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Natwar Singh
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K. Natwar Singh
Minister of External Affairs of India
In office
22 May 2004 – 6 December 2005
Preceded by
Yashwant Sinha
Succeeded by
Manmohan Singh
Personal details
Born
(1931-05-16) 16 May 1931 (age 87)
Jaghina, Bharatpur, Bharatpur State, British Raj (present-day Rajasthan, India)
Nationality
Indian
Political party
Indian National Congress
Spouse(s)
Heminder Kaur
Residence
New Delhi
Alma mater
Mayo College, Ajmer
St. Stephen's College, Delhi
Scindia School
Occupation
Politician
Awards
Padma Bhushan
Signature
Kunwar Natwar Singh (born 16 May 1931) is an Indian politician, a former senior bureaucrat, a former Union cabinet minister, and a writer.
Singh was selected into the Indian Foreign Service, one of the most competitive and prestigious government services, in 1953. In 1984, he resigned from the service to contest elections as a member of the Indian National Congress party. He won the election and served as a union minister of state until 1989. Thereafter, he had a patchy political career until being made India's foreign minister in 2004. However, 18 months later, he had to resign under a cloud after the UN's Volcker committee named both him and the Congress party to which he belonged as beneficiaries of illegal pay-offs in the Iraqi oil scam.[1]
Contents
1 Early life and education
2 Diplomatic career
3 Political career
3.1 Oil for Food scandal
3.2 The long knives
4 Personal life
5 Autobiography
6 Books published
7 References
Early life and education[edit]
The fourth son of Thakur Govind Singh of Deeg and his wife Thakurani Prayag Kaur, Singh was born in the princely state of Bharatpur to an aristocratic Jat family related to the ruling dynasty of Bharatpur.[2][3] He attended Mayo College and Scindia School, Gwalior, both traditionally for Indian princely clans and nobles, and took an undergraduate degree at St. Stephen's College, Delhi. He subsequently studied at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge University and was a visiting scholar for a period at Peking University in China.
Diplomatic career[edit]
Singh joined the Indian Foreign Service (IFS) in 1953 and served for 31 years. One of his earliest assignments was in Beijing, China (1956–58). He was then posted to New York City with the Permanent Mission of India (1961–66) and as India's representative to Executive Board of UNICEF (1962–66). He served on several important UN committees between 1963 and 1966. In 1966, he was posted to the Prime Minister's Secretariat under Mrs Indira Gandhi. He was part of the Indian delegation to the Heads of Commonwealth Meeting in Kingston, Jamaica in 1975. He was an Indian Delegate to the 30th Session of the United Nations General Assembly, New York, Heads of Commonwealth Meeting, Lusaka, Zambia in 1979 and the 35th Session of the United Nations General Assembly, New York. He also accompanied Mrs. Indira Gandhi on her State visit to the US in 1982. He served as an Executive Trustee, United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) appointed by the Secretary-General, United Nations for six years (1981–86). He also served on the Expert Group appointed by the Secretary General of the Commonwealth, London in 1982. He was appointed Secretary-General of the Seventh Non-aligned Summit in New Delhi held in 1983 and Chief Coordinator of the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) in New Delhi in the same year. He served as Secretary in the Ministry of External Affairs from March 1982 to November 1984.
He received the Padma Bhushan, a distinguished award from the Government of India, in 1984.[4]
Political career[edit]
Natwar Singh assumes the charge of Union Minister for External Affairs in New Delhi on May 24, 2004
In 1984, after resigning from the Indian Foreign Service, Singh joined the Congress party and was elected to the 8th Lok Sabha from Bharatpur constituency in Rajasthan. In 1985, he was sworn in as a minister of state (who is a minister, but one level below a cabinet minister) and allotted the portfolios of steel, coal and mines, and agriculture. In 1986, he became minister of state for external affairs. In that capacity, he was elected President of the UN Conference on Disarmament and Development held in New York in 1987, and also led the Indian delegation to the 42nd Session of the UN General Assembly. Singh remained a minister of state for external affairs until the Congress party lost power after being defeated in the general elections of 1989. In those elections, he contested and lost the Mathura seat in Uttar Pradesh. The Congress party returned to power after the elections of 1991, with P.V. Narasimha Rao as Prime Minister since Rajiv Gandhi has lately been assassinated. At this time, Singh was not an MP and could not be a minister. His importance lay solely in perceived proximity to the Sonia Gandhi, of which he was a staunch and avowed loyalist. He duly developed differences with the Prime Minister and left the party along with N.D. Tiwari and Arjun Singh, to form a new political party, All India Indira Congress. In 1998, after P.V. Narasimha Rao had been shunted into oblivion and Sonia Gandhi had regained complete control of the party, the three family loyalists merged their new party into the Congress party and returned into the service of the Gandhis.
Singh was rewarded with a ticket to contest the general elections of 1998, and returned to parliament after a gap of nine years, when he was elected to the short-lived 12th Lok Sabha (1998–99) from Bharatpur. However, he had to sit in the opposition benches, and then he lost the elections of 1999. After a further hiatus of three years, he was elected (indirectly) to the Rajya Sabha from Rajasthan in 2002. The Congress party came back to power in 2004, and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh appointed Natwar Singh as the Minister for External affairs.
Oil for Food scandal[edit]
Singh assumed office on 23 May 2004 as India's minister for external affairs. His tenure proved controversial.
On 27 October 2005, while Singh was abroad on an official visit, the Independent Inquiry Committee headed by Paul Volcker released the report on its investigation of corruption in the Oil-for-Food program. It stated inter alia that "India's Congress party" and Natwar Singh's family were non-contractual (corrupt) beneficiaries of the Oil for Food programme.[5] The report stated that Natwar Singh, his son Jagat Singh and Jagat's childhood friend Andaleeb Sehgal, were associated with a company called Hamdan Exports, which acted as an intermediary for illegal sales of oil to a Swiss firm named Masefield AG. In return for these illegal sales, Masefield paid kickbacks (termed "surcharges"), partly to Saddam Hussein's regime and partly to Natwar Singh and others. It was alleged that such kickbacks were Hussein's way of securing support from politicians around the world and that this benefit influenced Natwar Singh to lobby against US policies in Iraq (in particular, US sanctions on Saddam Hussein).
