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Spanish influence on Filipino culture
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Flag of Spain.
Flag of the Philippines.
The Spanish influence on Filipino culture has been profound, having which originated from the Spanish East Indies. A variety of aspects of the customs and traditions in the Philippines today can be traced back to this influence.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 History before Hispanization
3 Language
4 Name of the Philippines
4.1 Filipino Spanish surnames
5 People
6 Religion
6.1 Festivities
6.2 Holidays
7 Arts, literature and music
8 Cuisine
9 Business
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Background[edit]
Main articles: Spanish Filipino and Spanish East Indies
Spanish settlement in the Philippines first took place in the 16th century, during the Spanish colonial period of the islands. The conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi founded the first Spanish settlement in Cebu in 1565, and later established Manila as the capital of the Spanish East Indies in 1571. The Philippine Islands are named after King Philip.[2] Spaniards are referred to by Filipinos as "Kastila" (Castilian) named after the former Kingdom of Castile, now a region of Spain. The majority of the Filipinos of Spanish descent are of Spaniards, Mexican and Andalusian origin, while a minority are Latin American, Catalan or Basque descents.[clarification needed] Another term for them is Spanish Filipino.
History before Hispanization[edit]
Some of the societies scattered in the islands remained isolated but many evolved into states that developed substantial trade and contacts with the peoples of Eastern and Southern Asia, including those from India, China, Japan and other Austronesian islands (The Malay archipelago).
The 1st millennium saw the rise of the harbor principalities and their growth into maritime states composed of autonomous barangays independent of, or allied with larger nations which were either Malay thalassocracies, led by Datus, Chinese tributary states ruled by Huangs or Indianized kingdoms governed by Rajahs.
For example, Datu Puti ruled over the Confederation of Madja-as after he purchased his realms from the Ati Chieftain, Marikudo. Madja-as, being founded on Panay island, named after the fallen homeland, the state of Pannai. The Rajahnate of Butuan, attained prominence under the rule of Rajah Sri Bata Shaja. The Kingdom of Tondo, was ruled over by the Lakandula dynasty and the Rajahnate of Cebu which was led by Rajamuda Sri Lumay. Other nations in this era include the Sinified kingdom of Ma-i, represented by Huang/Gat Sa Li-han (Gatchalian) and Sulu which, before its Islamization and Spanish colonization, was also an Indianized Rajahnate under its first ruler, Rajah Sipad the Older.
Language[edit]
Main articles: Philippine Spanish and Spanish language in the Philippines
See also: Chavacano
Philippine Spanish (Spanish: Español Filipino, Castellano Filipino) is a variant of standard Spanish spoken in the Philippines. It is a Spanish dialect of the Spanish language. The variant is very similar to Mexican Spanish, because of Mexican and Latin American emigration to the Spanish East Indies (Philippines) over the years.
Chavacano, a Spanish-based creole, is spoken in the Zamboanga Peninsula (where it is an official dialect), Davao, and Cotabato in Mindanao, and Cavite in Luzon.
Filipinos today speak a variety of different languages including Cebuano, Tagalog, Ilocano, Ilonggo, and Bikolano, in addition to English—all of which contain up to several thousand Spanish loanwords.
The most common languages spoken in the Philippines today are English and Filipino, the national language that is a standardised form of Tagalog. Spanish was an official language of the country until immediately after the People Power Revolution in February 1986 and the subsequent ratification of the 1987 Constitution. The new charter dropped Spanish as an official language.
However, the government of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, the fourteenth President of the Philippines and a hispanophone, reintroduced the study of Spanish into the state school system. There are currently around 3 million Spanish speakers residing in the country, of whom a minority still speak the language in public.
Name of the Philippines[edit]
See also: List of Philippine place names of Spanish origin
The name of the Philippines comes from the king of Spain Philip II. It was given by the Spanish explorer Ruy Lopez de Villalobos who named the islands of Samar and Leyte "Las Islas Felipinas" (The Philippine Islands), during his expedition in 1543. Throughout the colonial period, the name Felipinas (Philippines) was used, and became the official name of the Philippines.
There are many provinces in the Philippines with Spanish names, such as Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Écija (Nueva Ecija), Laguna, Isabela, Quirino, Aurora, La Unión (La Union), Marinduque, Antique, Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, Nueva Segovia and Valle de Compostela.
Many cities and towns are also named in Spanish, such as Medellin, La Libertad, Naga City (prior to 1919 was known as Nueva Cáceres), Las Piñas, Prosperidad, Isabela, Sierra Bullones, Angeles, La Paz, Esperanza, Buenavista, Pilar, La Trinidad, Garcia Hernandez, Trece Martires, Los Baños, and many more. There are numerous other towns and cities named after saints, such as San Fernando, Santa Rosa, San Isidro, San José, San Juan and San Pablo, as well as after Spanish places like Madrid, Santander, Toledo, Cádiz, Valencia, Murcia, Lucena, and Pamplona.
Other native Filipino names are spelled using Spanish orthography, such as Cagayán de Oro, Parañaque, and Cebú.
Filipino Spanish surnames[edit]
See also: Catálogo alfabético de apellidos
On 21 November 1849 the Spanish Governor General of the Philippine Islands, Narciso Clavería, decreed the systematic distribution of surnames and the implementation of the Spanish naming system for the Filipinos, thereby producing the Catálogo alfabético de apellidos ("Alphabetical Catalogue of Surnames") listing Spanish, Filipino, and Hispanicised Chinese words, names, and numbers. Thus many Spanish-sounding Filipino surnames are not surnames common to the Hispanophone world. However, surnames of Spanish nobility and several colonial administrators, which include the preposition de as a nobiliary particle, were explicitly prohibited.
The colonial authorities implemented this decree because too many (early) Christianized Filipinos assumed religious-instrument and saint names. There soon were too many people surnamed "de los Santos" ("of the Saints"), "de la Cruz" ("of the Cross"), "del Rosario" ("of the Rosary"), "Bautista" ("Baptist"), etc., which made it difficult for the Spanish colonists to control the Filipino people, and most important, to collect taxes. This Spanish naming custom countered the native Filipino naming custom wherein siblings assumed different surnames, as practised before the Spanish conquest of the Philippine Islands.
Moreover, because of this implementation of Spanish naming customs (given name - paternal surname - maternal surname) in the Philippines, A Spanish surname does not necessarily denote Spanish ancestry.
