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Committee of Public Safety
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For other uses, see Committee of Public Safety (disambiguation).
The Committee of Public Safety (French: Comité de salut public)—created in April 1793 by the National Convention and then restructured in July 1793—formed the de facto executive government in France during the Reign of Terror (1793–94), a stage of the French Revolution. The Committee of Public Safety succeeded the previous Committee of General Defence (established in January 1793) and assumed its role of protecting the newly established republic against foreign attacks and internal rebellion. As a wartime measure, the Committee—composed at first of nine, and later of twelve, members—was given broad supervisory powers over military, judicial, and legislative efforts. It was formed as an administrative body to supervise and expedite the work of the executive bodies of the Convention and of the government ministers appointed by the Convention. As the Committee tried to meet the dangers of a coalition of European nations and counter-revolutionary forces within the country, it became more and more powerful.
In July 1793, following the defeat at the Convention of the Girondins, the prominent leader of the radical Jacobin, Maximilien Robespierre, was added to the Committee. The power of the Committee peaked between August 1793 and July 1794. In December 1793, the Convention formally conferred executive power upon the Committee.
The execution of Robespierre in July 1794 represented a reactionary period against the Committee of Public Safety. This is known as the Thermidorian Reaction, as Robespierre's fall from power occurred during the Revolutionary calendar month of Thermidor. The Committee's influence diminished,[1] and it was disestablished in 1795.
Contents
1 Origins and evolution
1.1 Committee of discussion
1.1.1 Execution of the Hébertists and Dantonists
1.2 Committee of rule
1.3 Fall of the Committee, and aftermath
2 Composition
3 Use of the term during the Algerian War
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
Origins and evolution[edit]
Committee of discussion[edit]
Lettre anglaise (English Letter) dated 29 June 1793 as published by the French National convention during the Revolution (1793). This document was used to prove English spying and conspiracy.
On 5 April 1793, the French military commander and former minister of war General Charles François Dumouriez defected to Austria, following the publication of an incendiary letter in which he threatened to march his army on the city of Paris if the National Convention did not accede to his leadership. News of his defection caused alarm in Paris, where imminent defeat by the Austrians and their allies was feared. A widespread belief held that revolutionary France was in immediate peril, threatened not only by foreign armies and by recent anti-revolutionary revolts in the Vendée, but also by foreign agents who plotted the destruction of the nation from within.[2]
The betrayal of the revolutionary government by Dumouriez lent greater credence to this belief. In light of this threat, the Girondin leader Maximin Isnard proposed the creation of a nine-member Committee of Public Safety. Isnard was supported in this effort by Georges Danton, who declared, "This Committee is precisely what we want, a hand to grasp the weapon of the Revolutionary Tribunal."[2]
The Committee was formally created on 6 April 1793. Closely associated with the leadership of Danton, it was initially known as "the Danton Committee".[3] Danton steered the Committee through the 31 May and 2 June 1793 journées that resulted in the fall of the Girondins, and through the intensifying war in the Vendée. However, when the Committee was recomposed on 10 July, Danton was not included. Nevertheless, he continued to support the centralization of power by the Committee.[4]
On 27 July 1793, Maximilien Robespierre was elected to the Committee. At this time, the Committee was entering a more powerful and active phase, which would see it become a de facto dictatorship alongside its powerful partner, the Committee of General Security. The role of the Committee of Public Safety included the governance of the war (including the appointment of generals), the appointing of judges and juries for the Revolutionary Tribunal,[5] the provisioning of the armies and the public, the maintenance of public order, and oversight of the state bureaucracy.[6]
The Committee was also responsible for interpreting and applying the decrees of the National Convention, and thus for implementing some of the most stringent policies of the Terror—for instance, the levée en masse, passed on 23 August 1793, the Law of Suspects, passed on 17 September 1793, and the Law of the Maximum, passed on 29 September 1793. The broad and centralized powers of the Committee were codified by the Law of 14 Frimaire (also known as the Law of Revolutionary Government) on 4 December 1793.[citation needed]
