text:
State of the art
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see State of the art (disambiguation).
State of the art (sometimes cutting edge) refers to the highest level of general development, as of a device, technique, or scientific field achieved at a particular time. It also refers to such a level of development reached at any particular time as a result of the common methodologies employed at the time.
The term has been used since 1910, and has become both a common term in advertising and marketing, and a legally significant phrase with respect to both patent law and tort liability.
In advertising, the phrase is often used to convey that a product is made with the best possible technology, but it has been noted that "the term 'state of the art' requires little proof on the part of advertisers", as it is considered mere puffery.[1] The use of the term in patent law, by contrast, "does not connote even superiority, let alone the superlative quality the ad writers would have us ascribe to the term".[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin and history
2 Legal importance
2.1 Patent law
2.2 Tort liability
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Origin and history[edit]
The origin of the concept of "state of the art" took place in the beginning of the twentieth century.[3] The earliest use of the term "state of the art" documented by the Oxford English Dictionary dates back to 1910, from an engineering manual by Henry Harrison Suplee (1856-post 1943), an engineering graduate (University of Pennsylvania, 1876), titled Gas Turbine: progress in the design and construction of turbines operated by gases of combustion. The relevant passage reads: "In the present state of the art this is all that can be done". The term, "art", itself refers to the useful arts, skills and methods relating to practical subjects such as manufacture and craftsmanship, rather than in the sense of the performing arts and the fine arts.[4]
Over time, use of the term increased in all fields where this kind of art has a significant role.[5] In this relation it has been quoted by the author that "Although eighteenth century writers did not use the term, there was indeed in existence a collection of scientific and engineering knowledge and expertise that can be identified as the state of the art for that time".[5]
Despite its actual meaning, which does not convey technology that is ahead of the industry, the phrase became so widely used in advertising that a 1985 article described it as "overused", stating that "[i]t has no punch left and actually sounds like a lie".[6] A 1994 essay listed it among "the same old tired clichés" that should be avoided in advertising.[7]
Legal importance[edit]
Patent law[edit]
Main article: Prior art
In the context of European and Australian patent law, the term "state of the art" is a concept used in the process of assessing and asserting novelty and inventive step,[8] and is a synonym of the expression "prior art".[9] In the European Patent Convention (EPC), "[the] state of the art shall be held to comprise everything made available to the public by means of a written or oral description, by use, or in any other way, before the date of filing of the European patent application" according to Article 54(2) EPC. Due account should be taken of Article 54(3) EPC as well, but merely for the examination of novelty.
The expression "background art" is also used in certain legal provisions, such as Rule 42(1)(b) and(c) EPC (previously Rule 27(1)(b) and (c) EPC 1973), and has the same meaning.[10]
Tort liability[edit]
The state of the art is important in the law of tort liability, specifically in the areas of negligence and products liability. With respect to negligence, "an engineer may defend against a claim of negligence by contending that he met the standards of his profession and the state of the art".[11] With respect to products liability, manufacturers generally have strict liability for any injury caused by defects in their products. However, in some jurisdictions a manufacturer may raise as a legal defense the assertion that their product represents the "state of the art", and that the manufacturer therefore could not have made the product any safer in light of the knowledge available at the time.[12] For example, "[u]nder German law, the producer can also raise the state of the art defense: general tort law does not hold him liable if he could not know or discover the defect for lack of fault, and the Product Liability Statute expressly provides for this defense".[13] This defense is available throughout the European Community under the Product Liability Directive, art. 7(e). Pursuant to this article:
The state-of-the-art defense allows a defendant to be absolved of liability if he can prove that the state of technical and scientific knowledge, at the time when he put the product into circulation, was not such as to enable the existence of the defect to be discovered. The Directive allows Member States to eliminate the state- of-the-art defense, but only Luxembourg, which has little manufacturing industry, has done so.[14]
In the United States, in those states that follow the common law, the state of an industry is "merely evidence of due care rather than a controlling factor",[15] but a number of states have State-of-the-Art statutes that "make a manufacturer's compliance with technological feasibility an absolute defense to a products liability suit".[15] Because the state of the art is constantly advancing, the ability of manufacturers to claim that their products are "state-of-the-art" tracks their potential liability when these products are defective. As an industry journal explained in the 1980s:
Remote control rear view mirrors, disc brakes, automatic slack adjusters for drum brakes and sealed lighting systems are just a few examples of products that have advanced the state of the art. When one of these gains a degree of industry acceptance, it begins to bridge a legal gap between what is state of the art from a design standpoint, and what is state of the art from a usage standpoint. This could place a carrier in a vulnerable position in the not too distant future.[16]
See also[edit]
Bleeding edge
Cutting edge (disambiguation)
High end
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Timothy Borchers, Persuasion in the Media Age: Third Edition (2012), p. 85.
Jump up ^ Jack Smith, "Is 'State of the Art' Patently Ill Defined?", Los Angeles Times (15 June 1988).
Jump up ^ [1], LetraMagna.com
Jump up ^ George Washington used the term in a letter to Lafayette (29 Jan. 1798). Washington distinguished commerce from useful arts by stating, "While our commerce has been considerably curtailed for want of that extensive credit formerly given in Europe, and for default of remittance; the useful arts have been almost imperceptibly pushed to a considerable degree of perfection". The Writings of Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1732-1799 (Fitzpatrick ed.). Other literary sources are collected in the United States Patent and Trademark Office's Supplemental Brief in In re Bilski, p. 11 n.4 (useful arts are manufacturing processes).
^ Jump up to: a b Anderson, John (1999). A history of aerodynamics and its impact on flying machines. Cape Town: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66955-9.
Jump up ^ Executive (1985), Vol. 27, p. 56.
Jump up ^ Mark Zweig, "Better Writing" (1994), republished in Management from A to Zweig: The Complete Works of Mark Zweig (2010), p. 115.
Jump up ^ Under the European Patent Convention: Article 54 EPC and Article 56 EPC.
