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History of insurance
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A series on Economic history:
History of finance
History of banking
List of oldest banks
History of credit unions
History of private equity
Bubbles and Crashes
Tulip mania
Stock market bubble
South Sea Bubble
Panic of 1837
Wall Street Crash of 1929
Financial crisis of 2007–2010
History of insurance
History of accounting
v
t
e
The history of insurance consisted of the development of the modern business of insurance against risks, especially regarding cargo, property, death, automobile accidents, and medical treatment.
The industry helps to eliminate risks (as when fire insurance companies demand the implementation of safe practices and the installation of hydrants), spreads risks from the individual to the larger community, and provides an important source of long-term finance for both the public and private sectors. The insurance industry is generally profitable and provides attractive employment opportunities for white collar workers.
Contents
[hide]
1 Ancient world
2 Medieval era
3 Modern insurance
3.1 Property insurance
3.2 Business insurance
3.3 Life insurance
3.4 Accident insurance
3.5 National insurance
4 Notes
5 References
Ancient world[edit]
In some sense, we can say that insurance dates back to early human society. We know of two types of economies in human societies: natural or non-monetary economies (using barter and trade with no centralized nor standardized set of financial instruments) and monetary economies (with markets, currency, financial instruments and so on). Insurance in the former case entails agreements of mutual aid. If one family's house gets destroyed, the neighbours are committed to help rebuild it. Granaries embodied another early form of insurance to indemnify against famines. These types of insurance have survived to the present day in countries or areas where a modern money economy with its financial instruments is not widespread.[citation needed]
The first methods of transferring or distributing risk in a monetary economy, were practised by Chinese and Babylonian traders in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, respectively.[1] Chinese merchants travelling treacherous river rapids would redistribute their wares across many vessels to limit the loss due to any single vessel's capsizing. The Babylonians developed a system that was recorded in the famous Code of Hammurabi, c. 1750 BC, and practised by early Mediterranean sailing merchants. If a merchant received a loan to fund his shipment, he would pay the lender an additional sum in exchange for the lender's guarantee to cancel the loan should the shipment be stolen or lost at sea.
Merchants have sought methods to minimize risks since early times. Pictured, Governors of the Wine Merchant's Guild by Ferdinand Bol, c. 1680.
Achaemenian monarchs in Ancient Persia were presented with annual gifts from the various ethnic groups under their control. This would function as an early form of political insurance, and officially bound the Persian monarch to protect the group from harm.[2]
At some point in the 1st millennium BC, the inhabitants of Rhodes created the 'general average'. This allowed groups of merchants to pay to insure their goods being shipped together. The collected premiums would be used to reimburse any merchant whose goods were jettisoned during transport, whether to storm or sinkage.[3]
The ancient Athenian "maritime loan" advanced money for voyages with repayment being cancelled if the ship was lost. In the 4th century BC, rates for the loans differed according to safe or dangerous times of year, implying an intuitive pricing of risk with an effect similar to insurance.[4]
The Greeks and Romans introduced the origins of health and life insurance c. 600 BC when they created guilds called "benevolent societies", which cared for the families of deceased members, as well as paying funeral expenses of members. Guilds in the Middle Ages served a similar purpose. The Jewish Talmud also deals with several aspects of insuring goods. Before insurance was established in the late 17th century, "friendly societies" existed in England, in which people donated amounts of money to a general sum that could be used for emergencies.
Medieval era[edit]
Separate insurance contracts (i.e., insurance policies not bundled with loans or other kinds of contracts) were invented in Genoa in the 14th century, as were insurance pools backed by pledges of landed estates. The first known insurance contract dates from Genoa in 1347, and in the next century maritime insurance developed widely and premiums were intuitively varied with risks.[5]
These new insurance contracts allowed insurance to be separated from investment, a separation of roles that first proved useful in marine insurance. The first printed book on insurance was the legal treatise On Insurance and Merchants' Bets by Pedro de Santarém (Santerna), written in 1488 and published in 1552.[6][7]
Modern insurance[edit]
The subscription room at Lloyd's of London in the early 19th century.
Insurance became more sophisticated in Enlightenment era Europe, and specialized varieties developed. Some forms of insurance developed in London in the early decades of the 17th century. For example, the will of the English colonist Robert Hayman mentioned two "policies of insurance" taken out with the diocesan Chancellor of London, Arthur Duck. Of the value of £100 each, one related to the safe arrival of Hayman's ship in Guyana and the other was in regard to "one hundred pounds assured by the said Doctor Arthur Ducke on my life".[8]
Property insurance[edit]
Hamburger Feuerkasse (English: Hamburg Fire Office) is the first officially established fire insurance company in the world,[9] and the oldest existing insurance enterprise available to the public, having started in 1676.[10]
Property insurance as we know it today can be traced to the Great Fire of London, which in 1666 devoured more than 13,000 houses. The devastating effects of the fire converted the development of insurance "from a matter of convenience into one of urgency, a change of opinion reflected in Sir Christopher Wren's inclusion of a site for 'the Insurance Office' in his new plan for London in 1667".[11] A number of attempted fire insurance schemes came to nothing, but in 1681, economist Nicholas Barbon and eleven associates established the first fire insurance company, the "Insurance Office for Houses", at the back of the Royal Exchange to insure brick and frame homes. Initially, 5,000 homes were insured by his Insurance Office.[12]
An 18th-century fire insurance contract.
In the wake of this first successful venture, many similar companies were founded in the following decades. Initially, each company employed its own fire department to prevent and minimise the damage from conflagrations on properties insured by them. They also began to issue 'Fire insurance marks' to their customers. These would be displayed prominently above the main door of the property and allowed the insurance company to positively identify properties that had taken out insurance with them. One such notable company was the Hand in Hand Fire & Life Insurance Society, founded in 1696 at Tom's Coffee House in St. Martin's Lane in London.[13] It was structured as a mutual society, and for 135 years it operated its own fire brigade and played an important part in shaping fire fighting and prevention.[13] The Sun Fire Office is the earliest still existing property insurance company, dating from 1710.[14]
This system was soon exposed as terribly flawed, as rival brigades often ignored burning buildings once they discovered that it had no insurance policy with their company. Eventually, a solution was agreed upon in which all the insurance companies would supply money and equipment to a municipal authority charged with stationing fire prevention assets and firefighters equally around the city to respond to all fires. This did not solve the problem entirely, as the brigades still tended to favour saving insured buildings to those without any insurance at all.[15]
In Colonial America, the first insurance company that underwrote fire insurance was formed in Charles Town (modern-day Charleston), South Carolina in 1732. Benjamin Franklin helped to popularize and make standard the practice of insurance, particularly Property insurance to spread the risk of loss from fire, in the form of perpetual insurance. In 1752, he founded the Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire. Franklin's company made contributions toward fire prevention. Not only did his company warn against certain fire hazards, it refused to insure certain buildings where the risk of fire was too great, such as all wooden houses.
