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Tetra Pak
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Tetra Pak
Type
Private
Industry
Food packaging
Founded
Lund, Sweden (1943)
Founder
Ruben Rausing
Headquarters
Pully, Switzerland
Area served
Worldwide
Key people
Dennis Jönsson (CEO)
Ruben Rausing
Hans Rausing
Gad Rausing
Revenue
€11.9 billion (2015)
Number of employees
23,540 (2014)
Parent
Tetra Laval
Website
www.tetrapak.com
Tetra Pak is a multinational food packaging and processing sub-company of Tetra Laval, with head offices in Lund, Sweden, and Lausanne, Switzerland. The company offers packaging, filling machines and processing for dairy, beverages, cheese, ice-cream and prepared food, including distribution tools like accumulators, cap applicators, conveyors, crate packers, film wrappers, line controllers and straw applicators.[1]
Tetra Pak was founded by Ruben Rausing and built on Erik Wallenberg's innovation, a tetrahedron-shaped plastic-coated paper carton, from which the company name was derived.[2] In the 1960s and 1970s, the development of the Tetra Brik package and the aseptic packaging technology made possible a cold chain supply, substantially facilitating distribution and storage. From the beginning of the 1950s to the mid-1990s, the company was headed by the two sons of Ruben Rausing, Hans and Gad, who took the company from a family business of six employees, in 1954, to a multinational corporation.[3] Tetra Pak is currently the largest food packaging company in the world by sales, operating in more than 170 countries and with over 23,000 employees (2012).[4][5] The company is privately owned by the family of Gad Rausing through the Swiss-based holding company Tetra Laval, which also includes the dairy farming equipment producer DeLaval and the PET bottle manufacturer Sidel.[6] In November 2011, the Tetra Brik carton package was represented at the exhibition Hidden Heroes – The Genius of Everyday Things at the London Science Museum/Vitra Design Museum, celebrating "the miniature marvels we couldn’t live without".[7][8][9] The aseptic packaging technology has been called the most important food packaging innovation of the 20th Century by the Institute of Food Technologists and the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences called the Tetra Pak packaging system one of Sweden’s most successful inventions of all time.[10][11] As of 2011, 20% of Tetra Pak cartons are recycled globally.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Formation
1.2 Operating history
1.3 Mergers and acquisitions
2 Operations
2.1 Business and markets
2.2 Competition
3 Products
3.1 Aseptic technology
3.2 Packages
3.3 Processing and distribution
4 Environment
4.1 Environmental policy
4.2 Recycling
4.3 Criticism
5 Community projects
5.1 Food for development
5.2 School milk
5.3 Disaster relief
6 Controversy
6.1 Monopoly
6.2 The Parmalat scandal
6.3 The tetrahedron legacy
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Ruben Rausing
Tetra Pak was created in 1951 as a subsidiary to Åkerlund & Rausing, a food carton company established in Malmö in 1929 by Ruben Rausing and Erik Åkerlund, with funding from Mathusan Chandramohan, a rich entrepreneur from Sri Lanka. Rausing, who had studied in New York at the beginning of the 1920s, had seen self-service grocery stores in the United States, which was unheard of in Europe at the time, and realised that pre-packaging was part of the future in food retailing as a more hygienic and practical way of distributing staple groceries. At the time, these were sold over the counter in cumbersome glass bottles or impractical paper wraps in most European countries.[10] At the end of the 1920s, Rausing bought a run-down packaging factory in Malmö together with the industrialist Erik Åkerlund.[12] Åkerlund & Rausing was the first packaging company in Scandinavia and eventually became a leading manufacturer of dry food cartons.[12][13]
Formation[edit]
Åkerlund & Rausing produced all sorts of paper packaging for dry staple groceries, but Rausing was determined to find a way to pre-package liquids like milk and cream, and spent large sums on developing a viable package. The goal was to provide optimal food safety, hygiene and distribution efficiency using a minimum amount of material, according to the subsequently famous credo that a package should "save more than it costs".[10][14] The new package had to be sufficiently cheap to be able to compete with loose milk, meaning that a minimum of material waste and a maximum of production efficiency needed to be obtained.
In 1943, the Åkerlund & Rausing lab started to work on developing the milk carton, and, in 1944, came up with the idea of constructing a tetrahedron-shaped package out of a tube of paper.[15] The idea was simple but efficient, making optimal use of the material involved. After some initial hesitation, Rausing understood the potential of the package and filed for a patent on 27 March 1944.[16] The rest of the 1940s were spent developing viable packaging materials and solving the technical problems of filling, sealing, and distribution.