People[edit]
Main articles: Demographics of the Philippines and Filipino people of Spanish ancestry
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Filipinos belong to the Austronesian ethnic group of the Southeast Asian region. The natives of the Philippine Islands may be related to the Chamorro people in Guam and the Mariana Islands (named Islas de Ladrones during Ferdinand Magellan's expedition) of the Pacific Ocean due to their racial similarity, and for being geographically not connected to the Southeast Asian mainland as a group of islands, but are rather different from the Pacific Islanders belonging to the Polynesian, Micronesian, and Melanesian ethnic groups. The natives of the Philippines are rather closely related to their closest neighbors, which are Malaysia and Indonesia. Most of the immigrant ethnicities of the Philippine Islands are from the Southeast Asian region. Although there are lots of ethnic groups in the Philippines, such as the native population (Tagalog, Bisaya, Bicolano, Ilocano, Mindanaoans, and the native Moros in Mindanao), that some people of the Philippines of this present time, consider them to be related to the Aborigines of Australia and Melanesians, are rather the result of the long period of interracial mixture among the native ethnic groups of the Islands. The Philippine Islands is still politically divided among the ethnic groups and regional groups, but there are also Chinese people(Chinese), Japanese people,[3][4] and Indian people(Indians) who migrated after the Spanish colonial era, that created their own non-native ethnic group. There are only few Filipinos today who are of "Pure Spanish" ancestry that would probably number to less than 20,000(twenty thousand),[according to whom?]. According to the mestizo descendants of the Spaniards in the Philippines, they do not view themselves as Spaniards anymore due to their native mixture and for the Independence of the Philippines from Spain,[dubious – discuss] and from any Spanish control for already over a century.
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Nevertheless, according to a Spanish census in 1798 as much as 1/3rd of Filipinos, in which case, the Filipinos living in Luzon; possess varying degrees of Spanish and Latin-American ancestry.[5] Official percentage of Filipinos with Spanish ancestry is unknown.[citation needed] However, in a research done by Dr. Michael Purugganan, NYU Dean of Science in 2013, he conclude that Filipinos today are the conclusion of an Austronesian evolutionary result of 377 years of Hispanic colonization, 50 years American Colonization and being a melting pot of Asia in pre-colonial era. He stated that; "We are all mixes, and I think every Filipino who is genetically tested will show up as a mix. We are products of what we evolutionary genomicists call genetic admixture, the result of several thousand years of mixing in our island archipelago at the edge of the Pacific. We were always getting genes from everyone who came to our shores. We are, in a genetic sense, a truly global people."
Religion[edit]
The statue of Our Lady of Peñafrancia in procession to the high altar of Manila Cathedral.
Main article: Religion in the Philippines
The Philippines is one of two predominantly Roman Catholic countries in Asia, the other being East Timor. About 86% of the population are Catholics. About 5% are Muslim, and about 5% practised other religion, and those with no religion.
Filipinos at home set up altars in the Hispanic tradition, adorned with Catholic images, flowers, and candles. During fiestas, most communities organise church services and religious processions in honour of a patron saint, hold funfairs and concerts, and feast with a variety of Filipino foods.
Festivities[edit]
Main article: Public holidays in the Philippines
All major Roman Catholic holy days are observed as official national holidays in the Philippines. Spanish-Mexican culture and Christianity has influenced the customs and traditions of the Philippines.
Every year on the 3rd Sunday of January, the Philippines celebrates the festival of the "Santo Niño" (Holy Child Jesus), the largest being held in Cebu City.
Holidays[edit]
1 January – New Years Day (Bagong Taon)
March or April – Semana Santa (Holy Week or Easter)
31 October to 2 November – Day of the Dead, Araw ng mga Kaluluwa (All Souls' Day), and Todos Los Santos (All Saints' Day) where families spend much of the 3 days and 3 evenings visiting their ancestral graves, showing respect and honoring the departed relatives by feasting, decorating and offering prayers.
24 December – Nochebuena (The Good night or Christmas Eve)
25 December – Christmas (Pasko)
Arts, literature and music[edit]
Main articles: Arts of the Philippines, Literature of the Philippines, and Music in the Philippines
Hispanic influence is based on Indigenous, and European tradition. Folk dance, music, and literature have remained intact in the 21st century. These were introduced from Spain, and Mexico in the 16th century, and can be regarded as largely Hispanic in constitution, which have remained in the Philippines for centuries.
Cuisine[edit]
Main article: Filipino cuisine
The cuisine in the Philippines reflects the influences of Spanish, and Asian cuisine.
Chicken galantina (Baliuag, Bulacan).
They include:
Adobo
Afritada
Albóndigas
Arroz a la valenciana
Arroz Caldo
Avocado
Bistek
Brazo de Mercedes
Calabaza
Caldereta
Champorado
Chicharon
Galantina
Caldereta
Camote
Chicharrón
Chorizo
Dulce de membrillo
Dulce de leche
Dinuguan
Empanadas
Estufado
Ensaymadas
Escabeche
Espasol
Flan
Jamonada or Endulzado
Galletas
Jamón
Lechón
Longaniza
lúgaw
Maíz con hielo
Mantequilla
Mazapán
Mechado
Menudo
Natilla
Paella
Pan de sal
Pastel de lengua
Pastillas de leche
Pescado
Picadillo
Pionono
Picadillo
Pochero de bacalao
Polvorón
Quezo de Bola
Relleno
Tamal
Tamales
Torta del cielo
Tortas
Tortilla quesada
Tocino
Tocino del Cielo
Turrones de Casuy
Business[edit]
Map of Manila, 1898.
In the business community, the Philippine Chamber of Commerce and Industry (PCCI) plays an integral role in the economic, political and social development of the nation. Historically, the chamber can be traced back as early as the 1890s with the inauguration of the Cámara de Comercio de Filipinas. This organisation was composed mainly of Spanish companies such as the Compañia General de Tabacos de Filipinas, Fábrica de Cerveza San Miguel, and Elizalde y Cía, among other Spanish, and Philippine companies.
During the first half of the 20th century commerce, and industrial trades with other Hispanic countries declined due to the United States administration of the Philippines. However, the resurgence of trade between Spain and Latin American nations had risen toward the closing of the century. 1998 marked the centennial celebration of Philippine independence, and opened a new opportunity for both Hispanic and Filipino businesses to reconnect their historic ties as trade partners.