Business insurance[edit]
Lloyd's Coffee House was the first marine insurance company.
At the same time, the first insurance schemes for the underwriting of business ventures became available. By the end of the seventeenth century, London's growing importance as a centre for trade was increasing demand for marine insurance. In the late 1680s, Edward Lloyd opened a coffee house on Tower Street in London. It soon became a popular haunt for ship owners, merchants, and ships' captains, and thereby a reliable source of the latest shipping news.[16]
It became the meeting place for parties in the shipping industry wishing to insure cargoes and ships, and those willing to underwrite such ventures. These informal beginnings led to the establishment of the insurance market Lloyd's of London and several related shipping and insurance businesses. In 1774, long after Lloyd's death in 1713, the participating members of the insurance arrangement formed a committee and moved to the Royal Exchange on Cornhill as the Society of Lloyd's.
Life insurance[edit]
The first life insurance policies were taken out in the early 18th century. The first company to offer life insurance was the Amicable Society for a Perpetual Assurance Office, founded in London in 1706 by William Talbot and Sir Thomas Allen.[17][18] The first plan of life insurance was that each member paid a fixed annual payment per share on from one to three shares with consideration to age of the members being twelve to fifty-five. At the end of the year a portion of the "amicable contribution" was divided among the wives and children of deceased members and it was in proportion to the amount of shares the heirs owned. Amicable Society started with 2000 members.[19][20]
Amicable Society for a Perpetual Assurance Office, established in 1706, was the first life insurance company in the world.
The first life table was written by Edmund Halley in 1693, but it was only in the 1750s that the necessary mathematical and statistical tools were in place for the development of modern life insurance. James Dodson, a mathematician and actuary, tried to establish a new company that issued premiums aimed at correctly offsetting the risks of long term life assurance policies, after being refused admission to the Amicable Life Assurance Society because of his advanced age. He was unsuccessful in his attempts at procuring a charter from the government before his death in 1757.
His disciple, Edward Rowe Mores was finally able to establish the Society for Equitable Assurances on Lives and Survivorship in 1762. It was the world's first mutual insurer and it pioneered age based premiums based on mortality rate laying "the framework for scientific insurance practice and development"[21] and "the basis of modern life assurance upon which all life assurance schemes were subsequently based".[22]
Mores also specified that the chief official should be called an actuary—the earliest known reference to the position as a business concern. The first modern actuary was William Morgan, who was appointed in 1775 and served until 1830. In 1776 the Society carried out the first actuarial valuation of liabilities and subsequently distributed the first reversionary bonus (1781) and interim bonus (1809) among its members.[21] It also used regular valuations to balance competing interests.[21] The Society sought to treat its members equitably and the Directors tried to ensure that the policyholders received a fair return on their respective investments. Premiums were regulated according to age, and anybody could be admitted regardless of their state of health and other circumstances.[23]
The sale of life insurance in the U.S. began in the late 1760s. The Presbyterian Synods in Philadelphia and New York founded the Corporation for Relief of Poor and Distressed Widows and Children of Presbyterian Ministers in 1759;[24] Episcopalian priests created a comparable relief fund in 1769. Between 1787 and 1837 more than two dozen life insurance companies were started, but fewer than half a dozen survived.
Accident insurance[edit]
The Railway Passengers Assurance Company was founded in 1848 as the first company to provide accident insurance.
In the late 19th century, "accident insurance" began to become available. This operated much like modern disability insurance.[25][26] The first company to offer accident insurance was the Railway Passengers Assurance Company, formed in 1848 in England to insure against the rising number of fatalities on the nascent railway system. It was registered as the Universal Casualty Compensation Company to:
...grant assurances on the lives of persons travelling by railway and to grant, in cases, of accident not having a fatal termination, compensation to the assured for injuries received under certain conditions.
The company was able to reach an agreement with the railway companies, whereby basic accident insurance would be sold as a package deal along with travel tickets to customers. The company charged higher premiums for second and third class travel due to the higher risk of injury in the roofless carriages.[27][28]
National insurance[edit]
By the late 19th century, governments began to initiate national insurance programs against sickness and old age. Germany built on a tradition of welfare programs in Prussia and Saxony that began as early as in the 1840s. In the 1880s Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced old age pensions, accident insurance and medical care that formed the basis for Germany's welfare state. His paternalistic programs won the support of German industry because its goals were to win the support of the working classes for the Empire and reduce the outflow of immigrants to America, where wages were higher but welfare did not exist.[29][page needed][30][page needed]
Leaflet promoting the National Insurance Act 1911
In Britain more extensive legislation was introduced by the Liberal government, led by H. H. Asquith and David Lloyd George. The 1911 National Insurance Act gave the British working classes the first contributory system of insurance against illness and unemployment.[31]
All workers who earned under £160 a year had to pay 4 pence a week to the scheme; the employer paid 3 pence, and general taxation paid 2 pence. As a result, workers could take sick leave and be paid 10 shillings a week for the first 13 weeks and 5 shillings a week for the next 13 weeks. Workers also gained access to free treatment for tuberculosis, and the sick were eligible for treatment by a panel doctor. The National Insurance Act also provided maternity benefits. Time-limited unemployment benefit was based on actuarial principles and it was planned that it would be funded by a fixed amount each from workers, employers, and taxpayers. It was restricted to particular industries, cyclical/seasonal industries like construction of ships, and neither made any provision for dependants. By 1913, 2.3 million were insured under the scheme for unemployment benefit and almost 15 million insured for sickness benefit.
