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Berlin Wall
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Not to be confused with the Inner German border or the chess moves also known as the Berlin Defence.
For the video game, see The Berlin Wall (video game).
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Berlin Wall
View from the West Berlin side of graffiti art on the Wall in 1986. The Wall's "death strip", on the east side of the Wall, here follows the curve of the Luisenstadt Canal (filled in 1932).
Map of the location of the Berlin Wall, showing checkpoints
General information
Type
Wall
Country
East Germany
East Berlin (Soviet-occupied sector of Berlin)
Coordinates
52°30′58″N 13°22′37″E / 52.516111°N 13.376944°E / 52.516111; 13.376944Coordinates: 52°30′58″N 13°22′37″E / 52.516111°N 13.376944°E / 52.516111; 13.376944
Construction started
13 August 1961
Dimensions
Other dimensions
Border length around West Berlin: 155 km (96 mi)
Border length between West Berlin and East Germany: 111.9 km (69.5 mi)
Border length between West and East Berlin: 43.1 km (26.8 mi)
Border length through residential areas in East Berlin: 37 km (23 mi)
Concrete segment of wall height: 3.6 m (11.8 ft)
Concrete segment of wall length: 106 km (66 mi)
Wire mesh fencing: 66.5 km (41.3 mi)
Anti-vehicle trenches length: 105.5 km (65.6 mi)
Contact/signal fence length: 127.5 km (79.2 mi)
Column track width: 7 m (7.7 yd)
Column track length: 124.3 km (77.2 mi)
Number of watch towers: 302
Number of bunkers: 20
Technical details
Size
155 km (96.3 mi)
Satellite image of Berlin, with the Wall's location marked in yellow
West and East Berlin borders overlaying a current road map (interactive map)
The Berlin Wall (German: Berliner Mauer) was a guarded concrete barrier that physically and ideologically divided Berlin from 1961 to 1989.[1] Constructed by the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany), starting on 13 August 1961, the Wall completely cut off (by land) West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin until government officials opened it in November 1989.[2] Its demolition officially began on 13 June 1990 and finished in 1992.[3] The barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls,[4] accompanied by a wide area (later known as the "death strip") that contained anti-vehicle trenches, "fakir beds" and other defenses. The Eastern Bloc portrayed the Wall as protecting its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the "will of the people" in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that had marked East Germany and the communist Eastern Bloc during the post-World War II period.
GDR authorities officially referred to the Berlin Wall as the Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart (German: Antifaschistischer Schutzwall), by implication equating the NATO countries (and West Germany in particular) with fascists. The West Berlin city government sometimes referred to it as the "Wall of Shame", a term coined by mayor Willy Brandt in reference to the Wall's restriction on freedom of movement.[5] Along with the separate and much longer Inner German border (IGB), which demarcated the border between East and West Germany, it came to symbolize physically the "Iron Curtain" that separated Western Europe and the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.
Before the Wall's erection, 3.5 million East Germans circumvented Eastern Bloc emigration restrictions and defected from the GDR, many by crossing over the border from East Berlin into West Berlin; from which they could then travel to West Germany and to other Western European countries. Between 1961 and 1989 the Wall prevented almost all such emigration.[6] During this period around 5,000 people attempted to escape over the Wall, with an estimated death toll ranging from 136[7] to more than 200[8] in and around Berlin.
In 1989 a series of revolutions in nearby Eastern Bloc countries—Poland and Hungary in particular—caused a chain reaction in East Germany that ultimately resulted in the demise of the Wall.[9] After several weeks of civil unrest, the East German government announced on 9 November 1989 that all GDR citizens could visit West Germany and West Berlin. Crowds of East Germans crossed and climbed onto the Wall, joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. Over the next few weeks, euphoric people and souvenir hunters chipped away parts of the Wall; the governments later used industrial equipment to remove most of what was left. Contrary to popular belief, the Wall's actual demolition did not begin until the summer of 1990 and continued until 1992.[1] The "fall of the Berlin Wall" paved the way for German reunification, which formally took place on 3 October 1990.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
1.1 Post-war Germany
1.2 Eastern Bloc and the Berlin airlift
1.3 Emigration westward in the early 1950s
2 Erection of the inner German border
2.1 Berlin emigration loophole
2.2 Brain drain
3 Construction begins, 1961
3.1 Immediate effects
3.2 Secondary response
4 Structure and adjacent areas
4.1 Layout and modifications
4.2 Surrounding municipalities
5 Official crossings and usage
5.1 Crossing
5.2 Defection attempts
6 Concerts by Western artists and growing anti-Wall sentiment
6.1 David Bowie, 1987
6.2 Bruce Springsteen, 1988
6.3 David Hasselhoff, 1989
7 "Ich bin ein Berliner" and "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this Wall."
