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Political parties in the United States
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Political parties in the United States are mostly dominated by a two-party system, though the United States Constitution has always been silent on the issue of political parties since at the time it was signed in 1787 there were no parties in the nation—indeed, no nation in the world had voter-based political parties.
Contents
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1 Overview
2 History and early political parties
2.1 First Party System: 1792–1824
2.2 Second Party System: 1828–1854
2.3 Third Party System: 1854–1890s
2.4 Fourth Party System: 1896–1932
2.5 Fifth and Sixth Party Systems: 1933–present
2.6 Minor parties and independents
3 Modern U.S. political party system
3.1 The two major parties
3.1.1 Democratic Party
3.1.2 Republican Party
3.2 Major third parties
3.2.1 Libertarian Party
3.2.2 Green Party
3.2.3 Constitution Party
4 Issues
5 References
6 Further reading
Overview[edit]
The need to win popular support in a republic led to the American invention of voter-based political parties in the 1790s.[1] Americans were especially innovative in devising new campaign techniques that linked public opinion with public policy through the party.[2]
Political scientists and historians have divided the development of America's two-party system into five eras.[3] The first two-party system consisted of the Federalist Party, who supported the ratification of the Constitution, and the Democratic-Republican Party or the Anti-Administration party (Anti-Federalists), who opposed the powerful central government, among others, that the Constitution established when it took effect in 1789.[4]
The modern two-party system consists of the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. Several third parties also operate in the U.S., and from time to time elect someone to local office.[5] The largest third party since the 1980s is the Libertarian Party.
Besides the Constitution, Green, and Libertarian parties, there are many other political parties that receive only minimal support and only appear on the ballot in one or a few states.
Some political candidates, and many voters, choose not to identify with a particular political party. In some states, independents are not allowed to vote in primary elections, but in others, they can vote in any primary election of their choice. Although the term "independent" often is used as a synonym for "moderate," "centrist," or "swing voter," to refer to a politician or voter who holds views that incorporate facets of both liberal and conservative ideologies, an independent can be of any ideological or political persuasion.
History and early political parties[edit]
Popular votes to political parties during presidential elections.
Political parties derivation. Dotted line means unofficially.
The United States Constitution is silent on the subject of political parties. The Founding Fathers did not originally intend for American politics to be partisan. In Federalist Papers No. 9 and No. 10, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, respectively, wrote specifically about the dangers of domestic political factions. In addition, the first President of the United States, George Washington, was not a member of any political party at the time of his election or throughout his tenure as president. Furthermore, he hoped that political parties would not be formed, fearing conflict and stagnation, as outlined in his Farewell Address.[6]
Nevertheless, the beginnings of the American two-party system emerged from his immediate circle of advisers. Hamilton and Madison, who wrote the aforementioned Federalist Papers against political factions, ended up being the core leaders in this emerging party system. It was the split camps of Federalists, given rise with Hamilton as a leader, and Democratic-Republicans, with Madison and Thomas Jefferson at the helm of this political faction, that created the environment in which partisanship, once distasteful, came to being.[7][8]
First Party System: 1792–1824[edit]
Main article: First Party System
The First Party System of the United States featured the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party (also called "Democratic-Republican" or "Jeffersonian Republican"). The Federalist Party grew from the national network of Washington's Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, who favored a strong united central government, close ties to Britain, a centralized banking system, and close links between the government and men of wealth.
The Democratic-Republican Party was founded by Madison and Thomas Jefferson, who strongly opposed Hamilton's agenda.[9] The Jeffersonians came to power in 1800 and the Federalists were too elitist to compete effectively. They survived in the Northeast, but their refusal to support the War of 1812 verged on secession and was a devastating blow when the war ended well. The Era of Good Feelings under President James Monroe (1816–1824) marked the end of the First Party System and a brief period in which partisanship was minimal.[10]
Second Party System: 1828–1854[edit]
Main article: Second Party System
Presidential election victories by party system[11]
Party System
Party A
Party B
First
1 7
Second
5 2
Third
3 7
Fourth
2 7
Fifth
7 2
Sixth
5 7
The Second Party System operated from about 1828 to 1854, following the splintering of the Democratic-Republican Party. Two major parties dominated the political landscape: the Whig Party, led by Henry Clay, that grew from the National Republican Party; and the Democratic Party, led by Andrew Jackson. The Democrats supported the primacy of the Presidency over the other branches of government, and opposed both the Bank of the United States as well as modernizing programs that they felt would build up industry at the expense of the taxpayer.
The Whigs, on the other hand, advocated the primacy of Congress over the executive branch as well as policies of modernization and economic protectionism. Central political battles of this era were the Bank War and the Spoils system of federal patronage.[12] The 1850s saw the collapse of the Whig party, largely as a result of decline in its leadership and a major intra-party split over slavery as a result of the Compromise of 1850. In addition, the fading of old economic issues removed many of the unifying forces holding the party together.
Third Party System: 1854–1890s[edit]
Main article: Third Party System
The Third Party System stretched from 1854 to the mid-1890s, and was characterized by the emergence of the anti-slavery Republican Party (nicknamed "GOP"), which adopted many of the economic policies of the Whigs, such as national banks, railroads, high tariffs, homesteads and aid to land grant colleges.
Civil war and Reconstruction issues polarized the parties until the Compromise of 1877, which ended the latter. Thus both parties became broad-based voting coalitions and the race issue pulled newly enfranchised African Americans (Freedmen) into the Republican Party while white southerners (Redeemers) joined the Democratic Party. The Democratic coalition also had conservative pro-business Bourbon Democrats, traditional Democrats in the North (many of them former Copperheads), and Catholic immigrants, among others. The Republican coalition also consisted of businessmen, shop owners, skilled craftsmen, clerks, and professionals who were attracted to the party's modernization policies.[13]
Fourth Party System: 1896–1932[edit]
Main article: Fourth Party System
The Fourth Party System, 1896 to 1932, consisted of the same interest groups as the Third Party System, but saw major shifts in the central issues of debate. This period also corresponded to the Progressive Era, and was dominated by the Republican Party. It began after the Republicans blamed the Democrats for the Panic of 1893, which later resulted in William McKinley's victory over William Jennings Bryan in the 1896 presidential election.
