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List of worst Major League Baseball season records
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Listed below are the Major League Baseball teams with the worst season won-lost records, as determined by winning percentage (.300 or less), minimum 120 games played.
Contents
[hide]
1 Season records
1.1 1886–1899
1.2 Modern era (1900–present)
2 1898 St. Louis Browns and 1899 Cleveland Spiders
3 Other teams
4 See also
5 References
6 External links and further reading
Season records[edit]
The following teams finished the season with a .300 winning percentage or lower.
Legend
NL = National League
AL = American League
AA = American Association
PL = Players' League
1886–1899[edit]
Season
Franchise
League
Wins
Losses
Pct.
GB
1899 !1899 Cleveland Spiders NL 20 134 .130 84
1890 !1890 Pittsburgh Alleghenys NL 23 113 .169 66.5 !66½
1889 !1889 Louisville Colonels AA 27 111 .196 66.5 !66½
1897 !1897 St. Louis Browns NL 29 102 .221 63.5 !63½
1886 !1886 Washington Nationals NL 28 92 .233 60
1886 !1886 Kansas City Cowboys NL 30 91 .248 58.5 !58½
1898 !1898 St. Louis Browns NL 39 111 .260 63.5 !63½
1895 !1895 Louisville Colonels NL 35 96 .267 52.5 !52½
1890 !1890 Buffalo Bisons PL 36 96 .273 46.5 !46½
1894 !1894 Louisville Colonels NL 36 94 .277 54
1896 !1896 Louisville Colonels NL 38 93 .290 53
1887 Indianapolis !1887 Indianapolis Hoosiers NL 37 89 .294 43
1895 !1895 St. Louis Browns NL 39 93 .295 48.5 !48½
1887 !1887 Cleveland Blues AA 39 92 .298 54
Modern era (1900–present)[edit]
Season
Franchise
League
Wins
Losses
Pct.
GB
1916 !1916 Philadelphia Athletics AL 36 117 .235 54.5 !54½
1935 !1935 Boston Braves NL 38 115 .248 61.5 !61½
1962 !1962 New York Mets NL 40 120 .250 60.5 !60½
1904 !1904 Washington Senators AL 38 113 .252 55.5 !55½
1919 !1919 Philadelphia Athletics AL 36 104 .257 52
2003 !2003 Detroit Tigers AL 43 119 .265 47
1952 !1952 Pittsburgh Pirates NL 42 112 .273 54.5 !54½
1909 Washington !1909 Washington Senators AL 42 110 .276 56
1942 !1942 Philadelphia Phillies NL 42 109 .278 62.5 !62½
1939 !1939 St. Louis Browns AL 43 111 .279 64.5 !64½
1932 !1932 Boston Red Sox AL 43 111 .279 64
1941 !1941 Philadelphia Phillies NL 43 111 .279 57
1915 !1915 Philadelphia Athletics AL 43 109 .283 58.5 !58½
1928 !1928 Philadelphia Phillies NL 43 109 .283 51
1911 Boston !1911 Boston Rustlers NL 44 107 .291 54
1909 Boston !1909 Boston Doves NL 45 108 .294 65.5 !65½
1911 St. Louis !1911 St. Louis Browns AL 45 107 .296 56.5 !56½
1939 Philadelphia !1939 Philadelphia Phillies NL 45 106 .298 50.5 !50½
1937 !1937 St. Louis Browns AL 46 108 .299 56
1945 !1945 Philadelphia Phillies NL 46 108 .299 52
1938 !1938 Philadelphia Phillies NL 45 105 .300 43
1898 St. Louis Browns and 1899 Cleveland Spiders[edit]
The 1899 Cleveland Spiders own the worst single-season record of all time (minimum 120 games) and for all eras, finishing at 20–134 (.130 percentage) in the final year of the National League's 12-team era in the 1890s; for comparison, this projects to 21–141 under the current 162-game schedule, and Pythagorean expectation based on the Spiders' results and the current 162-game schedule predicts a record of 25–137.
The Spiders had a fair amount of success in the 1890s, with seven straight winning seasons from 1892 to 1898 and a Temple Cup victory in 1895. Meanwhile, the once four-time American Association champion St. Louis Browns had fallen to 29–102 in 1897 and to 39–111 (including 19–67 on the road) in 1898. But the Spiders ownership, the Robison brothers, bought the Browns in time for the 1899 season, creating a conflict-of-interest situation which was later outlawed. On the eve of the season, they traded almost all of Cleveland's good players to St. Louis for very little in return, with respectable results for St. Louis and disastrous results for Cleveland.
The 1899 Spiders set the major league record for most consecutive losses in a season (24, from July 26 to September 16), and had six losing streaks of 10 games or more. The Spiders lost 40 of their last 41 games, finishing 84 games behind the 1899 National League champion Brooklyn Dodgers and 35 games behind the second-last-placed Washington Senators. They lost 27 games in September, a record for the most games lost in a month until the 1909 Washington Senators went 5–29 in July. Due to paltry attendances, the Spiders played 112 games on the road, finishing with a road record of 11–101 (the 101 road losses is a record which is unbreakable under the current MLB scheduling rules, which allow a maximum of 81 road games).
The 1899 Browns, renamed the "Perfectos" and staffed with all the best players from the 1898 Spiders (six of the Spiders' eight starting position players and four starting pitchers, including the great Cy Young) improved by 44½ games, from 39–111 to 84–67. However, all St. Louis did ultimately was to trade places with Cleveland in the standings. The Browns/Perfectos were renamed the St. Louis Cardinals in 1900, and are unrelated to the American League St. Louis Browns that adopted the discarded nickname and also appear on this list.
