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How to Train Your Dragon (film)
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How to Train Your Dragon
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Chris Sanders
Dean DeBlois
Produced by
Bonnie Arnold
Screenplay by
Will Davies
Dean DeBlois
Chris Sanders
Based on
How to Train Your Dragon
by Cressida Cowell
Starring
Jay Baruchel
Gerard Butler
Craig Ferguson
America Ferrera
Jonah Hill
Christopher Mintz-Plasse
T.J. Miller
Kristen Wiig
Music by
John Powell
Edited by
Darren T. Holmes
Maryann Brandon
Production
company
DreamWorks Animation
Distributed by
Paramount Pictures1
Release date
March 26, 2010 (2010-03-26)
Running time
98 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$165 million[1]
Box office
$495.8 million[1]
How to Train Your Dragon is a 2010 American 3D computer-animated action-fantasy film produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by Paramount Pictures.1 Loosely based on the British book series of the same name by Cressida Cowell, the film was directed by Chris Sanders and Dean DeBlois, the duo who directed Disney's Lilo & Stitch. It stars the voices of Jay Baruchel, Gerard Butler, Craig Ferguson, America Ferrera, Jonah Hill, T.J. Miller, Kristen Wiig, and Christopher Mintz-Plasse.
The story takes place in a mythical Viking world where a young Viking teenager named Hiccup aspires to follow his tribe's tradition of becoming a dragon slayer. After finally capturing his first dragon, and with his chance at last of gaining the tribe's acceptance, he finds that he no longer wants to kill the dragon and instead befriends it.
The film was released March 26, 2010, and was a critical and commercial success, earning acclaim from film critics and audiences and earning nearly $500 million worldwide. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Score at the 83rd Academy Awards, but lost to Toy Story 3 and The Social Network, respectively. The movie also won ten Annie Awards, including Best Animated Feature.
A sequel, How to Train Your Dragon 2, was released on June 13, 2014, with Deblois writing and directing by himself. Much like its predecessor, the sequel was also universally acclaimed and became a box office success. A second sequel, How to Train Your Dragon 3 is to be released on March 1, 2019. The film's success has also inspired other merchandise, including a video game and a television series.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Voice cast
3 Production
4 Music
5 Release
5.1 Competition for 3D screens
5.2 Box-office
5.3 Critical reception
5.4 Accolades
5.5 Home media
6 Expanded franchise
6.1 Sequels
6.2 Short films
6.3 Television series
6.4 Video games
6.5 Arena show
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Plot[edit]
The Isle of Berk is a remote Viking village, from which dragons periodically steal livestock. Hiccup, the awkward fifteen-year-old son of the village chieftain, Stoick the Vast, is too small to fight the dragons and instead fashions mechanical devices under his apprenticeship with Gobber the blacksmith, though his inventions often backfire. During one attack, Hiccup believes he has shot down a Night Fury, an extremely rare and dangerous dragon. Hiccup later finds it in the forest trapped in his bolas, but finds that he can't bring himself to kill the dragon and instead sets it free.
Stoick assembles a fleet to find the dragons' nest, leaving Hiccup in a dragon-fighting class taught by Gobber. Hiccup returns to the forest to find the Night Fury still there, and realizes it is unable to fly properly because of its crippled caudal fin. Hiccup gradually tames the dragon and gives it the name "Toothless", for its retractable teeth. Hiccup makes a harness and prosthetic fin that allows him to guide the dragon in free flight. By studying Toothless's behavior, Hiccup becomes proficient in subduing the captive dragons during training. Stoick's fleet arrives home unsuccessful, but he is cheered by Hiccup's unexpected success.
Astrid, a tough Viking girl on whom Hiccup has a crush, discovers Hiccup is training Toothless, but Hiccup takes her for a ride to demonstrate his relationship with the dragon before she can tell the village. Toothless unexpectedly takes the pair to the dragons' nest where they discover a gargantuan dragon named the Red Death,2 which eats the smaller dragons unless they bring it stolen livestock.
Back at the village, Hiccup subdues a captive dragon in his final training test in front of his father instead of killing it, but Stoick inadvertently angers the dragon into attacking. Toothless attempts to protect Hiccup in the ensuing panic but is instead captured by the Vikings. Hiccup accidentally reveals to Stoick that Toothless is capable of locating the dragons' nest. Stoick disowns his son and sets off for the nest with Toothless chained to the lead ship as a guide.
The Vikings expel most of the dragons but are overwhelmed by the Red Death until Hiccup, Astrid and their fellow pupils fly in riding the training dragons from the academy and provide cover fire. Hiccup almost drowns trying to break Toothless free from a sinking ship but Stoick saves them both and then reconciles with his son. Toothless and Hiccup destroy the Red Death but Hiccup is injured in the fight. Hiccup regains consciousness on Berk where his lower left leg has been replaced by a prosthesis, and the Vikings and the dragons now live in harmony.
Voice cast[edit]
Jay Baruchel as Hiccup Horrendous Haddock III: companion of Toothless, a Night Fury.
Producer Bonnie Arnold declared that Hiccup's appeal emerges from Baruchel's voice acting and the character's mannerisms making him a "slightly offbeat character."[2]
Gerard Butler as Stoick the Vast, the chieftain of the Viking tribe and Hiccup's father. A fierce, immensely strong and utterly fearless, warrior.
Director Chris Sanders described Stoick as "representing everything that's Viking", and thus a very important character in how he intimidates his son Hiccup. Butler considered that "half my career led me into playing a role like this," particularly Beowulf & Grendel, which is set in the Viking age, and was trying to avoid depicting Stoick as villainous, instead aiming for "a character that we can all identify, he's not just big and tough, also vulnerable."[2]
Craig Ferguson as Gobber the Belch: blacksmith, a close friend of Stoick's, and training master of the young warriors. He is the mediator between Hiccup and Stoick. He is missing his right foot and his left hand, the latter of which he has replaced with a variety of specialized prosthetics.[3]
Director Dean Deblois said Gobber's characterization drew a lot from how Ferguson's comedic routine "takes a really dark situation and phrases it in a way there's always a punchline."[2]
America Ferrera as Astrid Hofferson, Hiccup's fellow student.