The central domestic issues changed to government regulation of railroads and large corporations ("trusts"), the protective tariff, the role of labor unions, child labor, the need for a new banking system, corruption in party politics, primary elections, direct election of senators, racial segregation, efficiency in government, women's suffrage, and control of immigration. Most voting blocs continued unchanged, but some realignment took place, giving Republicans dominance in the industrial Northeast and new strength in the border states. Historians have long debated why no Labor Party emerged in the United States, in contrast to Western Europe.[14]
Fifth and Sixth Party Systems: 1933–present[edit]
Main articles: Fifth Party System and Sixth Party System
The Fifth Party System emerged with the New Deal Coalition beginning in 1933.[15] The Republicans began losing support after the Great Depression, giving rise to Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the activist New Deal. They promoted American liberalism, anchored in a coalition of specific liberal groups, especially ethno-religious constituencies (Catholics, Jews, African Americans), white Southerners, well-organized labor unions, urban machines, progressive intellectuals, and populist farm groups.
Opposition Republicans were split between a conservative wing, led by Ohio Senator Robert A. Taft, and a more successful moderate wing exemplified by the politics of Northeastern leaders such as Nelson Rockefeller, Jacob Javits, and Henry Cabot Lodge. The latter steadily lost influence inside the GOP after 1964.[16]
Experts debate whether this era ended (and a Sixth Party System subsequently emerged) in the mid-1960s when the New Deal coalition died, the early 1980s when the Moral Majority and the Reagan coalition were formed, the early 1990s when Third Way emerged among Democrats, the mid-1990s during the Republican Revolution, or if the Fifth system continues in some form to the present.
Since the 1930s, the Democrats positioned themselves more towards liberalism while the conservatives increasingly dominated the GOP.[17] However, new voter coalitions emerged during the latter half of the 20th century, with conservatives and the Republicans becoming dominant in the South, rural areas, and suburbs; while liberals and the Democrats increasingly started to rely on a coalition of African-Americans, Hispanics and white urban progressives.
Minor parties and independents[edit]
See also: Independent (politician) § United States
Although American politics have been dominated by the two-party system, several other political parties have also emerged throughout the country's history. The oldest third party was the Anti-Masonic Party and was formed in upstate New York in 1828; the party's creators feared the Freemasons, believing they were a powerful secret society that was trying to rule the country in defiance of republican principles.[18]
Modern U.S. political party system[edit]
The modern political party system in the U.S. is a two-party system dominated by the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. These two parties have won every United States presidential election since 1852 and have controlled the United States Congress to some extent since at least 1856.
The two major parties[edit]
Democratic Party[edit]
Main articles: Democratic Party (United States) and History of the United States Democratic Party
The Democratic Party is one of two major political parties in the U.S. Founded in 1828 by Andrew Jackson, it is the oldest extant voter-based political party in the world.[19][20]
The Democratic Party at its founding supported a different set of issues than it presently supports. From its founding until the mid-20th century, the Democratic Party was the dominant party among white Southerners, and as such, was then the party most associated with the defense of slavery. However, following the Great Society under Lyndon B. Johnson, the Democratic Party became the more progressive party on issues of civil rights, while losing dominance in the Southern states to the Republicans.
The Democratic Party since 1912 has positioned itself as the liberal party on domestic issues. The economic philosophy of Franklin D. Roosevelt, which has strongly influenced modern American liberalism, has shaped much of the party's agenda since 1932. Roosevelt's New Deal coalition controlled the White House until 1968, with the exception of the two terms of President Eisenhower from 1953–1961. Since the mid-20th century, Democrats have generally been in the center-left and currently support social justice, social liberalism, a mixed economy, and the welfare state, although Bill Clinton and other New Democrats have pushed for free trade and neoliberalism, which is seen to have shifted the party rightwards. Democrats are currently strongest on the East and West Coasts and in major American urban centers. African-Americans and Latinos tend to be disproportionately Democratic, as do trade unions.
In 2004, it was the largest political party, with 72 million registered voters (42.6% of 169 million registered) claiming affiliation.[21] The former president of the United States, Barack Obama, was the 15th Democrat to hold the office, and from the 2006 midterm elections until the 2014 midterm elections, the Democratic Party was the majority party in the United States Senate. Although his party lost the election for president in 2004, Obama would later go on to become president in 2009 and continue to be the president until January 2017.
A 2011 USA Today review of state voter rolls indicates that the number of registered Democrats declined in 25 of 28 states (some states do not register voters by party). During this time, Republican registration also declined, as independent or no preference voting was on the rise. Democrats were still the largest political party with more than 42 million voters (compared with 30 million Republicans and 24 million independents). But in 2011 Democrats numbers shrank 800,000, and from 2008 they were down by 1.7 million, or 3.9%.[22]
Republican Party[edit]
Main articles: Republican Party (United States) and History of the United States Republican Party
The Republican Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States of America. Since the 1880s it has been nicknamed (by the media) the "Grand Old Party" or GOP, although it is younger than the Democratic Party.
Founded in 1854 by Northern anti-slavery activists and modernizers, the Republican Party rose to prominence in 1860 with the election of Abraham Lincoln, who used the party machinery to support victory in the American Civil War. The GOP dominated national politics during the Third Party System, from 1854 to 1896, and the Fourth Party System from 1896 to 1932.
Since its founding, the Republican Party has been the more market-oriented of the two American political parties, often favoring policies that aid American business interests. As a party whose power was once based on the voting clout of Union Army veterans, this party has traditionally supported more aggressive defense measures and more lavish veteran's benefits. Today, the Republican Party supports an American conservative platform, with further foundations in economic liberalism, fiscal conservatism, and social conservatism. The Republican Party tends to be strongest in the Southern United States and the "flyover states", as well as suburban and rural areas in other states. One significant base of support for the Republican Party are Evangelical Christians, who have wielded significant clout in the party since the early 1970s.
