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Esquire
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This article is about the modern informal, non-royally awarded title. For other uses, see Esquire (disambiguation). For the feudal title, see Squire.
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Esquire (/ɪˈskwaɪər/,[1] US also /ˈɛskwaɪər/;[2] abbreviated Esq.)[3] is usually a courtesy title.
In the United Kingdom, Esquire historically was a title of respect accorded to men of higher social rank, particularly members of the landed gentry above the rank of gentleman and below the rank of knight. In 1826, William Blackstone reiterated that, "the title should be limited to those only who bear an office of trust under the Crown and who are styled esquires by the king in their commissions and appointments; and all, I conceive, who are once honoured by the king with the title of esquire have a right to that distinction for life."[4][5]
By the early 20th century, it came to be used as a general courtesy title for any man in a formal setting, usually as a suffix to his name, as in "Todd Smith, Esq.", with no precise significance. In the United Kingdom today, it is still occasionally used as a written style of address in formal or professional correspondence.[6][7] In certain formal contexts, it remains an indication of a social status that is recognised in the formal Order of Precedence.[8]
In the United States, Esquire is mostly used to denote a lawyer, in a departure from traditional use, and is irrespective of gender. In letters, a lawyer is customarily addressed by adding the suffix Esquire (abbreviated Esq.), preceded by a comma, after the lawyer's full name.[9]
Contents
1 History
1.1 Defined in 1586 by Fearn
1.2 Defined by Camden (d.1623)
1.3 Defined by Weever (d.1632)
1.4 Defined in 1830 by Burn, Chitty & Black
1.5 Defined by Boutell (d.1877)
1.6 Defined in 1894 by James Parker
1.7 Modern definition
1.8 Misuse
1.9 Other criteria
2 Modern British usage
2.1 In Scotland
3 Usage in the United States
3.1 In the legal profession
3.2 Diplomatic use
3.3 In fraternal groups
3.4 Use of honorifics and post-nominals
4 Usage in India
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Chief Justice Coke (1552–1634) defined "gentlemen" as those who bear coat armour. From the 16th century such families were defined by the inclusion of their pedigrees within their county's Heraldic Visitations, which necessitated their submitting a return of their pedigree to the visiting herald at the specified location, generally one of the chief towns of the county. The 1623 Heraldic Visitation for Gloucestershire, for example, includes a section at the back headed:[10] "A note of such as were disclaymed to be no gentilmen within the county and city of Gloucester", the list being headed by "Edward Hill, Customer, of Gloucester, neither gentilman of bloud, ancestry nor armes". The list thus identifies those persons whose returns were not accepted, perhaps because fabricated or insufficiently evidenced in some way.
Defined in 1586 by Fearn[edit]
Sir John Fearn in "Glory of Generositie" spoke of esquires by creation, birth, dignity and office, specifying several circumstances that customarily conferred the title.[11]
Offices of justice or government in the King's palace
Advocates and procurators of the sovereign
Sergeants at the coif
Offices of sheriff, escheator or serjeant at arms
Eldest born of a baron peer of the realm or that of a knight
Defined by Camden (d.1623)[edit]
Coke followed Sir William Camden, Clarenceux King of Arms (1551–1623), who defined esquires as:
the eldest sons of knights and their eldest sons in perpetuity,
the eldest sons of younger sons of peers and their eldest sons in perpetuity,
esquires so created by the king,
esquires by office, such as justices of the peace and those holding an office of trust under the crown.[12]
Defined by Weever (d.1632)[edit]
John Weever (d.1632) identified five categories of esquires:[13]
"Those who are elect for the prince's body", which he classed as the principal esquires. These were royal courtiers known as Esquires of the Body
Knights' eldest sons
Younger sons of the eldest sons of barons and other nobles of higher estate
White Spurs, a form mainly restricted to West country usage
Those who are so by office and by serving the prince in any worshipful calling
Defined in 1830 by Burn, Chitty & Black[edit]
According to one typical definition,[14][15] esquires in English law included:
The eldest sons of knights, and their eldest sons in perpetual succession
The eldest sons of younger sons of peers, and their eldest sons in perpetual succession (children of peers already had higher precedence)
Esquires created by letters patent or other investiture, and their eldest sons
Esquires by virtue of their offices, as Justices of the Peace and others who bear any office of trust under the Crown
Esquires of knights constituted at their investiture
Foreign noblemen
Persons who are so styled under the Royal sign manual (officers of the Armed Forces of or above the rank of Captain in the Army or its equivalent) and sons thereof.