This system was greatly expanded after the Second World War under the influence of the Beveridge Report, to form the first modern welfare state.[29][32][page needed]
In the United States, until the passage of the Social Security Act in 1935, the federal government did not mandate any form of insurance upon the nation as a whole. With the passage of the Act the new program expanded the concept and acceptance of insurance as a means to achieve individual financial security that might not otherwise be available. That expansion experienced its first boom market immediately after the Second World War with the original VA Home Loan programs that greatly expanded the idea that affordable housing for veterans was a benefit of having served. The mortgages that were underwritten by the federal government during this time included an insurance clause as a means of protecting the banks and lending institutions involved against avoidable losses. During the 1940s there was also the GI life insurance policy program that was designed to ease the burden of military losses on the civilian population and survivors.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ See, e.g., Vaughan, E. J. (1996). Risk Management. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0471107590.
Jump up ^ "Insurance in Ancient Iran". Archived from the original on 2008-04-04.
Jump up ^ "Lex Rhodia: The Ancient Ancestor of Maritime Law - 800 BC". duhaime.org.
Jump up ^ Franklin, James (2001). The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability Before Pascal. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 259.
Jump up ^ Franklin, James (2001). The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability Before Pascal. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 274–277.
Jump up ^ Santerna, Petrus (1522). Tractatus de assecurationibus et sponsionibus mercatorum. Prudential Press. Retrieved August 11, 2017 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Franklin, James (2001). The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability Before Pascal. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 277.
Jump up ^ "And whereas I have left in the hands of Doctor Ducke Channcellor of London two pollicies of insurance the one of one hundred pounds for the safe arivall of our Shipp in Guiana which is in mine owne name, if we miscarry by the waie (which God forbid) I bequeath the advantage thereof to my said Cosin Thomas Muchell...whereas there is an other insurance of one hundred pounds assured by the said Doctor Arthur Ducke on my life for one yeare if I chance to die within that tyme I entreat the said doctor Ducke to make it over to the said Thomas Muchell his kinsman..." Will of Robert Hayman, 1628: Records of the Prerogative Court of Canterbury, Catalogue Reference PROB 11/163
Jump up ^ Anzovin, p. 121 The first fire insurance company was the Hamburger Feuerkasse (a.k.a. Hamburger General-Feur-Cassa), established in December 1676 by the Ratsherren (city council) of Hamburg (now in Germany).
Jump up ^ Evenden, p. 4
Jump up ^ Dickson (1960): 4
Jump up ^ Dickson (1960): 7
^ Jump up to: a b "Hand in Hand Fire & Life Insurance Society". Aviva.
Jump up ^ RSA Insurance Group History Archived September 2, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "The World's First Insurance Company". Retrieved 2012-12-17.
Jump up ^ Palmer, Sarah (October 2007). "Lloyd, Edward (c.1648–1713)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/16829. Archived from the original on 15 July 2011. Retrieved 16 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Anzovin, Stephen (2000). Famous First Facts. H. W. Wilson Company. p. 121. ISBN 0-8242-0958-3. The first life insurance company known of record was founded in 1706 by the Bishop of Oxford and the financier Thomas Allen in London, England. The company, called the Amicable Society for a Perpetual Assurance Office, collected annual premiums from policyholders and paid the nominees of deceased members from a common fund.
Jump up ^ Amicable Society, The charters, acts of Parliament, and by-laws of the corporation of the Amicable Society for a perpetual assurance office, Gilbert and Rivington, 1854, p. 4
Jump up ^ Amicable Society, The charters, acts of Parliament, and by-laws of the corporation of the Amicable Society for a perpetual assurance office, Gilbert and Rivington, 1854 Amicable Society, article V p. 5
Jump up ^ Price, pp. 158–171
^ Jump up to: a b c "Importance of the archive". The Actuarian Profession. 2009-06-25. Archived from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2014-01-24.
Jump up ^ "Today and History:The History of Equitable Life". 2009-06-26. Archived from the original on 2009-06-29. Retrieved 2009-08-16.
Jump up ^ Lord Penrose (2004-03-08). "Chapter 1 The Equitable Life Inquiry" (PDF). HM Treasury. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-09-10. Retrieved 2009-08-20.
Jump up ^ Newman, Frank G. (January 1965). "Acquisition of a Life Insurance Company, The". The Business Lawyer. American Bar Association. 20 (2): 411–416. Retrieved April 4, 2016. The first life insurance company in America was organized in 1759 under the corporate title 'The Corporation for Relief of Poor and Distressed Presbyterian Ministers, and of the Poor and Distressed Widows and Children of Presbyterian Ministers'.
Jump up ^ "How Health Insurance Works". Howstuffworks.
Jump up ^ "Encarta: Health Insurance". Archived from the original on 2009-11-01.
Jump up ^ "Railway Passengers Assurance Company Ltd". Retrieved 2012-12-17.
Jump up ^ A. P. Woodward (March 1917). "The Disability Insurance Policy". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 70 (1): 227–237. doi:10.1177/000271621707000116. Retrieved January 4, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b E. P. Hennock (2007). The Origin of the Welfare State in England and Germany, 1850–1914: Social Policies Compared. Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ Hermann Beck (1995). The Origins of the Authoritarian Welfare State in Prussia: Conservatives, Bureaucracy, and the Social Question, 1815-70. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472105465.
Jump up ^ The Cabinet Papers 1915–1982: National Health Insurance Act 1911. The National Archives, 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Bentley B. Gilbert (1973). British Social Policy, 1914–1939. BATSFORD. ISBN 978-0713411287.
References[edit]
Primary sources
Memorial Publications of the Prudential Insurance Company of America (1915). The Documentary History of Insurance, 1000 B.C. - 1875 A.D. Newark, New Jersey: Prudential Press. Retrieved August 11, 2017 – via Internet Archive.