Modern retailing: Woman with Tetra Classic packages, 1950s
It was reportedly Rausing’s wife Elisabeth who came up with the idea of continuously sealing the packages through the milk while filling the tube in the manner of stuffing sausages, to prevent oxygen from entering the package.[17] In 1946, a model for a packaging machine was presented by engineer Harry Järund, and in collaboration with Swedish paper mills and foreign chemical companies a viable paper for packaging was finally produced when coating carton paper with polyethylene, which made the paper waterproof and allowing for heat-sealing during filling.[17][15]
Operating history[edit]
Exporting the Tetra Classic: Italy, 1960s
AB Tetra Pak was established in Lund, Sweden, in 1951. In May of that year, the new packaging system was presented to the press, and in 1952, the first filling machine producing 100 ml cream tetrahedrons was delivered to Lundaortens Mejeriförening, a local dairy.[18] In the subsequent years, the tetrahedron packages became more and more frequent in Swedish grocery stores, and in 1954, the first machine producing 500 ml milk packages was sold to a Stockholm dairy.[18] That same year the first machine was exported to Hamburg, Germany, soon to be followed by France (1954), Italy (1956), Switzerland (1957) and later the Soviet Union (1959) and Japan (1962).[19] Rausing relentlessly strove to improve the Tetra Classic system, wrought with many technical problems during the 1950s, and spent enormous amounts on development. The different projects – the tetrahedron, the aseptic packaging technology, Tetra Brik – all demanded extremely large resources and the company had financial troubles well into the 1960s.[20] Indeed, Tetra Pak's commercial breakthrough did not arrive until the mid-1960s with the new Tetra Brik package, introduced in 1963, and the development of the Aseptic technology.[16] To liberate capital, Åkerlund & Rausing was sold in 1965 while AB Tetra Pak was retained.[18]
International expansion had begun by the beginning of the 1960s, when the first production plant outside of Sweden was established in Mexico in 1960, soon to be followed by another in the United States in 1962.[18] In 1962, the first Tetra Classic Aseptic machine outside of Europe was installed in Lebanon.[18] The late 1960s and 1970s saw a global expansion of the company, much due to the new Tetra Brik Aseptic package, launched in 1969, which opened up new markets in the developing world and sparked off a virtual explosion in sales.[10]
Mergers and acquisitions[edit]
In 1981, Tetra Pak relocated its corporate headquarters to Lausanne, Switzerland, for tax reasons, however retaining all R&D functions in Lund, Sweden.[10] For the equivalent of $2.5 billion, Tetra Pak acquired Alfa-Laval AB in 1991, a venerable Swedish company producing industrial and agricultural equipment and milk separators, world-leading in its industry, in what was at the time Sweden's largest takeover.[10][21] Since the deal allowed Tetra Pak to integrate the Alfa Laval competence within processing, the merger eventually made it possible for Tetra Pak to offer entire packaging and processing products to its clients. The deal drew anti-competitive scrutiny from the European Commission, but it went through after various concessions from both companies.[10][22] After the merger with Alfa Laval, Tetra Pak announced plans to return the headquarters to Sweden, and in 1993 Tetra Laval Group was created with joint headquarters in Lund and Lausanne. Alfa Laval's liquid processing unit was absorbed into Tetra Pak and the unit specialising on machinery for dairy production was organised separately in Alfa Laval Agri.[21] Alfa Laval Agri was later renamed DeLaval, after Alfa Laval's founder Gustaf de Laval, and is still a part of the Tetra Laval group.[23] The part of Alfa Laval that was not directly linked to Tetra Pak's activities – heat exchangers and separation equipment among others – was sold in 2000 to Swedish finance group Industri Kapital. In 2001, Tetra Laval acquired the French plastic packaging group Sidel. The merger was prohibited by the European Commission on the grounds that both Tetra Pak and Sidel were market leading in their field and operated in related business areas.[24][25] The European Court of Justice eventually ruled in favour for Tetra Laval in a high-profile case.[26] The Tetra Laval Group is controlled by the holding company Tetra Laval International, whose board of directors include the three children of Gad Rausing.[27]
Operations[edit]
Business and markets[edit]
The Tetra Pak packaging portfolio