See also[edit]
Spanish Filipino
Hispanic culture
Culture of the Philippines
Latin Union
Spanish language in the Philippines
Philippines education during Spanish rule
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/humanitiesdiliman/article/viewFile/18/464
Jump up ^ filipino.com
Jump up ^ Ohno, Shun (2006). "The Intermarried issei and mestizo nisei in the Philippines". In Adachi, Nobuko. Japanese diasporas: Unsung pasts, conflicting presents, and uncertain futures. p. 97. ISBN 978-1-135-98723-7.
Jump up ^ Agnote, Dario (October 11, 2006). "A glimmer of hope for castoffs". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on June 7, 2011. Retrieved August 9, 2016.
Jump up ^ Jagor, Fëdor, et al. (1870). The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes
External links[edit]
"Culture of the Philippines".
"Spanish Program for Cultural Cooperation".
"Asociación Cultural Galeón de Manila" [Manila Galleon Cultural Association] (in Spanish and English).
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spanish_influence_on_Filipino_culture&oldid=801107556"
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text:
Fire HDX
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Amazon Fire HDX
Fire HDX 7
Developer
Amazon.com
Type
Tablet computer
Release date
7" model October 18, 2013
8.9" model November 7, 2013 (USA)
Operating system
Fire OS 3, upgradable to Fire OS 4
System-on-chip used
Qualcomm Snapdragon 800
CPU
Quad-core 2.2 GHz ARM Krait 400
Memory
2 GB
Storage
16/32/64 GB
Display
7" model:
1920 × 1200 px 323 PPI
7 in (18 cm) diagonal
8.9" model:
2560 × 1600 px 339 PPI
8.9 in (23 cm) diagonal
Graphics
Adreno 330
Sound
Stereo speakers
Input
GPS, accelerometer, gyroscope, light sensor
Camera
Front; 8.9" model only: 8 MP Rear
Connectivity
Micro-USB 2.0 (type B)
3.5 mm stereo socket
Dual-band 802.11 a/b/g/n WiFi
4G LTE
Bluetooth 4.0
Online services
Amazon Prime, Amazon Cloud Storage, Amazon Cloud Player, Amazon video, Amazon Silk, Amazon Appstore, Amazon Kindle Store
Dimensions
7" model: 186×128×9.0 mm (7.3×5.0×0.35 in)
8.9" model: 231×158×7.8 mm (9.1×6.2×0.31 in)
Weight
7" model:
WiFi 303 g, 4G 311 g
8.9" model:
WiFi 374 g, 4G 384 g
Predecessor
Fire HD
Website
Amazon Kindle Fire HDX
The Fire HDX, formerly named Kindle Fire HDX, is the high-end model in Amazon's Kindle Fire line of tablet computers. It was announced on September 25, 2013 and is available in two models, 7 inch and 8.9 inch. The 7 inch WiFi model was released on October 18, 2013 and the 8.9 inch WiFi model was released on November 7, 2013 in the United States.
In September 2014, Amazon released the second generation of the Fire HDX 8.9 model that has a faster processor and a more powerful graphics processing unit. In addition, the name "Kindle" was removed from all of the Fire tablets' names.
Contents
[hide]
1 Design
1.1 Hardware
1.2 Software
1.2.1 Mayday feature
1.2.2 Fire OS UI
2 Models
3 Reception
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Design[edit]
Hardware[edit]
Both the 7 inch and 8.9 inch LCD models contain a Qualcomm Snapdragon 800 processor that has an Adreno 330 GPU. The models also have a 1.2 megapixel front camera that shoots 720p HD video. The 8.9 inch model has an 8 megapixel rear camera that shoots HD 1080p video. The exterior surface has angular, raised plastic edges with the power and volume buttons located on the backside. The Fire HDX features Dolby Digital Plus audio engine powering the two attached speakers. A normal user will get about 12 hours of battery life from a full charge.[1]
The Fire HDX 8.9" refresh in 2014 uses a Qualcomm Snapdragon 805 processor with an Adreno 420 GPU.[2] The sound system features Dolby Atmos speaker technology and the Wi-Fi version weighs 13.2 ounces (375 grams).
Software[edit]
Both models use Fire OS 3 which is a proprietary fork of Android 4.2.2. It features "Mayday", a button for free tech support available any time, "Silk", a cloud-accelerated browser, the Amazon Appstore for games and apps and Amazon.com services for media content purchases.[3] The tablets can send video content to a supported TV, game console or through a device like a Wireless Display HDMI adapter wirelessly using "Second Screen", but cannot send content via a HDMI cable like its predecessor, the Kindle Fire HD.
The 2014 refresh uses Fire OS 4 "Sangria", which features profiles so each user on the tablet can have their own settings and apps.[4]
Mayday feature[edit]
Sascha Segan of PC Magazine mentioned: "Press the Mayday button, and within 15 seconds, a live Amazon operator appears in a video chat window on your screen to answer all of your Kindle Fire questions. He or she will even tell you what apps to download. I've never seen anything else like it on a tablet."[5] In his review of the Kindle Fire HDX 7" he called the Mayday remote video support feature as "revolutionary" and "Amazon's most exciting feature".[6]
Fire OS UI[edit]
The Fire HDX's UI has a "Carousel" which contains the most recent apps used and ones that have been updated or purchased recently.[7] The Carousel also holds documents, videos, music, and books. The Fire HDX also has a favorites tab in which the user can access the users apps from any other application.
