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Enola Gay
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This article is about the bomber. For the song, see Enola Gay (song).
Enola Gay
Paul Tibbets waving from the Enola Gay's cockpit before taking off for the bombing of Hiroshima
Type
B-29-45-MO Superfortress
Manufacturer
Glenn L. Martin Company, Omaha, Nebraska
Manufactured
18 May 1945
Serial
44-86292
Radio code
Victor 12 (later changed to Victor 82)
Owners and operators
United States Army Air Forces
In service
18 May 1945 – 24 July 1946
Preserved at
National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center
The Enola Gay (/ɪˈnoʊlə/) is a Boeing B-29 Superfortress bomber, named after Enola Gay Tibbets, the mother of the pilot, Colonel Paul Tibbets. On 6 August 1945, during the final stages of World War II, it became the first aircraft to drop an atomic bomb. The bomb, code-named "Little Boy", was targeted at the city of Hiroshima, Japan, and caused the near-complete destruction of the city. Enola Gay participated in the second atomic attack as the weather reconnaissance aircraft for the primary target of Kokura. Clouds and drifting smoke resulted in a secondary target, Nagasaki, being bombed instead.
After the war, the Enola Gay returned to the United States, where it was operated from Roswell Army Air Field, New Mexico. In May 1946, it was flown to Kwajalein for the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in the Pacific, but was not chosen to make the test drop at Bikini Atoll. Later that year it was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution, and spent many years parked at air bases exposed to the weather and souvenir hunters, before being disassembled and transported to the Smithsonian's storage facility at Suitland, Maryland, in 1961.
In the 1980s, veterans groups engaged in a call for the Smithsonian to put the aircraft on display, leading to an acrimonious debate about exhibiting the aircraft without a proper historical context. The cockpit and nose section of the aircraft were exhibited at the National Air and Space Museum (NASM) in downtown Washington, D.C., for the bombing's 50th anniversary in 1995, amid controversy. Since 2003, the entire restored B-29 has been on display at NASM's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. The last survivor of its crew, Theodore Van Kirk, died on 28 July 2014 at the age of 93.
Contents
1 World War II
1.1 Early history
1.2 Hiroshima mission
1.3 Nagasaki mission
2 Crews
2.1 Hiroshima mission
2.2 Nagasaki mission
3 Subsequent history
4 Restoration
4.1 Exhibition controversy
4.2 Complete restoration and display
5 References
5.1 Notes
5.2 Citations
5.3 Bibliography
5.4 Further reading
6 External links
World War II[edit]
Early history[edit]
The Enola Gay (Model number B-29-45-MO,[N 1] Serial number 44-86292, Victor number 82) was built by the Glenn L. Martin Company (later part of Lockheed Martin) at its Bellevue, Nebraska, plant, located at what is now known as Offutt Air Force Base. The bomber was one of the 15 initial examples of B-29s built to the "Silverplate" specification—65 of these eventually being completed during and after World War II—giving them the primary ability to function as nuclear "weapon delivery" aircraft. These modifications included an extensively modified bomb bay with pneumatic doors and British bomb attachment and release systems, reversible pitch propellers that gave more braking power on landing, improved engines with fuel injection and better cooling,[2][3] and the removal of protective armor and gun turrets.[4]
Enola Gay after Hiroshima mission, entering hardstand. It is in its 6th Bombardment Group livery, with victor number 82 visible on fuselage just forward of the tail fin.
Enola Gay was personally selected by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets Jr., the commander of the 509th Composite Group, on 9 May 1945, while still on the assembly line. The aircraft was accepted by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) on 18 May 1945 and assigned to the 393d Bombardment Squadron, Heavy, 509th Composite Group. Crew B-9, commanded by Captain Robert A. Lewis, took delivery of the bomber and flew it from Omaha to the 509th's base at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, on 14 June 1945.[5]
Thirteen days later, the aircraft left Wendover for Guam, where it received a bomb-bay modification, and flew to North Field, Tinian, on 6 July. It was initially given the Victor (squadron-assigned identification) number 12, but on 1 August, was given the circle R tail markings of the 6th Bombardment Group as a security measure and had its Victor number changed to 82 to avoid misidentification with actual 6th Bombardment Group aircraft.[5] During July, the bomber made eight practice or training flights, and flew two missions, on 24 and 26 July, to drop pumpkin bombs on industrial targets at Kobe and Nagoya. Enola Gay was used on 31 July on a rehearsal flight for the actual mission.[6]
The partially assembled Little Boy gun-type fission weapon L-11, weighing 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg), was contained inside a 41-inch (100 cm) × 47-inch (120 cm) × 138-inch (350 cm) wooden crate that was secured to the deck of the USS Indianapolis. Unlike the six uranium-235 target discs, which were later flown to Tinian on three separate aircraft arriving 28 and 29 July, the assembled projectile with the nine uranium-235 rings installed was shipped in a single lead-lined steel container weighing 300 pounds (140 kg) that was locked to brackets welded to the deck of Captain Charles B. McVay III's quarters.[N 2] Both the L-11 and projectile were dropped off at Tinian on 26 July 1945.[8]
Hiroshima mission[edit]
Main article: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Little Boy unit on trailer cradle in pit on Tinian, before being loaded into Enola Gay's bomb bay