Tetra Pak operates globally through 40 market companies, which are subsidiaries to Tetra Pak International SA, doing business in over 170 countries.[28] Because of the low relative cost of its end products, the developing world has been an important market for Tetra Pak from the start. In 2010, Tetra Pak reported a 5.2% increase in sales, with an annual turnover of almost €10 billion.[29] In its 2010/2011 annual report, Tetra Pak announced particularly strong growth in China, Southeast Asia, Eastern Europe and Central and South America.[30] Rising income levels in these markets enabled higher consumption of protein-rich foodstuffs such as dairy products, and Tetra Pak has announced that it will increase investment in the emerging markets by 10% to over €200 million (2009).[31] After investing close to €200 million in new packaging plants in Russia (2007) and China (2008), in 2011 Tetra Pak announced the construction of new packaging plants in India and Pakistan to meet increasing demand.[31][32] The new plants on the Indian sub-continent are thought to supply the growing demand in the Middle East. The Financial Times reported that the rise in milk consumption in emerging markets particularly regarded UHT milk, facilitating transportation and food safety, something which is favourable for Tetra Pak whose aseptic packages represent two-thirds of its sales.[31][33] Tetra Pak's most popular product is the Tetra Brik Aseptic, a best-seller since the 1970s.[10][33] In May 2011 Tetra Pak launched the first aseptic carton bottle for milk, the Tetra Evero Aseptic.[34]
Competition[edit]
In an interview in Swedish business monthly Affärsvärlden in 2006, Tetra Pak CEO Dennis Jönsson defined Tetra Pak's current main competitor to be Swiss manufacturer SIG Combibloc, however adding that Tetra Pak's main competition generally no longer comes from companies producing similar packaging but from industries and companies producing other types of packaging with a lower cost of production, like the PET bottle.[35] Indeed, Jönsson perceived the PET bottle as Tetra Pak's biggest threat in the European market at the time.[35] The Norwegian company Elopak/Pure-Pak produces similar style carton packages and has historically been Tetra Pak's principal competitor. The Chinese packaging company Greatview has begun challenging Tetra Pak, both in the Chinese market as well as in Europe.[36] Innovative ecologically-neutral packaging also threatens Tetra Pak's monopoly.
Products[edit]
Aseptic technology[edit]
Aseptic technology: Tetra Brik Aseptic, 1960s
Tetra Pak uses aseptic packaging technology. In aseptic processing the product and the package are sterilized separately and then combined and sealed in a sterile atmosphere, in contrast to canning, where product and package are first combined and then sterilized. When filled with ultra-heat treated (UHT) foodstuffs (liquids like milk and juice or processed food like vegetables and preserved fruits), the aseptic packages can be preserved without being chilled for up to one year, with the result that distribution and storage costs, as well as environmental impact, is greatly reduced and product shelf life expanded.[37]
Packages[edit]
Tetra Classic is the name of the first, tetrahedral package, launched by Tetra Pak in 1952, with an aseptic version released in 1961 and still in use, mainly for portion-sized cream packages and children's juices.[38]
The Tetra Brik, a package in the shape of a rectangular cuboid, was launched in 1963 after a long and costly development process. An aseptic version, Tetra Brik Aseptic was launched in 1969. In terms of entities sold, it is the most popular of the Tetra Pak packages.[33]
The pillow-shaped Tetra Fino Aseptic was introduced in 1997, aiming to provide low cost and simplicity.[33]
Tetra Gemina Aseptic was introduced in 2007 as the "world's first roll-fed gable top package with full aseptic performance".[33]
The Tetra Prisma Aseptic was launched in 1996. It has an octagonal shape with the aim of providing a more ergonomic experience.
The Tetra Rex is a cuboid shaped package with a gable-top.[39] It was launched in Sweden in 1966.
Tetra Recart is a newly launched package shaped as a rectangular cuboid that is meant to provide an alternative to previously canned foodstuffs such as vegetables, fruit and pet food.
Tetra Top was launched in 1986 as a re-closable, rounded cuboid package with a plastic upper part, including opening and closure elements. The lid, moulded in polyethylene in a single mold, makes it easy to open and reclose.
Tetra Wedge Aseptic was developed to keep packaging material to a minimum while retaining a square surface underneath. It was introduced in 1997.