DreamWorks had long been interested in having Ferrera voicing one of their movies and, once invited, the actress picked up Cressida Cowell's book, which made her accept the job. Bonnie Arnold complimented how Ferrera "has a strong voice, but also a lot of heart in it" that helped make Astrid sympathetic even as she continued being rough to Hiccup.[2]
Christopher Mintz-Plasse as Fishlegs Ingerman: an enthusiastic youth, knowledgeable in dragon lore narrated role-playing game terms.[4]
Bonnie Arnold declared Mintz-Plasse's voice made them immediately think of Fishlegs, as the character's big frame needed something to contrast, and the actor's "squeaky, small voice" was perfect to complement a "dragon nerd".[2]
Jonah Hill as Snotlout Jorgenson, one of Hiccup's dragon-training classmates. Snotlout is brash, overconfident, and fairly unintelligent, but reliable.
T. J. Miller and Kristen Wiig as Tuffnut and Ruffnut Thorston, a pair of quarrelsome twins.
David Tennant as Spitelout. A Viking who is not named in the film, he appears to be Stoick's second-in-command and Snotlout's father. Tennant has previously narrated a series of Hiccup adventures on audio book.[5]
Robin Atkin Downes as Ack
Philip McGrade as Starkard
Kieron Elliot as Hoark the Haggard
Ashley Jensen as Phlegma the Fierce
Production[edit]
Early production concept artwork of "Toothless" and "Hiccup"
The book series by Cressida Cowell began coming to attention to the executives at DreamWorks Animation in 2004. Coming off her success in Over the Hedge, producer Bonnie Arnold shortly became interested in the newly acquired property. She kept focusing on the project as time went on, and when DreamWorks Animation co-president of production Bill Damaschke asked her what she wanted to work on next, she chose “How to Train Your Dragon”.[6]
In initial development, the plot followed the original novel closely, but about halfway through production Chris Sanders and Dean DeBlois, the writer-directors of Disney's Lilo & Stitch, took over as co-directors and it was altered. The original plot was described as, "heavily loyal to the book", but was regarded as being too "sweet" and "whimsical" as well as geared towards a too-young demographic, according to Baruchel.[7] In the novel, Hiccup's dragon, Toothless, is a Common or Garden Dragon, a small breed. In the film, Toothless is a Night Fury, the rarest of all dragons, and is large enough to serve as a flying mount for both Hiccup and Astrid. The filmmakers hired cinematographer Roger Deakins (known for frequently collaborating with the Coen brothers) as a visual consultant to help them with lighting and overall look of the film and to "add a live-action feel".[7] Extensive research was done to depict both flight, as the directors knew they would be the biggest draw of the film's 3D effects, and fire, given animation could break away from the limitations seen in live-action films, where propane flames are usual due to being easier to extinguish. The dragons' design made sure to create animals that were comical and also innovative compared to other dragon fiction. Toothless in particular tried to combine various dragon traits in a black panther-inspired design, that also had large ears and eyes to convey emotion better.[8]
The directors made sure to cash in the improvisation abilities of the secondary cast—Christopher Mintz-Plasse, Jonah Hill, Kristen Wiig and T.J Miller—by frequently bringing them together in the recording sessions.[2]
Music[edit]
Main article: How to Train Your Dragon: Music from the Motion Picture
John Powell returned to DreamWorks Animation to score How to Train Your Dragon, making it his sixth collaboration with the studio, following his previous score for Kung Fu Panda (which he scored with Hans Zimmer). Powell composed an orchestral score, combining bombastic brass with loud percussion and soothing strings, while also using exotic, Scottish and Irish tones with instruments like the penny whistle and bagpipes. Additionally, Icelandic singer Jónsi wrote and performed the song "Sticks & Stones" for the film. The score was released by Varèse Sarabande on March 23, 2010.
Overall, the score was well received by film score critics. Powell earned his first Academy Award nomination for his work on the film, ultimately losing to Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross for their score for The Social Network.
Release[edit]
How to Train Your Dragon had its United States premiere on March 21, 2010, at the Gibson Amphitheatre in Universal City, California.[9] It was theatrically released on March 26, 2010, in the United States.[10] The film was digitally re-mastered into IMAX 3D, and released to 186 North American IMAX theatres, and approximately 80 IMAX theatres outside North America.[10]
Competition for 3D screens[edit]
A month before the release, DreamWorks Animation CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg protested Warner Bros.' decision to convert Clash of the Titans from 2D to 3D, then to release it one week after How to Train Your Dragon.[11] Entertainment reporter Kim Masters described the 3D release schedule around March 2010 as a "traffic jam", and speculated that the lack of 3D screen availability could hurt Katzenberg's prospects despite his support of the 3D format.[12]
In March 2010, theater industry executives accused Paramount of using high-pressure tactics to coerce theaters to screen How to Train Your Dragon rather than the competing 3D releases, Clash of the Titans and Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland. As theater multiplexes often had just one 3D screen, theaters were unable to accommodate more than one 3D presentation at a time.[13]
Box-office[edit]
How to Train Your Dragon topped the North American box office with $43.7 million in its first weekend of release.[14] The film grossed $217,581,231 in the United States and Canada and $277,297,528 in foreign countries with a worldwide total of $494,878,759.[1] How to Train Your Dragon is DreamWorks Animation's highest-grossing film in the American and Canadian box office other than the Shrek films.[15] It is the fifth-highest-grossing animated film of 2010 with $494.8 million, behind Toy Story 3 with $1,063.2 million, Shrek Forever After with $752.6 million, Tangled with $576.6 million, and Despicable Me with $543.1 million and the 10th-highest-grossing movie of 2010.[16]
Critical reception[edit]
How To Train Your Dragon received critical acclaim upon its release. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 98% of critics gave the film a positive review, based on 200 reviews from professional critics, with an overall rating average of 7.9 out of 10.[17] The site's general consensus is that, "Boasting dazzling animation, a script with surprising dramatic depth, and thrilling 3-D sequences, How to Train Your Dragon soars."[17] By "Tomatometer" score, the film is DreamWorks Animation's highest-rated film. On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 0–100 reviews from film critics, the film has a rating score of 74 based on 33 reviews, indicating 'Generally favorable reviews.' [18] CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend revealed the average grade cinemagoers gave How to Train Your Dragon was A on an A+ to F scale.[19]