This scandal represented a serious crisis for the ruling coalition, because the implication was that the Congress party, which had been away from power for nearly a decade, had indulged in international corruption to replenish its coffers and fight elections. Natwar Singh's closeness to Sonia Gandhi was well-known, and it was generally surmised that he had acted as a front for that family and the party. A need was felt for the party (and ruling family) to distance itself from Natwar Singh, and also to find a scapegoat to whom the blame could be transferred, so that party and family alike could proclaim themselves clean. A convenient occasion was supplied by Anil Mathrani, then Indian Ambassador to Croatia and formerly a close aide to Natwar Singh, who alleged that Natwar Singh had used an official visit to Iraq to procure oil coupons for Jagat Singh from Saddam's regime.[6]
The long knives[edit]
When Mathrani made this allegation, Natwar Singh was on a flight returning from an official visit abroad. The Congress party struck before he landed in New Delhi. Party spokeswoman Ambika Soni, another close confidante of Sonia Gandhi, told a press gathering that the statement indicated the innocence of the Congress party, and that Natwar Singh would make his defence on the subject "as an individual," separately. He was given no chance to present a case, or even to speak to Sonia Gandhi, whom he had known personally for four decades and whose cause he had championed since the first day of her political career. On 6 December 2005, shortly after he landed in Delhi from his foreign visit, Singh was told that he had been relieved (for the time being, until his name could be cleared) of his portfolio and that he was no longer Minister for External Affairs. He was retained as a minister-without-portfolio.
On 26 March 2006, the Indian Enforcement Directorate (ED) announced that it had finally tracked a sum of eighty million rupees, transferred from London-based Non-resident Indian businessman Aditya Khanna's bank account to his own NRI account in a Delhi bank, and later withdrawn from this account to be allegedly distributed among Indian beneficiaries of the scam.[7] An old family connection between this businessman (Aditya Khanna) and Natwar Singh's family was dredged up. In August the same year, the Justice Pathak committee, which was investigating the case, released its judgment accepting this averment. The committee found that Andaleeb Sehgal, a friend of Jagat Singh, and Aditya Khanna, a relative of Natwar Singh, received financial payoffs by procuring oil coupons based on recommendations given by Natwar Singh. Importantly, the committee found that there was no evidence linking the Congress party with these dealings. Based on this credible report, Jagat Singh was expelled from the primary membership of the Congress party, Natwar Singh was dismissed from the Cabinet and his party membership was suspended.
Natwar Singh then resigned from the Congress party. He announced his resignation at a Bharatiya Janata Party-sponsored rally of Natwar Singh's own Jat community held at Jaipur in the presence of Vasundhara Raje, then Chief Minister of Rajasthan. On this occasion, Natwar Singh not only asserted his innocence but also launched a bitter attack on Sonia Gandhi for having failed to defend or support him.[8]
However, Natwar Singh did not join the BJP. Instead, in mid-2008, both Singh and his son Jagat joined Mayawati's Bahujan Samaj Party, only to be expelled by that party within four months (in November 2008) for alleged indiscipline, anti-party activities and "lack of faith" in the ideology of the Bahujan Samaj Movement. In fact, Singh had been demanding a Rajya Sabha seat (which had apparently been promised before he joined the party) and Mayawati had changed her mind on that matter. After this episode, Natwar Singh, now 77 years of age, and having suffered several personal tragedies in a short period, retired from public life.
Personal life[edit]
In August 1967, Singh married Maharajkumari Heminder Kaur (b. June 1939), the eldest daughter of the last Maharaja of Patiala State, Yadavindra Singh, and the sister of Amarinder Singh, the present titular Maharaja of Patiala and current chief minister of Punjab. Heminder's mother Mohinder Kaur was also active in public life.[3]
The couple had a son, Jagat Singh (b. August 1968) and a daughter, Ritu Kaur (b. November 1970). Jagat Singh was himself politically active as the general secretary of the Congress Party youth wing. In 1993, Jagat Singh married Natasha Masri, of Jordanian and South Indian origins, in an Arya Samaj rite. Jagat and his wife separated in July 2001 after a period of estrangement. The following March, Natasha Singh's body was discovered in a terraced garden at the Delhi Hyatt Regency Hotel; it was concluded she had committed suicide by jumping from the balcony of her room.[3] Jagat and his wife had two sons, Hanut (b. 1995) and Himmat (b. 1997). Ritu became a fashion designer, but suffered from chronic depression, for which she had been receiving treatment in London. On 9 May 2002, she hung herself in her bedroom at her residence in Delhi.[3] [9]
Autobiography[edit]
In August 2014, Natwar Singh's autobiography, One Life is Not Enough, was released.[10][11] The book is no-holds-barred account of his political career, providing an insider view on the various machinations of Delhi's political circles. The book reveals many sensitive developments during Indira Gandhi's, Rajiv Gandhi's, Narasimha Rao's and Manmohan Singh's regimes. It also describes the changing contours of Natwar Singh's close but complex political relationship with Indian National Congress president Sonia Gandhi over the years.[12] The book presents Natwar Singh's account of the controversial Volcker report and the various political motions that took place in the background leading up to his resignation. There was immense speculation on whether Sonia Gandhi and Priyanka Gandhi's visit to Natwar Singh days before the release was timed at reconciliation and to avoid a deeper embarrassment to themselves from revelations in the book.[13]
Sonia Gandhi has responded to the book by rubbishing its contents. She also expressed the intention to write her autobiography to reveal the truth.[14]
Books published[edit]
E.M.Forster : A Tribute (on Forster's Eighty Fifth Birthday), editor, with Contributions by Ahmed Ali, Narayana Menon, Raja Rao & Santha Rama Rau, New York, 1964
The Legacy of Nehru, New York, 1965
Tales from Modern India, New York, 1966
Stories from India, London, 1971
Maharaja Suraj Mal (1707–63), London, 1981
Curtain Raisers, Delhi,1984
Profiles & Letters, Delhi, 1997
The Magnificent Maharaja Bhupinder Singh of Patiala (1891–1938), Delhi, 1997
Heart to Heart, Delhi, 2003.