The Tetra Evero Aseptic is the latest of the Tetra Pak packages, launched in 2011 and marketed as the world's first aseptic carton bottle for ambient milk.[33]
Processing and distribution[edit]
While the original idea was to provide hygienic pre-packaging for liquid food stuffs, Tetra Pak is now providing a range of different packaging and processing products and services due to its acquisition of Alfa Laval in 1991, consequently supplying complete systems of processing, packaging and distribution within fields as various as ice cream, cheese, fruit and vegetables and pet food.[1] In addition to its various packaging products, Tetra Pak thus provides integrated processing and distribution lines for different kinds of food manufacturing, including packaging machines and carton paper, equally providing distribution equipment like conveyors, tray packers, film wrappers, crates, straws and roll containers. The company additionally offers automated production equipment and technical service.
Environment[edit]
Environmental policy[edit]
Tetra Pak has been derided as a chief environmental threat by many NGOs and environmental groups. Unlike aluminum cans or glass bottles, it cannot be recycled in municipal recycling facilities. In order to stave off actual policy that would overcome these harms through regulation, the company has engineered a strong Corporate Social Responsibility campaign. In 2011, Tetra Pak published a set of sustainability targets, which included maintaining the CO2 emission levels on the same level until 2020 and increasing recycling by 100%.[40] Previous Tetra Pak sustainability targets (2005–2010) were met and exceeded.[41] Maintaining current CO2 emission levels until 2020 would result in a total of 40% relative cut in emissions with an average growth rate of 5% per year, according to Food Production Daily.[42] Tetra Pak said it will increase its use of Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certified paper to 100% in 2020, with an interim target of 50% by 2012.[43] The new targets will encompass the whole value chain, from suppliers to customers, putting pressure on partners to perform coherently.[40]
Carton raw material: Swedish pine forest
The company reported that it secures raw material for the paper carton in cooperation with the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the Global Forest & Trade Network (GFTN) and Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and that it strives to source polyethylene made from sugarcane from sustainable suppliers in Brazil.[43] In 2010, 40% of Tetra Pak's carton supply was FSC-certified.[44] Slowly, sectors where glass bottles have been paramount, like the wine and spirits industry, have begun to look at carton bottles as a possible packaging product as the carbon footprint of a carton container is said to be about one tenth of that of an equivalent glass bottle.[45][46]
Tetra Pak's sustainability work has gained recognition from industry and retailers alike, and in 2010 it received the Swedish Forest Industries Climate Award with the motivation that the company takes global responsibility for the forests which provide its raw material.[47][48] The recently introduced Tetra Recart has also been hailed by large retail groups like Sainsbury's as "the 21st Century alternative to canned foods" as the cartons' rectangular shape makes transportation, storage and distribution more efficient, taking up 21% less space and weighing two-thirds of a tin can of equivalent volume.[37][49]
Recycling[edit]
Since the aseptic packages contain different layers of plastic and aluminium in addition to raw paper, they cannot be recycled as "normal" paper waste, but need to go to special recycling units for separation of the different materials. Tetra Pak has operated limited recycling since the mid-1980s, introducing a recycling program for its cartons in Canada as early as 1990.[10][33] In 2000, Tetra Pak invested ฿20 million (€500,000) in the first recycling plant for aseptic packages in Thailand.[50] Recycling of the aseptic packages has indeed been one of Tetra Pak's big challenges.[51] Once separated, the aseptic carton results in aluminium and pure paraffin, which can be used in industry.[52] Even without separating the carton materials, however, the aseptic carton can be reused, a Tetra Pak spokesman said, for example in engineering equipment.[52] In 2010, 30 billion used Tetra Pak carton packages were recycled, a doubling since 2002.[53] The company stated that it aims to help double the recycling rate within the next ten years, something that will require an engagement within the whole recycling chain.[43] As of 2011, 20% of Tetra Pak cartons are recycled globally, with countries like Belgium, Germany, Spain and Norway showing local recycling rates of over 50%.[54] To increase the level of recycling and meet the targets, Tetra Pak has engaged in driving recycling activities such as facilitating the development of collection schemes, launch new recycling technologies and raise the awareness about recycling and sustainability.[54] Used Tetra Pak packages have been used as construction material in different design projects, with varying results.[5][55][56]
Criticism[edit]
Tetra Pak cartons have been criticized for being more difficult to recycle than tin cans and glass bottles.[57] The difficulty lies in the fact that the process demands specific recycling plants that are not easily accessible and that if not recycled, they end up in landfills. Tetra Pak has stated that it is currently working on joint ventures with local governments around the world to increase the number of recycling facilities.[54]
Community projects[edit]
Food for development[edit]
