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Brown recluse spider
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For the spider ranging from southeastern California to Arizona, see desert recluse. For the spider inhabiting Hawaii, see Mediterranean recluse spider.
Brown recluse
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Araneae
Infraorder: Araneomorphae
Family: Sicariidae
Genus: Loxosceles
Species: L. reclusa
Binomial name
Loxosceles reclusa
Gertsch & Mulaik, 1940[1]
Synonyms[1]
Loxosceles reclusus orthographic variant
The brown recluse, Loxosceles reclusa, Sicariidae (formerly placed in a family "Loxoscelidae") is a recluse spider with a necrotic venom. Similar to other recluse spider bites, their bite sometimes requires medical attention. The brown recluse is one of three spiders (the others being black widow and Loxosceles laeta, the Chilean recluse) with medically significant venom in North America.
Brown recluse spiders are usually between 6 and 20 millimetres (0.24 and 0.79 in), but may grow larger. While typically light to medium brown, they range in color from whitish to dark brown or blackish gray. The cephalothorax and abdomen are not necessarily the same color. These spiders usually have markings on the dorsal side of their cephalothorax, with a black line coming from it that looks like a violin with the neck of the violin pointing to the rear of the spider, resulting in the nicknames fiddleback spider, brown fiddler, or violin spider.
Contents
1 Description
2 Life-cycle
3 Behavior
4 Habitat
5 Distribution
6 Bite
6.1 Misdiagnosis
6.2 Bite treatment
6.2.1 Specific treatments
6.2.2 Spider population control
7 References
8 External links
Description[edit]
The brown recluse.
The brown recluse has three pairs of eyes, unlike most spiders.
The violin pattern is not diagnostic, as other spiders can have similar markings (e.g. cellar spiders and pirate spiders). For definitive identification it is imperative to examine the eyes. While most spiders have eight eyes, recluse spiders have six eyes arranged in pairs (dyads) with one medial pair and two lateral pairs. Only a few other spiders have three pairs of eyes arranged in this way (e.g., scytodids). Recluses have no obvious coloration patterns on the abdomen or legs, and the legs lack spines.[2] The abdomen is covered with fine short hairs that, when viewed without magnification, give the appearance of soft fur. The leg joints may appear to be a slightly lighter color.
Life-cycle[edit]
Adult brown recluse spiders often live about one to two years. Each female produces several egg sacs over a period of two to three months, from May to July, with approximately fifty eggs in each sac. The eggs hatch in about one month. The spiderlings take about one year to grow to adulthood. The brown recluse spider is resilient and can tolerate up to six months of extreme drought and scarcity or absence of food. On one occasion, a brown recluse survived in controlled captivity for over five seasons without any food at all.[3]
Behavior[edit]
A brown recluse's stance on a flat surface is usually with all legs radially extended. When alarmed it may lower its body, withdraw the forward two legs straight rearward into a defensive position, withdraw the rearmost pair of legs into a position for lunging forward, and stand motionless with pedipalps raised. The pedipalps in mature specimens are dark and quite prominent and are normally held horizontally forward. When threatened it usually flees, seemingly to avoid a conflict, and if detained may further avoid contact with quick horizontal rotating movements or even resort to assuming a lifeless pose (playing dead). The spider does not usually jump unless touched brusquely, and even then its avoidance movement is more of a horizontal lunge rather than a vaulting of itself entirely off the surface. When running, the brown recluse does not leave a silk line behind, which would make it more easily tracked when it is being pursued. Movement at virtually any speed is an evenly paced gait with legs extended. When missing a leg or two it appears to favor this same gait, although (presumably when a leg has been injured) it may move and stand at rest with one leg slightly withdrawn. During travel it stops naturally and periodically when renewing its internal hydraulic blood pressure that, like most spiders, it requires to renew strength in its legs.
Habitat[edit]
Brown recluse on cardboard box.
Brown recluse spiders build asymmetrical (irregular) webs that frequently include a shelter consisting of disorderly thread. They frequently build their webs in woodpiles and sheds, closets, garages, plenum spaces, cellars, and other places that are dry and generally undisturbed. When dwelling in human residences they seem to favor cardboard, possibly because it mimics the rotting tree bark which they inhabit naturally.[citation needed] Human-recluse contact often occurs when such isolated spaces are disturbed and the spider feels threatened. Unlike most web weavers, they leave these lairs at night to hunt. Males move around more when hunting than the females, which tend to remain nearer to their webs.
