have never been found.
Meanwhile, Stuart Hutchison, a client on Hall's team who had turned around before the summit on 10 May, launched a second search for Weathers and Namba. He found both alive, but barely responsive and severely frostbitten, and in no condition to move. After consulting with Lopsang he made the decision that they could not be saved by the hypoxic survivors at Camp IV nor evacuated in time, he left them for nature to take its course, which the other survivors soon agreed was the only choice.[24]
Later in the day however, Weathers regained consciousness and walked alone under his own power to the camp, surprising everyone there, though he was still suffering severe hypothermia and frostbite. Despite receiving oxygen and attempts to rewarm him, Weathers was practically abandoned again the next morning, 12 May, after a storm had collapsed his tent overnight, and the other survivors once again thought he had died. Krakauer discovered he was still conscious when the survivors in Camp IV prepared to evacuate. Despite his worsening condition, Weathers found he could still move mostly under his own power. A rescue team mobilized, hopeful of getting Weathers down the mountain alive. Over the next two days, Weathers was ushered down to Camp II with the assistance of eight healthy climbers from various expeditions, and was evacuated by a daring, high-altitude helicopter rescue. He survived and eventually recovered, but lost his nose, right hand, half his right forearm, and all the fingers on his left hand to frostbite.[25]
The climbing sherpas located Fischer and Gau on 11 May, but Fischer's condition had deteriorated so much that they were only able to give palliative care before rescuing Gau. Boukreev made a subsequent rescue attempt but found Fischer's frozen body at around 19:00. Like Weathers, Gau was evacuated by helicopter.
Analysis[edit]
The disaster was caused by a combination of events including:
The sudden arrival of a severe storm that caught the mountaineers by surprise.
Bottlenecks at the Balcony and Hillary Step caused an hour-and-a-half delay in summiting. These delays were in themselves caused by delays in securing fixed ropes and the sheer number of people arriving at the bottlenecks at the same time (34 climbers on 10 May).
The team leaders' decisions to exceed the normal turnaround time of 2pm with many summiting after 2:30pm.
The sudden illness of two climbers at or near the summit after 3pm.
Several climbers ran out of oxygen with guides having to carry bottles up to stranded climbers as the storm approached.
Jon Krakauer has suggested that the use of bottled oxygen and commercial guides, who personally accompanied and took care of all pathmaking, equipment, and important decisions, allowed otherwise unqualified climbers to attempt to summit—leading to dangerous situations and more deaths.[26] In addition, he wrote that the competition between Hall and Fischer's guiding companies may have led to Hall's decision not to turn back on 10 May after the pre-decided time for summiting of 14:00; Krakauer also acknowledges that his own presence as a journalist for an important magazine for mountaineers may have added pressure to guide clients to the summit despite growing dangers.[27] He proposed banning bottled oxygen except for emergency cases, arguing that this would both decrease the growing litter on Everest—many discarded bottles have accumulated on its slopes—and keep marginally qualified climbers off the mountain. He does point out, however, that climbing Everest has always been a highly dangerous endeavour even before the guided tours, with one fatality for every four climbers who reach the summit. Furthermore, he notes that many of the poor decisions made on 10 May were after two or more days of inadequate oxygen, nourishment, and rest (due to the effects of entering the death zone above 8,000 m/26,000 ft). He concludes that decisions made in such circumstances should not be strongly criticized by the general population, who have not experienced such conditions.[28]
Krakauer also elaborated on the statistical curiosities of fatality rates on Everest and how 1996 was "business as usual". The record number of 12 fatalities in the spring climbing season that year was 3% of the 398 climbers who had ascended above Base Camp—slightly below the historical average of 3.3% at that time. Additionally, 12 climbers had died that season, and 84 had reached the summit. This is a ratio of 1 in 7—significantly less than the historical average before 1996 of 1 in 4. Since the fatality rates on Everest have dropped considerably, accounting for the volume of climbers in 1996 compared to previous years, 1996 was statistically a safer-than-average year.[29]
In May 2004, Kent Moore, a physicist, and John L. Semple, a surgeon, both researchers from the University of Toronto, told New Scientist magazine that an analysis of weather conditions on 11 May suggested that freak weather caused oxygen levels to plunge by an estimated 6% resulting in a 14% reduction in oxygen uptake.[30][31]
Supplementary oxygen[edit]
The use and non-use of supplementary oxygen was the focus of much discussion and analysis after the disaster with a guide and a sardar both being criticized by Jon Krakauer for not using supplementary oxygen while performing guide duties. Both men gave detailed written explanations as to why they preferred not to use oxygen but both carried a bottle on the summit day that could be used if it was needed in an emergency or extraordinary situation.
Radios[edit]
There were several issues and problems surrounding radios and their use on summit day. Scott Fischer's sardar did not have a company issued radio, but did have a 'small yellow' radio that was owned by Sandy Pittman. Rob Hall's team also had an issue with a radio during a discussion over oxygen bottles that caused confusion.
List of fatalities[edit]
Name[32]
Nationality
Expedition
Location of death
Cause of death
Andrew "Harold" Harris (Guide) New Zealand Adventure Consultants near South Summit, 8,749 m Unknown; hypothesized as falling during descent near summit
Doug Hansen (Client) United States
Rob Hall (Guide/Expedition Leader) New Zealand Exposure
Yasuko Namba (Client) Japan South Col, ~7,900 m
Scott Fischer (Guide/Expedition Leader) United States Mountain Madness Southeast Ridge, 8,300 m
Subedar Tsewang Samanla India Indo-Tibetan Border Police Northeast Ridge, 8,600 m
Lance Naik Dorje Morup India
Head Constable Tsewang Paljor India
Other fatalities in 1996[edit]
The following is a list of the other fatalities during the spring 1996 climbing season on Everest. These deaths were not directly related to the storm or the events of the 10–11 May 1996 Everest disaster.
