text:
List of filling stations in North America
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This is a list of major American gas station chains.
Filling stations in North America[edit]
Aloha Petroleum
American Gas
Amoco
ARCO
BP
Buc-ee's
Casey's General Stores
CENEX
Chevron
Circle K
Citgo
Clark Brands
Conoco
Costco brand gasoline
Cumberland Farms
Delta Sonic - Buffalo, New York
ESSO
Exxon
Frontier
Flying J
GasAmerica
Gas City, Ltd.
Getty
Go-Mart
Gulf
High's Dairy Stores
Holiday
Irving Oil
King Soopers
Kroger brand gasoline
Kum & Go
Kwik Trip
Lassus Handy Dandy
Love's
Lukoil
Marathon Oil
Meijer
Mobil
Murphy USA
Petro Canada
Phillips 66
Pilot
QuickChek
QuikTrip
RaceTrac/Raceway
Shell
Royal Farms
Rutter's Farm Stores
7-Eleven brand gasoline
76
Sam's Club
Safeway
Sheetz
Shell
Sinclair
Speedway
Spinx
Stewart's Shops
Sunoco
Tesoro
Texaco
Thorntons Inc.
Travelcenters of America
Valero
Wawa
Canada[edit]
A list of gas stations in Canada:
Canadian Tire Petroleum (Canadian Tire Gas+) - over 300 stations across Canada; most located next to Canadian Tire retail stores
Domo Gasoline - 80 stations in western Canada
EKO - 80 stations in Quebec
Esso - operates approximately 2000 stations across Canada; Canadian unit of Exxon and operated by Imperial Oil; some stations acquired from Texaco in 1989
Husky - 500 stations across Canada
Irving Oil - 769 stations in Atlantic Canada, Québec, eastern Ontario and New England
OLCO Petroleum Group - 319 stations in Ontario and Quebec
Petro Canada - 1323 stations and 200 Petro-Pass stations across Canada; some acquired from BP (1983), Petrofina (1981) and Gulf Oil in the 1980s
Pioneer Petroleum - 130 stations in Ontario
7-Eleven brand gasoline
Shell Canada - Canadian unit of Shell with 1800 stations across Canada
Sunoco - owned by Suncor Energy; operates 200 stations in Ontario
Supertest Petroleum - later acquired by BP
Ultramar - 983 service stations, 87 truck stop facilities across Canada
Wilson Fuel - mainly in Atlantic Canada with 9 as Wilson Gas Stops and 23 as Esso
Mexico[edit]
A list of gas stations in Mexico:
ARCO
Chevron
Gasmex
G500 Network
Gulf
Hidrosina
KPetrom
La Gas
Oxxo Gas
Pemex
Petro7
Shell
BP
Costco brand gasoline
Companies portal
Lists portal
North America portal
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_filling_stations_in_North_America&oldid=807444976"
Categories:
Filling stations
Gas stations in Canada
Gas stations in the United States
Transportation in North America-related lists
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Energy-related lists
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text:
GTB Nagar metro station
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

GTB Nagar
जीटीबी नगर
Delhi Metro station
Location
65, Ring Road, GTB Nagar, North West Delhi, 110009
Coordinates
28°41′54″N 77°12′25″E / 28.698206°N 77.207011°E / 28.698206; 77.207011
Owned by
Delhi Metro
Line(s)
Yellow Line
Platforms
Side platform
Platform-1 → HUDA City Centre
Platform-2 →Samaypur Badli
Tracks
2
Construction
Structure type
Underground
Platform levels
2
Parking
Available
Disabled access
Other information
Station code
GTBR
History
Opened
February 4, 2009; 9 years ago (2009-02-04)
Electrified
25 kV 50 Hz AC through overhead catenary
Traffic
Passengers (Jan 2015)
1,235,147
39,843 Daily Average
Services
Preceding station
Delhi Metro
Following station
Model Town
toward Samaypur Badli
Yellow Line
Vishwa Vidyalaya
toward HUDA City Centre
Location
North Delhi India
The GTB Nagar (Hindi: जीटीबी नगर) Metro Station is located on the Yellow Line of the Delhi Metro in Guru Teg Bahadur Nagar (Kingsway Camp).[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Station layout
2 Gallery
3 Connections
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Station layout[edit]
G Street Level Exit/Entrance
L1 Mezzanine Fare control, station agent, Metro Card vending machines, crossover
L2 Side platform No- 1, doors will open on the left
Southbound Towards →HUDA City Centre→ →
Northbound →Towards ←Samaypur Badli← ←
Side platform No- 2, doors will open on the left
L2
Gallery[edit]
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (September 2016)
Connections[edit]
Delhi Transport Corporation bus routes number 7, 26, 61, 78STL, 100, 101A, 101B, 101EXT, 103, 104, 105, 112, 113, 114, 120, 120A, 120B, 123, 124, 134, 135, 137, 140, 143, 162, 169, 171, 173, 185STL, 191, 192, 192STL, 193, 195, 235, 259, 262LSTL, 341, 402, 402CL, 883, 901, 901CL, 912A, 921, 921CL, 921E, 921EXT, 971, 971A, 971B, 982, 982LSTL, TMS(-) and TMS- Lajpat Nagar/ Punjabi Bagh/ Azadpur serves the station.[2]
See also[edit]
List of Delhi Metro stations
Transport in Delhi
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation
Delhi Suburban Railway
Delhi Transport Corporation
North Delhi
National Capital Region (India)
List of rapid transit systems
List of metro systems
Delhi portal
Trains portal
Railways in India portal
Transport portal
Infrastructure portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Station Information". Archived from the original on 19 June 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-26.
Jump up ^ http://delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/DOIT_DTC/dtc/home
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Delhi Metro.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Delhi.
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. (Official site)
Delhi Metro Annual Reports
"Station Information". Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. (DMRC). Archived from the original on 19 June 2010.
UrbanRail.Net – descriptions of all metro systems in the world, each with a schematic map showing all stations.