Jump up ^ Sreenivasulu, N. S.; Raju, C. B. (2008). Biotechnology and Patent Law: Patenting Living Beings. Manupatra. p. 95. ISBN 9788189542313. The European Patent Convention uses the term 'state of the art' which is equivalent to prior art (...)
Jump up ^ Decision T 11/82 of 15 April 1983 of the Boards of Appeal of the European Patent Office
Jump up ^ David I. Cleland, Dundar F. Kocaoglu, Julienne Brown, Engineering Management (1981), p. 440.
Jump up ^ Philip D. Rufe, Fundamentals of Manufacturing (2012), p. 209.
Jump up ^ Mathias Reimann, Joachim Zekoll, Introduction to German Law (2005), p. 220
Jump up ^ Lucas Bergkamp, European Community Law for the New Economy (2003), p. 440.
^ Jump up to: a b Frank J. Vandall, A History of Civil Litigation: Political and Economic Perspectives (2010), p. 75.
Jump up ^ Chilton's Commercial Carrier Journal for Professional Fleet Managers (1984), Vol. 141, Issues 7-12, p. 7.
External links[edit]
Look up state of the art in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Regarding the patent law concept, see for example:
Guidelines for Examination in the EPO, section g-iv : "State of the art"
Legal Research Service for the Boards of Appeal, European Patent Office, Case Law of the Boards of Appeal of the EPO (8th edition, July 2016), i.c.2 : "State of the art"
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In God We Trust
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see In God We Trust (disambiguation).
"IN GOD WE TRUST" on the reverse of a United States twenty-dollar bill
"IN GOD WE TRUST" on the Flag of Florida
"In God We Trust" is the official motto of the United States of America and of the U.S. state of Florida. It was adopted as the nation's motto in 1956 as a replacement or alternative to the unofficial motto of E pluribus unum, which was adopted when the Great Seal of the United States was created and adopted in 1782.[1][2]
"In God We Trust" first appeared on the two-cent piece in 1864[3] and has appeared on paper currency since 1957. A law passed in a Joint Resolution by the 84th Congress (P.L. 84-140) and approved by President Dwight Eisenhower on July 30, 1956, declared "In God We Trust" must appear on American currency. This phrase was first used on paper money in 1957, when it appeared on the one-dollar silver certificate. The first paper currency bearing the phrase entered circulation on October 1, 1957.[3] The 84th Congress later passed legislation (P.L. 84-851), also signed by President Eisenhower on July 30, 1956, declaring the phrase to be the national motto.[4][5][6]
Some groups and people have expressed objections to its use, citing its religious reference that violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment[7]. These groups believe the phrase should be removed from currency and public property. In lawsuits, this argument has so far not overcome the interpretational doctrine of accommodationism, which allows government to endorse religious establishments as long as they are all treated equally.[8] According to a 2003 joint poll by USA Today, CNN, and Gallup, 90% of Americans support the inscription "In God We Trust" on U.S. coins.[9]
In 2006, "In God We Trust" was designated as the motto of the U.S. state of Florida.[10][11] Its Spanish equivalent, En Dios Confiamos, is the motto of the Republic of Nicaragua.[12]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Society and culture
2.1 Religion
2.2 Pop culture
2.3 License plates
3 Criticism
4 Gallery
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
Francis Scott Key's "Defence of Fort M'Henry" poem, which soon became "The Star-Spangled Banner", includes the phrase "And this be our motto: In God is our Trust" in its fourth stanza
The phrase appears to have originated in "The Star-Spangled Banner", written by Francis Scott Key during the War of 1812.[citation needed] The fourth stanza includes the phrase, "And this be our motto: 'In God is our Trust.'" This version of the motto made an early appearance on obverse side of the twenty dollar interest bearing note issued in 1864 along with the motto "God and our Right".
Salmon P. Chase, Treasury Secretary, scribes "In God is our Trust," scratches out "is our" and overwrites "We" to arrive at "In God We Trust" in a December 9, 1863, letter to James Pollock, Director of the Philadelphia Mint.[13]
"IN GOD WE TRUST" first appeared on the obverse side of the Two-cent piece in 1864[3]
In 1860, the phrase was used in the Coat of arms of New Westminster, Canada. The phrase has been incorporated in many hymns and religio-patriotic songs. During the American Civil War, the 125th Pennsylvania Infantry for the Union Army assumed the motto "In God we trust" in early August 1862.[14][15][16] William W. Wallace, coiner, circa August 1862, of the motto "In God We Trust"[17] was Captain of Company C of the 125th Pennsylvania Infantry.
The Reverend Mark R. Watkinson of 'Ridleyville', Pennsylvania, (pastor of Prospect Hill Baptist Church in present-day Prospect Park, Pennsylvania) in a letter dated November 13, 1861, petitioned the Treasury Department to add a statement recognizing "Almighty God in some form on our coins" in order to "relieve us from the ignominy of heathenism".[18][19] At least part of the motivation was to declare that God was on the Union side of the Civil War.[20] Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase acted on this proposal and directed the then-Philadelphia Director of the Mint, James Pollock, to begin drawing up possible designs that would include the religious phrase. Chase chose his favorite designs and presented a proposal to Congress for the new designs in late 1863.[21]
In December 1863, Abraham Lincoln's Secretary of the Treasury decided on a new motto, "In God We Trust," to engrave on U.S. coins. Lincoln's involvement in this decision is unclear.[22]
As Chase was preparing his recommendation to Congress, it was found that the Act of Congress dated January 18, 1837 prescribed the mottoes and devices that should be placed upon the coins of the United States. This meant that the mint could make no changes without the enactment of additional legislation by the Congress. Such legislation was introduced and passed as the Coinage Act of 1864 on April 22, 1864, allowing the Secretary of the Treasury to authorize the inclusion of the phrase on one-cent and two-cent coins.[20]
An Act of Congress passed on March 3, 1865, allowed the Mint Director, with the Secretary's approval, to place the motto on all gold and silver coins that "shall admit the inscription thereon".[20][23] In 1873, Congress passed the Coinage Act, granting that the Secretary of the Treasury "may cause the motto IN GOD WE TRUST to be inscribed on such coins as shall admit of such motto".