Secondary sources
Alborn, Timothy. Regulated Lives: Life Insurance and British Society, 1800–1914 (University of Toronto Press, 2009)
Buley, R. Carlyle. The American Life Convention, 1906–1952: A Study in the History of Life Insurance (1953)
Dickson, P. G. M The Sun Insurance Office, 1710–1960: The history of two and a half centuries of British insurance (1960)
Evenden, William, German Fire Insurance Signs, Publisher Versicherungswirtsch., ISBN 3-88487-190-0 (1989)
Feldman, Gerald D. Allianz and the German Insurance Business, 1933–1945 (2006)
Keller, Morton. The Life Insurance Enterprise, 1855–1910: A Study in the Limits of Corporate Power (1999)
Kingston, Christopher. "Marine Insurance in Britain and America, 1720–1844: A Comparative Institutional Analysis", Journal of Economic History, June 2007, Vol. 67 Issue 2, pp. 379–409
Murphy, Sharon Ann. Investing in Life: Insurance in Antebellum America (Johns Hopkins University Press; 2010) 416 pages.
Murray, John E. Origins of American Health Insurance: A History of Industrial Sickness Funds (2007)
Pearson, Robin. The Development of International Insurance (2010)
Pearson, Robin. Insuring the Industrial Revolution: Fire Insurance in Great Britain, 1700–1850 (2004)
Raynes, Harold E. A History of British Insurance (1948)
Stalson, J. Owen. Marketing Life Insurance: Its History in America (Harvard University Press; 1942)
Zelizer, Viviana A. Rotman. Morals and Markets: The Development of Life Insurance in the United States (1979)
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text:
Screw (simple machine)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the screw as a fastener, see screw. For other uses, see screw (disambiguation).
Animation showing the operation of a screw. As the screw shaft rotates, the nut moves linearly along the shaft. This is a type called a lead screw.
A machine used in schools to demonstrate the action of a screw, from 1912. It consists of a threaded shaft through a threaded hole in a stationary mount. When the crank on the right is turned, the shaft moves horizontally through the hole.
A screw is a mechanism that converts rotational motion to linear motion, and a torque (rotational force) to a linear force.[1] It is one of the six classical simple machines. The most common form consists of a cylindrical shaft with helical grooves or ridges called threads around the outside.[2][3] The screw passes through a hole in another object or medium, with threads on the inside of the hole that mesh with the screw's threads. When the shaft of the screw is rotated relative to the stationary threads, the screw moves along its axis relative to the medium surrounding it; for example rotating a wood screw forces it into wood. In screw mechanisms, either the screw shaft can rotate through a threaded hole in a stationary object, or a threaded collar such as a nut can rotate around a stationary screw shaft.[4][5] Geometrically, a screw can be viewed as a narrow inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder.[1]
Like the other simple machines a screw can amplify force; a small rotational force (torque) on the shaft can exert a large axial force on a load. The smaller the pitch, the distance between the screw's threads, the greater the mechanical advantage, the ratio of output to input force. Screws are widely used in threaded fasteners to hold objects together, and in devices such as screw tops for containers, vises, screw jacks and screw presses.
Other mechanisms that use the same principle, also called screws, don't necessarily have a shaft or threads. For example, a corkscrew is a helix-shaped rod with a sharp point, and an Archimedes' screw is a water pump that uses a rotating helical chamber to move water uphill. The common principle of all screws is that a rotating helix can cause linear motion.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Lead and pitch
3 Handedness
4 Screw threads
4.1 Thread angle
4.2 Types of threads
5 Uses
6 Distance moved
7 Frictionless mechanical advantage
7.1 Torque form
8 Actual mechanical advantage and efficiency
9 Self-locking property
10 References
History[edit]
Wooden screw in ancient Roman olive press
The screw was one of the last of the simple machines to be invented.[6] The screw appeared in ancient Greece and Egypt,[7][8] and by the first century BC was used in the form of the screw press and the Archimedes' screw, but when it was invented is unknown.[9] Greek philosopher Archytas of Tarrentum (428 – 347 BC) was said by the Greeks to have invented the screw.[6][8][9] Although the Greek philosopher Archimedes is credited by the Greeks with inventing the Archimedes screw water pump around 234 BC.[10] records indicate it was first used in ancient Egypt.[9][11] Archimedes was first to study the screw as a machine,[12] so he is sometimes considered the inventor of the screw.[8][13] Greek philosophers defined the screw as one of the simple machines and could calculate its (ideal) mechanical advantage.[14] For example, Heron of Alexandria (52 AD) listed the screw as one of the five mechanisms that could "set a load in motion", defined it as an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder, and described its fabrication and uses,[15] including describing a tap for cutting female screw threads.[16]
Because they had to be laboriously cut by hand, screws were only used as linkages in a few machines in the ancient world. Screw fasteners only began to be used in the 15th century in clocks, after screw-cutting lathes were developed.[17] The screw was also apparently applied to drilling and moving materials (besides water) around this time, when images of augers and drills began to appear in European paintings.[10] The complete dynamic theory of simple machines, including the screw, was worked out by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in 1600 in Le Meccaniche ("On Mechanics").[8]:163[18]
Lead and pitch[edit]
Lead and pitch are the same in single-start screws, but differ in multiple-start screws
The fineness or coarseness of a screw's threads are defined by two closely related quantities:[5]
The lead is defined as the axial distance (parallel to the screw's axis) the screw travels in one complete revolution (360°) of the shaft. The lead determines the mechanical advantage of the screw; the smaller the lead, the higher the mechanical advantage.[19]
The pitch is defined as the axial distance between the crests of adjacent threads.
In most screws, called "single start" screws, which have a single helical thread wrapped around them, the lead and pitch are equal. They only differ in "multiple start" screws, which have several intertwined threads. In these screws the lead is equal to the pitch multiplied by the number of starts. Multiple-start screws are used when a large linear motion for a given rotation is desired, for example in screw caps on bottles, and ball point pens.
Handedness[edit]
Right-hand and left-hand screw threads
The helix of a screw's thread can twist in two possible directions, which is known as handedness. Most screw threads are oriented so that when seen from above, the screw shaft moves away from the viewer (the screw is tightened) when turned in a clockwise direction.[20][21] This is known as a right-handed (RH) thread, because it follows the right hand grip rule: when the fingers of the right hand are curled around the shaft in the direction of rotation, the thumb will point in the direction of motion of the shaft. Threads oriented in the opposite direction are known as left-handed (LH).
