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Lend-Lease
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This article is about the World War II program. For its precursor, see Destroyers for Bases Agreement. For the company, see Lend Lease Group.
President Roosevelt signs the Lend-Lease bill to give aid to Britain and China (1941).
The Lend-Lease policy, formally titled An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States, (Pub.L. 77–11, H.R. 1776, 55 Stat. 31, enacted March 11, 1941)[1] was an American program to defeat Germany, Japan and Italy by distributing food, oil, and materiel between 1941 and August 1945. The aid went to the United Kingdom, China, and later the Soviet Union, Free France, and other Allied nations. It included warships and warplanes, along with other weaponry. The policy was signed into law on March 11, 1941, and ended overnight without prior warning when the war against Japan ended. The aid was free for all countries, although goods in transit when the program ended were charged for. Some transport ships were returned to the US after the war, but practically all the items sent out were used up or worthless in peacetime. In Reverse Lend Lease, the U.S. was given no-cost leases on army and naval bases in Allied territory during the war, as well as local supplies.
The program was under the direct control of the White House, with Roosevelt paying close attention, assisted by Harry Hopkins, W. Averell Harriman, and Edward Stettinius Jr.. Roosevelt often sent them on special missions to London and Moscow, where their control over Lend Lease gave them importance. The budget was hidden away in the overall military budget, and details were not released until after the war.
A total of $50.1 billion (equivalent to $681 billion presently) was involved, or 11% of the total war expenditures of the U.S.[2] In all, $31.4 billion (equivalent to $427 billion today) went to Britain and its Empire, $11.3 billion (equivalent to $154 billion today) to the Soviet Union, $3.2 billion (equivalent to $43.5 billion today) to France, $1.6 billion (equivalent to $21.7 billion today) to China, and the remaining $2.6 billion to the other Allies. Reverse lend-lease policies comprised services such as rent on bases used by the U.S., and totaled $7.8 billion; of this, $6.8 billion came from the British and the Commonwealth, mostly Australia and India. The terms of the agreement provided that the materiel was to be used until returned or destroyed. In practice very little equipment was in usable shape for peacetime uses. Supplies that arrived after the termination date were sold to Britain at a large discount for £1.075 billion, using long-term loans from the United States. Canada was not part of Lend Lease. However it operated a similar program called Mutual Aid that sent a loan of $1 billion and $3.4 billion in supplies and services to Britain and other Allies.[3][4]
This program effectively ended the United States' pretense of neutrality and was a decisive change from non-interventionist policy, which had dominated United States foreign relations since 1931. (See Neutrality Acts of 1930s.)
Contents
1 Historical background
2 Administration
3 Scale
4 Significance
5 Returning goods after the war
6 US deliveries to the Soviet Union
7 British deliveries to the Soviet Union
8 Reverse Lend-lease
9 Canadian aid to Britain
10 Repayment
11 See also
12 References
12.1 Citations
12.2 Bibliography
13 External links
Historical background[edit]
Food aid from America: British pupils wave for the camera as they receive plates of bacon and eggs.
After the defeat of France during June 1940, the British Commonwealth and Empire were the only forces engaged in war against Germany and Italy, until the Italian invasion of Greece. Britain had been paying for its material with gold as part of the "cash and carry" program, as required by the US Neutrality Acts of the 1930s, but by 1941 it had liquidated so many assets that its cash was becoming depleted.[5]
During this same period, the U.S. government began to mobilize for total war, instituting the first-ever peacetime draft and a fivefold increase in the defense budget (from $2 billion to $10 billion).[6] In the meantime, as the British began becoming short of money, arms, and other supplies, Prime Minister Winston Churchill pressed President Franklin D. Roosevelt for American help. Sympathetic to the British plight but hampered by public opinion and the Neutrality Acts, which forbade arms sales on credit or the loaning of money to belligerent nations, Roosevelt eventually came up with the idea of "lend–lease". As one Roosevelt biographer has characterized it: "If there was no practical alternative, there was certainly no moral one either. Britain and the Commonwealth were carrying the battle for all civilization, and the overwhelming majority of Americans, led in the late election by their president, wished to help them."[7] As the President himself put it, "There can be no reasoning with incendiary bombs."[8]
In September 1940, during the Battle of Britain the British government sent the Tizard Mission to the United States.[9] The aim of the British Technical and Scientific Mission was to obtain the industrial resources to exploit the military potential of the research and development work completed by the UK up to the beginning of World War II, but that Britain itself could not exploit due to the immediate requirements of war-related production. The shared technology included the cavity magnetron (key technology at the time for highly effective radar; the American historian James Phinney Baxter III later called "the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores"),[10][11] the design for the VT fuze, details of Frank Whittle's jet engine and the Frisch–Peierls memorandum describing the feasibility of an atomic bomb.[12] Though these may be considered the most significant, many other items were also transported, including designs for rockets, superchargers, gyroscopic gunsights, submarine detection devices, self-sealing fuel tanks and plastic explosives.
During December 1940, President Roosevelt proclaimed the U.S.A. would be the "Arsenal of Democracy" and proposed selling munitions to Britain and Canada.[8] Isolationists were strongly opposed, warning it would result in American involvement with what was considered by most Americans as an essentially European conflict. In time, opinion shifted as increasing numbers of Americans began to consider the advantage of funding the British war against Germany, while staying free of the hostilities themselves.[13] Propaganda showing the devastation of British cities during The Blitz, as well as popular depictions of Germans as savage also rallied public opinion to the Allies, especially after the defeat of France.