9 May – Chen Yu-Nan (陳玉男) – from the Taiwanese National Expedition, died after a fall down the Lhotse Face[33]
19 May – Reinhard Wlasich – Austrian climber, died from a combination of HAPE and HACE at 8,300 m (27,200 ft), on the Northeast Ridge[34]
25 May – Bruce Herrod – photojournalist with the South African team, was on the South Col during the 10–11 May storm and reached the summit two weeks later, but died descending the Southeast Ridge[35]
6 June – Ngawang Topche Sherpa – Nepalese Sherpa for Mountain Madness, developed a severe case of HAPE on 22 April while working above Base Camp; died in June in a Kathmandu hospital[36]
The following fatalities occurred on Everest during the fall 1996 climbing season.[37][38]
25 September – Yves Bouchon – French climber, died in an avalanche at 7,800 m (25,600 ft) on the southeast route below Camp IV, along with the two sherpas listed below
25 September – Lopsang Jangbu Sherpa – Nepalese Sherpa, the same climbing Sirdar on the Mountain Madness expedition involved in the May 1996 Everest disaster; died in avalanche
25 September – Dawa Sherpa – Nepalese sherpa; died in avalanche
In the epilogue to High Exposure, David Breashears describes encountering some of the bodies upon climbing Everest again, in May 1997.[39]
In the media[edit]
Into Thin Air: Death on Everest (released 9 November 1997), is a made-for-TV movie based on Jon Krakauer's book Into Thin Air: A Personal Account of the Mt. Everest Disaster (1997). The film, directed by Robert Markowitz and written by Robert J. Avrech, tells the story of the 1996 Mount Everest disaster.[40]
The Climb is Anatoli Boukreev's account of the events that unfolded on the mountain. It is also in part a response to Krakauer's book.
The IMAX film Everest (1998) also documents the disaster, and the involvement of that film's crew and climbing team in the rescue effort.[41]
The Dark Side of Everest (2003), National Geographic Channel, discusses climbers' motivations, the ethics and challenge involved when climbers encounter trouble at high altitudes, and specific disasters, e.g., the 10–11 May 1996 Mount Everest disaster and Bruce Herrod's death on 25 May 1996.
Remnants of Everest: The 1996 Tragedy (2007; released in the US as Storm over Everest and broadcast on the US PBS-TV series Frontline), is a documentary by director David Breashears[42]), with music composed by Jocelyn Pook.
The events inspired the feature film Everest (2015).
Joby Talbot's opera Everest, based on the events of the disaster, was premiered by Dallas Opera in 2015.[43]
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mount Everest.
List of 20th-century summiters of Mount Everest
List of deaths on eight-thousanders
List of people who died climbing Mount Everest
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Mount Everest Nepal Earthquake". The New York Times. 28 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Dahlburg, John-Thor (1996). "Climbing Veterans Call Everest Deaths Inevitable". Los Angeles: LA Times.
Jump up ^ Krakauer 1997
Jump up ^ Boukreev, Anatoli; G. Weston Dewalt (1997). The Climb: Tragic Ambitions on Everest. New York: St. Martins. ISBN 978-0-312-96533-4.
Jump up ^ Weathers, Beck; Stephen G. Michaud (2000). Left For Dead: My Journey Home from Everest. New York: Villard. ISBN 978-0-375-50404-4.
Jump up ^ Gammelgard, Lene (2000). Climbing High: A Woman's Account of Surviving the Everest Tragedy. New York: Perennial. ISBN 978-0-330-39227-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Krakauer 1997, pp. xv–xvi
Jump up ^ "Apa Sherpa Full Biography - Apa Sherpa Foundation". apasherpafoundation.org. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
Jump up ^ "The best climber in history: 'Super sherpa' who has summited Everest 21 times retires and reveals he has always HATED climbing". dailymail.co.uk. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Boukreev; Dewalt p. 12
Jump up ^ "David A. Sowles Memorial Award – American Alpine Club". americanalpineclub.org. Archived from the original on 27 September 2015. Retrieved 27 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "U.S. climber, thought dead, rescued from Mount Everest". CNN. 13 May 1996. Retrieved 14 November 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Lopsang Jangbu Sherpa's response to Krakauer's article". Outsideonline.com. Archived from the original on 19 September 2010. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Anatoli Boukreev's response to Krakauer's article". Outsideonline.com. Retrieved 5 December 2010. [dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b Storm Over Everest. Statement by Ang Dorje
Jump up ^ "Salon Wanderlust | Coming down". Salon.com. 10 May 1996. Archived from the original on 26 October 2010. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
Jump up ^ "Summit Journal '96: Scott Fischer Returns to Everest: Anatoli Boukreev response". outsideonline.com. Archived from the original on 30 May 2001. Retrieved 27 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Summit Journal '96: Scott Fischer Returns to Everest: Reply from Jon Krakauer". outsideonline.com. Archived from the original on 31 May 2001. Retrieved 27 September 2015.
Jump up ^ GlaxoSmithKline: On top of the world – Acclimatisation Archived 25 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c Coming Down page 3 Archived 3 March 2000 at the Wayback Machine. DWIGHT GARNER salon.com 1998 August
Jump up ^ "Gau's account and pictures". Classic.mountainzone.com. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Krakauer, Jon (1997). Into Thin Air.
Jump up ^ Storm Over Everest. 1998.
Jump up ^ Krakauer 1997, pp. 322–4
Jump up ^ Krakauer 1997, pp. 342–4, 368
Jump up ^ Krakauer 1997, pp. 355–8
Jump up ^ Krakauer 1997, p. 354
Jump up ^ Krakauer 1997, pp. 357–8
Jump up ^ Krakauer 1997, p. 274
Jump up ^ "The Day the Sky Fell on Everest". New Scientist (2449): 15. 29 May 2004. Retrieved 11 December 2006.
Jump up ^ Peplow, Mark (25 May 2004). "High Winds Suck Oxygen from Everest: Predicting Pressure Lows Could Protect Climbers". BioEd Online. Retrieved 11 December 2006. Moore explains that these jet streaks can drag a huge draught of air up the side of the mountain, lowering the air pressure. He calculates that this typically reduces the partial pressure of oxygen in the air by about 6%, which translates to a 14% reduction in oxygen uptake for the climbers. Air at that altitude already contains only one third as much oxygen as sea-level air.
Jump up ^ List of Everest Fatalities AdventureStats.com
Jump up ^ Krakauer 1997, p. 155
Jump up ^ Krakauer 1997, p. 276
Jump up ^ Krakauer 1997, p. 278
Jump up ^ Krakauer 1997, pp. 108–114
Jump up ^ "Video". CNN. 14 October 1996. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "Lopsang Jangbu Sherpa killed in Everest avalanche". Mountain Zone.