On 5 August 1945, during preparation for the first atomic mission, Tibbets assumed command of the aircraft and named it after his mother, Enola Gay Tibbets, who, in turn, had been named for the heroine of a novel.[N 3] When it came to selecting a name for the plane, Tibbets later recalled that:
... my thoughts turned at this point to my courageous red-haired mother, whose quiet confidence had been a source of strength to me since boyhood, and particularly during the soul-searching period when I decided to give up a medical career to become a military pilot. At a time when Dad had thought I had lost my marbles, she had taken my side and said, "I know you will be all right, son."[10]
The name was painted on the aircraft on 5 August by Allan L. Karl, an enlisted man in the 509th.[5] Regularly-assigned aircraft commander Robert Lewis was unhappy to be displaced by Tibbets for this important mission, and became furious when he arrived at the aircraft on the morning of 6 August to see it painted with the now-famous nose art.[11]
Hiroshima was the primary target of the first nuclear bombing mission on 6 August, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternative targets. Enola Gay, piloted by Tibbets, took off from North Field, in the Northern Mariana Islands, about six hours' flight time from Japan, accompanied by two other B-29s, The Great Artiste, carrying instrumentation, and a then-nameless aircraft later called Necessary Evil, commanded by Captain George Marquardt, to take photographs. The director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., wanted the event recorded for posterity, so the takeoff was illuminated by floodlights. When he wanted to taxi, Tibbets leaned out the window to direct the bystanders out of the way. On request, he gave a friendly wave for the cameras.[12]
Hiroshima explosion
After leaving Tinian, the aircraft made their way separately to Iwo Jima, where they rendezvoused at 2,440 meters (8,010 ft) and set course for Japan. The aircraft arrived over the target in clear visibility at 9,855 meters (32,333 ft). Captain William S. "Deak" Parsons of Project Alberta, who was in command of the mission, armed the bomb during the flight to minimize the risks during takeoff. His assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson, removed the safety devices 30 minutes before reaching the target area.[13]
The release at 08:15 (Hiroshima time) went as planned, and the Little Boy took 43 seconds to fall from the aircraft flying at 31,060 feet (9,470 m) to the predetermined detonation height about 1,968 feet (600 m) above the city. Enola Gay traveled 11.5 mi (18.5 km) before it felt the shock waves from the blast.[14] Although buffeted by the shock, neither Enola Gay nor The Great Artiste was damaged.[15]
The detonation created a blast equivalent to 16 kilotons of TNT (67 TJ).[16] The U-235 weapon was considered very inefficient, with only 1.7% of its fissile material reacting.[17] The radius of total destruction was about one mile (1.6 km), with resulting fires across 4.4 square miles (11 km2).[18] Americans estimated that 4.7 square miles (12 km2) of the city were destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69% of Hiroshima's buildings were destroyed and another 6–7% damaged.[19] Some 70,000–80,000 people, 30% of the city's population, were killed by the blast and resultant firestorm,[20] and another 70,000 injured.[21] Out of those killed, 20,000 were soldiers.[22]
Enola Gay landing at its base
Enola Gay returned safely to its base on Tinian to great fanfare, touching down at 2:58 pm, after 12 hours 13 minutes. The Great Artiste and Necessary Evil followed at short intervals. Several hundred people, including journalists and photographers, had gathered to watch the planes return. Tibbets was the first to disembark, and was presented with the Distinguished Service Cross on the spot.[15]
Nagasaki mission[edit]
The Hiroshima mission was followed by another atomic strike. Originally scheduled for 11 August, it was brought forward by two days to 9 August owing to a forecast of bad weather. This time, a Fat Man nuclear weapon was carried by B-29 Bockscar, piloted by Major Charles W. Sweeney.[23] Enola Gay, flown by Captain George Marquardt's Crew B-10, was the weather reconnaissance aircraft for Kokura, the primary target.[24] Enola Gay reported clear skies over Kokura,[25] but by the time Bockscar arrived, the city was obscured by smoke from fires from the conventional bombing of Yahata by 224 B-29s the day before. After three unsuccessful passes, Bockscar diverted to its secondary target, Nagasaki,[26] where it dropped its bomb. In contrast to the Hiroshima mission, the Nagasaki mission has been described as tactically botched, although the mission did meet its objectives. The crew encountered a number of problems in execution, and had very little fuel by the time they landed at the emergency backup landing site Yontan Airfield on Okinawa.[27][28]
Crews[edit]
The mission runs of August 6 and 9, with Hiroshima, Nagasaki, and Kokura (the original target for August 9) displayed
Hiroshima mission[edit]
Bombardier Thomas Ferebee with the Norden Bombsight on Tinian after the dropping of Little Boy
Enola Gay's crew on 6 August 1945, consisted of 12 men.[29][30] The crew was:
Colonel Paul W. Tibbets Jr. – pilot and aircraft commander
Captain Robert A. Lewis – co-pilot; Enola Gay's regularly assigned aircraft commander*
Major Thomas Ferebee – bombardier
Captain Theodore "Dutch" Van Kirk – navigator
Captain William S. Parsons, USN – weaponeer and mission commander.
First Lieutenant Jacob Beser – radar countermeasures (also the only man to fly on both of the nuclear bombing aircraft)
Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson – assistant weaponeer
Staff Sergeant George R. "Bob" Caron – tail gunner*
Staff Sergeant Wyatt E. Duzenbury – flight engineer*
Sergeant Joe S. Stiborik – radar operator*
Sergeant Robert H. Shumard – assistant flight engineer*
Private First Class Richard H. Nelson – VHF radio operator*
Source: Campbell, 2005, p. 30. Asterisks denote regular crewmen of the Enola Gay.