Roger Ebert of The Chicago Sun-Times gave it 3 stars out of 4, stating that: "It devotes a great deal of time to aerial battles between tamed dragons and evil ones, and not much to character or story development. But it's bright, good-looking, and has high energy".[20] Claudia Puig of USA Today gave it 3.5 out of 4 stars, saying, "It's a thrilling action-adventure saga with exhilarating 3-D animation, a clever comedy with witty dialogue, a coming-of-age tale with surprising depth and a sweetly poignant tale of friendship between man and animal."[21] Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers praised the film, giving it three out of four stars and in his print review wrote, "[The film] works enough miracles of 3-D animation to charm your socks off."[22] Roger Moore of The Orlando Sentinel, who gave the film 2½ stars out of 4, wrote a mixed review describing the film as a "more coming-of-age dramedy or 'everything about your world view is wrong' message movie than it is a comedy, and that seems like a waste of a funny book, some very funny actors and some darned witty animation."[23] Kyle Smith of the New York Post gave the film 2/4 stars labeling the film as, "Avatar for simpletons. But that title is already taken, by Avatar".[24] Contrarily, Brett Michel of The Boston Phoenix stated that the film was better than Avatar. A. O. Scott of At The Movies felt the characters and the story were not strong points, but loved the cinematography and said, "that swooping and soaring, they are worth the price of a ticket, so go see it."[25] Village Voice film critic Ella Taylor gave a more negative review of the film, describing it as an "adequate but unremarkable animated tale".[26] Film critic James Berardinelli of ReelViews praised the film and its story, giving it 3.5 out of 4 stars he wrote, "Technically proficient and featuring a witty, intelligent, surprisingly insightful script, How to Train Your Dragon comes close to the level of Pixar's recent output while easily exceeding the juvenilia DreamWorks has released in the last nine years."[27] Entertainment Weekly film critic Owen Gleiberman praised the film giving it an A- and wrote, "How to Train Your Dragon rouses you in conventional ways, but it's also the rare animated film that uses 3-D for its breathtaking spatial and emotional possibilities."[28] ViewLondon's Mathew Turner gave the film 4/5 stars, calling it, "beautifully animated and superbly written", and praised the voice cast, humor, and action. Matt Risley of Variety gave the film a perfect score of 5/5 stars, hailing it as, "undoubtedly Dreamworks' best film yet, and quite probably the best dragon movie ever made".
Accolades[edit]
Awards
Award
Category
Name
Outcome
Academy Awards[29] Academy Award for Best Animated Feature Chris Sanders
Dean DeBlois Nominated
Academy Award for Best Original Score John Powell
Alliance of Women Film Journalists[30] Best Animated Feature
Best Animated Female America Ferrera (Astrid) Won
Annie Awards[31][32] Annie Award for Best Animated Feature Bonnie Arnold
Chris Sanders
Dean DeBlois
Annie Award for Best Animated Effects in an Animated Production Brett Miller
Jason Mayer Nominated
Annie Award for Best Character Animation in a Feature Production Gabe Hordos Won
Jakob Hjort Jensen Nominated
David Torres
Annie Award for Best Character Design in an Animated Feature Production Nico Marlet Won
Annie Award for Best Directing in an Animated Feature Production Chris Sanders
Dean DeBlois
Annie Award for Best Music in an Animated Feature Production John Powell
Annie Award for Production Design in an Animated Feature Production Pierre-Olivier Vincent
Annie Award for Best Storyboarding in an Animated Feature Production Tom Owens
Alessandro Carloni Nominated
Annie Award for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature Production Jay Baruchel (Hiccup) Won
Gerard Butler (Stoick) Nominated
Annie Award for Best Writing in an Animated Feature Production William Davies
Chris Sanders
Dean DeBlois Won
British Academy Film Awards[33] BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film Nominated
BAFTA Award for Best Film Music John Powell
Chicago Film Critics Association Awards[34] Best Animated Film Chris Sanders
Dean DeBlois
Critics' Choice Awards[35] Best Animated Feature Film
Genesis Awards[36] Best Feature Film Won
Golden Globe Awards[37] Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film Nominated
Golden Reel Awards[38] Best Sound Editing in an Animated Feature Film Won
International Film Music Critics Association[39][40] Film Score of the Year John Powell
Best Original Score for an Animated Feature John Powell
Film Music Composition of the Year John Powell – "Forbidden Friendship" Nominated
John Powell – "Test Drive"
Kids' Choice Awards[41] Favorite Animated Movie
Online Film Critics Society Awards[42] Best Animated Feature Chris Sanders
Dean DeBlois
People's Choice Awards[43] Favorite Family Movie
Satellite Awards[44] Motion Picture (Animated or Mixed)
Saturn Awards[45] Saturn Award for Best Music John Powell
Saturn Award for Best Production Design Kathy Altieri
Saturn Award for Best Animated Film Chris Sanders
Dean DeBlois
Teen Choice Awards[46] Choice Animated Movie
Toronto Film Critics Association[47] Toronto Film Critics Association Award for Best Animated Film Won
Venice Film Festival[48] Most Creative 3D Film of the Year Chris Sanders and Dean DeBlois
Tied with James Cameron for Avatar
Visual Effects Society[49] Visual Effects Society Award for Outstanding Animation in an Animated Feature Motion Picture Simon Otto
Craig Ring
Bonnie Arnold
Visual Effects Society Award for Outstanding Animated Character in an Animated Feature Motion Picture Gabe Hordos
Cassidy Curtis
Mariette Marinus
Brent Watkins
Visual Effects Society Award for Outstanding Effects Animation in an Animated Feature Motion Picture Andy Hayes
Laurent Kermel
Jason Mayer
Brett Miller
Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Awards[50] Best Animated Feature Chris Sanders
Dean DeBlois Nominated
World Soundtrack Academy[51] World Soundtrack Award for Soundtrack Composer of the Year John Powell
World Soundtrack Award for Best Original Song Written Directly for a Film Jón Þór Birgisson
Home media[edit]
How to Train Your Dragon was released on single-disc DVD, two-disc double DVD pack and Blu-ray/DVD combo pack in Canada and the United States on Friday, October 15, 2010. Among the features available in the two-disc DVD edition is an original sequel short film, Legend of the Boneknapper Dragon. As of July 18, 2012, units sold for the DVD stand at more than 6.5 million copies and has grossed $121,663,692.[52]
Samsung signed a deal with DreamWorks to gain exclusive distribution rights to a Blu-ray 3D version of the film. The exclusive agreement ended on September 11, 2011, when How to Train Your Dragon - 3D was released in a two-disc Blu-ray combo pack.