Barristers (but not Solicitors)
Defined by Boutell (d.1877)[edit]
Charles Boutell (1812–1877)[16] defined the term as
Esquire – A rank next below that of Knight. Besides those Esquires who are personal attendants of Knights of Orders of Knighthood, this title is held by all attendants on the person of the Sovereign, and all persons holding the Sovereign's commission being of military rank not below Captain; also, by general concession, by Barristers at Law, Masters of Arts and Bachelors of Law and Physic.
Defined in 1894 by James Parker[edit]
James Parker [17] supplied the following definition:
Esquire, (lat. armiger, fr. escuyer): a title of a gentleman of the rank immediately below a knight. It was originally a military office, an esquire being (as the name escuyer, from escu, a shield, implies) a knight’s attendant and shield bearer. Esquires may be theoretically divided into five classes:
The younger sons of peers and their eldest sons.
The eldest sons of knights and their eldest sons.
The chiefs of ancient families are esquires by prescription.
Esquires by creation or office. Such the heralds and serjeants at arms and some others, who are constituted esquires by receiving a collar of SS. Judges and other officers of state, justices of the peace, and the higher naval and military officers are designated esquires in their patents or commissions. Doctors in the several faculties, and barristers at law, are considered as esquires, or equal to esquires. None, however, of these offices or degrees convey gentility to the posterity of their holders.
the last kind of esquires are those of knights of the bath; each knight appoints two to attend upon him at his installation and at coronations.
Modern definition[edit]
Oxford Dictionaries currently provides for the following definition of Esquire:[18]
British: A polite title appended to a man’s name when no other title is used, typically in the address of a letter or other documents: J. C. Pearson Esquire.
North American (chiefly US): A title appended to the surname of a lawyer (of either sex).
Historical:
A young nobleman who, in training for knighthood, acted as an attendant to a knight.
an officer in the service of a king or nobleman.
a landed proprietor or country squire: the lord of the manor, Richard Bethell Esquire.
Misuse[edit]
By the end of the 16th century, the pretentious use of the title, especially in its Latin form, Armiger, was being mocked by Shakespeare in his character Robert Shallow, esquire, a Justice of the Peace:
...a gentleman born, master parson; who writes himself "Armigero," in any bill, warrant, quittance, or obligation, "Armigero."
To which Shallow directly replies:
Ay, that I do; and have done any time these three hundred years.
—  William Shakespeare, The Merry Wives of Windsor, Act I, Scene I
Other criteria[edit]
Nineteenth century tables of precedence further distinguished between "esquires by birth" and "esquires by office" (and likewise for "gentleman").[citation needed] Today the term "gentleman" is still found in official tables of precedence, and it invariably means a person who is an armiger with no higher rank or a descendant of someone who has borne arms. An English use of the term is to distinguish between men of the upper and lower gentry, who are "esquires" and "gentlemen" respectively, which still applies in terms of the official Order of Precedence.[19] Examples of this may be found in the Parish Tithe Map Schedules made under the Tithe Commutation Act 1836.[20] Later examples appear in the list of subscribers to The History of Elton, by the Rev. Rose Fuller Whistler, published in 1892, which distinguishes between subscribers designated Mr (another way of indicating gentlemen) and those allowed Esquire.