8 Fall of the Berlin Wall
8.1 Demolition
8.2 Opposition
8.3 Celebrations
8.4 20th anniversary celebrations
9 Legacy
9.1 Cultural differences
9.2 Wall segments around the world
9.3 50th anniversary commemoration
10 Related media
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 Further reading
15 External links
Background
Post-war Germany
After the end of World War II in Europe, what remained of pre-war Germany west of the Oder-Neisse line was divided into four occupation zones (as per the Potsdam Agreement), each one controlled by one of the four occupying Allied powers: the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union. The capital of Berlin, as the seat of the Allied Control Council, was similarly subdivided into four sectors despite the city's location, which was fully within the Soviet zone.[10]
Within two years, political divisions increased between the Soviets and the other occupying powers. These included the Soviets' refusal to agree to reconstruction plans making post-war Germany self-sufficient and to a detailed accounting of the industrial plants, goods and infrastructure already removed by the Soviets.[11] France, the United Kingdom, the United States and the Benelux countries later met to combine the non-Soviet zones of the country into one zone for reconstruction and to approve the extension of the Marshall Plan.
Eastern Bloc and the Berlin airlift
Further information: Eastern Bloc and Berlin Blockade
Eastern Bloc
Soviet Socialist Republics[show]
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Byelorussia
Estonia
Georgia
Kazakhstan
Kirghizia
Latvia
Lithuania
Moldavia
Russian SFSR
Tajikistan
Turkmenia
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Allied states[show]
Hungarian People's Republic
Polish People's Republic
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
Socialist Republic of Romania
German Democratic Republic
People's Republic of Bulgaria
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
(to 1948)
People's Socialist Republic of Albania
(to 1961)
Republic of Cuba
People's Revolutionary Government of Grenada
People's Republic of Benin
People's Republic of the Congo
People's Republic of Angola
People's Republic of Mozambique
People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
Somali Democratic Republic
(to 1977)
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan
Mongolian People's Republic
People's Republic of China
(to 1961)
Democratic People's Republic of Korea
Socialist Republic of Vietnam
Lao People's Democratic Republic
People's Republic of Kampuchea
Related organizations[show]
Cominform
COMECON
Warsaw Pact
World Federation of
Trade Unions (WFTU)
World Federation of
Democratic Youth (WFDY)
Dissent and opposition[show]
Forest Brothers
in Lithuania
in Latvia
in Estonia
Operation "Jungle"
Ukrainian Insurgent Army
Goryani movement (Bulgaria)
Romanian anti-communism
Polish Cursed Soldiers
1953 uprisings
in Plzeň
in East Germany
1956 protests
in Georgia
in Poznań
Hungarian Revolution of 1956
Novocherkassk massacre (Russia)
1968 events
Prague Spring
Invasion of Czechoslovakia
Red Square demonstration
Charter 77 (Czechoslovakia)
Solidarity (Poland)
Jeltoqsan (Kazakhstan)
Braşov Rebellion (Romania)
January Events (Lithuania)
The Barricades (Latvia)
April 9 tragedy (Georgia)
Black January (Azerbaijan)
Cold War events[show]
Marshall Plan
1948 Czechoslovak coup
Tito–Stalin split
Berlin Blockade
1961 Berlin Wall crisis
Cuban Missile Crisis
1980 Moscow Olympics
Decline[show]
Singing Revolution
Polish Round Table Agreement
Revolutions of 1989
Fall of the Berlin Wall
January 1991
in Lithuania
in Latvia
Breakup of Yugoslavia
Yugoslav Wars
End of the Soviet Union
Fall of communism in Albania
v
t
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Play media
Brandenburg Gate in 1945, after the end of World War II
Following World War II, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin headed a group of nations on his Western border, the Eastern Bloc, that then included Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, which he wished to maintain alongside a weakened Soviet-controlled Germany.[12] As early as 1945, Stalin revealed to German communist leaders that he expected to slowly undermine the British position within the British occupation zone, that the United States would withdraw within a year or two, and that nothing would then stand in the way of a united communist Germany within the bloc.[13]
The major task of the ruling communist party in the Soviet zone was to channel Soviet orders down to both the administrative apparatus and the other bloc parties, which in turn would be presented as internal measures.[14] Property and industry was nationalized in the East German zone.[15][16] If statements or decisions deviated from the described line, reprimands and (for persons outside public attention) punishment would ensue, such as imprisonment, torture and even death.[14]
Indoctrination of Marxism-Leninism became a compulsory part of school curricula, sending professors and students fleeing to the West. The East Germans created an elaborate political police apparatus that kept the population under close surveillance,[17] including Soviet SMERSH secret police.[15]