It was re-released by Paramount Home Entertainment on Blu-ray and DVD on May 27, 2014.[53]
Expanded franchise[edit]
Main article: How to Train Your Dragon (franchise)
Sequels[edit]
Main article: How to Train Your Dragon 2
A sequel, How to Train Your Dragon 2, was confirmed on April 27, 2010.[54] The film was directed and written by Dean DeBlois, the co-director of the first film. Bonnie Arnold, the producer of the first film, also returned.[55] The film was released on June 13, 2014 by 20th Century Fox, to critical acclaim.[56][57] The entire original voice cast—Baruchel, Butler, Ferguson, Ferrera, Hill, Mintz-Plasse, Miller,and Wiig—returned for the sequel[58] with the addition of Cate Blanchett, Djimon Hounsou, and Kit Harington.
A third film, How to Train Your Dragon 3, is in development. The film will also be directed and written by DeBlois, produced by Bonnie Arnold, and exec-produced by Chris Sanders, with all the main cast set to return. Cate Blanchett and Djimon Hounsou will also reprise their roles as Valka and Drago respectively from the second film.[59][60] It is scheduled to be released on March 1, 2019 by Universal Pictures.[61]
Short films[edit]
Four post-movie short films were released: Legend of the Boneknapper Dragon (2010), Book of Dragons (2011), Gift of the Night Fury (2011), and Dawn of the Dragon Racers (2014).[citation needed]
Television series[edit]
Main article: DreamWorks Dragons
A television series based on the film premiered on Cartoon Network in Autumn 2012. Jay Baruchel, America Ferrera, Christopher Mintz-Plasse, and T. J. Miller reprise their roles as Hiccup, Astrid, Fishlegs, and Tuffnut. The series follows Hiccup and his friends as they learn more about dragons, discover new ones, teach others to feel comfortable around them, adapt traditions within the village to fit their new friends and battle against enemies as they explore new worlds. Hiccup has been made head of Berk Dragon Academy.[62]
Video games[edit]
An action adventure video game released by Activision, called How to Train Your Dragon, was released for the Wii, Xbox 360, PS3 and Nintendo DS gaming consoles. It is loosely based on the film and was released on March 23, 2010.
School of Dragons, a 3D free-to-play MMO, was released on July 17, 2013, at the San Diego Comic-Con.[63][64] The game is available for PC, Android and iOS.[65]
Arena show[edit]
Main article: How to Train Your Dragon (franchise) § Live Show
How To Train Your Dragon Arena Spectacular is an arena show adaptation of the first film featuring 24 animatronic dragons, acrobats and projections. It premiered on March 2, 2012, in Melbourne, Australia.[66]
See also[edit]
Animation portal
Film portal
List of animated feature-length films
List of computer-animated films
Notes[edit]
^ In July 2014, the film's distribution rights were purchased by DreamWorks Animation from Paramount Pictures.[67]
^ Though the dragon is never named in the film itself, its name is mentioned in the official illustrated tie-in book,[68] as well as in DreamWorks Dragons.
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Jump up ^ Giardina, Carolyn (February 7, 2011). "Details of 'How to Train Your Dragon' Sequel Revealed". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved September 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Upcoming Releases". DreamWorks Animation. Retrieved August 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ "DreamWorks Animation Announces Feature Film Release Slate Through 2014" (Press release). DreamWorks Animation SKG, Inc. March 8, 2011. Archived from the original on August 20, 2011. Retrieved March 8, 2011.
Jump up ^ "More How to Train Your Dragon Sequel Details". ComingSoon.net. October 11, 2010. Retrieved October 11, 2010.
Jump up ^ "How to Train Your Dragon 3 Pushed Back to 2017". ComingSoon.net. Retrieved September 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Chitwood, Adam (February 5, 2015). "Director Dean DeBlois Talks HOW TO TRAIN YOUR DRAGON 3 at VES Awards". Collider. Retrieved February 5, 2015.
Jump up ^ Graser, Marc (January 22, 2015). "Jeffrey Katzenberg on DWA’s Cutbacks: ‘3 Films a Year Was Too Ambitious’". Variety. Retrieved January 22, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Cartoon Network Celebrates 20th Anniversary with Ratings Growth and a New Generation of Content for a New Generation of Kids". Reuters. March 28, 2012. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
Jump up ^ "School of Dragons at San Diego Comic Con 2013!". School of Dragons blog. Retrieved July 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ "School of Dragons producer interview". Berk's Grapevine. Retrieved July 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ "School of Dragons Mobile App". schoolofdragons.com. Retrieved July 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ Morgan, Clare (August 9, 2011). "Craft and heart breathe fiery life into dragons". Brisbane Times. Retrieved August 13, 2011.
Jump up ^ Chney, Alexandra (July 29, 2014). "DreamWorks Animation Q2 Earnings Fall Short of Estimates, SEC Investigation Revealed". Variety. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Miller-Zarneke, Tracey (2009). The Art of DreamWorks: How to Train Your Dragon (1st ed.). New York: Newmarket Press. ISBN 1557048630.