By common convention, right-handedness is the default handedness for screw threads.[20] Therefore, most threaded parts and fasteners have right-handed threads. One explanation for why right-handed threads became standard is that for a right-handed person, tightening a right-handed screw with a screwdriver is easier than tightening a left-handed screw, because it uses the stronger supinator muscle of the arm rather than the weaker pronator muscle.[20] Since most people are right-handed, right-handed threads became standard on threaded fasteners. Left-handed screw threads are used in some machines and in these applications:
Where the rotation of a shaft would cause a conventional right-handed nut to loosen rather than to tighten due to fretting induced precession. Examples include:
The left hand pedal on a bicycle.[20][22]
The left-hand screw holding a circular saw blade or a bench grinder wheel on.
In some devices that have threads on either end, like turnbuckles and removable pipe segments. These parts have one right-handed and one left-handed thread, so that turning the piece tightens or loosens both threads at the same time.
In some gas supply connections to prevent dangerous misconnections. For example in gas welding the flammable gas supply line is attached with left-handed threads, so it will not be accidentally switched with the oxygen supply, which uses right-handed threads.
To make them useless to the public (thus discouraging theft), left-handed light bulbs are used in some railway and subway stations.[20]
Coffin lids are said to have been traditionally held on with left-handed screws.[20][23][24]
Screw threads[edit]
Different shapes (profiles) of threads are used in screws employed for different purposes. Screw threads are standardized so that parts made by different manufacturers will mate correctly.
Thread angle[edit]
The thread angle is the included angle, measured at a section parallel to the axis, between the two bearing faces of the thread. The angle between the axial load force and the normal to the bearing surface is approximately equal to half the thread angle, so the thread angle has a great effect on the friction and efficiency of a screw, as well as the wear rate and the strength. The greater the thread angle, the greater the angle between the load vector and the surface normal, so the larger the normal force between the threads required to support a given load. Therefore, increasing the thread angle increases the friction and wear of a screw.
The outward facing angled thread bearing surface, when acted on by the load force, also applies a radial (outward) force to the nut, causing tensile stress. This radial bursting force increases with increasing thread angle. If the tensile strength of the nut material is insufficient, an excessive load on a nut with a large thread angle can split the nut.
The thread angle also has an effect on the strength of the threads; threads with a large angle have a wide root compared with their size and are stronger.
Standard types of screw threads: (a) V, (b) American National, (c) British Standard, (d) Square, (e) Acme, (f) Buttress, (g) Knuckle
Types of threads[edit]
In threaded fasteners, large amounts of friction are acceptable and usually wanted, to prevent the fastener from unscrewing.[5] So threads used in fasteners usually have a large 60° thread angle:
(a) V thread - These are used where additional friction is needed to make sure the screw remains motionless, such as in setscrews and adjustment screws, and where the joint must be fluid tight as in threaded pipe joints.
(b) American National - This has been replaced by the almost identical Unified Thread Standard. It has the same 60° thread angle as the V thread but is stronger because of the flat root. Used in bolts, nuts, and a wide variety of fasteners.
(c) Whitworth or British Standard - Very similar British standard replaced by the Unified Thread Standard.
In machine linkages such as lead screws or jackscrews, in contrast, friction must be minimized.[5] Therefore threads with smaller angles are used:
(d) Square thread - This is the strongest and lowest friction thread, with a 0° thread angle,[5] and doesn't apply bursting force to the nut. However it is difficult to fabricate, requiring a single point cutting tool due to the need to undercut the edges.[5] It is used in high-load applications such as jackscrews and lead screws but has been mostly replaced by the Acme thread. A modified square thread with a small 5° thread angle is sometimes used instead, which is cheaper to manufacture.
(e) Acme thread - With its 30° thread angle this has higher friction than the square thread, but is easier to manufacture and can be used with a split nut to adjust for wear.[5] It is widely used in vises, C-clamps, valves, scissor jacks and lead screws in machines like lathes.
(f) Buttress thread - This is used in high-load applications in which the load force is applied in only one direction, such as screw jacks.[5] With a 0° angle of the bearing surface it is as efficient as the square thread but stronger and easier to manufacture.
(g) Knuckle thread - Similar to a square thread in which the corners have been rounded to protect them from damage, also giving it higher friction. In low-strength applications it can be manufactured cheaply from sheet stock by rolling. It is used in light bulbs and sockets.
Uses[edit]
A screw conveyor uses a rotating helical screw blade to move bulk materials.
Because of its self-locking property (see below) the screw is widely used in threaded fasteners to hold objects or materials together: the wood screw, sheet metal screw, stud, and bolt and nut.
The self-locking property is also key to the screw's use in a wide range of other applications, such as the corkscrew, screw top container lid, threaded pipe joint, vise, C-clamp, and screw jack.
Screws are also used as linkages in machines to transfer power, in the worm gear, lead screw, ball screw, and roller screw. Due to their low efficiency, screw linkages are seldom used to carry high power, but are more often employed in low power, intermittent uses such as positioning actuators.
Rotating helical screw blades or chambers are used to move material in the Archimedes' screw, auger earth drill, and screw conveyor.
The micrometer uses a precision calibrated screw for measuring lengths with great accuracy.
The screw propeller, although it shares the name screw, works on very different physical principles from the above types of screw, and the information in this article is not applicable to it.
Distance moved[edit]
The linear distance d {\displaystyle d\,} a screw shaft moves when it is rotated through an angle of α {\displaystyle \alpha \,} degrees is:
d = l α 360 ∘ {\displaystyle d=l{\frac {\alpha }{360^{\circ }}}\,}
where l {\displaystyle l\,} is the lead of the screw.
