text:
Pocket veto
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A pocket veto is a legislative maneuver that allows a president or other official with veto power to exercise that power over a bill by taking no action (instead of affirmatively vetoing it).
Contents
[hide]
1 Finland
2 India
3 United States
3.1 Legal status
3.2 George W. Bush
3.3 Indiana
4 Other use
5 See also
6 References
Finland[edit]
The President of Finland has the power to pocket veto bills passed by the parliament; however, such vetoes are temporary in effect.
India[edit]
Article 111 of the Indian constitution stipulates that the President shall give assent to a bill passed by both houses of the parliament or return the bill as soon as possible for reconsideration with his recommendation.[1] The Indian Constitution does not give a specific time limit for presidential action on a bill sent by the Parliament. Thus, by indefinitely postponing action on a bill, the president effectively vetoes it. However, if a president receives a bill he or she had previously vetoed and sent back to Parliament, where such a veto has been overruled by another Parliamentary vote, then such a bill becomes an act within fourteen days of the President's receiving it regardless of his or her subsequent action or inaction.[2][3] Zail Singh, President of India from 1982 until 1987, exercised a pocket veto to prevent the Indian Post Office (Amendment) Bill from becoming law.[4] However, the Indian Supreme Court has not upheld the right of presidents to veto bills in this manner[citation needed].
United States[edit]
A pocket veto occurs when a bill fails to become law because the president does not sign the bill and cannot return the bill to Congress within a 10-day period because Congress is not in session. Article 1, Section 7 of the U.S. Constitution states:
If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a Law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a Law.
The Constitution limits the president's period for decision on whether to sign or return any legislation to ten days (not including Sundays) while the United States Congress is in session. A return veto happens when the president sends a bill, along with his objections, back to the house of Congress from which it originated. Congress can override the veto by a two-thirds vote of both chambers, whereupon the bill becomes law. If Congress prevents the bill's return by being adjourned during the 10-day period, and the president does not sign the bill, a "pocket veto" occurs and the bill does not become law. Congress can adjourn and designate an agent to receive veto messages and other communications so that a pocket veto cannot happen, an action Congresses have routinely taken for decades. If a bill is pocket vetoed while Congress is out of session, the only way for Congress to circumvent the pocket veto is to reintroduce the legislation as a new bill, pass it through both chambers, and present it to the President again for signature. On the other hand, Congress may override a regular veto without introducing new legislation through the process described in the U.S. Constitution. James Madison became the first president to use the pocket veto in 1812.[5]
Legal status[edit]
Courts have never fully clarified when an adjournment by Congress would "prevent" the president from returning a vetoed bill. Some presidents have interpreted the Constitution to restrict the pocket veto to the adjournment sine die of Congress at the end of the second session of the two-year congressional term, while others interpreted it to allow intersession and intrasession pocket vetoes. In 1929, the United States Supreme Court ruled in the Pocket Veto Case that a bill had to be returned to the chamber while it is in session and capable of work. While upholding President Calvin Coolidge's pocket veto, the court said that the "determinative question is not whether it is a final adjournment of Congress or an interim adjournment but whether it is one that 'prevents' the President from returning the bill". In 1938, the Supreme Court reversed itself in part in Wright v. U.S., ruling that Congress could designate agents on its behalf to receive veto messages when it was not in session, saying that the Constitution "does not define what shall constitute a return of a bill or deny the use of appropriate agencies in effecting the return". A three-day recess of the Senate was considered a short enough time that the Senate could still act with "reasonable promptitude" on the veto. However, a five-month adjournment would be a long enough period to enable a pocket veto. Within those constraints, there still exists some ambiguity. Presidents have been reluctant to pursue disputed pocket vetoes to the Supreme Court for fear of an adverse ruling that would serve as a precedent in future cases.[6][not in citation given]
George W. Bush[edit]
In December 2007, President George W. Bush claimed that he had pocket vetoed H.R. 1585, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008,[7] even though the House of Representatives had designated agents to receive presidential messages before adjourning.[8] The bill had been previously passed by veto-proof majorities in both the House and the Senate. If the president had chosen to veto the bill, he would have been required to return it to the chamber in which it originated, in this case the House of Representatives. The House then could have voted to override the veto, and the Senate could have done likewise. In the event that each house had voted by at least two-thirds vote to override the veto, the bill would have become law.[9]
Then House Speaker Nancy Pelosi (D-CA) stated: "Congress vigorously rejects any claim that the president has the authority to pocket veto this legislation and will treat any bill returned to the Congress as open to an override vote."[10] On January 1, 2008, Deputy Assistant to the President and Deputy Press Secretary Scott Stanzel stated: "A pocket veto, as you know, is essentially putting it in your pocket and not taking any action whatsoever. And when Congress – the House is out of session – in this case it's our view that bill then would not become law."[10]
Louis Fisher, a constitutional scholar at the Library of Congress indicated: "The administration would be on weak grounds in court because they would be insisting on what the Framers decidedly rejected: an absolute veto."[11] By "absolute veto" Fisher was referring to the fact that a bill that has been pocket vetoed cannot be overridden. Instead, the bill must be reintroduced into both houses of Congress, and again passed by both houses, an effort which can be very difficult to achieve.