External links[edit]
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Zither
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Zither
Typical concert (or fretted) zither
String instrument
Classification
(Chordophone), String instrument
Hornbostel–Sachs classification
314.122-4
(Simple chordophone sounded by hammers)
Developed
Antiquity
Typical chord (or fretless) 'guitar zither'
Zither solo from G'schichten aus dem Wienerwald (1:04)
Courtesy of Musopen
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Zither (/ˈzɪðər, ˈzɪθ-/;[1] German: [ˈtsɪtɐ]) is a class of stringed instruments.
The word Zither is a German rendering of the Greek word cithara, from which the modern word "guitar" also derives. Historically, it has been applied to any instrument of the cittern family, or an instrument consisting of many strings stretched across a thin, flat body – similar to a psaltery. This article describes the second variety.[1][2][3]
Zithers are played by strumming or plucking the strings, either with the fingers (sometimes using an accessory called a plectrum or pick), sounding the strings with a bow, or, with varieties of the instrument like the santur or cimbalom, by beating the strings with specially shaped hammers. Like a guitar or lute, a zither's body serves as a resonating chamber (sound box), but, unlike guitars and lutes, a zither lacks a distinctly separate neck assembly. The number of strings varies, from one to more than fifty.
In modern common usage the term "zither" refers to three specific instruments: the concert zither (German: Konzertzither), its variant the Alpine zither (both using a fretted fingerboard), and the chord zither (more recently described as a fretless zither or "guitar zither"). Concert and Alpine zithers are traditionally found in Slovenia, Austria, Hungary, France, north-western Croatia, the southern regions of Germany and alpine Europe. Emigration from these areas during the 19th century introduced the concert and Alpine zither to North and South America. Chord zithers similar to the instrument in the photograph also became popular in North America during the late 19th and early 20th century. These variants all use metal strings, similar to the cittern.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History and development
3 Concert and Alpine zithers
4 Tuning
5 Playing techniques
6 Contemporary use
7 Notable players
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Etymology[edit]
The word 'zither' is derived from Latin cythara, which was used in this form for the title covers on many 16th and 17th century German printed manuscript books originally for the 'cittern' – from the Greek word kithara, an instrument used in Ancient Greece. The German scholar Michael Praetorius described a small English cittern as a Klein Englisch Zitterlein in his treatise Syntagma Musicum, published during the early 17th century, recording the language consonant shift. It is not fully understood how 'zitter' or 'zither' came to be applied to the instruments in this article as well as German varieties of the cittern. Other types of zither also existed in Germany, mostly drone zithers like the scheitholt (which was mentioned by Praetorius) or hummel, but these generally have their own individual regional names and may have been in use before the introduction into the lexicon of 'cythara' and its German derivative cognate.
The Hornbostel-Sachs system, an academic instrument classification method, also uses the term zither, to classify all stringed instruments in which the strings do not extend beyond the sounding box. This includes such diverse instruments as the hammered dulcimer, psaltery, Appalachian dulcimer, guqin, guzheng, tromba marina, koto, gusli, kanun, kanklės, kantele, kokles, valiha, gayageum, đàn tranh, autoharp, santoor, yangqin, santur, swarmandal, and others. Pedal steel guitars, lap guitars (where the neck serves no separate function other than to extend the string length), and keyboard instruments like the clavichord, harpsichord and piano also fall within this broad categorical use.
The word has also been used in conjunction with brand varieties of other string instruments, for example the zither banjo.
History and development[edit]
Chinese Guqin with seven strings
Turkish Qanun with 79 strings
The earliest known surviving instrument of the zither family is a Chinese guqin, a fretless instrument, found in the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng dating from 433 BC.[4] Similar instruments along this design were developed over the following centuries, for example: the Japanese silk strung koto, the siter of Indonesian gamelans; the Qānūn (or Kanun) of the Middle East; the valiha, a tube zither of Madagascar; and many others. Increasing interest in 'world music' has brought wider recognition to these other zither family members, both ancient and modern. Many of these instruments have been sampled electronically, and are available in instrument banks for music synthesizers.
Alpine Scheitholt
In Europe and other more northern and western regions, early zithers were more similar to the modern mountain dulcimer, having long, usually rectangular, sound boxes, with one or more melody strings and several unfretted drone strings. Some of these employed movable bridges similar to the Japanese koto, used for retuning the drone strings. The Alpine Scheitholt furnishes an example of this older type of European zither. By the late 18th century, two principal varieties of European concert zither had developed, known as the Salzburg zither (with a rounded side away from the player), and the Mittenwald zither (with both sides rounded). Both styles are still found in concert zithers today, although the Salzburg style has become by far the most common.[5]
Zitherist before 1850 in Ausseerland, Styria, playing a Salzburg-style instrument
The zither became a popular folk music instrument in Bavaria and Austria and, at the beginning of the 19th century, was known as a Volkszither.
Viennese zitherist Johann Petzmayer (1803–1884) became one of the outstanding virtuosi on these early instruments, and is credited with making the zither a household instrument.[6] In 1838, Nikolaus Weigel of Munich conceived the idea of adopting fixed bridges, adding additional strings, tuning them in the cycle of fifths, and chromatically fretting the fingerboard – effectively converting a rather crude folk instrument into the concert zither. His ideas were not, however, widely accepted until 1862, when luthier Max Amberger of Munich fabricated a new zither based on Weigel's design.[6] At this point the zither had reached something very close to its modern concert form. Within a relatively short time the new design had largely replaced the old Volkszither (though still called by the same name among folk musicians) throughout central Europe, particularly in the Alpine countries. As the 'concert zither' it also began to attract the attention of serious composers, a number of whom, themselves, became concert zither virtuosi. These composers, called the "Altmeister", flourished between 1870 and 1910. And no less a composer than Johann Strauss II gave the instrument a prominent solo in one of his most famous waltzes, "Tales from the Vienna Woods".[7]
The zither went through two periods of great popularity in the United States. The first of these was in the late 19th through early 20th century, when it was greatly in vogue as a parlour instrument in many homes. During that period, a number of U.S.-based instrument manufacturers, many of them founded by, or staffed with, European (and especially German and Austrian) luthiers, were producing concert zithers. Chord zithers were often marketed under confusing brand names like 'guitar zither' or 'mandoline zither'. The recently rediscovered recordings of the gospel singer Washington Phillips, who used two instruments simultaneously, have revealed the virtuosic capability of the chord zither to modern musicians seeking to revive it. By the 1920s, this popularity had begun to wane, as other string instruments (notably guitars) increased in popularity along with the new fashion for jazz music.