Jump up ^ Breashears, David. "Epilogue". High Exposure. "Except for Scott's body, still wrapped with a pack and rope the way Anatoli had left him, the summit slopes were mercifully free of the tragedy. When we reached the South Summit, Rob had disappeared from sight, shrouded by a tall drift formed around his body. Andy Harris and Doug Hansen may lie near him, though we'll probably never know. [...] Near the base of the Hillary Step we found the last vestige of the 1996 disasters, the body of Bruce Herrod, the photojournalist who'd been with the South African team."
Jump up ^ Into Thin Air: Death on Everest. 9 November 1997.
Jump up ^ Baumgarten, Marjorie (14 October 2014). "Everest". The Austin Chronicle. Retrieved 19 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Frontline: Storm Over Everest. PBS. 2007.
Jump up ^ "REVIEW: Dallas Opera's stunning world premiere of 'Everest'". Retrieved 27 January 2017.
Bibliography[edit]
Krakauer, Jon (1997). Into Thin Air: A Personal Account of the Mount Everest Disaster (1997 ed.). Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-49208-9.
External links[edit]
The Website for the 2008 PBS Frontline television show titled Storm Over Everest.
PBS Frontline: 'Storm Over Everest' – washingtonpost.com
Climber Recounts Tragedy in 'Storm Over Everest'
Ken Kamler: Medical miracle on Everest – TEDMED
PBS Storm over Everest : Roundtable : The Ethics of Climbing (with Peter Hackett, M.D.Lincoln Hall, James H. Moss, J.D., and Jim Williams)
[show]
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Mount Everest disaster of 1996
Quick
Ang Dorje Sherpa
Jon Krakauer
Beck Weathers
Neal Beidleman
Lene Gammelgaard
Anatoli Boukreev
Lopsang Jangbu Sherpa
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Oath of office of the President of the United States
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Chief Justice John Roberts administering the presidential oath of office to Donald Trump on January 20, 2017.
The oath of office of the President of the United States is the oath or affirmation that the President of the United States takes after assuming the presidency but before he or she begins the execution of the office. The wording of the oath is specified in Article II, Section One, Clause 8, of the United States Constitution.
This clause is one of two oath or affirmation clauses, but it alone actually specifies the words that must be spoken. The other, Article VI, Clause 3, simply requires the persons specified therein to "be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution." The presidential oath, on the other hand, requires much more than this general oath of allegiance and fidelity. This clause enjoins the new president to swear or affirm that he "will to the best of his ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Text
2 Administration of the oath
2.1 Option of taking an oath or an affirmation
2.2 Forms of administering the oath
3 Use of Bibles
4 "So help me God"
5 Oath mishaps
6 List of oath takings
6.1 Notes
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Text[edit]
Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:—"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."[2]
Administration of the oath[edit]
Franklin D. Roosevelt being administered the oath of office by Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes on March 4, 1933, the first of Roosevelt's four presidential inaugurations.
While the Constitution does not mandate that anyone in particular should administer the presidential oath of office, it is typically administered by the Chief Justice. There have been several exceptions, however. George Washington was sworn into office during his first inauguration, on April 30, 1789, by Chancellor of New York Robert Livingston.[3][4] William Cranch, chief judge of the U.S. Circuit Court, administered the oath to Millard Fillmore on July 10, 1850, when he became president after the death of Zachary Taylor.[5] Upon being informed of Warren Harding's death, while visiting his family home in Plymouth Notch, Vermont, Calvin Coolidge was sworn in as president by his father, John Calvin Coolidge Sr., a notary public.[6][7] Federal Judge Sarah T. Hughes administered the oath of office to Lyndon B. Johnson aboard Air Force One after John F. Kennedy's assassination on November 22, 1963. This was the first (and to date only) time a woman administered the oath of office. Overall, the presidential oath has been administered by 15 Chief Justices (one of whom—William Howard Taft—was also a former president), one Associate Justice, four federal judges, two New York state judges, and one notary public.
Option of taking an oath or an affirmation[edit]
The Constitutional language gives the option to "affirm" instead of "swear". While the reasons for this are not documented, it may relate to certain Christians, including Quakers, who apply this scripture literally: "But above all things, my brethren, swear not, neither by heaven, neither by the earth, neither by any other oath: but let your yea be yea; and your nay, nay; lest ye fall into condemnation" (James 5:12, KJV).[8] Franklin Pierce was the only president known to use the word "affirm" rather than "swear." Herbert Hoover is often listed to have used "affirm" as well, owing to his being a Quaker, but a newsreel taken of the ceremony indicates that the words used were "solemnly swear."[9] Richard Nixon, who was also a Quaker, also swore, rather than affirm.[10][11]
Forms of administering the oath[edit]
There have been two forms of administering, and taking, the oath of office.
Under the first form, now in disuse, the administrator articulated the constitutional oath in the form of a question, and modifying the wording from the first to the second person, as in, "Do you, George Washington, solemnly swear ..." and then requested an affirmation. At that point a response of "I do" or "I swear" completed the oath.[citation needed]
It is believed that this was the common procedure at least until the early 20th century. In 1881, the New York Times article covering the swearing in of Chester A. Arthur, reported that he responded to the question of accepting the oath with the words, "I will, so help me God."[12] In 1929, Time magazine reported that the Chief Justice began the oath uttering, "You, Herbert Hoover, do you solemnly swear ...",[13] Hoover replied with a simple "I do".[14]
Under the second, and current form, the administrator articulates the oath in the affirmative, and in the first person, so that the president takes the oath by repeating it verbatim.[citation needed] Franklin Roosevelt, in 1933, stood silent as Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes recited the entire oath, then repeated that oath from beginning to end himself.[15] By the time of Harry Truman's inauguration in 1949, the practice was for the Chief Justice to utter the oath in phrases, with the president-elect repeating those phrases, until the oath was completed.[16]
Use of Bibles[edit]
By convention, incoming presidents raise their right hand and place the left on a Bible or other book while taking the oath of office. In 1789, George Washington took the oath of office with an altar Bible borrowed from the St. John's Lodge No. 1, Ancient York Masons lodge in New York, and he kissed the Bible afterward.[17][18] Subsequent presidents up to and including Harry Truman, followed suit.[19] Dwight Eisenhower broke that tradition in 1953 when he said a prayer instead of kissing the Bible.[20]
Theodore Roosevelt did not use a Bible when taking the oath in 1901.[21] Both John Quincy Adams and Franklin Pierce [22] swore on a book of law, with the intention that they were swearing on the constitution.[23] Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in on a Roman Catholic missal on Air Force One.[24] Harry Truman, Dwight Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, George H. W. Bush, Barack Obama and Donald Trump each swore the oath on two Bibles.[21]
"So help me God"[edit]
Further information: So help me God § United States, and Oath
George H. W. Bush being administered the oath of office by Chief Justice William Rehnquist on January 20, 1989.