The use of "In God We Trust" has been interrupted. The motto disappeared from the five-cent coin in 1883, and did not reappear until production of the Jefferson nickel began in 1938.[20] However, at least two other coins minted in every year in the interim still bore the motto,[citation needed] including the Morgan dollar and the Seated Liberty half dollar. The omission of the motto "In God We Trust" on the Indian Head eagle coin caused public outrage, and prompted Congress to pass a bill mandating its inclusion. Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber added the words and made minor modifications to the design. In 1908, Congress made it mandatory that the phrase be printed on all coins upon which it had previously appeared. This decision was motivated after a public outcry following the release of a $20 coin which did not bear the motto.[24] The motto has been in continuous use on the one-cent coin since 1909, and on the ten-cent coin since 1916. It also has appeared on all gold coins and silver dollar coins, half-dollar coins, and quarter-dollar coins struck since July 1, 1908.[20] Since 1938, all US coins have borne the motto.[3]
A quarter dollar with the United States' official motto "IN GOD WE TRUST" on the obverse side
During the Cold War era, the government of the United States sought to distinguish itself from the Soviet Union, which promoted state atheism and thus implemented antireligious legislation.[25] The 84th Congress passed a joint resolution "declaring IN GOD WE TRUST the national motto of the United States". The resolution passed both the House and the Senate unanimously and without debate.[26][27] The law was signed by President Eisenhower on July 30, 1956.[28] The United States Code at 36 U.S.C. § 302, now states: "'In God we trust' is the national motto."
The same day, the President signed into law[29] a requirement that "In God We Trust" be printed on all U.S. currency and coins. On paper currency, it first appeared on the silver certificate in 1957, followed by other certificates. Federal Reserve Notes and United States Notes were circulated with the motto starting from 1964 to 1966, depending on the denomination.[20][30] (Of these, only Federal Reserve Notes are still circulated.)
Representative Charles Edward Bennett of Florida cited the Cold War when he introduced the bill in the House, saying "In these days when imperialistic and materialistic communism seeks to attack and destroy freedom, we should continually look for ways to strengthen the foundations of our freedom". [31]
Aronow v. United States was the first case to challenge the inclusion of "In God We Trust" on U.S. currency.[32] The law it challenged was "31 U.S.C. § 324a "the inscription 'In God we Trust'...shall appear on all United States currency and coins".[32] O'Hair v. Blumenthal (1978) challenged the inclusion of the phrase "In God We Trust" on U.S. currency. A similar decision was reached by the Fifth Circuit in Madalyn Murray O'Hair vs W. Michael Blumenthal in 1979, which affirmed that the "primary purpose of the slogan was secular."[33]
In March 2001, Ronnie Musgrove Governor of Mississippi signed legislation requiring the motto "In God We Trust" to be displayed in every public school classroom, as well as the school auditoriums and cafeterias, throughout the state.[34][35]
A framed poster displaying the national motto of the United States in a New Philadelphia High School classroom
After the September 11 attacks in 2001, many public schools across the United States posted "In God We Trust" framed posters in their "libraries, cafeterias and classrooms". The American Family Association supplied several 11-by-14-inch posters to school systems and vowed to defend any legal challenges to the displaying of the posters.[36]
According to a 2003 joint poll by USA Today, CNN, and Gallup, 90% of Americans support the inscription "In God We Trust" on U.S. coins.[9]
In 2006, on the 50th anniversary of its adoption, the Senate reaffirmed "In God We Trust" as the official national motto of the United States of America.[37] In Florida House Bill no. 1145, Florida adopted 'In God We Trust' as the official state motto, effective July 1, 2006.[10][11]
In 2011 the House of Representatives passed an additional resolution reaffirming "In God We Trust" as the official motto of the United States, in a 396–9 vote.[38][39]
In 2013, a federal court rejected a challenge, brought by Michael Newdow and the Freedom From Religion Foundation, to remove "In God We Trust" from American currency.[40]
"IN GOD WE TRUST" on the Seal of Mississippi
On January 31, 2014, purporting to defend religious freedom, the Mississippi senate voted to add the words, "In God We Trust" to the state seal and the change was made effective on July 1, 2014.[41][42]
In 2015 the county police department of Jefferson County, Illinois announced that the words "In God We Trust" will be on police squad cars.[43] In 2015, the Freedom from Religion Foundation demanded that local authorities remove decals of the motto from Childress, Texas Police Department patrol vehicles. In response, Police Chief Adrian Garcia told the organization, in a written letter, to “go fly a kite.”[44]
In early 2018, Kimberly Daniels, a pastor[45] who currently serves as the representative for Florida House of Representatives District 14 as a member of the Democratic Party, introduced HB 839, a bill that requires public schools to display the motto "In God We Trust" in a conspicuous place. In a vote on February 21, 2018, the bill passed 97 to 10 in the House.[46][47] It would also need to pass the state Senate and be signed by the governor to become law.
Society and culture[edit]
Religion[edit]
In Judaism and Christianity, the official motto "In God We Trust" resounds with several verses from the Bible, including Psalm 118:8, Psalm 40:3, Psalm 73:28, and Proverbs 29:25.[48] In Islam the word for the concept of reliance on God is called Tawakkul; the phrase "In God We Trust" is found in two places of the Koran, in Surah 10 Yunus, as well as Surah 7 Al-A'raf, although several other verses reinforce this concept.[49][not in citation given] Melkote Ramaswamy, a Hindu American scholar, writes that the presence of the phrase "In God We Trust" on American currency is a reminder that "there is God everywhere, whether we are conscious or not."[50]
Pop culture[edit]
In Miracle on 34th Street (1994 film), just as Henry is about to make his decision, Susan walks up to him with a Christmas card containing a $1 bill. On the back, the words "In God We Trust" are circled. He realizes that, since the U.S. Department of Treasury can put its official faith in God with no hard evidence, then the people can believe in Santa in the same way. Left with no choice, an elated Henry dismisses the case and declares that Santa is real, existing in the person of Kris.