In the end, the House of Representatives did not attempt to override the veto. Instead, in January 2008, the House effectively killed H.R. 1585 by referring it to the Armed Services Committee and passing H.R. 4986, a bill nearly identical to H.R. 1585 but slightly modified to meet the President's objection, which subsequently became law.[12]
This was not the first time that a president has attempted to pocket veto a bill despite the presence of agents to receive his veto message. Both George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton made similar attempts,[13] and Abraham Lincoln used it against the Wade-Davis Bill in 1864.[14]
Indiana[edit]
After nearly a century of pocket vetoes, the Indiana Supreme Court ruled pocket vetoes unconstitutional in 1969.[15] Governor Edgar Whitcomb requested that General Assembly pass an act repealing all laws that were enacted because of the Supreme Court decision, some of which were nearly a century old. The assembly complied with the request and passed a blanket repeal.[16]
Other use[edit]
Because a pocket veto cannot be overridden, it is sometimes used to describe situations where either one person, or a small group, can override the will of a much larger group without consequence. For example, when the California Supreme Court was answering the certified question of intervenor standing in the case of Perry v. Brown (known as the Proposition 8 case), one of the justices expressed concern that denying appellate standing to initiative proponents would mean that the governor and state attorney general would "essentially get a 'pocket veto'".[17]
See also[edit]
List of United States presidential vetoes
Recess appointment
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA". Retrieved 21 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Sharma, Brij Kishore (2007). Introduction to the Constitution of India. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 145. ISBN 978-81-203-3246-1.
Jump up ^ Gupta, V. P. (26 Aug 2002). "The President's role". Times of India. Retrieved January 4, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bhatt, Sheela (June 9, 2006). "How Kalam asserted presidential power". Rediff India. Retrieved April 15, 2014.
Jump up ^ Fisher, Louis (March 30, 2001). "The Pocket Veto: Its Current Status" (PDF). United States Senate.
Jump up ^ "Glossary of Legislative Terminology". University of Maryland Libraries. Archived from the original on February 7, 2006.
Jump up ^ "Memorandum of Disapproval". The White House. December 28, 2007.
Jump up ^ Spitzer, Robert J. (January 7, 2008). "Is Bush Inventing Another Constitutional Power?". History News Network.
Jump up ^ The U.S. Constitution, Article 1, Clause 2 reads "Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States: If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law."
^ Jump up to: a b Paul Kiel, "Today's Must Read", Talking Points Memorandum, January 3, 2008. Retrieved 2010-02-03
Jump up ^ Alarkon, Walter (January 2, 2008). "Democrats say Bush can't pocket veto defense bill". The Hill.
Jump up ^ "H.R. 4986: National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008". GovTrack.us.
Jump up ^ "Presidential Vetoes". Retrieved 15 February 2016.
Jump up ^ Robert J. Spitzer, "The Law: The 'Protective Return' Pocket Veto: Presidential Aggrandizement of Constitutional Power", Presidential Studies Quarterly, vol. 31, no. 4, Dec. 2001, pp. 720–732.
Jump up ^ State ex rel. Mass Transportation Authority v. Indiana Revenue Board, 251 Ind. 607, 244 N.E.2d 111 (1969)
Jump up ^ Gugin, Linda C.; St. Clair, James E, eds. (2006). The Governors of Indiana. Indianapolis, Indiana: Indiana Historical Society Press. p. 405. ISBN 0-87195-196-7.
Jump up ^ "Live-blogging: Today's CA Supreme Court hearing on standing in the Prop 8 (Perry) case". Retrieved 2012-05-17.
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Fort Mill, South Carolina
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Fort Mill, South Carolina
Suburban Town
Fort Mill Historic District

Location of Fort Mill in the state of South Carolina.
Coordinates: 35°0′N 80°57′W / 35.000°N 80.950°W / 35.000; -80.950Coordinates: 35°0′N 80°57′W / 35.000°N 80.950°W / 35.000; -80.950
Country
United States
State
South Carolina
Counties
York
Established
1873[1]
Government
• Type
Mayor-council
• Mayor
Guynn Savage, since 1/2016
Area
• Suburban Town
4.6 sq mi (12.0 km2)
• Land
4.6 sq mi (11.8 km2)
• Water
0.1 sq mi (0.2 km2)
Elevation
633 ft (193 m)
Population (2010)
• Suburban Town
10,811
• Density
1,662.7/sq mi (642.0/km2)
• Urban
36,119
Time zone
Eastern (EST) (UTC-5)
• Summer (DST)
EDT (UTC-4)
ZIP codes
29715, 29716
Area code(s)
803
FIPS code
45-26890[2]
GNIS feature ID
1247805[3]
Website
www.fortmillsc.org
Fort Mill, also known as Fort Mill Township, is a town in York County in the U.S. state of South Carolina. It is a suburb of the city of Charlotte, North Carolina and is located north of Rock Hill. As of 2015, approximately 13,662 people live inside the town's corporate limits with a total of 36,119 people residing within the entire township.[1] Some businesses and residents in the Indian Land community of neighboring Lancaster County often use Fort Mill as their city address as it is the nearest incorporated area, but the official town boundary is located only in York County.