Execution of the Hébertists and Dantonists[edit]
On 5 December 1793, journalist Camille Desmoulins began publishing Le Vieux Cordelier, a newspaper initially aimed—with the approval of Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety[7]—at the ultra-revolutionary Hébertist faction, whose extremist demands, anti-religious fervor, and propensity for sudden insurrections were problematic for the Committee. However, Desmoulins quickly turned his pen against the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of General Security, comparing their reign to that of the Roman tyrants chronicled by Tacitus, and expounding the "indulgent" views of the Dantonist faction.[citation needed]
Consequently, though the Hébertists were arrested and executed in March 1794, the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of General Security ensured that Desmoulins and Danton were also arrested. Hérault de Séchelles—a friend and ally of Danton—was expelled from the Committee of Public Safety, arrested, and tried alongside them. On 5 April 1794, the Dantonists went to the guillotine.[8]
Committee of rule[edit]
Maximilien Robespierre, member of the Committee of Public Safety
The elimination of the Hébertists and the Dantonists made evident the strength of the committees, as had their ability to control and silence opposition. The creation, in March 1794, of a "General Police Bureau"—reporting nominally to the Committee of Public Safety, but more often directly to Robespierre and his closest ally, Louis Antoine de Saint-Just—served to increase the power of the Committee of Public Safety, and of Robespierre himself.
The Law of 22 Prairial, proposed by the Committee of Public Safety and enacted on 10 June 1794, went further in establishing the iron control of the Revolutionary Tribunal and, above it, the Committees of Public Safety and General Security. The law enumerated various forms of public enemies, made mandatory their denunciation, and severely limited the legal recourse available to those accused. The punishment for all crimes under the Law of 22 Prairal was death. From the initiation of this law to the fall of Robespierre on 27 July, more people were condemned to death than in the entire previous history of the Revolutionary Tribunal.[9]
However, even as the Terror reached its height, and with it the Committee's political power, discord was growing within the revolutionary government. Members of the Committee of General Security resented the autocratic behavior of the Committee of Public Safety, and particularly the encroachment of the General Police Bureau upon their own brief.[10] Arguments within the Committee of Public Safety itself had grown so violent that it relocated its meetings to a more private room to preserve the illusion of agreement.[11] Robespierre, a fervent supporter of the theistic Cult of the Supreme Being, found himself frequently in conflict with anti-religious Committee members Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne. Moreover, Robespierre's increasingly extensive absences from the Committee due to illness (he all but ceased to attend meetings in June 1794) created the impression that he was isolated and out of touch.
Fall of the Committee, and aftermath[edit]
When it became evident, in mid-July 1794, that Robespierre and Saint-Just were planning to strike against their political opponents Joseph Fouché, Jean-Lambert Tallien, and Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier (the latter two of whom were members of the Committee of General Security), the fragile truce within the government was dissolved. Saint-Just and his fellow Committee of Public Safety member Barère attempted to keep the peace between the Committees of Public Safety and General Security; however, on 26 July, Robespierre delivered a speech to the National Convention in which he emphasized the need to "purify" the Committees and "crush all factions."[12] In a speech to the Jacobin Club that night, he attacked Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, who had refused to allow the printing and distribution of his speech to the Convention.
On the following day, 27 July 1794 (or 9 Thermidor according to the Revolutionary calendar), Saint-Just began to deliver a speech to the Convention in which he had planned to denounce Collot d'Herbois, Billaud-Varenne, and other members of the Committee of Public Safety. However, he was almost immediately interrupted by Tallien and by Billaud-Varenne, who accused Saint-Just of intending to "murder the Convention."[13] Barère, Vadier, and Stanislas Fréron joined the accusations against Saint-Just and Robespierre. The arrest of Robespierre, his brother Augustin, and Saint-Just was ordered, along with that of their supporters, Philippe Le Bas and Georges Couthon.