An e-mail conspiracy theory is that "In God We Trust" was intentionally omitted from new U.S. dollar coins in 2007.[51] The first coins produced under the Presidential $1 Coin Program did indeed lack the "In God We Trust" inscription along their edges (along with the "E Pluribus Unum" inscription, the year of production, and the mint mark; these coins, unlike normal dollar coins, had completely blank edges), but these coins, known as "godless dollars", were the result of a minting error, not a deliberate omission.[52][53]
Marty Feldman's satirical comedy In God We Tru$t (1980).
The film They Live plays on the idea. Special sunglasses allow the wearers to see simple hidden messages instead of the signs they see without them. Advertising is seen as "OBEY", "CONSUME" and "MARRY AND REPRODUCE". Dollar bills are all marked "THIS IS YOUR GOD".[54]
In January 2006, Laurence Llewelyn-Bowen and his wife Jackie were offered a place on the Valentine's Day celebrity couples edition of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? They appeared on the show managing to reach the £1 million question, before answering it incorrectly and dropping from £500,000 all the way down to just £32,000 (a loss of £468,000). For the first time ever, Celador allowed Llewelyn-Bowen and his wife retry the show after the company claimed that the last question "didn't meet their standards".[citation needed] After returning and being shown a different £1 million question, the couple decided not to risk losing £468,000 for the second time and won £500,000 for their chosen charity, The Shooting Star Children's Hospice, of which Llewelyn-Bowen and his wife are both patrons. Their new question was about the first man to travel to space twice, and the correct answer to the question was Gus Grissom. They decided not to risk it this time and walked away with the £500,000. This amount is the highest amount that any celebrity couple has won on any British edition of Who Wants To Be a Millionaire?[55] The £468,000 they originally lost was also the greatest loss ever seen on the show, and no other contestant has ever answered the final question incorrectly in the United Kingdom version.[56][57] The allegedly misleading question was "Translated from the Latin, what is the motto of the United States?" The answer given was "In God We Trust" which is originally English and has in fact been the motto of the United States since 1956. The intended answer had been "One Out of Many" which is a translation of the Latin phrase E pluribus unum, which is not actually the current United States motto. E pluribus unum had been the de facto motto but was never legally declared as such.[55]
License plates[edit]
"IN GOD WE TRUST" optional license plate designed by Troy Wingard for the South Carolina Department of Public Safety in 2002
As of April 1, 2016 the following U.S. states currently offer an "In God We Trust" license plate as a speciality plate for an additional normal vehicle registration processing which vary from state to state: Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, Florida, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
Florida (Which also offers a speciality plate) and Georgia which both display the county of issuance on their License Plate offer the option of "In God We Trust" in place of the County Name.
Criticism[edit]
Advocates of separation of church and state have questioned the legality of this motto asserting that it is a violation of the United States Constitution, prohibiting the government from passing any law respecting an establishment of religion.[58] Religious accommodationists state that this entrenched practice has not historically presented any constitutional difficulty, is not coercive, and does not prefer one religious denomination over another.[58]
"In God We Trust" as a national motto and on U.S. currency has been the subject of numerous unsuccessful lawsuits.[59] The motto was first challenged in Aronow v. United States in 1970, but the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled: "It is quite obvious that the national motto and the slogan on coinage and currency 'In God We Trust' has nothing whatsoever to do with the establishment of religion. Its use is of patriotic or ceremonial character and bears no true resemblance to a governmental sponsorship of a religious exercise."[60] In Lynch v. Donnelly (1984), the Supreme Court wrote that acts of "ceremonial deism" are "protected from Establishment Clause scrutiny chiefly because they have lost through rote repetition any significant religious content".[61] In Zorach v. Clauson (1952), the Supreme Court also wrote that the nation's "institutions presuppose a Supreme Being" and that government recognition of God does not constitute the establishment of a state church as the Constitution's authors intended to prohibit.[62]
In November 2005, Michael Newdow announced he wants to have "In God We Trust" removed from U.S. coins and banknotes. In 2004, he received the special Recognition Freethought Hero Award for his case to remove "In God We Trust" from currency.[63] In a November 14, 2005 interview with Fox News's Neil Cavuto, Newdow compared "In God We Trust" appearing on United States currency with racial segregation (specifically separate drinking fountains), saying, "How can you not compare those? What is the difference there? Both of them [whites and blacks] got equal water. They both had access. It was government saying that it's okay to separate out these two people on the basis of race. Here we're saying it's okay to separate two people on the basis of their religious beliefs."
In June 2006, a federal judge rejected Newdow's Establishment Clause lawsuit on the grounds that the minted words amount to a secular national slogan, and do not dictate anyone's beliefs. Newdow stated that he would appeal the ruling,[64] although it should be noted that Aronow v. United States was decided on the same grounds in the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit and the lower court was required to return the same ruling, likewise the Ninth Circuit does not traditionally overrule previous Ninth Circuit rulings.
On December 4, 2007, Newdow argued before a three-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit to remove both "under God" from the Pledge of Allegiance (Roe v. Rio Linda Union School District),[citation needed] and "In God We Trust" from United States currency.[65] The Ninth Circuit rejected Newdow's challenge. In a decision published March 11, 2010, the court held that its earlier decision in Aronow, which "held the national motto is of a “patriotic or ceremonial character,” has no “theological or ritualistic impact,” and does not constitute “governmental sponsorship of a religious exercise," foreclosed Newdow's argument.[66] In an opinion concurring only in the judgment, even the extremely liberal Judge Stephen Reinhardt[67] agreed that Aronow was controlling precedent.[68]
Newdow v. Congress, 598 F.3d 638 (9th Cir. 2010) cert. denied 131 S. Ct. 1612 (U.S. 2011). AKA: The "In God We Trust Case" – A prominent atheist, Michael Newdow, filed a suit to declare the national motto – In God We Trust – unconstitutional and to have it removed from coins and currency.[69][70][71] Pacific Justice Institute intervened as a defendant and defended the against the suit.[69][70][71] The case was dismissed by the trial court and the Ninth Circuit affirmed that decision.[69][70][71]
In 2015, David F. Bauman dismissed a case against the Matawan-Aberdeen Regional School District brought by a student of the district and the American Humanist Association that argued that the phrase “under God” in the Pledge of Allegiance created a climate of discrimination because it promoted religion, making non-believers “second-class citizens”.[72][73] He noted; “As a matter of historical tradition, the words ‘under God’ can no more be expunged from the national consciousness than the words ‘In God We Trust’ from every coin in the land, than the words ‘so help me God’ from every presidential oath since 1789, or than the prayer that has opened every congressional session of legislative business since 1787.”