[show]
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Delhi Metro
Lines
Red Line
Dilshad Garden
Rithala
Yellow Line
Samaypur Badli
HUDA City Centre
Blue Line
Main Line
Noida City Centre
Dwarka Sector 21
Branch Line
Yamuna Bank
Vaishali
Green Line
Main Line
Inderlok
Mundka
Branch Line
Ashok Park Main
Kirti Nagar
Violet Line
Kashmere Gate
Escorts Mujesar
Airport Express
New Delhi
IGI Airport
Dwarka Sector 21
Pink Line
Majlis Park
Shiv Vihar
Magenta line
Janakpuri West
Botanical Garden
[show]
v
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Delhi Metro stations
Red Line
New Bus Adda
Arthala
Mohan Nagar
Shyam Park
Rajendra Nagar
Raj Bagh
Shahid Nagar
Dilshad Garden
Jhilmil
Mansarovar Park
Shahdara
Welcome ■
Seelampur
Shastri Park
Kashmere Gate ■ ■
Tis Hazari
Pul Bangash
Pratap Nagar
Shastri Nagar
Inderlok ■
Kanhiya Nagar
Keshav Puram
Netaji Subhash Place ■
Kohat Enclave
Pitam Pura
Rohini East
Rohini West
Rithala
Yellow Line
Samaypur Badli
Rohini Sector 18, 19
Haiderpur
Jahangirpuri
Adarsh Nagar
Azadpur ■
Model Town
GTB Nagar
Vishwa Vidyalaya
Vidhan Sabha
Civil Lines
Kashmere Gate ■ ■
Chandni Chowk
Chawri Bazar
New Delhi ■
Rajiv Chowk ■
Patel Chowk
Central Secretariat ■
Udyog Bhawan
Lok Kalyan Marg
Jor Bagh
INA ■
AIIMS
Green Park
Hauz Khas ■
Malviya Nagar
Saket
Qutab Minar
Chhatarpur
Sultanpur
Ghitorni
Arjan Garh
Guru Dronacharya
Sikandarpur
MG Road
IFFCO Chowk
HUDA City Centre
Blue Line
Dwarka Sector 21 ■
Dwarka Sector 8
Dwarka Sector 9
Dwarka Sector 10
Dwarka Sector 11
Dwarka Sector 12
Dwarka Sector 13
Dwarka Sector 14
Dwarka
Dwarka Mor
Nawada
Uttam Nagar West
Uttam Nagar East
Janakpuri West ■
Janakpuri East
Tilak Nagar
Subhash Nagar
Tagore Garden
Rajouri Garden ■
Ramesh Nagar
Moti Nagar
Kirti Nagar ■
Shadipur
Patel Nagar
Rajendra Place
Karol Bagh
Jhandewalan
Ramakrishna Ashram Marg
Rajiv Chowk ■
Barakhamba Road
Mandi House ■
Pragati Maidan
Indraprastha
Yamuna Bank
Akshardham
Mayur Vihar-I ■
Mayur Vihar Extension
New Ashok Nagar
Noida Sector 15
Noida Sector 16
Noida Sector 18
Botanical Garden ■
Golf Course
Noida City Centre
Noida Sector 34
Noida Sector 52
Noida Sector 61
Noida Sector 59
Noida Sector 62
Noida Electronic City
Yamuna Bank–Vaishali Branch
Yamuna Bank
Laxmi Nagar
Nirman Vihar
Preet Vihar
Karkarduma ■
Anand Vihar ■
Kaushambi
Vaishali
Dwarka–Najafgarh Branch (under construction)
Dwarka
Nangli
Najafgarh
Green Line
Inderlok ■
Ashok Park Main
Punjabi Bagh East
Shivaji Park
Madipur
Paschim Vihar East
Paschim Vihar West
Peera Garhi
Udyog Nagar
Surajmal Stadium
Nangloi
Nangloi Railway Station
Rajdhani Park
Mundka
Mundka Industrial Area
Ghevra
Tikri Kalan
Tikri Border
Modern Industrial Estate
Bus Stand
Bahadurgarh City Park
Ashok Park Main–Kirti Nagar Branch
Ashok Park Main
Satguru Ramsingh Marg
Kirti Nagar ■
Violet Line
Kashmere Gate ■ ■
Lal Qila
Jama Masjid
Delhi Gate
ITO
Mandi House ■
Janpath
Central Secretariat ■
Khan Market
Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium
Jangpura
Lajpat Nagar ■
Moolchand
Kailash Colony
Nehru Place
Kalkaji Mandir ■
Govind Puri
Harkesh Nagar Okhla
Jasola Apollo
Sarita Vihar
Mohan Estate
Tughlakabad Station
Badarpur Border
Sarai
NHPC Chowk
Mewala Maharajpur
Sector-28
Badkhal Mor
Old Faridabad
Neelam Chowk Ajronda
Bata Chowk
Escorts Mujesar
NCB Colony
Ballabhgarh
Airport Express
New Delhi ■
Shivaji Stadium
Dhaula Kuan
Delhi Aerocity
Airport
Dwarka Sector 21 ■
Pink Line
(under construction)
Majlis Park
Azadpur ■
Shalimar Bagh
Netaji Subhash Place ■
Shakurpur
Punjabi Bagh West ■
ESI Hospital
Rajouri Garden ■
Mayapuri
Naraina Vihar
Delhi Cantt
South Campus ■
Moti Bagh
Bhikaji Cama Place
Sarojini Nagar
INA ■
South Extension
Lajpat Nagar ■
Vinoba Puri
Ashram
Hazrat Nizamuddin
Mayur Vihar ■
Mayur Vihar Pocket I
Trilokpuri
Vinod Nagar East
Vinod Nagar
I P Extension
Anand Vihar ■
Karkarduma ■
Krishna Nagar
East Azad Nagar
Welcome ■
Jaffrabad
Maujpur
Gokulpuri
Johri Enclave
Shiv Vihar
Magenta Line
(under construction)
Janakpuri West ■
Dabri Mor
Dashrath Puri
Palam
Sadar Bazaar Cantonment
Terminal 1-IGI Airport
Shankar Vihar
Vasant Vihar
Munirka
R.K Puram
IIT Delhi
Hauz Khas ■
Panchsheel Park
Chirag Delhi
Greater Kailash
Nehru Enclave
Kalkaji Mandir ■
Okhla NSIC
Sukhdev Vihar
Jamia Millia Islamia
Okhla Vihar
Jasola Vihar Shaleen Bagh
Kalindi Kunj
Okhla Bird Sanctuary
Botanical Garden ■
Stations along operational lines that are denoted in italics have yet to open.