Models[edit]
Generation (within Fire tablets)
3rd Generation (2013)
4th Generation (2014)
Model
Kindle Fire HDX
Kindle Fire HDX 8.9"
Fire HDX 8.9
Release date
Wi-Fi
October 18, 2013 November 7, 2013 October 21, 2014
+Cellular
November 14, 2013 December 10, 2013 December 2014
Status
Discontinued Available
Wi-Fi Discontinued
OS
Fire OS 4 Fire OS 5
System Version
4.5.5.2[8][9] 5.4.0.0[10]
Screen
Size (diagonal)
7 in (18 cm) 8.9 in (23 cm)
Resolution
1920 × 1200 2560 × 1600
Density
323 ppi 339 ppi
CPU
Maker
Qualcomm
Kind
Quad-core Snapdragon
Model
800[11] 805
Cores
4x Krait 400 @ 2.2 GHz 4x Krait 450 @ 2.5 GHz
Width
32-bit
GPU
Designer
Qualcomm
Kind
Adreno
Model
330 420
Clock
450 MHz[11] 600 MHz[11]
RAM
2 GiB
Storage
Internal
16 GB, 32 GB, or 64 GB
External
N/A
Camera
Back
N/A 8 MP
Front
1.2 MP HD 720p still and video camera
Microphone
Yes
Bluetooth
BT 4.0 + EDR (HID and A2DP profiles only)
Wireless
Wi-Fi
Dual-band 802.11 a/b/g/n Dual-band 802.11 a/b/g/n/ac MIMO + HT80
+Cellular
adds 4G LTE
Location
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi based
+Cellular
adds GPS and aGPS[11][12]
Proximity
Wi-Fi
N/A
+Cellular
Yes N/A
Compass
Wi-Fi
N/A
+Cellular
Yes
Light sensor
Accelerometer
Gyroscope
Barometer
N/A
Weight
Wi-Fi
303 g (10.7 oz) 374 g (13.2 oz) 375 g (13.2 oz)
+Cellular
311 g (11.0 oz) 384 g (13.5 oz) 389 g (13.7 oz)
Dimensions
186 mm × 128 mm × 9.0 mm
(7.32 in × 5.04 in × 0.35 in) 231 mm × 158 mm × 7.8 mm
(9.09 in × 6.22 in × 0.31 in)
Battery
4500[13] mAh Up to 12 hours
Reception[edit]
Engadget gave the Fire HDX an 85 out of 100, saying that it may be the most compelling case for Amazon's tablet ecosystem. While advanced users may be turned off by the limited app selection, the display's gorgeous color accuracy may make the tablet a good buy for everyone else, especially Amazon Prime members.[14]
PC Magazine gave the Amazon Kindle Fire HDX 7" (Wi-Fi) edition 4 out of 5 and rated "Excellent" while following pros were noted: "Sharp screen. Fast processor. Extremely easy to use. Amazing live tech support."[6]
The Fire HDX's screen has high color accuracy and high pixel density at 339 PPI, and as of early 2013 was one of the highest of tablet devices commercially available.[15] However, CNET pointed out that no Google Play access means limited app selection compared to other Android tablets and some users may be bothered by an additional $15 to remove ads on the lock screen, while ads on the home screen can be removed with a system setting.[16]
The Fire HDX supports local FLAC and Wav music files up to 24/96 using Fire software and Apps like Avia (which also supports 24/192). Using music streaming Apps such as Mezzmo and Avia the Fire HDX supports UPnP/DLNA servers for FLAC and Wav playback (up to 24/192) for local and remote device playback.
See also[edit]
Tablet computers
E-book readers
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kingsley, Adrian (2014-01-27). "Five ways the iPad is lagging behind the Kindle Fire HDX | Page 4". ZDNet. Retrieved 2014-02-03.
Jump up ^ Jason Hidalgo, RGJ (24 September 2014). "Technobubble: Sizing up Amazon's new Kindle Fire HDX 8.9".
Jump up ^ Wilson Rothman (2012-05-18). "Amazon's Kindle Fire HDX tablets pose real threat to iPad dominance". NBC News.com. Retrieved 2013-09-25.
Jump up ^ "What's new with Amazon's Fire OS 4.0 "Sangria"?". AndroidGuys.
Jump up ^ Sascha Segan. "Hands On With the New Kindle Fires". PC Magazine. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b Sascha Segan. "Amazon Kindle Fire HDX 7" (Wi-Fi)". PC Magazine. Missing or empty |url= (help); |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ ""Using the Carousel, Favorites, and Content Libraries"Amazon.com Help". Amazon. Retrieved 20 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Help: Kindle Fire HDX Software Update". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2015-08-05.
Jump up ^ "Help: Kindle Fire HDX 8.9" Software Update". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2015-08-05.
Jump up ^ "Fire HDX 8.9 (4th Generation) Software Updates". Amazon.com. Retrieved 2016-11-11.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Device and Feature Specifications - Amazon Apps & Services Developer Portal". developer.amazon.com. Retrieved 2015-11-28.
Jump up ^ "Fire HDX 8.9 product page". www.amazon.com. Retrieved 2015-11-28.
Jump up ^ Kindle Fire HDX 7" (2013-10-14). "Kindle Fire HDX 7" Teardown". iFixit. Retrieved 2013-11-27.
Jump up ^ Engadget. "The year in reviews: 2013's best and worst gadgets scored and scrutinized". Engadget.com. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
Jump up ^ "Flagship Tablet Display Technology Shoot-Out". Displaymate.com. Retrieved 2013-11-27.
Jump up ^ Franklin, Eric. "Amazon Kindle Fire HDX 7 Review - Watch CNET's Video Review". Reviews.cnet.com. Retrieved 2013-11-27.
External links[edit]
Official Amazon.com site for 7" version
Official Amazon.com site for 8.9" version
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Baroque music
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The harpsichord, a keyboard instrument in which pressing the keys caused a quill to pluck the strings, was an important Baroque era instrument, which was used both in accompaniment and solo roles. Pictured is a double-manual (two keyboard) harpsichord after Jean-Claude Goujon (1749).
Periods and eras of
Western classical music
Early
Medieval c. 500–1400
Renaissance c. 1400–1600
Common practice
Baroque c. 1600–1750
Classical c. 1730–1820
Romantic c. 1780–1910
Modern and contemporary
Impressionist c. 1875–1925
Modern
High modern
c. 1890–1975
20th century (1900–2000)
Contemporary
Postmodern
c. 1975–present
21st century (2000–present)
v
t
e
Baroque music (US: /bəˈroʊk/ or UK: /bəˈrɒk/) is a style of Western art music composed from approximately 1600 to 1750.[1] This era followed the Renaissance music era, and was followed in turn by the Classical era. Baroque music forms a major portion of the "classical music" canon, being nowadays widely studied, performed, and listened to. Key composers of the Baroque era include Johann Sebastian Bach, Antonio Vivaldi, George Frideric Handel, Claudio Monteverdi, Domenico Scarlatti, Alessandro Scarlatti, Henry Purcell, Georg Philipp Telemann, Jean-Baptiste Lully, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Arcangelo Corelli, Tomaso Albinoni, François Couperin, Giuseppe Tartini, Heinrich Schütz, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, Dieterich Buxtehude, and Johann Pachelbel.