After a decade of neutrality, Roosevelt knew that the change to Allied support must be gradual, especially since German Americans were the largest ethnicity in America at the time. Originally, the American policy was to help the British but not join the war. During early February 1941, a Gallup poll revealed that 54 percent of Americans were in favor of giving aid to the British without qualifications of Lend-Lease. A further 15 percent were in favor with qualifications such as: "If it doesn't get us into war," or "If the British can give us some security for what we give them." Only 22 percent were unequivocally against the President's proposal. When poll participants were asked their party affiliation, the poll revealed a political divide: 69 percent of Democrats were unequivocally in favor of Lend-Lease, whereas only 38 percent of Republicans favored the bill without qualification. At least one poll spokesperson also noted that, "approximately twice as many Republicans" gave "qualified answers as ... Democrats."[14]
Opposition to the Lend-Lease bill was strongest among isolationist Republicans in Congress, who feared the measure would be "the longest single step this nation has yet taken toward direct involvement in the war abroad". When the House of Representatives finally took a roll call vote on February 9, 1941, the 260 to 165 vote was largely along party lines. Democrats voted 238 to 25 in favor and Republicans 24 in favor and 135 against.[15]
The vote in the Senate, which occurred a month later, revealed a similar partisan difference. 49 Democrats (79 percent) voted "aye" with only 13 Democrats (21 percent) voting "nay." In contrast, 17 Republicans (63 percent) voted "nay" while 10 Senate Republicans (37 percent) sided with the Democrats to pass the bill.[16]
President Roosevelt signed the Lend-Lease bill into law on 11 March 1941. It permitted him to "sell, transfer title to, exchange, lease, lend, or otherwise dispose of, to any such government [whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States] any defense article." In April, this policy was extended to China,[17] and in October to the Soviet Union. Roosevelt approved US $1 billion in Lend-Lease aid to Britain at the end of October 1941.
This followed the 1940 Destroyers for Bases Agreement, whereby 50 US Navy destroyers were transferred to the Royal Navy and the Royal Canadian Navy in exchange for basing rights in the Caribbean. Churchill also granted the US base rights in Bermuda and Newfoundland for free, allowing British military assets to be redeployed.[18]
After the United States entered the war in December 1941, foreign policy was rarely discussed by Congress, and there was very little demand to cut Lend-Lease spending. In spring 1944, the House passed a bill to renew the Lend-Lease program by a vote of 334 to 21. The Senate passed it by a vote of 63 to 1.[19]
Administration[edit]
President Roosevelt established the Office of Lend-Lease Administration during 1941, appointing steel executive Edward R. Stettinius as head.[20] During September 1943, he was promoted to Undersecretary of State, and Leo Crowley became director of the Foreign Economic Administration which was given responsibility for Lend-Lease.
Lend-lease aid to the USSR was nominally managed by Stettinius. Roosevelt's Soviet Protocol Committee was dominated by Harry Hopkins and General John York, who were totally sympathetic to the provision of "unconditional aid". Few Americans objected to Soviet aid until 1943.[21]
The program began to be ended after VE Day. During April 1945, Congress voted that it should not be used for post-conflict purposes, and during August 1945, after Japanese surrender, the program was ended.[22]
Scale[edit]
Value of materials supplied by the USA to other Allied nations[23]
Country
Value in
Millions of Dollars
British Empire 31,387.1
Brazil 372.0
Soviet Union 10,982.1
Mexico 39.2
France 3,223.9
Chile 21.6
China 1,627.0
Peru 18.9
Netherlands 251.1
Colombia 8.3
Belgium 159.5
Ecuador 7.8
Greece 81.5
Uruguay 7.1
Norway 47.0
Cuba 6.6
Turkey 42.9
Bolivia 5.5
Yugoslavia 32.2
Venezuela 4.5
Saudi Arabia 19.0
Guatemala 2.6
Poland 12.5
Paraguay 2.0
Liberia 11.6
Dominican Republic 1.6
Iran 5.3
Haiti 1.4
Ethiopia 5.3
Nicaragua 0.9
Iceland 4.4
El Salvador 0.9
Iraq 0.9
Honduras 0.4
Czechoslovakia 0.6
Costa Rica 0.2
Total 48,395.4
Significance[edit]
Ratio of Gross domestic product between Allied and Axis powers, 1938–1945. See Military production during World War II.
Lend-Lease helped the British and other Allied forces win the war. Even after the United States forces in Europe and the Pacific began to attain full strength during 1943–1944, Lend-Lease continued. Most remaining Allies were largely self-sufficient in frontline equipment (such as tanks and fighter aircraft) by this time, but Lend-Lease provided a useful supplement in this category even so, and Lend-Lease logistical supplies (including motor vehicles and railroad equipment) were of enormous assistance.[24]
Much of the aid can be better understood when considering the economic distortions caused by the war. Most belligerent powers decreased severely production of non-essentials, concentrating on producing weapons. This inevitably produced shortages of related products needed by the military or as part of the military-industrial complex. For example, the USSR was very dependent on rail transportation, but the war practically ended rail equipment production. Just 446 locomotives were produced during the war,[25] with only 92 of those being built between 1942 and 1945.[26] In total, 92.7% of the wartime production of railroad equipment by the USSR was supplied by Lend-Lease,[24] including 1,911 locomotives and 11,225 railcars[27] which augmented the existing prewar stocks of at least 20,000 locomotives and half a million railcars.[28]
Furthermore, much of the logistical assistance of the Soviet military was provided by hundreds of thousands of U.S.-made trucks. Indeed, by 1945, nearly a third of the truck strength of the Red Army was U.S.-built. Trucks such as the Dodge ¾ ton and Studebaker 2½ ton were easily the best trucks available in their class on either side on the Eastern Front. American shipments of telephone cable, aluminum, canned rations, and clothing were also critical.[29]
Lend-Lease also supplied significant amounts of weapons and ammunition. The Soviet air force received 18,200 aircraft, which amounted to about 30% of Soviet wartime aircraft production (mid 1941-45).[24] And while most tank units were Soviet-built models, some 7,000 Lend-Lease tanks were deployed by the Red Army, or 8% of war-time production.