The Fort Mill area is home to notable businesses such as the headquarters of Carolina Crown Drum and Bugle Corps, DCI World Champions in 2013, LPL Financial,[4] Continental Tire the Americas (Lancaster County), LLC., Domtar, Mood Media, Springs Industries, AECOM (Lancaster County), Shutterfly,[5] Red Ventures (Lancaster County), and Daimler Trucks North America.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Geography and Climate
3 Government
4 Demographics
5 Attractions
6 Sports teams
7 Notable people
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
The town of Fort Mill was established in 1873, taking its name from a colonial-era fort built by the British and a grist mill on nearby Steele Creek. The Catawba Indians made their home in present-day Fort Mill for many years. Scotch-Irish settlers began arriving in the 1750s and 1760s and a small settlement soon developed. Fort Mill grew rapidly in the late 19th century as textile mills were established. After many textile mill shut-downs the town continued to grow rapidly and became a major suburb of Charlotte.
Highlights in Fort Mill's history include:
In the mid-18th century, Thomas Spratt and his wife Elizabeth were traveling through upper South Carolina in their wagon. They spent a night among the friendly Catawba Indians and were invited to stay and live in the area on a large tract of land given to them. They became the first white settlers in the Fort Mill area and their descendants still reside there.
The town of Fort Mill was the site of the last Confederate Government Cabinet meeting (1865).[1] Jefferson Davis and the Confederate Cabinet passed through the area during their flight from Richmond in 1865. The last meeting of the full Confederate Cabinet was held at the White Homestead in Fort Mill. Fort Mill's Confederate Park contains the nation's only monument to slaves fighting on the Confederate side of the American Civil War.
In the 1980s, Fort Mill was the home to TV evangelist Jim Bakker's now defunct Heritage USA (now reopened as Heritage International Ministries).
The Banks-Mack House, Fort Mill Downtown Historic District, Mack-Belk House, Mills House, Nation Ford Road, National Guard Armory, Spratt Cemetery, Springfield Plantation House, Thornwell-Elliott House, Unity Presbyterian Church Complex, John M. White House, William Elliott White House, and Wilson House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[6]
Geography and Climate[edit]
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 4.6 square miles (12 square kilometres), of which 4.6 square miles (12 square kilometres) is land and 0.1 square miles (0.26 square kilometres) (1.30%) is water. Interstate 77 passes through the western portions of the town, and exit 85 is signed "South Carolina Highway 160/Fort Mill." SC 160 is the main east-west street in Fort Mill.
The town of Fort Mill held a final public hearing in October 2008 on a proposed annexation that doubled the town's physical size.[7] Fort Mill has three golf courses. The city also maintains six parks, Harris Street Park, Steele Street Park, Doby Bridge Park, Calhoun Street Park, Veterans Park and Walter Elisha Park. Three of the six parks have picnic shelters, children's playgrounds, and restrooms. Doby Bridge and Harris Street Parks have lighted baseball fields, Steele Street and Harris Street Parks have basketball courts, and Steele Street Park has a small water park.[1] The town also maintains a banquet hall rentable through the parks and recreation department.
Fort Mill is located in a humid subtropical climate, Cfa in the Köppen climate classification. This means that the city experiences four distinct seasons, although the variation between the seasons is not as pronounced as in other parts of the United States. Generally, daytime maximum temperatures in the summer are around 90 °F (32 °C), with nighttime low temperatures of approximately 70 °F (21 °C). In winter, daytime maxima average around 50 °F (10 °C) while nighttime low temperatures are near 30 °F (−1 °C). Occasional readings as high as 105 °F (41 °C) are seen, reaching a high of 108 °F (42 °C) in 2007 or as low as −5 °F (−21 °C) in 1989. Summers are generally humid and prone to thunderstorms, while winters are rainy with sleet and occasional snow. Snow might fall during the winter, but usually does not accumulate or persist as ground cover. Fort Mill experiences rainfall related to tropical cyclones but is generally too far inland to experience damaging winds. Fort Mill has not had any direct hits from any tropical systems since 1989, when Hurricane Hugo devastated the area.
The most common soil in Fort Mill is Cecil series.[8]
Government[edit]
The government of Fort Mill takes place within the framework of a Council-Manager Form. Currently, the town council of Fort Mill consists of six board members, two of whom serve from at-large districts, while the remainder of the council represent each of four wards. Elections are held in accordance with United States election regulations every two years, and council members serve staggered four year terms.[1] The town council meets the second Monday of each month. The town of Fort Mill currently has four boards and commissions. These are the Zoning Board of Appeals, the Planning Commission, the Historical Review Board, and the Housing Authority Board. Members of boards and commissions are appointed on a volunteer basis.