Distribution[edit]
A large brown recluse compared to a US penny (diameter 0.75 inches, 19.05mm)
The range lies roughly south of a line from southeastern Nebraska through southern Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana to southwestern Ohio. In the southern states, it is native from central Texas to western Georgia and north to Kentucky.[4][5]
Despite rumors to the contrary, the brown recluse spider has not established itself in California or anywhere outside its native range.[6] This directly contradicts numerous sensationalized media reports of bites occurring where these spiders are absent (and no specimens were found), such as a 2014 report from Thailand, where a man was claimed to have died from a brown recluse bite.[7] Over the last century, occasional spiders have been intercepted in various locations where they have no known established populations; these spiders may be transported fairly easily, though the lack of established populations well outside the natural range also indicates that such movement has not led to colonization of new areas, after decades of opportunities.[8][9] Note that the occurrence of brown recluses in a single building (such as a warehouse) outside of the native range is not considered a successful colonization; such single-building populations can occur (e.g., in several such cases in Florida),[10] but do not spread, and can be easily eradicated.[11]
There are other species of the genus Loxosceles native to the southwestern part of the United States, including California, that may resemble the brown recluse, but these species have never been documented as medically significant. The number of "false positive" reports based on misidentifications is considerable; in a nationwide study where people submitted spiders that they thought were brown recluses, of 581 from California only 1 was a brown recluse—submitted by a family that moved from Missouri and brought it with them (compared to specimens submitted from Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma, where between 75% and 90% were recluses).[12] From this study, the most common spider submitted from California as a brown recluse was in the genus Titiotus, whose bite is deemed harmless. A similar study documented that various arachnids were routinely misidentified by physicians, pest control operators, and other non-expert authorities, who told their patients or clients that the spider they had was a brown recluse when in fact it was not.[13] Despite the absence of brown recluses from the Western U.S., physicians in the region commonly diagnose "brown recluse bites", leading to the popular misconception that the spiders inhabit those areas.[14]
Bite[edit]
Main article: Loxoscelism
The bite frequently is not felt initially and may not be immediately painful, but it can be serious. The brown recluse bears a potentially deadly hemotoxic venom. Most bites are minor with no necrosis. However, a small number of brown recluse bites do produce severe dermonecrotic lesions (i.e. necrosis); an even smaller number produce severe cutaneous (skin) or viscerocutaneous (systemic) symptoms. In one study of clinically diagnosed brown recluse bites, skin necrosis occurred 37% of the time, while systemic illness occurred 14% of the time.[15] In these cases, the bites produced a range of symptoms common to many members of the genus Loxosceles known as loxoscelism, which may be cutaneous and viscerocutaneous. In very rare cases, bites can even cause hemolysis—the bursting of red blood cells.[16]
As suggested by its specific epithet reclusa (recluse), the brown recluse spider is rarely aggressive, and bites from the species are uncommon. In 2001, more than 2,000 brown recluse spiders were removed from a heavily infested home in Kansas, yet the four residents who had lived there for years were never harmed by the spiders, despite many encounters with them.[17][18] The spider usually bites only when pressed against the skin, such as when tangled within clothes, towels, bedding, inside work gloves, etc. Many human victims report having been bitten after putting on clothes that had not been worn recently, or had been left for many days undisturbed on the floor. The fangs of the brown recluse are not large enough to penetrate most fabric.[19]
When both types of loxoscelism do result, systemic effects may occur before necrosis, as the venom spreads throughout the body in minutes. Children, the elderly, and the debilitatingly ill may be more susceptible to systemic loxoscelism. The systemic symptoms most commonly experienced include nausea, vomiting, fever, rashes, and muscle and joint pain. Rarely, such bites can result in hemolysis, thrombocytopenia, disseminated intravascular coagulation, organ damage, and even death.[20] Most fatalities are in children under the age of seven[21] or those with a weak immune system.
While the majority of brown recluse spider bites do not result in any symptoms, cutaneous symptoms occur more frequently than systemic symptoms. In such instances, the bite forms a necrotizing ulcer as the result of soft tissue destruction and may take months to heal, leaving deep scars. These bites usually become painful and itchy within 2 to 8 hours. Pain and other local effects worsen 12 to 36 hours after the bite, and the necrosis develops over the next few days.[22] Over time, the wound may grow to as large as 25 cm (10 inches). The damaged tissue becomes gangrenous and eventually sloughs away.