Aside from constitutional objections, President Theodore Roosevelt took issue with using the motto on coinage as he considered using God's name on money to be sacrilege.[74]
Gallery[edit]
"IN GOD WE TRUST" motto over the tribune in the United States House of Representatives Chamber (between the clock and the flag)
Flag of Georgia (U.S. state) with "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
Indian Head eagle, revised design of 1908 adding "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto to reverse
Dollar coin stack showing "IN GOD WE TRUST" on edge
United States one-dollar bill, reverse, series 2009 with "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
United States two-dollar bill, reverse, series 2003A with "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
2013 Lincoln cent obverse, showing "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
Saint-Gaudens double eagle, revised design of 1908 adding "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto to reverse
Seal of Florida with "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
United States five-dollar bill, reverse, series 2006 with "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
Grand Army of the Republic Memorial (Siloam Springs, Arkansas) engraved with the words "IN GOD WE TRUST"
United States twenty-dollar bill, reverse, series 2006 with "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
United States one hundred-dollar bill, reverse, series 2009 with "IN GOD WE TRUST" motto
Coat of arms of New Westminster, Canada
See also[edit]
Religion in the United States
Trust in God and keep your powder dry
Dieu et mon droit
God Save the Queen
May God have mercy upon your soul
So help me God
Gott mit uns
Deus seja louvado
In God We Trust: All Others Pay Cash
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Annual report – American Civil Liberties Union, Volume 5. American Civil Liberties Union. 1951. Retrieved 1 May 2012. In 1956, an official national motto was adopted, "In God We Trust," replacing the unofficial "E Pluribus Unum."
Jump up ^ Refiguring Mass Communication: A History. University of Illinois Press. 24 March 2010. Retrieved 1 May 2012. He held high the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the nation's unofficial motto, e pluribus unum, even as he was recoiling from the party system in which he had long participated.
^ Jump up to: a b c d U.S. Department of the Treasury (2011). "History of 'In God We Trust'". www.treasury.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-14.
Jump up ^ 36 U.S.C. § 302 National motto
Jump up ^ "U.S. on the History of "In God We Trust"". United States Department of the Treasury. Retrieved 2009-04-22.
Jump up ^ United States Public Law 84-851, United States Public Law 84-851.
Jump up ^ 12 Mar 2010 (2010-03-12). "Atheist in battle to remove 'In God We Trust' from US currency". London: Telegraph. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
Jump up ^ Drakeman, Donald L. (1 January 1991). Church-state Constitutional Issues: Making Sense of the Establishment Clause. Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313276637.
^ Jump up to: a b "USA TODAY/CNN/Gallup Poll results". USA Today. 2011. Retrieved 15 November 2011. C. The inscription "In God We Trust" on U.S. coins; 2003 Sep 19–21; Approve 90; Disapprove 8; No opinion 2
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.n-state.com, NSTATE, LLC:. "Florida State Motto In God We Trust". www.netstate.com.
^ Jump up to: a b "State Motto - Florida Department of State". dos.myflorida.com.
Jump up ^ As shown on the Córdoba (bank notes and coins); see for example Banco Central de Nicaragua Archived 2012-05-06 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Chase, Salmon P (December 9, 1863). Letter to James Pollock. Document # RG 104_UD 87-A_Folder In God We Trust 1861_Part1. National Archives and Records Administration. p. 11.
Jump up ^ The Regimental Committee, 125th PA Volunteers, 1862–1863 (2009). Regimental History. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Library. pp. 150–152. ISBN 978-1-112-13570-5.
Jump up ^ Alexander, ted (2011). The Battle of Antietam. Charleston, SC: The History Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-60949-179-6.
Jump up ^ 125th PA Vol. Infantry: IN GOD WE TRUST. YouTube. 28 June 2012.
Jump up ^ Regimental Committee 1906, p. 151.
Jump up ^ "History of 'In God We Trust'". U.S. Department of the Treasury. Retrieved 3 October 2013.
Jump up ^ United States (1897). Congressional Serial Set. US: Government Printing Office, p. 260.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "History of 'In God We Trust'". treasury.gov. Retrieved 2016-04-29.
Jump up ^ Duncan, Ann W. (2008). Religion, Rhetoric, and Ritual in the U.S. Government," Church-state Issues in America Today. Westport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, pp. 77.
Jump up ^ According to The Congressional Record (1908, House), p. 3387, the motto was adopted "doubtless with his [Lincoln's] knowledge and approval."
Jump up ^ Congressional Record, 1956, p. 13917, via NonBeliever.org
Jump up ^ "10 Interesting Facts About Theodore Roosevelt". Republicanpresidents.net. Retrieved 2014-02-04.
Jump up ^ Merriman, Scott A. Religion and the Law in America: An Encyclopedia of Personal Belief and Public Policy. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2007. Print. "In 1956, the United States, changed its motto to "In God We Trust," in large part to differentiate itself from the Soviet Union, its Cold War enemy that was widely seen as promoting atheism."
Jump up ^ "New National Motto Of U. S. Recalls Key's Words Of 1814". Palladium-Item. Richmond, Indiana. 13 Aug 1956. p. 8. Retrieved 2018-02-15 – via Newspapers.com.
Jump up ^ Miller, Douglas and Nowak, Marion, The Fifties: The Way We Really Were. 1977, 89. "'In God We Trust' was adopted as the national motto in 1956, with neither debate nor a single dissenting vote in the House or Senate."