President Donald Trump is the 20th and the current Republican to be elected to the office of President of the United States. Since the 2010 midterm elections, the Republicans have held a majority in the United States House of Representatives, and since the 2014 elections, the Senate.[23]
Major third parties[edit]
Libertarian Party[edit]
Main article: Libertarian Party (United States)
The Libertarian Party was founded on December 11, 1971.[24] It is the largest continuing third party in the United States, claiming more than 511,277 registered voters across all 50 states.[25] They currently have about 223 elected officials, more than any of the other minor parties, including 4 state legislators.[26][27]
The 2012 Libertarian Party nominee for United States President was former New Mexico governor, Gary Johnson. He achieved ballot access in every state except for Michigan (only as a write-in candidate) and Oklahoma. He received over one million votes in the election. In 2016, Johnson ran again, receiving over four million votes, or 3% of the popular vote.
The Libertarian Party's core mission is to reduce the size, influence and expenditures of all levels of government. To this effect, the party supports minimally regulated markets, a less powerful federal government, strong civil liberties, drug liberalization, separation of church and state, open immigration, non-interventionism and neutrality in diplomatic relations, free trade and free movement to all foreign countries, and a more representative republic.[28]
Green Party[edit]
Main article: Green Party (United States)
In the United States, the Green Party has been active as a third party since the 1980s. The party first gained widespread public attention during Ralph Nader's second presidential run in 2000. Currently, the primary national Green Party organization in the U.S. is the Green Party of the United States, which has eclipsed the earlier Greens/Green Party USA.
The Green Party in the United States has won elected office mostly at the local level; most winners of public office in the United States who are considered Greens have won nonpartisan-ballot elections (that is, elections in which the candidates' party affiliations were not printed on the ballot).[29] In 2005, the Party had 305,000 registered members in the District of Columbia and 20 states that allow party registration.[30] During the 2006 elections the party had ballot access in 31 states.[31] In 2017, Ralph Chapman, a Representative in the Maine House of Representative switched his association from Unaffiliated to the Green Independent Party. [32]
The United States Green Party generally holds a left-wing ideology on most important issues. Greens emphasize environmentalism, non-hierarchical participatory democracy, social justice, respect for diversity, peace and nonviolence.
Constitution Party[edit]
Main article: Constitution Party (United States)
The Constitution Party is a small national right-wing to far-right political party in the United States. It was founded as the U.S. Taxpayers Party in 1992 by Howard Phillips. The party's official name was changed to the Constitution Party in 1999; however, some state affiliate parties are known under different names.
The Constitution Party is strongly pro-life (i.e. opposed to abortion), and supports gun rights, and restrictions on immigration. It calls for protectionist trade policies.
In 2006, Rick Jore of Montana became the first Constitution Party candidate elected to a state-level office,[33][34] though the Constitution Party of Montana had disaffiliated itself from the national party a short time before the election.
In 2010 former Congressman Tom Tancredo was the Constitution Party candidate for governor of Colorado coming in second with 617,030 votes, 36.4% and ahead of the Republican candidate, Dan Maes, with 11.1%.
The Constitution Party's 2012 presidential nominee was former Congressmen Virgil Goode of Virginia.
Tennessee Attorney Darrell Castle was the 2016 Constitution Party nominee for President of the United States and Scott Bradley of Utah was the nominee for Vice President.
Issues[edit]
See also: Usage of "left–right" politics in the United States and Organization of American political parties
The following table lists some political ideologies most often associated with the five U.S. political parties with the most members, as well the tendencies of the official party positions on a number of reformist issues where positions diverge. Nuances may be found in the parties' respective platforms. Because American political parties are more loosely organized than those in other countries, not all members of a party subscribe to all of its officially held positions, the usual degree of variation generally being higher for the larger parties. Party members may hold different views on legislation to be enacted at the state or federal levels, and an elected official once in office may act contradictory to many of his or her party's positions (this has led to terms such as "Republican In Name Only"). Furthermore, the modern American political spectrum, and the usage of left–right politics, differs from the rest of the world. For example, the Democratic Party, the primary left-of-center party in the country, generally supports a social liberal position rather than a social democratic one.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Roy Franklin Nichols (1967). The invention of the American political parties. Macmillan.
Jump up ^ Robert J. Dinkin, Campaigning in America: A History of Election Practices. (Greenwood 1989) online version
Jump up ^ Paul Kleppner, et al. The Evolution of American Electoral Systems (1983),
Jump up ^ "The First Political Parties: Federalists and Anti-Federalists". Boundless Political Science. Boundless.com. May 26, 2016. Retrieved July 27, 2016.
Jump up ^ William B. Hesseltine, Third-Party Movements in the United States (1962)
Jump up ^ Washington's Farewell Address
Jump up ^ Richard Hofstadter, The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States, 1780–1840 (1970)
Jump up ^ Gordon S. Wood, Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815 (Oxford History of the United States)
Jump up ^ William Nisbet Chambers, ed. The First Party System (1972)
Jump up ^ George Dangerfield, The Era of Good Feelings (1952)
Jump up ^ Using the definitions of: First Party System: 1796–1824, Second Party System: 1828–1852, Third Party System: 1856–1892, Fourth Party System: 1896–1928, Fifth Party System: 1932–1964, Sixth Party System: 1968–present
Jump up ^ Daniel Feller, "Politics and Society: Toward a Jacksonian Synthesis," Journal of the Early Republic (1990) 10#2 pp. 135–61 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Paul Kleppner; Paul. The Third Electoral System 1853–1892: Parties, Voters, and Political Cultures (1979), online edition
Jump up ^ Robin Archer, Why Is There No Labor Party in the United States? (Princeton University Press, 2007)
Jump up ^ Richard Jensen, "The Last Party System: Decay of Consensus, 1932–1980," in Paul Kleppner et al., The Evolution of American Electoral Systems (Greenwood, 1981), pp. 205–06.
Jump up ^ Nicol C. Rae, The Decline and Fall of the Liberal Republicans: From 1952 to the Present (1989)
Jump up ^ Matthew Levendusky, The Partisan Sort: How Liberals Became Democrats and Conservatives Became Republicans (U Chicago Press, 2009)
Jump up ^ Richard B. Morris, Encyclopedia of American History, revised edition, Harper & Row (New York), 1961, pp. 170–71
Jump up ^ Witcover, Jules (2003). "1". Party of the People: A History of the Democrats. p. 3. "The Democratic Party of the United States, the oldest existing in the world...."