[show]
v
t
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Urban rail transit in India
Suburban rail
Operational
Chennai Suburban Railway
Delhi Suburban Railway
Hyderabad Multi-Modal Transport System
Kolkata
Kolkata Suburban Railway
Kolkata Circular Railway
Lucknow
Barabanki–Lucknow Suburban Railway
Lucknow–Kanpur Suburban Railway
Mumbai Suburban Railway
Pune Suburban Railway
Planned
Ahmedabad Suburban Railway
Bengaluru Commuter Rail
Proposed
Delhi–Alwar Regional Rapid Transit System
Delhi–Meerut Regional Rapid Transit System
Delhi–Panipat Regional Rapid Transit System
Rapid transit
Operational
Chennai Metro
Delhi Metro
Rapid Metro Gurgaon
Hyderabad Metro
Jaipur Metro
Kochi Metro
Kolkata Metro
Lucknow Metro
Mumbai Metro
Namma Metro
Under
construction
Metro-Link Express for Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad
Nagpur Metro
Navi Mumbai Metro
Noida Metro
Pune Metro
Planned
Agra Metro
Bhopal Metro
Chandigarh Metro
Guwahati Metro
Indore Metro
Jabalpur Metro
Kanpur Metro
Ludhiana Metro
Meerut Metro
Patna Metro
Surat Metro
Varanasi Metro
Vijayawada Metro
Visakhapatnam Metro
Proposed
Allahabad Metro
Bareilly Metro
Coimbatore Metro
Greater Gwalior Metro
Greater Nasik Metro
Ranchi Metro
Srinagar Metro
Western railway elevated corridor
Monorail
Operational
Mumbai Monorail
Planned
Chennai Monorail
Coimbatore Monorail
Proposed
Ahmedabad Monorail
Aizawl Monorail
Bengaluru Monorail
Bhubaneswar Monorail
Delhi Monorail
Indore Monorail
Kanpur Monorail
Kolkata Monorail
Navi Mumbai Monorail
Patna Monorail
Pune Monorail
Tiruchirappalli Monorail
Light rail
Proposed
Delhi Light Rail Transit
Kolkata Light Rail Transit
Kozhikode Light Metro
Thiruvananthapuram Light Metro
Tram
Operational
Trams in Kolkata
[show]
v
t
e
Rapid transit in Asia
Azerbaijan
Baku Metro
Armenia
Yerevan Metro
China
Beijing Subway
Changchun Subway
Changsha Metro
Changsha Maglev
Chengdu Metro
Chongqing Rail Transit
Dalian Metro
Dongguan Rail Transit
Foshan Metro
Fuzhou Metro
Guangzhou Metro
Guiyang Metro
Hangzhou Metro
Harbin Metro
Hefei Metro
Hong Kong MTR
Kunming Rail Transit
Nanchang Metro
Nanjing Metro
Nanning Metro
Ningbo Rail Transit
Qingdao Metro
Shanghai Maglev Train
Shanghai Metro
Shenyang Metro
Shenzhen Happy Line
Shenzhen Metro
Shenzhen Window of the World Monorail
Shijiazhuang Metro
Suzhou Rail Transit
Tianjin Metro
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Xi'an Metro
Xi'an Monorail
Xiamen Metro
Zhengzhou Metro
Georgia (country)
Tbilisi Metro
India
Chennai Metro
Delhi Metro
Rapid Metro Gurgaon
Hyderabad Metro
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Kochi Metro
Kolkata Metro
Lucknow Metro
Mumbai Metro
Mumbai Monorail
Namma Metro
Iran
Isfahan Metro
Mashhad Urban Railway
Shiraz Metro
Tabriz Metro
Tehran Metro
Japan
Chiba Urban Monorail
Fukuoka City Subway
Hiroshima Astram Line
Hiroshima Skyrail Midorizaka Line
Kanagawa Shonan Monorail
Kitakyushu Monorail
Kōbe Rapid Transit Railway
Kobe Municipal Subway
Kyoto Municipal Subway
Kyoto Municipal Subway
Nagoya Linimo
Nagoya Municipal Subway
Okinawa Monorail
Osaka Monorail
Osaka Metro
Sapporo Municipal Subway
Sendai Subway
Tokyo Metro
Tokyo Monorail
Tokyo Rinkai Line
Tokyo Tama Toshi Monorail Line
Tokyo Toei Subway
Tokyo Ueno Zoo Monorail
Urayasu Chiba Urban Monorail
Yokohama Municipal Subway
Yokohama Minatomirai Line
Kazakhstan
Almaty Metro
North Korea
Pyongyang Metro
South Korea
Busan Metro
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Daejeon Metro
Gwangju Metro
Incheon Subway
Incheon Airport Maglev
Seoul Korail metro lines
Seoul Metropolitan Subway
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Malaysia
Kuala Lumpur Metropolitian Rapid Transit
Philippines
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Manila MRT
Russia
Kazan Metro
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Saudi Arabia
Al Mashaaer Al Mugaddassah Metro Southern Line
Mecca Metro
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Turkmenistan
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United Arab Emirates
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Dubai Palm Jumeirah Monorail
Uzbekistan
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List of Delhi metro stations

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HUDA City Centre (Delhi Metro)

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Latium
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with latinum.
"Latio" redirects here. For the Nissan car model, see Nissan Latio. For the region in the same area with a similar name, see Lazio.
For other uses, see Latium (disambiguation).
Early Latium and Campania
Abraham Ortel's 1595 map of ancient Latium
Latium (/ˈleɪʃiəm/; Latin: [ˈlatjʊ̃]) is the region of central western Italy in which the city of Rome was founded and grew to be the capital city of the Roman Empire. Latium was originally a small triangle of fertile, volcanic soil on which resided the tribe of the Latins or Latians.[1] It was located on the left bank (east and south) of the River Tiber, extending northward to the River Anio (a left-bank tributary of the Tiber) and southeastward to the Pomptina Palus (Pontine Marshes, now the Pontine Fields) as far south as the Circeian promontory.[2] The right bank of the Tiber was occupied by the Etruscan city of Veii, and the other borders were occupied by Italic tribes. Subsequently, Rome defeated Veii and then its Italic neighbours, expanding Latium to the Apennine Mountains in the northeast and to the opposite end of the marsh in the southeast. The modern descendant, the Italian Regione of Lazio, also called Latium in Latin, and occasionally in modern English, is somewhat larger still, but not as much as double the original Latium.
The ancient language of the Latins, the tribespeople who occupied Latium, was to become the immediate predecessor of the Old Latin language, ancestor of Latin and the Romance languages. Latium has played an important role in history owing to its status as the host of the capital city of Rome, at one time the cultural and political centre of the Roman Empire. Consequently, Latium is home to celebrated works of art and architecture.
Contents
1 Geography
2 History
2.1 Latin League
2.2 Roman hegemony
2.3 Roman Republic and after
3 Modern region of Latium
4 See also
5 References
6 Bibliography
7 External links
Geography[edit]
Earliest known Latium was the country of the Latini, a tribe whose recognised centre was a large, extinct volcano, Mons Albanus ("the Alban Mount", today's Colli Albani), 20 kilometres (12 mi) to the southeast of Rome, 64 kilometres (40 mi) in circumference. In its center is a crater lake, Lacus Albanus (Lago Albano), oval in shape, a few km long and wide. At the top of the second-highest peak (Monte Cavo) was a temple to Jupiter Latiaris, where the Latini held state functions before their subjection to Rome, and the Romans subsequently held religious and state ceremonies. The last pagan temple to be built stood until the Middle Ages when its stone and location were reused for various monasteries and finally a hotel. During World War II, the Wehrmacht turned it into a radio station, which was captured after an infantry battle by American troops in 1944, and it currently is a controversial telecommunications station surrounded by antennae considered unsightly by the population within view.[citation needed]
The selection of Jupiter as a state god and the descent of the name Latini to the name of the Latin language are sufficient to identify the Latins as a tribe of Indo-European descent. Virgil, a major poet of the early Roman Empire, under Augustus, derived Latium from the word for "hidden" (English latent) because in a myth Saturn, ruler of the golden age in Latium, hid (latuisset)[3] from Jupiter there.[4] A major modern etymology is that Lazio comes from the Latin word "latus", meaning "wide",[5] expressing the idea of "flat land" meaning the Roman Campagna.