Jump up ^ Public Law 84-851
Jump up ^ Public Law 84-140
Jump up ^ Steven B. Epstein, "Rethinking the Constitutionality of Ceremonial Deism" Columbia Law Review, Vol. 96, No. 8. (Dec., 1996), p. 2083–2174, quoting the peroration (abridged here) of the speech by Charles Edward Bennett, sponsor in the House, the only speech in either House of Congress on the subject. President Eisenhower and W. Randolph Burgess, Deputy to the Treasury for Monetary Affairs, had approved of the legislation! 101 Congressional Record pp. 4384 (quoted), 7796. (1955)
Jump up ^ "The legislation placing "In God We Trust" on national currency | US House of Representatives: History, Art & Archives". history.house.gov. 1955-07-11. Retrieved 2017-05-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Aronow v. United States , 432 F.2d 242, 243 (9th Cir. October 6, 1970).
Jump up ^ Duncan, Ann W. (2008). Church-state Issues in America Today. Westport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 88.
Jump up ^ "Page not found". Retrieved 20 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Press, The Associated (25 March 2001). "National News Briefs; 'In God We Trust' Motto For Mississippi Schools". Retrieved 20 December 2017 – via NYTimes.com.
Jump up ^ "USATODAY.com – 'In God We Trust' pressed for schools". usatoday.com. 19 February 2002.
Jump up ^ Felicia Sonmez (1 November 2011). "Social issues return to fore with 'In God We Trust' resolution". The Washington Post. Retrieved 7 November 2011. In 2006, on the 50th anniversary of its adoption, the Senate reaffirmed 'In God We Trust' as the official national motto of the United States," Forbes said in a statement announcing the vote. "Tomorrow, the House of Representatives will have the same opportunity to reaffirm our national motto and directly confront a disturbing trend of inaccuracies and omissions, misunderstandings of church and state, rogue court challenges, and efforts to remove God from the public domain by unelected bureaucrats.
Jump up ^ Jennifer Steinhauer (3 November 2011). "In God We Trust, With the House's Help". The New York Times. Retrieved 7 November 2011. Citing a crisis of national identity and mass confusion among Americans about their nation's motto, the House on Tuesday voted on a resolution "reaffirming 'In God We Trust' as the official motto of the United States."
Jump up ^ Todd Starnes (3 November 2011). "See Which Congressmen Voted Against 'In God We Trust'". Fox News. Retrieved 7 November 2011. The House of Representatives passed a bi-partisan resolution Tuesday night reaffirming "In God We Trust" as the official motto of the United States. The 396–9 vote came at the request of Rep. Randy Forbes (R-VA).
Jump up ^ "Lawsuit to remove 'In God We Trust' from money gets dismissed - KSL.com". ksl.com.
Jump up ^ Mississippi Legislature (January 2014). "Mississippi Religious Freedom Restoration Act; enact and modify the great seal" (PDF). Senate Bill No. 2681. Mississippi: State of Mississippi. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 2, 2014. Retrieved April 2, 2014.
Jump up ^ Wagster Pettus, Emily (31 January 2014). "Miss. Senate OKs adding 'In God We Trust' to seal". WorldNow and WLBT. Archived from the original on February 1, 2014. Retrieved 1 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "'In God We Trust' to be placed on Jefferson Co., IL squad cars" (Archive). KFVS. August 1, 2015. Retrieved on August 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Atheist Group Asks Police Remove 'In God We Trust' Car Decal". dailysignal.com.
Jump up ^ News, Charlene Aaron/CBN. "Apostle Kimberly Daniels Scores Big Win for Prayer in Public Schools". charismanews.com.
Jump up ^ CNN, Joe Sterling,. "Florida lawmakers advance a bill that requires 'In God We Trust' displayed on school grounds". cnn.com.
Jump up ^ "Florida lawmakers advance bill that would require 'In God We Trust' to be visible on all school buildings". newsweek.com. 23 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "In God We Trust: The Motto". All About History. Retrieved 2013-02-26.
Jump up ^ "Verses including the word Putting One's Trust in Allah (Tawakkul)". Quran Index. Retrieved 2016-06-16.
Jump up ^ Ramaswamy, Melkote (2012-08-11). "Faith/Values | Indianapolis Star". indystar.com. Retrieved 2014-02-04. [dead link]
Jump up ^ "Historic Change", Snopes, http://www.snopes.com/politics/religion/dollarcoin.asp
Jump up ^ David S Morgan (2007-03-07). ""Godless" Dollar Coins Slip Through Mint". CBS News. Retrieved 2010-11-03.
Jump up ^ Associated Press: Dollar Coins Missing 'In God We Trust', By David S Morgan, (Mar. 7, 2007), CBS News Archived March 19, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Empire of the Sunglasses: How 'They Live' Took on Republicans and Won", by Joshua Rothkopf, Rolling Stone
^ Jump up to: a b "TV designer's second shot at £1m". British Broadcasting Corporation. 13 January 2006. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Born, Matt (13 January 2006). "Llewelyn-Bowen blows £1m". The Daily Mail. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Lat, David (25 August 2009). "Who Wants To Be A Millionaire? Ken Basin, Harvard Law '08, Sure Does". Above the Law. Retrieved 22 May 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Richard H. Fallon (2004). The Dynamic Constitution: an Introduction to Americans Constitutional Law. Cambridge University Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-521-60078-1. "Strict separationists" believe that the government has no business supporting religious beliefs or institutions in any way – for example, by providing tax breaks to churches, assisting parochial schools, including prayers or benedictions in public ceremonies, or inscribing "In God We Trust" on the currency. Religious accommodationists can well explain why certain entrenched social practices (such as the inscription of "In God We Trust" on the currency) were not historically perceived as presenting constitutional difficulties: The relevant practices are not coercive and do not prefer one narrow sect over another.
Jump up ^ Markoe, Lauren (2014-05-29). "Atheists Lose Latest Battle To Remove 'In God We Trust' From U.S. Currency". huffingtonpost.com. Religion News Service. Retrieved 2014-10-09.