But formal definitions like these were proposed because there was, in reality, no fixed criterion distinguishing those designated esquire: it was essentially a matter of impression as to whether a person qualified for this status. William Segar, Garter King of Arms (the senior officer of arms at the College of Arms), wrote in 1602: "And who so can make proofe, that his Ancestors or himselfe, have had Armes, or can procure them by purchase, may be called Armiger or Esquier." Honor military, and civill (1602; lib. 4, cap. 15, p. 228). (By Armes he referred to a coat of arms; it is not clear from this quotation whether Segar made a distinction between esquires and gentlemen.) For example, Lords of the Manor hold the rank of esquire by prescription.[21][22]
Although esquire is the English translation of the French écuyer, the latter indicated legal membership in the nobilities of ancien régime France and contemporaneous Belgium, whereas an esquire belongs to the British gentry rather than to its nobility, albeit that "gentry" in England means untitled nobility.[23] Écuyer in French (11th to 14th century) means "shield-bearer", a knight in training, age 14 to 21. In the later stages of the Middle Ages, the cost of the adoubement or accolade became too high for many noblemen to bear. They stayed écuyers all their lives, making that title synonymous with "nobleman" or "gentleman".
Modern British usage[edit]
The most common occurrence of term "esquire" today is in the addition of the suffix "Esq." in order to pay an informal compliment to a male recipient by way of implying gentle birth. There remain respected protocols for identifying those to whom it is thought most proper that the suffix should be given, especially in very formal or in official circumstances.
The breadth of Esquire (as Esq.) had become universal in the United Kingdom by the mid 20th century, with no distinction in status being perceived between Mr and Esquire. Esquire was used generally as the default title for all men who did not have a grander title when addressing correspondence, with letters addressed using the name in initial format (e.g., K.S. Smith, Esq.) but Mr being used as the form of address (e.g. Dear Mr Smith). In the 1970s, the use of Esq. started to decline, and by the end of the 20th century most people had stopped using it and changed to using Mr instead. Esq. is generally considered to be old-fashioned but is still used by some traditional individuals and organisations such as Christie's and Berry Bros. & Rudd. British men invited to Buckingham Palace receive their invitations in an envelope with the suffix Esq. after their names, while men of foreign nationalities instead have the prefix Mr (women are addressed as Miss, Ms, or Mrs).[24] The same practice applies for other post from the palace (e.g., to employees).
In Scotland[edit]
Esquire is historically a feudal designation in Scotland. Today, the title of esquire is defined as a social dignity that refers to people of the Scottish gentry, who hold the next position in the Order of Precedence above Gentlemen. It is also used as a common courtesy in correspondence. Traditionally, this was one who was classified as a 'cadet for knighthood'. Today, the title of esquire is not bestowed on gentlemen, although certain positions carry with them the degree of esquire, such as that of advocate or Justice of the Peace. Whether an armiger is a gentleman, an esquire, or of a higher rank can be told by the type of helm depicted on the Letters Patent granting or matriculating the arms. In Scots Heraldry, Sir Thomas Innes of Learney makes clear that a gentleman's helm is a closed pot helm, in plain steel, with no gold, whereas an esquire's helm can be a steel pot helm garnished in gold or a helmet with a closed visor garnished in gold.[25][26] The Court of the Lord Lyon will display the helm appropriate to their "degree", or social rank, in the illustration on the Letters Patent.
The definition of Esquire today includes:
1. The male primogeniture descendant of a knight (with or without Scottish Arms),[27]
2. Scottish Armigers recognised with a Territorial Designation within their Letters Patent,[28] frequently described as a Laird,[29] which is taken to infer the rank of Esquire.[30] Lairds with a territorial designation recognised by the Court of the Lord Lyon would not use the post nominal letters of "Esq." after their name, as the use of the territorial designation infers the rank of esquire.
3. Male Scottish Clan Chiefs recognized by the Court of the Lord Lyon (with Scottish Arms) who are not feudal barons, or a Peer.[31]
4. Those other Armigers recognised in the degree of Esquire via the helm indicated in their Letters Patent as per the guidance mentioned above.