The Baroque period saw the creation of tonality, an approach to writing music in which a song or piece is written in a particular key (tonality continues to be used in almost all Western popular music). During the Baroque era, professional musicians were expected to be accomplished improvisers of both solo melodic lines and accompaniment parts. Baroque concerts were typically accompanied by a basso continuo group which consisted of chord-playing instrumentalists such as harpsichordists and lute players improvising chords from a figured bass part while a group of bass instruments (viol, cello, double bass) played the bassline. A characteristic Baroque form was the dance suite. While the pieces in a dance suite were inspired by actual dance music, dance suites were designed for listening, not for accompanying dancers.
During the period, composers and performers used more elaborate[clarification needed] musical ornamentation (typically improvised by performers), made changes in musical notation (the development of figured bass as a quick way to notate the chord progression of a song or piece), and developed new instrumental playing techniques. Baroque music expanded the size, range, and complexity of instrumental performance, and also established the mixed vocal/instrumental forms of opera, cantata and oratorio and the instrumental forms of the solo concerto and sonata as musical genres. Many musical terms and concepts from this era, such as toccata, fugue and concerto grosso are still in use in the 2010s. Dense, complex polyphonic music, in which multiple independent melody lines were performed simultaneously (a popular example of this is the fugue), was an important part of many Baroque choral and instrumental works.
The word "baroque" comes from the Portuguese word barroco, meaning misshapen pearl.[2] The use of the word with negative connotations first occurred in 1734, in a criticism of an opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau, and later (1750) in a description by Charles de Brosses of the ornate and heavily ornamented architecture of the Pamphili Palace in Rome. Although the term continued to be applied to architecture and art criticism through the 19th century, it was not until the 20th century that the term "baroque" was adopted from Heinrich Wölfflin's art-history vocabulary as a designator for a historical period in music.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Early baroque music (1580–1630)
2.2 Middle baroque music (1630–1680)
2.3 Late baroque music (1680–1730)
3 Timeline of composers
4 Instruments
4.1 Strings
4.2 Woodwinds
4.3 Brasses
4.4 Keyboards
4.5 Percussion
5 Styles and forms
5.1 Dance suite
5.2 Other features
6 Genres
6.1 Vocal
6.2 Instrumental
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Etymology[edit]
Johann Sebastian Bach, 1748
The term "Baroque" is generally used by music historians to describe a broad range of styles from a wide geographic region, mostly in Europe, composed over a period of approximately 150 years.[1] Although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music, in an anonymous, satirical review of the première in October 1733 of Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie, printed in the Mercure de France in May 1734. The critic implied that the novelty in this opera was "du barocque", complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was filled with unremitting dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.[3]
The systematic application by historians of the term "baroque" to music of this period is a relatively recent development. In 1919, Curt Sachs became the first to apply the five characteristics of Heinrich Wölfflin's theory of the Baroque systematically to music.[4] Critics were quick to question the attempt to transpose Wölfflin's categories to music, however, and in the second quarter of the 20th century independent attempts were made by Manfred Bukofzer (in Germany and, after his immigration, in America) and by Suzanne Clercx-Lejeune (in Belgium) to use autonomous, technical analysis rather than comparative abstractions, in order to avoid the adaptation of theories based on the plastic arts and literature to music. All of these efforts resulted in appreciable disagreement about time boundaries of the period, especially concerning when it began. In English the term acquired currency only in the 1940s, in the writings of Bukofzer and Paul Henry Lang.[1]
As late as 1960 there was still considerable dispute in academic circles, particularly in France and Britain, whether it was meaningful to lump together music as diverse as that of Jacopo Peri, Domenico Scarlatti, and Johann Sebastian Bach under a single rubric. Nevertheless, the term has become widely used and accepted for this broad range of music.[1] It may be helpful to distinguish the Baroque from both the preceding (Renaissance) and following (Classical) periods of musical history.
History[edit]
The Baroque period is divided into three major phases: early, middle, and late. Although they overlap in time, they are conventionally dated from 1580 to 1630, from 1630 to 1680, and from 1680 to 1730.[5]
Early baroque music (1580–1630)[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Transition from Renaissance to Baroque in instrumental music.
Claudio Monteverdi in 1640
The Florentine Camerata was a group of humanists, musicians, poets and intellectuals in late Renaissance Florence who gathered under the patronage of Count Giovanni de' Bardi to discuss and guide trends in the arts, especially music and drama. In reference to music, they based their ideals on a perception of Classical (especially ancient Greek) musical drama that valued discourse and oration.[6] As such, they rejected their contemporaries' use of polyphony (multiple, independent melodic lines) and instrumental music, and discussed such ancient Greek music devices as monody, which consisted of a solo singing accompanied by a kithara (an ancient strummed string instrument).[7] The early realizations of these ideas, including Jacopo Peri's Dafne and L'Euridice, marked the beginning of opera,[8] which were a catalyst for Baroque music.[9]
Concerning music theory, the more widespread use of figured bass (also known as thorough bass) represents the developing importance of harmony as the linear underpinnings of polyphony.[10] Harmony is the end result of counterpoint, and figured bass is a visual representation of those harmonies commonly employed in musical performance. With figured bass, numbers, accidentals or symbols were placed above the bassline that was read by keyboard instrument players such as harpsichord players or pipe organists (or lutenists). The numbers, accidentals or symbols indicated to the keyboard player what intervals she should play above each bass note. The keyboard player would improvise a chord voicing for each bass note.[11] Composers began concerning themselves with harmonic progressions,[12] and also employed the tritone, perceived as an unstable interval,[13] to create dissonance (it was used in the dominant seventh chord and the diminished chord. An interest in harmony had also existed among certain composers in the Renaissance, notably Carlo Gesualdo;[14] However, the use of harmony directed towards tonality (a focus on a musical key that becomes the "home note" of a piece), rather than modality, marks the shift from the Renaissance into the Baroque period.[15] This led to the idea that certain sequences of chords, rather than just notes, could provide a sense of closure at the end of a piece—one of the fundamental ideas that became known as tonality.[citation needed]