History[edit]
Main articles: Old Latium and New Latium
Latium, Enric Serra Auqué, 1888. Biblioteca Museu Víctor Balaguer
The region that would become Latium had been home to settled agricultural populations since the early Bronze Age and was known to the Ancient Greeks and even earlier to the Mycenaean Greeks.[6] The name is most likely derived from the Latin word "latus", meaning "wide", expressing the idea of "flat land" (in contrast to the local Sabine high country) but the name may originate from an earlier, non-Indo-European one. The Etruscans, from their home region of Etruria (modern day Tuscany) exerted a strong cultural and political influence on Latium from about the 8th century BC onward. However, they were unable to assert political hegemony over the region, which was controlled by small, autonomous city-states in a manner roughly analogous to the state of affairs that prevailed in Ancient Greece. Indeed, the region's cultural and geographic proximity to the cities of Magna Graecia had a strong impact upon its early history.
By the 10th century BC, archaeology records a slow development in agriculture from the entire area of Latium with the establishment of numerous villages.[6] The Latins cultivated grains (spelt and barley), grapes (Vitis vinifera), olives, apples, and fig trees. The various Latini populi (lit. "Latin peoples") lived in a society led by influential clans (gentes).[7] These clans were a sign of their tribal origin, which continued in Rome as the thirty curiae which organized Roman society.[8] However, as a social unit the gens was replaced by the family which was headed by the paterfamilias - the oldest male who held supreme authority over the family.[9][10]
A fixed local center seemed necessary as the center of the region cannot have been one of the villages, but must have been a place of common assembly, containing the seat of justice and the common sanctuary of the district, where members of the clans met for purposes of administration and amusement, and where they obtained a safer shelter for themselves in case of war: in ordinary circumstances such a place was not at all or but scantily inhabited. Such a place was called in Italy "height" (capitolium, the mountain-top), or "stronghold" (arx, from arcere); it was not a town at first, but it became the nucleus of one, as houses naturally gathered around the stronghold and were afterwards surrounded with the "ring" (urbs, connected with urvus and curvus).[11]
The isolated Alban range, that natural stronghold of Latium, which offered to settlers a secure position, would doubtless be first occupied by the newcomers. Here, along the narrow plateau above Palazzuola between the Alban lake (Lagiod di Castello) and the Alban mount (Monte Cavo), extended the town of Alba Longa, which was regarded as the primitive seat of the Latin stock, and the mother city of Rome as well as of all the other Old Latin communities; here on the slopes lay the very ancient Latin districts of Lanuvium, Aricia, and Tusculum. Here are found some primitive works of masonry, which usually mark the beginnings of civilization.[12]
The district-strongholds there later gave rise to the considerable towns of Tibur and Praeneste. Labici too, Gabii, Nomentum in the plain between the Alban and Sabine hills and the Tiber, Rome on the Tiber, Laurentum and Lavinium on the coast, were all more or less ancient centers of Latin colonization, not to speak of many other less famous and in some cases almost forgotten.[13]
Latin League[edit]
Main article: Latin League
All these villages were politically sovereign, and each of them were self-governing. The closeness of descent and their common language not only pervaded in all of them, but manifested itself in an important religious and political institution - the Latin League. The Latins were tied together by religious associations, including worship of Venus, Jupiter Latiaris, and of Diana at the Lake of Ariccia. So, by virtue of her proximity to the sanctuary of Jupiter, the village of Alba Longa held a position of religious primacy among the Latin villages.[10] The villages originally entitled to participate in the league were thirty in total and they are called the thirty Alban colonies, but their names are not all recorded.[14] The ritual of this league was the "Latin festival" (feriae Latinae), at which, on the Mount of Alba, upon a day annually appointed by the chief magistrate for the purpose, an ox was sacrificed by the assembled Latin stock to the "Latin god" (Jupiter Latiaris). Each community taking part in the ceremony had to contribute to the sacrificial feast.[14] However; the sacred grove of Aricia, the Nemus Dianae, on the Lake of Aricia, was always among the most popular place of pilgrimage for the Latins.[15]
Although Alba Longa enjoyed a position of religious primacy, the Alban presidency never held any significant political power over Latium, e.g. it was never the capital of a Latin state.[10] It is probable that the extent of the Latin Leagues' jurisdiction were somewhat unsettled and thus fluctuated; yet it remained for its existence not an accidental aggregate of various communities, but the positive expression of the relationship of the Latin stock. The Latin League may not have at all times included all Latin communities, but it never granted the privilege of membership to any that were not Latin.[16]
Very early in its existence, Rome acquired the presidency of the league, and Alba Longa appeared as a rival for which it was destroyed in the mid-7th century BC; the league as it was had been dissolved and the foremost families were compelled to move to Rome: Alba Longa, the mother city, was dissolved into Rome, the daughter.[15] According to Livy, Alba Longa was razed to the ground - spare the temples - by King Tullus of Rome.[17] The Latin festival would still be held on the Alban mount, but by Roman magistrates.[15]
Roman hegemony[edit]
Main article: Roman monarchy
Having destroyed Alba Longa, Rome was in command of the Latin festival and thus held presidency over the Latin peoples.[18] By the mid-7th century BC, Rome had secured itself as a maritime power and secured its salt supply; the Via Salaria (lit. "salt road") was paved from Rome down to Ostia on the northern bank of the river Tiber - the closest salt-field in Western Italy.[19] At the same time archaeologists detect an urban transformation of Rome: Roman huts were being replaced by houses and there was a social space, or forum, that was built by c. 620 BC.[19] The influence of the Etruscans played an important role, and migrants came from Etruscan towns. Soon (according to tradition) it was followed by the rule of Etruscan kings, the Tarquins (traditionally, 616-509 BC).[7]
While Rome may have acquired considerable territory (some 350 sq. miles)[20] in Latium, her kings never exercised absolute power over Latium. The Latin cities did, however, look to Rome for protection; for Rome had more manpower than any other city in Latium.[20] This was due to a generous policy of asylum: Roman kindness was unique in its readiness to grant citizenship to outsiders; in fact, citizenship was even granted to former slaves. The children of freedmen provided an important source for Roman armies and would have given them a definite edge in manpower over other cities of the time.[21]
Roman Republic and after[edit]
The emperor Augustus officially united all of present-day Italy into a single geo-political entity, Italia, dividing it into eleven regions. Latium – together with the present region of Campagna immediately to the southeast of Latium and the seat of Naples – became Region I.[22]
Bust of Augustus wearing the Civic Crown. Glyptothek, Munich
After the Gothic War (535–554) A.D. and the Roman conquest, this region regained its freedom, because the "Roman Duchy" became the property of the Eastern Emperor. However the long wars against the barbarian Longobards weakened the region, which was seized by the Roman Bishop who already had several properties in those territories.[23]
The strengthening of the religious and ecclesiastical aristocracy led to continuous power struggles between lords and the Roman bishop until the middle of the 16th century. Innocent III tried to strengthen his own territorial power, wishing to assert his authority in the provincial administrations of Tuscia, Campagna and Marittima through the Church's representatives, in order to reduce the power of the Colonna family. Other popes tried to do the same.[23]
During the period when the papacy resided in Avignon, France (1309–1377), the feudal lords' power increased due to the absence of the Pope from Rome. Small communes, and Rome above all, opposed the lords' increasing power, and with Cola di Rienzo,[24] they tried to present themselves as antagonists of the ecclesiastical power. However, between 1353 and 1367, the papacy regained control of Latium and the rest of the Papal States.[23]
From the middle of the 16th century, the papacy politically unified Latium with the Papal States, so that these territories became provincial administrations of St. Peter's estate; governors in Viterbo, in Marittima and Campagna, and in Frosinone administered them for the papacy.[23]
After the short-lived Roman Republic (18th century), the region's annexation to France by Napoleon Bonaparte in February 1798, Latium became again part of the Papal States in October, 1799.[25]
On 20 September 1870, the capture of Rome, during the reign of Pope Pius IX, and France's defeat at Sedan, completed Italian unification, and Latium was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy.[26]
Modern region of Latium[edit]
Main article: Region of Latium
Latium, often referred to by the Italian name Lazio, is a government region, i.e. one of the first-level administrative divisions of the state. There are twenty regions in Italy. Originally meant as administrative districts of the central state, the regions acquired a significant level of autonomy following a constitutional reform in 2001. The modern region of Latium contains the national capital Rome.