According to the Russian historian Boris Vadimovich Sokolov, Lend-Lease had a crucial role in winning the war:
On the whole the following conclusion can be drawn: that without these Western shipments under Lend-Lease the Soviet Union not only would not have been able to win the Great Patriotic War, it would not have been able even to oppose the German invaders, since it could not itself produce sufficient quantities of arms and military equipment or adequate supplies of fuel and ammunition. The Soviet authorities were well aware of this dependency on Lend-Lease. Thus, Stalin told Harry Hopkins [FDR's emissary to Moscow in July 1941] that the U.S.S.R. could not match Germany's might as an occupier of Europe and its resources.[24]
Nikita Khrushchev, having served as a military commissar and intermediary between Stalin and his generals during the war, addressed directly the significance of Lend-lease aid in his memoirs:
I would like to express my candid opinion about Stalin's views on whether the Red Army and the Soviet Union could have coped with Nazi Germany and survived the war without aid from the United States and Britain. First, I would like to tell about some remarks Stalin made and repeated several times when we were "discussing freely" among ourselves. He stated bluntly that if the United States had not helped us, we would not have won the war. If we had had to fight Nazi Germany one on one, we could not have stood up against Germany's pressure, and we would have lost the war. No one ever discussed this subject officially, and I don't think Stalin left any written evidence of his opinion, but I will state here that several times in conversations with me he noted that these were the actual circumstances. He never made a special point of holding a conversation on the subject, but when we were engaged in some kind of relaxed conversation, going over international questions of the past and present, and when we would return to the subject of the path we had traveled during the war, that is what he said. When I listened to his remarks, I was fully in agreement with him, and today I am even more so.[30]
Joseph Stalin, during the Tehran Conference during 1943, acknowledged publicly the importance of American efforts during a dinner at the conference: "Without American production the United Nations [the Allies] could never have won the war."[31][32]
In a confidential interview with the wartime correspondent Konstantin Simonov, the Soviet Marshal Georgy Zhukov is quoted as saying:
Today [1963] some say the Allies didn't really help us… But listen, one cannot deny that the Americans shipped over to us material without which we could not have equipped our armies held in reserve or been able to continue the war.[33]
Returning goods after the war[edit]
Roosevelt, eager to ensure public consent for this controversial plan, explained to the public and the press that his plan was comparable to one neighbor's lending another a garden hose to put out a fire in his home. "What do I do in such a crisis?" the president asked at a press conference. "I don't say... 'Neighbor, my garden hose cost me $15; you have to pay me $15 for it' …I don't want $15 — I want my garden hose back after the fire is over."[34] To which Senator Robert Taft (R-Ohio), responded: "Lending war equipment is a good deal like lending chewing gum—you certainly don't want the same gum back."[35]
In practice, very little was returned except for a few unarmed transport ships. Surplus military equipment was of no value in peacetime. The Lend-Lease agreements with 30 countries provided for repayment not in terms of money or returned goods, but in "joint action directed towards the creation of a liberalized international economic order in the postwar world." That is the U.S, would be "repaid" when the recipient fought the common enemy and joined the world trade and diplomatic agencies, such as the United Nations.[36]
US deliveries to the Soviet Union[edit]
Allied shipments to the Soviet Union[37]
Year
Amount
(tons)
%
1941 360,778 2.1
1942 2,453,097 14
1943 4,794,545 27.4
1944 6,217,622 35.5
1945 3,673,819 21
Total 17,499,861 100
Warsaw 1945: Willys jeep used by the Polish First Army as part of U.S. Lend-Lease program
The Lend-Lease Memorial in Fairbanks, Alaska commemorates the shipment of U.S. aircraft to the Soviet Union along the Northwest Staging Route.
American deliveries to the Soviet Union can be divided into the following phases:
"pre Lend-lease" 22 June 1941 to 30 September 1941 (paid for in gold and other minerals)
first protocol period from 1 October 1941 to 30 June 1942 (signed 7 October 1941),[38] these supplies were to be manufactured and delivered by the UK with US credit financing.
second protocol period from 1 July 1942 to 30 June 1943 (signed 6 October 1942)
third protocol period from 1 July 1943 to 30 June 1944 (signed 19 October 1943)
fourth protocol period from 1 July 1944, (signed 17 April 1945), formally ended 12 May 1945 but deliveries continued for the duration of the war with Japan (which the Soviet Union entered on the 8 August 1945) under the "Milepost" agreement until 2 September 1945 when Japan capitulated. On 20 September 1945 all Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union was terminated.
Delivery was via the Arctic Convoys, the Persian Corridor, and the Pacific Route.
The Arctic route was the shortest and most direct route for lend-lease aid to the USSR, though it was also the most dangerous as it involved sailing past German-occupied Norway. Some 3,964,000 tons of goods were shipped by the Arctic route; 7% was lost, while 93% arrived safely.[39] This constituted some 23% of the total aid to the USSR during the war.