Walking with Lions: Tales from a Diplomatic Past, Released by Hamid Ansari, March 2013.
One Life is Not Enough: An Autobiography[10][11], August 2014.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Volcker Report names Natwar Singh and Congress Party as "beneficiaries"". The Hindu.
Jump up ^ India Today
^ Jump up to: a b c d The Royal Ark-Patiala
Jump up ^ "Padma Awards" (PDF). Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. 2015. Retrieved July 21, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Volcker Report names Natwar Singh and Congress Party as "beneficiaries"". The Hindu. 29 October 2005. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Singh, Onkar (6 December 2005). "Natwar Singh resigns from Union Cabinet". rediff News. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Thakur, Pradeep (26 March 2006). "Oil-for-food: ED traces Rs 8-cr to Delhi bank". Times of India. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "Home " Nation Natwar Singh quits Congress". Zee News. Retrieved 30 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "Natwar Singh's family says daughter committed suicide," 10 May 2002
^ Jump up to: a b “One Life is Not Enough”: Natwar Singh’s autobiography to rock the capital – The Hindu
^ Jump up to: a b One Life Is Not Enough: An Autobiography (English) – Buy One Life Is Not Enough: An Autobiography (English) Online at Best Prices in India – Flipkart.com
Jump up ^ Inside Track: Kissa kursi ka | The Indian Express | Page 99
Jump up ^ Exclusive: Congress President Sonia Gandhi and daughter Priyanka Vadra persuade former External Affairs Minister Natwar Singh to stall his tell-all book : North, News – India ...
Jump up ^ Sonia Gandhi reacts to Natwar Singh's claims; says will write a book to 'reveal the truth' – Economic Times
Preceded by
Yashwant Sinha Minister for External Affairs of India
2004–2005 Succeeded by
Manmohan Singh
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1980
Sunil Gavaskar
1981
Vainu Bappu
Prafulla Desai
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
Gopinath Mohanty
Amritlal Nagar
Mrinal Sen
Avabai Bomanji Wadia
1982
Jasbir Singh Bajaj
Sundaram Balachander
Gottipati Brahmaiah
Rani Gaidinliu
Khadim Hussain Khan
Stella Kramrisch
Jal Minocher Mehta
Grace Morley
Syed Zahoor Qasim
Kamal Ranadive
P. N. Pattabhirama Sastri
Jhabarmal Sharma
Ajit Ram Verma
1983
Richard Attenborough
Doraiswamy Iyengar
V. G. Jog
K. Sankaran Nair
Prem Nazir
Swraj Paul, Baron Paul
Rajkumar
K. G. Ramanathan
Kershasp Tehmurasp Satarawala
Subodh Chandra Sengupta
Adi M. Sethna
Arun Kumar Sharma
Benudhar Sharma
Bhalindra Singh
Umrao Singh
1984
Horace Alexander
Michael Ferreira
Sivaji Ganesan
Jnan Prakash Ghosh
Kotha Satchidananda Murthy
Hosur Narasimhaiah
Sripada Pinakapani
Ishwari Prasad
B. C. Sanyal
Marie Seton
Archana Sharma
Obaid Siddiqi
Natwar Singh
Ganda Singh
Vijay Tendulkar
Baldev Upadhyaya
1985
Durga Das Basu
Shiba P. Chatterjee
Eknath Vasant Chitnis
Virender Lal Chopra
Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon
Santidev Ghosh
Bhimsen Joshi
Tribhuvandas Luhar
Sadat Abul Masud
Kalanidhi Narayanan
Bernard Peters
Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai
Gopala Ramanujam
S. Ramaseshan
Vuppuluri Ganapathi Sastry
Amarjit Singh
Gurbachan Singh Talib
Bhalchandra Udgaonkar
Srinivasan Varadarajan
1986
Pushpa Mittra Bhargava
Ela Bhatt
Manohar Lal Chibber
Aminuddin Dagar
V. Krishnamurthy
Jean Riboud
Sidney Dillon Ripley
Rajeev Sethi
Martand Singh
C. Venkataraman Sundaram
Badri Nath Tandon
Gulshan Lal Tandon
R. K. Trivedi
1987
Balamani Amma
Kishori Amonkar
Nikhil Banerjee
Roddam Narasimha
R. D. Pradhan
Annada Shankar Ray
Julio Ribeiro
Man Mohan Sharma
Laxmi Prasad Sihare
Farokh Udwadia
Mohammad Yunus
1988
19th Kushok Bakula Rinpoche
Ram Prakash Bambah
Kartar Singh Duggal
Ashok Sekhar Ganguly
Abid Hussain
Shreyans Prasad Jain
Kelucharan Mohapatra
Bal Ram Nanda
Akkineni Nageswara Rao
Pratury Trirumala Rao
Renuka Ray
B. V. Sreekantan
Satya Pal Wahi
1989
Fenner Brockway, Baron Brockway
Banoo Jehangir Coyaji
Girija Devi
Kattingeri Krishna Hebbar
Girilal Jain
Anna Rajam Malhotra
M. V. Mathur
Ashesh Prosad Mitra
Russi Mody
Suresh Shankar Nadkarni
Narinder Singh Randhawa
Yoshio Sakurauchi
Lakshman Singh
Prakash Narain Tandon
# Posthumous conferral
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Focal length
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Rear focal distance" redirects here. For lens to film distance in a camera, see Flange focal distance.