Of mission commander Parsons, it was said: "There is no one more responsible for getting this bomb out of the laboratory and into some form useful for combat operations than Captain Parsons, by his plain genius in the ordnance business."[31]
Nagasaki mission[edit]
For the Nagasaki mission, Enola Gay was flown by Crew B-10, normally assigned to Up An' Atom:
Captain George W. Marquardt – aircraft commander
Second Lieutenant James M. Anderson – co-pilot
Second Lieutenant Russell Gackenbach – navigator
Captain James W. Strudwick – bombardier
First Lieutenant Jacob Beser – radar countermeasures
Technical Sergeant James R. Corliss – flight engineer
Sergeant Warren L. Coble – radio operator
Sergeant Joseph M. DiJulio – radar operator
Sergeant Melvin H. Bierman – tail gunner
Sergeant Anthony D. Capua, Jr. – assistant engineer/scanner
Source: Campbell, 2005, p. 134, 191–192.
Subsequent history[edit]
Cockpit section of Enola Gay in the Smithsonian storage facility at Suitland, 1987
On 6 November 1945, Lewis flew the Enola Gay back to the United States, arriving at the 509th's new base at Roswell Army Air Field, New Mexico, on 8 November. On 29 April 1946, Enola Gay left Roswell as part of the Operation Crossroads nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific. It flew to Kwajalein Atoll on 1 May. It was not chosen to make the test drop at Bikini Atoll and left Kwajalein on 1 July, the date of the test, reaching Fairfield-Suisun Army Air Field, California, the next day.[32]
The decision was made to preserve the Enola Gay, and on 24 July 1946, the aircraft was flown to Davis–Monthan Air Force Base, Tucson, Arizona, in preparation for storage. On 30 August 1946, the title to the aircraft was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution and the Enola Gay was removed from the USAAF inventory.[32] From 1946 to 1961, the Enola Gay was put into temporary storage at a number of locations. It was at Davis-Monthan from 1 September 1946 until 3 July 1949, when it was flown to Orchard Place Air Field, Park Ridge, Illinois, by Tibbets for acceptance by the Smithsonian. It was moved to Pyote Air Force Base, Texas, on 12 January 1952, and then to Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, on 2 December 1953,[33] because the Smithsonian had no storage space for the aircraft.[34]
It was hoped that the Air Force would guard the plane, but, lacking hangar space, it was left outdoors on a remote part of the air base, exposed to the elements. Souvenir hunters broke in and removed parts. Insects and birds then gained access to the aircraft. Paul E. Garber of the Smithsonian Institution, became concerned about the Enola Gay's condition,[34] and on 10 August 1960, Smithsonian staff began dismantling the aircraft. The components were transported to the Smithsonian storage facility at Suitland, Maryland, on 21 July 1961.[33]
Enola Gay remained at Suitland for many years. By the early 1980s, two veterans of the 509th, Don Rehl and his former navigator in the 509th, Frank B. Stewart, began lobbying for the aircraft to be restored and put on display. They enlisted Tibbets and Senator Barry Goldwater in their campaign. In 1983, Walter J. Boyne, a former B-52 pilot with the Strategic Air Command, became director of the National Air and Space Museum, and he made the Enola Gay's restoration a priority.[34] Looking at the aircraft, Tibbets recalled, was a "sad meeting. [My] fond memories, and I don't mean the dropping of the bomb, were the numerous occasions I flew the airplane ... I pushed it very, very hard and it never failed me ... It was probably the most beautiful piece of machinery that any pilot ever flew."[34]
Restoration of the bomber began on 5 December 1984, at the Paul E. Garber Preservation, Restoration, and Storage Facility in Suitland-Silver Hill, Maryland. The propellers that were used on the bombing mission were later shipped to Texas A&M University. One of these propellers was trimmed to 12.5 feet (3.8 m) for use in the university's Oran W. Nicks Low Speed Wind Tunnel. The lightweight aluminum variable-pitch propeller is powered by a 1,250 kVA electric motor, providing a wind speed up to 200 miles per hour (320 km/h).[35] Two engines were rebuilt at Garber and two at San Diego Air & Space Museum. Some parts and instruments had been removed and could not be located. Replacements were found or fabricated, and marked so that future curators could distinguish them from the original components.[36]
Restoration[edit]
Exhibition controversy[edit]
Under the cockpit window of the Enola Gay, while in storage 1987
Enola Gay became the center of a controversy at the Smithsonian Institution when the museum planned to put its fuselage on public display in 1995 as part of an exhibit commemorating the 50th anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima.[37] The exhibit, The Crossroads: The End of World War II, the Atomic Bomb and the Cold War, was drafted by the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum staff, and arranged around the restored Enola Gay.[38]
Critics of the planned exhibit, especially those of the American Legion and the Air Force Association, charged that the exhibit focused too much attention on the Japanese casualties inflicted by the nuclear bomb, rather than on the motivations for the bombing or the discussion of the bomb's role in ending the conflict with Japan.[39][40] The exhibit brought to national attention many long-standing academic and political issues related to retrospective views of the bombings. As a result, after various failed attempts to revise the exhibit in order to meet the satisfaction of competing interest groups, the exhibit was canceled on 30 January 1995. Martin O. Harwit, Director of the National Air and Space Museum, was compelled to resign over the controversy.[41][42] He later reflected that:
The dispute was not simply about the atomic bomb. Rather, the dispute was sometimes a symbolic issue in a "culture war" in which many Americans lumped together the seeming decline of American power, the difficulties of the domestic economy, the threats in world trade and especially Japan's successes, the loss of domestic jobs, and even changes in American gender roles and shifts in the American family. To a number of Americans, the very people responsible for the script were the people who were changing America. The bomb, representing the end of World War II and suggesting the height of American power was to be celebrated. It was, in this judgment, a crucial symbol of America's "good war", one fought justly for noble purposes at a time when America was united. Those who in any way questioned the bomb's use were, in this emotional framework, the enemies of America.[43]
The forward fuselage went on display on 28 June 1995. On 2 July 1995, three people were arrested for throwing ash and human blood on the aircraft's fuselage, following an earlier incident in which a protester had thrown red paint over the gallery's carpeting.[44] The exhibition closed on 18 May 1998, and the fuselage was returned to the Garber Facility for final restoration.[45]
Complete restoration and display[edit]
Restoration work began in 1984, and would eventually require 300,000 staff hours. While the fuselage was on display, from 1995 to 1998, work continued on the remaining unrestored components. The aircraft was shipped in pieces to the National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia from March–June 2003, with the fuselage and wings reunited for the first time since 1960 on 10 April 2003[3] and assembly completed on 8 August 2003. The aircraft has been on display at the Udvar-Hazy Center since the museum annex opened on 15 December 2003.[45] As a result of the earlier controversy, the signage around the aircraft provided only the same succinct technical data as is provided for other aircraft in the museum, without discussion of the controversial issues. It read:
Boeing’s B-29 Superfortress was the most sophisticated propeller-driven bomber of World War II, and the first bomber to house its crew in pressurized compartments. Although designed to fight in the European theater, the B-29 found its niche on the other side of the globe. In the Pacific, B-29s delivered a variety of aerial weapons: conventional bombs, incendiary bombs, mines, and two nuclear weapons.