The Persian Corridor was the longest route, and was not fully operational until mid-1942. Thereafter it saw the passage of 4,160,000 tons of goods, 27% of the total.[39]
The Pacific Route opened in August 1941, but was affected by the start of hostilities between Japan and the US; after December 1941, only Soviet ships could be used, and, as Japan and the USSR observed a strict neutrality towards each other, only non-military goods could be transported.[40] Nevertheless, some 8,244,000 tons of goods went by this route, 50% of the total.[39]
In total, the U.S. deliveries through Lend-Lease amounted to $11 billion in materials: over 400,000 jeeps and trucks; 12,000 armored vehicles (including 7,000 tanks, about 1,386[41] of which were M3 Lees and 4,102 M4 Shermans);[42] 11,400 aircraft (4,719 of which were Bell P-39 Airacobras)[43] and 1.75 million tons of food.[44]
Roughly 17.5 million tons of military equipment, vehicles, industrial supplies, and food were shipped from the Western Hemisphere to the USSR, 94% coming from the US. For comparison, a total of 22 million tons landed in Europe to supply American forces from January 1942 to May 1945. It has been estimated that American deliveries to the USSR through the Persian Corridor alone were sufficient, by US Army standards, to maintain sixty combat divisions in the line.[45][46]
BM-13N Katyusha on a Lend-Lease Studebaker US6 truck, at the Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Moscow
The United States delivered to the Soviet Union from October 1, 1941 to May 31, 1945 the following: 427,284 trucks, 13,303 combat vehicles, 35,170 motorcycles, 2,328 ordnance service vehicles, 2,670,371 tons of petroleum products (gasoline and oil) or 57.8 percent of the High-octane aviation fuel,[24] 4,478,116 tons of foodstuffs (canned meats, sugar, flour, salt, etc.), 1,911 steam locomotives, 66 Diesel locomotives, 9,920 flat cars, 1,000 dump cars, 120 tank cars, and 35 heavy machinery cars. Provided ordnance goods (ammunition, artillery shells, mines, assorted explosives) amounted to 53 percent of total domestic production.[24] One item typical of many was a tire plant that was lifted bodily from the Ford Company's River Rouge Plant and transferred to the USSR. The 1947 money value of the supplies and services amounted to about eleven billion dollars.[47]
British deliveries to the Soviet Union[edit]
The Red Army in Bucharest near Boulevard of Carol I. with British-supplied Universal Carrier
A Valentine tank destined for the Soviet Union leaves the factory in Britain.
In June 1941, within weeks of the German invasion of the USSR, the first British aid convoy set off along the dangerous Arctic sea route to Murmansk, arriving in September. It carried 40 Hawker Hurricanes along with 550 mechanics and pilots of No. 151 Wing to provide immediate air defence of the port and to train Soviet pilots. The convoy was the first of many convoys to Murmansk and Archangelsk in what became known as the Arctic convoys, the returning ships carried the gold that the USSR was using to pay the US.
By the end of 1941, early shipments of Matilda, Valentine and Tetrarch tanks represented only 6.5% of total Soviet tank production but over 25% of medium and heavy tanks produced for the Red Army.[48][49] The British tanks first saw action with the 138 Independent Tank Battalion in the Volga Reservoir on 20 November 1941.[50] Lend-Lease tanks constituted 30 to 40 percent of heavy and medium tank strength before Moscow at the beginning of December 1941.[51][52]
British Mk III 'Valentine' destroyed in the Soviet Union, January 1944
Significant numbers of British Churchill, Matilda and Valentine tanks were shipped to the USSR.[53]
Between June 1941 and May 1945, Britain delivered to the USSR:
3,000+ Hurricanes
4,000+ other aircraft
27 naval vessels
5,218 tanks (including 1,380 Valentines from Canada)
5,000+ anti-tank guns
4,020 ambulances and trucks
323 machinery trucks (mobile vehicle workshops equipped with generators and all the welding and power tools required to perform heavy servicing)
1,212 Universal Carriers and Loyd Carriers (with another 1,348 from Canada )
1,721 motorcycles
£1.15bn worth of aircraft engines
1,474 radar sets
4,338 radio sets
600 naval radar and sonar sets
Hundreds of naval guns
15 million pairs of boots
In total 4 million tonnes of war material including food and medical supplies were delivered. The munitions totaled £308m (not including naval munitions supplied), the food and raw materials totaled £120m in 1946 index. In accordance with the Anglo-Soviet Military Supplies Agreement of 27 June 1942, military aid sent from Britain to the Soviet Union during the war was entirely free of charge.[54][55]
Reverse Lend-lease[edit]
Reverse Lend-lease was the supply of equipment and services to the United States. Nearly $8 billion (equivalent to $124 billion today) worth of war material was provided to U.S. forces by her allies, 90% of this sum coming from the British Empire.[56] Reciprocal contributions included the Austin K2/Y military ambulance, British aviation spark plugs used in B-17 Flying Fortresses,[56] Canadian-made Fairmile launches used in anti-submarine warfare, Mosquito photo-reconnaissance aircraft, and Indian petroleum products.[57] Australia and New Zealand supplied the bulk of foodstuffs to United States forces in the South Pacific.[56][58] Though diminutive in comparison, Soviet-supplied reverse lend-lease included 300,000 tonnes of chromium and 32,000 tonnes of manganese ore, as well as wood, gold and platinum.[59][unreliable source?]