A period of intense civil unrest ensued, during which the members of the Committees of Public Safety and General Security were forced to seek refuge in the Convention. The Robespierre brothers, Saint-Just, Le Bas, and Couthon ensconced themselves in the Hôtel de Ville, attempting to incite an insurrection. Ultimately, faced with defeat and arrest, Le Bas committed suicide. Saint-Just, Couthon, and Maximilien and Augustin Robespierre were arrested and guillotined on 28 July.[14]
The ensuing period of upheaval, dubbed the Thermidorian Reaction, saw the repeal of many of the Terror's most unpopular laws and the reduction in power of the Committees of General Security and Public Safety. The Committees ceased to exist under the Constitution of the Year III (1795), which marked the beginning of the Directory.[citation needed]
Composition[edit]
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The Committee was initially composed of nine members, all selected by the National Convention for one month at a time, without term limits. Its first members, instated on 6 April 1793, were as follows, in order of election.
After Robespierre's election to the Committee on 27 July 1793, the Committee increased its membership to twelve. The list below represents the Committee's membership.
April 1793 – July 1793:
Name (Birth-Death)
Department
Party
Bertrand Barère (1755–1841) Hautes-Pyrénées Maraisard
Jean-François Delmas (1751–1798) Haute-Garonne Montagnard
Jean-Jacques Bréard (1751–1840) Charente-Inférieure Montagnard
Pierre-Joseph Cambon (1756–1820) Hérault Montagnard
Georges Danton (1759–1794) Seine Montagnard
Jean Debry (1760–1834) Aisne Montagnard
Jean-François Delacroix (1753–1794) Eure-et-Loir Maraisard
Louis-Bernard Guyton-Morveau (1737–1816) Côte-d'Or Girondin
Jean Baptiste Treilhard (1742–1810) Seine-et-Oise Girondin
July 1793 – July 1794:
Name (Birth-Death)
Department
Party
Bertrand Barère (1755–1841) Hautes-Pyrénées Maraisard
Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne (1756–1819) Seine Montagnard
Lazare Carnot (1753–1823) Pas-de-Calais Maraisard
Georges Couthon (1755–1794) Puy-de-Dôme Montagnard
Claude-Antoine Prieur-Duvernois (1763–1832) Côte-d'Or Montagnard
Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois (1749–1796) Seine Montagnard
Robert Lindet (1746–1825) Eure Montagnard
Pierre Louis Prieur (1756–1827) Marne Montagnard
Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794) Seine Montagnard
Jeanbon Saint-André (1749–1813) Lot Montagnard
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just (1767–1794) Aisne Montagnard
Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles (1759–1794) Seine-et-Oise Montagnard
Use of the term during the Algerian War[edit]
During the May 1958 crisis in France, an army junta under General Jacques Massu seized power in Algiers on the night of 13 May, 1958, and General Salan assumed leadership of a body calling itself "Committee of Public Safety".
See also[edit]
Commissioners of the Committee of Public Safety
Committee of General Security
National Convention
Historiography of the French Revolution
Revolutionary Tribunal
Reflections on the Revolution in France
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Committee of Public Safety". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Belloc (1899), p. 210.
Jump up ^ Mantel (2009).
Jump up ^ Belloc (1899), p. 235.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 284.
Jump up ^ Furet (1992), p. 134.
Jump up ^ Furet (1992), p. 141.
Jump up ^ "Danton Versus Robespierre: The Quest for Revolutionary Power". www.ucumberlands.edu. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 328.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 331.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 340.
Jump up ^ Madelin (1916), p. 418.
Jump up ^ Madelin (1916), p. 422.
Jump up ^ "Maximilien Robespierre, Master of the Terror". www.loyno.edu. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Committee of Public Safety.
Belloc, Hillaire (1899). Danton: A Study. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Furet, François (1992). Revolutionary France, 1770–1880. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Linton, Marisa, Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship and Authenticity in the French Revolution (Oxford University Press, 2013).
Madelin, Louis (1916). The French Revolution. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Mantel, Hilary (6 August 2009). "He Roared". London Review of Books. 3 (15): 3–6. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
Palmer, R.R. (September 1941). "Fifty Years of the Committee of Public Safety". Journal of Modern History. 13 (3): 375–397. JSTOR 1871581.