In 1948, following disagreements regarding reconstruction and a new German currency, Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade, preventing food, materials and supplies from arriving in West Berlin.[18] The United States, the United Kingdom, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several other countries began a massive "airlift", supplying West Berlin with food and other supplies.[19] The Soviets mounted a public relations campaign against the Western policy change. Communists attempted to disrupt the elections of 1948, preceding large losses therein,[20] while 300,000 Berliners demonstrated for the international airlift to continue.[21] In May 1949, Stalin lifted the blockade, permitting the resumption of Western shipments to Berlin.[22][23]
The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was declared on 7 October 1949. By a secret treaty, the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs accorded the East German state administrative authority, but not autonomy. The Soviets permeated East German administrative, military and secret police structures and had full control.[24][25]
East Germany differed from West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany), which developed into a Western capitalist country with a social market economy ("Soziale Marktwirtschaft" in German) and a democratic parliamentary government. Continual economic growth starting in the 1950s fuelled a 20-year "economic miracle" ("Wirtschaftswunder"). As West Germany's economy grew, and its standard of living steadily improved, many East Germans wanted to move to West Germany.[citation needed]
Emigration westward in the early 1950s
Main articles: Eastern Bloc emigration and defection and Eastern Bloc
After the Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe at the end of World War II, the majority of those living in the newly acquired areas of the Eastern Bloc aspired to independence and wanted the Soviets to leave.[26] Taking advantage of the zonal border between occupied zones in Germany, the number of GDR citizens moving to West Germany totaled 187,000 in 1950; 165,000 in 1951; 182,000 in 1952; and 331,000 in 1953.[27][28] One reason for the sharp 1953 increase was fear of potential further Sovietization, given the increasingly paranoid actions of Joseph Stalin in late 1952 and early 1953.[29] 226,000 had fled in just the first six months of 1953.[30]
Erection of the inner German border
Further information: Inner German border and Eastern Bloc emigration and defection
By the early 1950s, the Soviet approach to controlling national movement, restricting emigration, was emulated by most of the rest of the Eastern Bloc, including East Germany.[31] The restrictions presented a quandary for some Eastern Bloc states, which had been more economically advanced and open than the Soviet Union, such that crossing borders seemed more natural—especially where no prior border existed between East and West Germany.[32]
Up until 1952, the demarcation lines between East Germany and the western occupied zones could be easily crossed in most places.[33] On 1 April 1952, East German leaders met the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in Moscow; during the discussions Stalin's foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov proposed that the East Germans should "introduce a system of passes for visits of West Berlin residents to the territory of East Berlin [so as to stop] free movement of Western agents" in the GDR. Stalin agreed, calling the situation "intolerable". He advised the East Germans to build up their border defenses, telling them that "The demarcation line between East and West Germany should be considered a border—and not just any border, but a dangerous one ... The Germans will guard the line of defence with their lives."[34]
Consequently, the inner German border between the two German states was closed, and a barbed-wire fence erected. The border between the Western and Eastern sectors of Berlin, however, remained open, although traffic between the Soviet and the Western sectors was somewhat restricted. This resulted in Berlin becoming a magnet for East Germans desperate to escape life in the GDR, and also a flashpoint for tension between the United States and the Soviet Union.[citation needed]
In 1955, the Soviets gave East Germany authority over civilian movement in Berlin, passing control to a regime not recognized in the West.[35] Initially, East Germany granted "visits" to allow its residents access to West Germany. However, following the defection of large numbers of East Germans under this regime, the new East German state legally restricted virtually all travel to the West in 1956.[33] Soviet East German ambassador Mikhail Pervukhin observed that "the presence in Berlin of an open and essentially uncontrolled border between the socialist and capitalist worlds unwittingly prompts the population to make a comparison between both parts of the city, which unfortunately does not always turn out in favour of Democratic [East] Berlin."[36]
Berlin emigration loophole
With the closing of the inner German border officially in 1952,[36] the border in Berlin remained considerably more accessible then because it was administered by all four occupying powers.[33] Accordingly, Berlin became the main route by which East Germans left for the West.[37] On 11 December 1957, East Germany introduced a new passport law that reduced the overall number of refugees leaving Eastern Germany.