In a November 1943 report to Congress, President Roosevelt said of Allied participation in reverse Lend-lease:
...the expenditures made by the British Commonwealth of Nations for reverse lend-lease aid furnished to the United States, and of the expansion of this program so as to include exports of materials and foodstuffs for the account of United States agencies from the United Kingdom and the British colonies, emphasizes the contribution which the British Commonwealth has made to the defense of the United States while taking its place on the battle fronts. It is an indication of the extent to which the British have been able to pool their resources with ours so that the needed weapon may be in the hands of that soldier—whatever may be his nationality- who can at the proper moment use it most effectively to defeat our common enemies.[57]
While in April 1944 Congress were briefed by the Foreign Economic Administrator, Leo T Crowley;
Just as the RAF's operations against Germany and the invasion coasts would not have been possible on their present scale without lend-lease so the United States Eighth and Ninth air forces daylight missions from Britain would not have been possible without reverse lend-lease. Our Fortresses and Liberators take off from huge air bases built, equipped and serviced under reverse lend-lease at a cost to them of hundreds of millions of dollars. Many of our pilots fly Spitfires built in England, many more are flying American fighter planes powered by British Rolls Royce Merlin engines, turned over to us by the British. And many of the supplies needed by our Air Force are procured for us without cost by reverse lend-lease. In fact our armed forces in Britain, ground as well as air, receive as reverse lend-lease, with no payment by us, one third of all the supplies and equipment they currently require, Britain furnishes 90% of their medical supplies and in spite of her food shortage, 20% of their food.[60]
In 1945–46, the value of Reciprocal Aid from New Zealand exceeded that of Lend-Lease, though in 1942–43, the value of Lend-Lease to New Zealand was much more than that of Reciprocal Aid. Britain also supplied extensive material assistance to American forces stationed in Europe, for example the USAAF was supplied with hundreds of Spitfire Mk V and Mk VIII fighter aircraft.
The cooperation that was built up with Canada during the war was an amalgam compounded of diverse elements of which the air and land routes to Alaska, the Canol project, and the CRYSTAL and CRIMSON activities were the most costly in point of effort and funds expended.
... The total of defense materials and services that Canada received through lend-lease channels amounted in value to approximately $419,500,000.
... Some idea of the scope of economic collaboration can be had from the fact that from the beginning of 1942 through 1945 Canada, on her part, furnished the United States with $1,000,000,000 to $1,250,000,000 in defense materials and services.
... Although most of the actual construction of joint defense facilities, except the Alaska Highway and the Canol project, had been carried out by Canada, most of the original cost was borne by the United States. The agreement was that all temporary construction for the use of American forces and all permanent construction required by the United States forces beyond Canadian requirements would be paid for by the United States, and that the cost of all other construction of permanent value would be met by Canada. Although it was not entirely reasonable that Canada should pay for any construction that the Canadian Government considered unnecessary or that did not conform to Canadian requirements, nevertheless considerations of self-respect and national sovereignty led the Canadian Government to suggest a new financial agreement.
... The total amount that Canada agreed to pay under the new arrangement came to about $76,800,000, which was some $13,870,000 less than the United States had spent on the facilities.[61]
Canadian aid to Britain[edit]
Main article: Billion Dollar Gift and Mutual Aid
Canada had its own version of lend-lease for Britain.[62][63] Canada gave Britain gifts totaling $3.5 billion during the war, plus a zero-interest loan of $1 billion; Britain used the money to buy Canadian food and war supplies.[64][65][66] Canada also loaned $1.2 billion on a long-term basis to Britain immediately after the war; these loans were fully repaid in late 2006.[67]
(RCAF Station Gander) located at Gander International Airport, built in 1936 in Newfoundland, was leased by Britain to Canada for 99 years because of its urgent need for the movement of fighter and bomber aircraft to Britain.[68] The lease became redundant when Newfoundland became Canada's tenth province in 1949.
Most American Lend-Lease aid comprised supplies purchased in the U.S., but Roosevelt allowed Lend-Lease to purchase supplies from Canada, for shipment to Britain, China and the Soviet Union.[69]
Repayment[edit]
Main article: Anglo-American loan
Congress had not authorized the gift of supplies delivered after the cutoff date, so the U.S. charged for them, usually at a 90% discount. Large quantities of undelivered goods were in Britain or in transit when Lend-Lease terminated on 2 September 1945. Britain wished to retain some of this equipment in the immediate post war period. In 1946, the post-war Anglo-American loan further indebted Britain to the U.S. Lend-Lease items retained were sold to Britain at 10% of nominal value, giving an initial loan value of £1.075 billion for the Lend-Lease portion of the post-war loans. Payment was to be stretched out over 50 annual payments, starting in 1951 and with five years of deferred payments, at 2% interest.[70] The final payment of $83.3 million (£42.5 million), due on 31 December 2006 (repayment having been deferred in the allowed five years and during a sixth year not allowed), was made on 29 December 2006 (the last working day of the year). After this final payment Britain's Economic Secretary to the Treasury formally thanked the U.S. for its wartime support.[71]
Tacit repayment of Lend-Lease by the British was made in the form of several valuable technologies, including those related to radar, sonar, jet engines, antitank weaponry, rockets, superchargers, gyroscopic gunsights, submarine detection, self-sealing fuel tanks, and plastic explosives as well as the British contribution to the Manhattan Project. Many of these were transferred by the Tizard Mission. The official historian of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, James Phinney Baxter III, wrote: "When the members of the Tizard Mission brought the cavity magnetron to America in 1940, they carried the most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores."[72]
While repayment of the interest-free loans was required after the end of the war under the act, in practice the U.S. did not expect to be repaid by the USSR after the war. The U.S. received $2M in reverse Lend-Lease from the USSR. This was mostly in the form of landing, servicing, and refueling of transport aircraft; some industrial machinery and rare minerals were sent to the U.S. The U.S. asked for $1.3B at the cessation of hostilities to settle the debt, but was only offered $170M by the USSR. The dispute remained unresolved until 1972, when the U.S. accepted an offer from the USSR to repay $722M linked to grain shipments from the U.S., with the remainder being written off. During the war the USSR provided an unknown number of shipments of rare minerals to the US Treasury as a form of cashless repayment of Lend-Lease. This was agreed upon before the signing of the first protocol on 1 October 1941 and extension of credit. Some of these shipments were intercepted by the Germans. In May 1942, HMS Edinburgh was sunk while carrying 4.5 tonnes of Soviet gold intended for the U.S. Treasury. This gold was salvaged in 1981 and 1986.[73] In June 1942, SS Port Nicholson was sunk en route from Halifax, Nova Scotia to New York, allegedly with Soviet platinum, gold, and industrial diamonds aboard; the wreck was discovered in 2008.[74] However, none of this cargo has been salvaged, and no documentation of its treasures has been produced.