Jump up ^ Micklethwait, John; Wooldridge, Adrian (2004). The Right Nation: Conservative Power in America. p. 15. "The country possesses the world's oldest written constitution (1787); the Democratic Party has a good claim to being the world's oldest political party."
Jump up ^ Neuhart, Al (January 22, 2004). "Why politics is fun from catbirds' seats". USA Today. Retrieved 2007-07-11.
Jump up ^ Wolf, Richard (December 22, 2011). "Voters leaving Republican, Democratic parties in droves". USA Today. Retrieved June 20, 2012.
Jump up ^ "2016 Election News, Candidates & Polls".
Jump up ^ Libertarian Party:Our History Archived 2006-01-30 at the Wayback Machine., LP.org
Jump up ^ Winger, Richard (27 July 2017). "New Voter Registration Nation Totals". ballot-access.org. Retrieved 27 July 2017.
Jump up ^ "Elected Officials". Retrieved 6 July 2015.
Jump up ^ "Republicans Who've Jumped Ship to Support Libertarian Gary Johnson for President". 27 July 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Libertarian Option". The Libertarian Party. Libertarian National Committee, Inc. Retrieved 5 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Green elected officials Archived 2010-11-23 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Green Party Ballot Status and Voter Registration Totals (United States) Archived 2008-05-26 at the Wayback Machine.". Greens.org. Retrieved April 12, 2006.
Jump up ^ "Greens Win Ballot Access in 31 States, Up From 17 in January". Green Party press release, September 5, 2006.
Jump up ^ https://bangordailynews.com/2017/09/22/politics/lawmakers-party-switch-gives-greens-a-seat-in-the-maine-house/
Jump up ^ "State Legislature results" Archived 2006-11-16 at the Wayback Machine., Missoulian, November 8, 2006, retrieved November 8, 2006
Jump up ^ Control of state Legislature unclear, Helena Independent Record
Further reading[edit]
Critchlow, Donald T. American Political History: A Very Short Introduction (2015)
Dinkin, Robert J. Campaigning in America: A History of Election Practices. Greenwood (1989)
Foley, Edward B. Ballot Battles: The History of Disputed Elections in the United States ( Oxford University Press, 2016). xiv, 479 pp.
Kleppner, Paul, ed. The evolution of American electoral systems (1981) experts review the 1st to 5th party systems..
Schlozman, Daniel. When Movements Anchor Parties: Electoral Alignments in American History (Princeton University Press, 2015) xiv, 267 pp.
Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur Meier ed. History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–2000 (various multivolume editions, latest is 2001). For each election includes history and selection of primary documents. Essays on some elections are reprinted in Schlesinger, The Coming to Power: Critical presidential elections in American history (1972)
Schlesinger, Arthur Meier, Jr. ed. History of U.S. Political Parties (1973) multivolume
Shafer, Byron E. and Anthony J. Badger, eds. Contesting Democracy: Substance and Structure in American Political History, 1775–2000 (2001), collection of new essays by specialists on each time period:
includes: "State Development in the Early Republic: 1775–1840" by Ronald P. Formisano; "The Nationalization and Racialization of American Politics: 1790–1840" by David Waldstreicher; "'To One or Another of These Parties Every Man Belongs;": 1820–1865 by Joel H. Silbey; "Change and Continuity in the Party Period: 1835–1885" by Michael F. Holt; "The Transformation of American Politics: 1865–1910" by Peter H. Argersinger; "Democracy, Republicanism, and Efficiency: 1885–1930" by Richard Jensen; "The Limits of Federal Power and Social Policy: 1910–1955" by Anthony J. Badger; "The Rise of Rights and Rights Consciousness: 1930–1980" by James T. Patterson, Brown University; and "Economic Growth, Issue Evolution, and Divided Government: 1955–2000" by Byron E. Shafer
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The Cutting Edge
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the 1992 film. For other uses, see Cutting edge.
The Cutting Edge
Theatrical poster
Directed by
Paul Michael Glaser
Produced by
Robert W. Cort
Ted Field
Karen Murphy
Written by
Tony Gilroy
Starring
D. B. Sweeney
Moira Kelly
Roy Dotrice
Terry O'Quinn
Music by
Patrick Williams
Cinematography
Elliot Davis
Edited by
Michael E. Polakow
Production
company
Interscope Communications
Distributed by
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
Release date
March 27, 1992 (1992-03-27)
Running time
101 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Box office
$25,105,000
The Cutting Edge is a 1992 romantic comedy film directed by Paul Michael Glaser and written by Tony Gilroy. The plot is about a very rich, spoiled figure skater (played by Moira Kelly) who is paired with a has-been ice hockey player (played by D. B. Sweeney) for Olympic figure skating. Competing at the 1992 Winter Olympics, they have a climactic face off against a Soviet pair. The film was primarily shot in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Music
3.1 Soundtrack
4 Reception
5 Sequels
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Kate Moseley is a world-class figure skater representing the United States in the pairs event at the 1988 Winter Olympics. She has genuine talent, but years of being spoiled by her wealthy father Jack have made her all but impossible to work with.
Doug Dorsey is captain of the U.S. ice hockey team at the same Winter Olympics. Just minutes before a game, he and Kate literally run into each other at the arena. During the game, Doug suffers a head injury, damaging his peripheral vision, costing him a a shot in the NHL and forcing him to retire. During Kate's event, her partner drops her during their program, costing them a chance at the gold medal.
While training for the 1992 Winter Olympics over the next two years, Kate has driven away all potential skating partners with her attitude and perfectionism. Her coach, Anton Pamchenko, has to find a replacement, an outsider who doesn't know that Kate is spoiled and nearly impossible to work with. He proceeds to track down Doug -back home in Minnesota working in a steel mill and as a carpenter on the side- who is living with his brother and playing in a hockey bar league. Desperate for another chance at Olympic glory, Doug agrees to work as Kate's partner, even though he has a macho contempt for figure skating.
Kate's snooty, Prima Donna behavior gets on his nerves immediately, and their first few practices do not go well as they antagonize one another. However, they develop a mutual respect as both strive to outdo one another in work ethic. As their relationship grows warmer, they learn to set aside their differences, becoming a pair to be reckoned with both on and off the ice. At the U.S. Nationals, despite strong performances in the short program and long program, they are placed third and expect their dreams to get to the Olympics are shattered. However, when one of the leading pairs falls during the competition, they advance to second place, earning their spot.