There is some confusion over the fact that the Lord Lyon King of Arms addresses correspondents by their name followed by "Esq." in correspondence, namely on letters. Some people erroneously believe that this makes them an Esquire, however this is a common courtesy in Scotland, as in the rest of Britain, and does not constitute official recognition in the degree of an Esquire. The Scottish courts have confirmed that the base degree in which an Armiger is recognised is the dignity of Gentleman, not Esquire.[32]
In feudal times an Esquire was an Armour-Bearer, attendant upon a Knight, but bearing his own unique armorial device.[33] Similarly, an Armiger in contemporary terms is well-defined within the jurisdiction of Scotland as someone who is an Armour-Bearer. These two senses of "Armour-Bearer" are different: An Esquire in feudal times was an "Armour-Bearer" in the sense of being the person who carried their knight's armour for them; whereas in the contemporary sense the term "Armour-Bearer" is being used to mean the bearer of a Coat of Arms, an Armiger. The two are not the same thing, although the feudal Esquire would also most likely have been an Armiger. For centuries the title of Esquire has not been bestowed on a Knight's Attendee (since knights no longer need to train for battle). Attendants on Knights, however, were not the only bearers of arms, and similarly not all Armigers were Esquires. Today, being an Armiger is synonymous with the title of Gentleman within the Order of Precedence in Scotland,[34] and is a social dignity. The Letters Patent of Scottish Armigers will never include the title of Gentleman, because the Letters Patent themselves evidence the individual is an Armour-Bearer, or Gentleman by the strictest sense of the definition. A Scottish Armiger is a Gentleman or Gentlewoman unless they hold a higher rank.
Scottish Armigers are those individuals with a hereditary right, grant or matriculation of Arms so entitling them to use personal Arms by the Court of the Lord Lyon (Ref. Scottish Heraldry). The bearing of duly registered Arms is an indication of nobility (either peerage or non-peerage in rank).[35] All Scottish Armigers are recognised as members of the nobility in the broader sense through their grant or matriculation of Arms awarded by the Crown or Sovereign through the Court of the Lord Lyon, and by issuance of a Warrant from the Lord Lyon King of Arms is so entered in the Public Register of All Arms and Bearings in Scotland and through later official "Ensigns of Nobility".[36][37] Without such legal Arms it is practically impossible to prove one's nobiliary status.[38][39] "Technically, a grant of arms from the Lord Lyon is a patent of nobility (also referred to a 'Diploma of Nobility'); the Grantee is thereby 'enrolled with all nobles in the noblesse of Scotland.',[40] however the term "nobility" today is little used in this context, as in common parlance in Britain the term is widely associated with the Peerage. Instead the French term of Noblesse[41] has been used by the Court of the Lord Lyon as this term not only includes Peers but also the non-Peerage minor-nobility, which includes Baronets, Knights, feudal Barons, Armigers with Territorial Designations, Esquires, and Gentlemen.
Usage in the United States[edit]
In the legal profession[edit]
In the U.S., the title Esquire is commonly encountered among members of the legal profession.[9] The term is used for both male and female lawyers.[42] The title is not allocated by the law of any state to any profession, class, or station in society.[9] However, some states may protect[vague] the use of the term Esquire, and have held that use of the term connotes licensure in the jurisdiction.[9]
Diplomatic use[edit]
Similarly, when addressing social correspondence to a commissioned officer of the United States Foreign Service, Esquire may be used as a complimentary title. While the abbreviated Esq. is correct, Esquire is typically written in full when addressing a diplomat.[43][44] If any other titles are used on the same line, Esquire is omitted.
In fraternal groups[edit]
Some fraternal groups use the Esquire title. One appendant body in Freemasonry also uses Esquire as a degree title.[45]
Use of honorifics and post-nominals[edit]
Honorifics are not used with courtesy titles, so John Smith, Esq. or Mr John Smith would be correct, but Mr John Smith, Esq. would be incorrect.[46]
When addressing a person who has an academic degree or other post-nominal professional designation, such as a Certified Public Accountant, a writer should use either the post-nominal designation (usually abbreviated) or the Esq., but not both; as Esquire is a courtesy title, it should not be used with post-nominals.[47]
Usage in India[edit]
Before 1947, the term esquire was used by senior officers of the Indian Civil Service and other members of the government. In keeping with the criteria established centuries earlier, the title was mostly used by government officials who studied or trained in England, especially in the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, or London or other professional organisations managed by the government. Barristers were especially included in the order of the esquires. Members of the armed forces as well as those who were inducted in to it from other services, temporarily or permanently, were also called esquires.[5]
See also[edit]
English honorifics
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "British English: Esquire". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 23 September 2014.