Jump up ^ Aronow, 432 F.2d at 243.
Jump up ^ LYNCH v. DONNELLY, 465 U.S. 668 (1984) U.S. Supreme Court
Jump up ^ ABA Journal Sep 1962. Much more recently, in 1952, speaking through Mr. Justice Douglas in Zorach v. Clauson, 343 U.S. 306, 313, the Supreme Court repeated the same sentiments, saying: We are a religious people whose institutions presuppose a Supreme Being. Mr. Justice Brewer in the Holy Trinity case, supra, mentioned many of these evidences of religion, and Mr. Justice Douglas in the Zorach case referred to ... [P]rayers in our legislative halls; the appeals to the Almighty in the messages of the Chief Executive; the proclamation making Thanksgiving Day a holiday; "So help me God" in our courtroom oaths – these and ... other references to the Almighty ... run through our laws, our public rituals, our ceremonies ... the supplication with which the Court opens each session: "God save the United States and this Honorable Court" (312–313). To this list may be added tax exemption of churches, chaplaincies in the armed forces, the "Pray for Peace" postmark, the widespread observance of Christmas holidays, and, in classrooms, singing the fourth stanza of America which is prayer invoking the protection of God, and the words "in God is our trust" as found in the National Anthem, and the reciting of the Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag, modified by an Act of Congress of June 14, 1954, to include the words "under God".
Jump up ^ "Freethought Hero Award 2004 - Mike Newdow". Archived from the original on 2007-07-29. Retrieved 2007-07-29. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) , Freedom From Religion Foundation 2004-10-30
Jump up ^ "Federal Judge Nixes 'In God We Trust' Lawsuit". Fox News Channel. 2006-06-12.
Jump up ^ "Newdow v. Congress of the United States" (PDF). findlaw.com.
Jump up ^ "Newdow v. Lefevre, No. 06-16344, at 4210 (9th Cir. Mar. 11, 2010) (citing Aronow, 432 F.2d at 243-44)" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Matt Rees, The Judge the Supreme Court Loves to Overturn, The Weekly Standard, May 5, 1997;". compare "David G. Savage, Crusading Liberal Judge Keeps High Court Busy, L.A. Times, Mar. 3, 1996." The Los Angeles Times. 1996-03-03.
Jump up ^ "Newdow, at 4210-11 (Reinhardt, J., concurring)" (PDF).
^ Jump up to: a b c Bob Egelko, 'In God We Trust' suit rejected by Supreme Court, San Francisco Chronicle, [1] March 8, 2011
^ Jump up to: a b c Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Newdow v. Congress, [2] March 11, 2010
^ Jump up to: a b c C-SPAN Video Library, Establishment of Religion Clause Oral Arguments, Part 1, [3] December 7, 2007
Jump up ^ Salvador Rizzo. "Hearing 'Under God' in Pledge of Allegiance does not violate rights of atheist students, NJ judge rules". NorthJersey.com. Retrieved February 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Judge Refuses To Kick God Out Of Public Schools". Forbes. February 7, 2015. Retrieved February 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ "ROOSEVELT DROPPED 'IN GOD WE TRUST'; President Says Such a Motto on Coin Is Irreverence, Close to Sacrilege. NO LAW COMMANDS ITS USE He Trusts Congress Will Not Direct Him to Replace the Exalted Phrase That Invited Constant Levity". The New York Times. November 14, 1907. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to In God We Trust.
Final answer? Not quite as star gets second chance to play for a million – article in The Guardian about a disputed quiz question about the motto of the United States.
Local documentary on origin of phrase
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Uranium-235
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"U-235" redirects here. For the World War II submarine, see German submarine U-235.
Uranium-235

Uranium metal highly enriched in uranium-235
Full table
General
Name, symbol Uranium-235,235U
Neutrons 143
Protons 92
Nuclide data
Natural abundance 0.72%
Half-life 703,800,000 years
Parent isotopes 235Pa
235Np
239Pu
Decay products 231Th
Isotope mass 235.0439299 u
Spin 7/2−
Excess energy 40914.062 ± 1.970 keV
Binding energy 1783870.285 ± 1.996 keV
Decay mode
Decay energy
Alpha 4.679 MeV
Uranium-235 (235U) is an isotope of uranium making up about 0.72% of natural uranium. Unlike the predominant isotope uranium-238, it is fissile, i.e., it can sustain a fission chain reaction. It is the only fissile isotope that is a primordial nuclide or found in significant quantity in nature.
Uranium-235 has a half-life of 703.8 million years. It was discovered in 1935 by Arthur Jeffrey Dempster. Its (fission) nuclear cross section for slow thermal neutrons is about 584.994 barns. For fast neutrons it is on the order of 1 barn.[1] Most but not all neutron absorptions result in fission; a minority result in neutron capture forming uranium-236.