——— (1970). Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05119-4.
Schama, Simon (1989). Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Scurr, Ruth (2006). Fatal Purity: Robespierre and the French Revolution. New York: Owl Books.
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List of successful English Channel swimmers
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This is a list of notable successful swims across the English Channel.[1]
Contents
1 First attempts
2 First swims (roughly 37 swims)
3 Records
3.1 Fastest
3.2 Most crossings
3.3 Oldest swimmer
3.4 Youngest swimmer
3.5 Relay
4 References
5 External links
First attempts[edit]
After a seaman had floated across the Channel on a bundle of straw, Matthew Webb made the crossing without the aid of artificial buoyancy. His first attempt ended in failure, but on 25 August 1875, he started from Admiralty Pier in Dover and made the crossing in 21 hours and 45 minutes, despite challenging tides (which delayed him for 5 hours) and a jellyfish sting.[2]
80 failed attempts were made by a variety of people before Thomas William Burgess, who on 6 September 1911 became the second person to successfully make the crossing. He crossed from Dover to Cap Gris Nez in 22 hours and 35 minutes at his 16th bid. Burgess ate a hearty meal of ham and eggs before starting his swim and had only trained for 18 hours before he made the crossing, with his longest practice being 10 kilometres (6 mi){.[3]
Henry Sullivan was successful in his seventh attempt. He entered the water in Dover at 4:20 on Sunday afternoon, 5 August 1923. Though the straight-line distance is 36.2 kilometres (22.5 mi), choppy waters and capricious tides forced him to swim an estimated 90 kilometres (56 mi). He reached shore at Calais at 8:05 in the evening of 6 August, finishing in 27 hours and 45 minutes.[4] Two other swimmers completed the swim that same summer. Enrique Tirabocchi, from Argentina, completed the swim on 13 August, finishing in a record time of 16 hours and 33 minutes and becoming the first person to swim the route starting from the French side of the Channel.[5] American Charles Toth of Boston completed the swim on 9 September 1923, in 16 hours and 40 minutes, missing by two days the expiration of a £1,000 prize offered by the Daily Sketch for anyone who completed the swim, a prize that both Sullivan and Tirabocchi received from a representative of the Daily Sketch waiting on the shore with a cheque in hand.[6]
Gertrude Ederle's successful cross-channel swim began at Gris Nez in France at 07:05 on the morning of 6 August 1926. Her trainer was Burgess.[7] 14 hours and 30 minutes later, coming ashore at Kingsdown, Kent, England, in a total time of 14 hours and 39 minutes, making her the first woman to complete the crossing and setting the record for the fastest time, breaking the previous mark set by Tirabocchi by almost two hours. A reporter from The New York Times who had accompanied Ederle's support team on a tugboat, recounted that Ederle was confronted by a British immigrations official, who recorded the biographical details of Ederle and the individuals on board the ship, none of whom had been carrying their passports. Ederle was finally allowed to come ashore, after promising that she would report to the authorities the following morning.[8]
L. Walter Lissberger financed the $3,000 in expenses that Amelia Gade Corson and her husband incurred in preparing for the Channel swim. Lissberger made a wager with Lloyd's of London betting that she would succeed in crossing the Channel, and received a payout of $100,000 at odds of 20–1 when she completed her swim.[9] She was one of three swimmers who were trying to make the swim across the Channel at the same time starting at 11:32 at night on 28 August 1926, leaving from Cape Gris Nez. The two men with her failed, Egyptian swimmer Ishak Helmy dropping out after three hours and an English swimmer failing one mile (1.6 km) from Dover's Shakespeare Cliffs.[10] With her husband rowing alongside in a dory and providing her with hot chocolate, sugar lumps and crackers, she completed the swim in a time of 15 hours and 29 minutes, one hour longer than the record set by Gertrude Ederle three weeks earlier.[11]
Jackie Cobell had intended to make the 34-kilometre (21 mi) crossing by a more direct route in July 2010, but inadvertently set the record for the slowest solo swim, when strong currents forced her to swim a total of 105 kilometres (65 mi) in 28 hours and 44 minutes, breaking the record set by Henry Sullivan in 1923, who had been the third person, and the first American, to make the crossing.[12]
First swims (roughly 37 swims)[edit]
Direction
Country of origin
Swimmer
Year
Time
Notes
England to France United Kingdom Matthew Webb 1875 21:45 First crossing from England to France on 25 August 1875.[1]
England to France United Kingdom Thomas William Burgess 1911 22:35 Second crossing from England to France.[1][7]
England to France United Kingdom Henry Sullivan 1923 26:50 Third crossing from England to France.[1]
France to England Argentina Enrique Tirabocchi 1923 16:33 First crossing from France to England.[1]
France to England United States Charles Toth 1923 16:58 Third crossing from France to England.[1]
France to England United States Gertrude Ederle 1926 14:39 First woman to cross in either direction.[1][13][14]
France to England United States Amelia Gade Corson 1926 15:29 First mother to cross from England to France.