Misdiagnosis[edit]
There is now an ELISA-based test for brown recluse venom that can determine whether a wound is a brown recluse bite, although it is not commercially available and not in routine clinical use. Clinical diagnoses often use Occam's razor principle in diagnosing bites based on what spiders the patient likely encountered and previous similar diagnoses.[5][15][23]
A new mnemonic device, "NOT RECLUSE", has been suggested as a tool to help laymen and medical professionals more objectively screen and diagnose potential cases of loxoscelism.[24]
There are numerous documented infectious and noninfectious conditions that produce wounds that have been initially misdiagnosed as recluse bites by medical professionals, including:
Pyoderma gangrenosum
Infection by Staphylococcus
Infection by Streptococcus
Herpes
Diabetic ulcers
Fungal infection
Chemical burns
Toxicodendron dermatitis
Squamous cell carcinoma
Localized vasculitis
Syphilis
Toxic epidermal necrolysis
Sporotrichosis
Lyme disease[25]
Many of these conditions are far more common and more likely to be the source of necrotic wounds, even in areas where brown recluse spiders actually occur.[5] The most important of these is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), a bacterium whose necrotic lesions are very similar to those induced by recluse bites, and which can be lethal if left untreated.[26] Misdiagnosis of MRSA as spider bites is extremely common (nearly 30% of patients with MRSA reported that they initially suspected a spider bite), and can have fatal consequences.[27]
Reported cases of brown recluse bites occur primarily in Arkansas, Colorado, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Texas. There have been many reports of brown recluse bites in California—though a few related species may be found there, none of these are known to bite humans.[6] To date, the reports of bites from areas outside of the spider's native range have been either unverified, or, if verified, the spiders have been moved to those locations by travelers or commerce. Many arachnologists believe that a large number of bites attributed to the brown recluse in the West Coast are either from other spider species or not spider bites at all. For example, the venom of the hobo spider, a common European species established in the northwestern United States and southern British Columbia, has been reported to produce similar symptoms as the brown recluse bite when injected into laboratory rabbits. However, the toxicity of hobo spider venom has been called into question as actual bites have not been shown to cause necrosis, and no such occurrences have ever been reported where the spider is native.[28]
Numerous other spiders have been associated with necrotic bites in medical literature. Other recluse species, such as the desert recluse (found in the deserts of southwestern United States), are reported to have caused necrotic bite wounds, though only rarely.[29] The hobo spider and the yellow sac spider have also been reported to cause necrotic bites. However, the bites from these spiders are not known to produce the severe symptoms that can follow from a recluse spider bite, and the level of danger posed by these has been called into question.[30][31] So far, no known necrotoxins have been isolated from the venom of any of these spiders, and some arachnologists have disputed the accuracy of spider identifications carried out by bite victims, family members, medical responders, and other non-experts in arachnology. There have been several studies questioning the danger posed by some of these spiders. In these studies, scientists examined case studies of bites in which the spider in question was identified by an expert, and found that the incidence of necrotic injury diminished significantly when "questionable" identifications were excluded from the sample set.[32][33] (For a comparison of the toxicity of several kinds of spider bites, see the list of spiders having medically significant venom.)
Bite treatment[edit]
First aid involves the application of an ice pack to control inflammation and prompt medical care. If it can be easily captured, the spider should be brought with the patient in a clear, tightly closed container so it may be identified.
Routine treatment should include immobilization of the affected limb, application of ice, local wound care, and tetanus prophylaxis. Many other therapies have been used with varying degrees of success, including hyperbaric oxygen, dapsone, antihistamines (e.g., cyproheptadine), antibiotics, dextran, glucocorticoids, vasodilators, heparin, nitroglycerin, electric shock, curettage, surgical excision, and antivenom.[34][35] None of these treatments have been subjected to randomized controlled trials to conclusively show benefit. In almost all cases, bites are self-limited and typically heal without any medical intervention.[5]
Outpatient palliative care following discharge often consists of a weak or moderate strength opioid (e.g. codeine or tramadol, respectively) depending on pain scores, an anti-inflammatory agent (e.g. naproxen, cortisone), and an antispasmodic (e.g. cyclobenzaprine, diazepam), for a few days to a week. If the pain and/or spasms have not resolved by this time, a second medical evaluation is generally advised, and differential diagnoses may be considered. Occasionally, an antibiotic is prescribed as well.