See also[edit]
Latium adiectum
Latin Valley
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Mogens Herman Hansen (2000). A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp. 209–. ISBN 978-87-7876-177-4.
Jump up ^ Cary, M.; Scullard, H. H. (1975). A History of Rome: Down to the Reign of Constantine (3rd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 31. ISBN 0312383959.
Jump up ^ Aeneid, VIII.323.
Jump up ^ Bevan 1875, pp. 530–531
Jump up ^ "Latin - Origin and meaning of the name Latin by Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 16 March 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b Emilio Peruzzi, Mycenaeans in early Latium, (Incunabula Graeca 75), Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzarri, Roma, 1980
^ Jump up to: a b (in French) Giovanni Colonna, Milieu, peuplement, phases naturelles, in Naissence de Rome, cataloged by the Petit Palais, 1977
Jump up ^ Fox, p.112
Jump up ^ Fox, pp. 112-113.
^ Jump up to: a b c M. Cary, H.H. Scullard p. 32
Jump up ^ Mommsen pp. 36-37
Jump up ^ Mommsen pp. 37-38
Jump up ^ Mommsen p.38
^ Jump up to: a b Mommsen p. 39
^ Jump up to: a b c Viscount James Bryce Bryce The World's History: The Mediterranean nations. London (1902). p.343
Jump up ^ Mommsen p. 40
Jump up ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita 1.29
Jump up ^ Mommsen p.103
^ Jump up to: a b Fox, pp.111-112
^ Jump up to: a b M. Cary, H.H. Scullard pp. 54-55
Jump up ^ Fox p. 276
Jump up ^ Fulminante, Francesca (2014). The Urbanisation of Rome and Latium Vetus. pp. 35–60.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Touring club italiano, ed. (1981). Lazio, non compresa Roma e dintorni (in Italian). pp. 61–83.
Jump up ^ Musto, Ronald G., Cola Di Rienzo, Oxford Biographies, 21 novembre 2012, DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195399301-0122
Jump up ^ Susan Vandiler, Imperial City: Rome under Napoleon, p. 20
Jump up ^ CONSIGLIO REGIONALE DEL LAZIO (ed.). "LA NASCITA DELLE REGIONI A STATUTO ORDINARIO" (pdf). consiglio.regione.lazio.it (in Italian). .
Bibliography[edit]
Bevan, William Latham; Smith, William (1875). The student's manual of ancient geography. London: J. Murray.
Strabo – Geographica (Strabo) book V chapter 3 – Rome 20 BC
Athanasius Kircher – Latium – 1669 – Amsterdam 1671
G. R. Volpi – Vetus Latium Profanum et Sacrum – Rome 1742
T. J. Cornell – The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars – London 1995
C. H. Smith – Early Rome and Latium. Economy and Society, c. 1000 – 500 BC, "Oxford Classical Monographs" – Oxford 1996
Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome Volume I. 1894. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
Fox, Robin Lane, The Classical World: An Epic History From Homer to Hadrian. Basic Books, 2006.
External links[edit]
Toponymy of Latium
Behncke, Boros (1996–2003). "Colli Albani or Alban Hills volcanic complex, Latium, Italy". Italy's Volcanoes: The Cradle of Volcanology. Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2010.

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text:
Chief of the Air Staff (India)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Chief of the Air Staff of the Indian Air Force
Flag of the Chief of the Air Staff
Incumbent
Air Chief Marshal Birender Singh Dhanoa
since 31 December 2016
Seat
Central Secretariat
Appointer
President of India
Term length
3 years or till the age of 62,
whichever is earlier.
Precursor
Commander-in-Chief, Indian Air Force
Formation
1 April 1955
First holder
Air Marshal Subroto Mukherjee
Deputy
Vice Chief of Air Staff Air Marshal Shirish Baban Deo
Chief of the Air Staff is the commander and the highest-ranking officer of the Indian Air Force.[1] The position is abbreviated as CAS in the Indian Air Force cables & communication, and is usually held by a four-star officer of the rank Air Chief Marshal. The current CAS is Air Chief Marshal Birender Singh Dhanoa who took office on 31 December 2016, following the retirement of Air Chief Marshal Arup Raha.[2][3][4]
The position was held by an Air Commodore (1919–1923), by an Air Vice-Marshal (1923–1929) and by an Air Marshal (1929–1965). In 1966, the position was upgraded to that of an Air Chief Marshal. The highest rank in the IAF is Marshal of the Air Force, which is conferred by the President of India only in exceptional circumstances. It has only been given once in January 2002 to Marshal of the Indian Air Force Arjan Singh. This is a five-star rank and is equivalent to a Field Marshal in the Army and Admiral of the Fleet in the Navy.
Contents
[hide]
1 Appointees
1.1 Commander, Indian Group (1919 to 1920)
1.2 Air Officer Commanding RAF, India (1920–1938)
1.3 Air Officer Commander-in-Chief, Air Forces in India (1938–1947)
1.4 Air Officer Commanding, Royal Indian Air Force (1947–1948)
1.5 Commander-in-Chief, Royal Indian Air Force (1948–1950)
1.6 Commander-in-Chief, Indian Air Force (1950–1955)
1.7 Chief of the Air Staff (1955–present)
1.8 Marshal of the Air Force
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
Appointees[edit]
Commander, Indian Group (1919 to 1920)[edit]
No.