At the finals at the Albertville Olympics, they look to be one of the top pairs competing for the gold. Before getting on the ice, they realize they love each other and skate with a passion neither had shown before.
Cast[edit]
D. B. Sweeney as Doug Dorsey
Moira Kelly as Kate Moseley
Roy Dotrice as Anton Pamchenko
Terry O'Quinn as Jack Moseley
Dwier Brown as Hale Forrest
Chris Benson as Walter Dorsey
Michael Hogan as Doctor
Kevin Peeks as Brian Newman
Rachelle Ottley as Lorie Peckarovski
Barry Flatman as Rick Tuttle
Christine Hough and Doug Ladret, as Soviet team Smilkov and Brushkin. This Canadian figure skating pair finished 9th in the actual Olympic competition portrayed in the film, just 6 weeks before the film was released.
Music[edit]
The original music score was composed by Patrick Williams. The film's theme song "Feels like Forever" was performed by Joe Cocker and written by Diane Warren and Bryan Adams.
Soundtrack[edit]
The soundtrack album was originally released by Rykodisc in 1998; in 2004 it was reissued by Varese Sarabande with 20 minutes of Patrick Williams's score (tracks 11-22).
Street of Dreams - Nia Peeples
Cry All Night - Neverland
Ride On Time - Black Box
Groove Master - Arrow
It Ain't Over 'til It's Over - Rosemary Butler & John Townsend
Shame Shame Shame - Johnny Winter
Turning Circles - Sally Dworsky
Baby Now I - Dan Reed Network
I've Got Dreams to Remember - Delbert McClinton
Feels Like Forever (Theme From The Cutting Edge) - Joe Cocker
Ich Namen Gita/Olympic Hockey
Battle of the CD's
Limo to Mansion/Nine Months Later
Kate Skates Alone
Chicago Practices
Hoedown
Tequila
Olympic Fanfare/Dubois & Gercel
Doug & Kate Get Angry
The Russians Skate
Finale
End Credits
The following songs are heard in the movie but not included on the soundtrack album:
Lauretta - Malcolm McLaren
Love Shack - Rosemary Butler
Auld Lang Syne - Rosemary Butler & Warren Wiebe
Walking the Dog - John Townsend
The Race - Yello
Reception[edit]
The Cutting Edge was released on March 27, 1992, and grossed $25,105,517 domestically.[2]
The film has a 60% rating (based on 15 reviews) on Rotten Tomatoes.[3]
Sequels[edit]
The film was followed by several sequels: The Cutting Edge: Going for the Gold (2006), The Cutting Edge: Chasing the Dream (2008) and The Cutting Edge: Fire and Ice (2010), each with mostly different casts.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Internet Movie Database - List of Films shot in Hamilton, Ontario". Retrieved 2008-01-29.
Jump up ^ "The Cutting Edge (1992)". boxofficemojo.com. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
Jump up ^ "The Cutting Edge (1992)". rottentomatoes.com. Retrieved 2010-10-27.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Cutting Edge
The Cutting Edge on IMDb
The Cutting Edge at AllMovie
The Cutting Edge at the TCM Movie Database
The Cutting Edge at the American Film Institute Catalog
The Cutting Edge at Rotten Tomatoes
The Cutting Edge at Box Office Mojo
[show]
v
t
e
Films directed by Paul Michael Glaser
Amazons (1984)
Band of the Hand (1986)
The Running Man (1987)
The Cutting Edge (1992)
The Air Up There (1994)
Kazaam (1996)
[show]
v
t
e
Films by Tony Gilroy
Director
Michael Clayton (2007)
Duplicity (2009)
The Bourne Legacy (2012)
Screenwriter only
The Cutting Edge (1992)
Dolores Claiborne (1995)
Extreme Measures (1996)
The Devil's Advocate (1997)
Armageddon (1998)
Bait (2000)
Proof of Life (2000)
The Bourne Identity (2002)
The Bourne Supremacy (2004)
The Bourne Ultimatum (2007)
State of Play (2009)
The Great Wall (2016)
Rogue One (2016)
Beirut (2018)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Cutting_Edge&oldid=837689670"
Categories:
1992 films
English-language films
1990s romantic comedy films
American comedy-drama films
American romantic comedy films
American romantic drama films
American films
American sports comedy films
Films about Olympic figure skating
Films scored by Patrick Williams
Films about the Winter Olympic Games
Films about the 1988 Winter Olympic Games
Films about the 1992 Winter Olympic Games
Films directed by Paul Michael Glaser
Films set in 1988
Films set in 1992
Films shot in Hamilton, Ontario
Interscope Communications films
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Ice hockey films
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text:
Apportionment Act of 1911
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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‹ The template Infobox U.S. legislation is being considered for merging. ›
Apportionment Act of 1911
Long title
An Act For the apportionment of Representatives in Congress among the several States under the Thirteenth Census.
Nicknames
Apportionment Act of 1911,
Public Law 62-5
Enacted by
the 62nd United States Congress
Effective
March 4, 1913
Citations
Public law
62-5
Statutes at Large
37 Stat. 13
Codification
Acts amended
Apportionment Act of 1901
Titles amended
2
U.S.C. sections amended
2 USC §2a
Legislative history
Introduced in the House as H.R. 2983
Passed the House on
Passed the Senate on August 8, 1911
Signed into law by President William Howard Taft on
Major amendments
Reapportionment Act of 1929
United States Supreme Court cases
Wood v. Broom (1932)
Connor v. Johnson (1966)
United States Dept. of Commerce v. Montana (1992)
The Apportionment Act of 1911 (Pub.L. 62–5, 37 Stat. 13) was an apportionment bill passed by the United States Congress on August 8, 1911. The law set the number of members of the United States House of Representatives at 435, effective with the 63rd Congress on March 4, 1913.[1] This number included a provision for the addition of one seat each for Arizona and New Mexico when they became states.