Cases of brown recluse venom travelling along a limb through a vein or artery are rare, but the resulting tissue mortification can affect an area as large as several inches and in extreme cases require excising of the wound.
Specific treatments[edit]
In presumed cases of recluse bites, dapsone is often used for the treatment of necrosis, but controlled clinical trials have yet to demonstrate efficacy.[36] However, dapsone may be effective in treating many "spider bites" because many such cases are actually misdiagnosed microbial infections.[37] There have been conflicting reports about its efficacy in treating brown recluse bites, and some have suggested it should no longer be used routinely, if at all.[38]
Wound infection is rare. Antibiotics are not recommended unless there is a credible diagnosis of infection.[39]
Studies have shown that surgical intervention is ineffective and may worsen outcome. Excision may delay wound healing, cause abscesses, and lead to scarring.[40]
Purportedly application of nitroglycerin stopped necrosis.[41] However, one scientific animal study found no benefit in preventing necrosis, with the study's results showing it increased inflammation and caused symptoms of systemic envenoming. The authors concluded the results of the study did not support the use of topical nitroglycerin in brown recluse envenoming. [42]
Antivenom is available in South America for the venom of related species of recluse spiders. However, the bites, often being painless, usually do not present symptoms until 24 or more hours after the event, possibly limiting the effect of this intervention.[43]
Spider population control[edit]
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Due to increased fear of these spiders prompted by greater public awareness of their presence in recent years, extermination of domestic brown recluses is performed frequently in the lower midwestern United States. Brown recluse spiders possess a variety of adaptive abilities, including the ability to maintain homeostasis for several seasons with no food or water.[44] Additionally, these spiders survive significantly longer in a relatively cool, thermally stable environment.[45]
The most important precaution is to remove and reduce trash and rubbish from your property, such as woodpiles, boxes, plywood, tires, and trash cans—especially if they are stored right next to the house. With attached garages, block off house access by sealing cracks around doors and access holes for electrical conduits or plumbing. In the Midwest, some brown recluse bites occur when a sleeping person rolls over during the night, and the trapped spider bites. In the bedroom, move the bed away from the wall, remove any skirts or ruffles and remove all items stored under it. This minimizes chances that any spider can crawl onto the bed. Do not leave clothes and shoes on the floor. If clothes or shoes are left on the floor, be sure to shake them before dressing. Apparel and equipment that is only occasionally worn should be stored in tightly closed plastic bags, especially if stored in the garage or other dark storage areas. Typically, pesticide control of spiders is difficult. There are various insecticides available in retail outlets labeled for spider control. However, spiders' perched legs allow them to walk over most pesticides, making the use of chemicals to eradicate the spiders impractical and unnecessarily toxic.[44] A 2014 study indicates that fumigation may be more effective than previously believed.[46] Sticky traps placed along floor boards offer a non-insecticidal way to trap spiders as well as provide an idea of population levels in the structure.
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Loxosceles reclusa.
Wikispecies has information related to Loxosceles reclusa
Myth of the Brown Recluse
Illinois and Iowa Brown Recluse Project
Description of black widow and brown recluse spiders
University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Featured Creatures
Medical Case is the Work of Brown Recluse Spider
CDC - Venomous Spiders - NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic
Sandidge, Jamel S. (2003). "Arachnology: Scavenging by brown recluse spiders". Nature. 426 (6962): 30. Bibcode:2003Natur.426...30S. doi:10.1038/426030a. PMID 14603305. Lay summary – University of Kansas-Lawrence (November 7, 2003).
Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q284352
Wikispecies: Loxosceles reclusa
ADW: Loxosceles_reclusa
BugGuide: 33493
EoL: 1182604
EPPO: LOXSRE
GBIF: 5170704
iNaturalist: 50181
IRMNG: 10843605
ITIS: 859907
NCBI: 6921
uBio: 6815443
WSC: urn:lsid:nmbe.ch:spidersp:002726
World Spider Catalog: 002726
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Hair dryer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Modern hair dryer
A hair dryer, hairdryer[1] or blow dryer is an electromechanical device that blows ambient or hot air over damp hair to speed the evaporation of water to dry the hair. Blow dryers enable better control over the shape and style of hair, by accelerating and controlling the formation of temporary hydrogen bonds within each strand. These bonds are powerful (allowing stronger hair shaping than the sulfur bonds formed by permanent waving products) but are temporary and extremely vulnerable to humidity. They disappear with a single washing of the hair.