By incorporating these new aspects of composition, Claudio Monteverdi furthered the transition from the Renaissance style of music to that of the Baroque period. He developed two individual styles of composition – the heritage of Renaissance polyphony (prima pratica) and the new basso continuo technique of the Baroque (seconda pratica). With basso continuo, a small group of musicians would play the bassline and the chords which formed the accompaniment for a melody. The basso continuo group would typically use one or more keyboard players and a lute player who would play the bassline and improvise the chords and several bass instruments (e.g., bass viol, cello, double bass) which would play the bassline. With the writing of the operas L'Orfeo and L'incoronazione di Poppea among others, Monteverdi brought considerable attention to this new genre.[16]
Middle baroque music (1630–1680)[edit]
The rise of the centralized court is one of the economic and political features of what is often labelled the Age of Absolutism, personified by Louis XIV of France. The style of palace, and the court system of manners and arts he fostered became the model for the rest of Europe. The realities of rising church and state patronage created the demand for organized public music, as the increasing availability of instruments created the demand for chamber music, which is music for a small ensemble of instrumentalists.[17]
Jean-Baptiste Lully by Paul Mignard
The middle Baroque period in Italy is defined by the emergence of the vocal styles of cantata, oratorio, and opera during the 1630s, and a new concept of melody and harmony that elevated the status of the music to one of equality with the words, which formerly had been regarded as pre-eminent. The florid, coloratura monody of the early Baroque gave way to a simpler, more polished melodic style. These melodies were built from short, cadentially delimited ideas often based on stylized dance patterns drawn from the sarabande or the courante. The harmonies, too, might be simpler[clarification needed] than in the early Baroque monody, and the accompanying bass lines were more integrated with the melody, producing a contrapuntal equivalence of the parts that later led to the device of an initial bass anticipation of the aria melody. This harmonic simplification also led to a new formal device of the differentiation of recitative (a more spoken part of opera) and aria (a part of opera that used sung melodies). The most important innovators of this style were the Romans Luigi Rossi and Giacomo Carissimi, who were primarily composers of cantatas and oratorios, respectively, and the Venetian Francesco Cavalli, who was principally an opera composer. Later important practitioners of this style include Antonio Cesti, Giovanni Legrenzi, and Alessandro Stradella.[18]
The middle Baroque had absolutely no bearing on the theoretical work of Johann Fux, who systematized the strict counterpoint characteristic of earlier ages in his Gradus ad Parnassum (1725).[19][clarification needed]
One pre-eminent example of a court style composer is Jean-Baptiste Lully. He purchased patents from the monarchy to be the sole composer of operas for the French king and to prevent others from having operas staged. He completed 15 lyric tragedies and left unfinished Achille et Polyxène.[20] Lully was an early example of a conductor; he would beat the time with a large staff to keep his ensembles together.
Musically, he did not establish the string-dominated norm for orchestras, which was inherited from the Italian opera, and the characteristically French five-part disposition (violins, violas—in hautes-contre, tailles and quintes sizes—and bass violins) had been used in the ballet from the time of Louis XIII. He did, however, introduce this ensemble to the lyric theatre, with the upper parts often doubled by recorders, flutes, and oboes, and the bass by bassoons. Trumpets and kettledrums were frequently added for heroic scenes.[20]
Arcangelo Corelli
George Frideric Handel
Arcangelo Corelli is remembered as influential for his achievements on the other side of musical technique—as a violinist who organized violin technique and pedagogy—and in purely instrumental music, particularly his advocacy and development of the concerto grosso.[21] Whereas Lully was ensconced at court, Corelli was one of the first composers to publish widely and have his music performed all over Europe. As with Lully's stylization and organization of the opera, the concerto grosso is built on strong contrasts—sections alternate between those played by the full orchestra, and those played by a smaller group. Dynamics were "terraced", that is with a sharp transition from loud to soft and back again. Fast sections and slow sections were juxtaposed against each other. Numbered among his students is Antonio Vivaldi, who later composed hundreds of works based on the principles in Corelli's trio sonatas and concerti.[21]
In contrast to these composers, Dieterich Buxtehude was not a creature of court but instead was church musician, holding the posts of organist and Werkmeister at the Marienkirche at Lübeck. His duties as Werkmeister involved acting as the secretary, treasurer, and business manager of the church, while his position as organist included playing for all the main services, sometimes in collaboration with other instrumentalists or vocalists, who were also paid by the church. Entirely outside of his official church duties, he organised and directed a concert series known as the Abendmusiken, which included performances of sacred dramatic works regarded by his contemporaries as the equivalent of operas.[22]
Late baroque music (1680–1730)[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2014)
The work of George Frideric Handel, Johann Sebastian Bach and their contemporaries, including Domenico Scarlatti, Antonio Vivaldi, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Georg Philipp Telemann, and others advanced the Baroque era to its climax.[23] Through the work of Johann Fux, the Renaissance style of polyphony was made the basis for the study of composition for future musical eras. The composers of the late baroque had established their feats of composition long before the works of Johann Fux.[19]
A continuous worker, Handel borrowed from other composers and often "recycled" his own material. He was also known for reworking pieces such as the famous Messiah, which premiered in 1742, for available singers and musicians.[24]
Timeline of composers[edit]
See also: List of Baroque composers
Instruments[edit]
See also: List of period instruments and Baroque instruments
Strings[edit]
Baroque instruments including hurdy gurdy, harpsichord, bass viol, lute, violin, and guitar
Violino piccolo
Violin
Viol
Viola
Viola d'amore
Viola pomposa
Tenor violin
Cello
Violone
Bass violin
Contrabass
Lute
Theorbo
Archlute
Mandora
Bandora
Angélique
Mandolin
Cittern
Guitar
Harp
Hurdy-gurdy
Woodwinds[edit]
Baroque flute
Chalumeau
Cortol (also known as Cortholt, Curtall, Oboe family)
Dulcian
Musette de cour
Baroque oboe
Rackett
Recorder
Bassoon
Brasses[edit]
Cornett
Natural horn