After the 1899 season, the National League contracted from twelve to eight clubs for the 1900 season, with the Spiders, the original Baltimore Orioles, Louisville Colonels (Louisville has never had another major league team since), and the original Washington Senators folding operations. Baltimore had also been stripped of its best players by Brooklyn in 1899, to somewhat less dramatic effect, but still enough to speed their demise. The smaller 1900 National League allowed the Western League to fulfill its dreams of becoming a major league, filling the void in a number of cities by renaming itself the American League in 1900 and declaring itself a major league in 1901.
Other teams[edit]
With shorter schedules before 1886, it was much more common for teams to finish with sub-.300 winning percentages, as there was less of the evening out effect of a longer season.
Four teams have finished with worse overall winning percentages than the 1899 Spiders, but these teams played less than 50 games during their seasons, and in leagues whose status as "major" is questionable.
Three of these occurred in the National Association (the status of the National Association as a major league has long been disputed):
The 1872 Brooklyn Eckfords finished at 3-26 (.103 percentage), which for comparison would project to 17–145 under the current schedule, and Pythagorean expectation based on the Eckfords' results and the current 162-game schedule predicts a record of 19–143.
The 1873 Elizabeth Resolutes finished at 2–21 (.087 percentage), which for comparison would project to 7–155 under the current schedule, and Pythagorean expectation based on the Resolutes' results and the current 162-game schedule predicts a record of 16–146.
The 1875 Brooklyn Atlantics finished at 2–42 (.045 percentage), which for comparison would project to 7–155 under the current schedule, and Pythagorean expectation based on the Atlantics' results and the current 162-game schedule predicts a record of 13–149.
The Wilmington Quicksteps of the 1884 Union Association played only 18 games, finishing with a 2–16 record (.111 percentage) before they dropped out of the Association and folded. For comparison, this projects to 18–144 under the current schedule, and Pythagorean expectation based on the Quicksteps' results and the current 162-game schedule predicts a record of 14–148. However, while the Union Association is conventionally listed as a major league, this status has been questioned due to the league's overall lack of playing talent and poor organizational structure.
Contemporary baseball guides did not consider the Union Association to be a major league, with the earliest record referencing the Union Association as a major league dating to 1922.[1]
The 1890 Alleghenys were gutted before the season when nearly all of their best players defected to the Pittsburgh Burghers of the Players' League. Poor attendances meant that they played 97 of their 136 games on the road, finishing with a road record of 9–88 (the 88 road losses remained a record until 1899, and is unreachable under current MLB scheduling rules). The Alleghenys .093 road winning percentage is the lowest in MLB history for a minimum of 60 games.
The Philadelphia Athletics were a good team in the early 1910s, winning American League pennants in 1913 and 1914 and the World Series in 1913. However, owner-manager Connie Mack felt that he was unable to pay his star players' salaries while the Federal League was in operation, and he sold or traded most of them after the 1914 World Series ended. The Athletics then finished in last place from 1915–1922. In 1916, they went 36–117, including 13–64 on the road. The 1916 Athletics .235 winning percentage is the sixth-lowest of any MLB team and the lowest since 1900.
The 1935 Boston Braves featured Hall of Famers Rabbit Maranville (age 43) and Babe Ruth (age 40). Braves owner Emil Fuchs had promised Ruth an ownership stake in the Braves and a chance to manage the club in the near future, but had little intention of delivering either. Ruth retired on June 1, 1935, having hit .181 in 72 at-bats for the Braves, with six home runs (the last three all coming on the same day, May 25, 1935, at Pittsburgh). Fuchs, who had been plagued by financial problems for a decade, was forced to give up control of the Braves before the end of the season. The Braves' home winning percentage of .167 is the fifth-lowest of any MLB team and the lowest since 1900.
The 1939 Browns drew 386 fans to the park for a 7–4 home loss to Detroit on September 27.[2]
The 1962 New York Mets were an expansion team created to fill the void after the New York Giants and Brooklyn Dodgers left New York City at end of the 1957 season. The Mets, filled with castoffs like "Marvelous" Marv Throneberry as well as aging Hall of Famer Richie Ashburn and low-talent rookies such as Choo-Choo Coleman, finished with the third-worst winning percentage in the modern era and the modern-era record for most losses. The Mets went on to finish last or next-to-last for seven years in a row, before they shocked the baseball world by winning the 1969 World Series.
The 2003 Tigers seemed like a sure bet to break the 1962 Mets' modern record for most losses when they stood at 38–118 after 156 games, but they won five of their last six to avoid ignominy. On September 27, in their penultimate game, the Tigers came back from an 8–0 deficit to beat the Minnesota Twins 9–8 (the Twins, having just clinched the division, were resting their starters).[3] When the Tigers won the season finale to avoid tying the record, they received a standing ovation from the crowd. Mike Maroth, a starting pitcher for the 2003 Detroit Tigers, went 9–21 and became the first pitcher to lose 20 games in a season since Brian Kingman dropped 20 games for the 1980 Oakland Athletics.[4] Ramón Santiago of the Tigers became only the 12th Triple Crown loser (a player who finishes last in all of the three Triple Crown categories) in modern MLB history.[5] One baseball statistician described the Tigers as possibly "the worst team of all time without a good excuse", as virtually every other team on the list had been reduced to minor-league status, plagued by financial problems or was a first-year expansion team.[6]
Three years after losing 119 games, the Detroit Tigers went 95–67 and won their 10th American League pennant, before losing the World Series to the St. Louis Cardinals. Players common to the 2003 and 2006 Tigers teams included Brandon Inge, Ramón Santiago (who spent 2004 and 2005 with the Seattle Mariners), Craig Monroe, Dmitri Young (released in September 2006), Omar Infante, Mike Maroth, Jeremy Bonderman, Nate Robertson, Jamie Walker, Wilfredo Ledezma, and Fernando Rodney.