It is uncertain how many presidents used a Bible or added the words "So help me God" at the end of the oath, or in their acceptance of the oath, as neither is required by law; unlike many other federal oaths which do include the phrase "So help me God."[25] There is currently debate as to whether or not George Washington, the first president, added the phrase to his acceptance of the oath. No contemporary sources mention Washington as adding a religious codicil to his acceptance.[26]
The historical debate over who first used "So help me God," is marred by ignoring the two forms of giving the oath. The first, now in disuse, is when the administrator articulates the constitutional oath in the form of a question, as in, "Do you George Washington solemnly swear...", requesting an affirmation. At that point a response of "I do" or "I swear" completes the oath. Without verbatim transcripts, the scant existing evidence shows this was the common procedure at least until the early 20th century. In 1865 the Sacramento Daily Union covered the second inauguration of Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln finished his oath with "So help me God," and he kissed the bible.[27] However, the Daily Union's account seems embellished in a number of ways, and other newspaper accounts, published closer in time to the ceremony, do not mention Lincoln's uttering the phrase.[28] In 1881, the New York Times article covering the swearing in of Chester A. Arthur, reported that he responded to the question of accepting the oath with the words, "I will, so help me God".[12] In 1929, Time magazine reported that the Chief Justice began the oath uttering, "You, Herbert Hoover, do you solemnly swear..."[13] Hoover replied with a simple "I do".
A Federal lawsuit filed in the District of Columbia by Michael Newdow on December 30, 2008, contended the second, current form of administration, where both the chief justice and the president articulate the oath, appending "So help me God", to be a breach of the Constitutional instructions. The suit distinguishes between the words spoken by the administrator, which must conform to the exact 35 words of the Constitution, and the president, who has a right to add a personal prayer, such as "So help me God."[29]
Chief Justice Roberts' reply was that his "prompting" for these four extra-constitutional words were to be recited "after" the oath of office, and not as a part of the oath as claimed in the suit. After rendering the oath to President Barack Obama, Roberts prompted with a question "So help you God?", to which the president responded, "So help me God."[30]
The First Congress explicitly prescribed the phrase "So help me God" in oaths under the Judiciary Act of 1789 for all U.S. judges and officers other than the president. It was prescribed even earlier under the various first state constitutions[31] as well as by the Second Continental Congress in 1776.[32][33] Although the phrase is mandatory in these oaths, the said Act also allows for the option that the phrase be omitted by the officer, in which case it would be called an affirmation instead of an oath: "Which words, so help me God, shall be omitted in all cases where an affirmation is admitted instead of an oath."[34] In contrast, the oath of the president is the only oath specified in the Constitution. It does not include the closing phrase "So help me God", and it also allows for the optional form of an affirmation which is not considered an oath. In practice, however, most presidents, at least during the last century, have opted to take the oath (rather than an affirmation), to use a Bible to do so, and also to close the oath with the customary phrase.
The earliest known source indicating Washington added "So help me God" to his acceptance, not to the oath, is attributed to Washington Irving, aged six at the time of the inauguration, and first appears 65 years after the event.[35] The only contemporary account that repeats the oath in full, a report from the French consul, Comte de Moustier, states only the constitutional oath,[36] without reference to Washington's adding "So Help Me God" to his acceptance.
Evidence is lacking to support the claim that presidents between Washington and Abraham Lincoln used the phrase "So help me God." A contemporaneous newspaper account of Lincoln's 1865 inauguration states that Lincoln appended the phrase "So help me God" to the oath.[37] This newspaper report is followed by another account, provided later in the same year after Lincoln's death (April 15, 1865), that Lincoln said "So help me God" during his oath.[38] The evidence pertaining to the 1865 inauguration is much stronger than that pertaining to Lincoln's 1861 use of the phrase. Several sources claim that Lincoln said "So help me God" at his 1861 inauguration, yet these sources were not contemporaneous to the event.[39][40] During the speech, Lincoln stated that his oath was "registered in Heaven",[41] something some have taken as indicating he likely uttered the phrase "So help me God." Conversely, there was a claim made by A.M. Milligan (a Presbyterian minister who advocated for an official Christian U.S. government) that letters were sent to Abraham Lincoln asking him to swear to God during his inaugurations, and Lincoln allegedly wrote back saying that God's name was not in the Constitution, and he could not depart from the letter of that instrument.[42][43]
Other than the president of the United States, many politicians (including Jefferson Davis, sworn in as president of the Confederate States of America in 1861) used the phrase "So help me God" when taking their oaths.[44] Likewise, all federal judges and executive officers were required as early as 1789 by statute to include the phrase unless they affirmed, in which case the phrase must be omitted.[45]
Given that nearly every president-elect since President Franklin D. Roosevelt has recited the codicil, it is likely that the majority of presidents-elect have uttered the phrase[46] (as well as some vice presidents, while taking their oaths). However, as President Theodore Roosevelt chose to conclude his oath with the phrase "And thus I swear," it seems that this current of tradition was not overwhelmingly strong even as recently as the turn of the twentieth century.
Oath mishaps[edit]
Barack Obama being administered the oath of office by Chief Justice John Roberts for the second time, on January 21, 2009.