France to England United Kingdom Mercedes Gleitze 1927 15:15 First British woman to cross the English Channel.[15]
France to England United Kingdom Hilda "Laddie" Sharp 1928 14:58 15th to cross and the 5th fastest
France to England South Africa Margaret Duncan 1930 16:17 First woman from South Africa to swim the English Channel.
France to England United Kingdom Edward H. Temme 1934 15:34 First man to swim the English Channel in both directions. He swam from France to England in August 1927 and from England to France on 18 August 1934.[1][16]
England to France to England United States Florence Chadwick 1953 14:42 First woman to swim the English Channel in both directions.[1]
France to England Canada Winnie Leuszler 1951 13:25 First Canadian to swim the English Channel.[17][18]
England to France Mexico Damian Pizá Beltran 1953 15:23 First Mexican to swim the English Channel.
France to England Portugal Joaquim Baptista Pereira (pt) 1954 -----
France to England Egypt Abdellatief Abouheif 1955 11:44 Winner of a special 1955 race from France to England, competed against another 11 male and four female contenders.
France to England Bangladesh Brojen Das 1958 First Asian (from Bikrampur, East Pakistan; now Bangladesh) to swim the English Channel, at the English Channel Swimming Competition in 1958. Das became a Bangladeshi citizen after the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.
England to France India Mihir Sen 1958 First Indian to swim the English Channel.[19]
France to England India Arati Saha 1959 14:20 First Indian woman and first Asian woman to swim the English Channel.
France to England Macedonia Niko Nestor 1959 12:06 First Macedonian to swim the English Channel.[20]
England to France to England Argentina Antonio Abertondo 1961 43:10 First person to swim the channel both ways non-stop.
France to England Macedonia Atina Bojadži 1969 13:20 First Macedonian woman to swim the English Channel.[21]
England to France Poland Teresa Zarzeczanska 1975 11:10 First Polish woman to swim the English Channel.
England to France Poland Romuald Szopa 1978 12:49 First Polish man to swim the English Channel.
England to France United Kingdom Mary Yeats 1979 11:19 First Scottish woman to swim the English Channel.
England to France United States Charles Chapman 1981 12:30 First black swimmer to cross the Channel
England to France to England to France United States Jon Erikson 1981 38:27 First person to swim the channel three way
England to France United Kingdom Chris Little 1986 17:23 North Yorkshire Long Distance Club, Youngest person to swim one way until 1988
England to France Tunisia Nejib Belhedi 1993 16:35 First Tunisian to swim the channel, namesake of a trophy for swimming the channel at the highest tide.[22]
England to France Australia John Maclean 1998 12:55 First paraplegic to swim the Channel.[23]
England to France India Ashwin Krishnasamy 2007 16:07 Youngest successful swimmer (12 years old) to cross the English Channel for the year 2007.[24]
England to France Bulgaria Petar Stoychev 2007 6:57 First swimmer to cross the English Channel under 7 hours.