It had the unintended result of drastically increasing the percentage of those leaving through West Berlin from 60% to well over 90% by the end of 1958.[36] Those caught trying to leave East Berlin were subjected to heavy penalties, but with no physical barrier and subway train access still available to West Berlin, such measures were ineffective.[38] The Berlin sector border was essentially a "loophole" through which Eastern Bloc citizens could still escape.[36] The 3.5 million East Germans who had left by 1961 totalled approximately 20% of the entire East German population.[38]
An important reason that the West Berlin border was not closed earlier was that doing so would cut off much of the railway traffic in East Germany. Construction of a new railway bypassing West Berlin, the Berlin outer ring, commenced in 1951. Following the completion of the railway in 1961, closing the border became a more practical proposition.
Brain drain
The emigrants tended to be young and well-educated, leading to the "brain drain" feared by officials in East Germany.[26] Yuri Andropov, then the CPSU Director on Relations with Communist and Workers' Parties of Socialist Countries, wrote an urgent letter on 28 August 1958, to the Central Committee about the significant 50% increase in the number of East German intelligentsia among the refugees.[39] Andropov reported that, while the East German leadership stated that they were leaving for economic reasons, testimony from refugees indicated that the reasons were more political than material.[39] He stated "the flight of the intelligentsia has reached a particularly critical phase."[39]
An East German SED propaganda booklet published in 1955 dramatically described the serious nature of 'flight from the republic':
Both from the moral standpoint as well as in terms of the interests of the whole German nation, leaving the GDR is an act of political and moral backwardness and depravity.
Those who let themselves be recruited objectively serve West German Reaction and militarism, whether they know it or not. Is it not despicable when for the sake of a few alluring job offers or other false promises about a "guaranteed future" one leaves a country in which the seed for a new and more beautiful life is sprouting, and is already showing the first fruits, for the place that favours a new war and destruction?
Is it not an act of political depravity when citizens, whether young people, workers, or members of the intelligentsia, leave and betray what our people have created through common labour in our republic to offer themselves to the American or British secret services or work for the West German factory owners, Junkers, or militarists? Does not leaving the land of progress for the morass of an historically outdated social order demonstrate political backwardness and blindness? ...
[W]orkers throughout Germany will demand punishment for those who today leave the German Democratic Republic, the strong bastion of the fight for peace, to serve the deadly enemy of the German people, the imperialists and militarists.[40]
By 1960, the combination of World War II and the massive emigration westward left East Germany with only 61% of its population of working age, compared to 70.5% before the war. The loss was disproportionately heavy among professionals: engineers, technicians, physicians, teachers, lawyers and skilled workers. The direct cost of manpower losses to East Germany (and corresponding gain to the West) has been estimated at $7 billion to $9 billion, with East German party leader Walter Ulbricht later claiming that West Germany owed him $17 billion in compensation, including reparations as well as manpower losses.[38] In addition, the drain of East Germany's young population potentially cost it over 22.5 billion marks in lost educational investment.[41] The brain drain of professionals had become so damaging to the political credibility and economic viability of East Germany that the re-securing of the German communist frontier was imperative.[42]
The exodus of emigrants from East Germany presented two minor potential benefits: an easy opportunity to smuggle East German secret agents to West Germany, and a reduction in the number of citizens hostile to the communist regime. Neither of these advantages, however, proved particularly useful.[43]
Construction begins, 1961
East German Combat Groups of the Working Class close the border on 13 August 1961 in preparation of the Berlin Wall construction.
East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, 20 November 1961.