On August 6, 1945, this Martin-built B-29-45-MO dropped the first atomic weapon used in combat on Hiroshima, Japan. Three days later, Bockscar (on display at the U.S. Air Force Museum near Dayton, Ohio) dropped a second atomic bomb on Nagasaki, Japan. Enola Gay flew as the advance weather reconnaissance aircraft that day. A third B-29, The Great Artiste, flew as an observation aircraft on both missions.
The Enola Gay on display at the National Air & Space Museum, Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center
Transferred from the U.S. Air Force
Wingspan: 43 m (141 ft 3 in)
Length: 30.2 m (99 ft)
Height: 9 m (27 ft 9 in)
Weight, empty: 32,580 kg (71,826 lb)
Weight, gross: 63,504 kg (140,000 lb)
Top speed: 546 km/h (339 mph)
Engines: 4 Wright R-3350-57 Cyclone turbo-supercharged radials, 2,200 hp
Crew: 12 (Hiroshima mission)
Armament: two .50 caliber machine guns
Ordnance: “Little Boy” atomic bomb
Manufacturer: Martin Co., Omaha, Nebr., 1945
A19500100000[46]
Enola Gay nose, port side, at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.
The display of the Enola Gay without reference to the historical context of World War II, the Cold War, or the development and deployment of nuclear weapons aroused controversy. A petition from a group calling themselves the Committee for a National Discussion of Nuclear History and Current Policy bemoaned the display of Enola Gay as a technological achievement, which it described as an "extraordinary callousness toward the victims, indifference to the deep divisions among American citizens about the propriety of these actions, and disregard for the feelings of most of the world's peoples".[47] It attracted signatures from notable figures including historian Gar Alperovitz, social critic Noam Chomsky, whistle blower Daniel Ellsberg, physicist Joseph Rotblat, writer Kurt Vonnegut, producer Norman Lear, actor Martin Sheen and filmmaker Oliver Stone.[47][48]
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The block number was a one- to three-digit number, followed by a two-letter code that represented the aircraft built to the same engineering specification. The two-letter code represented the plant at which the aircraft was built, in this case, Martin in Omaha. This was combined with the aircraft model designation (B-29) to form the model number [1]
Jump up ^ The atomic bombs were euphemistically known as the "gadgets", a tag given to them by scientists at the Los Alamos test facility.[7]
Jump up ^ Enola; or Her Fatal Mistake (1886), by Mary Young Ridenbaugh is the only novel of the period to use "Enola".[9]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Mann 2004, p. 100.
Jump up ^ Campbell 2005, pp. 14–15.
^ Jump up to: a b March, Peter R. "Enola Gay Restored". Aircraft Illustrated, October 2003.
Jump up ^ "Boeing B-29 Enola Gay Superfortress bomber, Aircraft history, facts and pictures". aviationexplorer.com. Retrieved 4 August 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c Campbell 2005, pp. 191–192.
Jump up ^ Campbell 2005, p. 117.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 2.
Jump up ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 258.
Jump up ^ Ridenbaugh, Mary Young (1886). Enola; or Her fatal mistake. St Louis, Missouri: Woodward & Tiernan.
Jump up ^ Tibbets 1998, p. 203.
Jump up ^ Thomas & Morgan-Witts 1977, pp. 382–383.
Jump up ^ Polmar 2004, pp. 31–32.
Jump up ^ "Timeline #2- the 509th; The Hiroshima Mission". The Atomic Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 5 May 2007.
Jump up ^ "The Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima, Aug 6, 1945". United States Department of Energy. Archived from the original on 24 June 2010. Retrieved 25 June 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Polmar 2004, p. 33.
Jump up ^ "Section 8.0 The First Nuclear Weapons". Nuclear Weapons Archive. Retrieved 13 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Bomb-"Little Boy"". The Atomic Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 5 May 2007.
Jump up ^ "Radiation Dose Reconstruction U.S. Occupation Forces in Hiroshima And Nagasaki, Japan, 1945–1946 (DNA 5512F)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 June 2006. Retrieved 9 June 2006.
Jump up ^ "U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey: The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, June 19, 1946. President's Secretary's File, Truman Papers." Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. p. 9. Retrieved 15 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "U. S. Strategic Bombing Survey: The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, June 19, 1946. President's Secretary's File, Truman Papers." Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. p. 6. Retrieved 15 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "Harry S. Truman Library & Museum. U. S. Strategic Bombing Survey: The Effects of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, June 19, 1946. President's Secretary's File, Truman Papers." p. 37. Retrieved 15 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombing: Facts about the Atomic Bomb". Hiroshima Day Committee. Retrieved 13 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Polmar 2004, pp. 35–38.