Fort Mill is the primary community within the Fort Mill School District, which also serves children from the nearby community of Tega Cay. The Fort Mill school district is considered one of the best school districts in the state of South Carolina.[1]
The current mayor is Guynn Savage, who was sworn in January 12, 2016.[9]
Fort Mill is currently represented by the following legislators:[1]
US Senate: Senior Senator Lindsey Graham (R) and Junior Senator Tim Scott (R)
US House: J. "Mick" Michael Mulvaney (R), as part of South Carolina's 5th congressional district
South Carolina Senate: Chauncey K. Gregory (R) as part of South Carolina Senate District 16
South Carolina House of Representatives: Deborah Long (R) as part of South Carolina House District 45
The northern portions of Fort Mill Township are represented in the South Carolina House by Carl L. Gullick (R) as part of South Carolina House District 48.[1]
Demographics[edit]
Historical population
Census
Pop.
%±
1880 290 —
1890 689 137.6%
1900 1,394 102.3%
1910 1,616 15.9%
1920 1,940 20.0%
1930 2,112 8.9%
1940 2,919 38.2%
1950 3,204 9.8%
1960 3,315 3.5%
1970 4,505 35.9%
1980 4,162 −7.6%
1990 4,930 18.5%
2000 7,587 53.9%
2010 10,811 42.5%
Est. 2016 15,029 [10] 39.0%
U.S. Decennial Census[11]
As of the census[2] of 2010, there were 10,811 people, 4,168 households, and 2,184 families residing in the town. The population density was 661.6 people per square mile. There were 4,479 housing units at an average density of 676.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 77.6% White, 17.6% African American, 0.4% Native American, 1.3% Asian, and 2.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.9% of the population.
There were 2,890 households out of which 43.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.2% were married couples living together, 17.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.4% were non-families. 21.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.14.
In the town, the population was spread out with 31.1% under the age of 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 32.4% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33.7 years. For every 100 females there were 86.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.0 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $68,250, and the median income for a family was $79,495. Males had a median income of $58,986 versus $40,819 for females. The per capita income for the town was $36,548. About 7.2% of families and 9.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.6% of those under age 18 and 8.1% of those age 65 or over.
Attractions[edit]
Fort Mill is home to numerous attractions and while a small town, Fort Mill has access to many amenities outside the town in nearby Charlotte and Rock Hill.
Narroway Productions is Christian entertainment offering live theatre and dinner.
A portion of Cedar Fair's Carowinds amusement park is located in Fort Mill.
Upper Room Chapel is a replica of Jerusalem's Upper Room where the Last Supper was held.
Historic Downtown Fort Mill is the location of Confederate Park, Memorial Park, and several retail shops. The Fort Mill Times and Fort Mill Magazine are also located on Main Street.
Fort Mill is also known for its peach orchards and the Anne Springs Close Greenway, an extensive nature preserve consisting of approximately 2,300 acres (9.3 km2) of lakes, forests, and pastures that provide trails for hiking, biking, and horseback riding.
Sports teams[edit]
Fort Mill is the Home of the PrimeTime Players a Minor League Basketball Franchise who currently plays in the East Coast Basketball League . The PrimeTime Players are a four time Minor league Champions having won Championships in the TRBL 2012-2014 and the ECBL in 2015. The PrimeTime Players play their home games at Banks Street Gym at 490 Academy Street.
Fort Mill is also home to Carolina Crown, a competitive drum and bugle corps. As a member of Drum Corps International (DCI), Crown won one World Class championship (2013), and one Division II championship (1993).
Notable people[edit]
Steve Byrnes — NASCAR on Fox reporter.
Randy Primas — First African-American Mayor of Camden, New Jersey (1981–1990)[12]
Elliott White Springs — World War I flying ace, author, industrialist, and a member of the South Carolina Hall of Fame
Daniel Watts - 1st African-American politician and male student bus driver in Fort Mill.
1972 - 1980 Fort Mill School Board
Former Mayor Pro-tem Daniel Watts and Former Mayor Charles Powers. Photo by J Forbes Photography
1990 - 1994 Fort Mill Town Council (Mayor Pro-tem)
Daniel Watts Day Fort Mill
January 27th - annual celebration of Daniel Watts Day (proclaimed by former mayor, Charles Powers)
Chantay Bouler - 1st African-American female politician in Fort Mill.
James E. Williams — A Medal of Honor recipient, the most decorated sailor in the history of the U. S. Navy, a U.S. Marshal of South Carolina, USS James E. Williams
Vance Walker — NFL defensive tackle for the Denver Broncos.
Ricky Wysocki — 2016 Disc Golf world champion.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Town of Fort Mill official website, accessed September 27, 2007
^ Jump up to: a b "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 2013-09-11. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
Jump up ^ "US Board on Geographic Names". United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
Jump up ^ "LPL Financial breaks ground on Fort Mill, SC, headquarters" Charlotte Observer. Retrieved April 16, 2017
Jump up ^ "Shutterfly Expands East Coast Manufacturing" AreaDevelopment.com, Retrieved April 16, 2017
Jump up ^ National Park Service (2010-07-09). "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service.