See also[edit]
Baseball portal
List of best Major League Baseball season won-loss records
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Baseball Prospectus | Unfiltered
Jump up ^ 1939 Browns game log
Jump up ^ September 27, 2003 Minnesota Twins at Detroit Tigers Box Score and Play by Play – Baseball-Reference.com
Jump up ^ Pitchers with 20 or More Losses – Baseball-Reference.com
Jump up ^ The SABR Baseball List and Record Book: Baseball's Most Fascinating Records and Unusual Statistics. Society for American Baseball Research. 2007. p. 141.
Jump up ^ "2003 Detroit Tigers Baseball Graphs Review". BaseballGraphs.com. Retrieved September 26, 2008.
External links and further reading[edit]
Statistics and game logs at Baseball Reference
"The 1899 Cleveland Spiders: Baseball's Worst Team" article by David Fleitz
"Nothing worse than the 1899 Cleveland Spiders" ESPN article by Rob Neyer. Neyer's 10 worst teams of all time.
Neyer, Rob, and Eddie Epstein. Baseball Dynasties: The Greatest Teams of All Time. Norton, 2000, 384 p.
Excerpt from Chapter 8 ("The Worst Teams of All Time") of Neyer and Epstein's Baseball Dynasties.
On a Clear Day They Could See Seventh Place: Baseball's Worst Teams, by George Robinson. Profiles of several of the teams on this list.
MISFITS! Baseball's Worst Ever Team, by J. Thomas Hetrick. About the 1899 Spiders.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_worst_Major_League_Baseball_season_records&oldid=841051940"
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text:
Atomic nucleus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Nuclear physics
Nucleus · Nucleons (p, n) · Nuclear matter · Nuclear force · Nuclear structure · Nuclear reaction
Models of the nucleus[show]
Liquid drop · Nuclear shell model · Interacting boson model · Ab initio
Nuclides' classification[show]
Isotopes – equal Z
Isobars – equal A
Isotones – equal N
Isodiaphers – equal N − Z
Isomers – equal all the above
Mirror nuclei – Z ↔ N
Stable · Magic · Even/odd · Halo
Nuclear stability[show]
Binding energy · p–n ratio · Drip line · Island of stability · Valley of stability
Radioactive decay[show]
Alpha α · Beta β (2β, β+) · K/L capture · Isomeric (Gamma γ · Internal conversion) · Spontaneous fission · Cluster decay · Neutron emission · Proton emission
Decay energy · Decay chain · Decay product · Radiogenic nuclide
Nuclear fission[show]
Spontaneous · Products (pair breaking) · Photofission
Capturing processes[show]
electron · neutron (s · r) · proton (p · rp)
High energy processes[show]
Spallation (by cosmic ray) · Photodisintegration
Nucleosynthesis and
nuclear astrophysics[show]
Nuclear fusion
Processes: Stellar · Big Bang · Supernova
Nuclides: Primordial · Cosmogenic · Artificial
High energy nuclear physics[show]
Quark–gluon plasma · RHIC · LHC
Scientists[show]
Alvarez · Becquerel · Bethe · A.Bohr · N.Bohr · Chadwick · Cockcroft · Ir.Curie · Fr.Curie · Pi.Curie · Skłodowska-Curie · Davisson · Fermi · Hahn · Jensen · Lawrence · Mayer · Meitner · Oliphant · Oppenheimer · Proca · Purcell · Rabi · Rutherford · Soddy · Strassmann · Szilárd · Teller · Thomson · Walton · Wigner
v
t
e
A model of the atomic nucleus showing it as a compact bundle of the two types of nucleons: protons (red) and neutrons (blue). In this diagram, protons and neutrons look like little balls stuck together, but an actual nucleus (as understood by modern nuclear physics) cannot be explained like this, but only by using quantum mechanics. In a nucleus which occupies a certain energy level (for example, the ground state), each nucleon can be said to occupy a range of locations.
The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment. After the discovery of the neutron in 1932, models for a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons were quickly developed by Dmitri Ivanenko[1] and Werner Heisenberg.[2][3][4][5][6] An atom is composed of a positively-charged nucleus, with a cloud of negatively-charged electrons surrounding it, bound together by electrostatic force. Almost all of the mass of an atom is located in the nucleus, with a very small contribution from the electron cloud. Protons and neutrons are bound together to form a nucleus by the nuclear force.
The diameter of the nucleus is in the range of 6985175659999999999♠1.7566 fm (6985175659999999999♠1.7566×10−15 m) for hydrogen (the diameter of a single proton) to about 6986117142000000000♠11.7142 fm for the heaviest atom uranium[7]. These dimensions are much smaller than the diameter of the atom itself (nucleus + electron cloud), by a factor of about 26,634 (uranium atomic radius is about 6990156000000000000♠156 pm (6990156000000000000♠156×10−12 m))[8] to about 60,250 (hydrogen atomic radius is about 6989529200000000000♠52.92 pm)[a].
The branch of physics concerned with the study and understanding of the atomic nucleus, including its composition and the forces which bind it together, is called nuclear physics.