Baroque trumpet
Tromba da tirarsi (also called tromba spezzata)
Flatt trumpet
Serpent
Sackbut (16th- and early 17th-century English name for FR: saquebute, saqueboute; ES: sacabuche; IT: trombone; MHG: busaun, busîne, busune / DE (since the early 17th century) Posaune)
Trombone (English name for the same instrument, from the early 18th century)
Keyboards[edit]
Clavichord
Tangent piano
Fortepiano – an early version of the piano invented ca. 1700, but did not become popular during Baroque era
Harpsichord
Organ
Percussion[edit]
Timpani
Tambourine
Castanets
Styles and forms[edit]
Dance suite[edit]
See also: Suite (music) § Dance suite
A large instrumental ensemble's performance in the lavish Teatro Argentina is depicted. (Panini, 1747, Musée du Louvre)
A characteristic Baroque form was the dance suite. Some dance suites by Bach are called partitas, although this term is also used for other collections of pieces. While the pieces in a dance suite were inspired by actual dance music, dance suites were designed for listening, not for accompanying dancers. Composers used a variety of different dance movements in their dance suites. A dance suite often consists of the following movements:
Overture – The Baroque suite often began with a French overture ("Ouverture" in French), a slow movement which was followed by a succession of dances of different types, principally the following four:
Allemande – Often the first dance of an instrumental suite, the allemande was a very popular dance that had its origins in the German Renaissance era. The allemande was played at a moderate tempo and could start on any beat of the bar.[25][26]
Courante – The second dance is the courante, a lively, French dance in triple meter. The Italian version is called the corrente.[25][26]
Sarabande – The sarabande, a Spanish dance, is the third of the four basic dances, and is one of the slowest of the baroque dances. It is also in triple meter and can start on any beat of the bar, although there is an emphasis on the second beat, creating the characteristic 'halting', or iambic rhythm of the sarabande.[25][26]
Gigue – The gigue is an upbeat and lively baroque dance in compound meter, typically the concluding movement of an instrumental suite, and the fourth of its basic dance types. The gigue can start on any beat of the bar and is easily recognized by its rhythmic feel. The gigue originated in the British Isles. Its counterpart in folk music is the jig.[25][26]
These four dance types (allemande, courante, sarabande, and gigue) make up the majority of 17th-century suites; later suites interpolate one or more additional dances between the sarabande and gigue:
Gavotte – The gavotte can be identified by a variety of features; it is in 4
4 time and always starts on the third beat of the bar, although this may sound like the first beat in some cases, as the first and third beats are the strong beats in quadruple time. The gavotte is played at a moderate tempo, although in some cases it may be played faster.[25]
Bourrée – The bourrée is similar to the gavotte as it is in 2
2 time, although it starts on the second half of the last beat of the bar, creating a different feel to the dance. The bourrée is commonly played at a moderate tempo, although for some composers, such as Handel, it can be taken at a much faster tempo.[25][2]
Minuet – The minuet is perhaps the best-known of the baroque dances in triple meter. It can start on any beat of the bar. In some suites there may be a Minuet I and II, played in succession, with the Minuet I repeated.[25]
Passepied – The passepied is a fast dance in binary form and triple meter that originated as a court dance in Brittany.[27] Examples can be found in later suites such as those of Bach and Handel.[25]
Rigaudon – The rigaudon is a lively French dance in duple meter, similar to the bourrée, but rhythmically simpler. It originated as a family of closely related southern-French folk dances, traditionally associated with the provinces of Vavarais, Languedoc, Dauphiné, and Provence.[25][28]
Other features[edit]
Prelude – a suite might be started by a prelude, a slow piece written in an improvisatory style. Some Baroque preludes were not fully written out; instead, a sequence of chords were indicated, with the expectation that the instrumentalist would be able to improvise a melodic part using the indicated harmonic framework. The prelude was not based on a type of dance.
Entrée – Sometimes an entrée is composed as part of a suite; but there it is purely instrumental music and no dance is performed. It is an introduction, a march-like piece played during the entrance of a dancing group, or played before a ballet. Usually in 4
4 time. It is related to the Italian 'intrada'.
Basso continuo – a kind of continuous accompaniment notated with a new music notation system, figured bass, usually for one or more sustaining bass instruments (e.g., cello) and one or more chord-playing instruments (e.g., keyboard instruments such as harpsichord, pipe organ or lute)
The concerto (a solo piece with orchestral accompaniment) and concerto grosso
Monody – an outgrowth of song[29]
Homophony – music with one melodic voice and rhythmically similar (and subordinate) chordal accompaniment (this and monody are contrasted with the typical Renaissance texture, polyphony)[30]
Dramatic musical forms like opera, dramma per musica[29][31]
Combined instrumental-vocal forms, such as the oratorio and cantata,[31] both of which used singers and orchestra
New instrumental techniques, like tremolo and pizzicato[31]
The da capo aria "enjoyed sureness".[29]
The ritornello aria – repeated short instrumental interruptions of vocal passages.[32]
The concertato style – contrast in sound between groups of instruments.[33]
Extensive ornamentation,[34] which was typically improvised by singers and instrumentalists (e.g., trills, mordents, etc.)
Genres[edit]
Vocal[edit]
Opera
Zarzuela
Opera seria
Opéra comique
Opera-ballet
Masque
Oratorio
Passion (music)
Cantata
Mass (music)
Anthem
Monody
Chorale
Instrumental[edit]
Chorale composition
Concerto grosso
Fugue
Suite
Allemande
Courante
Sarabande
Gigue
Gavotte
Minuet
Sonata
Sonata da camera
Sonata da chiesa
Trio sonata
Partita
Canzona
Sinfonia
Fantasia
Ricercar
Toccata
Prelude
Chaconne
Passacaglia
Chorale prelude
Stylus fantasticus
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Palisca 2001.
^ Jump up to: a b Mackay and Romanec 2007.
Jump up ^ Palisca 1989, pp. 7–8.
Jump up ^ Sachs 1919, pp. 7–15.
Jump up ^ Bukofzer 1947, pp. 17.
Jump up ^ Nuti 2007, p. 14.
Jump up ^ Wallechinsky 2007, p. 445.
Jump up ^ Chua 2001, p. 26.
Jump up ^ Wainwright and Holman 2005, p. 4.
Jump up ^ Clarke 1898, pp. 147–48.
Jump up ^ Haagmans 1916, p. vi.
Jump up ^ York 1909, p. 109.
Jump up ^ Donington 1974, p. 156.
Jump up ^ Watkins 1991, p. 103.
Jump up ^ Norton 1984, p. 24.
Jump up ^ Carter and Chew 2013.
Jump up ^ Sadie 2013.
Jump up ^ Bukofzer 1947, pp. 118–21.
^ Jump up to: a b White and Hochradner 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b La Gorce 2001.
^ Jump up to: a b Talbot 2001a.
Jump up ^ Snyder 2001.
Jump up ^ Sadie 2002.
Jump up ^ Burrows 1991, p. 22.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Kenyon 1997.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Estrella 2012.
Jump up ^ Little 2001a.
Jump up ^ Little 2001b.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dorak 2008.