In the 1950s, interest in zithers resurfaced due in great measure to the success of the 1949 British film noir The Third Man. The soundtrack music for the film, which featured only a concert zither (no other instruments) – was performed by the Viennese musician Anton Karas. His "The Third Man Theme" was released as a single in 1949–50 and became a best-seller in the UK.[8] Following its release in the U.S. in 1950, it spent eleven weeks at number one on Billboard's U.S. Best Sellers in Stores Chart from 29 April to 8 July.[9] The exposure made Karas an international star.[10] A Time magazine film preview stated that "the famous musical score by Anton Karas" would have the audience "in a dither with his zither".[11]
This new popularity for the zither lasted until well into the 1960s with many successful albums during the period from performers such as Karas, Ruth Welcome, and Shirley Abicair. German-born American Ruth Welcome released a number of very popular theme-based zither albums between 1958 and 1965 (e.g., Romantic Zither; Zither South of the Border; Zither Goes to Hollywood). Australian-born singer Shirley Abicair popularised the chord zither when she used it for accompaniment in her TV shows, live performances and recordings in Britain in the 1950s and '60s.[12][13] Zither music also featured in a Twilight Zone episode – Mr Bevis in 1960.[14]
Concert and Alpine zithers[edit]
A concert zither may have from 29 to 38 strings, with 34 or 35 being most typical. These are arranged as follows: four or five fretted melody strings, placed above a guitar-like fretboard; 12 unfretted "accompaniment" strings; followed by 12 unfretted "bass" strings; followed by a varying number of "contrabass" strings, with five or six being the most common number.
German Concert Zither at Ft. Slocum, Nov. 1865
Concert zither, with a fretted fingerboard. This variety is a discant Salzburger Konzertzither
On some older zithers, one may find "half-frets" above the 12th fret, which extend only under the first two or three strings. This results in the lower fretted strings having no pitches (or no chromatic pitches) available above the 12th fret, while the higher fretted strings still have higher chromatic pitches available at these half-frets. Nearly all instruments made after 1960, however, have full-length frets all the way up the fretboard.
Anton Karas and Ruth Welcome used instruments of similar design to the one illustrated. After World War II, Karas (according to zither scholar Günter Wittenstein, who was acquainted with him) performed on an instrument of larger dimensions than normal – with a 43 cm standard scale length for the fingerboard strings. He used Viennese tuning (see below), but with an altered chromatic sequence for the fingerboard and open strings. The accompaniment strings G and F♯ were tuned an octave higher, while contrabass strings tuned E♭, F, D, E, C♯ replaced the regular cycle of fifths bass strings. This brought the contrabasses closer to the fingerboard where the player could reach them more easily.
For The Third Man, Karas tuned the zither a semi-tone lower, giving a particularly distinctive tone to the contrabass strings. The resulting lower string tension also enabled Karas to perform an expressive vibrato on the fingerboard melody strings. Film director Carol Reed, (on whose oak kitchen table the music was performed), described the sound as "gritty and dirty", perfectly reflecting the atmospheric mood of the film.
An Alpine Zither.
The Alpine zither has 42 strings, and differs from the concert zither primarily in requiring the addition of an extension to the body of the instrument to support both the longer additional contrabass strings and their tuners.
Alpine zithers are tuned in a similar manner to the concert zither, with the accompaniment and bass strings each providing a full set of 12 chromatic pitches also arranged in a cycle of fifths. Contrabass strings are arranged in a descending chromatic scale. Late 19th and early 20th century versions of the instrument were often called 'harp zithers' – so-named because the pillar extension seemed a miniature version of the harp's pillar. The extra contrabass strings ran parallel to the other strings on these earlier instruments, the diagonal arrangement illustrated developed later to assist the right hand in reaching the strings.
There are two popular tunings for the modern zither: Munich and Viennese. The "zither tuning chart" below, gives tuning details, including pitches and octaves. Munich tuning is on top, and Vienna tuning below. Some players have used Vienna tuning only for the fretted strings, and Munich tuning for the unfretted strings. Full Viennese tuning is normally used only on instruments with 38 or fewer strings.
Tuning[edit]
Tuning chart for concert and Alpine zithers:
[hide]Zither tuning chart
Fretted
Unfretted
String
Melody Accompaniment Basses Contrabasses
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
Pitch
Munich
A4 A4 D4 G3 C3 E♭4 B♭3 F4 C4 G3 D4 A3 E4 B3 F♯3 C♯4 G♯3 E♭3 B♭2 F3 C3 G2 D3 A2 E3 B2 F♯2 C♯3 G♯2 F2 E2 E♭2 D2 C♯2 C2 B1 B♭1 A1 G♯1 G1 F♯1 F1
Viennese
A4 D4 G4 G3 C3 A♭4 E♭4 B♭3 F4 C4 G4 D4 A3 E4 B3 F♯4 C♯4 G♯3 E♭2 B♭2 F2 C3 G2 D2 A2 E2 B2 F♯2 C♯2 G♯2 C2 B1 B♭1 A1 G♯ G1 F♯1 F1
Notes:
Basic Concert Alpine
Playing techniques[edit]
Zitherist in Maribor, Slovenia
The zither is played by plucking the strings while it lies flat on a table (which acts as a resonator to amplify the sound), or it can be held on the lap.
On concert and Alpine zithers the melody strings are pressed to the fingerboard ("fretted") with the fingers of the left hand, and plucked with a plectrum on the right thumb. First and second fingers of the right hand pluck the accompaniment and bass strings, and the third finger of the right hand plucks the contrabass strings (there are variants on this technique).