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
1.1 History
1.2 Etymology
1.3 Nuclear makeup
2 Composition and shape
3 Forces
4 Halo nuclei and strong force range limits
5 Nuclear models
5.1 Liquid drop model
5.2 Shell models and other quantum models
5.3 Consistency between models
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Introduction[edit]
History[edit]
Main article: Rutherford model
The nucleus was discovered in 1911, as a result of Ernest Rutherford's efforts to test Thomson's "plum pudding model" of the atom.[9] The electron had already been discovered earlier by J.J. Thomson himself. Knowing that atoms are electrically neutral, Thomson postulated that there must be a positive charge as well. In his plum pudding model, Thomson suggested that an atom consisted of negative electrons randomly scattered within a sphere of positive charge. Ernest Rutherford later devised an experiment with his research partner Hans Geiger and with help of Ernest Marsden, that involved the deflection of alpha particles (helium nuclei) directed at a thin sheet of metal foil. He reasoned that if Thomson's model were correct, the positively charged alpha particles would easily pass through the foil with very little deviation in their paths, as the foil should act as electrically neutral if the negative and positive charges are so intimately mixed as to make it appear neutral. To his surprise, many of the particles were deflected at very large angles. Because the mass of an alpha particle is about 8000 times that of an electron, it became apparent that a very strong force must be present if it could deflect the massive and fast moving alpha particles. He realized that the plum pudding model could not be accurate and that the deflections of the alpha particles could only be explained if the positive and negative charges were separated from each other and that the mass of the atom was a concentrated point of positive charge. This justified the idea of a nuclear atom with a dense center of positive charge and mass.
Etymology[edit]
The term nucleus is from the Latin word nucleus, a diminutive of nux ("nut"), meaning the kernel (i.e., the "small nut") inside a watery type of fruit (like a peach). In 1844, Michael Faraday used the term to refer to the "central point of an atom". The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912.[10] The adoption of the term "nucleus" to atomic theory, however, was not immediate. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis stated, in his famous article The Atom and the Molecule, that "the atom is composed of the kernel and an outer atom or shell"[11]
Nuclear makeup[edit]
A figurative depiction of the helium-4 atom with the electron cloud in shades of gray. In the nucleus, the two protons and two neutrons are depicted in red and blue. This depiction shows the particles as separate, whereas in an actual helium atom, the protons are superimposed in space and most likely found at the very center of the nucleus, and the same is true of the two neutrons. Thus, all four particles are most likely found in exactly the same space, at the central point. Classical images of separate particles fail to model known charge distributions in very small nuclei. A more accurate image is that the spatial distribution of nucleons in a helium nucleus is much closer to the helium electron cloud shown here, although on a far smaller scale, than to the fanciful nucleus image.
The nucleus of an atom consists of neutrons and protons, which in turn are the manifestation of more elementary particles, called quarks, that are held in association by the nuclear strong force in certain stable combinations of hadrons, called baryons. The nuclear strong force extends far enough from each baryon so as to bind the neutrons and protons together against the repulsive electrical force between the positively charged protons. The nuclear strong force has a very short range, and essentially drops to zero just beyond the edge of the nucleus. The collective action of the positively charged nucleus is to hold the electrically negative charged electrons in their orbits about the nucleus. The collection of negatively charged electrons orbiting the nucleus display an affinity for certain configurations and numbers of electrons that make their orbits stable. Which chemical element an atom represents is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus; the neutral atom will have an equal number of electrons orbiting that nucleus. Individual chemical elements can create more stable electron configurations by combining to share their electrons. It is that sharing of electrons to create stable electronic orbits about the nucleus that appears to us as the chemistry of our macro world.
Protons define the entire charge of a nucleus, and hence its chemical identity. Neutrons are electrically neutral, but contribute to the mass of a nucleus to nearly the same extent as the protons. Neutrons can explain the phenomenon of isotopes (same atomic number with different atomic mass.) The main role of neutrons is to reduce electrostatic repulsion inside the nucleus.
Composition and shape[edit]
Protons and neutrons are fermions, with different values of the strong isospin quantum number, so two protons and two neutrons can share the same space wave function since they are not identical quantum entities. They are sometimes viewed as two different quantum states of the same particle, the nucleon.[12][13] Two fermions, such as two protons, or two neutrons, or a proton + neutron (the deuteron) can exhibit bosonic behavior when they become loosely bound in pairs, which have integral spin.
In the rare case of a hypernucleus, a third baryon called a hyperon, containing one or more strange quarks and/or other unusual quark(s), can also share the wave function. However, this type of nucleus is extremely unstable and not found on Earth except in high energy physics experiments.
The neutron has a positively charged core of radius ≈ 0.3 fm surrounded by a compensating negative charge of radius between 0.3 fm and 2 fm. The proton has an approximately exponentially decaying positive charge distribution with a mean square radius of about 0.8 fm.[14]
Nuclei can be spherical, rugby ball-shaped (prolate deformation), discus-shaped (oblate deformation), triaxial (a combination of oblate and prolate deformation) or pear-shaped.[15][16]
Forces[edit]
Nuclei are bound together by the residual strong force (nuclear force). The residual strong force is a minor residuum of the strong interaction which binds quarks together to form protons and neutrons. This force is much weaker between neutrons and protons because it is mostly neutralized within them, in the same way that electromagnetic forces between neutral atoms (such as van der Waals forces that act between two inert gas atoms) are much weaker than the electromagnetic forces that hold the parts of the atoms together internally (for example, the forces that hold the electrons in an inert gas atom bound to its nucleus).
The nuclear force is highly attractive at the distance of typical nucleon separation, and this overwhelms the repulsion between protons due to the electromagnetic force, thus allowing nuclei to exist. However, the residual strong force has a limited range because it decays quickly with distance (see Yukawa potential); thus only nuclei smaller than a certain size can be completely stable. The largest known completely stable nucleus (i.e. stable to alpha, beta, and gamma decay) is lead-208 which contains a total of 208 nucleons (126 neutrons and 82 protons). Nuclei larger than this maximum are unstable and tend to be increasingly short-lived with larger numbers of nucleons. However, bismuth-209 is also stable to beta decay and has the longest half-life to alpha decay of any known isotope, estimated at a billion times longer than the age of the universe.
The residual strong force is effective over a very short range (usually only a few femtometres (fm); roughly one or two nucleon diameters) and causes an attraction between any pair of nucleons. For example, between protons and neutrons to form [NP] deuteron, and also between protons and protons, and neutrons and neutrons.