The focal point F and focal length f of a positive (convex) lens, a negative (concave) lens, a concave mirror, and a convex mirror.
The focal length of an optical system is a measure of how strongly the system converges or diverges light. For an optical system in air, it is the distance over which initially collimated (parallel) rays are brought to a focus. A system with a shorter focal length has greater optical power than one with a long focal length; that is, it bends the rays more sharply, bringing them to a focus in a shorter distance.
In most photography and all telescopy, where the subject is essentially infinitely far away, longer focal length (lower optical power) leads to higher magnification and a narrower angle of view; conversely, shorter focal length or higher optical power is associated with lower magnification and a wider angle of view. On the other hand, in applications such as microscopy in which magnification is achieved by bringing the object close to the lens, a shorter focal length (higher optical power) leads to higher magnification because the subject can be brought closer to the center of projection.
Contents
[hide]
1 Thin lens approximation
2 General optical systems
3 In photography
4 See also
5 References
Thin lens approximation[edit]
For a thin lens in air, the focal length is the distance from the center of the lens to the principal foci (or focal points) of the lens. For a converging lens (for example a convex lens), the focal length is positive, and is the distance at which a beam of collimated light will be focused to a single spot. For a diverging lens (for example a concave lens), the focal length is negative, and is the distance to the point from which a collimated beam appears to be diverging after passing through the lens.
When a lens is used to form an image of some object, the distance from the object to the lens u, the distance from the lens to the image v, and the focal length f are related by
1 f = 1 u + 1 v . {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{f}}={\frac {1}{u}}+{\frac {1}{v}}\ .}
The focal length of a thin lens can be easily measured by using it to form an image of a distant light source on a screen. The lens is moved until a sharp image is formed on the screen. In this case 1/u is negligible, and the focal length is then given by
f ≈ v . {\displaystyle f\approx v\ .}
General optical systems[edit]
Thick lens diagram
For a thick lens (one which has a non-negligible thickness), or an imaging system consisting of several lenses or mirrors (e.g., a photographic lens or a telescope), the focal length is often called the effective focal length (EFL), to distinguish it from other commonly used parameters:
Front focal length (FFL) or front focal distance (FFD) (sF) is the distance from the front focal point of the system (F) to the vertex of the first optical surface (S1).[1][2]
Back focal length (BFL) or back focal distance (BFD) (s′F′) is the distance from the vertex of the last optical surface of the system (S2) to the rear focal point (F′).[1][2]
For an optical system in air, the effective focal length (f and f′) gives the distance from the front and rear principal planes (H and H′) to the corresponding focal points (F and F′). If the surrounding medium is not air, then the distance is multiplied by the refractive index of the medium (n is the refractive index of the substance from which the lens itself is made; n1 is the refractive index of any medium in front of the lens; n2 is that of any medium in back of it). Some authors call these distances the front/rear focal lengths, distinguishing them from the front/rear focal distances, defined above.[1]
In general, the focal length or EFL is the value that describes the ability of the optical system to focus light, and is the value used to calculate the magnification of the system. The other parameters are used in determining where an image will be formed for a given object position.
For the case of a lens of thickness d in air (n1 = n2 = 1), and surfaces with radii of curvature R1 and R2, the effective focal length f is given by the Lensmaker's equation:
1 f = ( n − 1 ) ( 1 R 1 − 1 R 2 + ( n − 1 ) d n R 1 R 2 ) , {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{f}}=(n-1)\left({\frac {1}{R_{1}}}-{\frac {1}{R_{2}}}+{\frac {(n-1)d}{nR_{1}R_{2}}}\right),}
where n is the refractive index of the lens medium. The quantity 1/f is also known as the optical power of the lens.
The corresponding front focal distance is:[3]
FFD = f ( 1 + ( n − 1 ) d n R 2 ) , {\displaystyle {\mbox{FFD}}=f\left(1+{\frac {(n-1)d}{nR_{2}}}\right),}
and the back focal distance:
BFD = f ( 1 − ( n − 1 ) d n R 1 ) . {\displaystyle {\mbox{BFD}}=f\left(1-{\frac {(n-1)d}{nR_{1}}}\right).}
In the sign convention used here, the value of R1 will be positive if the first lens surface is convex, and negative if it is concave. The value of R2 is negative if the second surface is convex, and positive if concave. Note that sign conventions vary between different authors, which results in different forms of these equations depending on the convention used.
For a spherically curved mirror in air, the magnitude of the focal length is equal to the radius of curvature of the mirror divided by two. The focal length is positive for a concave mirror, and negative for a convex mirror. In the sign convention used in optical design, a concave mirror has negative radius of curvature, so
f = − R 2 , {\displaystyle f=-{R \over 2},}
where R is the radius of curvature of the mirror's surface.
See Radius of curvature (optics) for more information on the sign convention for radius of curvature used here.
In photography[edit]
28 mm lens
50 mm lens
70 mm lens
210 mm lens
An example of how lens choice affects angle of view. The photos above were taken by a 35 mm camera at a fixed distance from the subject.
Images of black letters in a thin convex lens of focal length f are shown in red. Selected rays are shown for letters E, I and K in blue, green and orange, respectively. Note that E (at 2f) has an equal-size, real and inverted image; I (at f) has its image at infinity; and K (at f/2) has a double-size, virtual and upright image.
In this computer simulation, adjusting the angle and focal length of a camera lens while keeping the subject in frame results in vastly differing images. At focal lengths approaching infinity, the light rays are nearly parallel to each other, resulting in the subject looking "flattened". At small focal lengths, the subject appears "foreshortened". (Note that the distance measurement displayed in the image is the camera's distance, in meters, from the subject, not its focal length. But the principle still applies.)
Camera lens focal lengths are usually specified in millimetres (mm), but some older lenses are marked in centimetres (cm) or inches.