On 15 June 1961, First Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party and GDR State Council chairman Walter Ulbricht stated in an international press conference, "Niemand hat die Absicht, eine Mauer zu errichten!" (No one has the intention of erecting a wall!). It was the first time the colloquial term Mauer (wall) had been used in this context.[citation needed]
The transcript of a telephone call between Nikita Khrushchev and Ulbricht on 1 August in the same year, suggests that the initiative for the construction of the Wall came from Khrushchev.[44][45] However, other sources suggest that Khrushchev had initially been wary about building a wall, fearing negative Western reaction. What is beyond dispute, though, is that Ulbricht had pushed for a border closure for quite some time, arguing that East Germany's very existence was at stake.[46]
Khrushchev had been emboldened by US President John F. Kennedy's tacit indication[how?] that the US would not actively oppose this action in the Soviet sector of Berlin.[47] On Saturday, 12 August 1961, the leaders of the GDR attended a garden party at a government guesthouse in Döllnsee, in a wooded area to the north of East Berlin. There Ulbricht signed the order to close the border and erect a wall.[citation needed]
At midnight, the police and units of the East German army began to close the border and, by Sunday morning, 13 August, the border with West Berlin was closed. East German troops and workers had begun to tear up streets running alongside the border to make them impassable to most vehicles and to install barbed wire entanglements and fences along the 156 kilometres (97 mi) around the three western sectors, and the 43 kilometres (27 mi) that divided West and East Berlin.[citation needed] The date of 13 August became commonly referred to as Barbed Wire Sunday in Germany.
The barrier was built inside East Berlin or East German territory to ensure that it did not encroach on West Berlin at any point. Generally, the Wall was only slightly inside East Berlin, but in a few places it was some distance from the legal border, most notably at Potsdamer Bahnhof[48] and the Lenné Triangle[49] that is now much of the Potsdamer Platz development.
Later, the initial barrier was built up into the Wall proper, the first concrete elements and large blocks being put in place on 17 August. During the construction of the Wall, National People's Army (NVA) and Combat Groups of the Working Class (KdA) soldiers stood in front of it with orders to shoot anyone who attempted to defect. Additionally, chain fences, walls, minefields and other obstacles were installed along the length of East Germany's western border with West Germany proper. A huge no man's land was cleared to provide a clear line of fire at fleeing refugees.[50]
Immediate effects
US President John F. Kennedy visiting the Berlin Wall on 26 June 1963
With the closing of the East-West sector boundary in Berlin, the vast majority of East Germans could no longer travel or emigrate to West Germany. Berlin soon went from being the easiest place to make an unauthorized crossing between East and West Germany to being the most difficult.[51] Many families were split, while East Berliners employed in the West were cut off from their jobs. West Berlin became an isolated exclave in a hostile land. West Berliners demonstrated against the Wall, led by their Mayor (Oberbürgermeister) Willy Brandt, who strongly criticized the United States for failing to respond. Allied intelligence agencies had hypothesized about a wall to stop the flood of refugees, but the main candidate for its location was around the perimeter of the city. In 1961, Secretary of State Dean Rusk proclaimed, "The Wall certainly ought not to be a permanent feature of the European landscape. I see no reason why the Soviet Union should think it is—it is to their advantage in any way to leave there that monument to communist failure."[50]
United States and UK sources had expected the Soviet sector to be sealed off from West Berlin, but were surprised by how long the East Germans took for such a move. They considered the Wall as an end to concerns about a GDR/Soviet retaking or capture of the whole of Berlin; the Wall would presumably have been an unnecessary project if such plans were afloat. Thus they concluded that the possibility of a Soviet military conflict over Berlin had decreased.[52]
The East German government claimed that the Wall was an "anti-fascist protective rampart" (German: "antifaschistischer Schutzwall") intended to dissuade aggression from the West.[53] Another official justification was the activities of Western agents in Eastern Europe.[54] The Eastern German government also claimed that West Berliners were buying out state-subsidized goods in East Berlin. East Germans and others greeted such statements with skepticism, as most of the time, the border was only closed for citizens of East Germany traveling to the West, but not for residents of West Berlin travelling to the East.[55] The construction of the Wall had caused considerable hardship to families divided by it. Most people believed that the Wall was mainly a means of preventing the citizens of East Germany from entering or fleeing to West Berlin.[citation needed]
Secondary response
Play media
Universal Newsreel of the 1st anniversary of the Berlin Wall
The National Security Agency was the only American intelligence agency that was aware that East Germany was to take action to deal with the brain drain problem. On 9 August 1961, the NSA intercepted an advance warning information of the Socialist Unity Party's plan to close the intra-Berlin border between East and West Berlin completely for foot traffic. The interagency intelligence Berlin Watch Committee assessed that this intercept "might be the first step in a plan to close the border."[56][57] This warning did not reach U.S. President John F. Kennedy until noon on 13 August 1961, while he was vacationing in his yacht off the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts. While Kennedy was angry that he had no advance warning, he was relieved that the East Germans and the Soviets had only divided Berlin without taking any action against West Berlin's access to the West. However, he denounced the Berlin Wall, whose erection worsened the relations between the United States and the Soviet Union.[56][57]
In response to the erection of the Berlin Wall, a retired general, Lucius D. Clay, was appointed by Kennedy as his special advisor and sent to Berlin with ambassadorial rank. Clay had been the Military Governor of the US Zone of Occupation in Germany during the period of the Berlin Blockade and had ordered the first measures in what became the Berlin Airlift. He was immensely popular with the residents of West Berlin, and his appointment was an unambiguous sign that Kennedy would not compromise on the status of West Berlin. Clay and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson arrived at Tempelhof Airport on the afternoon of Saturday, 19 August 1961.