Contents
[hide]
1 Previous apportionment
2 Text
3 Subsequent apportionment
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Previous apportionment[edit]
The requirement for allocating United States Representatives is found in Article One, Section 2, Clause 3 of the United States Constitution. After the first census, Congress began to pass legislation to dictate the method of allotting U.S. Representatives to the states based on population (see Apportionment Act of 1792).[2] The Jefferson method of apportionment had been in use after the first census of 1790 through the 1830 census, and required fractional remainders to be discarded when calculating each state's total number of U.S. Representatives.[3][4][5][6] Daniel Webster proposed the Webster method, which was adopted for the 1840 census and allocated one representative to states with a fractional remainder greater than 0.5.[7] Prior to the Apportionment Act of 1911, the Hamilton/Vinton (largest remainder) method had been used for this purpose since 1850.[8][9][10][11][12][13] In addition to setting the number of U.S. Representatives at 435, the Apportionment Act of 1911 returned to the Webster method of apportionment of U.S. Representatives. Adopted in 1868, Section Two of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution had already removed the three-fifths method of counting slaves, and instead required "counting the whole number of all persons in each State."
Text[edit]
“ Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled,
Section 1. That after the third day of March, nineteen hundred and thirteen, the House of Representatives shall be composed of four hundred and thirty-three Members, to be apportioned among the several States as follows:
Alabama, ten
Arkansas, seven
California, eleven
Colorado, four
Connecticut, five
Delaware, one
Florida, four
Georgia, twelve
Idaho, two
Illinois, twenty-seven
Indiana, thirteen
Iowa, eleven
Kansas, eight
Kentucky, eleven
Louisiana, eight
Maine, four
Maryland, six
Massachusetts, sixteen
Michigan, thirteen
Minnesota, ten
Mississippi, eight
Missouri, sixteen
Montana, two
Nebraska, six
Nevada, one
New Hampshire, two
New Jersey, twelve
New York, forty-three
North Carolina, ten
North Dakota, three
Ohio, twenty-two
Oklahoma, eight
Oregon, three
Pennsylvania, thirty-six
Rhode Island, three
South Carolina, seven
South Dakota, three
Tennessee, ten
Texas, eighteen
Utah, two
Vermont, two
Virginia, ten
Washington, five
West Virginia, six
Wisconsin, eleven
Wyoming, one
Section 2. That if the Territories of Arizona and New Mexico shall become States in the Union before the apportionment of Representatives under the next decennial census they shall have one Representative each, and if one of such Territories shall so become a State, such State shall have one Representative, which Representative or Representatives shall be in addition to the number four hundred and thirty-three, as provided in section one of this Act, and all laws and parts of laws in conflict with this section are to that extent hereby repealed.
Section 3. That in each State entitled under this apportionment to more than one Representative, the Representatives to the Sixty-third and each subsequent Congress shall be elected by districts composed of a contiguous and compact territory, and containing as nearly as practicable an equal number of inhabitants. The said districts shall be equal to the number of Representatives to which such State may be entitled in Congress, no district electing more than one Representative.
Section 4. That in case of an increase in the number of Representatives in any State under this apportionment such additional Representative or Representatives shall be elected by the State at large and the other Representatives by the districts now prescribed by law until such State shall be redistricted in the manner provided by the laws thereof and in accordance with the rules enumerated in section three of this Act; and if there be no change in the number of Representatives from a State, the Representatives thereof shall be elected from the districts now prescribed by law until such State shall be redistricted as herein prescribed.
Section 5. That candidates for Representative or Representatives to be elected at large in any State shall be nominated in the same manner as candidates for governor, unless otherwise provided by the laws of such State.
”
Subsequent apportionment[edit]
For the first and only time, Congress failed to pass an apportionment act after the 1920 census. This left the allocations of the Act of 1911 in place until the 1930 census. The Reapportionment Act of 1929 established a method for reallocating seats among the states, given population shifts and the maximum of 435 representatives.[14] The Apportionment Act of 1941 made the apportionment process self-executing after each decennial census.[15] This lifted Congress's responsibility to pass an apportionment act for each census, and ensured that the events surrounding the 1920 census would not happen again. The number of U.S. Representatives increased temporarily to 437 when Alaska and Hawaii were admitted as states during the 86th Congress (seating one member from each of those states without changing the apportionment of the other seats). After the 1960 census and the 1962 election, that number went back to 435.[16][17]
See also[edit]
United States congressional apportionment
Redistricting
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://constitution.org/uslaw/sal/037_statutes_at_large.pdf
Jump up ^ 3 Annals of Cong. 539 (1792)
Jump up ^ Act of Jan. 14, 1802, 2 Stat. 128
Jump up ^ Act of Dec. 21, 1811, 2 Stat. 669
Jump up ^ Act of Mar. 7, 1822, 3 Stat. 651
Jump up ^ Act of May 22, 1832, 4 Stat. 516
Jump up ^ Act of 1842, 5 Stat. 491
Jump up ^ Act of May 23, 1850, 9 Stat. 432-433
Jump up ^ Act of 1862, 12 Stat. 572
Jump up ^ Act of 1872, 17 Stat. 28
Jump up ^ Act of 1882, 22 Stat. 5
Jump up ^ Act of 1891
Jump up ^ Act of 1901, 31 Stat. 733
Jump up ^ Act of June 18, 1929, 46 Stat. 21
Jump up ^ Act of Nov. 15, 1941, 55 Stat. 761-762
Jump up ^ 72 Stat. 345
Jump up ^ 73 Stat. 8
External links[edit]
Member FAQ, "What is the size of the House of Representatives and how is it determined?" - Office of the Clerk of the U.S. House of Representatives
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apportionment_Act_of_1911&oldid=775471745"
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62nd United States Congress
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text:
Coastal erosion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Heavy marine erosion: cliff fall at Hunstanton in the east of England
Tunnel-like structures formed by erosion (aged 600 800 million years ago, formed during the Sinian period in Neoproterozoic Era), in Jinshitan Coastal National Geopark, Dalian, Liaoning Province, China
Coastal erosion is the wearing away of land and the removal of beach or sand dunes sediments by wave action, tidal currents, wave currents, drainage or high winds (see also beach evolution). Waves, generated by storms, wind, or fast moving motor craft, can cause coastal erosion, which may take the form of long-term losses of sediment and rocks, or merely the temporary redistribution of coastal sediments; erosion in one location may result in accretion nearby. The study of erosion and sediment redistribution is called 'coastal morphodynamics'. It may be caused by hydraulic action, abrasion, impact and corrosion by wind, water, and other forces, natural or unnatural.