Name
Rank
Photo
Appointment Date
Left Office
Decorations
1 Tom Webb-Bowen Air Commodore (later Air Vice-Marshal) 20 September 1919 27 January 1920 CB, CMG
Air Officer Commanding RAF, India (1920–1938)[edit]
No.
Name
Rank
Photo
Appointment Date
Left Office
Decorations
1 Tom Webb-Bowen Air Commodore (later Air Vice-Marshal) 27 January 1920 31 December 1922 CB, CMG
2 Philip Game Air Vice-Marshal 31 December 1922 5 November 1923 CB, DSO
3 Sir Edward Leonard Ellington Air Vice-Marshal (later Marshal of the Royal Air Force) 5 November 1923 27 December 1926 KCB, CMG, CBE
4 Sir Geoffrey Salmond Air Marshal (later Air Chief Marshal) 27 December 1926 6 February 1931 KCB, KCMG, DSO
5 Sir John Miles Steel Air Marshal (later Air Chief Marshal) 6 February 1931 2 March 1935 KCB, KBE, CMG
6 Sir Edgar Ludlow-Hewitt Air Marshal (later Air Chief Marshal) 2 March 1935 29 September 1937 KCB, CMG, DSO, MC
7 Sir Philip Joubert de la Ferté Air Marshal (later Air Chief Marshal) 29 September 1937 27 December 1938 KCB, CMG, DSO
Air Officer Commander-in-Chief, Air Forces in India (1938–1947)[edit]
No.
Name
Rank
Photo
Appointment Date
Left Office
Decorations
1 Sir Philip Joubert de la Ferté[5] Air Marshal (later Air Chief Marshal) 27 December 1938 6 October 1939 KCB, CMG, DSO
2 Sir John Frederick Andrews Higgins Air Marshal 6 October 1939 26 September 1940 KCB, KBE, DSO, AFC
3 Sir Patrick Playfair Air Marshal 26 September 1940 6 March 1942 KBE, CB, CVO, MC
4 Sir Richard Peirse Air Marshal (later Air Chief Marshal) 6 March 1942 27 April 1943 KCB, DSO, AFC
5 Sir Guy Garrod Air Marshal (later Air Chief Marshal) 27 April 1943 8 March 1944 KCB, OBE, MC, DFC
6 Meredith Thomas Air Vice-Marshal 8 March 1944 1 April 1946 CSI, CBE, DFC, AFC
7 Sir Roderick Carr Air Marshal 1 April 1946 22 November 1946 KBE, CB, DFC, AFC
8 Sir Hugh Walmsley Air Marshal 22 November 1946 15 August 1947 KCIE, CBE, MC, DFC
(On 15 August 1947, the unified RIAF was separated into the Royal Indian Air Force and the Royal Pakistan Air Force)
The following tables chronicle the appointees to the office of the Chief of the Air Staff or its preceding positions since the independence of India.[6]
(**Seconded from the Royal Air Force)
Air Officer Commanding, Royal Indian Air Force (1947–1948)[edit]
No.
Name
Rank
Photo
Appointment Date
Left Office
Decorations
1 Sir Thomas Elmhirst** Air Marshal 15 August 1947 21 June 1948 KBE, CB, AFC
Commander-in-Chief, Royal Indian Air Force (1948–1950)[edit]
No.
Name
Rank
Photo
Appointment Date
Left Office
Decorations
1 Sir Thomas Elmhirst** Air Marshal 21 June 1948 25 January 1950 KBE, CB, AFC
Commander-in-Chief, Indian Air Force (1950–1955)[edit]
No.
Name
Rank
Photo
Appointment Date
Left Office
Decorations
1 Sir Thomas Elmhirst**[7] Air Marshal 26 January 1950 23 February 1950 KBE, CB, AFC
2 Sir Ronald Ivelaw-Chapman** Air Marshal (later Air Chief Marshal) 23 February 1950 9 December 1951 KBE, GCB, CB, DFC, AFC
3 Gerald Gibbs** Air Marshal 10 December 1951 31 March 1954 CIE, CBE, MC & Two Bars
4 Subroto Mukerjee Air Marshal 1 April 1954 31 March 1955 OBE
Chief of the Air Staff (1955–present)[edit]
No.
Name
Rank
Photo
Appointment Date
Left Office
Decorations
4 Subroto Mukerjee Air Marshal 1 April 1955 8 November 1960 OBE
5 Aspy Engineer Air Marshal 1 December 1960 31 July 1964 DFC
6 Arjan Singh Air Chief Marshal (later Marshal of the Indian Air Force) 1 August 1964 15 July 1969 DFC, PV
7 Pratap Chandra Lal Air Chief Marshal 16 July 1969 15 January 1973 PV, PB, DFC
8 Om Prakash Mehra Air Chief Marshal 16 January 1973 31 January 1976 PVSM, PV
9 Hrushikesh Moolgavkar Air Chief Marshal 1 February 1976 31 August 1978 PVSM, MVC, LOM
10 Idris Latif Air Chief Marshal 1 September 1978 31 August 1981 PVSM
11 Dilbagh Singh Air Chief Marshal 1 September 1981 3 September 1984 PVSM, AVSM, VM
12 Lakshman Mohan Katre Air Chief Marshal 3 September 1984 1 July 1985 PVSM, AVSM
13 Denis Anthony La Fontaine Air Chief Marshal 3 July 1985 31 July 1988 PVSM, AVSM, VSM
14 Surinder Mehra Air Chief Marshal 1 August 1988 31 July 1991 PVSM
15 Nirmal Chandra Suri Air Chief Marshal 31 July 1991 31 July 1993 PVSM, AVSM, VSM
16 Swaroop Kaul Air Chief Marshal 1 August 1993 31 December 1995 PVSM, MVC
17 Satish Kumar Sareen Air Chief Marshal 31 December 1995 31 December 1998 PVSM, AVSM, VM
18 Anil Tipnis Air Chief Marshal 31 December 1998 31 December 2001 PVSM, AVSM, VM
19 Srinivasapuram Krishnaswamy Air Chief Marshal 31 December 2001 31 December 2004 PVSM, AVSM, VM & Bar
20 Shashindra Pal Tyagi Air Chief Marshal 31 December 2004 31 March 2007 PVSM, AVSM, VM, ADC
21 Fali Homi Major Air Chief Marshal 31 March 2007 31 March 2009 PVSM, AVSM, SC, VM, ADC
22 Pradeep Vasant Naik Air Chief Marshal 31 March 2009 31 July 2011 PVSM, VSM, ADC
23 Anil Kumar Browne Air Chief Marshal 31 July 2011 31 December 2013 PVSM, AVSM, VM, ADC
24 Arup Raha Air Chief Marshal 31 December 2013 31 December 2016 PVSM, AVSM, VM, ADC
25 Birender Singh Dhanoa Air Chief Marshal 31 December 2016 Incumbent PVSM AVSM, YSM, VM, ADC
Marshal of the Air Force[edit]
Only once has this rank ever been given:
Arjan Singh – Marshal of the Air Force in January 2002 (the highest rank ever given in the history of the Indian Air force). It is equal to a five star General or a Field Marshal in the Army and Admiral of the Fleet in the Navy.