The distance ratio of a simple machine is defined as the ratio of the distance the applied force moves to the distance the load moves. For a screw it is the ratio of the circular distance din a point on the edge of the shaft moves to the linear distance dout the shaft moves. If r is the radius of the shaft, in one turn a point on the screw's rim moves a distance of 2πr, while its shaft moves linearly by the lead distance l. So the distance ratio is
distance ratio ≡ d i n d o u t = 2 π r l {\displaystyle {\mbox{distance ratio}}\equiv {\frac {d_{in}}{d_{out}}}={\frac {2\pi r}{l}}\,}
Frictionless mechanical advantage[edit]
A screw jack. When a bar is inserted in the holes at top and turned it can raise a load
The mechanical advantage MA of a screw is defined as the ratio of axial output force Fout applied by the shaft on a load to the rotational force Fin applied to the rim of the shaft to turn it. For a screw with no friction (also called an ideal screw), from conservation of energy the work done on the screw by the input force turning it is equal to the work done by the screw on the load force:
W i n = W o u t {\displaystyle W_{in}=W_{out}\,}
Work is equal to the force multiplied by the distance it acts, so the work done in one complete turn of the screw is W i n = 2 π r F i n {\displaystyle W_{in}=2\pi rF_{in}\,} and the work done on the load is W o u t = l F o u t {\displaystyle W_{out}=lF_{out}\,} . So the ideal mechanical advantage of a screw is equal to the distance ratio:
M A i d e a l ≡ F o u t F i n = 2 π r l {\displaystyle \mathrm {MA} _{ideal}\equiv {\frac {F_{out}}{F_{in}}}={\frac {2\pi r}{l}}\,}
It can be seen that the mechanical advantage of a screw depends on its lead, l {\displaystyle l\,} . The smaller the distance between its threads, the larger the mechanical advantage, and the larger the force the screw can exert for a given applied force. However most actual screws have large amounts of friction and their mechanical advantage is less than given by the above equation.
Torque form[edit]
The rotational force applied to the screw is actually a torque T i n = F i n r {\displaystyle T_{in}=F_{in}r\,} . Because of this, the input force required to turn a screw depends on how far from the shaft it is applied; the farther from the shaft, the less force is needed to turn it. The force on a screw is not usually applied at the rim as assumed above. It is often applied by some form of lever; for example a bolt is turned by a wrench. The mechanical advantage in this case can be calculated by using the length of the lever arm for r in the above equation. This extraneous factor r can be removed from the above equation by writing it in terms of torque:
F o u t T i n = 2 π l {\displaystyle {\frac {F_{out}}{T_{in}}}={\frac {2\pi }{l}}\,}
Actual mechanical advantage and efficiency[edit]
Because of the large area of sliding contact between the moving and stationary threads, screws typically have large frictional energy losses. Even well-lubricated jack screws have efficiencies of only 15% - 20%, the rest of the work applied in turning them is lost to friction. When friction is included, the mechanical advantage is no longer equal to the distance ratio but also depends on the screw's efficiency. From conservation of energy, the work Win done on the screw by the input force turning it is equal to the sum of the work done moving the load Wout, and the work dissipated as heat by friction Wfric in the screw
W i n = W o u t + W f r i c {\displaystyle W_{in}=W_{out}+W_{fric}\,}
The efficiency η is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1 defined as the ratio of output work to input work
η = W o u t / W i n {\displaystyle \eta =W_{out}/W_{in}\,}
W o u t = η W i n {\displaystyle W_{out}=\eta W_{in}\,}
Work is defined as the force multiplied by the distance moved, so W i n = F i n d i n {\displaystyle W_{in}=F_{in}d_{in}\,} and W o u t = F o u t d o u t {\displaystyle W_{out}=F_{out}d_{out}\,} and therefore
F o u t d o u t = η F i n d i n {\displaystyle F_{out}d_{out}=\eta F_{in}d_{in}\,}
F o u t F i n = η d i n d o u t {\displaystyle {\frac {F_{out}}{F_{in}}}=\eta {\frac {d_{in}}{d_{out}}}\,}
M A = F o u t F i n = η 2 π r l {\displaystyle MA={\frac {F_{out}}{F_{in}}}=\eta {\frac {2\pi r}{l}}\,}
or in terms of torque
F o u t T i n = 2 π η l {\displaystyle {\frac {F_{out}}{T_{in}}}={\frac {2\pi \eta }{l}}\qquad \,}
So the mechanical advantage of an actual screw is reduced from what it would be in an ideal, frictionless screw by the efficiency η {\displaystyle \eta \,} . Because of their low efficiency, in powered machinery screws are not often used as linkages to transfer large amounts of power but are more often used in positioners that operate intermittently.[5]
Self-locking property[edit]
Large frictional forces cause most screws in practical use to be "self-locking", also called "non-reciprocal" or "non-overhauling". This means that applying a torque to the shaft will cause it to turn, but no amount of axial load force against the shaft will cause it to turn back the other way, even if the applied torque is zero. This is in contrast to some other simple machines which are "reciprocal" or "non locking" which means if the load force is great enough they will move backwards or "overhaul". Thus, the machine can be used in either direction. For example, in a lever, if the force on the load end is too large it will move backwards, doing work on the applied force. Most screws are designed to be self-locking, and in the absence of torque on the shaft will stay at whatever position they are left. However, some screw mechanisms with a large enough pitch and good lubrication are not self-locking and will overhaul, and a very few, such as a push drill, use the screw in this "backwards" sense, applying axial force to the shaft to turn the screw.
A push drill, one of the very few mechanisms that use a screw in the "backwards" sense, to convert linear motion to rotational motion. It has helical screw threads with a very large pitch along the central shaft. When the handle is pushed down, the shaft slides into pawls in the tubular stem, turning the bit. Most screws are "self locking" and axial force on the shaft will not turn the screw.
This self-locking property is one reason for the very large use of the screw in threaded fasteners such as wood screws, sheet metal screws, studs and bolts. Tightening the fastener by turning it puts compression force on the materials or parts being fastened together, but no amount of force from the parts will cause the screw to untighten. This property is also the basis for the use of screws in screw top container lids, vises, C-clamps, and screw jacks. A heavy object can be raised by turning the jack shaft, but when the shaft is released it will stay at whatever height it is raised to.
A screw will be self-locking if and only if its efficiency η {\displaystyle \eta \,} is below 50%.[25][26][27]
η = F o u t / F i n d i n / d o u t = F o u t F i n l 2 π r < 0.50 {\displaystyle \eta ={\frac {F_{out}/F_{in}}{d_{in}/d_{out}}}={\frac {F_{out}}{F_{in}}}{\frac {l}{2\pi r}}<0.50\,}
Whether a screw is self-locking ultimately depends on the pitch angle and the coefficient of friction of the threads; very well-lubricated, low friction threads with a large enough pitch may "overhaul".
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Screw.
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Jump up ^ Morris, William, Ed. (1979). The American Heritage Dictionary, New College Edition. USA: Houghton Mifflin. p. 1167. ISBN 0-395-20360-0.