Jump up ^ "American English: Esquire". Collins Dictionary. n.d. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 23 September 2014.
Jump up ^ 'esquire, n.1' and 'esq., n.1.3.a.': Oxford English Dictionary Online: Accessed October 4, 2011 00:41BST
Jump up ^ Blackstone, William (1826). Commentaries on the Laws of England, Volume 1 - Commentaries on the Laws of England, Joseph Chitty. William Blackstone. p. 405-406 - Chapter XII - Of The Civil State. Archived from the original on 9 November 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b The Popular Encyclopedia: Being a General Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature, Biography, History, and Political Economy, Volume 1. Blackie & Son, 1841. 1841. p. 698. Archived from the original on 9 November 2017.
Jump up ^ esquire. Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. 3 May. 2010. [Dictionary.com "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 12 March 2010. Retrieved 3 May 2010. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link) ].
Jump up ^ Oxford English Dictionary, second edition (1991).
Jump up ^ Order of Precedence Amongst Gentlemen in England and Wales [Debrett's "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 16 March 2015. Retrieved 26 April 2015. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link) ].
^ Jump up to: a b c d Thompson, Katheryn A. Tussle Over Titles, ABA Journal, January 2006.
Jump up ^ Maclean, Sir John; Heane, W.C., eds. (1885). The Visitation of the County of Gloucester, taken in the year 1623, by Henry Chitty and John Phillipot as deputies to William Camden, Clarenceux King of Arms; with pedigrees from the heralds’ visitation of 1569 and 1582-3, and sundry miscellaneous pedigrees. Harleian Society, 1st ser. 21. London, pp. 197-199.
Jump up ^ "Esquires." Debretts. Archived from the original. Retrieved 2017-06-05.
Jump up ^ Sir Edward Coke, Institutes vol. 2, p. 688.
Jump up ^ As quoted or paraphrased from Weevers Antient Funeral Monuments by John Prince (1643–1723) in his Worthies of Devon (1810 edition, p. 236).
Jump up ^ Burn, Richard; Chitty, J.; Black, Philip. The Justice of the Peace and Parish Officer (1975 reprint). pp. 884–885.
Jump up ^ Burn, Richard. The Justice of the Peace and Parish Officer, Vol. II, pp. 540–541.
Jump up ^ Boutell, Charles (1899) English Heraldry, page 120; see also [1], page 120.
Jump up ^ Parker, James (1894). A Glossary of Terms used in Heraldry; see also "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
Jump up ^ "esquire - Definition of esquire in English by Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford Dictionaries - English. Archived from the original on 7 September 2016. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 18 October 2013. Retrieved 18 October 2013. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link) Table of Precedence of Gentlemen in England and Wales, Debrett's
Jump up ^ "Tithes - The National Archives". The National Archives. Archived from the original on 19 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Young, John H. (1881) Our Deportment, Or the Manners, Conduct and Dress of the Most Refined Society; Including Forms for Letters, Invitations, Etc., Etc. Also, Valuable Suggestions on Home Culture and Training Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine.. F. B. Dickerson & Co./Pennsylvania Publishing House/Union Publishing House. Detroit, Mich./Harrisburgh, Pa./Chicago, Ill.
Jump up ^ Dodd, Charles R. (1843) A manual of dignities, privilege, and precedence: including lists of the great public functionaries, from the revolution to the present time. London: Whittaker & Co., p. 248.
Jump up ^ Esquire, Penny cyclopedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge Archived 15 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine., vol. 9-10, p. 13, accessed online on 12 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Hardman, Robert (2007-11-29). "Fountain of Honour". Monarchy: The Royal Family at Work. Druck, Wemding, Germany: Ebury Press. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-09-191842-2. British men have 'Esq.' after their name [...] whereas all men from overseas are called 'Mr'
Jump up ^ Innes of Learney, Thomas (1978). Scots Heraldry. London & Edinburgh: Johnston & Bacon. p. 17.
Jump up ^ Kidd, C.; Williamson, D. (2000). Debrett's Peerage & Baronetage. London: Macmillan. p. 53.