In 1909, when President William Howard Taft was sworn in, Chief Justice Melville Fuller misquoted the oath, but the error was not publicized at the time. The mistake was similar to the one Taft himself would make twenty years later when swearing in President Hoover. Recalling the incident, Taft wrote, "When I was sworn in as president by Chief Justice Fuller, he made a similar slip," and added, "but in those days when there was no radio, it was observed only in the Senate chamber where I took the oath."[13]
In 1929, Taft, later the Chief Justice, garbled the oath when he swore in President Herbert Hoover using the words "preserve, maintain, and defend the Constitution", instead of "preserve, protect, and defend". The error was picked up by schoolgirl Helen Terwilliger on the radio. Taft eventually acknowledged his error, but did not think it was important, and Hoover did not retake the oath. In Taft's view, his departure from the text did not invalidate the oath.[13][47][48]
In 1945, President Harry S. Truman's bare initial caused an unusual slip when he first became president and took the oath. At a meeting in the Cabinet Room, Chief Justice Harlan Stone, apparently mistaken about the meaning of Truman's middle initial (which is not an abbreviation but rather the whole middle name in itself), began reading the oath by saying "I, Harry Shipp Truman...", Truman responded: "I, Harry S Truman,..."[49]
In 1965, Chief Justice Earl Warren prompted Lyndon Johnson to say, "the Office of the Presidency of the United States".[50]
In 2009, Chief Justice John G. Roberts, while administering the oath to Barack Obama, incorrectly recited part of the oath. Roberts prompted, "That I will execute the Office of President to the United States faithfully." Obama stopped at "execute," and waited for Roberts to correct himself. Roberts, after a false start, then followed Obama's "execute" with "faithfully", which results in "execute faithfully," which is also incorrect. Obama then repeated Roberts' initial, incorrect prompt, with the word "faithfully" after "United States."[51][52] The oath was re-administered the next day by Roberts at the White House.[53][54]
List of oath takings[edit]
Since the office of president of the United States came into existence in 1789 there have been 58 inaugural ceremonies to mark the commencement of a new four-year presidential term, plus an additional nine marking the start of a partial presidential term following the intra-term death or resignation of an incumbent president. With the 2017 inauguration of Donald Trump, the oath has been taken 75 different times by 44 persons. This numerical discrepancy results chiefly from two factors: a president must take the oath at the beginning of each term of office, and, because Inauguration Day has sometimes fallen on a Sunday, five presidents have taken the oath privately before the public inaugural ceremonies. In addition, three have repeated the oath as a precaution against potential later constitutional challenges.[55]
For more details on the inauguration ceremony and its history, see United States presidential inaugurations.
Date
Type
Event[a]
Location
Oath administered by
000000001789-04-30-0000April 30, 1789
(Thursday) Public washingtona !First inauguration of George Washington Balcony,
Federal Hall
New York, New York livingston !Robert Livingston,
Chancellor of New York
000000001793-03-04-0000March 4, 1793
(Monday) Public washingtonb !Second inauguration of George Washington Senate Chamber,
Congress Hall
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania cushing !William Cushing,
Associate Justice, U.S. Supreme Court
000000001797-03-04-0000March 4, 1797
(Saturday) Public adamsa !Inauguration of John Adams House Chamber,
Congress Hall ellsworth !Oliver Ellsworth,
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001801-03-04-0000March 4, 1801
(Wednesday) Public jeffersona !First inauguration of Thomas Jefferson Senate Chamber,
U.S. Capitol
Washington, D.C. marshalla !John Marshall,
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001805-03-04-0000March 4, 1805
(Monday) Public jeffersonb !Second inauguration of Thomas Jefferson Senate Chamber,
U.S. Capitol marshallb !John Marshall,
Chief Justice
000000001809-03-04-0000March 4, 1809
(Saturday) Public madisona !First inauguration of James Madison House Chamber,
U.S. Capitol marshallc !John Marshall,
Chief Justice
000000001813-03-04-0000March 4, 1813
(Thursday) Public madisonb !Second inauguration of James Madison House Chamber,
U.S. Capitol marshalld !John Marshall,
Chief Justice
000000001817-03-04-0000March 4, 1817
(Tuesday) Public monroea !First inauguration of James Monroe Front steps,
Old Brick Capitol marshalle !John Marshall,
Chief Justice
000000001821-03-05-0000March 5, 1821[b]
(Monday) Public monroeb !Second inauguration of James Monroe House Chamber,
U.S. Capitol marshallf !John Marshall,
Chief Justice
000000001825-03-04-0000March 4, 1825
(Friday) Public adamsq !Inauguration of John Quincy Adams House Chamber,
U.S. Capitol marshallg !John Marshall,
Chief Justice
000000001829-03-04-0000March 4, 1829
(Wednesday) Public jacksona !First inauguration of Andrew Jackson East Portico,
U.S. Capitol marshallh !John Marshall,
Chief Justice
000000001833-03-04-0000March 4, 1833
(Monday) Public jacksonb !Second inauguration of Andrew Jackson House Chamber,
U.S. Capitol marshalli !John Marshall,
Chief Justice
000000001837-03-04-0000March 4, 1837
(Saturday) Public vanburen !Inauguration of Martin Van Buren East Portico,