The concept of the chord zither is different from that of the concert and alpine zithers. These instruments may have from 12 to 50 (or more) strings, depending on design. All the strings are played open, in the manner of a harp. The strings on the left are arranged in groups of three or four, which form various chords to be played by the left hand. The strings to the right are single (or pairs of) strings intended for the right hand to pick out the melody. Tuning can vary widely from manufacturer to manufacturer and even from model to model, but is usually indicated on the instrument itself, in the form of a painted or paper chart glued under the strings.
Contemporary use[edit]
Basia Bulat playing an autoharp
As an advanced technique was required to play anything more than simple tunes, the vast majority of the concert zithers sold never attained more than amateur or (mostly) ornamental use; the playing of Washington Phillips was a rare exception. Manufacturers attempted to simplify the instrument with various keyboard devices attached to the melody strings (Marxophone, dolceola, celestaphone, tremoloa, etc.), but the invention of the autoharp is probably the most successful adaptation. This uses bars (with felt pads attached underneath) placed across and above the strings. Springs raise the pads from all bars free of the strings. Each bar has a button that indicates a chord, with pads arranged so that they mute all strings not in the chord when the player presses the button or bar. Simply depressing the button with one finger stops unwanted strings from sounding as the mutes under the bars contact them. Note, however, that the absence of a fretboard makes the autoharp a closer relative of the chord zither, than of the concert zither. Presence of the concert zither in classical music remains sparse.
Liam Finn's electric drum zither
Concert and Alpine zithers remain in use by a relatively small number of contemporary musicians from various global regions and musical genres, either out of interest in traditional musical styles for the instrument, or from a desire to seek new sounds for their music. New variations on the concert zither have also been employed, including the electric zither—and recent instruments that share zither characteristics, such as the Chapman stick.
While use of the concert zither itself has declined, zither music and technique continued to influence contemporary musicians. For example: Canadian musician Jeff Healey, featured in the film thriller Road House in 1989 used a zither technique to play electric guitar. Blind from the age of one, Healey began playing when he was three with the instrument flat on his lap, left hand above the fingerboard in the same manner as a zitherist. Although he used a Fender Stratocaster guitar throughout his career, the instrument was in effect being used as an electric zither.
Notable players[edit]
Shirley Abicair
Basia Bulat
Dorothy Carter
Mark Duplass
Heinz Gamper
Anton Karas
Rudi Knabl
Félix Lajkó
Lotte Landl
Laraaji
Etienne de Lavaulx
Linda McCartney
Michel de Montaigne
Guido Aloysius Pederzani
Johann Petzmayer
Washington Phillips
Jocelyn Pook
Wilfried Scharf
Manfred Schuler
John Sebastian
Nikolaus Weigel
Ruth Welcome
See also[edit]
Adjalin
Autoharp
Baltic psaltery
Dulcimer
Swarmandal
Ukelin
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "zither". Oxford Dictionaries Online. Oxford University Press. 2013. Retrieved 2013-10-26.
Jump up ^ "Strings on a table". Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster. 2013. Retrieved 2013-10-26.
Jump up ^ "zither". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 2013. Retrieved 2013-10-26.
Jump up ^ Stephen Jones. "Source and stream: early music and living traditions in China" (PDF). Oxford Journals.
Jump up ^ "Zither". britannica.com.
^ Jump up to: a b "History". www.zithers-usa.com. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ The part is sometimes played on a mandolin, when a zither is not available.
Jump up ^ Music: Zither Dither, a 28 November 1949 article from Time magazine
Jump up ^ "Song title 199 - Third Man Theme". Tsort.info. 2007-10-08. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
Jump up ^ "The Third Man" DVD review, Sean Axmaker, Turner Classic Movies.
Jump up ^ The Ultimate Trailer Show. HDNet, 22 September 2010.
Jump up ^ Fitzpatrick, Rob (4 September 2013). "The 101 strangest records on Spotify: Ruth Welcome – Romantic Zither". Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ruth Welcome". Retrieved 6 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Twilight Zone (1959) s01e33 Episode Script - SS". Retrieved 6 June 2016.
References[edit]
Dearling, Robert; Stringed Instruments; Chelsea House Publishing (2000). ISBN 0791060926
Marcuse, Sibyl; Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary; W. W. Norton & Company (1975). ISBN 0393007588
Mühlemann, Lorenz; Die Zither in der Schweiz: Von den Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart ; Turtleback (1995). ISBN 3-729-60584-4 (German)
Ralston, Jack L.; A Selective Bibliography for the Zither; University of Missouri (1981). ASIN: B00072D9GI
Schuler, Manfred; Zither In Der Volksmusik , vol. 1 & 2; Unbekannt . ISBN 3-853-66837-2, 3-708-40155-7 (German)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zithers.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Zither.
"Fretless Zithers" at MinerMusic.com English language site dedicated to the chord zither. The authors present arguments for the instrument to be renamed 'fretless zither'. Contains some dead links.
"Zither collection of the University of Leipzig" German language site with pictures of vintage instruments including bowed zithers (here called Streichzithern)
"Zither US" English language site based in the U.S. Contains biographies of early performers and personalities associated with the history of concert and Alpine zithers, mainly in the U.S. Also contacts for resources like instrument maintenance, enthusiast clubs and events.