Focal length (f) and field of view (FOV) of a lens are inversely proportional. For a standard rectilinear lens, FOV = 2 arctan x/2f, where x is the diagonal of the film.
When a photographic lens is set to "infinity", its rear nodal point is separated from the sensor or film, at the focal plane, by the lens's focal length. Objects far away from the camera then produce sharp images on the sensor or film, which is also at the image plane.
To render closer objects in sharp focus, the lens must be adjusted to increase the distance between the rear nodal point and the film, to put the film at the image plane. The focal length (f), the distance from the front nodal point to the object to photograph (s1), and the distance from the rear nodal point to the image plane (s2) are then related by:
1 s 1 + 1 s 2 = 1 f . {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{s_{1}}}+{\frac {1}{s_{2}}}={\frac {1}{f}}.}
As s1 is decreased, s2 must be increased. For example, consider a normal lens for a 35 mm camera with a focal length of f = 50 mm. To focus a distant object (s1 ≈ ∞), the rear nodal point of the lens must be located a distance s2 = 50 mm from the image plane. To focus an object 1 m away (s1 = 1,000 mm), the lens must be moved 2.6 mm farther away from the image plane, to s2 = 52.6 mm.
The focal length of a lens determines the magnification at which it images distant objects. It is equal to the distance between the image plane and a pinhole that images distant objects the same size as the lens in question. For rectilinear lenses (that is, with no image distortion), the imaging of distant objects is well modelled as a pinhole camera model.[4] This model leads to the simple geometric model that photographers use for computing the angle of view of a camera; in this case, the angle of view depends only on the ratio of focal length to film size. In general, the angle of view depends also on the distortion.[5]
A lens with a focal length about equal to the diagonal size of the film or sensor format is known as a normal lens; its angle of view is similar to the angle subtended by a large-enough print viewed at a typical viewing distance of the print diagonal, which therefore yields a normal perspective when viewing the print;[6] this angle of view is about 53 degrees diagonally. For full-frame 35 mm-format cameras, the diagonal is 43 mm and a typical "normal" lens has a 50 mm focal length. A lens with a focal length shorter than normal is often referred to as a wide-angle lens (typically 35 mm and less, for 35 mm-format cameras), while a lens significantly longer than normal may be referred to as a telephoto lens (typically 85 mm and more, for 35 mm-format cameras). Technically, long focal length lenses are only "telephoto" if the focal length is longer than the physical length of the lens, but the term is often used to describe any long focal length lens.
Due to the popularity of the 35 mm standard, camera–lens combinations are often described in terms of their 35 mm-equivalent focal length, that is, the focal length of a lens that would have the same angle of view, or field of view, if used on a full-frame 35 mm camera. Use of a 35 mm-equivalent focal length is particularly common with digital cameras, which often use sensors smaller than 35 mm film, and so require correspondingly shorter focal lengths to achieve a given angle of view, by a factor known as the crop factor.
See also[edit]
Depth of field
f-number or focal ratio
Dioptre
Focus (optics)
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Focal length.
^ Jump up to: a b c John E. Greivenkamp (2004). Field Guide to Geometrical Optics. SPIE Press. pp. 6–9. ISBN 978-0-8194-5294-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Hecht, Eugene (2002). Optics (4th ed.). Addison Wesley. p. 168. ISBN 978-0805385663.
Jump up ^ Hecht, Eugene (2002). Optics (4th ed.). Addison Wesley. pp. 244–245. ISBN 978-0805385663.
Jump up ^ Jeffrey Charles (2000). Practical astrophotography. Springer. pp. 63–66. ISBN 978-1-85233-023-1.
Jump up ^ Leslie Stroebel and Richard D. Zakia (1993). The Focal encyclopedia of photography (3rd ed.). Focal Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-240-51417-8.
Jump up ^ Leslie D. Stroebel (1999). View Camera Technique. Focal Press. pp. 135–138. ISBN 978-0-240-80345-6.
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Roller skating
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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People roller skating
Roller skating is the traveling on surfaces with roller skates. It is a form of recreational activity as well as a sport, and can also be a form of transportation. Skates generally come in three basic varieties: quad roller skates, inline skates or blades and tri-skates, though some have experimented with a single-wheeled "quintessence skate" or other variations on the basic skate design. In America, this hobby was most popular, first between 1935 and the early 1960s and then in the 1970s, when polyurethane wheels were created and disco music oriented roller rinks were the rage and then again in the 1990s when in-line outdoor roller skating, thanks to the improvement made to inline roller skates in 1981 by Scott Olson, took hold.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Artistic roller skating
2.1 Figures
2.2 Dance
2.3 Freestyle
2.4 Precision teams
2.5 Singles and pairs
3 Speed skating
4 Group skating
5 Aggressive inline
6 Roller hockey (quad)
7 Skating federations
8 Roller derby
9 Other groups
10 In popular culture
11 Alternatives
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
History[edit]
Young man on the Edvard Petrini's pedaled roller skates,[1] known as Takypod in Sweden, circa 1910
Roller skates in the United States around 1905
1743: First recorded use of roller skates, in a London stage performance. The inventor of this skate is unknown.
1760: First recorded skate invention, by John Joseph Merlin, who created a primitive inline skate with small metal wheels.
1818: Roller skates appeared on the ballet stage in Berlin.[2]
1819: First patented roller skate design, in France by M. Petitbled. These early skates were similar to today's inline skates, but they were not very maneuverable. It was difficult with these skates to do anything but move in a straight line and perhaps make wide sweeping turns.
Rest of the 19th century: inventors continued to work on improving skate design.