The normal use of a hair dryer
Hairstyles using blow dryers usually have volume and discipline, which can be further improved with styling products and hairbrushes during drying to add tension, hold and lift.
Blow dryers were invented in the late 19th century. The first model was created by Alexander F. "Beau" Godefroy in his salon in France in 1890. The handheld, household hair dryer first appeared in 1920. Blow dryers are used in beauty salons by professional stylists and in the household by consumers.
Contents
[hide]
1 Function
2 Types
3 History
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Function[edit]
An early blow dryer
Most hair dryers consist of electric heating coils and a fan (usually powered by a universal motor). The heating element in most dryers is a bare, coiled nichrome wire that is wrapped around mica insulators. Nichrome is used because of two important properties: It is a poor conductor of electricity and it does not oxidize when heated.[2]
A survey of stores in 2007 showed that most hair dryers had ceramic heating elements (like ceramic heaters), because of their “instant heat” capability. This means that it takes less time for the dryers to heat up and for the hair to dry.[3]
Girl under beauty parlor hair dryer, 1958
Many of these dryers have "normal mode" buttons that turn off the heater and blow room-temperature air while the button is pressed. This function helps to maintain the hairstyle by setting it. The colder air reduces frizz and can help to promote shine in the hair.
Many feature "ionic" operation, to reduce the build-up of static electricity in the hair,[4] though the efficacy of ionic technology is of some debate.[5] Manufacturers claim this makes the hair "smoother". Some stylists[who?] consider the introduction of ionic technology to be one of the most important advances in the beauty industry.[3]
Hair dryers are available with attachments, such as diffusers, airflow concentrators, and comb nozzles.
A diffuser is an attachment that is used on hair that is fine, colored, permed or naturally curly. It diffuses the jet of air, so that the hair is not blown around while it dries. The hair dries more slowly, at a cooler temperature, and with less physical disturbance. This makes it so that the hair is less likely to frizz and it gives the hair more volume.
An airflow concentrator does the opposite of a diffuser. It makes the end of the blow dryer narrower and thus helps to concentrate the heat into one spot to make it dry rapidly.
The comb nozzle attachment is the same as the airflow concentrator, but it ends with comb-like teeth so that the user can dry the hair using the dryer without a brush or comb.
Hair dryers have been cited as an effective treatment for head lice[6] and earwax-prevention.[7]
Types[edit]
Today there are two major types of blow dryers (hair dryers): the handheld and the rigid-hood dryer.
A hood dryer has a hard plastic dome that fits over a person's head to dry their hair. Hot air is blown out through tiny openings around the inside of the dome so the hair is dried evenly. Hood dryers are mainly found in hair salons.[8]
History[edit]
Dryer made by AEG, c. 1920–1925
In 1890 the first hairdryer was invented by French stylist Alexander Godefroy. His invention was a large, seated version that consisted of a bonnet that attached to the chimney pipe of a gas stove. Godefoy invented it for use in his hair salon in France, and it was not portable or handheld. It could only be used by having the person sit underneath it.[9]
Armenian American inventor Gabriel Kazanjian was the first to patent a blow dryer in the United States, in 1911.[10]
Around 1915, hair dryers began to go on the market in handheld form. This was due to innovations by National Stamping and Electricworks under the white cross brand,[11] and later U.S. Racine Universal Motor Company and the Hamilton Beach Co., which allowed the dryer to be small enough to be held by hand. Even in the 1920s, the new dryers were often heavy, weighing in at approximately 2 pounds (0.9 kg), and were difficult to use. They also had many instances of overheating and electrocution. Hair dryers were only capable of using 100 watts, which increased the amount of time needed to dry hair (the average dryer today can use up to 2000 watts of heat).[12]
Since the 1920s, development of the hair dryer has mainly focused on improving the wattage and superficial exterior and material changes. In fact, the mechanism of the dryer has not had any significant changes since its inception. One of the more important changes for the hair dryer is to be made of plastic, so that it is more lightweight. This really caught on in the 1960s with the introduction of better electrical motors and the improvement of plastics. Another important change happened in 1954 when GEC changed the design of the dryer to move the motor inside the casing.[13]
Bonnet hair dryer, 1962
The bonnet dryer was introduced to consumers in 1951. This type worked by having the dryer, usually in a small portable box, connected to a tube that went into a bonnet with holes in it that could be placed on top of a person's head. This worked by giving an even amount of heat to the whole head at once.