They arrived in a city defended by three Allied brigades—one each from the UK, the US, and France (the Forces Françaises à Berlin). On 16 August, Kennedy had given the order for them to be reinforced. Early on 19 August, the 1st Battle Group, 18th Infantry (commanded by Colonel Glover S. Johns Jr.) was alerted.[58]
On Sunday morning, U.S. troops marched from West Germany through East Germany, bound for West Berlin. Lead elements—arranged in a column of 491 vehicles and trailers carrying 1,500 men, divided into five march units—left the Helmstedt-Marienborn checkpoint at 06:34. At Marienborn, the Soviet checkpoint next to Helmstedt on the West German-East German border, US personnel were counted by guards. The column was 160 kilometres (99 mi) long, and covered 177 kilometres (110 mi) from Marienborn to Berlin in full battle gear. East German police watched from beside trees next to the autobahn all the way along.[citation needed]
The front of the convoy arrived at the outskirts of Berlin just before noon, to be met by Clay and Johnson, before parading through the streets of Berlin in front of a large crowd. At 04:00 on 21 August, Lyndon Johnson left West Berlin in the hands of General Frederick O. Hartel and his brigade of 4,224 officers and men. Every three months for the next three and a half years, a new American battalion was rotated into West Berlin; each traveled by autobahn to demonstrate Allied rights.[citation needed]
The creation of the Wall had important implications for both German states. By stemming the exodus of people from East Germany, the East German government was able to reassert its control over the country: in spite of discontent with the Wall, economic problems caused by dual currency and the black market were largely eliminated. The economy in the GDR began to grow. But, the Wall proved a public relations disaster for the communist bloc as a whole. Western powers portrayed it as a symbol of communist tyranny, particularly after East German border guards shot and killed would-be defectors. Such fatalities were later treated as acts of murder by the reunified Germany.[citation needed]
Structure and adjacent areas
Layout and modifications
The wall overview[59][60]
Length (km)
Description
156.40 Bordering around West Berlin within 3.4m and 4.2m in height
111.90 Concrete walls
44.50 Metal mesh fence (along death strip)
112.70 Cross attachment in Potsdam
43.70 Cross attachment along the border of East and West Berlin
0.50 Remains of house fronts, land mansion bricks
58.95 Wall-shaped front wall with a height of 3.40 m
68.42 Expanded metal fence with a height of 2.90 m as a "front barrier"
16100 Light strip
113.85 Limit signal and barrier fence (GSSZ)
127.50 Contact and signal fence
124.30 Border patrol
Actual number
Descriptions
186 Observation towers (302 in West-Berlin)
31 Implementing agencies
259 Dog runs
20 Bunker
East Berlin "death strip" of the Berlin Wall, as seen from the Axel Springer AG Building, 1984.
This section of the Wall's "death strip" featured Czech hedgehogs, a guard tower and a cleared area, 1977.
The top of the Wall was lined with a smooth pipe, intended to make it more difficult to scale, 1984.
Structure of the Berlin Wall.
Position and course of the Berlin Wall and its border control checkpoints (1989).