Jump up ^ Campbell 2005, p. 32.
Jump up ^ Sweeney, Antonucci & Antonucci 1997, pp. 210–211.
Jump up ^ Sweeney, Antonucci & Antonucci 1997, pp. 213–215.
Jump up ^ "Boeing B-29 Superfortress". National Museum of the United States Air Force. Archived from the original on 24 January 2015. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Rossenfeld, Carrie (2005). "The Story of Nagasaki: The Missions". hiroshima-remembered.com. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Cooper, Sgt. Jean. "Photo: P-574 (Enola Gay Crew Members)". Atomic Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Atom Bomber Crew From Eight States". The Miami News. AP. August 8, 1945. Retrieved July 8, 2017 – via newspapers.com.
Jump up ^ Dvorak, Darrell F. (Winter 2013). "The First Atomic Bomb Mission: Trinity B-29 Operations Three Weeks Before Hiroshima" (PDF). Air Power History. 60 (4): 4–17. ISSN 1044-016X.
^ Jump up to: a b Campbell 2005, p. 193.
^ Jump up to: a b Polmar 2004, p. 66.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Harwit, Martin. "An Exhibit Denied: Lobbying the History of Enola Gay". The New York Times. Retrieved 13 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "Enola Gay". Solarnavigator.net. Retrieved 10 November 2009.
Jump up ^ Polmar 2004, p. 60.
Jump up ^ Sanger, David E. (6 August 1995). "Travel Advisory: Correspondent's Report; Enola Gay and Little Boy, Exactly 50 Years Later". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Gallagher, Edward. "History on Trial: The Enola Gay Controversy". Lehigh University. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Enola Gay Archive: The Enola Gay and the Smithsonian". Air Force Association. 1996. Archived from the original on 26 October 2010. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Doyle, Debbie Ann (December 2003). "Historians protest new Enola Gay exhibit". Perspectives on History. 41 (9). ISSN 0743-7021. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Head of Air, Space Museum Quits Over Enola Gay Exhibit". Los Angeles Times. 3 May 1995. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Meyer, Eugene L. (3 May 1995). "Air and Space Museum Chief Resigns: Harwit Cites Furor Over A-Bomb Exhibit". The Washington Post. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Bernstein 1995, p. 238.
Jump up ^ Correll, John T. (August 1995). "Enola Gay Archive: Presenting the Enola Gay". Air Force Association. p. 19. Archived from the original on 13 October 2010. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Boeing B-29 'Superfortress': Enola Gay". National air and Space Museum. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions Regarding Exhibition of B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay" (Press release). National Air and Space Museum. 17 May 2005. Retrieved 20 February 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Statement of Principles". Committee for a National Discussion of Nuclear History and Current Policy. Archived from the original on 2 February 2005.
Jump up ^ Doyle, Debbie Ann (December 2003). "Historians Protest New Enola Gay Exhibit". American History Association. Retrieved 20 February 2018.
Bibliography[edit]
Bernstein, Barton (1995). "The Struggle Over History: Defining the Hiroshima Narrative". In Nobile, Philip. Judgment at the Smithsonian. New York: Marlowe & Co. pp. 127–256. ISBN 978-1-56924-841-6. OCLC 32856425.
Campbell, Richard H. (2005). The Silverplate Bombers: A History and Registry of the Enola Gay and Other B-29's Configured to Carry Atomic Bombs. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc. ISBN 0-7864-2139-8.
Hoddeson, Lillian; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; Westfall, Catherine L. (1993). Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44132-2.
Mann, Robert A. (2004). The B-29 Superfortress: A Comprehensive Registry of the Planes and Their Missions. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. ISBN 0-7864-1787-0.
Polmar, Norman (2004). The Enola Gay: The B-29 that Dropped the Atomic Bomb on Hiroshima. Dulles, Virginia: Brassey's. ISBN 1-57488-859-5.
Sweeney, Charles; Antonucci, James A.; Antonucci, Marion K. (1997). War's End: an Eyewitness Account of America's Last Atomic Mission. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 0-380-97349-9.
Thomas, Gordon; Morgan-Witts, Max (1977). Ruin from the Air: The Enola Gay's Atomic Mission to Hiroshima. London: Hamilton. ISBN 0-8128-8509-0.
Tibbets, Paul W. (1998). Return of the Enola Gay. New Hope, Pennsylvania: Enola Gay Remembered Inc. ISBN 0970366604.
Further reading[edit]
Dubin, Steven C. (2001). Displays of Power: Controversy in the American Museum from the Enola Gay to Sensation. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-1890-2.
Haggerty, Forrest (2005). 43 Seconds to Hiroshima: The First Atomic Mission. An Autobiography of Richard H. Nelson, "Enola Gay" Radioman. Bloomington, Indiana: AuthorHouse. ISBN 1-4208-4316-8.
Harwit, Martin (1996). An Exhibit Denied: Lobbying the History of Enola Gay. New York: Copernicus. ISBN 0-387-94797-3.
Hogan, Michael J. (1996). Hiroshima in History and Memory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-56682-7.
Krauss, Robert; Krauss, Amelia (2005). The 509th Remembered: A History of the 509th Composite Group as Told by the Veterans Themselves, 509th Anniversary Reunion, Wichita, Kansas, 7–10 October 2004. Wichita, Kansas: 509th Press. ISBN 0-923568-66-2.