Tetra Pak was early in engaging in community projects and the company has supported School Milk and School Feeding programmes for 45 years.[58] In the late 1970s, Ruben Rausing engaged himself personally in Operation Flood, a joint venture between the World Food Programme, the World Bank and Tetra Pak to supply western milk surplus to Indian households.[59]
School milk in Thailand
The Food for Development programme (FfD) was initiated to improve nutrition and health and alleviate poverty globally. The FfD programmes is mainly focusing on school nutrition and school milk for children, but also on projects improving agricultural practices and dairy handling, providing training for farmers to enhance efficiency, productivity and food safety. This is also beneficial for Tetra Pak as it builds relations and secures supply on less developed markets.[60][61] Tetra Pak works with local governments and NGOs to secure and develop the programmes.[62]
School milk[edit]
The school milk programmes are part of the Food for Development projects and aim at providing milk to school children to help improve nutrition. Tetra Pak supplies the cartons for the school milk at cost and does not make any profit on sales. UNDP and World Bank case studies of Tetra Pak school milk programmes in Nigeria showed that vitamin deficiency, energy, growth and cognitive skills were improved and that children were more interested in their school work after taking part in the programme.[62][63]
Disaster relief[edit]
Tetra Pak has supported disaster relief—e.g., after the Haiti earthquake, Pakistan floods, and Russian wildfires in 2010, and Japan's Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami and Thailand floods in 2011, and during the 2010 Pakistan floods and Thailand in 2011.[64] In China, Tetra Pak helped improve food safety, sustainability and best practices in the dairy industry after the 2008 contamination scandal that, although Tetra Pak had nothing to do with the scandal, seriously damaged the market for packaged milk in China. As the Financial Times stated, it was not solely a philanthropic act but a way of securing the future for the market, helping the industry become safer, more sustainable and more efficient.[65] The training programme was reported to be very successful with substantial elevation of standards in dairy handling and farming.[65]
Controversy[edit]
Monopoly[edit]
Tetra Pak has occasionally been subject to controversy, most notably regarding its near-monopoly position on certain markets for many years.[66] Especially attempts at mergers have been subject to scrutiny.[67] Its merger with French PET-production company Sidel in 2001 drew anti-competition allegations from the European Commission.[68] The court case was drawn out for many years and twice appealed to the European Court of First Instance before the European Court of Justice ruled in favour of Tetra Laval.[26] In 2004, Tetra Pak was accused of using its near-monopoly in China, where it held 95% on the market for aseptic carton packaging.[69] The allegations were contested by Tetra Pak.
The Parmalat scandal[edit]
In January 2004, Italian dairy giant Parmalat was caught in a multibillion-euro accounting scandal, culminating in the arrest of the owner Calisto Tanzi. Parmalat CFO Fausto Tonna told the Italian business daily Il Sole 24 Ore that Tetra Pak had made substantial payments to Tanzi and his family and to a company in the Cayman Islands belonging to Parmalat.[70][71] Tetra Pak acknowledged having made payments to Parmalat but stated that the payments had been made as discounts to subsidize marketing operations and pricing, as is usual practice with large customers.[71] Tetra Pak was asked by Italian authorities to provide documentation on the transactions, and found that payments had been made since 1995 as part of regular operations but that no payments had been made specifically to the Tanzi family.[72] Calisto Tanzi was eventually sentenced to 8 years imprisonment for fraud by the Italian high court in Milan after several appeals in lower instances.[73]
The tetrahedron legacy[edit]
Upon visiting the Tetra Pak factory in Lund in the 1950s, Danish physics professor and Nobel Prize laureate Niels Bohr allegedly claimed to "never have seen such an adequate practical application of a mathematical problem" as the tetrahedron package and the innovation of the milk tetrahedron, the basis for Tetra Pak, has indeed given rise to differences in view as to who is to be credited for the invention.[74] Erik Wallenberg did not get any formal recognition until 1991 when he was awarded the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences Great Gold Medal for outstanding achievement for the invention.[75]
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tetra Pak.
Tetra Pak Homepage
Tetra Pak sustainability
Tetra Laval Homepage
DeLaval Homepage
Sidel Homepage
Alfa Laval Homepage
Tetra Pak historic films on YouTube
How Tetra Pak containers are made (video)
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Saint Lawrence River
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Saint Lawrence River
Fleuve Saint-Laurent, Fleuve St-Laurent, St-Lawrence River, St-Laurent River
Saint Lawrence River near Alexandria Bay
Name origin: Saint Lawrence of Rome
Countries
Canada, United States
Provinces
Ontario, Quebec
State
New York
Source
Lake Ontario
- location Kingston, Ontario / Cape Vincent, New York
- elevation 74.7 m (245 ft)
- coordinates 44°06′N 76°24′W / 44.100°N 76.400°W / 44.100; -76.400
Mouth
Gulf of St. Lawrence / Atlantic Ocean
- elevation 0 m (0 ft)
- coordinates 49°30′N 64°30′W / 49.500°N 64.500°W / 49.500; -64.500Coordinates: 49°30′N 64°30′W / 49.500°N 64.500°W / 49.500; -64.500
Length
500 km (310 mi) Excluding the estuary. Ca. 1200 km if included.