See also[edit]
Chief of the Army Staff (India)
Chief of the Naval Staff (India)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Ex-Chiefs Gallery". Indian Air Force. Archived from the original on 3 April 2014. Retrieved 16 August 2014.
Jump up ^ "Air Marshal Birender Singh Dhanoa AVSM YSM VM takes over as Vice Chief of the Air Staff". PIB. GOI. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Press Information Bureau". Archived from the original on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
Jump up ^ "Air Chief Marshal BS Dhanoa takes over as the 25th Chief of the Air Staff". pib.nic.in. Archived from the original on 1 January 2017. Retrieved 31 December 2016. line feed character in |title= at position 43 (help)
Jump up ^ Chiefs of the Indian Air Force 1931 to 1947 Archived 2 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Chiefs of Air Staff". Bharat Rakshak. Archived from the original on 26 December 2013. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
Jump up ^ Chiefs of the Indian Air Force 1947 to Present Archived 26 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Chiefs of the Indian Air Force
External links[edit]
"Chief of The Air Staff". Indian Air Force.
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Vicuña
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For other uses, see Vicuña (disambiguation).
Vicuña
Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Tetrapodomorpha
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Camelidae
Genus: Vicugna
Species: V. vicugna
Binomial name
Vicugna vicugna
(Molina, 1782)
Vicuña range
The vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) or vicuna[2] (both /vɪˈkuːnjə/, very rarely spelled vicugna)[3][4] is one of the two wild South American camelids which live in the high alpine areas of the Andes, the other being the guanaco. It is a relative of the llama, and is now believed to be the wild ancestor of domesticated alpacas, which are raised for their coats. Vicuñas produce small amounts of extremely fine wool, which is very expensive because the animal can only be shorn every three years, and has to be caught from the wild. When knitted together, the product of the vicuña's wool is very soft and warm. The Inca valued vicuñas highly for their wool, and it was against the law for anyone but royalty to wear vicuña garments; today the vicuña is the national animal of Peru and appears in the Peruvian coat of arms.
Both under the rule of the Inca and today, vicuñas have been protected by law, but they were heavily hunted in the intervening period. At the time they were declared endangered in 1974, only about 6,000 animals were left. Today, the vicuña population has recovered to about 350,000,[1] and although conservation organizations have reduced its level of threat classification, they still call for active conservation programs to protect populations from poaching, habitat loss, and other threats.
Until recently, the vicuña was thought to not have been domesticated, and the llama and the alpaca were both regarded as descendants of the closely related guanaco. But recent DNA research has shown the alpaca may well have vicuña parentage.[5] Today, the vicuña is mainly wild, but the local people still perform special rituals with these creatures, including a fertility rite.
Contents
1 Description
2 Subspecies
3 Distribution and habitat
4 Behavior
5 Conservation
6 Vicuña wool
7 Gallery
8 References
9 External links
Description[edit]
The vicuña is considered more delicate and graceful than the guanaco, and smaller. A key distinguishing element of morphology is the better-developed incisor roots for the guanaco.[6] The vicuña's long, woolly coat is tawny brown on the back, whereas the hair on the throat and chest is white and quite long. The head is slightly shorter than the guanaco's and the ears are slightly longer. The length of head and body ranges from 1.45 to 1.60 m (about 5 ft); shoulder height is from 75 to 85 cm (around 3 ft); its weight is from 35 to 65 kg (under 150 lb).
To prevent poaching, a round-up is held every year, and all vicuñas with fur longer than 2.5 cm are shorn.
Subspecies[edit]
Vicugna vicugna vicugna
Vicugna vicugna mensalis
Distribution and habitat[edit]
Vicuñas are native to the central Andes in South America, where found in Peru, northwestern Argentina, Bolivia, and northern Chile. A smaller, introduced population lives in central Ecuador.[1]
Vicuñas live at altitudes of 3,200 to 4,800 m (10,500–15,700 ft).[1] They feed in daytime on the grassy plains of the Andes Mountains, but spend the nights on the slopes. In these areas, only nutrient-poor, tough, bunch grasses and Festuca grow. The sun's rays are able to penetrate the thin atmosphere, producing relatively warm temperatures during the day; however, the temperatures drop to freezing at night. The vicuña's thick but soft coat is a special adaptation which traps layers of warm air close to its body, so it can tolerate freezing temperatures.
Behavior[edit]
Herd of vicuñas near Arequipa, Peru.
The behavior of vicuñas is similar to that of the guanacos. They are very shy animals, and are easily aroused by intruders, due, among other things, to their extraordinary hearing. Like the guanacos, they frequently lick calcareous stones and rocks, which are rich in salt, and also drink salt water.[7] Their diets consist mainly of low grasses which grow in clumps on the ground.
Vicuñas live in family-based groups made up of a male, five to 15 females, and their young. Each group has its own territory of about 18 km2, which can fluctuate depending on the availability of food.
Mating usually occurs in March–April, and after a gestation period of about 11 months, the female gives birth to a single fawn, which is nursed for about 10 months. The fawn becomes independent at about 12 to 18 months old. Young males form bachelor groups and the young females search for a sorority to join. This deters intraspecific competition and inbreeding.
Conservation[edit]
Vicuña, Chimborazo (volcano), Ecuador
From the period of Spanish conquest to 1964, hunting of the vicuña was unrestricted, which reduced its numbers to only 6,000 in the 1960s. As a result, the species was declared endangered in 1974, and its status prohibited the trade of vicuña wool. In Peru, during 1964–1966, the Servicio Forestal y de Caza in cooperation with the US Peace Corps, Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, and the National Agrarian University of La Molina established a nature conservatory for the vicuña called the Pampa Galeras – Barbara D'Achille in Lucanas Province, Ayacucho. During that time, a game warden academy was held in Nazca, where eight men from Peru and six from Bolivia were trained to protect the vicuña from poaching. The estimated population in Peru increased from 6,000 to 75,000 with protection by game wardens. Currently, the community of Lucanas conducts a chaccu (herding, capturing, and shearing) on the reserve each year to harvest the wool, organized by the National Council for South American Camelids (CONACS).