U.S. Capitol tanneya !Roger B. Taney,
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001841-03-04-0000March 4, 1841
(Thursday) Public harrisonw !Inauguration of William Henry Harrison East Portico,
U.S. Capitol tanneyb !Roger B. Taney,
Chief Justice
000000001841-04-06-0000April 6, 1841[c]
(Tuesday) Private tyler !Inauguration of John Tyler Brown’s Indian Queen Hotel,
Washington, D.C. crancha !William Cranch
Chief Judge, U.S. Circuit Court of the District of Columbia
000000001845-03-04-0000March 4, 1845
(Tuesday) Public polk !Inauguration of James K. Polk East Portico,
U.S. Capitol tanneyc !Roger B. Taney,
Chief Justice
000000001849-03-05-0000March 5, 1849[b]
(Monday) Public taylor !Inauguration of Zachary Taylor East Portico,
U.S. Capitol tanneyd !Roger B. Taney,
Chief Justice
000000001850-07-10-0000July 10, 1850[d]
(Wednesday) Public fillmore !Inauguration of Millard Fillmore House Chamber,
U.S. Capitol cranchb !William Cranch
Circuit Court Judge
000000001853-03-04-0000March 4, 1853
(Friday) Public pierce !Inauguration of Franklin Pierce East Portico,
U.S. Capitol tanneye !Roger B. Taney,
Chief Justice
000000001857-03-04-0000March 4, 1857
(Wednesday) Public buchanan !Inauguration of James Buchanan East Portico,
U.S. Capitol tanneyf !Roger B. Taney,
Chief Justice
000000001861-03-04-0000March 4, 1861
(Monday) Public lincolna !First inauguration of Abraham Lincoln East Portico,
U.S. Capitol tanneyg !Roger B. Taney,
Chief Justice
000000001865-03-04-0000March 4, 1865
(Saturday) Public lincolnb !Second inauguration of Abraham Lincoln East Portico,
U.S. Capitol chasea !Salmon P. Chase,
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001865-04-15-0000April 15, 1865
(Saturday) Private johnsona !Inauguration of Andrew Johnson Kirkwood House Hotel,
Washington, D.C. chaseb !Salmon P. Chase,
Chief Justice
000000001869-03-04-0000March 4, 1869
(Thursday) Public granta !First inauguration of Ulysses S. Grant East Portico,
U.S. Capitol chasec !Salmon P. Chase,
Chief Justice
000000001873-03-04-0000March 4, 1873
(Tuesday) Public grantb !Second inauguration of Ulysses S. Grant East Portico,
U.S. Capitol chased !Salmon P. Chase
Chief Justice
000000001877-03-03-0000March 3, 1877[56][b]
(Saturday) Private hayes !Inauguration of Rutherford B. Hayes Red Room,
White House waitea !Morrison Waite,
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001877-03-05-0000March 5, 1877[b]
(Monday) Public East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
000000001881-03-04-0000March 4, 1881
(Friday) Public garfield !Inauguration of James A. Garfield East Portico,
U.S. Capitol waiteb !Morrison Waite,
Chief Justice
000000001881-09-20-0000September 20, 1881[57][e]
(Tuesday) Private arthur !Inauguration of Chester A. Arthur Chester A. Arthur Home,
New York, New York brady !John R. Brady,
Justice of the New York Supreme Court
000000001881-09-22-0000September 22, 1881[e]
(Thursday) Public The Vice President's Room,
U.S. Capitol waitec !Morrison R. Waite
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001885-03-04-0000March 4, 1885
(Wednesday) Public clevelanda !First inauguration of Grover Cleveland East Portico,
U.S. Capitol waited !Morrison Waite,
Chief Justice
000000001889-03-04-0000March 4, 1889
(Monday) Public harrisonb !Inauguration of Benjamin Harrison East Portico,
U.S. Capitol fullera !Melville Fuller,
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001893-03-04-0000March 4, 1893
(Saturday) Public clevelandb !Second inauguration of Grover Cleveland East Portico,
U.S. Capitol fullerb !Melville Fuller,
Chief Justice
000000001897-03-04-0000March 4, 1897
(Thursday) Public mckinleya !First inauguration of William McKinley Front of original Senate Wing
U.S. Capitol fullerc !Melville Fuller,
Chief Justice
000000001901-03-04-0000March 4, 1901
(Monday) Public mckinleyb !Second inauguration of William McKinley East Portico,
U.S. Capitol fullerd !Melville Fuller,
Chief Justice
000000001901-09-14-0000September 14, 1901
(Saturday) Private rooseveltta !First inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt Ainsley Wilcox Home,
Buffalo, New York hazel !John R. Hazel,
Judge, U.S. District Court for the Western District of New York
000000001905-03-04-0000March 4, 1905
(Saturday) Public roosevelttb !Second inauguration of Theodore Roosevelt East Portico,
U.S. Capitol fullere !Melville Fuller,
Chief Justice
000000001909-03-04-0000March 4, 1909
(Thursday) Public taft !Inauguration of William Howard Taft Senate Chamber,
U.S. Capitol fullerf !Melville Fuller,
Chief Justice
000000001913-03-04-0000March 4, 1913
(Tuesday) Public wilsona !First inauguration of Woodrow Wilson East Portico,
U.S. Capitol whitea !Edward D. White,
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001917-03-04-0000March 4, 1917[58]
(Sunday) Private wilsonb !Second inauguration of Woodrow Wilson The President's Room,
U.S. Capitol whiteb !Edward D. White
Chief Justice
000000001917-03-05-0000March 5, 1917[b]
(Monday) Public East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
000000001921-03-04-0000March 4, 1921
(Friday) Public harding !Inauguration of Warren G. Harding East Portico,
U.S. Capitol whitec !Edward D. White
Chief Justice
000000001923-08-03-0000August 3, 1923[59][f]
(Friday) Private coolidgea !First inauguration of Calvin Coolidge Coolidge Homestead,
Plymouth Notch, Vermont coolidge !John Calvin Coolidge
Notary public
000000001923-08-21-0000August 21, 1923[59][f]
(Tuesday) Private Willard Hotel
Washington, D.C. hoehling !Adolph A. Hoehling, Jr.