Contents
[hide]
1 Natural decay chain
2 Fission
2.1 Nuclear weapons
3 Uses
4 References
5 External links
Natural decay chain[edit]
235 92 U → 7.038 × 10 8 y α 231 90 Th → 25.52 h β − 231 91 Pa → 3.276 × 10 4 y α 227 89 Ac { → 21.773 y 98.62 % β − 227 90 Th → 18.718 d α → 21.773 y 1.38 % α 223 87 Fr → 21.8 min β − } 223 88 Ra → 11 , 434 d α 219 86 Rn 219 86 Rn → 3.96 s α 215 84 Po → 1.778 ms α 211 82 Pb → 36.1 min β − 211 83 Bi { → 2.13 min 99.73 % α 207 81 Tl → 4.77 min β − → 2.13 min 0.27 % β − 211 84 Po → 0.516 s α } 207 82 Pb ( stable ) {\displaystyle {\begin{array}{l}{\ce {^{235}_{92}U->[\alpha ][7.038\times 10^{8}\ {\ce {y}}]_{90}^{231}Th->[\beta ^{-}][25.52\ {\ce {h}}]_{91}^{231}Pa->[\alpha ][3.276\times 10^{4}\ {\ce {y}}]_{89}^{227}Ac}}{\begin{Bmatrix}{\ce {->[98.62\%\beta ^{-}][21.773\ {\ce {y}}]_{90}^{227}Th->[\alpha ][18.718\ {\ce {d}}]}}\\{\ce {->[1.38\%\alpha ][21.773\ {\ce {y}}]_{87}^{223}Fr->[\beta ^{-}][21.8\ {\ce {min}}]}}\end{Bmatrix}}{\ce {^{223}_{88}Ra->[\alpha ][11,434\ {\ce {d}}]_{86}^{219}Rn}}\\{\ce {^{219}_{86}Rn->[\alpha ][3.96\ {\ce {s}}]_{84}^{215}Po->[\alpha ][1.778\ {\ce {ms}}]_{82}^{211}Pb->[\beta ^{-}][36.1\ {\ce {min}}]_{83}^{211}Bi}}{\begin{Bmatrix}{\ce {->[99.73\%\alpha ][2.13\ {\ce {min}}]_{81}^{207}Tl->[\beta ^{-}][4.77\ {\ce {min}}]}}\\{\ce {->[0.27\%\beta ^{-}][2.13\ {\ce {min}}]_{84}^{211}Po->[\alpha ][0.516\ {\ce {s}}]}}\end{Bmatrix}}{\ce {^{207}_{82}Pb_{(stable)}}}\end{array}}}
Fission[edit]
Nuclear fission seen with a uranium-235 nucleus
The fission of one atom of uranium-235 generates 202.5 MeV = 3.24 × 10−11 J, which translates to 19.54 TJ/mol, or 83.14 TJ/kg.[2] This is around 2.5 million times more than the energy released from burning coal.[3] When 235
92U nuclides are bombarded with neutrons, one of the many fission reactions that it can undergo is the following (shown visually in the adjacent image):
1
0n + 235
92U → 141
56Ba + 92
36Kr + 3 1
0n
Heavy water reactors, and some graphite moderated reactors can use unenriched uranium, but light water reactors must use low enriched uranium because of light water's neutron absorption. Uranium enrichment removes some of the uranium-238 and increases the proportion of uranium-235. Highly enriched uranium (HEU), which contains an even greater proportion of uranium-235, is sometimes used in nuclear weapon design.
If at least one neutron from uranium-235 fission strikes another nucleus and causes it to fission, then the chain reaction will continue. If the reaction will sustain itself, it is said to be critical, and the mass of U-235 required to produce the critical condition is said to be a critical mass. A critical chain reaction can be achieved at low concentrations of U-235 if the neutrons from fission are moderated to lower their speed, since the probability for fission with slow neutrons is greater. A fission chain reaction produces intermediate mass fragments which are highly radioactive and produce further energy by their radioactive decay. Some of them produce neutrons, called delayed neutrons, which contribute to the fission chain reaction. In nuclear reactors, the reaction is slowed down by the addition of control rods which are made of elements such as boron, cadmium, and hafnium which can absorb a large number of neutrons. In nuclear bombs, the reaction is uncontrolled and the large amount of energy released creates a nuclear explosion.
Nuclear weapons[edit]
The Little Boy gun type atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 was made of highly enriched uranium with a large tamper. The nominal spherical critical mass for an untampered 235U nuclear weapon is 56 kilograms (123 lb),[4] a sphere 17.32 cm (6.8") in diameter. The material must be 85% or more of 235U and is known as weapons grade uranium, though for a crude, inefficient weapon 20% is sufficient (called weapon(s)-usable). Even lower enrichment can be used, but then the required critical mass rapidly increases. Use of a large tamper, implosion geometries, trigger tubes, polonium triggers, tritium enhancement, and neutron reflectors can enable a more compact, economical weapon using one-fourth or less of the nominal critical mass, though this would likely only be possible in a country that already had extensive experience in engineering nuclear weapons. Most modern nuclear weapon designs use plutonium as the fissile component of the primary stage,[5][6] however HEU is often used in the secondary stage.
Source
Average energy released [MeV][2]
Instantaneously released energy
Kinetic energy of fission fragments 169.1
Kinetic energy of prompt neutrons 4.8
Energy carried by prompt γ-rays 7.0
Energy from decaying fission products
Energy of β−-particles 6.5
Energy of delayed γ-rays 6.3
Energy released when those prompt neutrons which don't (re)produce fission are captured 8.8
Total energy converted into heat in an operating thermal nuclear reactor 202.5
Energy of anti-neutrinos 8.8
Sum 211.3
Uses[edit]
Uranium-235 has many uses such as fuel for nuclear power plants, and nuclear weapons such as nuclear bombs.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ ""Some Physics of Uranium", UIC.com.au". Archived from the original on July 17, 2007. Retrieved 2009-01-18. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
^ Jump up to: a b Nuclear fission and fusion, and neutron interactions, National Physical Laboratory.
Jump up ^ Energy Content in Common Energy Sources, EngineeringToolBox.com.
Jump up ^ FAS Nuclear Weapons Design FAQ, accessed 2010-9-2. There are numerous other references on the net, and with modern computers, this is fairly easy to calculate, so secrecy cannot aid security.
Jump up ^ FAS contributors (ed.). Nuclear Weapon Design. Federation of American Scientists.
Jump up ^ Miner. 1968. p. 541. [full citation needed]
External links[edit]
Table of Nuclides.
DOE Fundamentals handbook: Nuclear Physics and Reactor theory Vol. 1, Vol. 2.
Uranium | Radiation Protection Program | US EPA
NLM Hazardous Substances Databank - Uranium, Radioactive
"The Miracle of U-235", Popular Mechanics, January 1941—one of the earliest articles on U-235 for the general public

Lighter:
uranium-234 Uranium-235 is an
isotope of uranium Heavier:
uranium-236
Decay product of:
protactinium-235
neptunium-235
plutonium-239 Decay chain
of uranium-235 Decays to:
thorium-231
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uranium-235&oldid=807691379"
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