See also[edit]
ALSIB
Anglo-American loan
Arctic convoys of World War II
Arms Export Control Act
Billion Dollar Gift and Mutual Aid, from Canada
Banff-class sloop
Battle of the Atlantic
Cash and carry (World War II)
Houses for Britain
Lend-Lease Sherman tanks
Military production during World War II
Northwest Staging Route
Operation Cedar
Persian Corridor
Project Hula
Tizard Mission
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
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Jump up ^ Crowley, Leo T. "Lend-Lease" in Walter Yust, ed., 10 Eventful Years (Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc, 1947), 1:520, 2:858–860.
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Jump up ^ Black 2003, pp. 603–605
^ Jump up to: a b "Address Is Spur To British Hopes; Confirmation of American Aid in Conflict is Viewed as Heartening, A joining of interests, Discarding of Peace Talks is Regarded as a Major Point in the Speech." The New York Times, 30 December 1940.
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^ Jump up to: a b c Kemp p235
Jump up ^ Sea routes of Soviet Lend-Lease:Voice of Russia Ruvr.ru. Retrieved: 16 December 2011
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Jump up ^ Secret Cipher Telegram. From: 30 Military Mission. To: The War Office. Recd 11/12/41. TNA WO 193/580
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Bibliography[edit]
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Allen, R.G.D. "Mutual Aid between the US and the British Empire, 1941—5". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Volume 109, No. 3, 1946, pp. 243–277, online in JSTOR
Black, Conrad. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Champion of Freedom. New York: Public Affairs, 2003. ISBN 1-58648-184-3.
Bryce, Robert B. Canada and the Cost of World War II: The International Operations of Canada's Department of Finance, 1939-1947 (2005) ch 7 on Mutual Aid
Buchanan, Patrick. Churchill, Hitler and the Unnecessary War. New York: Crown, 2008. ISBN 978-0-307-40515-9.
Campbell, Thomas M. and George C. Herring, eds. The Diaries of Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., 1943–1946. New York: Franklin Watts, Inc., 1975. ISBN 0-531-05570-1.
Clarke, Sir Richard. Anglo-American Economic Collaboration in War and Peace, 1942–1949. Oxford University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-19-828439-X.
Crowley, Leo T. "Lend Lease" in Walter Yust, ed. 10 Eventful Years, 1937 – 1946 Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1947, pp. 858–860.
Dawson, Raymond H. The Decision to Aid Russia, 1941: Foreign Policy and Domestic Politics. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1959.
Dobson, Alan P. U.S. Wartime Aid to Britain, 1940–1946. London: Croom Helm, 1986. ISBN 0-7099-0893-8.
Gardner, Richard N. Sterling-Dollar Diplomacy. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1956.
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Hancock, G.W. and M.M. Gowing. British War Economy (1949) pp 224–48 Official British history
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Kemp, P. Convoy: Drama in Arctic Waters. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Book Sales Inc., 2004, First edition 1993. ISBN 978-0-78581-603-4.
Kimball, Warren F. The Most Unsordid Act: Lend-Lease, 1939–1941. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University, 1969. ISBN 0-8018-1017-5.
Kindleberger, Charles P. A Financial History of Western Europe. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1984. ISBN 0-19-507738-5.
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Mackenzie, Hector. "Transatlantic Generosity: Canada's 'Billion Dollar Gift' to the United Kingdom in the Second World War." International History Review, Volume 24, Issue 2, 2012, pp. 293–314.
McNeill, William Hardy. America, Britain, and Russia: their co-operation and conflict, 1941-1946 (1953), pp 772–90
Milward, Alan S. War, Economy and Society. Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1977. ISBN 0-14-022682-6.
Neiberg, Michael S. Warfare and Society in Europe: 1898 to the Present. London: Psychology Press, 2004. pp. 118–119. ISBN 978-0-415-32719-0.
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Stacey, C.P. Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada 1939–1945. Ottawa, Canada: The Queen's Printer for Canada, 1970. ISBN 0-8020-6560-0.
Stettinius, Edward R. Lend-Lease, Weapon for Victory. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1944. OCLC 394271
Taylor, A. J. P. Beaverbrook. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972. ISBN 0-671-21376-8.
Thorne, Christopher. Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain and the War Against Japan, 1941–1945. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-19-520173-6.
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Weeks, Albert L. Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2004. ISBN 978-0-7391-0736-2.
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Woods, Randall Bennett. A Changing of the Guard: Anglo-American Relations, 1941–1946. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1990. ISBN 0-8078-1877-1.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Lend-Lease
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lend-Lease.