Jump up ^ Allen, Jonathan. "Fort Mill 11 #5". The Herald. The Herald. Retrieved 17 June 2016.
Jump up ^ http://casoilresource.lawr.ucdavis.edu/gmap/ SoilWeb
Jump up ^ Marks, John. "Savage sworn in as Fort Mill's new mayor". Herald Online. The Herald. Retrieved 22 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Population and Housing Unit Estimates". Retrieved June 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Census of Population and Housing". Census.gov. Archived from the original on May 12, 2015. Retrieved June 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ Vargas, Clauia (2012-03-09). "Current and former S.J. politicos attend funeral of former Camden Mayor Randy Primas". Philadelphia Inquirer (Camden Flow). Retrieved 2012-03-11.
External links[edit]
Official website
Fort Mill, South Carolina travel guide from Wikivoyage
[show]
v
t
e
Charlotte Metropolitan Area
[hide]
Counties
Alexander¶
Anson¶
Cabarrus
Catawba¶
Chester
Chesterfield¶
Cleveland‡
Gaston
Iredell
Lancaster
Lincoln
Mecklenburg
Rowan
Stanly‡
Union
York
[hide]
Major city
Charlotte
[hide]
Municipalities and CDPs in the Charlotte Metropolitan Area
50k–100k
Concord
Gastonia
Huntersville
Rock Hill
20k–50k
Cornelius
Hickory¶
Indian Trail
Kannapolis
Matthews
Mint Hill
Monroe
Mooresville
Salisbury
Shelby‡
Statesville
5k–20k
Albemarle‡
Belmont
Bessemer City
Cheraw¶
Cherryville
Chester
Conover¶
Davidson
Fort Mill
Harrisburg
Kings Mountain
Lake Norman of Catawba¶
Lancaster
Lincolnton
Mount Holly
Newton
Pageland¶
Pineville
Stallings
South Gastonia
St. Stephens¶
Unionville
Wadesboro¶
Waxhaw
Weddington
Wesley Chapel
York
Footnotes
Bold = principal metro cities
‡ = places and counties part of CSA
¶ = sometimes included in metropolitan
North Carolina
[show]
v
t
e
Municipalities and communities of York County, South Carolina, United States
County seat: York
Cities
Rock Hill
Tega Cay
York
Towns
Clover
Fort Mill
Hickory Grove
McConnells
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‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county or counties
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Base pair
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Depiction of the adenine-thymine Watson-Crick base pair.
A base pair (bp) is a unit consisting of two nucleobases bound to each other by hydrogen bonds. They form the building blocks of the DNA double helix, and contribute to the folded structure of both DNA and RNA. Dictated by specific hydrogen bonding patterns, Watson-Crick base pairs (guanine-cytosine and adenine-thymine) allow the DNA helix to maintain a regular helical structure that is subtly dependent on its nucleotide sequence.[1] The complementary nature of this based-paired structure provides a backup copy of all genetic information encoded within double-stranded DNA. The regular structure and data redundancy provided by the DNA double helix make DNA well suited to the storage of genetic information, while base-pairing between DNA and incoming nucleotides provides the mechanism through which DNA polymerase replicates DNA, and RNA polymerase transcribes DNA into RNA. Many DNA-binding proteins can recognize specific base pairing patterns that identify particular regulatory regions of genes.
Intramolecular base pairs can occur within single-stranded nucleic acids. This is particularly important in RNA molecules (e.g., transfer RNA), where Watson-Crick base pairs (guanine-cytosine and adenine-uracil) permit the formation of short double-stranded helices, and a wide variety of non-Watson-Crick interactions (e.g., G-U or A-A) allow RNAs to fold into a vast range of specific three-dimensional structures. In addition, base-pairing between transfer RNA (tRNA) and messenger RNA (mRNA) forms the basis for the molecular recognition events that result in the nucleotide sequence of mRNA becoming translated into the amino acid sequence of proteins via the genetic code.
The size of an individual gene or an organism's entire genome is often measured in base pairs because DNA is usually double-stranded. Hence, the number of total base pairs is equal to the number of nucleotides in one of the strands (with the exception of non-coding single-stranded regions of telomeres). The haploid human genome (23 chromosomes) is estimated to be about 3.2 billion bases long and to contain 20,000–25,000 distinct protein-coding genes.[2][3][4] A kilobase (kb) is a unit of measurement in molecular biology equal to 1000 base pairs of DNA or RNA.[5] The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 × 1037, and weighs 50 billion tonnes.[6] In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion tons of carbon).[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Hydrogen bonding and stability
1.1 Examples
2 Base analogs and intercalators
3 Unnatural base pair (UBP)
4 Length measurements
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Hydrogen bonding and stability[edit]
Top, a GC base pair with three hydrogen bonds. Bottom, an AT base pair with two hydrogen bonds. Non-covalent hydrogen bonds between the pairs are shown as dashed lines.