O'Reilly, Charles T. and William A. Rooney (2005). Enola Gay and the Smithsonian Institution. New York: McFarland & Company. ISBN 0-7864-2008-1.
Rhodes, Richard (1986). The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-81378-5.
Newman, Robert P. (2004). Enola Gay and the Court of History. New York: Peter Lang Publishing. ISBN 0-8204-7457-6.
Wheeler, Keith. (1982). Bombers over Japan. Virginia Beach, Virginia: Time-Life Books. ISBN 0-8094-3429-6.
External links[edit]
United States Air Force portal
World War II portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Enola Gay.
The Smithsonian's site on Enola Gay includes links to crew lists and other details
Eyewitnesses to Hiroshima, Time magazine, 1 August 2005
"Inside the Enola Gay", Air & Space, 18 May 2010
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Coordinates: 38°54′39″N 77°26′39″W / 38.9108°N 77.4442°W / 38.9108; -77.4442
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All I Want for Christmas Is You (film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
This article is about the animated film. For other uses, see All I Want for Christmas Is You (disambiguation).
All I Want For Christmas Is You
Directed by
Guy Vasilovich
Based on
"All I Want For Christmas Is You"
by Mariah Carey
Starring
Mariah Carey
Breanna Yde
Henry Winkler
Production
company
Universal 1440 Entertainment
Splash Entertainment
Magic Carpet Productions
Universal Animation Studios
Distributed by
Universal Pictures Home Entertainment
Release date
November 13, 2017 (November 13, 2017)
Running time
91 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
All I Want For Christmas Is You (also known as Mariah Carey's All I Want For Christmas Is You) is a 2017 direct-to-video animated Christmas film based on the song by Mariah Carey and the book by Carey and Colleen Madden.
Plot[edit]
Young Mariah desperately wants a puppy for Christmas but her parents are not convinced that she should have one. They agree to let Mariah dog-sit the puppy Jack and if she can take care of Jack then she can have a dog of her very own.
Cast[edit]
Mariah Carey as Older Mariah/Narrator
Breanna Yde as Mariah
Henry Winkler as Grandpa Bill
Phil Morris as Bud
Nicky Jam as Himself
External links[edit]
All I Want For Christmas Is You on IMDb
[show]
v
t
e
Mariah Carey
Albums
Songs
Awards and nominations
Singles
Videography
Performances
Studio albums
Mariah Carey
Emotions
Music Box
Merry Christmas
Daydream
Butterfly
Rainbow
Charmbracelet
The Emancipation of Mimi
E=MC²
Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel
Merry Christmas II You
Me. I Am Mariah... The Elusive Chanteuse
Live albums
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#1's
Greatest Hits
The Remixes
The Ballads
The Essential Mariah Carey
#1 to Infinity
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Glitter
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The First Vision
MTV Unplugged +3
Here Is Mariah Carey
Fantasy: Mariah Carey at Madison Square Garden
Around the World
#1's
The Adventures of Mimi
Television
A Christmas Melody
Mariah's World
Concert tours
Music Box Tour
Daydream World Tour
Butterfly World Tour
Rainbow World Tour
Charmbracelet World Tour
The Adventures of Mimi
Angels Advocate Tour
The Elusive Chanteuse Show
The Sweet Sweet Fantasy Tour
All the Hits Tour
The #1's Tour
Concert residencies
Live at the Pearl
All I Want for Christmas Is You, a Night of Joy and Festivity
#1 to Infinity
The Butterfly Returns
Fragrances
M by Mariah Carey
Luscious Pink
Forever
Companies
Monarc Entertainment
Related topics
Tommy Mottola
Nick Cannon
Lionel Cole
James Packer
Book
Category
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
Universal Animation Studios
Direct-to-video
feature films
Universal
Cartoon
Studios
The Land Before Time II: The Great Valley Adventure (1994)
The Land Before Time III: The Time of the Great Giving (1995)
The Land Before Time IV: Journey Through the Mists (1996)
The Land Before Time V: The Mysterious Island (1997)
Hercules and Xena – The Battle for Mount Olympus (1998)
The Land Before Time VI: The Secret of Saurus Rock (1998)
Alvin and the Chipmunks Meet Frankenstein (1999)
An American Tail: The Treasure of Manhattan Island (2000)
An American Tail: The Mystery of the Night Monster (2000)
Alvin and the Chipmunks Meet the Wolfman (2000)
The Land Before Time VII: The Stone of Cold Fire (2000)
The Land Before Time VIII: The Big Freeze (2001)
Balto II: Wolf Quest (2002)
The Land Before Time IX: Journey to Big Water (2002)
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The Land Before Time X: The Great Longneck Migration (2003)
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Balto III: Wings of Change (2005)
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The Land Before Time XII: The Great Day of the Flyers (2007)
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The Little Engine That Could (2011)
Curious George 3: Back to the Jungle (2015)
The Land Before Time: Journey of the Brave (2016)
Mariah Carey's All I Want for Christmas Is You (2017)
Theatrical Films
Curious George (2006)
The Tale of Despereaux (2008)
Woody Woodpecker (2017)
Short films
Fractured Fairy Tales: The Phox, the Box, & the Lox (1999)
TV series
Back to the Future (1991–92)
Fievel's American Tails (1992)
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Monster Force (1994)
Beethoven (1994–95)
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The Savage Dragon (1995–96)
The Spooktacular New Adventures of Casper (1996–98)
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The Mummy (2001–03)
Curious George (2006–15)
The Land Before Time (2007–08)
TV specials
Opus 'n' Bill: A Wish for Wings That Work (1991)
Curious George: A Very Monkey Christmas (2009)
How Murray Saved Christmas (2014)
See also
Illumination Entertainment
Walter Lantz Productions
DreamWorks Animation
DreamWorks Classics
Entertainment Rights
Big Idea Entertainment
Harvey Films
UPA
Amblimation
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=All_I_Want_for_Christmas_Is_You_(film)&oldid=837923825"
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2017 films
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Universal Animation Studios animated films
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Flying fish
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Flying fish (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Raining fish.