On non-rocky coasts, coastal erosion results in dramatic (or non-dramatic) rock formations in areas where the coastline contains rock layers or fracture zones with varying resistance to erosion. Softer areas become eroded much faster than harder ones, which typically result in landforms such as tunnels, bridges, columns, and pillars. Over time the coast generally evens out. The softer areas fill up with sediment eroded from hard areas, and rock formations are eroded away.[1] Also abrasion commonly happens in areas where there are strong winds, loose sand, and soft rocks. The blowing of millions of sharp sand grains creates a sandblasting effect. This effect helps to erode, smooth and polish rocks. The definition of abrasion is grinding and wearing away of rock surfaces through the mechanical action of other rock or sand particles.
Contents
[hide]
1 Examples
2 Wave action
2.1 Hydraulic action
2.2 Attrition
2.3 Solution
2.4 Corrasion
2.5 Corrosion
3 Factors that influence erosion rates
3.1 Primary factors
3.2 Secondary factors
3.3 Tertiary factors
4 Control methods
4.1 Hard-erosion controls
4.2 Soft-erosion controls
4.3 Relocation
5 Tracking
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Examples[edit]
Small-scale erosion destroys abandoned railroad tracks
A place where erosion of a cliffed coast has occurred is at Wamberal in the Central Coast region of New South Wales where houses built on top of the cliffs began to collapse into the sea. This is due to waves causing erosion of the primarily sedimentary material on which the buildings foundations sit.[2]
Dunwich, the capital of the English medieval wool trade, disappeared over the period of a few centuries due to redistribution of sediment by waves. Human interference can also increase coastal erosion: Hallsands in Devon, England, was a coastal village that washed away over the course of a year, an event directly caused by dredging of shingle in the bay in front of it.
The California coast, which has soft cliffs of sedimentary rock and is heavily populated, regularly has incidents of housing damage as cliffs erodes . Devil's Slide, Santa Barbara, the coast just north of Ensenada, and Malibu are regularly affected.
The Holderness coastline on the east coast of England, just north of the Humber Estuary, is one of the fastest eroding coastline in Europe due to its soft clay cliffs and powerful waves. Groynes and other artificial measures to keep it under control has only accelerated the process further down the coast, because longshore drift starves the beaches of sand, leaving them more exposed. The White Cliffs of Dover have also been affected.
Fort Ricasoli in Kalkara, Malta already showing signs of damage where the land is being eroded
Fort Ricasoli, a historic 17th century fortress in Malta is being threatened by coastal erosion, as it was built on a fault in the headland which is prone to erosion. A small part of one of the bastion walls has already collapsed since the land under it has eroded, and there are cracks in other walls as well.
Wave action[edit]
Hydraulic action[edit]
Hydraulic action occurs when waves striking a cliff face compress air in cracks on the cliff face. This exerts pressure on the surrounding rock, and can progressively splinter and remove pieces. Over time, the cracks can grow, sometimes forming a cave. The splinters fall to the sea bed where they are subjected to further wave action.
Attrition[edit]
Attrition occurs when waves cause loose pieces of rock debris (scree) to collide with each other, grinding and chipping each other, progressively becoming smaller, smoother and rounder. Scree also collides with the base of the cliff face, chipping small pieces of rock from the cliff or have a corrasion (abrasion) effect, similar to sandpapering.
Solution[edit]
Solution is the process in which acids contained in sea water will dissolve some types of rock such as chalk or limestone.[3]
Corrasion[edit]
Corrasion or otherwise known as abrasion occurs when waves break on cliff faces and slowly erode it. As the sea pounds cliff faces it also uses the scree from other wave actions to batter and break off pieces of rock from higher up the cliff face which can be used for this same wave action and attrition.
Corrosion[edit]
Corrosion or solution/chemical weathering occurs when the sea's pH (anything below pH 7.0) corrodes rocks on a cliff face. Limestone cliff faces, which have a moderately high pH, are particularly affected in this way. Wave action also increases the rate of reaction by removing the reacted material.
Factors that influence erosion rates[edit]
Primary factors[edit]
The ability of waves to cause erosion of the cliff face depends on many factors.
The hardness (or inversely, the erodibility) of sea-facing rocks is controlled by the rock strength and the presence of fissures, fractures, and beds of non-cohesive materials such as silt and fine sand.
The rate at which cliff fall debris is removed from the foreshore depends on the power of the waves crossing the beach. This energy must reach a critical level to remove material from the debris lobe. Debris lobes can be very persistent and can take many years to completely disappear.
Beaches dissipate wave energy on the foreshore and provide a measure of protection to the adjoining land.
The stability of the foreshore, or its resistance to lowering. Once stable, the foreshore should widen and become more effective at dissipating the wave energy, so that fewer and less powerful waves reach beyond it. The provision of updrift material coming onto the foreshore beneath the cliff helps to ensure a stable beach.
The adjacent bathymetry, or configuration of the seafloor, controls the wave energy arriving at the coast, and can have an important influence on the rate of cliff erosion. Shoals and bars offer protection from wave erosion by causing storm waves to break and dissipate their energy before reaching the shore. Given the dynamic nature of the seafloor, changes in the location of shoals and bars may cause the locus of beach or cliff erosion to change position along the shore.[4]
Coastal erosion has been greatly affected by the rising sea levels globally. There has been great measures of increased coastal erosion on the Eastern seaboard of the United States. Locations such as Florida have noticed increased coastal erosion. In reaction to these increases Florida and its individual counties have increased budgets to replenish the eroded sands that attract visitors to Florida and help support its multibillion-dollar tourism industries.
Coastal erosion
Pacifica, California coast after major storms in 1997 (resulting from the strongest El Niño on record) destroyed the houses shown above.
Beach erosion at Cabrillo National Monument, California.
Large-scale coastal erosion at Torrey Pines State Reserve, California.
Coastal erosion at Torrey Pines State Reserve, California, resulted in the necessary relocation of a scenic overlook.