Hydrogen bonding is the chemical interaction that underlies the base-pairing rules described above. Appropriate geometrical correspondence of hydrogen bond donors and acceptors allows only the "right" pairs to form stably. DNA with high GC-content is more stable than DNA with low GC-content, but, contrary to popular belief, the hydrogen bonds do not stabilize the DNA significantly, and stabilization is mainly due to stacking interactions.[8]
The larger nucleobases, adenine and guanine, are members of a class of double-ringed chemical structures called purines; the smaller nucleobases, cytosine and thymine (and uracil), are members of a class of single-ringed chemical structures called pyrimidines. Purines are complementary only with pyrimidines: pyrimidine-pyrimidine pairings are energetically unfavorable because the molecules are too far apart for hydrogen bonding to be established; purine-purine pairings are energetically unfavorable because the molecules are too close, leading to overlap repulsion. Purine-pyrimidine base pairing of AT or GC or UA (in RNA) results in proper duplex structure. The only other purine-pyrimidine pairings would be AC and GT and UG (in RNA); these pairings are mismatches because the patterns of hydrogen donors and acceptors do not correspond. The GU pairing, with two hydrogen bonds, does occur fairly often in RNA (see wobble base pair).
Paired DNA and RNA molecules are comparatively stable at room temperature but the two nucleotide strands will separate above a melting point that is determined by the length of the molecules, the extent of mispairing (if any), and the GC content. Higher GC content results in higher melting temperatures; it is, therefore, unsurprising that the genomes of extremophile organisms such as Thermus thermophilus are particularly GC-rich. On the converse, regions of a genome that need to separate frequently — for example, the promoter regions for often-transcribed genes — are comparatively GC-poor (for example, see TATA box). GC content and melting temperature must also be taken into account when designing primers for PCR reactions.
Examples[edit]
The following DNA sequences illustrate pair double-stranded patterns. By convention, the top strand is written from the 5' end to the 3' end; thus, the bottom strand is written 3' to 5'.
A base-paired DNA sequence:
ATCGATTGAGCTCTAGCG
TAGCTAACTCGAGATCGC
The corresponding RNA sequence, in which uracil is substituted for thymine where uracil takes its place in the RNA strand:
AUCGAUUGAGCUCUAGCG
UAGCUAACUCGAGAUCGC
Base analogs and intercalators[edit]
Main article: Nucleic acid analogues
Chemical analogs of nucleotides can take the place of proper nucleotides and establish non-canonical base-pairing, leading to errors (mostly point mutations) in DNA replication and DNA transcription. This is due to their isosteric chemistry. One common mutagenic base analog is 5-bromouracil, which resembles thymine but can base-pair to guanine in its enol form.
Other chemicals, known as DNA intercalators, fit into the gap between adjacent bases on a single strand and induce frameshift mutations by "masquerading" as a base, causing the DNA replication machinery to skip or insert additional nucleotides at the intercalated site. Most intercalators are large polyaromatic compounds and are known or suspected carcinogens. Examples include ethidium bromide and acridine.
Unnatural base pair (UBP)[edit]
See also: Artificial gene synthesis, Expanded genetic code, Nucleic acid analogue, and Synthetic genomics
An unnatural base pair (UBP) is a designed subunit (or nucleobase) of DNA which is created in a laboratory and does not occur in nature. DNA sequences have been described which use newly created nucleobases to form a third base pair, in addition to the two base pairs found in nature, A-T (adenine – thymine) and G-C (guanine – cytosine). A few research groups have been searching for a third base pair for DNA, including teams led by Steven A. Benner, Philippe Marliere, Floyd Romesberg and Ichiro Hirao.[9] Some new base pairs have been reported.[10][11][12]
In 1989 Steven Benner, then at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, and his team led with modified forms of cytosine and guanine into DNA molecules in vitro.[13] The nucleotides, which encoded RNA and proteins, were successfully replicated in vitro. Since then, Benner's team has been trying to engineer cells that can make foreign bases from scratch, obviating the need for a feedstock.[14]
In 2002, Ichiro Hirao’s group in Japan developed an unnatural base pair between 2-amino-8-(2-thienyl)purine (s) and pyridine-2-one (y) that functions in transcription and translation, for the site-specific incorporation of non-standard amino acids into proteins.[15] In 2006, they created 7-(2-thienyl)imidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (Ds) and pyrrole-2-carbaldehyde (Pa) as a third base pair for replication and transcription.[16] Afterward, Ds and 4-[3-(6-aminohexanamido)-1-propynyl]-2-nitropyrrole (Px) was discovered as a high fidelity pair in PCR amplification.[17][18] In 2013, they applied the Ds-Px pair to DNA aptamer generation by in vitro selection (SELEX) and demonstrated the genetic alphabet expansion significantly augment DNA aptamer affinities to target proteins.[19]