'Zithernhistorie' German language site describing transition from drone zither to 19th century Mittenwald and Salzburg concert zither
Zitherseite von Werner Wölfing. German language site with photographs, history and different types of zither, links to further information and resources, zither makers and players
Anton Karas page by his Grandson (English version) von Werner Chudik. Contains article by Günter Wittenstein discussing the zither tuning used by Karas
Ruth Welcome Discography
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text:
Plains garter snake
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Plains garter snake
Conservation status

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Colubridae
Genus: Thamnophis
Species: T. radix
Binomial name
Thamnophis radix
(Baird and Girard, 1853)
Subspecies
T. r. radix
T. r. haydeni
Synonyms
Eutainia radix
Baird & Girard, 1853
Tropidonotus sirtalis var. radix
— Jan, 1865
Tropidonotus ordinatus Var. radix
— Boulenger, 1893
Eutaenia radix
— Cope, 1900
Thamnophis radix
— Stejneger & Barbour, 1917
The Plains garter snake (Thamnophis radix) is a species of garter snake native to most of the central United States as far north as Canada and as far south as Texas. It has a distinctive orange or yellow stripe from its head to tail, and the rest of its body is mainly a gray-green color. The snake is commonly found living near water sources such as streams and ponds, but can also be found in urban areas and vacant lots. Although the IUCN lists the species as "Least Concern", some states have given it their own special status. This species is mildly venomous.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
1.1 Physical
1.2 Behavior
2 Habitat
2.1 Range
3 Subspecies
4 Conservation
5 External links
6 References
Description[edit]
Physical[edit]
Thamnophis radix
The Plains garter snake has either an orange or yellow stripe down its back and distinctive black bars on its lip.[2] The stripe normally starts at the head and continues all the way to the tail tip.[3][4] Lateral stripes are located on the third and fourth scale rows and are normally a greenish-yellow color.[3][4] Its belly is gray-green with small dark spots along the edges.[4] Most have distinctive light yellow spots on the top of the head.[3][4] The snake is described as medium-sized and is on average around 3 ft (0.91 m).[3]
Behavior[edit]
Described as "one of the most cold-tolerant snakes", on warmer winter days, it often comes out of hibernation to bask in the sun.[4] It is most active between April and late October depending on location.[5] Mating normally takes place in April or May and birth takes place between August and October.[4] Courtship usually occurs near the communal hibernation site, and polygynous mating systems have been observed.[5] The snake's typical diet consists of earthworms, slugs, and small amphibians,[4][6] including the larvae of salamanders.[5] It has also been observed eating small mammals and birds, such as bank swallows and eastern meadowlarks.[6]
Habitat[edit]
The Plains garter snake is commonly found in meadows and prairies adjacent to water sources, such as marshes, streams, and ponds.[5] In built-up areas of the Chicago area, it has been observed in abandoned buildings, trash heaps, and vacant lots.[5] Populations in urban and suburban areas have been greatly reduced due to building activities and pesticide use.[7] Its habitat range overlaps with that of the common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) in many areas, and it is thought the species may hybridize.[5][7]
Range[edit]
The snake ranges across a broad area of North America from as far north as central Alberta to as far south as Northern Texas and New Mexico. In the United States, it is also found in Iowa, eastern Wyoming, northern Kentucky, eastern Colorado, Minnesota, southern Wisconsin, Illinois, northwestern Indiana, Oklahoma, Nebraska and the northern half of Missouri. A small population is also in Ohio.[5][8] In Canada, the species is also found in Manitoba.[8] It can be found at elevations from 400 to 7,500 feet but prefer to stay under 6,000 feet.[8]
Subspecies[edit]
Formerly, two subspecies of the Plains garter snake were widely recognized, but most authorities have since dropped subspecies recognition. The first, T. r. radix, was commonly referred to as the eastern Plains garter snake, while T. r. haydeni (Kennicott 1860) was considered the western subspecies. However, the distinction between the two is weak, partly based on the number of scales and partly on slight coloration differences, with T. r. haydeni said to have cleaner markings and more ventral and neck scales. As the two subspecies share the same habitat in many regions of the United States, further complicated by their strikingly similar appearance, many now do not recognize the two subspecies.
The subspecific name, haydeni, is in honor of American geologist Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden.[9]
Conservation[edit]
The Plains garter snake is listed as Least Concern (IUCN 3.1) by the IUCN Red List due to the snake's ability to modify its habitat, its wide distribution and its presumed large population.[8] However, the snake is considered to be "Endangered" in Ohio and is on a state list of endangered species.[5][10] In Wisconsin, it is a species of special concern.[11]
External links[edit]
Plains Garter Snake, Reptiles and Amphibians of Iowa
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Plains Garter Snake. (Arkive.org). Retrieved March 25, 2017, http://www.arkive.org/plains-gartersnake/thamnophis-radix/image-G143060.html
Jump up ^ Conant, Roger; Robert C. Stebbins; Joseph T. Collins (1999). Roger Tory Peterson, ed. Peterson First Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-395-97195-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Breckenridge, John (1944). Reptiles and amphibians of Minnesota. U of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-0573-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g "Thamnophis radix -- Plains Gartersnake". Illinois Natural History Survey. University of Illinois. Retrieved 8 February 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Rossman, Douglas; Neil Ford; Richard Seigel (1996). The garter snakes: evolution and ecology. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 235–241url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n2rW7E8_uJoC&pg=PA235&dq=Thamnophis+radix&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&as_brr=3&client=firefox–a&cd=5#v=onepage&q=Thamnophis%20radix&f=false. ISBN 0-8061-2820-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Dewey, Tanya. "Thamnophis radix (plains garter snake)". University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. University of Michigan. Retrieved 8 February 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Degenhardt, William; Charles Painter; Andrew Price (2005). Amphibians and Reptiles of New Mexico. UNM Press. pp. 324–325. ISBN 0-8263-3811-9.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Thamnophis radix". Hammerson, G.A. IUCN Red List. Retrieved 8 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Beolens B, Watkins M, Grayson M. The Eponym Dictionary of Reptiles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. xiii + 296 pp. ISBN 978-1-4214-0135-5. (Thamnophis radix haydeni, p. 118).
Jump up ^ "Ohio's Endangered Species". Ohio DNR. Retrieved 8 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "Plains Gartersnake (Thamnophis radix) Endangered Resources Program Species Information". Wisconsin DNR. Retrieved 8 February 2010.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plains_garter_snake&oldid=808087212"
Categories:
IUCN Red List least concern species
Thamnophis
Snakes of North America
Reptiles of Canada
Reptiles of the United States
Fauna of the Great Plains
Fauna of the Plains-Midwest (United States)
Fauna of the Southwestern United States
Animals described in 1853
Least concern biota of the United States
Pliocene reptiles of North America
Extant Zanclean first appearances
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This page was last edited on 31 October 2017, at 20:10.
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