Lend-Lease Shipments, World War II (Washington: War Department, 1946)
Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union
The Voice of Russia on the Allies and Lend-Lease Museum, Moscow
Official New Zealand war history of Lend-lease, from War Economy
Official New Zealand war history; termination of Mutual Aid from 21 December 1945, from War Economy
Allies and Lend-Lease Museum, Moscow
"Reverse Lend-Lease" a 1944 Flight article reporting a speech by President Roosevelt
Lend lease routes - map and summary of quantities of LL to USSR
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Shannon Hoon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Shannon Hoon
Shannon Hoon performing with Blind Melon in 1994
Background information
Birth name
Richard Shannon Hoon
Born
(1967-09-26)September 26, 1967
Lafayette, Indiana, U.S.
Died
October 21, 1995(1995-10-21) (aged 28)
New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.
Genres
Alternative rock
grunge[1]
neo-psychedelia
folk rock
psychedelic rock
stoner rock
Occupation(s)
Singer-songwriter, musician
Instruments
Vocals
guitar
harmonica
kazoo
tambourine
bongos
conga
percussion
Years active
1985–1995
Labels
Capitol
Associated acts
Blind Melon
Guns N' Roses
Styff Kitten
Website
blindmelon.com
Richard Shannon Hoon (September 26, 1967 – October 21, 1995) was an American singer-songwriter and musician. He was the lead singer of the band Blind Melon until his death in 1995.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Blind Melon
3 Personal life and death
4 References
5 Bibliography
6 External links
Early life[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Hoon was born in Lafayette, Indiana and raised in nearby Dayton, Indiana with his half-sister, Anna, and half-brother, Tim. He reportedly began using his middle name, Shannon, to avoid confusion with his father, who was also named Richard. In high school, he played football, wrestled, and was a pole vaulter. Shannon's musical influences included the Grateful Dead, The Beatles, John Lennon, and Bob Dylan. After graduating from McCutcheon High School in 1985, Hoon joined a local glam metal band named Styff Kytten, which also featured guitarist Michael Kelsey. He took on the role of frontman and lead singer of the band. It was around this time that he wrote his first song and called it "Change." He was also a member of the Lafayette band Mank Rage, along with David Lank and Darren Mickler, during this time.
Blind Melon[edit]
This article appears to contradict the article Blind Melon. Please see discussion on the linked talk page. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In 1985, Hoon, 18, left Indiana for Los Angeles.[3] In Los Angeles, he met musicians Brad Smith and Rogers Stevens at a party. Smith and Stevens saw Hoon perform his song "Change" acoustically and invited Hoon to play with them. Christopher Thorn and Glen Graham were then brought into the fold, and by 1990 the five musicians decided to form Blind Melon. The band was possibly named for a term Smith's father used to describe the neighborhood stoners; or for Blind Melon Chitlin, a character from a Cheech & Chong album.[contradictory] In 1990, the new bandmates produced a four-song demo tape and subsequently signed a $500,000 recording contract with Capitol Records.
In Los Angeles, Hoon befriended his sister Anna's high school friend, Axl Rose. Rose invited Hoon to join him in the studio, where his band Guns N' Roses were recording their albums Use Your Illusion I and Use Your Illusion II (both released in 1991). Hoon sang backing vocals on several of the tracks, including "The Garden" and "Don't Cry." Rose also invited Hoon to appear in the video for "Don't Cry."
In 1992, Blind Melon released their self-titled debut album produced by Pearl Jam producer Rick Parashar. Blind Melon began touring to promote the album, supporting and opening for acts like Ozzy Osbourne, Guns N' Roses, and Soundgarden over the course of 1992–1993. In the summer of 1992, the video for the album track "No Rain" was released as a single. The video for "No Rain" focused on a theme of the "normal" crowd versus the lonely outcast. It featured a young girl, played by Heather DeLoach, in a bee costume, tap dancing to unappreciative audiences, who finally finds an entire crowd of people similarly dressed who welcome her. The video is often referred to as the 'Bee Girl'. Blind Melon went multi-platinum.
Hoon and Blind Melon spent the next two years touring. In 1993, Hoon was arrested for indecent exposure after he disrobed onstage and urinated on a fan at a show in Vancouver.[4]
In 1994, Blind Melon appeared at Woodstock '94 where Hoon, allegedly high on LSD, went onstage wearing his girlfriend's white dress.[5]
After taking a hiatus from touring, Blind Melon returned to the studio to record the album Soup in New Orleans. Soup was released in 1995.
Personal life and death[edit]
Gravesite of Shannon Hoon
On July 11, 1995, Hoon and his girlfriend, Lisa Crouse, had a daughter named Nico Blue.[6] Before the birth of his daughter, Hoon entered rehab again. In August, Blind Melon planned to tour to support their album Soup, so Hoon allowed a drug counselor to accompany him on the road.[7] The counselor, unable to keep Hoon from relapsing, was dismissed days before Hoon's death.
After a disappointing performance in Houston on October 20, Hoon launched himself into an all-night drug binge.[7] The next day, Saturday, October 21, 1995, Blind Melon was scheduled to play a show in New Orleans at Tipitina's. The band's sound engineer, Lyle Eaves, went to the tour bus to awaken Hoon for a sound check, but Hoon was unresponsive. An ambulance arrived, and Hoon was pronounced dead at the scene, at the age of 28.[8] The cause of death was attributed to a cocaine overdose.
Hoon was buried at Dayton Cemetery in Dayton, Indiana. His grave is inscribed with a line from Blind Melon's song "Change", the first song he wrote:
“ I know we can't all stay here forever
So I want to write my words on the face of today and they'll paint it
”
On November 12, 1996, Blind Melon released their final album featuring Hoon, Nico, as a tribute to him with all proceeds going to his daughter and to programs helping musicians deal with drug problems. The band also released a video called Letters From A Porcupine that was nominated for 'Best Long Form Music Video' at the Grammy Awards on February 25, 1997.