Jump up ^ "The Sovereign Military Order of Malta". Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Court of the Lord Lyon -". Archived from the original on 12 May 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Court of the Lord Lyon -". Archived from the original on 28 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Adam, F. (1934). The Clans, Septs & Regiments of the Scottish Highlands. W. & A.K. Johnston. p. 410. Archived from the original on 23 February 2014. Retrieved 15 December 2012.
Jump up ^ D.Ayre, N.Livingstone &. "Table of Precedence". www.scotsbarons.org. Archived from the original on 21 November 2012. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Opinion of the Court — delivered by Lord Marnoch". Court of Session. Archived from the original on 21 February 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Dictionary of Chivalry, Uden. Kestrel Books, Harmondsworth 1968 ISBN 0722653727
Jump up ^ "Precedence Amongst Gentlemen in Scotland". Archived from the original on 27 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Edmondson, Complete Body of Heraldry, p. 154.
Jump up ^ Nisbet's Heraldry, iii, ii, 65.
Jump up ^ Sir Thomas Innes of Learney, Scots Heraldry, p. 20.
Jump up ^ Innes of Learney, Sir Thomas - Lord Lyon King of Arms.
Jump up ^ Scots Heraldry, 2nd ed. [1956] p. 20f; 3rd ed. [1978] p. 13.
Jump up ^ Burnett, Charles J (Ross Herald Extraordinary) and Dennis, Mark D. (Ormond Pursuivant Scotland's Heraldic Heritage); The Lion Rejoicing The Stationery Office, Edinburgh, 1997.
Jump up ^ Innes of Learney, T. (1956) Scots Heraldry Archived 27 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine., Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., p. 22.
Jump up ^ Jones, Brenda. Forms of Address Including Use of "Esquire" Archived 7 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine., Beeson Law Library Newsletter, Cumberland School of Law, 2 February 2002.
Jump up ^ McCaffree, Mary Jane; Innis, Pauline; Sand, Esquire, Richard M. (2002). Protocol: The Complete Handbook of Diplomatic, Official and Social Usage (25th Anniversary (3rd) ed.). Dallas, Texas: Durban House Publishing Company. ISBN 1-930754-18-3. Archived from the original on 1 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Appendix VIII. Protocol and Forms of Address". UMW Style Guide. University of Mary Washington. Archived from the original on 13 April 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
Jump up ^ "York Rite Allied Invitational Bodies". Archived from the original on 27 September 2007.
Jump up ^ Guide to Addressing Correspondence Archived 3 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine., The Emily Post Institute, last accessed 4 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 9 May 2011. Retrieved 6 July 2011. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link) [better source needed]
External links[edit]
Look up esquire in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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History of the oil industry in Saudi Arabia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Dammam No. 7, the first commercial oil well in Saudi Arabia, struck oil on March 3[1], 1938.
Saudi Arabia crude oil production 1950-2012
Saudi Arabian oil was first discovered by the Americans in commercial quantities at Dammam oil well No. 7 in 1938 in what is now modern day Dhahran.
Contents
[hide]
1 Before the discovery of oil
2 Initial search
3 Discovery of oil
4 Changes to the original concession
5 Tapline
6 1973 Arab-Israeli War
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Before the discovery of oil[edit]
On January 15, 1902, Ibn Saud took Riyadh from the Rashid tribe. In 1913, his forces captured the province of al-Hasa from the Ottoman Turks. In 1922, he completed his conquest of the Nejd, and in 1925, he conquered the Hijaz. In 1932, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was proclaimed with Ibn Saud as king.[2] Without stability in the region, the search for oil would have been difficult, as evidenced by early oil exploration in neighbouring countries such as Yemen and Oman.[3]
Prior to 1938, there were three main factors that triggered the search for oil in Arabia:
The discovery of oil by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company at Masjid-i-Sulaiman in the mountains of north-western Persia in 1908; but the consensus of geological opinion at the time was that there was no oil on the Arabian peninsula, although there were rumours of an oil seepage at Qatif on the eastern seaboard of al-Hasa, the eastern province of Arabia.