Jump up ^ Hyer 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Shotwell 2002.
Jump up ^ Talbot 2001b.
Jump up ^ Carver 2013.
Jump up ^ Roseman 1975.
References[edit]
Bukofzer, Manfred F. (1947). Music in the Baroque Era: From Monteverdi to Bach. New York: E. W. Norton & Company, Inc. ISBN 0-393-09745-5.
Burrows, Donald (1991). Handel: Messiah. Cambridge, New York, and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37620-3.
Carter, Tim; Geoffrey Chew (2013). "Monteverdi, Claudio". Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press. Missing or empty |url= (help)
Carver, Anthony F. (2013). "Concertato". Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
Clarke, Hugh Archibald (1898). A System of Harmony. Philadelphia: T. Presser. ISBN 978-1-248-37946-2.
Chua, Daniel K. L. (2001). "Vincenzo Galilei, Modernity, and the Division of Nature". In Clark, Suzannah. Music Theory and Natural Order from the Renaissance to the Early Twentieth Century.
Donington, Robert (1974). A Performer's Guide to Baroque Music. New York: C. Scribner's Sons. ISBN 978-0-571-09797-5.
Dorak, Mehmet Tevfik (2008). "Baroque Music". Dorak.info. [self-published source?]
Estrella, Espie (2012). "The Suite: Baroque Dance Suite". About.com.
Grout, Donald J.; Claude V. Palisca (1996). A History of Western Music. New York: W. W. Norton.
Haagmans, Dirk (1916). Scales, Intervals, Harmony. University of Michigan: J. Fischer & Bro. ISBN 978-1-4370-6202-1.
Hyer, Brian (2013). "Homophony". Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
Kenyon, Stephen (1997). "The Baroque Suite". Jacaranda Music. [self-published source?]
La Gorce, Jérôme de (2001). "Jean-Baptiste Lully". Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
Little, Meredith Ellis (2001a). Passepied. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan Publishers. ISBN 978-1-56159-239-5.
Little, Meredith Ellis (2001b). Rigaudon. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan Publishers. ISBN 978-1-56159-239-5.
Mackay, Alison; Craig Romanec (2007). "Baroque Guide" (PDF). Tafelmusik.
Norton, Richard (1984). Tonality in Western Culture: A Critical and Historical Perspective. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-00359-7.
Nuti, Giulia (2007). The Performance of Italian Basso Continuo: Style in Keyboard Accompaniment in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-0567-6.
Palisca, Claude V. (1989). "'Baroque' as a Music-Critical Term". In Georgia Cowart (ed.). French Musical Thought, 1600–1800. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press. pp. 7–22. ISBN 9780835718820. CS1 maint: Extra text: editors list (link)
Palisca, Claude V. (2001). Baroque. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. London: Macmillan Publishers. ISBN 978-1-56159-239-5.
Price, Curtis (2013). "Purcell, Henry". Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
Roseman, Ronald (1975). "Baroque Ornamentation". Journal of The International Double Reed Society 3. Archived from the original on April 20, 2008. Reprinted in Muse Baroque: La magazine de la musique baroque, n.d.
Sachs, Curt (1919). "Barockmusik". Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters. 26. pp. [page needed].
Sadie, Stanley (2002). "Baroque Era, the". The Oxford Companion to Music. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
Sadie, Julie Anne (2013). "Louis XIV, King of France". Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
Shotwell, Clay (2002). "MUSI 4350/4360: Music of the Baroque Era: General Characteristics of the Baroque". Augusta, GA: Augusta State University.
Snyder, Kerala J. (2001). "Buxtehude, Dieterich". Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
Talbot, Michael (2001a). "Corelli, Arcangelo". Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
Talbot, Michael (2001b). "Ritornello". Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press. (subscription required)
Wainwright, Jonathan; Peter Holman (2005). From Renaissance to Baroque: Change in Instruments and Instrumental Music in the Seventeenth Century. Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-0403-7.
Wallechinsky, David (2007). The Knowledge Book: Everything You Need to Know to Get by in the 21st century. Washington, DC: National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-1-4262-0124-0.
Watkins, Glenn (1991). Gesualdo: The Man and His Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-816197-4.
White, Harry; Thomas Hochradner (2013). "Fux, Johann Joseph". Grove Music Online. Oxford University Press.
York, Francis L. (1909). Harmony Simplified: A Practical Introduction to Composition. Boston: Oliver Ditson and Company. ISBN 978-1-176-33956-9.
Further reading[edit]
Christensen, Thomas Street, and Peter Dejans. Towards Tonality Aspects of Baroque Music Theory. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-90-5867-587-3
Cyr, Mary. Essays on the Performance of Baroque Music Opera and Chamber Music in France and England. Variorum collected studies series, 899. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate, 2008. ISBN 978-0-7546-5926-6
Foreman, Edward. A Bel Canto Method, or, How to Sing Italian Baroque Music Correctly Based on the Primary Sources. Twentieth century masterworks on singing, v. 12. Minneapolis, Minn: Pro Musica Press, 2006. ISBN 978-1-887117-18-0
Hebson, Audrey (2012). "Dance and Its Importance in Bach's Suites for Solo Cello", Musical Offerings: Vol. 1: No. 2, Article 2. Available at http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings/vol1/iss2/2.
Hoffer, Brandi (2012). "Sacred German Music in the Thirty Years' War", Musical Offerings: Vol. 3: No. 1, Article 1. Available at http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings/vol3/iss1/1.
Schubert, Peter, and Christoph Neidhöfer. Baroque Counterpoint. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006. ISBN 978-0-13-183442-2
Schulenberg, David. Music of the Baroque. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. ISBN 978-0-19-512232-9
Stauffer, George B. The World of Baroque Music New Perspectives. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-253-34798-5
Strunk, Oliver. Source Readings in Music History. From Classical Antiquity to the Romantic Era. London: Faber & Faber, 1952.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Baroque music.
Barock Music (webradio)
Pandora Radio: Baroque Period (not available outside the U.S.)
Handel's Harpsichord Room – free recordings of harpsichord music of the Baroque era
Renaissance & Baroque Music Chronology: Composers
Orpheon Foundation in Vienna, Austria
Free scores by various baroque composers at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
Music, Affect and Fire: Thesis on Affect Theory with Fire as the special topic
Répertoire International des Sources Musicales (RISM), a free, searchable database of worldwide locations for music manuscripts up to c. 1800
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