Jump up ^ "Screw". How Stuff Works website. Discovery Communications. 2011. Retrieved 2011-03-29. External link in |work= (help)
Jump up ^ Collins, Jack A.; Henry R. Busby; George H. Staab (2009). Mechanical Design of Machine Elements and Machines, 2nd Ed. USA: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 462–463. ISBN 0-470-41303-4.
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^ Jump up to: a b c "Screw". Encyclopædia Britannica online. 2011. Retrieved 2011-03-24.
^ Jump up to: a b Haven, Kendall F. (2006). One hundred greatest science inventions of all time. USA: Libraries Unlimited. pp. 6–7. ISBN 1-59158-264-4.
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Jump up ^ Kerle, Hanfried; Klaus Mauersberger (2010). "From Archimedean spirals to screw mechanisms - A short historical overview". The Genius of Archimedes -- 23 Centuries of Influence on Mathematics, Science and Engineering: Proceedings of an International Conference Held at Syracuse, Italy, June 8–10, 2010. Springer. pp. 163–179. ISBN 90-481-9090-8. Retrieved 2011-03-23.
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Jump up ^ Bunch, Hellemans, 2004, p. 81
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Jump up ^ Gujral, I.S. (2005). Engineering Mechanics. Firewall Media. p. 382. ISBN 81-7008-636-1.
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What Shall We Do Now?
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"What Shall We Do Now?"
Song by Pink Floyd
from the album Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980–81
Released
18 April 2000
Recorded
1978–1979, 14 June 1981 (in Live)
Genre
Progressive rock, hard rock
Length
1:40
Songwriter(s)
Roger Waters
Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980–81 track listing
"Empty Spaces"
(9) "What Shall We Do Now?"
(10) "Young Lust"
(11)
"What Shall We Do Now?" (working title "Backs to the Wall") is a song by Pink Floyd, written by Roger Waters.
It was originally intended to be on their 1979 album The Wall, and appeared in demo versions of The Wall, but was omitted[1] due to the time restraints of the vinyl format. In its place is a much shorter song, titled "Empty Spaces", which segues directly into "Young Lust". This was a last-minute decision; the album's sleeve notes still feature the song in its track listing, and include its lyrics.
Contents
[hide]
1 Composition
2 The film
3 Personnel
4 Live
5 References
6 External links
Composition[edit]
The beginning of the song is the same backing track as "Empty Spaces", but in the original key of D minor. It's a slow, dark progression with a repetitive, electronic drum beat and solo guitar, but where "Empty Spaces" ends and segues into "Young Lust", "What Shall We Do Now?" moves into a second, louder section punctuated with guitar power chords. The transition of D - E - F - E is a recurring theme throughout the album, heard on "In the Flesh?", "In the Flesh", "Waiting for the Worms", and the three "Another Brick in the Wall" songs (the theme can also be heard in Shine On You Crazy Diamond from the band's 1975 album Wish You Were Here). The long verse is played with D minor and A minor chords. Where the album's main character, Pink's question about how he should fill out the gaps in his wall was of a rhetorical nature in "Empty Spaces", "What Shall We Do Now?" lists the diversions, possessions, and vices of a rock star ("Shall we buy a new guitar / Shall we drive a more powerful car / Shall we work straight through the night / Shall we get into fights / Leave the lights on / Drop bombs ....") in response.
The two tracks are easily confused. The tape speed for "Empty Spaces" was sped up, to raise its key to E minor, with re-recorded vocals and guitar. The members of Pink Floyd have contributed to the confusion regarding the identity of this track, misidentifying "What Shall We Do Now?" as "Empty Spaces" on multiple occasions, such as in the track listing for the film version of The Wall, and on Waters' The Wall Live in Berlin. On other occasions (such as the officially released live version), the first and second parts of the track are divided and identified as "Empty Spaces" and "What Shall We Do Now?" respectively, even though they are in fact two distinct parts of the same song, the first of which was later intended to be reprised as "Empty Spaces". (This is based on the original lyrics and running order as printed on initial vinyl copies of the album.)
The studio version has not been officially released on any CD to date, but has been widely bootlegged from the film (with the audio taken from VHS, Laserdisc and DVD sources over the decades).
The film[edit]
The song was featured in the film version of The Wall,[1] coupled with an animated sequence by Gerald Scarfe. The animation — described by Roger Waters in the DVD commentary as "the fucking flowers!", starts with the image of two flowers caressing each other. Synchronized to the music, the flowers both have sex (taking the shape of a human couple doing so) with the male flower at one point is shaped like a penis, and the final form of the female flower is of a vagina, having a fight, and ultimately ending with the "female" flower consuming and destroying the "male" flower.
The flower sequence ends as soon as the first lyrics ("What shall we use...") are sung. The female flower now transformed into a pterodactyl-like creature, flies into the distance as a row of residential and commercial buildings appears. These however turn out to be a wall of many post-war goods such as cars, electronics, appliances, etc. which slowly surrounds a "sea of faces". As the song speeds up and launches into "Shall we buy a new guitar?/Shall we drive a more powerful car?...", the animation becomes extremely morbid. The buildings evidently transform into the wall, heads of people caught in the Wall screaming (the screaming face, seen later in "Waiting for the Worms"), flowers turn into barbed wire, a baby suffers a metamorphosis and turns into a reptilian-like creature and then into a Neo-Nazi trooper who smashes the head of a sitting-by dark-skinned man with a club and finally, the wall rams through a cathedral and the rubble turns into a casino-like temple, which produces more and more (albeit neon) bricks. A rag doll representing Pink is grotesquely contorted and transformed into an array of objects relating to the materialistic nature of Pink's Wall: a naked woman, ice cream, an MP-40, a hypodermic needle, a black Fender Precision Bass guitar, and a BMW M1. The sequence ends as the ground rises into the form of a fist who becomes a hammer (a hammer that would reappear in the animated sequence of "Waiting for the Worms").