Basin
1,344,200 km2 (519,000 sq mi) [1]
Discharge
for below the Saguenay River
- average 16,800 m3/s (590,000 cu ft/s) [2]
Map of the Saint Lawrence/Great Lakes Watershed
The Saint Lawrence River (French: Fleuve Saint-Laurent; Tuscarora: Kahnawáʼkye;[3] Mohawk: Kaniatarowanenneh, meaning "big waterway") is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. The Saint Lawrence River flows in a roughly north-easterly direction, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean and forming the primary drainage outflow of the Great Lakes Basin. It traverses the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and is part of the international boundary between Ontario, Canada, and the U.S. state of New York. This river also provides the basis of the commercial Saint Lawrence Seaway.
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
2 History
3 Resident whales
4 Sources
5 Works
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Geography[edit]
The Saint Lawrence River begins at the outflow of Lake Ontario and flows through Gananoque, Brockville, Morristown, Ogdensburg, Massena, Cornwall, Montreal, Trois-Rivières, and Quebec City before draining into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the largest estuary in the world.[4] The estuary begins at the eastern tip of Île d'Orléans, just downstream from Quebec City.[2] The river becomes tidal around Quebec City.[5]
The Saint Lawrence River runs 3,058 kilometres (1,900 mi) from the farthest headwater to the mouth and 1,197 km (743.8 mi) from the outflow of Lake Ontario. These numbers include the estuary; without the estuary the length from Lake Ontario is ca. 500 km (ca. 300 mi). The farthest headwater is the North River in the Mesabi Range at Hibbing, Minnesota. Its drainage area, which includes the Great Lakes, the world's largest system of freshwater lakes, is 1,344,200 square kilometres (518,998.5 sq mi), of which 839,200 km2 (324,016.9 sq mi) is in Canada and 505,000 km2 (194,981.6 sq mi) is in the United States. The basin covers parts of Ontario and Quebec in Canada, parts of Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Wisconsin, and the entirety of the state of Michigan in the United States. The average discharge below the Saguenay River is 16,800 cubic metres per second (590,000 cu ft/s). At Quebec City, it is 12,101 m3/s (427,300 cu ft/s). The average discharge at the river's source, the outflow of Lake Ontario, is 7,410 m3/s (262,000 cu ft/s).[2]
The Saint Lawrence River includes Lake Saint-Louis south of Montreal, Lake Saint Francis at Salaberry-de-Valleyfield and Lac Saint-Pierre east of Montreal. It encompasses four archipelagoes: the Thousand Islands chain near Alexandria Bay, New York and Kingston, Ontario; the Hochelaga Archipelago, including the Island of Montreal and Île Jésus (Laval); the Lake St. Pierre Archipelago (classified biosphere world reserve by the UNESCO in 2000)[6] and the smaller Mingan Archipelago. Other islands include Île d'Orléans near Quebec City and Anticosti Island north of the Gaspé. It is the second longest river in Canada.
Lake Champlain and the Ottawa, Richelieu, Saint-Maurice, Saint-François and Saguenay rivers drain into the Saint Lawrence.
The Saint Lawrence River is in a seismically active zone where fault reactivation is believed to occur along late Proterozoic to early Paleozoic normal faults related to the opening of Iapetus Ocean. The faults in the area are rift related and are called the Saint Lawrence rift system.