1823: Robert John Tyers of London patented a skate called the Rolito. This skate had five wheels in a single row on the bottom of a shoe or boot.[3]
1857: Finally, roller skating had gained enough momentum to warrant the opening of the first public skating rinks. The Strand, London and Floral Hall had these first roller rinks.[4]
1863: The four-wheeled turning roller skate, or quad skate, with four wheels set in two side-by-side pairs (front and rear), was first designed, in New York City by James Leonard Plimpton in an attempt to improve upon previous designs. The skate contained a pivoting action using a rubber cushion that allowed the skater to skate a curve just by pressing his weight to one side or the other, most commonly by leaning to one side. It was a huge success, so much so that the first public roller skating rinks were opened in 1866, first in New York City by Plimpton in his furniture store and then in Newport, Rhode Island with the support of Plimpton. The design of the quad skate allowed easier turns and maneuverability, and the quad skate came to dominate the industry for more than a century.
1875 Roller skating rink in Plymouth, England held its first competition.[5])
1876: William Brown in Birmingham, England, patented a design for the wheels of roller skates. Brown's design embodied his effort to keep the two bearing surfaces of an axle, fixed and moving, apart. Brown worked closely with Joseph Henry Hughes, who drew up the patent for a ball or roller bearing race for bicycle and carriage wheels in 1877. Hughes' patent included all the elements of an adjustable system. These two men are thus responsible for modern roller skate and skateboard wheels, as well as the ball bearing race inclusion in velocipedes—later to become motorbikes and automobiles. This was arguably the most important advance in the realistic use of roller skates as a pleasurable pastime.
An advert for an early 20th-century model which fit over ordinary shoes
1876: The toe stop was first patented. This provided skaters with the ability to stop promptly upon tipping the skate onto the toe. Toe stops are still used today on most quad skates and on some types of inline skates.
1877: The Royal Skating indoor skating ring building is erected rue Veydt, Brussels.[6]
1880s: Roller skates were being mass-produced in America from then. This was the sport's first of several boom periods. Micajah C. Henley of Richmond, Indiana produced thousands of skates every week during peak sales. Henley skates were the first skate with adjustable tension via a screw, the ancestor of the kingbolt mechanism on modern quad skates.
1884: Levant M. Richardson received a patent for the use of steel ball bearings in skate wheels to reduce friction, allowing skaters to increase speed with minimum effort.
1898: Richardson started the Richardson Ball Bearing and Skate Company, which provided skates to most professional skate racers of the time, including Harley Davidson (no relation to the Harley-Davidson motorcycle brand). (Turner and Zaidman, 1997).
A 24-hour roller skating endurance competition in Paris, held in 1911
The design of the quad skate has remained essentially unchanged since then, and remained as the dominant roller skate design until nearly the end of the 20th century. The quad skate has begun to make a comeback recently due to the popularity of roller derby and jam skating.
1900: The Peck & Snyder Company patented an inline skate with two wheels.[7]
1902: The Chicago Coliseum opened a public skating rink. Over 7,000 people attended the opening night.[3]
1977: Inline skates looking like ice skates were used by the makers of the east German DEFA movie "Die zertanzten Schuhe" based on the fairy tale The Twelve Dancing Princesses in some winter scenes on a frozen lake.
1979: Scott Olson and Brennan Olson of Minneapolis, Minnesota came across a pair of inline skates created in the 1960s by the Chicago Roller Skate Company and, seeing the potential for off-ice hockey training, set about redesigning the skates using modern materials and attaching ice hockey boots. A few years later Scott Olson began heavily promoting the skates and launched the company Rollerblade, Inc..
1983 President Ronald Reagan declared October National Roller Skating Month.
1993 - Active Brake Technology, Rollerblade, Inc. developed ABT or Active Brake Technology for increased safety.[8]
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Rollerblade-branded skates became so successful that they inspired many other companies to create similar inline skates, and the inline design became more popular than the traditional quads. The Rollerblade skates became synonymous in the minds of many with "inline skates" and skating, so much so that many people came to call any form of skating "Rollerblading," thus making it a genericized trademark.
For much of the 1980s and into the 1990s, inline skate models typically sold for general public use employed a hard plastic boot, similar to ski boots. In or about 1995, "soft boot" designs were introduced to the market, primarily by the sporting goods firm K2 Inc., and promoted for use as fitness skates. Other companies quickly followed, and by the early 2000s the development of hard shell skates and skeletons became primarily limited to the Aggressive inline skating discipline and other specialized designs.
The single-wheel "quintessence skate"[9] was made in 1988 by Miyshael F. Gailson of Caples Lake Resort, California, for the purpose of cross-country skate skiing and telemark skiing training. Other experimental skate designs the years have included two wheeled (heel and toe) inline skate frames but the vast majority of skates on the market today are either quad or standard inline design.
Artistic roller skating[edit]
Stopless quad skate plates
Artistic roller skating is a sport which consists of a number of events. These are usually accomplished on quad skates, but inline skates may be used for some events. Various flights of events are organized by age and ability/experience. In the US, local competitions lead to 9 regional competitions which led to the National Championships and World Championships.
Figures[edit]
A prescribed movement symmetrically composed of at least two circles, but not more than three circles, involving primary, or primary and secondary movements, with or without turns. Figures are skated on circles, which have been inscribed on the skating surface.[10]
Dance[edit]
In competition skaters can enter more than one event;
Solo Dance; solo dance a competition starts at tiny tot and goes up to golden, for a test it starts with bronze and goes up to gold. You do not have to take tests anymore to skate in harder categories, you must have a couple of tests once you get to a certain event, though. In competition, these dances are set patterns and the judges give you marks for good edges, how neat they look and how well they do turns, etc.
Team Dance; this is where two people skate together doing the set dances. Most people skate with a partner the same ability and age.
Skaters are judged by the accuracy of steps that they skate when performing a particular dance. In addition to being judged on their edges and turns, skaters must carry themselves in an elegant manner while paying careful attention to the rhythm and timing of the music.
Freestyle[edit]
Freestyle roller dancing is a style of physical movement, usually done to music, that isn’t choreographed or planned ahead of time. It occurs in many genres, including those where people dance with partners. By definition, this kind of dance is never the same from performance to performance, although it can be done formally and informally, sometimes using some sparse choreography as a very loose outline for the improvisation.