England to France France Philippe Croizon 2010 13:28 First quadruple amputee to swim the English Channel.
England to France Iceland Sigrún Þuríður Geirsdóttir 2015 22:34 First woman from Iceland to swim the English Channel.
England to France United Kingdom David Walliams 2006 10:32 British Comedian who swam the channel and raised £400,000 for Sport Relief.
England to France United Kingdom Samuel Green 2014 14:46 Second youngest British citizen to swim the channel.
England to France United Kingdom Daniel Lee 2008 13:42 First teenager and third youngest British citizen to swim the channel.
England to France Ecuador Sara Palacios 2018 12:58 First Ecuadorian citizen and South American Woman to swim the channel.
England to France Ireland Stephen Redmond 2009 N/A First Irishman to swim the channel[citation needed]
Records[edit]
Fastest[edit]
Record
Country of origin
Swimmer
Time
Date
Men Australia Trent Grimsey 06:55 2012
Men two ways New Zealand Philip Rush 16:10 1987
Men three ways New Zealand Philip Rush 28:21 1987
Women Czech Republic Yvetta Hlaváčová 07:25 2006
Women two ways Australia Susie Maroney 17:14 1991
Women three ways United Kingdom Alison Streeter 34:40 1990
Most crossings[edit]
Record
Country of origin
Swimmer
Crossings
Women United Kingdom Alison Streeter 43
Women two way Canada Cynthia Nicholas 5
Women three ways United Kingdom Alison Streeter 1
Australia Chloe McCardel
Men United Kingdom Kevin Murphy 34
Men two ways United Kingdom Kevin Murphy 3
Australia Stuart Johnson
Men three ways United States Jon Erikson 1
New Zealand Philip Rush
Oldest swimmer[edit]
Record
Country of origin
Swimmer
Age
Date
Reference
Women United States Pat Gallant-Charette 66 years June 17, 2017 [25]
Men South Africa Otto Thaning 73 years 2014 [26]
Youngest swimmer[edit]
Record
Country of origin
Swimmer
Age
Date
Reference
Women United Kingdom Samantha Druce 12 years, 118 days 1983 [27]
Men United Kingdom Thomas Gregory 11 years, 330 days 1988 [28]
Relay[edit]
Record
Country of origin
Swimmers
Time
Date
2 swimmers Scotland 9:22 2005
3 swimmers USA 9:39 2011
4 swimmers Brazil 8:22 2011
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i "Listing of Successful Swims". Solo swims. Retrieved 12 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Captain Matthew Webb Archived 16 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine., International Swimming Hall of Fame. Accessed 5 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Staff. "The Channel Swim: Burgess's Perseverance Rewarded After Fifteen failures", Poverty Bay Herald, Volume XXXVIII, Issue 12581, 11 October 1911, Page 8. Accessed 5 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Staff. "Henry Sullivan Crossed Channel - United States Swimmer Swam From England to France in 27 Hours 25 Minutes - Seventh Attempt - Third to Accomplish Feat - Capt. Webb and Burgess Other Two", The Montreal Gazette, 7 August 1923. Accessed 5 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Staff. "CUTS WEBB'S TIME IN CHANNEL SWIM; Tirabocchi of Argentina Is the First to Succeed Over the Calais-to-Dover Route. 16 HOURS 33 MINS. IN WATER Second Winner of L1,000 Prize Is Exhausted at Finish -- Toth Quits Near Goal. CUTS WEBB'S TIME IN CHANNEL SWIM", The New York Times, 13 August 1923. Accessed 5 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Staff. "TOTH SWIMS CHANNEL; MISSES 1,000 PRIZE; Boston's Man's Feat Just Two Days Too Late For Reward.", The New York Times, 10 September 1923, 5 August 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Gallico, Paul (19 January 1964). "First Queen of Channel Swimmers". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 12 August 2009. The coach who joined the party abroad was none other than that Thomas Burgess who, 15 years before, had been the second to make the Channel crossing
Jump up ^ Rutherford, Alec. "EXPERT'S STORY OF SWIM.", The New York Times, 7 August 1926. Accessed 5 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Staff. "MRS. CORSON SELF-TRAINED.; She Has Swum Around Manhattan and From Albany to New York.", The New York Times, 29 August 1926. Accessed 6 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Staff. "MRS. CARSON STARTS TO SWIM CHANNEL; Woman Who Made Albany to New York Record Reported Making Excellent Progress.", The New York Times, 28 August 1926. Accessed 5 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Staff. "Sport: First Mother", Time (magazine), 6 September 1926. Accessed 6 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Staff. "Channel swimmer sets slowest record", BBC News, 27 July 2010. Accessed 5 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Severo, Richard (1 December 2003). "Gertrude Ederle, the First Woman to Swim Across the English Channel, Dies at 98". New York Times. Retrieved 11 August 2009. Gertrude Ederle, who was called America's best girl by President Calvin Coolidge in 1926 after she became the first woman to swim across the English Channel, died yesterday at a nursing home in Wyckoff, N.J. She was 98.