Judge, U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia
000000001925-03-04-0000March 4, 1925
(Wednesday) Public coolidgeb !Second inauguration of Calvin Coolidge East Portico,
U.S. Capitol tafta !William Howard Taft
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001929-03-04-0000March 4, 1929
(Monday) Public hoover !Inauguration of Herbert Hoover East Portico,
U.S. Capitol taftb !William H. Taft
Chief Justice
000000001933-03-04-0000March 4, 1933
(Saturday) Public rooseveltfa !First inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt East Portico,
U.S. Capitol hughesa !Charles E. Hughes
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001937-01-20-0000January 20, 1937
(Wednesday) Public rooseveltfb !Second inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt East Portico,
U.S. Capitol hughesb !Charles E. Hughes
Chief Justice
000000001941-01-20-0000January 20, 1941
(Monday) Public rooseveltfc !Third inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt East Portico,
U.S. Capitol hughesc !Charles E. Hughes
Chief Justice
000000001945-01-20-0000January 20, 1945
(Saturday) Public rooseveltfd !Fourth inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt South Portico,
White House stonea !Harlan F. Stone
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001945-04-12-0000April 12, 1945
(Thursday) Private trumana !First inauguration of Harry S. Truman Cabinet Room,
White House stoneb !Harlan F. Stone
Chief Justice
000000001949-01-20-0000January 20, 1949
(Thursday) Public trumanb !Second inauguration of Harry S. Truman East Portico,
U.S. Capitol vinsona !Fred M. Vinson
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001953-01-20-0000January 20, 1953
(Tuesday) Public eisenhowera !First inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower East Portico,
U.S. Capitol vinsonb !Fred M. Vinson
Chief Justice
000000001957-01-20-0000January 20, 1957
(Sunday) Private eisenhowerb !Second inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower East Room,
White House warrena !Earl Warren
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001957-01-21-0000January 21, 1957[g]
(Monday) Public East Portico,
U.S. Capitol
000000001961-01-20-0000January 20, 1961
(Friday) Public kennedy !Inauguration of John F. Kennedy East Portico,
U.S. Capitol warrenb !Earl Warren
Chief Justice
000000001963-11-22-0000November 22, 1963
(Friday) Private johnsonla !First inauguration of Lyndon B. Johnson Air Force One,
Dallas Love Field,
Dallas, Texas hughes !Sarah T. Hughes
Judge, U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Texas
000000001965-01-20-0000January 20, 1965
(Wednesday) Public johnsonlb !Second inauguration of Lyndon B. Johnson East Portico,
U.S. Capitol warrenc !Earl Warren
Chief Justice
000000001969-01-20-0000January 20, 1969
(Monday) Public nixona !First inauguration of Richard Nixon East Portico,
U.S. Capitol warrend !Earl Warren
Chief Justice
000000001973-01-20-0000January 20, 1973
(Saturday) Public nixonb !Second inauguration of Richard Nixon East Portico,
U.S. Capitol burgera !Warren Burger
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001974-08-09-0000August 9, 1974
(Friday) Public ford !Inauguration of Gerald Ford East Room,
White House burgerb !Warren Burger
Chief Justice
000000001977-01-20-0000January 20, 1977
(Thursday) Public carter !Inauguration of Jimmy Carter East Portico,
U.S. Capitol burgerc !Warren Burger
Chief Justice
000000001981-01-20-0000January 20, 1981
(Tuesday) Public reagana !First inauguration of Ronald Reagan West Front,
U.S. Capitol burgerd !Warren Burger
Chief Justice
000000001985-01-20-0000January 20, 1985
(Sunday) Private reaganb !Second inauguration of Ronald Reagan Entrance Hall,
White House burgere !Warren Burger
Chief Justice
000000001985-01-21-0000January 21, 1985[g]
(Monday) Public Rotunda,
U.S. Capitol
000000001989-01-20-0000January 20, 1989
(Friday) Public bushh !Inauguration of George H. W. Bush West Front,
U.S. Capitol rehnquista !William Rehnquist
Chief Justice of the United States
000000001993-01-20-0000January 20, 1993
(Wednesday) Public clintona !First inauguration of Bill Clinton West Front,
U.S. Capitol rehnquistb !William Rehnquist
Chief Justice
000000001997-01-20-0000January 20, 1997
(Monday) Public clintonb !Second inauguration of Bill Clinton West Front,
U.S. Capitol rehnquistc !William Rehnquist
Chief Justice
000000002001-01-20-0000January 20, 2001
(Saturday) Public bushwa !First inauguration of George W. Bush West Front,
U.S. Capitol rehnquistd !William Rehnquist
Chief Justice
000000002005-01-20-0000January 20, 2005
(Thursday) Public bushwb !Second inauguration of George W. Bush West Front,
U.S. Capitol rehnquiste !William Rehnquist
Chief Justice
000000002009-01-20-0000January 20, 2009
(Tuesday) Public obamaa !First inauguration of Barack Obama West Front,
U.S. Capitol robertsa !John Roberts
Chief Justice of the United States
000000002009-01-21-0000January 21, 2009[60][h]
(Wednesday) Private Map Room,
White House
000000002013-01-20-0000January 20, 2013[61]
(Sunday) Private obamab !Second inauguration of Barack Obama Blue Room,
White House robertsb !John Roberts
Chief Justice
000000002013-01-21-0000January 21, 2013[g]
(Monday) Public West Front,
U.S. Capitol
000000002017-01-20-0000January 20, 2017
(Friday) Public trump !Inauguration of Donald Trump West Front,
U.S. Capitol
robertsc !John Roberts
Chief Justice
ZZZDate
ZZZType
ZZZEvent
ZZZLocation
ZZZOath administered by
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Inaugurations sort alphabetically by president's last name.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Term began Sunday, March 4.
Jump up ^ Term began when President Harrison died on April 4.
Jump up ^ Term began when President Taylor died on July 9.
^ Jump up to: a b Term began when President Garfield died on September 19.
^ Jump up to: a b Term began when President Harding died on August 2.
^ Jump up to: a b c Term began Sunday, January 20.
Jump up ^ Term began on January 20, despite the oath mishap.
Map showing locations where the oath of office was first taken, marked with a green 'O' (or a green dot for normal transitions). Locations where presidencies ended are marked with a red 'X' (or a red dot for normal transitions). The nine sets of names shown in black are the ones in which transition took place prior to completion of the term, with four due to death by illness, four due to assassination (names underlined in grey), and one resignation (noted by a superscript 'R'). Inset at the bottom of the map is a crop from the Constitution (see full page) that specifies the oath.
See also[edit]
Presidential Succession Act
Oath of office of the Vice President of the United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kesavan, Vasan. "Essays on Article II: Oath of Office". The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved July 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation, Centennial Edition, Interim Edition: Analysis of Cases Decided by the Supreme Court of the United States to June 26, 2013" (PDF). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2013. p. 13.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Election of 1789". George Washington's Mount Vernon. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Retrieved October 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ "George Washington's Inaugural Address". The National Archives. Retrieved October 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ "President Millard Fillmore, 1850". Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies. Retrieved 2009-01-23.
Jump up ^ Glenn D. Kittler, Hail to the Chief!: The Inauguration Days of our Presidents, 1965, page 167.
Jump up ^ Porter H. Dale, The Calvin Coolidge Inauguration Revisited: An Eyewitness Account by Congressman Porter H. Dale, republished in Vermont History magazine, 1994, Volume 62, pp. 214–222.
Jump up ^ "Oath Of Office: To Swear Or To Affirm". NPR.org. January 18, 2009.
Jump up ^ Bendat, Jim (2012). Democracy's Big Day: The Inauguration of Our President, 1789-2013. iUniverse. pp. xi, 28, 36. ISBN 978-1-935278-47-4.
Jump up ^ YouTube.
Jump up ^ YouTube.
^ Jump up to: a b "The New Administration; President Arthur Formally Inaugurated". The New York Times. September 23, 1881.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Time Magazine, Mar. 25, 1929]. Retrieved 2009-01-23.