Flying fish
Temporal range: Miocene–Recent
PreЄ
Є
O
S
D
C
P
T
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K
Pg
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Sailfin flying-fish
Parexocoetus brachypterus
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Beloniformes
Suborder: Belonoidei
Superfamily: Exocoetoidea
Family: Exocoetidae
Genera
Cheilopogon
Cypselurus
Exocoetus
Fodiator
Hirundichthys
Parexocoetus
Prognichthys
The Exocoetidae is a family of marine fish in the order Beloniformes class Actinopterygii. Fish of this family are known as flying fish. About 64 species are grouped in seven to nine genera. Flying fish can make powerful, self-propelled leaps out of water into air, where their long, wing-like fins enable gliding flight for considerable distances above the water's surface. This uncommon ability is a natural defence mechanism to evade predators.
The oldest known fossil of a flying or gliding fish, Potanichthys xingyiensis, dates back to the Middle Triassic, 235–242 million years ago. However, this fossil is not related to modern flying fish, which evolved independently about 66 million years ago.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Distribution and description
2.1 Flight measurements
3 Fishery and cuisine
4 Importance
4.1 Barbados
4.1.1 Maritime disputes
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Etymology[edit]
The term Exocoetidae is both the scientific name and the general name in Latin for a flying fish. The suffix -idae, common for indicating a family, follows the root of the Latin word exocoetus, a transliteration of the Ancient Greek name ἐξώκοιτος. This means literally "sleeping outside", from ἔξω "outside" and κοῖτος "bed", "resting place",[3] so named as flying fish were believed to leave the water to sleep ashore.[4]
A different etymological approach, more realistic, is that of Ancient Greek ἔξω "outside" + κύτος "hull", which means not submerged in the water.
Distribution and description[edit]
Flying fish
Flying fish taking off
Flying fish live in all of the oceans, particularly in tropical and warm subtropical waters. They are commonly found in the epipelagic zone. This area is the top layer of the ocean that extends 200 meters from the surface down. It is often known as the "sunlight zone" because it's where most of the visible light exists. Nearly all primary production, or photosynthesis, happens in this zone.[5] Therefore, the vast majority of plants and animals inhabit this area and can vary from plankton to the sharks. Although the epipelagic zone is an exceptional area for variety in life, it too has its drawbacks. Due to the vast variety of organisms it holds, there is high number of prey and predation relationships.[6] Small organisms such as the flying fish are targets for larger organisms. They especially have a hard time escaping predators and surviving until they can reproduce, resulting in them having a lower fitness.[6] Along with relationship difficulties, abiotic factors also play a part. Harsh ocean currents make it extremely difficult for small fish to survive in this habitat. Research suggests that difficult environmental factors in the flying fish's habitat have led to the evolution of modified fins.[7] As a result, flying fish have undergone natural selection in which species gain unique traits to better adapt to their environments. By becoming airborne, flying fish evade their predators and environment. This increase of speed and maneuverability is a direct advantage to flying fish, and has given them leverage when compared to other species in their environment.
Research has shown that the flying fish has undergone morphological changes throughout its history, the first of which is fully broadened neural arches. Neural arches act as insertion sites for muscles, connective tissues, and ligaments in a fish’s skeleton. Fully broadened neural arches act as more stable and sturdier sites for these connections, creating a strong link between the vertebral column and cranium.[8] This ultimately allows a rigid and sturdy vertebral column (body) that is beneficial in flight. Having a rigid body during glided flight gives the flying fish aerodynamic advantages, increasing its speed and improving its aim.[8] Furthermore, flying fish have developed vertebral columns and ossified caudal complexes.[9] These features provide the majority of strength to the flying fish, allowing them to physically lift their body out of water and glide remarkable distances. These additions also reduce the flexibility of the flying fish, allowing them to perform powerful leaps without weakening midair.[9] At the end of a glide, it folds its pectoral fins to re-enter the sea, or drops its tail into the water to push against the water to lift itself for another glide, possibly changing direction.[10][11] The curved profile of the "wing" is comparable to the aerodynamic shape of a bird wing.[12] The fish is able to increase its time in the air by flying straight into or at an angle to the direction of updrafts created by a combination of air and ocean currents.[10][11]
Genus Exocoetus has one pair of fins and a streamlined body to optimize for speed, while Cypselurus has a flattened body and two pairs of fins, which maximize its time in the air. From 1900 to the 1930s, flying fish were studied as possible models used to develop airplanes.[11]
Exocoetidae feed mainly on plankton. Predators include dolphins, tuna, marlin, birds, squids, and porpoises.[11]
Flight measurements[edit]
In May 2008, a Japanese television crew (NHK) filmed a flying fish (dubbed "Icarfish") off the coast of Yakushima Island, Japan. The fish spent 45 seconds in flight.[13] The previous record was 42 seconds.[13]
The flights of flying fish are typically around 50 m (160 ft),[14] though they can use updrafts at the leading edge of waves to cover distances up to 400 m (1,300 ft).[14][15] They can travel at speeds of more than 70 km/h (43 mph).[11] Maximum altitude is 6 m (20 ft) above the surface of the sea.[12] Some accounts (e.g. Kon-tiki by Thor Heyerdal) have them landing on ships' decks.[11][16][17]
Fishery and cuisine[edit]
Flying fish for sale in local fish market of Saint Martin's Island, Bangladesh
Flying fish are commercially fished in Japan, Vietnam, and China by gillnetting, and in Indonesia and India by dipnetting.[11] Often in Japanese cuisine, the fish is preserved by drying. The roe of Cheilopogon agoo, or Japanese flying fish, is used to make some types of sushi, and is known as tobiko. It is also a staple in the diet of the Tao people of Orchid Island, Taiwan. Flying fish is part of the national dish of Barbados, cou-cou and flying fish.