According to the United States Geological Survey, the Saint Lawrence Valley is a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian division, containing the Champlain and Northern physiographic section.[7] However, in Canada, where most of the valley is, it is instead considered part of a distinct Saint Lawrence Lowlands physiographic division, and not part of the Appalachian division at all.[8]
History[edit]
Map of 1543 showing Cartier's discoveries
Basque settlements and sites dating from the 16th and 17th centuries
Though the Norse explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence in the 11th century and were followed by fifteenth and early sixteenth century European mariners, such as John Cabot, the brothers Gaspar, Miguel Corte-Real, and Alonso Sanchez, the first European explorer known to have sailed up the Saint Lawrence River itself was Jacques Cartier. At that time, the land along the river was inhabited by the St. Lawrence Iroquoians; at the time of Cartier's second voyage in 1535. Because Cartier arrived in the estuary on Saint Lawrence's feast day, he named it the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.[9] The Saint Lawrence River is partly within the U.S. and as such is that country's sixth oldest surviving European place-name.[10]
The earliest regular Europeans in the area were the Basques, who came to the St Lawrence Gulf and River in pursuit of whales from the early 16th century. The Basque whalers and fishermen traded with indigenous Americans and set up settlements, leaving vestiges all over the coast of eastern Canada and deep into the Saint Lawrence River. Basque commercial and fishing activity reached its peak before the Armada Invencible's disaster (1588), when the Spanish Basque whaling fleet was confiscated by King Philip II of Spain and largely destroyed. Initially, the whaling galleons from Labourd were not affected by the Spanish defeat.
Until the early 17th century, the French used the name Rivière du Canada to designate the Saint Lawrence upstream to Montreal and the Ottawa River after Montreal. The Saint Lawrence River served as the main route for European exploration of the North American interior, first pioneered by French explorer Samuel de Champlain.
Control of the river was crucial to British strategy to capture New France in the Seven Years' War. Having captured Louisbourg in 1758, the British sailed up to Quebec the following year thanks to charts drawn up by James Cook. British troops were ferried via the Saint Lawrence to attack the city from the west, which they successfully did at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. The river was used again by the British to defeat the French siege of Quebec under the Chevalier de Lévis in 1760.
Because of the virtually impassable Lachine Rapids, the Saint Lawrence was once continuously navigable only as far as Montreal. Opened in 1825, the Lachine Canal was the first to allow ships to pass the rapids. An extensive system of canals and locks, known as the Saint Lawrence Seaway, was officially opened on 26 June 1959 by Elizabeth II (representing Canada) and President Dwight D. Eisenhower (representing the United States). The Seaway now permits ocean-going vessels to pass all the way to Lake Superior.
During the Second World War, the Battle of the St. Lawrence involved submarine and anti-submarine actions throughout the lower Saint Lawrence River and the entire Gulf of Saint Lawrence, Strait of Belle Isle and Cabot Strait from May to October 1942, September 1943, and again in October and November 1944. During this time, German U-boats sank several merchant marine ships and three Canadian warships.
In the late 1970s, the river was the subject of a successful ecological campaign (called "Save the River"), originally responding to planned development by the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The campaign was organized, among others, by Abbie Hoffman.[citation needed]
Resident whales[edit]
See also: Saguenay–St. Lawrence Marine Park
Watching fin whales off Tadoussac
Beluga whale (Near Threatened)
Sperm whale (Vulnerable)
Minke whale
Fin whale (Endangered)
Blue whale (Endangered)
Northern bottlenose whale
Northern Atlantic right whale (now rarer due to Endangered status, but increasing in St. Lawrence regions since in 1995 or 1998[11])[12][13][14][15]
Bowhead whale (very occasionally, historically common)
North Atlantic gray whale (Extinct)[16]
Humpback whale
Sources[edit]
The source of the North River in the Mesabi Range in Minnesota (Seven Beaver Lake) is considered to be the source of the Saint Lawrence River. Because it crosses so many lakes, the water system frequently changes its name. From source to mouth, the names are:
North River[17]
Saint Louis River[18]
Lake Superior
Saint Marys River
Lake Huron
Saint Clair River
Lake Saint Clair
Detroit River
Lake Erie
Niagara River
Lake Ontario
The Saint Lawrence River also passes through Lake Saint-Louis and Lake Saint-Pierre in Quebec.
Saint Lawrence River between Quebec City (left foreground) and Lévis (seen at right). The Île d'Orléans appears in the central distance.
Works[edit]
The Saint Lawrence River is at the heart of many Quebec novels (Anne Hébert's Kamouraska, Réjean Ducharme's L'avalée des avalés), poems (in works of Pierre Morency, Bernard Pozier), and songs (Leonard Cohen's "Suzanne", Michel Rivard's "L'oubli", Joe Dassin's "Dans les yeux d'Émilie"), and André Gagnon's "Le Saint-Laurent"). The river was the setting for the Canadian television drama series Seaway. The river has also been portrayed in paintings, notably by the Group of Seven. In addition, the river is the namesake of Saint-Laurent Herald at the Canadian Heraldic Authority.