The Berlin Wall was more than 140 kilometres (87 mi) long. In June 1962, a second, parallel fence was built some 100 metres (110 yd) farther into East German territory. The houses contained between the fences were razed and the inhabitants relocated, thus establishing what later became known as the death strip. The death strip was covered with raked sand or gravel, rendering footprints easy to notice, easing the detection of trespassers and also enabling officers to see which guards had neglected their task;[61] it offered no cover; and, most importantly, it offered clear fields of fire for the Wall guards. About 45.1 kilometres of the wall are at the centre strips of Berlin, and 112.7 kilometres crossing through the Berlin outer circle. 63.8 km of the frontier were in built, 32 km in wooded and 22.65 km in open terrain and 37.95 km of the boundary lay in or on rivers, lakes and canals. Most of them were dismantled beginning with the wall peckers as souvenirs from 11 November 1989, then dismantling the metal mesh fence along the death strip all the way until 22 December 1989. Observation towers began to be dismantled all the way till April 1990. Dismantling of the wall is shown at the below mentioned section (Demolition. Some of them were sold for scrap including the anti-tank wall, normal walls were sent to storage area in the southern part of Germany till it was auctioned and collected (List of Berlin Wall segments).
Through the years, the Berlin Wall evolved through four versions:[citation needed]
Wire fence and concrete block wall (1961)
Improved wire fence (1962–1965)
Improved concrete wall (1965–1975)
Grenzmauer 75 (Border Wall 75) (1975–1989)
The "fourth-generation Wall", known officially as "Stützwandelement UL 12.11" (retaining wall element UL 12.11), was the final and most sophisticated version of the Wall. Begun in 1975[62] and completed about 1980,[63] it was constructed from 45,000 separate sections of reinforced concrete, each 3.6 metres (12 ft) high and 1.2 metres (3.9 ft) wide, and cost DDM16,155,000 or about US$3,638,000.[64] The concrete provisions added to this version of the Wall were done to prevent escapees from driving their cars through the barricades.[65] At strategic points, the Wall was constructed to a somewhat weaker standard, so that East German and Soviet armored vehicles could easily break through in the event of war.[66]
The top of the wall was lined with a smooth pipe, intended to make it more difficult to scale. The Wall was reinforced by mesh fencing, signal fencing, anti-vehicle trenches, barbed wire, dogs on long lines, "beds of nails" (also known as "Stalin's Carpet") under balconies hanging over the "death strip", over 116 watchtowers,[67] and 20 bunkers with hundreds of guards. This version of the Wall is the one most commonly seen in photographs, and surviving fragments of the Wall in Berlin and elsewhere around the world are generally pieces of the fourth-generation Wall. The layout came to resemble the inner German border in most technical aspects, except that the Berlin Wall had no landmines nor spring-guns.[61]
As was the case with the inner German border, an unfortified strip of East German territory was left outside the wall. Unlike the inner German border, however, this outer strip was usually no more than four meters wide, and, in photos from the era, the exact location of the actual border appears to have been unmarked. Also in contrast with the inner German border, little interest was shown by East German law enforcement in keeping foreigners off the strip; even the sidewalks of West Berlin streets ran inside it. [68]The strip was used by workers to paint over graffiti and perform other maintenance on the outside of the wall and was accessed from East Germany by ladders or through doors concealed in the wall.[69] These doors could not be opened by a single person, needing two separate keys in two separate keyholes to unlock.[70]One notable exception to the East German government's generally laissez-faire attitude toward the strip was the arrest of defector and political activist Wolfram Hasch. Hasch was apprehended while standing inside the strip defacing the wall and was later convicted of illegally crossing the de jure border on the outer edge of the strip.[71]
Surrounding municipalities
Besides the sector-sector boundary within Berlin itself, the Wall also separated West Berlin from the present-day state of Brandenburg. The following present-day municipalities, listed in counter-clockwise direction, share a border with former West Berlin:
Oberhavel : Mühlenbecker Land (partially), Glienicke/Nordbahn, Hohen Neuendorf, Hennigsdorf
Havelland : Schönwalde-Glien, Falkensee, Dallgow-Döberitz
Potsdam (urban district)
Potsdam-Mittelmark : Stahnsdorf, Kleinmachnow, Teltow
Teltow-Fläming : Großbeeren, Blankenfelde-Mahlow
Dahme-Spreewald : Schönefeld (partially)
Official crossings and usage
See also: Berlin border crossings
A You Are Leaving sign at a border of the American sector
Road sign delimiting the British zone of occupation in Berlin, 1984
There were nine border crossings between East and West Berlin. These allowed visits by West Berliners, other West Germans, Western foreigners and Allied personnel into East Berlin, as well as visits by GDR citizens and citizens of other socialist countries into West Berlin, provided that they held the necessary permits. These crossings were restricted according to which nationality was allowed to use it (East Germans, West Germans, West Berliners, other countries). The most famous was the vehicle and pedestrian checkpoint at the corner of Friedrichstraße and Zimmerstraße, also known as Checkpoint Charlie, which was restricted to Allied personnel and foreigners.[72]
Several other border crossings existed between West Berlin and surrounding East Germany. These could be used for transit between West Germany and West Berlin, for visits by West Berliners into East Germany, for transit into countries neighbouring East Germany (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Denmark), and for visits by East Germans into West Berlin carrying a permit. After the 1972 agreements, new crossings were opened to allow West Berlin waste to be transported into East German dumps, as well as some crossings for access to West Berlin's exclaves (see Steinstücken).