The 1950s also saw the introduction of the rigid-hood hair dryer which is the type most frequently seen in salons. It had a hard plastic helmet that wraps around the person's head. This dryer works similarly to the bonnet dryer of the 1950s but at a much higher wattage.[13]
In the 1970s, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission set up guidelines that hair dryers had to meet to be considered safe to manufacture. Since 1991 the CPSC has mandated that all dryers must use a ground fault circuit interrupter so that it cannot electrocute a person if it gets wet.[14] By 2000, deaths by blowdryers had dropped to fewer than four people a year, a stark difference to the hundreds of cases of electrocution accidents during the mid-20th century.
See also[edit]
Curling iron
Heat gun
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "hairdryer noun - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes | Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com". www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com. Retrieved 2018-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Hair Dryer". TheOriginOf.com. 2008-02-16. Retrieved 2015-10-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Kirkland, Kathy (June 2004) "The Big Blow-Dryer Boom", Beauty Story Business
Jump up ^ Krupnick, Ellie (2013-11-05). "9 Ways To Win The War On Static Hair". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2015-10-26.
Jump up ^ "How do "ionic" hair dryers affect the hair, short-term and long term?". UCSB ScienceLine. Retrieved October 26, 2015.
Jump up ^ Goates, B. M.; Atkin, J. S.; Wilding, K. G.; Birch, K. G.; Cottam, M. R.; Bush, S. E.; Clayton, D. H. (2006). "An effective nonchemical treatment for head lice: A lot of hot air". Pediatrics. 118 (5): 1962–70. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-1847. PMID 17079567.
Jump up ^ "Earwax-Prevention". WebMD.
Jump up ^ "What is a hair hood dryer?". WiseGeek. Retrieved 2012-05-24.
Jump up ^ "A Lot of Hot Air". The New York Times. April 27, 2016. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 5, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kazanjiadl "Hair-Drier" U.S. Patent 994,259, assigned on June 6, 1911
Jump up ^ "The Evening Independent - Google News Archive Search". news.google.com. Retrieved 2018-05-23.
Jump up ^ "Hair Dryer". MadeHow.com. Retrieved 2015-10-26.
^ Jump up to: a b Electric Hair Dryers. ntlworld.com
Jump up ^ Toothman, Jessika; Meeker-O'Connell, Ann (2000-12-15). "How Hair Dryers Work". HowStuffWorks.com. Retrieved 2015-10-26.
External links[edit]
Media related to Hairdryers at Wikimedia Commons
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Trinidad and Tobago Police Service
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Trinidad and Tobago Police Service
Abbreviation
T.T.P.S
The Logo of the TTPS
Motto
To Protect and Serve with P.R.I.D.E.
Agency overview
Formed
1592
Employees
6436
Legal personality
Governmental: Government agency
Jurisdictional structure
Size
1,981 square miles (5,130 km2)
Population
1,310,000 (January, 2011)
Legal jurisdiction
Republic of Trinidad and Tobago
General nature
Law enforcement
Civilian police
Operational structure
Headquarters
Police Administration Building, Edward and Sackville Street, Port of Spain
Police Officers
6500
Elected officer responsible
Major General Edmund Dillon (Ret.), Minister of National Security
Agency executive
Stephen Williams, Commissioner of Police (Acting)
Parent agency
Ministry of National Security
Facilities
Police Stations
78
Website
www.ttps.gov.tt
The Trinidad and Tobago Police Service or TTPS is the law enforcement agency of Trinidad and Tobago. It has been in operation for over 200 years.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Uniforms
3 Incidents of Corruption
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History[edit]
San Fernando police headquarter
In 1592 the Spaniards founded the first European settlement, Trinidad's capital town San Jose de Oruna (St Joseph). The Office of the Cabildo or Town Council controlled the Police Force. Duties were restricted to within town. The strength of the Police Force never exceeded six between 1592 and 1792.
After slavery was abolished in 1838, and over 22,000 men and women enjoyed their full civil rights, the responsibility of the police increased and a ‘rural system of police’ had to be established. By the end of 1842 there were twelve police stations and approximately one hundred officers comprising inspectors, sergeants and constables.
In the mid 19th century members of the Metropolitan Police were brought to Trinidad on secondment, thus the Police Force had a very mixed composition as far as racial strains were concerned. During this period the Police Headquarters was housed at the corner of Abercromby and Hart Streets.