Precision teams[edit]
A team of skaters (usually counted in multiples of 4) creates various patterns and movements to music. Often used elements include skating in a line, skating in a box, 'splicing' (subgroups skating towards each other such that they do not contact each other), and skating in a circle. The team is judged on its choreography and the ability to skate together precisely.
Singles and pairs[edit]
A single skater or a pair of skaters present routines to music. They are judged on skating ability and creativity. Jumps, spins and turns are expected in these events. Sometimes with a pair or couple skaters slow music will play, and usually it is two songs.
Speed skating[edit]
Speed skating originally started on traditional roller skates. The speed skating season began in fall and continued through spring leading up to a state tournament. Placing in the top three places at a state tournament would qualify skaters for a regional tournament. The top three places at regional tournaments then went on to compete at a national tournament. Skaters could qualify as individuals or as part of a two-person or four-person (relay) team. Qualification at regional events could warrant an invite to the Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs, CO for a one-week training session on their outdoor velodrome. Inline speed skating is a competitive non-contact sport played on inline skates. Variants include indoor, track and road racing, with many different grades of skaters, so the whole family can compete.
Group skating[edit]
Inline roller skater on a slalom course
Among skaters not committed to a particular discipline, a popular social activity is the group skate or street skate, in which large groups of skaters regularly meet to skate together, usually on city streets. One such group is the San Francisco Midnight Rollers. In 1989 the small 15-20 group that became the Midnight Rollers explored the closed doubIe-decker Embarcadero Freeway after the Loma-Prieta earthquake until it was torn down.[11] At which point the new route was created settling on Friday nights at 9 pm from the San Francisco Ferry Building circling 12 miles around the city back at midnight to the start.[12][13][14][15] Although such touring existed among quad roller skate clubs in the 1970s and 1980s, it made the jump to inline skates in 1990 with groups in large cities throughout the United States. In some cases, hundreds of skaters would regularly participate, resembling a rolling party. In the late 1990s, the group skate phenomenon spread to Europe and east Asia. The weekly Friday night skate in Paris, France (called Pari Roller[16]) is believed to be one of the largest repeating group skates in the world. At times, it has had as many as 35,000 skaters participating on the boulevards of Paris, on a single night. The Sunday Skate Night in Berlin also attracts over 10,000 skaters during the summer, and Copenhagen, Munich, Frankfurt, Amsterdam, Buenos Aires, London, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York, and Tokyo host other popular events. Charity skates in Paris have attracted 50,000 participants (the yearly Paris-Versailles skate). The current Official Guinness World Record holder is Nightskating Warszawa (Poland) in number of 4013 participants from 19 June 2014, but their real record from 25 April 2015 is 7303 participants and over 38 000 skaters total in 10 events in season 2015.
Aggressive inline[edit]
Aggressive inline skating is trick-based skating. This is where the individual performs tricks using a slightly different skate to normal. The skate has a grind block in between two wheels and the various companies have designed the boots to take these extra strains. Also the wheels have a flat large contact surface for grip.
Aggressive inline can either take place at a skate park or on the street. Typically predominantly grinds but also air tricks such as spins and flips.
Roller hockey (quad)[edit]
Roller hockey is the overarching name for a rollersport that existed long before inline skates were invented. Roller hockey has been played on quad skates in many countries worldwide and so has many names. Roller hockey at the 1992 Summer Olympics was a demonstration rollersport in the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona.
Skating federations[edit]
In the United States, the controlling organization is USA Roller Sports, headquartered in Lincoln, Nebraska, also home of the National Museum of Roller Skating.[17] Nationals are held each summer with skaters required to qualify through state and regional competitions.
Roller derby[edit]
Roller derby is a team sport played on roller skates on an oval track. Originally a trademarked product developed out of speed skating demonstrations, the sport is currently experiencing a revival as a grass-roots-driven 5-a-side sport played mainly by women. Most roller derby leagues adopt the rules and guidelines set by the Women's Flat Track Derby Association or its male counterpart, Men's Roller Derby Association, but there are leagues that play on a banked track, as the sport was originally from c.1933-1998.
Other groups[edit]
Other groups include:
International Roller Sports Federation (Fédération Internationale de Roller Sports)
British Federation of Roller Skating
Skate Australia
In popular culture[edit]
1916 - Charlie Chaplin film "The Rink" is partially set at a roller skating rink & roller skating party.
1955 - Gene Kelly used roller skates as part of a dance routine in It's Always Fair Weather.
1971 - The song Brand New Key by Melanie Safka uses roller skates as a theme.
1972 - Kansas City Bomber, starring Raquel Welch, is about the roller derby scene.
1975 - Rollerball - A dystopian SciFi centered on a roller skate based tournament.
1978 - Singer Linda Ronstadt dons a roller skating outfit on the cover of her album Living in the USA and in its promotional materials, which helps bring the sport a resurgence of interest in the United States.
1979 - Skatetown, U.S.A. with Scott Baio, Flip Wilson, Patrick Swayze & Maureen McCormick.
1979 - Roller Boogie with Linda Blair.
1980 - Xanadu, with Olivia Newton-John, has rollerskating as a recurring theme.
1980 - Heaven's Gate, with Kris Kristofferson and Christopher Walken, which is set in 1890s Wyoming, features a scene in an early roller-skating rink called "Heaven's Gate".
1983 - In Star 80, there is a roller-skating party at the Playboy Mansion.
1984 - Starlight Express, a musical written by Andrew Lloyd Webber, opened on London's West End. The cast perform on quad skates.
1991 - A Roller Skating Jam Named "Saturdays", a 1991 single by De La Soul and music video filmed at Lace's roller rink on Long Island, NY.
1995 - Man of the House features a scene where Jonathan Taylor Thomas uses early model rollerblades to get around Seattle.