On September 17, 2008, the book A Devil on One Shoulder and an Angel on the Other: The Story of Shannon Hoon and Blind Melon by Greg Prato was published.[9]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Shannon Hoon - AllMusic
Jump up ^ Death of lead singer Shannon Hoon hasn't stopped Blind Melon's music JOHN WIRT. Advocate – Baton Rouge, La. November 8, 1995
Jump up ^ "Obituary: Shannon Hoon". The Independent. Retrieved 2015-10-21.
Jump up ^ Promoter Tears Strip Off Naked Rocker, Pamela Fayerman, Vancouver Sun, November 2, 199w. Retrieved 2010-08-17.
Jump up ^ "Dazed and Confused: 10 Classic Drugged-Out Shows, Blind Melon at Woodstock, 1994 - LSD". Rolling Stone. Rolling Stone Magazine. Retrieved 2015-10-21.
Jump up ^ "The Homecoming, His Mother Feared Rock's Shannon Hoon Wouldn't Make It Back Alive; Tragically, She Was Right". People Magazine. 1995-11-06. Retrieved 2015-10-21.
^ Jump up to: a b "Shannon Hoon 1967–1995". Rolling Stone. November 30, 1995. Retrieved August 13, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Tippecanoe Public Library Local Newspaper Birth, Death, Engagement and Marriage Index Genealogy Resources". Retrieved January 4, 2008.
Jump up ^ A Devil on One Shoulder and an Angel on the Other: The Story of Shannon Hoon and: Greg Prato: 9780615252391: Amazon.com: Books
Bibliography[edit]
Prato, Greg (2008). A Devil on One Shoulder and an Angel on the Other: The Story of Shannon Hoon and Blind Melon. Createspace. ISBN 0-615-25239-7.
Weitz, Brad (2012). From Your Friends – Art, Photos and Stories Inspired by Blind Melon. Lulu.
Weitz, Brad/Mester, Csaba (2012). Sweet Meloncholy. Take On 1 or 2 / Garage Art. ISBN 978-0-615-74029-4.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Shannon Hoon
Biography portal
Blind Melon Official Website
Shannon Hoon on IMDb
Shannon Hoon at AllMusic
Shannon Hoon at Find a Grave
[hide]
v
t
e
Blind Melon
Glen Graham
Brad Smith
Rogers Stevens
Christopher Thorn
Travis Warren
Shannon Hoon
Studio albums
Blind Melon
Soup
Nico
For My Friends
Compilations/Appearances
Encomium: A Tribute to Led Zeppelin
Schoolhouse Rock! Rocks
Classic Masters
The Best of Blind Melon
Live albums
Live at the Palace
Videos
Letters from a Porcupine
Songs
"Tones of Home"
"No Rain"
"Galaxie"
"Three Is a Magic Number"
Related articles
Discography
Unified Theory
Authority control
MusicBrainz: 35288322-831f-49f9-96ec-66173c873f7e
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shannon_Hoon&oldid=804517629"
Categories:
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One-line diagram
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A typical one-line diagram with annotated power flows. Red boxes represent circuit breakers, grey lines represent three-phase bus and interconnecting conductors, the orange circle represents an electric generator, the green spiral is an inductor, and the three overlapping blue circles represent a double-wound transformer with a tertiary winding.
In power engineering, a one-line diagram or single-line diagram (SLD) is a simplified notation for representing a three-phase power system.[1] The one-line diagram has its largest application in power flow studies. Electrical elements such as circuit breakers, transformers, capacitors, bus bars, and conductors are shown by standardized schematic symbols.[1] Instead of representing each of three phases with a separate line or terminal, only one conductor is represented. It is a form of block diagram graphically depicting the paths for power flow between entities of the system. Elements on the diagram do not represent the physical size or location of the electrical equipment, but it is a common convention to organize the diagram with the same left-to-right, top-to-bottom sequence as the switchgear or other apparatus represented. A one-line diagram can also be used to show a high level view of conduit runs for a PLC control system.
Contents
[hide]
1 Balanced systems
2 Unbalanced systems
3 See also
4 References
Balanced systems[edit]
The theory of three-phase power systems tells us that as long as the loads on each of the three phases are balanced, we can consider each phase separately.[2] In power engineering, this assumption is often useful, and to consider all three phases requires more effort with very little potential advantage.[3] An important and frequent exception is an asymmetric fault on only one or two phases of the system.
A one-line diagram is usually used along with other notational simplifications, such as the per-unit system.
A secondary advantage to using a one-line diagram is that the simpler diagram leaves more space for non-electrical, such as economic, information to be included.
Unbalanced systems[edit]
When using the method of symmetrical components, separate one-line diagrams are made for each of the positive, negative and zero-sequence systems. This simplifies the analysis of unbalanced conditions of a polyphase system. Items that have different impedances for the different phase sequences are identified on the diagrams. For example, in general a generator will have different positive and negative sequence impedance, and certain transformer winding connections block zero-sequence currents. The unbalanced system can be resolved into three single line diagrams for each sequence, and interconnected to show how the unbalanced components add in each part of the system.
See also[edit]
Electrical drawing
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b McAvinew, Thomas; Mulley, Raymond (2004), Control System Documentation, ISA, p. 165, ISBN 1-55617-896-4
Jump up ^ Guile, A.E.; Paterson, W. (1977), Electrical Power Systems (2nd ed.), Pergamon, p. 4, ISBN 0-08-021729-X
Jump up ^ Tleis, Nasser (2008), Power System Modelling and Fault Analysis, Elsevier, p. 28, ISBN 978-0-7506-8074-5
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=One-line_diagram&oldid=794422350"
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