The only weapon the policeman carried was his truncheon which was four feet long. Then violence would be met with violence, and a local tradition of the police "beating first and arresting after" was formed. The general pattern of law enforcement in the 1840s was, once arrested the police took the accused to the station or if he was recalcitrant, held him and sent to call the sergeant. All police stations were Courthouses as Magistrates travelled from one Police Station to another. This was until 1844 when trial by jury and the English statutes were introduced into Trinidad.
In 1851 the police was appointed the country's first postmen and mail carriers and the police stations were transformed into Post Offices. The Mounted Branch was established for this purpose. In 1860 the Police Force was relieved of some of these extracurricular duties.
In 1869 an ordinance was initiated for better organisation and discipline of the Police Force. With a more organised Police Force, greater police surveillance of residents was provided. The Police Headquarters at the corner of St. Vincent and Sackville Streets was completed in 1876 housing approximately four hundred and fifty–two (452) men. Over the years the strength increased and other units were established, such as Traffic Branch in 1930 and Special Branch.
By 1955 the need for policewomen to deal with juveniles and female offenders had long been overdue. Under Ordinance No. 6 of 195, twelve female officers were drafted into the Force.
A Commission of Enquiry was appointed by the government to probe the administration and discipline of the Police Service. In 1966 the then Governor General assented to the Police Service Act, which enacted the Police Service Regulation 1965. This Act divided the Service into two divisions - the first and second divisions. It also introduced a change from Police Force to Police Service. This change was not only in name but also in operation. The focus shifted from being a militaristic force to a service-oriented organization. The Police Service subsequently established a mission and vision statement:
By the 1970s the Police Service had grown in strength to 3,399 members and was placed under the portfolio of the Ministry of National Security. Mr. Francis Eustace Bernard was the first local to be appointed Commissioner of Police in 1973.
In 1881 the Police Headquarters was destroyed by fire which was caused by the kerosene oil lighting system. The Police Headquarters was destroyed for a second time in 1990, this time during the attempted coup. A new Police Administration Building was constructed at the corner of Edward and Sackville Streets the following year housing Administrative offices.
During the past two decades the strength of the service has grown to 6436 officers with several new specialist Units being introduced. [1]
Uniforms[edit]
Senior officers wear beige Khaki drill Guayabera shirts and trousers, worn with black Sam Browne Belts
Male officers wear white shirts and black trousers for formal dress
Female officers wear white shirts and black skirts for formal dress
Male officers wear grey shirts with dark blue trousers
Females wear dark blue shirts with skirts worn with black Sam Browne Belts
Tactical officers wear dark blue shirt and trousers or Disruptive Pattern Material
Regular officers and senior officers wear forrige caps
Tactical officers wear Blue caps
Incidents of Corruption[edit]
The Port of Spain Siege on July 14, 2015.
This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (September 2014)
See also[edit]
Crime in Trinidad and Tobago
Jack Ewatski - former Deputy Commissioner of Police (DCP)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.ttps.gov.tt/About-TTPS/Our-History
External links[edit]
Official website
[show]
Links to related articles
[show]
v
t
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Trinidad and Tobago articles
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other territories
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trinidad_and_Tobago_Police_Service&oldid=833982018"
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text:
Gerald's Game
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the film, see Gerald's Game (film).
Gerald's Game
First edition cover
Author
Stephen King
Cover artist
Rob Wood
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre
Suspense
Publisher
Viking
Publication date
May 1992
Media type
Print (Hardcover)
Pages
332
ISBN
978-0-670-84650-4
Gerald's Game is a 1992 suspense novel by Stephen King.[1] The story is about a woman whose husband dies of a heart attack while she is handcuffed to a bed, and, following the subsequent realization that she is trapped with little hope of rescue, begins to let the voices inside her head take over.
The book is dedicated to King's wife Tabitha and her sisters: "This book is dedicated, with love and admiration, to six good women: Margaret Spruce Morehouse, Catherine Spruce Graves, Stephanie Spruce Leonard, Anne Spruce Labree, Tabitha Spruce King, and Marcella Spruce." Originally the book was intended to be a companion piece to King's novel Dolores Claiborne, with the connecting theme of two women in crisis caught in the path of an eclipse, though this aspect was greatly reduced by the time the books were published.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Film adaptation
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Plot[edit]
Jessie Burlingame and her husband Gerald have gone to a secluded cabin in western Maine for an off-beat romantic day off. Gerald, a successful lawyer with an aggressive personality, has been able to reinvigorate the couple's sex life by handcuffing Jessie to the bed. Jessie has enjoyed the game before, but suddenly balks. As Gerald starts to crawl on top of her, knowing her protests are real but ignoring them anyway, she kicks him in the stomach and in the groin. He falls from the bed to the floor, cracks his head, has a heart attack, and dies. Jessie is alone in the cabin, unable to move off the bed, or summon help.