1998 - In the Disney Channel Original Movie Brink!, in-line skating is presented as an extreme competition for teens in California.
2005 - The plot of the film Roll Bounce centered on a group of teenagers who compete in a rollerskating competition in the late 1970s.
2006 - In the movie ATL, set in Atlanta, the protagonist – rapper, T.I. – and his friends had a great love for skating.
2008 - MTV's Americas Best Dance Crew auditioned Breaksk8, a group of Hip Hop dancers on roller skates.
2008 - The songs "Seventies" by Laurent Wolf and "Kim&Jessie" by M83, featured the "Miss'ile" skate dancers
2009 - The movie Whip It, starring Ellen Page and Drew Barrymore – Barrymore also directing – centers on a small-town girl who joins a hard core all-girl roller derby team.
2009 - In the MTV television film My Super Psycho Sweet 16, a roller skating rink Roller Dome
2010 - In the movie Skateland, starring Shiloh Fernandez and Ashley Greene, which is set in the 1980s, when roller skating was very popular and many teenagers used to go to roller rinks.
2010 - In the first season Glee episode Home, a local roller rink called Rinky Dinks is used for rehearsal space for the glee club after their auditorium is commandeered.
2015 - Rap duo Rae Sremmurd's music video, "Throw Sum Mo", is filmed at Moonlight Rollerway near Los Angeles, California.
2016 - Gwen Stefani's music video, "Make Me Like You", which is the first "live" video recorded during the 58th Annual Grammy Awards on February 15 and was filmed at Warner Bros. Studio's Burbank, California.
Alternatives[edit]
Roller skating, like skateboarding, has created a number of spin-off sports and sports devices. In addition to rollerblades/inline skates, there have also been:
Soaps, normal-looking street/skate shoes with a concave plastic plate in the sole to allow grinds.
Heelys, normal-looking street/skate shoes with a single retractable wheel in the heel of each shoe, allowing the wearer to perform unique rollerskating-like moves at leisure while still walking normally when the skating functionality isn't desired (and the wheel is mostly retracted into a recessed slot in the heel). The fact that skateboarding and related wheeled sports are outlawed in many cities and suburbs makes the low key and spontaneous nature of Heelys all the more enticing to the same demographic. Heelys were later also combined with Soaps into a single hybrid shoe.
Freeline skates, a class of unattached skates that wearers place under their normal street or skate shoes. They typically have 2 closely set inline wheels set with a short base under a small squarish plate (usually surfaced with grip tape about the same width as the rider's shoe). This arrangement allows for a range of motion similar to single-wheeled skates like Heelys. Due to the lack of straps on the contact plate, freeline skates require constant motion to stay on, and are a particular challenge for novices.
Two-wheeled skates: there are also other lesser seen two-wheeled skate arrangements. Some resemble inline skates but with 2 very large wheels bolted in at an angle from the outside rather than a center-balanced row of 4 smaller wheels underneath of inline skates. Others resemble freeline skates in that they have a small squarish platform, but with 2 medium-sized wheels on either side, somewhat between a freeline skate and roller skates (but with inline-skate-styled wheels).
Orbit wheel skates, another spiritual relative of the freeline skate whereby the skate stands on a grip-tape-surfaced platform (just slightly larger than a freeline skate's) inside of a large hoop that contains a trapped wheel that can freely rotate under the grip plate each foot is planted on. The foot plates normally rest on the trough of the inner surface of these orbital wheels, with the toes pointing orthogonal to the rotation of the ringed wheel. It's said the experience of riding them is somewhat similar to skateboarding, and there are variants with the two wheels connected so the rider is fixed in a skateboarding-like stance.
See also[edit]
Aggressive inline skating
Freeline skates
Heelys
Inline skates
Inline speed skating
Powerslide
Roller hockey
Road skating
Roller derby
Sidesurf
Soap shoes
Starlight Express
References[edit]
Notes
Jump up ^ Patent US809980 - Roller-skate.
Jump up ^ "History and Evolution of Roller Skating".
^ Jump up to: a b Mary Bellis. "The Wild History of Roller Skates, or Dry Land Skating". About.
Jump up ^ "History of Roller Skating in the United States :: Planet On Wheels".
Jump up ^ Lawer, Diana. Get Your Skates On! : A History of Plymouth's Roller Skating Rinks, 1874-1989, Plymouth: Three Towns, 2007
Jump up ^ The building still exists in 2011 and swapped its original function to an Art Gallery
Jump up ^ National Museum of Roller Skating. "National Museum of Roller Skating: History of Inline Skating".
Jump up ^ Mary Bellis. "History of Rollerblades". About.
Jump up ^ "Quintessence Skate Qskate OneWheelSkate bicycleskate qs8 gailson".
Jump up ^ http://usars.info/rules/figure/FigureTechManuals101506.pdf
Jump up ^ "Friday Night Fever".
Jump up ^ "SKATERS, UNITE!".
Jump up ^ "rocking and rolling in the city".
Jump up ^ "The Mild Ones".
Jump up ^ "S.F.'s Friday Night Skate a weekly party on wheels".
Jump up ^ "Pari Roller - La Friday Night Fever !".
Jump up ^ National Museum of Roller Skating. "The National Museum of Roller Skating".
Bibliography
Turner, James, in collaboration with Zaidman, Michael (1997). The History of Roller Skating. National Museum of Roller Skating. ISBN 0-9658192-0-5. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
National Museum of Roller Skating: Homework Page
United States Amateur Confederation of Roller Skating (1980). American Roller Skate Dancing Part I Bronze and Silver Dances Edition X. An Official USAC/RS Publication. p. 9.
Pickard, George, (2010). Titans and Heroes of American Roller Skating. National Museum of Roller Skating. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
120 Hours Longest Non-Stop Relay Roller Skating Marathon World Records
NON STOP RELAY SKATING MARATHON BY INDIVIDUALS World Records
External links[edit]
Media related to Roller skating at Wikimedia Commons

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