Jump up ^ Herbert Hoover Takes the Oath of Office. February 6, 2009 – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ Franklin D. Roosevelt - Oath of office March 4th, 1933. June 19, 2007 – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ Harry S. Truman - Oath of office January 20th, 1949. June 19, 2007 – via YouTube.
Jump up ^ http://www.stjohns1.org/portal/gwib "St. John's Lodge No. 1, Ancient York Masons".
Jump up ^ Joint Congressional Committee on Inauguration Ceremonies website: "Inauguration of President George Washington, 1789". Retrieved 2009-02-16.
Jump up ^ McCullough, David (1992). Truman. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 347, 729. ISBN 0-671-86920-5. Harry Truman is a notable example, as he bent and kissed the Bible upon taking the oath for the first time, on April 12, 1945, as well as at his second inauguration.
Jump up ^ "Inaugural fun facts - WTOL.com - Toledo's News Leader |". WTOL.com. Retrieved 2010-08-07.
^ Jump up to: a b "Bibles Used in Inaugural Ceremonies". Retrieved March 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ Wallner (2004), pp. 249–55.
Jump up ^ Kennon, Donald (2005). "Presidential Inaugurations Past and Present". Retrieved 2006-12-06.
Jump up ^ Glass, Andrew J. (February 26, 1967). "Catholic Church Missal, Not Bible, Used by Johnson for Oath at Dallas" (PDF). The Washington Post. Retrieved June 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ "United States Code: Title 28,453. Oaths of justices and judges | LII / Legal Information Institute". Law.cornell.edu. 2010-01-21. Retrieved 2010-08-07.
Jump up ^ Peter R. Henriques, “So Help Me God”: A George Washington Myth that Should Be Discarded, hnn.us (1-12-2009).
Jump up ^ "Sacramento Daily Union, 10 April 1865 — California Digital Newspaper Collection".
Jump up ^ "New York Herald, 5 March 1865 — Library of Congress, Chronicling America".
Jump up ^ "Case 1:08-cv-02248-RBW Document 1" (PDF). www.restorethepledge.com. 2008-12-30. p. 25. Retrieved 2009-02-04.
Jump up ^ "Case 1:08-cv-02248-RBW Document 13-9" (PDF). www.restorethepledge.com. 2009-01-08. p. 25. Retrieved 2009-02-04. Before the commencement of this lawsuit, the Chief Justice instructed me to ascertain from President-elect Obama's representatives the president-elect's wishes concerning the administration of the oath of office at the inauguration—including his wishes concerning the inclusion of the phrase "So help me God" after the conclusion of the constitutional oath
Jump up ^ http://georgiainfo.galileo.usg.edu/con1777.htm
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on December 10, 2008. Retrieved December 26, 2008.
Jump up ^ http://www.history.army.mil/html/faq/oaths.html
Jump up ^ Judiciary Act of 1789, Sec. 7. Retrieved 2009-01-24.
Jump up ^ Griswold, Rufus W (1855) [1854]. The Republican court, or, American society in the days of Washington. New York: D. Appleton and Company. pp. 141–142.
Jump up ^ Documentary History of the First Federal Congress, Vol. 15, pp. 404-405.
Jump up ^ Sacramento Daily Union, April 10, 1865; page 8, column 6.
Jump up ^ Memorial record of the nation's ... - Google Books. Books.google.com. 1865. Retrieved 2010-08-07.
Jump up ^ Recollections of President Lincoln ... - Google Books. Books.google.com. 2006-08-10. Retrieved 2010-08-07.
Jump up ^ Anecdotal Lincoln - Google Books. Books.google.com. 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2010-08-07.
Jump up ^ "The Avalon Project : First Inaugural Address of Abraham Lincoln".
Jump up ^ Foster, James Mitchell (1894) [1894]. Christ the King. Boston: James H. Earle. p. 277. In fact, Milligan did write to Lincoln, but his request was not that Lincoln add "so help me God" to the Oath, but rather that the name of Jesus Christ be added to the U.S. Constitution [1]
Jump up ^ Foster, James Mitchell (1890). Reformation Principles Stated and Applied. Chicago and New York: F.H Revell. pp. 234–5.
Jump up ^ "Alabama Department of Archives and History, Alabama Emblems: State Bible".
Jump up ^ "A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774 - 1875".
Jump up ^ "Inauguration of the President: Facts & Firsts". U.S. Senate. Retrieved December 13, 2008.
Jump up ^ Agence France-Presse (2009-01-21). "Chief justice leads Obama to stumble presidential oath | ABS-CBN News | Latest Philippine Headlines, Breaking News, Video, Analysis, Features". ABS-CBN News. Retrieved 2010-08-07.
Jump up ^ "No Problems With Today's Oath at the Supreme Court - The BLT: The Blog of Legal Times". Legaltimes.typepad.com. 2009-01-21. Retrieved 2010-08-07.
Jump up ^ McCullough, p. 347.
Jump up ^ "Lyndon B. Johnson Oath of Office, January 20, 1965". Retrieved 2009-02-01.
Jump up ^ Williams, Pete (January 20, 2009). "About That Oath Flub". MSNBC. Retrieved January 21, 2009.
Jump up ^ File:Barack Obama Oath of Office.ogg
Jump up ^ "Obama retakes oath of office after Roberts' mistake". CNN. January 21, 2013. Retrieved January 21, 2009.
Jump up ^ Obama is Sworn in for Second Time, BBC News. Retrieved January 22, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Inauguration at the U.S. Capitol". Architect of the Capitol. Retrieved January 22, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Spiegel Grove: Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved February 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Chester A. Arthur House". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved February 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Wilson to Take Oath Sunday: First Swearing Into Office on March 4 Will Be Repeated the Following Day". The New York Times. November 15, 1916. Retrieved February 5, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Arbelbide, C. L. (Winter 2000). "Abrupt Transition". Prologue. Vol. 32 no. 4. The National Archives. Retrieved February 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Obama retakes oath of office after Roberts' mistake". CNN. January 21, 2009. Retrieved January 21, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Obama to take private oath in brief family service".
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oath of office of the president of the United States.
Forrest Church, Ph.D., "Did George Washington Say 'So Help Me God'?"
Video on YouTube Video of inaugurations from Franklin D. Roosevelt - Barack H. Obama
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*Non-scheduled (extraordinary) inaugurations
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