Halo nuclei and strong force range limits[edit]
The effective absolute limit of the range of the strong force is represented by halo nuclei such as lithium-11 or boron-14, in which dineutrons, or other collections of neutrons, orbit at distances of about 6986100000000000000♠10 fm (roughly similar to the 6985800000000000000♠8 fm radius of the nucleus of uranium-238). These nuclei are not maximally dense. Halo nuclei form at the extreme edges of the chart of the nuclides—the neutron drip line and proton drip line—and are all unstable with short half-lives, measured in milliseconds; for example, lithium-11 has a half-life of 6997880000000000000♠8.8 ms.
Halos in effect represent an excited state with nucleons in an outer quantum shell which has unfilled energy levels "below" it (both in terms of radius and energy). The halo may be made of either neutrons [NN, NNN] or protons [PP, PPP]. Nuclei which have a single neutron halo include 11Be and 19C. A two-neutron halo is exhibited by 6He, 11Li, 17B, 19B and 22C. Two-neutron halo nuclei break into three fragments, never two, and are called Borromean nuclei because of this behavior (referring to a system of three interlocked rings in which breaking any ring frees both of the others). 8He and 14Be both exhibit a four-neutron halo. Nuclei which have a proton halo include 8B and 26P. A two-proton halo is exhibited by 17Ne and 27S. Proton halos are expected to be more rare and unstable than the neutron examples, because of the repulsive electromagnetic forces of the excess proton(s).
Nuclear models[edit]
Main article: nuclear structure
Although the standard model of physics is widely believed to completely describe the composition and behavior of the nucleus, generating predictions from theory is much more difficult than for most other areas of particle physics. This is due to two reasons:
In principle, the physics within a nucleus can be derived entirely from quantum chromodynamics (QCD). In practice however, current computational and mathematical approaches for solving QCD in low-energy systems such as the nuclei are extremely limited. This is due to the phase transition that occurs between high-energy quark matter and low-energy hadronic matter, which renders perturbative techniques unusable, making it difficult to construct an accurate QCD-derived model of the forces between nucleons. Current approaches are limited to either phenomenological models such as the Argonne v18 potential or chiral effective field theory.[17]
Even if the nuclear force is well constrained, a significant amount of computational power is required to accurately compute the properties of nuclei ab initio. Developments in many-body theory have made this possible for many low mass and relatively stable nuclei, but further improvements in both computational power and mathematical approaches are required before heavy nuclei or highly unstable nuclei can be tackled.
Historically, experiments have been compared to relatively crude models that are necessarily imperfect. None of these models can completely explain experimental data on nuclear structure.[18]
The nuclear radius (R) is considered to be one of the basic quantities that any model must predict. For stable nuclei (not halo nuclei or other unstable distorted nuclei) the nuclear radius is roughly proportional to the cube root of the mass number (A) of the nucleus, and particularly in nuclei containing many nucleons, as they arrange in more spherical configurations:
The stable nucleus has approximately a constant density and therefore the nuclear radius R can be approximated by the following formula,
R = r 0 A 1 / 3 {\displaystyle R=r_{0}A^{1/3}\,}
where A = Atomic mass number (the number of protons Z, plus the number of neutrons N) and r0 = 1.25 fm = 1.25 × 10−15 m. In this equation, the "constant" r0 varies by 0.2 fm, depending on the nucleus in question, but this is less than 20% change from a constant.[19]
In other words, packing protons and neutrons in the nucleus gives approximately the same total size result as packing hard spheres of a constant size (like marbles) into a tight spherical or almost spherical bag (some stable nuclei are not quite spherical, but are known to be prolate).[20]
Models of nuclear structure include :
Liquid drop model[edit]
Main article: Semi-empirical mass formula
Early models of the nucleus viewed the nucleus as a rotating liquid drop. In this model, the trade-off of long-range electromagnetic forces and relatively short-range nuclear forces, together cause behavior which resembled surface tension forces in liquid drops of different sizes. This formula is successful at explaining many important phenomena of nuclei, such as their changing amounts of binding energy as their size and composition changes (see semi-empirical mass formula), but it does not explain the special stability which occurs when nuclei have special "magic numbers" of protons or neutrons.
The terms in the semi-empirical mass formula, which can be used to approximate the binding energy of many nuclei, are considered as the sum of five types of energies (see below). Then the picture of a nucleus as a drop of incompressible liquid roughly accounts for the observed variation of binding energy of the nucleus:
Volume energy. When an assembly of nucleons of the same size is packed together into the smallest volume, each interior nucleon has a certain number of other nucleons in contact with it. So, this nuclear energy is proportional to the volume.
Surface energy. A nucleon at the surface of a nucleus interacts with fewer other nucleons than one in the interior of the nucleus and hence its binding energy is less. This surface energy term takes that into account and is therefore negative and is proportional to the surface area.
Coulomb Energy. The electric repulsion between each pair of protons in a nucleus contributes toward decreasing its binding energy.
Asymmetry energy (also called Pauli Energy). An energy associated with the Pauli exclusion principle. Were it not for the Coulomb energy, the most stable form of nuclear matter would have the same number of neutrons as protons, since unequal numbers of neutrons and protons imply filling higher energy levels for one type of particle, while leaving lower energy levels vacant for the other type.
Pairing energy. An energy which is a correction term that arises from the tendency of proton pairs and neutron pairs to occur. An even number of particles is more stable than an odd number.
Shell models and other quantum models[edit]
Main article: Nuclear shell model
A number of models for the nucleus have also been proposed in which nucleons occupy orbitals, much like the atomic orbitals in atomic physics theory. These wave models imagine nucleons to be either sizeless point particles in potential wells, or else probability waves as in the "optical model", frictionlessly orbiting at high speed in potential wells.