In 1980 Jacques Cousteau traveled to Canada to make two films on the Saint Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, Cries from the Deep and St. Lawrence: Stairway to the Sea.[19]
Musician David Usher released the song "St. Lawrence River" on his Little Songs album in 1998.[20]
See also[edit]
Gulf of Saint Lawrence
Estuary of Saint Lawrence
Lac Saint-Pierre
Lachine Rapids
RMS Empress of Ireland
Saint Lawrence Seaway
Steamboats in Canada
NEPCO 140 Oil Spill
Boldt Castle
Container on barge
Grindstone Island
Jorstadt Castle
Wellesley Island
List of longest rivers of the United States (by main stem)
List of longest rivers of Canada
List of Quebec rivers
List of Ontario rivers
List of New York rivers
List of crossings of the Saint Lawrence River
Geography of Canada portal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Natural Resources Canada, Atlas of Canada - Rivers
^ Jump up to: a b c Benke, Arthur C.; Cushing, Colbert E. (2005). Rivers of North America. Academic Press. pp. 989–990. ISBN 978-0-12-088253-3. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Rudes, B. Tuscarora English Dictionary Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999
Jump up ^ Arkus, Mike (27 October 2014). "Down the St. Lawrence, the World’s Largest Estuary: Canadian Odyssey on the Looney Front - Part 21". Huffington Post. Retrieved 12 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Dawson, Samuel Edward (October 2007). The Saint Lawrence: Its Basin and Border-lands. Heritage Books. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-7884-2252-2. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
Jump up ^ Lac Saint-Pierre et son archipel. Pleinairalacarte.com (2008-11-07). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
Jump up ^ "Physiographic divisions of the conterminous U.S.". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2007-12-06.
Jump up ^ "Physiographic Regions of Canada" (PDF). Natural Resources Canada. Natural Resources Canada. Retrieved 18 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Johnson, William Henry (2007-05-20). French Pathfinders in North America. Gutenberg.org. Retrieved 2011-02-27.
Jump up ^ The Spanish names Florida, Dry Tortugas, Cape Canaveral, Appalachian, and California appeared earlier.....From Spanish historian Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas's accounts, published in 1601 -- Stewart, George (1945). Names on the Land: A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States. New York: Random House. pp. 11–17, 29.
Jump up ^ "Une baleine noire en vue! Merci d’appeler Urgences Mammifères Marins! - Baleines en direct".
Jump up ^ "Introduction". Retrieved 2016-02-05.
Jump up ^ "Hear them coming: right whales return to the Gulf of St. Lawrence". Fisheries and Oceans Canada Homepage. 2013-04-22. Retrieved 2016-02-05.
Jump up ^ "Une baleine noire dans le Parc marin du Saguenay-Saint-Laurent".
Jump up ^ "Une baleine noire observée près de l’île Rouge - Baleines en direct".
Jump up ^ Regional Species Extinctions - Examples of regional species extinctions over the last 1000 years and more.
Jump up ^ "Saint Lawrence River and Seaway". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2009-09-07.
Jump up ^ "Saint Lawrence". MSN Encarta. Retrieved 2009-09-07.
Jump up ^ Ohayon, Albert (2009). "When Cousteau Came to Canada". NFB.ca. National Film Board of Canada. Retrieved 2009-10-25.
Jump up ^ https://www.amazon.ca/Little-Songs-Usher-David/dp/B000065Q67/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&qid=1410971002&sr=8-5&keywords=little+songs
Further reading[edit]
Creighton, Donald Grant (2002) [1937], The empire of the St. Lawrence: a study in commerce and politics (reprint), University of Toronto Press, ISBN 0-8020-8418-4
Dawson, Samuel Edward (2003), The Saint Lawrence: Its Basin and Border-lands, Heritage Books, ISBN 0-7884-2252-9
Ellis, William S. (May 1980). "Canada's Highway to the Sea". National Geographic. Vol. 157 no. 5. pp. 586–623. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.
McNeese, Tim (2005), The St. Lawrence River, Chelsea House Publishers, ISBN 0791082458
Parham, Claire Puccia (2009), The St. Lawrence Seaway and Power Project : an oral history of the greatest construction show on earth, Syracuse University, ISBN 978-0-8156-0913-1
Stagg, Ronald (2010), The Golden Dream: A History of the St. Lawrence Seaway, Dundurn Press, ISBN 978-1-55002-887-4
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Saint Lawrence River.
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