Coastal erosion during a king tide, Dania Beach, Florida
Secondary factors[edit]
Weathering and transport slope processes
Slope hydrology
Vegetation
Cliff foot erosion
Cliff foot sediment accumulation
Resistance of cliff foot sediment to attrition and transport
Human Activity
Tertiary factors[edit]
Resource extraction
Coastal management
Control methods[edit]
There are three common forms of coastal erosion control methods. These three include: soft-erosion controls, hard-erosion controls, and relocation.
Hard-erosion controls[edit]
This image represents a typical seawall that is used for preventing and controlling coastal erosion.
Hard-erosion control methods provide a more permanent solution than soft-erosion control methods. Seawalls and groynes serve as semi-permanent infrastructure. These structures are not immune from normal wear-and-tear and will have to be refurbished or rebuilt. It is estimated the average life span of a seawall is 50–100 years and the average for a groyne is 30–40 years.[5] Because of their relative permanence, it is assumed that these structures can be a final solution to erosion. Seawalls can also deprive public access to the beach and drastically alter the natural state of the beach. Groynes also drastically alter the natural state of the beach. Some claim that groynes could reduce the interval between beach nourishment projects though they are not seen as a solution to beach nourishment.[6] Other criticisms of seawalls are that they can be expensive, difficult to maintain, and can sometimes cause further damage to the beach if built improperly.[7]
Natural forms of hard-erosion control include planting or maintaining native vegetation, such as mangrove forests and coral reefs.
Soft-erosion controls[edit]
Sandbagged beach at the site of Hurricane Sandy.
Soft erosion strategies refer to temporary options of slowing the effects of erosion. These options, including Sandbag and beach nourishment, are not intended to be long term solutions or permanent solutions.[5] Another method, beach scraping or beach bulldozing allows for the creation of an artificial dune in front of a building or as means of preserving a building foundation. However, there is a U.S. federal moratorium on beach bulldozing during turtle nesting season, 1 May – 15 November.[8] One of the most common methods of soft erosion control is beach nourishment projects. These projects involve dredging sand and moving it to the beaches as a means of reestablishing the sand lost due to erosion.[5] In some situations, beach nourishment is not a suitable measure to take for erosion control, such as in areas with sand sinks or frequent and large storms.[7]
Relocation[edit]
Under this response, humans move from the coast and surrender the coast to the natural processes of both absolute and relative sea level rise and erosion. This solution is eco-centric meaning that the focus is on forcing humans to adapt to the natural processes rather than the opposite. By removing structures along the oceanfront, the beach is surrendered to the natural forces of the ocean. In this case, property owners and coastal communities are essentially “retreating” from the sea. Depending on factors such as the severity of the erosion, as well as the natural landscape of the property, relocation could simply mean moving inland by a number of yards, or in more severe cases, relocation can be to completely desert an area.[7] Typically, there has been low public support for “retreating.”[9] However, this would be most effective in reducing the impacts of erosion on human society.
Tracking[edit]
Storms can cause erosion hundreds of times faster than normal weather. Before-and-after comparisons can be made using data gathered by manual surveying, laser altimeter, or even a GPS unit mounted on an ATV.[10] Remote sensing data such as Landsat scenes can be used for large scale and multi year assessments of coastal erosion.[11]
See also[edit]
Beach morphodynamics
Beach nourishment
Bioerosion
Blowhole
Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation (CERF)
Coastal and oceanic landforms
Coastal development hazards
Coastal erosion in Louisiana
Coastal engineering
Coastal management
Coastal sediment supply
Deposition (sediment)
Erosion
Longshore drift
Marine terrace
Modern recession of beaches
Natural arch
Sand dune stabilization
Submersion
Wave-cut platform
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Valvo, Lisa M.; Murray, A. Brad; Ashton, Andrew (2006-06-01). "How does underlying geology affect coastline change? An initial modeling investigation". Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface. 111 (F2): F02025. doi:10.1029/2005JF000340.
Jump up ^ http://www.coastalwatch.com/environment/4524/impact-of-coastal-erosion-in-australia
Jump up ^ Cambers, Gary; Sibley, Steve (2015-09-10). Cambridge IGCSE® Geography Coursebook with CD-ROM. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107458949.
Jump up ^ Oldale, Robert N. "Coastal Erosion on Cape Cod: Some Questions and Answers". U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 11 September 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dean, J. "Oceanfront Sandbag Use in North Carolina: Management Review and Suggestions for Improvement" (PDF). Nicholas School of the Environment of Duke University. Retrieved 11 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Knapp, Whitney. "Impacts of Terminal Groins on North Carolina's Coast" (PDF). Nicholas School of the Environment of Duke University. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Managing Coastal Erosion. National Academies Press. 1989. ISBN 9780309041430.
Jump up ^ "Coastal Hazards & Storm Information: Protecting Oceanfront Property from Erosion". North Carolina Division of Coastal Management. Retrieved 17 September 2013. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ McPherson, M. "Adaptation to Sea-Level Rise in North Carolina" (PDF). Nicholas School of the Environment of Duke University. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
Jump up ^ http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=129777507
Jump up ^ KUENZER, C., OTTINGER, M., LIU, G., SUN, B., DECH, S., 2014: Earth Observation-based Coastal Zone Monitoring of the Yellow River Delta: Dynamics in China’s Second Largest Oil Producing Region over four Decades. Applied Geography, 55, 72-107
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Coastal erosion.
Sustainable coastal erosion management in Europe
Coastal Erosion Information from the Coastal Ocean Institute, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Environment Agency guide to coastal erosion
Wave Erosion
Time-lapse movie of beach erosion in Australia on YouTube
Examine an example of wave erosion
Erosion & Flooding in the Parish of Easington
Some interesting teaching resources
Examples of coastal landforms
US Economic Costs of Coastal Erosion & Inundation NOAA Economics
British Geological Survey coastal erosion and landslides case studies
Images:
Images of Coastal features
[hide]
v
t
e
Coastal geography
Landforms
Anchialine pool
Archipelago
Atoll
Avulsion
Ayre
Barrier island
Bay
Baymouth bar
Bight
Bodden
Brackish marsh
Cape
Channel
Cliff
Coast
Coastal plain
Coastal waterfall
Continental margin
Continental shelf
Coral reef
Cove
Dune
cliff-top
Estuary
Firth
Fjard
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