In the above models, the nucleons may occupy orbitals in pairs, due to being fermions, which allows explanation of even/odd Z and N effects well-known from experiments. The exact nature and capacity of nuclear shells differs from those of electrons in atomic orbitals, primarily because the potential well in which the nucleons move (especially in larger nuclei) is quite different from the central electromagnetic potential well which binds electrons in atoms. Some resemblance to atomic orbital models may be seen in a small atomic nucleus like that of helium-4, in which the two protons and two neutrons separately occupy 1s orbitals analogous to the 1s orbital for the two electrons in the helium atom, and achieve unusual stability for the same reason. Nuclei with 5 nucleons are all extremely unstable and short-lived, yet, helium-3, with 3 nucleons, is very stable even with lack of a closed 1s orbital shell. Another nucleus with 3 nucleons, the triton hydrogen-3 is unstable and will decay into helium-3 when isolated. Weak nuclear stability with 2 nucleons {NP} in the 1s orbital is found in the deuteron hydrogen-2, with only one nucleon in each of the proton and neutron potential wells. While each nucleon is a fermion, the {NP} deuteron is a boson and thus does not follow Pauli Exclusion for close packing within shells. Lithium-6 with 6 nucleons is highly stable without a closed second 1p shell orbital. For light nuclei with total nucleon numbers 1 to 6 only those with 5 do not show some evidence of stability. Observations of beta-stability of light nuclei outside closed shells indicate that nuclear stability is much more complex than simple closure of shell orbitals with magic numbers of protons and neutrons.
For larger nuclei, the shells occupied by nucleons begin to differ significantly from electron shells, but nevertheless, present nuclear theory does predict the magic numbers of filled nuclear shells for both protons and neutrons. The closure of the stable shells predicts unusually stable configurations, analogous to the noble group of nearly-inert gases in chemistry. An example is the stability of the closed shell of 50 protons, which allows tin to have 10 stable isotopes, more than any other element. Similarly, the distance from shell-closure explains the unusual instability of isotopes which have far from stable numbers of these particles, such as the radioactive elements 43 (technetium) and 61 (promethium), each of which is preceded and followed by 17 or more stable elements.
There are however problems with the shell model when an attempt is made to account for nuclear properties well away from closed shells. This has led to complex post hoc distortions of the shape of the potential well to fit experimental data, but the question remains whether these mathematical manipulations actually correspond to the spatial deformations in real nuclei. Problems with the shell model have led some to propose realistic two-body and three-body nuclear force effects involving nucleon clusters and then build the nucleus on this basis. Three such cluster models are the 1936 Resonating Group Structure model of John Wheeler, Close-Packed Spheron Model of Linus Pauling and the 2D Ising Model of MacGregor.[18]
Consistency between models[edit]
Main article: Nuclear structure
As with the case of superfluid liquid helium, atomic nuclei are an example of a state in which both (1) "ordinary" particle physical rules for volume and (2) non-intuitive quantum mechanical rules for a wave-like nature apply. In superfluid helium, the helium atoms have volume, and essentially "touch" each other, yet at the same time exhibit strange bulk properties, consistent with a Bose–Einstein condensation. The nucleons in atomic nuclei also exhibit a wave-like nature and lack standard fluid properties, such as friction. For nuclei made of hadrons which are fermions, Bose-Einstein condensation does not occur, yet nevertheless, many nuclear properties can only be explained similarly by a combination of properties of particles with volume, in addition to the frictionless motion characteristic of the wave-like behavior of objects trapped in Erwin Schrödinger's quantum orbitals.
See also[edit]
Giant resonance
List of particles
James Rainwater, modelled non-spherical nuclei
Nuclear medicine
Radioactivity
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ 26,634 derives from 7000200000000000000♠2 x 6990156000000000000♠156 pm / 6986117142000000000♠11.7142 fm; 60,250 derives from 7000200000000000000♠2 x 6989529200000000000♠52.92 pm / 6985171660000000000♠1.7166 fm
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Iwanenko, D.D. (1932). "The neutron hypothesis". Nature. 129 (3265): 798. Bibcode:1932Natur.129..798I. doi:10.1038/129798d0.
Jump up ^ Heisenberg, W. (1932). "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. I". Z. Phys. 77: 1–11. Bibcode:1932ZPhy...77....1H. doi:10.1007/BF01342433.
Jump up ^ Heisenberg, W. (1932). "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. II". Z. Phys. 78 (3–4): 156–164. Bibcode:1932ZPhy...78..156H. doi:10.1007/BF01337585.
Jump up ^ Heisenberg, W. (1933). "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. III". Z. Phys. 80 (9–10): 587–596. Bibcode:1933ZPhy...80..587H. doi:10.1007/BF01335696.
Jump up ^ Miller A. I. Early Quantum Electrodynamics: A Sourcebook, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995, ISBN 0521568919, pp. 84–88.
Jump up ^ Fernandez, Bernard & Ripka, Georges (2012). "Nuclear Theory After the Discovery of the Neutron". Unravelling the Mystery of the Atomic Nucleus: A Sixty Year Journey 1896 — 1956. Springer. p. 263. ISBN 9781461441809.
Jump up ^ Angeli, I., Marinova, K.P. (January 10, 2013). "Table of experimental nuclear ground state charge radii: An update". Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables. doi:10.1016/j.adt.2011.12.006. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ [http://www.idc-online.com/technical_references/pdfs/chemical_engineering/Uranium.pdf "Uranium" IDC Technologies.
Jump up ^ "The Rutherford Experiment". Rutgers University. Archived from the original on November 14, 2001. Retrieved February 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Harper, D. "Nucleus". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2010-03-06.
Jump up ^ Lewis, G.N. (1916). "The Atom and the Molecule". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 38 (4): 4. doi:10.1021/ja02261a002.