A stray dog named Prince starts feeding on Gerald's body. Jessie is troubled by a terrifying, deformed apparition, whom she mistakes for the ghost of her long-dead father. Jessie begins to think of this visitor as the "Space Cowboy" (after a line from a Steve Miller song, "The Joker"). A combination of panic and thirst causes Jessie to hallucinate. She hears voices in her head, each ostensibly the voice of a person in her life, primarily "The Goodwife" or "Goody Burlingame" (a Puritanical version of Jessie), Ruth Neary (an old college friend), and Nora Callighan (her ex-psychiatrist), neither of whom Jessie has spoken to in years. These voices represent different parts of her personality which help her extract a painful childhood memory she has kept suppressed for many years. She was sexually abused by her father at age ten during a solar eclipse that occurred in her Maine hometown. She also begins to realize how unhappy her marriage had been, and that she sacrificed a potentially happy life for the security of Gerald's paycheck by being a trophy wife without children.
Jessie makes increasingly desperate attempts to escape, first by trying to break the headboard she is cuffed to, then by trying to slip off the bed and push it to the bureau where the keys are placed. One of the voices in her head tells her that if she stays another night, the Space Cowboy will take a part of her to add to its trophy "fishing creel" filled with jewelry and human bones. Jessie escapes the handcuffs by slicing her wrist open on a piece of broken glass, giving herself a degloving injury to lubricate her skin enough for the cuffs to slide off her right hand. She is then able to move behind the bed, push it to the bureau and use one of the keys to unlock her left handcuff. She passes out from blood loss. When she awakens, the Space Cowboy has made his way back into the house. Jessie confronts him and throws her wedding ring at his box of jewelry and bones, thinking that is what he wanted all along, then turns and runs out of the house. She makes it into her car and escapes the house, but is terrified to discover the Space Cowboy sitting in the back seat. Jessie crashes and is knocked unconscious.
Months later, Jessie is recuperating and being looked after by a nurse. An ambitious associate attorney at Gerald's law firm assists her in covering up the incident to protect her and the law firm from scandal, as well as assisting her in her recuperation. Jessie writes to Ruth Neary, detailing what happened after the incident and her recuperation process. She details a serial necrophile and murderer named Raymond Andrew Joubert making his way through Maine; he was the Space Cowboy, confirmed when Jessie confronted him in a court hearing and Joubert mimicked Jessie's arm positions while she was in the handcuffs. He also repeated her frightened exclamations that Joubert was "not anyone," and that he was only "made of moonlight." Jessie also mentions that Prince, having been abandoned, was shot and killed by the police.
Film adaptation[edit]
Main article: Gerald's Game (film)
In May 2014, Deadline.com reported that Mike Flanagan was set to direct a film adaptation.[2] In an interview with Rue Morgue in September 2016, Mike Flanagan said that the film adaptation would premiere on Netflix. He did not state when the film would premiere or whether Stephen King would be involved.[3] In October 2016, Deadline reported that Carla Gugino and Bruce Greenwood will star in the film as Jessie and Gerald Burlingame.[4] On October 17, 2016, Flanagan tweeted indicating the first day of production had begun.[5]
The film premiered on Netflix on September 29, 2017.
See also[edit]
Novels portal
Solar eclipses in fiction
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Doniger, Wendy (August 16, 1992). "Shackled to the Past". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Fleming, Mike (2014-05-19). "Cannes: Stephen King Novel 'Gerald’s Game' To Be Adapted By 'Oculus' Helmer Mike Flanagan And Intrepid Pictures". Deadline.com. Retrieved 2015-02-13.
Jump up ^ "Rue Morgue". Rue Morgue. Retrieved 2016-09-13.
Jump up ^ Fleming, Mike (2016-09-17). "Carla Gugino & Bruce Greenwood Star In Stephen King’s ‘Gerald’s Game’ For Netflix". Deadline.com. Retrieved 2016-09-17.
Jump up ^ @flanaganfilm (17 October 2016). ""Day 1! Off to the races. #geraldsgame"" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
External links[edit]
Gerald's Game on Netflix
[show]
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