In 2012, a group of American scientists led by Floyd Romesberg, a chemical biologist at the Scripps Research Institute in San Diego, California, published that his team designed an unnatural base pair (UBP).[20] The two new artificial nucleotides or Unnatural Base Pair (UBP) were named d5SICS and dNaM. More technically, these artificial nucleotides bearing hydrophobic nucleobases, feature two fused aromatic rings that form a (d5SICS–dNaM) complex or base pair in DNA.[14][21] His team designed a variety of in vitro or "test tube" templates containing the unnatural base pair and they confirmed that it was efficiently replicated with high fidelity in virtually all sequence contexts using the modern standard in vitro techniques, namely PCR amplification of DNA and PCR-based applications.[20] Their results show that for PCR and PCR-based applications, the d5SICS–dNaM unnatural base pair is functionally equivalent to a natural base pair, and when combined with the other two natural base pairs used by all organisms, A–T and G–C, they provide a fully functional and expanded six-letter "genetic alphabet".[21]
In 2014 the same team from the Scripps Research Institute reported that they synthesized a stretch of circular DNA known as a plasmid containing natural T-A and C-G base pairs along with the best-performing UBP Romesberg's laboratory had designed, and inserted it into cells of the common bacterium E. coli that successfully replicated the unnatural base pairs through multiple generations.[9] The transfection did not hamper the growth of the E. coli cells, and showed no sign of losing its unnatural base pairs to its natural DNA repair mechanisms. This is the first known example of a living organism passing along an expanded genetic code to subsequent generations.[21][22] Romesberg said he and his colleagues created 300 variants to refine the design of nucleotides that would be stable enough and would be replicated as easily as the natural ones when the cells divide. This was in part achieved by the addition of a supportive algal gene that expresses a nucleotide triphosphate transporter which efficiently imports the triphosphates of both d5SICSTP and dNaMTP into E. coli bacteria.[21] Then, the natural bacterial replication pathways use them to accurately replicate a plasmid containing d5SICS–dNaM. Other researchers were surprised that the bacteria replicated these human-made DNA subunits.[23]
The successful incorporation of a third base pair is a significant breakthrough toward the goal of greatly expanding the number of amino acids which can be encoded by DNA, from the existing 20 amino acids to a theoretically possible 172, thereby expanding the potential for living organisms to produce novel proteins.[9] The artificial strings of DNA do not encode for anything yet, but scientists speculate they could be designed to manufacture new proteins which could have industrial or pharmaceutical uses.[24] Experts said the synthetic DNA incorporating the unnatural base pair raises the possibility of life forms based on a different DNA code.[23][24]
Length measurements[edit]
The following abbreviations are commonly used to describe the length of a D/RNA molecule:
bp = base pair(s)— one bp corresponds to approximately 3.4 Å (340 pm)[citation needed] of length along the strand [this figure is incorrect], and to roughly 618 or 643 daltons for DNA and RNA respectively.
kb (= kbp) = kilo base pairs = 1,000 bp
Mb (= Mbp) = mega base pairs = 1,000,000 bp
Gb = giga base pairs = 1,000,000,000 bp.
For case of single-stranded DNA/RNA units of nucleotides are used, abbreviated nt (or knt, Mnt, Gnt), as they are not paired. For distinction between units of computer storage and bases kbp, Mbp, Gbp, etc. may be used for base pairs.
The centimorgan is also often used to imply distance along a chromosome, but the number of base pairs it corresponds to varies widely. In the Human genome, the centimorgan is about 1 million base pairs.[25][26]
See also[edit]
List of Y-DNA single-nucleotide polymorphisms
Non-canonical base pairing
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Sequence-Dependent Variability of B-DNA". DNA Conformation and Transcription. Springer: 18–34. doi:10.1007/0-387-29148-2_2.
Jump up ^ Moran, Laurence A. (2011-03-24). "The total size of the human genome is very likely to be ~3,200 Mb". Sandwalk.blogspot.com. Retrieved 2012-07-16.
Jump up ^ "The finished length of the human genome is 2.86 Gb". Strategicgenomics.com. 2006-06-12. Retrieved 2012-07-16.
Jump up ^ International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (2004). "Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome". Nature. 431 (7011): 931–45. doi:10.1038/nature03001. PMID 15496913.
Jump up ^ Cockburn, Andrew F.; Jane Newkirk, Mary; Firtel, Richard A. (1976). "Organization of the ribosomal RNA genes of dictyostelium discoideum: Mapping of the nontrascribed spacer regions". Cell. 9 (4): 605–613. doi:10.1016/0092-8674(76)90043-X.
Jump up ^ Nuwer, Rachel (18 July 2015). "Counting All the DNA on Earth". The New York Times. New York: The New York Times Company. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
Jump up ^ "The Biosphere: Diversity of Life". Aspen Global Change Institute. Basalt, CO. Retrieved 2015-07-19.
Jump up ^ Peter Yakovchuk, Ekaterina Protozanova and Maxim D. Frank-Kamenetskii. Base-stacking and base-pairing contributions into thermal stability of the DNA double helix. Nucleic Acids Research 2006 34(2):564–574.
^ Jump up to: a b c Fikes, Bradley J. (May 8, 2014). "Life engineered with expanded genetic code". San Diego Union Tribune. Archived from the original on 9 May 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Yang, Zunyi; et al. (August 15, 2011). "Amplification, Mutation, and Sequencing of a Six-Letter Synthetic Genetic System". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133 (38): 15105–15112. doi:10.1021/ja204910n. PMC 3427765  . PMID 21842904.