Jump up ^ Sitenko, A.G. & Tartakovskiĭ, V.K. (1997). Theory of Nucleus: Nuclear Structure and Nuclear Interaction. Kluwer Academic. p. 3. ISBN 0-7923-4423-5.
Jump up ^ Srednicki, M.A. (2007). Quantum Field Theory. Cambridge University Press. pp. 522–523. ISBN 978-0-521-86449-7.
Jump up ^ Basdevant, J.-L.; Rich, J. & Spiro, M. (2005). Fundamentals in Nuclear Physics. Springer. p. 155. ISBN 0-387-01672-4.
Jump up ^ Battersby, Stephen. "Pear-shaped nucleus boosts search for new physics". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2013.12952. Retrieved 23 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Gaffney, L. P.; Butler, P A; Scheck, M; Hayes, A B; Wenander, F; et al. (2013). "Studies of pear-shaped nuclei using accelerated radioactive beams". Nature. Nature Publishing Group. 497 (7448): 199–204. Bibcode:2013Natur.497..199G. doi:10.1038/nature12073. ISSN 0028-0836. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 9, 2013.
Jump up ^ Machleidt, R.; Entem, D.R. (2011). "Chiral effective field theory and nuclear forces". Physics Reports. 503 (1): 1–75. arXiv:1105.2919v1  . Bibcode:2011PhR...503....1M. doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2011.02.001.
^ Jump up to: a b Cook, N.D. (2010). Models of the Atomic Nucleus (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 57 ff. ISBN 978-3-642-14736-4.
Jump up ^ Krane, K.S. (1987). Introductory Nuclear Physics. Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-80553-X.
Jump up ^ Serway, Raymond; Vuille, Chris; Faughn, Jerry (2009). College Physics (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. p. 915. ISBN 9780495386933.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Atomic nucleus
The Nucleus – a chapter from an online textbook
The LIVEChart of Nuclides – IAEA in Java or HTML
Article on the "nuclear shell model," giving nuclear shell filling for the various elements. Accessed Sept. 16, 2009.
Timeline: Subatomic Concepts, Nuclear Science & Technology.
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text:
C.J. Garrison
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C.J. Garrison
Mick Cain as C.J. Garrison
The Bold and the Beautiful character
Portrayed by
Michelle Heap (1991)
Tyler and Jacob DeHaven (1991–93)
Taylor Joseph Robinson (1993–94)
Kevin and Christopher Graves (1994–95)
Kyle Sabihy (1995–97)
Mick Cain (1997–)
Duration
1991–2004
2007
2010
2017–
First appearance
October 29, 1991 (1991-10-29)
Created by
William J. Bell
Classification
Present, recurring
Profile
Other names
Clarke Garrison, Jr.
Occupation
Owner of Insomnia Café chain
[show]Family
Parents
Clarke Garrison
Sally Spectra
Siblings
Macy Alexander
Mark MacClaine
Darla Einstein
Spouse
Becky Moore
Aunts and uncles
Shirley Spectra
Nieces and nephews
Aly Forrester
Other relatives
Sally Spectra
Coco Spectra
C.J. Garrison is a fictional character in the American soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful, portrayed by Mick Cain from December 1997 to January 2001, July 2002 to August 2003, returning briefly in 2004, 2007, 2010 and 2017.
Storyline[edit]
Clarke Jr. was born to Sally Spectra (played by Darlene Conley) and Clarke Garrison (Daniel McVicar). Not long after C.J.'s birth, Clarke left town. C.J. grew into a disobedient child in his early teens, having a cynical view on the world and starting a food fight with Brooke Logan Forrester (Katherine Kelly Lang) and Eric Forrester's (John McCook) son, Rick, who was close to C.J.'s age. His father returned in 1996 and C.J. was initially resentful of Clarke until Clarke rescued him from kidnappers.
A few years later in December 1997, C.J. and Rick (then played by Jacob Young) were closer to friends than enemies. They both pursued Rick's babysitter, seductress Amber Moore (Adrienne Frantz), which led to a drag race that nearly killed Rick. CJ spent most of 1998 and 1999 as Amber's shoulder to cry on as she became pregnant and married Rick. He also developed a crush on Kimberly Fairchild (Ashley Lyn Cafagna). They went on a few dates but she was more interested in Rick (then played by Justin Torkildsen).
Around this time, Forrester Creations and Spectra Fashions were in a heated conflict over the latest fashion show. C.J. planned to sabotage the model wearing Forrester's final outfit of the night, the showstopper. Unbeknownst to him, this was Kimberly. The lower half of her dress was ripped off by a nail, leaving her in her panties in front of dozens of the press. C.J. was guilt-ridden, but the truth never came out.
Amber was in the middle of a very complicated web of lies about the paternity of her son. The baby's natural mother, her cousin Becky Moore (Marissa Tait), had just arrived in town. To keep her busy, Amber set her up with C.J. On that first date, they made out, but it never amounted to anything.
Months later, Becky had shed her white trash roots for a makeover, as well as getting her son back from Amber, C.J. spent a great deal of time with her. They fell in love quickly, their relationship helping C.J. make the final transition from wisecracking boy to mature, thoughtful man. Unfortunately, Becky was dying of pancreatic cancer. Amber tried to keep the cancer a secret from Becky and everyone else, but broke down and eventually told C.J. Instead of telling her, he proposed marriage, wanting to make her final weeks happy. Becky learned of her cancer minutes before the wedding, but married CJ anyway. She died soon after, at peace, surrounded by her family and friends. Becky wanted C.J. to raise her son, Eric Jr., with Amber. C.J. and Amber shared an apartment. Around this time, C.J.'s sister Macy (Bobbie Eakes) died in a car explosion; he blamed Thorne for her death. Macy left her brother her coffee house, Insomnia.