Jump up ^ She did it in 14 hours 39 minutes, breaking the men's record of the time by two hours. However, this swim attracted some controversy. On 16 August, The Westminster Gazette reported locals as saying that "Miss Ederle swam under the lea of one of the accompanying tugs" while another boat "navigated in such a manner as to keep the heavy seas and tides off her" and that "Miss Ederle was drawn along by the suction of the tug so that she was able to swim at about twice the speed she would have been able to swim under ordinary conditions." The Dover Express and East Kent News commented that "So far little information has been given of the detail of Miss Ederle's swim. The most extraordinary thing about it being that she made no westward drift with the ebb tide, which on the day in question ran westward for nearly seven hours."
Jump up ^ The Vindication Swim: Mercedes Gleitze and Rolex take the plunge and become world-renowned, John E Brozak, International Wristwatch Magazine, December 2003, Retrieved 24 September 2015
Jump up ^ "People of Note". Retrieved 10 August 2010. Edward Temme, a London insurance clerk, was the first man to swim across the Channel both ways, from France to England in August 1927 and from England to France on 18 August 1934.
Jump up ^ Bryan Finlay. "A Pioneering Canadian Marathon Swimmer". Soloswims.com. Retrieved 2017-06-22.
Jump up ^ http://www.soloswims.com/can-chan.htm
Jump up ^ Bose, Anjali, Samsad Bangali Chariutabhidhan, Vol II, (in Bengali)p. 268, Sishu Sahitya Samsad Pvt. Ltd., ISBN 81-86806-99-7
Jump up ^ "Niko Nestor, 1st Macedonian to Swim Across The English Channel dies aged 81 | Channel Swimming Association". www.channelswimmingassociation.com. Retrieved 2018-04-15.
Jump up ^ "Macedonian swimming great Bojadzi dies at 66 - USATODAY.com". usatoday30.usatoday.com. Retrieved 2018-04-15.
Jump up ^ "Nejib BelHedi - Solo Channel Swimmer". Retrieved 13 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Briefs". The Age. 1 September 1998. p. 7.
Jump up ^ "CSA Awards | Channel Swimming Association". www.channelswimmingassociation.com. Retrieved 28 March 2016.
Jump up ^ TEGNA (2017-06-17). "Maine woman defies the odds at 66, sets record swimming English Channel". WCSH6.com. Retrieved 2017-06-22.
Jump up ^ "South African Otto Thaning, 73, is oldest channel swimmer - BBC News". Bbc.com. Retrieved 2017-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Samantha Druce 1983". Channel Swimming Association. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
Jump up ^ "Thomas Gregory 1988". Channel Swimming Association. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
External links[edit]
Full list of successful Channel swims, records, statistics and swimmer information
Full list of Channel swim results, records and swimmer information
Newsreel film of Philip Mickman's swim in a BBC Archive tweet
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_successful_English_Channel_swimmers&oldid=865457614"
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