Jump up ^ Yamashige, Rie; et al. (March 2012). "Highly specific unnatural base pair systems as a third base pair for PCR amplification". Nucleic Acids Res. 40 (6): 2793–2806. doi:10.1093/nar/gkr1068. PMC 3315302  . PMID 22121213.
Jump up ^ Malyashev, D. A.; et al. (July 24, 2012). "Efficient and sequence-independent replication of DNA containing a third base pair establishes a functional six-letter genetic alphabet". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 109 (30): 12005–12010. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10912005M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1205176109. PMC 3409741  . PMID 22773812.
Jump up ^ Switzer, Christopher; Moroney, Simon E.; Benner, Steven A. (1989). "Enzymatic incorporation of a new base pair into DNA and RNA". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 111 (21): 8322–8323. doi:10.1021/ja00203a067.
^ Jump up to: a b Callaway, Ewan (May 7, 2014). "Scientists Create First Living Organism With 'Artificial' DNA". Nature News. Huffington Post. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Hirao, I.; et al. (2002). "An unnatural base pair for incorporating amino acid analogs into proteins". Nat. Biotechnol. 20: 177–182. doi:10.1038/nbt0202-177. PMID 11821864.
Jump up ^ Hirao, I.; et al. (2006). "An unnatural hydrophobic base pair system: site-specific incorporation of nucleotide analogs into DNA and RNA". Nat. Methods. 6: 729–735. doi:10.1038/nmeth915.
Jump up ^ Kimoto, M. et al. (2009) An unnatural base pair system for efficient PCR amplification and functionalization of DNA molecules. Nucleic acids Res. 37, e14
Jump up ^ Yamashige, R.; et al. "Highly specific unnatural base pair systems as a third base pair for PCR amplification". Nucleic Acids Res. 40: 2793–2806. doi:10.1093/nar/gkr1068. PMC 3315302  . PMID 22121213.
Jump up ^ Kimoto, M.; et al. (2013). "Generation of high-affinity DNA aptamers using an expanded genetic alphabet". Nat. Biotechnol. 31: 453–457. doi:10.1038/nbt.2556. PMID 23563318.
^ Jump up to: a b Malyshev, Denis A.; Dhami, Kirandeep; Quach, Henry T.; Lavergne, Thomas; Ordoukhanian, Phillip (24 July 2012). "Efficient and sequence-independent replication of DNA containing a third base pair establishes a functional six-letter genetic alphabet". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 109 (30): 12005–12010. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10912005M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1205176109. PMC 3409741  . PMID 22773812. Retrieved 2014-05-11.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Malyshev, Denis A.; Dhami, Kirandeep; Lavergne, Thomas; Chen, Tingjian; Dai, Nan; Foster, Jeremy M.; Corrêa, Ivan R.; Romesberg, Floyd E. (May 7, 2014). "A semi-synthetic organism with an expanded genetic alphabet". Nature. 509: 385–8. doi:10.1038/nature13314. PMC 4058825  . PMID 24805238. Retrieved May 7, 2014.
Jump up ^ Sample, Ian (May 7, 2014). "First life forms to pass on artificial DNA engineered by US scientists". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Scientists create first living organism containing artificial DNA". The Wall Street Journal. Fox News. May 8, 2014. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Pollack, Andrew (May 7, 2014). "Scientists Add Letters to DNA's Alphabet, Raising Hope and Fear". New York Times. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "NIH ORDR – Glossary – C". Rarediseases.info.nih.gov. Retrieved 2012-07-16.
Jump up ^ Matthew P Scott; Paul Matsudaira; Harvey Lodish; James Darnell; Lawrence Zipursky; Chris A Kaiser; Arnold Berk; Monty Krieger (2004). Molecular Cell Biology (Fifth ed.). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. p. 396. ISBN 0-7167-4366-3. ...in humans 1 centimorgan on average represents a distance of about 7.5x105 base pairs.
Further reading[edit]
Watson JD; Baker TA; Bell SP; Gann A; Levine M; Losick R (2004). Molecular Biology of the Gene (5th ed.). Pearson Benjamin Cummings: CSHL Press. (See esp. ch. 6 and 9)
Astrid Sigel; Helmut Sigel; Roland K. O. Sigel, eds. (2012). Interplay between Metal Ions and Nucleic Acids. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 10. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2172-2. ISBN 978-9-4007-2171-5.
Clever, Guido H.; Shionoya, Mitsuhiko (2012). "Chapter 10. Alternative DNA Base-Pairing through Metal Coordination". Interplay between Metal Ions and Nucleic Acids. pp. 269–294. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2172-2_10.
Megger, Dominik A.; Megger, Nicole; Mueller, Jens (2012). "Chapter 11. Metal-Mediated Base Pairs in Nucleic Acids with Purine and Pyrimidine-Derived Neucleosides". Interplay between Metal Ions and Nucleic Acids. pp. 295–317. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2172-2_11.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Base pairing.
DAN—webserver version of the EMBOSS tool for calculating melting temperatures
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