Shortly after Macy's death, Amber had a party at their apartment and she and C.J. were mistakenly arrested for drug possession. Child Protective Services took the baby away, letting the child live with Rick. The Forresters got a court order to force Amber and Eric Jr. to move moved in with them. Amber persuaded them to let C.J. move in as well. C.J. won temporary custody, allowing the three to move back to their old apartment. He and Amber made plans to marry, since he had fallen in love with her and she admitted to having feelings for him.
The Forresters were desperate to stop the wedding so Rick could be with Amber and raise Eric Jr. They managed to track down Deacon Sharpe (Sean Kanan), Eric Jr.'s biological father, who then interrupted the ceremony to announce that Eric Jr. was his son.
While C.J. believed he and Amber still had a future together, Rick and Stephanie (Susan Flannery) repeatedly urged Amber to realize her best chance for custody was with Rick, that she still had feelings for Rick. Finally, a few weeks later, Amber agreed to move back in with Rick. She told C.J. before a surprise romantic dinner he'd planned for them at Insomnia. C.J. was devastated. With Eric Jr. already being fought over by two fathers, C.J. was forgotten about, and immediately faded into the background.
C.J. came back to town in Spring 2002, with a huge chip on his shoulder for everyone, especially the Forresters. He also began running the coffee shop, Insomnia, again. He was very mean to Bridget Forrester (then played by Jennifer Finnigan), his old friend, when she came into Insomnia looking for a job. Bridget eventually wore C.J. down until he became nice to her and he eventually offered her a place to stay, in the apartment right next to his.
Bridget and C.J. began dating, but not seriously. CJ was very supportive when Bridget started pre-med training. It was there she met Dr. Mark MacClaine (Michael Dietz), her med school mentor. C.J. immediately became jealous of Mark, sensing that Mark had intentions regarding Bridget. After a few months, Mark resigned as Bridget's mentor and began to date her. C.J. was furious to learn from Clarke that Mark was his long-lost half brother.
C.J. again faded into the background, returning briefly in 2004 for his friend Darla's (Schae Harrison) wedding in June and to lend some relationship advice to old friend Amber Moore in September.
In February 2007, C.J. returned to Los Angeles to MC a karaoke night at his café Insomnia and visit his mother Sally, who was not well. Evidently by that time he had resolved his differences with Rick (now played by Kyle Lowder), as the two were friendly toward one another. Later that year, C.J. and his father Clarke, assisted Sally sell Spectra Fashions to Jacqueline Marone. It was revealed that the company now running Spectra had filed for bankruptcy and the title had reverted to Sally, who was now living in France, not wishing to return to Los Angeles. Jackie renamed the company "M. Fashions", hiring Clarke as head designer and returning it to a knock-off firm.
C.J.'s last appearance to date was December 2010, revealing that he now resides in San Francisco. C.J. had returned to close down his Insomnia café as the distance from San Francisco to Los Angeles was proving difficult. He stated his mother was sailing around the Caribbean Islands with a number of body builders and there was no longer reason for him to visit Los Angeles. Stephanie Forrester purchased Insomnia from C.J. and asked friend Dayzee Leigh if she'd like to run the café and offer employment to the homeless.
[show]
v
t
e
The Bold and the Beautiful
Current characters
Maya Avant
Nicole Avant
Sheila Carter
Zende Dominguez
Pamela Douglas
Eric Forrester
Ivy Forrester
Rick Forrester
Ridge Forrester
R.J. Forrester
Steffy Forrester
Thomas Forrester
Quinn Fuller
Brooke Logan
Katie Logan
Coco Spectra
Sally Spectra
Bill Spencer
Caroline Spencer
Liam Spencer
Wyatt Spencer
Recurring characters
Alison Montgomery
Justin Barber
Bradley Baker
Julius Avant
Vivienne Avant
Sally Spectra
Shirley Spectra
Saul Feinberg
Bridget Forrester
Thorne Forrester
C.J. Garrison
Taylor Hayes
Donna Logan
Hope Logan
Oliver Jones
Sasha Thompson
Carter Walton
James Warwick
Charlie Webber
John Forrester
Jarrett Maxwell
Will Spencer
Eva
Charlotte
Darlita
Notable previous
characters
Ashley Abbott
Adam Alexander
Macy Alexander
Morgan DeWitt
Deveney Dixon
Dante Damiano
Antonio Dominguez
Kimberly Fairchild
Lauren Fenmore
Aly Forrester
Caroline Spencer
Darla Einstein
Margo Lynley
Dayzee Leigh
Marcus Forrester
Maggie Forrester
Jessica Forrester
Felicia Forrester
Kristen Forrester
Phoebe Forrester
Stephanie Forrester
Clarke Garrison
Agnes Jones
Whipple Jones
Owen Knight
Beth Logan
Stephen Logan
Storm Logan
Mark Maclaine
Massimo Marone
Jackie Marone
Nick Marone
Oscar Marone
Amber Moore
Deacon Sharpe
Bill Spencer
Karen Spencer
Danielle Spencer
Production crew
Executive Producer
Bradley Bell
Head Writers
Bradley Bell
Michael Minnis
Creators
William J. Bell and Lee Phillip Bell
Related articles
Cast members
Crew
Characters
Forrester Creations
Jackie M Designs
Spencer Publications
Forrester family
Logan family
Marone family
The Young and the Restless
[show]
v
t
e
The Spectra family in The Bold and the Beautiful
Main characters
Sally Spectra
Macy Alexander Sharpe
C.J. Garrison
Darla Forrester
Alexandria Forrester
Sally Spectra
Coco Spectra
Shirley Spectra
Spouses:
Adam Alexander
Clarke Garrison
Thorne Forrester
Grant Chambers
Lorenzo Barelli
Deacon Sharpe
Becky Moore
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=C.J._Garrison&oldid=768679127"
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