The demand for oil during World War I. It became obvious that oil was going to be a crucial resource in warfare for the foreseeable future.[2] Examples that proved this were “General Gallieni’s commandeering of the Paris taxi fleet to ferry soldiers to the front. This happened when the city seemed about to fall”.[4] In addition to this, Germany’s shortage of oil supplies hindered their ability to produce aircraft, automobiles, and engines. The allies took advantage of this by producing thousands of vehicles to aid their war effort.[4]
The onset of the Great Depression. Prior to the depression, a major source of income for the ruler of Hijaz was the taxes paid by pilgrims on their way to the holy cities. After the depression hit, the number of pilgrimages per year fell from 100,000 to below 40,000.[2] This hurt their economy greatly and they needed to find alternate sources of income. This caused Ibn Saud to get serious about the search for oil.
Initial search[edit]
In 1922, Ibn Saud met a New Zealand mining engineer named Major Frank Holmes. During World War I, Holmes had been to Gallipoli and then Ethiopia, where he first heard rumours of the oil seeps of the Persian Gulf region.[2] He was convinced that much oil would be found throughout the region. After the war, Holmes helped to set up Eastern and General Syndicate Ltd in order, among other things, to seek oil concessions in the region.
In 1923, the king signed a concession with Holmes allowing him to search for oil in eastern Saudi Arabia. Eastern and General Syndicate brought in a Swiss geologist to evaluate the land but he claimed that searching for oil in Arabia would be “a pure gamble”.[2] This discouraged the major banks and oil companies from investing in Arabian oil ventures.
In 1925, Holmes signed a concession with the sheikh of Bahrain, allowing him to search for oil there. He then proceeded to the United States to find an oil company that might be interested in taking on the concession. He found help from Gulf Oil. In 1927, Gulf Oil took control of the concessions that Holmes made years ago. But Gulf Oil was a partner in the Iraq Petroleum Company, which was jointly owned by Royal Dutch/Shell, Anglo-Persian, the Compagnie Française des Pétroles, and "the Near East Development Company, representing the interests of the American companies.[4] The partners had signed up to the “Red Line Agreement” which meant that Gulf Oil was precluded from taking up the Bahrain concession without the consent of the other partners; and they declined.[2] Despite a promising survey in Bahrain, Gulf Oil was forced to transfer its interest to another company, Standard Oil of California (SOCAL), which was not a bound by the Red Line Agreement.[5]
Meanwhile Ibn Saud had dispatched American mining engineer Karl Twitchell to examine eastern Arabia. Twitchell found encouraging signs of oil, asphalt seeps in the vicinity of Qatif, but advised the king to await the outcome of the Bahrain No.1 well before inviting bids for a concession for al-Hasa.[6] To the American engineers working in Bahrain, standing on the Jebel Dukhan and gazing across a twenty-mile (32 km) stretch of the Persian Gulf at the Arabian Peninsula in the clear light of early morning, the outline of the low Dhahran hills in the distance were an obvious oil prospect.
On 31 May 1932, the SOCAL subsidiary, the Bahrain Petroleum Company (BAPCO) struck oil on Bahrain.[2] The discovery brought fresh impetus to the search for oil on the Arabian peninsula.
Negotiations for an oil concession for al-Hasa province opened at Jeddah in March, 1933. Twitchell attended with lawyer Lloyd Hamilton on behalf of SOCAL. The Iraq Petroleum Company represented by Stephen Longrigg competed in the bidding but SOCAL was granted the concession on 23 May 1933. Under the agreement, SOCAL was given “exploration rights to some 930,000 square kilometers of land for 60 years”.[2] Soon after the agreement, geologists arrived in al-Hasa and the search for oil was underway.
Discovery of oil[edit]
SOCAL set up a subsidiary company, the California Arabian Standard Oil Company (CASOC) to develop the oil concession. SOCAL also joined forces with the Texas Oil Company when together they formed CALTEX in 1936 to take advantage of the latter’s formidable marketing network in Africa and Asia.