The wool is sold on the world market for over $300 per kg, to help support the community. In Bolivia, the Ulla Ulla National Reserve was founded in 1977 partly as a sanctuary for the species. Their numbers grew to 125,000 in Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia. Since this was a ready "cash crop" for community members, the countries relaxed regulations on vicuña wool in 1993, enabling its trade once again. While the population levels have recovered to a healthy level, poaching remains a constant threat, as do habitat loss and other threats. Consequently, the IUCN still supports active conservation programs to protect vicuñas, though they lowered their status to least concern.[1] The US Fish and Wildlife Service has reclassified most populations as threatened, but still lists Ecuador's population as endangered.[8]
Vicuña wool[edit]
The wool is popular due to its warmth. Its properties come from the tiny scales on the hollow, air-filled fibres. It causes them to interlock and trap insulating air. Vicuñas have some of the finest fibers in the world, at a diameter of 12 μm. The fiber of cashmere goats is 14 to 19 μm, while angora rabbit is 8 to 12 μm and that of shahtoosh from the Tibetan antelope, or chiru, is from 9 to 12 μm.[9] Since it is sensitive to chemical treatment, the wool is usually left in its natural color.
The vicuña only produces about 0.5 kg (1.1 lb) of wool a year, and gathering it requires a certain process. During the time of the Incas, vicuña wool was gathered by means of communal efforts called chacu, in which multitudes of people herded hundreds of thousands of vicuña into previously laid funnel traps. The animals were shorn and then released; this was only done once every four years. The vicuña was believed to be the reincarnation of a beautiful young maiden who received a coat of pure gold once she consented to the advances of an old, ugly king. Because of this, it was against the law for anyone to kill a vicuña or wear its fleece, except for Inca royalty.
At present, the Peruvian government has a labeling system that identifies all garments that have been created through a government-sanctioned chacu. This guarantees that the animal was captured, shorn alive, returned to the wild, and cannot be shorn again for another two years. The program also ensures that a large portion of the profits return to the villagers. However, annually, up to 22,500 kg of vicuña wool are exported as a result of illegal activities. Because of this, some countries have banned the importation of the wool to save the animal. There is a limited but growing trend to commercially produce wool from vicuñas in captivity, with growing herds in the Chilean Andes. Biologist Cristian Bonacic has expressed his concern about the possibility of habitat damage and the transmission of disease in the farms.[10]
As of June 2007, prices for vicuña fabrics can range from US$1,800 to US$3,000 per yard. Vicuña wool can be used for apparel (such as socks, sweaters, accessories, shawls, coats, and suits) and home furnishings (such as blankets and throws). A vicuña wool scarf costs around US$1,500. A vicuña sport coat from the Italian tailoring house Kiton costs at least US$21,000.[11]
Gallery[edit]
Vicuña in the coat of arms of Peru
Comparison of alpaca, llama, and vicuna (1914)
A vicuña on rocky terrain (2008)
Vicuñas on road to El Tatio geysers, San Pedro de Atacama, Antofagasta Region, Chile (2011)
Vicuña in Jujuy Province in the Argentine Altiplano (2011)
Vicuña fawn in the Atacama Desert (2014)
Vicunas near the Salar De Uyuni (2017)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Baldi, R. & Wheeler, J. (2008). "Vicugna vicugna". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2008. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 3 January 2009.
Jump up ^ The spelling vicuña is not even mentioned in some dictionaries, for example the Macmillan Dictionary
Jump up ^ The spelling vicugna is so rare in English that it is not even mentioned in the Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia or any major dictionary, including the American Heritage Dictionary, Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, Oxford Living Dictionaries, Random House Dictionary, Collins English Dictionary, and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
Jump up ^ Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M., eds. (2005). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
Jump up ^ Wheeler, Dr Jane; Kadwell, Miranda; Fernandez, Matilde; Stanley, Helen F.; Baldi, Ricardo; Rosadio, Raul; Bruford, Michael W. (December 2001). "Genetic analysis reveals the wild ancestors of the llama and the alpaca". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 268 (1485): 2575–2584. doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1774. PMC 1088918. PMID 11749713. 0962-8452 (Paper), 1471-2954 (Online).
Jump up ^ Hogan, C. Michael (7 December 2008). Strömberg, N., ed. "Guanaco: Lama guanicoe". GlobalTwitcher.com. GlobalTwitcher. Archived from the original on 4 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Schuhmacher, Eugen (1 January 1968). The last of the wild: on the track of rare animals. Collins. p. 304.
Jump up ^ "Species Profile: Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna)". U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Archived from the original on 1 February 2009. Retrieved 4 January 2009.
Jump up ^ Roberson, Mary-Russell (January–February 2008). "Discovering South America's Camels". Smithsonian Zoogoer. National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA: Friends of the National Zoo. Archived from the original on 21 March 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2010. CS1 maint: Date format (link)
Jump up ^ Bonacic, Cristian; Gimpel, Jessica (2003-01-01). Lemons, John; Victor, Reginald; Schaffer, Daniel, eds. Sustainable Use of the Vicuña: A Critical Analysis and the MACS Project. Springer US. p. 348. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-0375-0_24. ISBN 978-1-4613-5045-3.
Jump up ^ Coggins, David (20 September 2013). "Why Does a Vicuña Jacket Cost $21,000?". Wall Street Journal.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
Vicugna vicugna (category)
Wikispecies has information related to Vicugna vicugna
Viva Vicuña, documentary film about Vicuñas in the Andes. Light & Shadow.
"The Vicuna: the precious treasure of the Andes". Alpaca Fiber News. Archived from the original on 2009-10-21.
Bayly Letts, Andres; Pasquel Rodríguez, Enrique (Summer 2006). "Privaticemos las vicuñas: Cómo Eliminar el Peligro de Extinción y Aprovechar su Potencial Económico" [Privatize the vicunas: How to Eliminate the Danger of Extinction and Take Advantage of its Economic Potential] (PDF). Revista de Economía y Derecho (in Spanish). Sociedad de Economía y Derecho UPC. 3 (9): 69–80. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2009.
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Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q167797
Wikispecies: Vicugna vicugna
ADW: Vicugna_vicugna
ARKive: vicugna-vicugna
EoL: 309016
Fossilworks: 145836
GBIF: 5220192
iNaturalist: 42236
IRMNG: 10861866
ITIS: 625031
IUCN: 22956
MSW: 14200122
NBN: NHMSYS0000377321
NCBI: 9843
Species+: 3436
TSA: 18559
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vicuña&oldid=864903188"
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
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values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicunha
Vicunha – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicunia
Vicunia – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ro
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-qu
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values: Викунья – Russian

values:
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
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values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikunja
Vikunja – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
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values: Викуња – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
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values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikunja
Vikunja – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
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values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikunja
Vikunja – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
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values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikunja
Vikunja – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
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values: விக்குன்யா – Tamil

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
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values: บีกูญา – Thai

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikunya
Vikunya – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
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values: Викунья – Udmurt

values:
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
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values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
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values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

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