In the Solomon Islands, the fish are caught while they are flying, using nets held from outrigger canoes. They are attracted to the light of torches. Fishing is done only when there is no moonlight.
Importance[edit]
Barbados[edit]
Barbados is known as "the land of the flying fish", and the fish is one of the national symbols of the country. Once abundant, it migrated between the warm, coral-filled Atlantic Ocean surrounding the island of Barbados and the plankton-rich outflows of the Orinoco River in Venezuela.
Just after the completion of the Bridgetown Harbor / Deep Water Harbor in Bridgetown, Barbados had an increase of ship visits, linking the island to the world. The overall health of the coral reefs surrounding Barbados suffered due to ship-based pollution. Additionally, Barbadian overfishing pushed them closer to the Orinoco delta, no longer returning to Barbados in large numbers. Today, the flying fish only migrate as far north as Tobago, around 120 nmi (220 km; 140 mi) southwest of Barbados. Despite the change, flying fish remain a coveted delicacy.
Many aspects of Barbadian culture center around the flying fish; it is depicted on coins, as sculptures in fountains, in artwork, and as part of the official logo of the Barbados Tourism Authority. Additionally, the Barbadian coat of arms features a pelican and dolphin fish on either side of the shield, but the dolphin resembles a flying fish. Furthermore, actual artistic renditions and holograms of the flying fish are also present within the Barbadian passport.
Maritime disputes[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Barbados v. Trinidad and Tobago.
In recent times, flying fish have also been gaining in popularity in other islands, fueling several maritime disputes. In 2006, the council of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea[18] fixed the maritime boundaries between Barbados and Trinidad and Tobago over the flying fish dispute, which gradually raised tensions between the neighbours.[19] The ruling stated both countries must preserve stocks for the future. Barbadian fishers still follow the flying fish southward. Flying fish remain an important part of Barbados' main national dish.
See also[edit]
Flying and gliding animals
Neuston
Tradeoffs for locomotion in air and water
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Oldest flying fish fossil found in China Nature, News, 31 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Xu, Guang-Hui; Li-Jun Zhao, Ke-Qin Gao and Fei-Xiang Wu (2012) A new stem-neopterygian fish from the Middle Triassic of China shows the earliest over-water gliding strategy of the vertebrates" Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, Published online before print October 31, 2012. doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.2261
Jump up ^ Harper, Douglas. "exocet". Online Etymology Dictionary.
Jump up ^ Pliny's Natural History, vol. IX, 19)
Jump up ^ Fish, F. E. (1990). Wing Design And Scaling of Flying Fish With Regard To Flight Performance. Journal of Zoology, 221(3), 391-403.
^ Jump up to: a b Davenport, J. (1994). How And Why Do Flying Fish Fly?. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 4(2), 184-214.
Jump up ^ Dasilao, J., & Yamaoka, K. (1998). Development of the Vertebral Column And Caudal Complex in a Flyingfish, Parexocoetus Mento Mento (Teleostei: Exocoetidae). Ichthyological Research, 45(3), 303-308.
^ Jump up to: a b Dasilao, J., & Yamaoka, K. (1998). Development Of The Vertebral Column And Caudal Complex In A Flyingfish, Parexocoetus Mento Mento (Teleostei: Exocoetidae). Ichthyological Research, 45(3), 303-308.
^ Jump up to: a b Dasilao, J. C., & Sasaki, K. (1998). Phylogeny Of The Flyingfish Family Exocoetidae (Teleostei, Beloniformes). Ichthyological Research, 45(4), 347-353.
^ Jump up to: a b Fish, F. E. (1990). "Wing design and scaling of flying fish with regard to flight performance" (PDF). Journal of Zoology. 221 (3): 391–403. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1990.tb04009.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-20.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Kutschera, U. (2005). "Predator-driven macroevolution in flyingfishes inferred from behavioural studies: historical controversies and a hypothesis" (PDF). Annals of the History and Philosophy of Biology. 10: 59–77. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Fish, F. (1991). "On a fin and a prayer" (PDF). Scholars. 3 (1): 4–7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-11-02.
^ Jump up to: a b "Fast flying fish glides by ferry". BBC News. May 20, 2008. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Ross Piper (2007), Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals, Greenwood Press.
Jump up ^ Flying Fish, Exocoetidae National Geographic. Retrieved 10 August 2014.
Jump up ^ Joseph Banks (1997). The Endeavour Journal of Sir Joseph Banks 1768–1771 (PDF). University of Sydney Library. Retrieved July 16, 2009.
Jump up ^ Moran. Churchill: Taken from the Diaries of Lord Moran. p. 819.
Jump up ^ "Barbados/Trinidad and Tobago". Permanent Court of Arbitration. April 11, 2006. Archived from the original on 2010-06-02.
Jump up ^ "Claims of Caribbean piracy as national symbol takes flight". The Sydney Morning Herald. December 18, 2004.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Exocoetidae.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Flying-fish.
May 2008 video of 45 second flight
Flying Fish, National Geographic Society
Video of flying fish using pectoral fins to swim underwater
Slow-motion video of flying fish taking off
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