When CASOC geologists surveyed the concession area, they identified a promising site and named it Dammam No. 7, after a nearby village. Over the next three years, the drillers were unsuccessful in making a commercial strike, but chief geologist Max Steineke persevered. He urged the team to drill deeper, even when Dammam No. 7 was plagued by cave-ins, stuck drill bits and other problems, before the drillers finally struck oil on 3 March 1938.[7] This discovery would turn out to be first of many, eventually revealing the largest source of crude oil in the world.[8] For the king, oil revenues became a crucial source of wealth since he no longer had to rely on receipts from pilgrimages to Mecca. This discovery would alter Middle Eastern political relations forever.
Changes to the original concession[edit]
In 1943, the name of the company in control in Saudi Arabia was changed to Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO). In addition, numerous changes were made to the original concession after the striking of oil. In 1939, the first modification gave the Arabian American Oil Company a greater area to search for oil and extended the concession until 1949, increasing the original deal by six years. In return, ARAMCO agreed to provide the Saudi Arabian government with large amounts of free kerosene and gasoline, and to pay higher payments than originally stipulated.
Beginning in 1950, the Saudi Arabian government began a pattern of trying to increase government shares of revenue from oil production. In 1950, a fifty-fifty profit-sharing agreement was signed, whereby a tax was levied by the government. This tax considerably increased government revenues. The government continued this trend well into the ‘80s. By 1982, ARAMCO’s concession area was reduced to 220,000 square kilometers, down from the original 930,000 square kilometers. By 1988, ARAMCO was officially bought out by Saudi Arabia and became known as Saudi Aramco.
Tapline[edit]
Due to the quantity of the oil in Saudi Arabia, construction of pipelines became necessary to increase efficiency of production and transport. ARAMCO soon realized that “advantages of a pipeline to the Mediterranean Sea seemed obvious, saving about 3,200 kilometers of sea travel and the transit fees of the Suez Canal”.[9] In 1945, the Trans-Arabian Pipeline Company (Tapline) was started and was completed in 1950. The pipeline greatly increased efficiency of oil transport, but also had its shortcomings. Issues concerning taxes and damages plagued it for years. It had to be shut down numerous times for repairs, and by 1983 was officially shut down.[9]
1973 Arab-Israeli War[edit]
This conflict was also known as the Yom Kippur War. This was a conflict between Egypt, Syria and their backers versus Israel. The conflict was the continuation of a troubling historical pattern of conflict between Israel and the Arab world. Because the United States was a supporter of Israel, the Arab countries participated in an oil boycott of Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[10] This boycott later includes Portugal, Rhodesia, and South Africa. This was one of the major causes of the 1973 energy crisis that occurred in the United States.[11] After the completion of the war, the price of oil increased drastically allowing Saudi Arabia to gain much wealth and power.[12]
See also[edit]
Energy portal
Saudi Arabia portal
Oil reserves in Saudi Arabia
Energy in Saudi Arabia
References[edit]
Jump up ^ https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar3/oil-discovered-saudi-arabia/
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h "Saudi Aramco World : Prelude to Discovery". saudiaramcoworld.com.
Jump up ^ Morton, Michael Quentin (2006). In the Heart of the Desert: the Story of an Exploration Geologist and the Search for Oil in the Middle East. Green Mountain Press. ISBN 0-9552212-0-X. [1]
^ Jump up to: a b c Singer, Clifford E. Energy and International War: from Babylon to Baghdad and beyond. Vol. 6. Singapore: World Scientific, 2008. Print. Energy and Resource Economics.
Jump up ^ Keating, Aileen (2005). Mirage: Power, Politics, and the Hidden History of Arabian Oil. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-59102-346-3.
Jump up ^ Wagner, Heather Lehr (2008). Saudi Arabia. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60413-023-2.
Jump up ^ "In War and Peace 1927-1946", About Chevron, archived from the original on 8 June 2011, retrieved 19 June 2011
Jump up ^ "80 Days That Changed The World". Time.
^ Jump up to: a b "Saudi Arabia Oil Industry". country-studies.com.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-06-25. Retrieved 2014-03-12.
Jump up ^ Charles D. Smith, Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, New York: Bedford, 2006, p. 329.
Jump up ^ "Saudi Arabia". U.S. Department of State.
External links[edit]
Map of oil and gas fields in Saudi Arabia
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