Personnel[edit]
Roger Waters – lead vocals, bass guitar, synthesizer
David Gilmour – guitars, backing vocals
Nick Mason – drums, percussion
Richard Wright – piano, synthesizer
Live[edit]
"What Shall We Do Now?" would be performed at all concerts for The Wall,[1] and so appears on Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980–81. It was also included in Waters' 1990 The Wall Concert in Berlin, therefore appears on the album The Wall – Live in Berlin. Waters also performed it on his 2010-2013 tour.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Manning, Toby (2006). "Soundtracks, Compilations & Bootlegs". The Rough Guide to Pink Floyd (1st ed.). London: Rough Guides. p. 227. ISBN 1-84353-575-0.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[show]
v
t
e
The Wall
Songs
Side one
"In the Flesh?"
"The Thin Ice"
"Another Brick in the Wall (Part 1)"
"The Happiest Days of Our Lives"
"Another Brick in the Wall (Part 2)"
"Mother"
Side two
"Goodbye Blue Sky"
"Empty Spaces"
"Young Lust"
"One of My Turns"
"Don't Leave Me Now"
"Another Brick in the Wall (Part 3)"
"Goodbye Cruel World"
Side three
"Hey You"
"Is There Anybody Out There?"
"Nobody Home"
"Vera"
"Bring the Boys Back Home"
"Comfortably Numb"
Side four
"The Show Must Go On"
"In the Flesh"
"Run Like Hell"
"Waiting for the Worms"
"Stop"
"The Trial"
"Outside the Wall"
Related tracks
"What Shall We Do Now?"
"The Last Few Bricks"
"When the Tigers Broke Free"
Related albums
Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980–81
The Wall – Live in Berlin
Roger Waters: The Wall
The Final Cut
The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking
Tribute albums
Back Against the Wall
Rebuild the Wall
Us and Them: Symphonic Pink Floyd
Videos
Pink Floyd – The Wall
Roger Waters: The Wall
The Final Cut
Tours
The Wall Tour
The Wall Live
Adaptations
Another Brick in the Wall: The Opera
The Piper at the Gates of Dawn
A Saucerful of Secrets
More
Ummagumma
Atom Heart Mother
Meddle
Obscured by Clouds
The Dark Side of the Moon
Wish You Were Here
Animals
The Wall
The Final Cut
A Momentary Lapse of Reason
The Division Bell
The Endless River
[show]
v
t
e
Pink Floyd
Nick Mason
Roger Waters
Richard Wright
Syd Barrett
David Gilmour
Studio albums
The Piper at the Gates of Dawn
A Saucerful of Secrets
More
Ummagumma
Atom Heart Mother
Meddle
Obscured by Clouds
The Dark Side of the Moon
Wish You Were Here
Animals
The Wall
The Final Cut
A Momentary Lapse of Reason
The Division Bell
The Endless River
Live albums
Ummagumma
Delicate Sound of Thunder
Pulse
Is There Anybody Out There? The Wall Live 1980–81
Singles
"Arnold Layne" / "Candy and a Currant Bun"
"See Emily Play" / "The Scarecrow"
"Flaming" / "The Gnome" (US)
"Apples and Oranges" / "Paint Box" (UK)
"It Would Be So Nice" / "Julia Dream"
"Let There Be More Light" / "Remember a Day" (US)
"Point Me at the Sky" / "Careful with That Axe, Eugene" (UK)
"One of These Days" / "Fearless" (US)
"Free Four"
"Money" / "Any Colour You Like" (US)
"Time" / "Us and Them" (US)
"Have a Cigar" / "Welcome to the Machine" (US) or "Shine On You Crazy Diamond Part I" (Europe)
"Another Brick in the Wall (Part II)" / "One of My Turns"
"Run Like Hell" / "Don't Leave Me Now" (Europe/some US) or "Comfortably Numb" (later US)
"Comfortably Numb" / "Hey You" (US)
"Pink Floyd The Wall - Music From The Film" ("When the Tigers Broke Free" / "Bring the Boys Back Home")
"Not Now John" / "The Hero's Return (Parts 1 and 2)"
"Learning to Fly" / "Terminal Frost" and/or "One Slip"
"On the Turning Away" / "Run Like Hell (live)" (UK)
"One Slip" / "Terminal Frost" / "The Dogs of War" (UK)
"Take It Back" / "Astronomy Domine (live)" (US)
"High Hopes" / "Keep Talking" / "Marooned"
"Wish You Were Here (Live)" / "Coming Back to Life (live) / "Keep Talking (live)" (UK)
"Louder than Words"
Compilations
The Best of the Pink Floyd / Masters of Rock
Relics
A Nice Pair
A Collection of Great Dance Songs
Works
1967: The First Three Singles
Echoes: The Best of Pink Floyd
The Best of Pink Floyd: A Foot in the Door
1965: Their First Recordings
Box sets
Shine On
Oh, by the Way
Discovery
The Early Years 1965–1972
Films
Concerts
London '66–'67
Live at Pompeii
Delicate Sound of Thunder
Pulse
Narratives
The Wall
The Final Cut
Documentaries
The Pink Floyd and Syd Barrett Story
London '66–'67
The Story of Wish You Were Here
Soundtracks
San Francisco
The Committee
Tonite Lets All Make Love in London
More
Zabriskie Point
Obscured by Clouds
Pink Floyd – The Wall
La Carrera Panamericana
Tours
World Tour 1968
The Man and The Journey Tour
Atom Heart Mother World Tour
Meddle Tour
Dark Side of the Moon Tour
1974
Wish You Were Here Tour
In the Flesh
The Wall Tour
A Momentary Lapse of Reason Tour
The Division Bell Tour
Related media
and tributes
19367 Pink Floyd
The Amazing Pudding
The Australian Pink Floyd Show
Barn Jams
Brit Floyd
The Dark Side of the Moo
"Embryo"
Inside Out: A Personal History of Pink Floyd
The Man and The Journey
Music from The Body
Pinkfloydia
"Proper Education"
Synalpheus pinkfloydi
Umma gumma
Their Mortal Remains
Other topics
Discography
Videography
Song list
Unreleased material
Members
Bootleg recordings
Pink Floyd live performances
The 14 Hour Technicolor Dream
Azimuth Co-ordinator
Blackhill Enterprises
Britannia Row Studios
Dark Side of the Rainbow
EMS Synthi A
Games for May
Midsummer High Weekend
Pink Floyd pigs
Publius Enigma
Why Pink Floyd...?
Book
Category
Portal
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