Four autobahns connected West Berlin to West Germany, the most famous being the Berlin-Helmstedt autobahn, which entered East German territory between the towns of Helmstedt and Marienborn (Checkpoint Alpha), and which entered West Berlin at Dreilinden (Checkpoint Bravo for the Allied forces) in southwestern Berlin. Access to West Berlin was also possible by railway (four routes) and by boat for commercial shipping via canals and rivers.[citation needed]
Non-German Westerners could cross the border at Friedrichstraße station in East Berlin and at Checkpoint Charlie. When the Wall was erected, Berlin's complex public transit networks, the S-Bahn and U-Bahn, were divided with it.[63] Some lines were cut in half; many stations were shut down. Three western lines traveled through brief sections of East Berlin territory, passing through eastern stations (called Geisterbahnhöfe, or ghost stations) without stopping. Both the eastern and western networks converged at Friedrichstraße, which became a major crossing point for those (mostly Westerners) with permission to cross.[citation needed]
Crossing
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Travel orders to go to Berlin as used by U.S. forces in the 1980s.
West Germans and citizens of other Western countries could generally visit East Germany, often after applying for a visa[73] at an East German embassy several weeks in advance. Visas for day trips restricted to East Berlin were issued without previous application in a simplified procedure at the border crossing. However, East German authorities could refuse entry permits without stating a reason. In the 1980s, visitors from the western part of the city who wanted to visit the eastern part had to exchange at least DM 25 into East German currency at the poor exchange rate of 1:1. It was forbidden to export East German currency from the East, but money not spent could be left at the border for possible future visits. Tourists crossing from the west had to also pay for a visa, which cost DM 5; West Berliners did not have to pay this.[citation needed]
West Berliners initially could not visit East Berlin or East Germany at all – all crossing points were closed to them between 26 August 1961 and 17 December 1963. In 1963, negotiations between East and West resulted in a limited possibility for visits during the Christmas season that year (Passierscheinregelung). Similar, very limited arrangements were made in 1964, 1965 and 1966.[citation needed]
In 1971, with the Four Power Agreement on Berlin, agreements were reached that allowed West Berliners to apply for visas to enter East Berlin and East Germany regularly, comparable to the regulations already in force for West Germans. However, East German authorities could still refuse entry permits.[citation needed]
East Berliners and East Germans could not, at first, travel to West Berlin or West Germany at all. This regulation remained in force essentially until the fall of the Wall, but over the years several exceptions to these rules were introduced, the most significant being:
Elderly pensioners could travel to the West starting in 1965
Visits of relatives for important family matters
People who had to travel to the West for professional reasons (for example, artists, truck drivers, musicians, writers, etc.)[citation needed]
For each of these exceptions, GDR citizens had to apply for individual approval, which was never guaranteed. In addition, even if travel was approved, GDR travellers could exchange only a very small amount of East German Marks into Deutsche Marks (DM), thus limiting the financial resources available for them to travel to the West. This led to the West German practice of granting a small amount of DM annually (Begrüßungsgeld, or welcome money) to GDR citizens visiting West Germany and West Berlin to help alleviate this situation.[citation needed]
Citizens of other East European countries were in general subject to the same prohibition of visiting Western countries as East Germans, though the applicable exception (if any) varied from country to country.[citation needed]
Allied military personnel and civilian officials of the Allied forces could enter and exit East Berlin without submitting to East German passport controls, purchasing a visa or being required to exchange money. Likewise, Soviet military patrols could enter and exit West Berlin. This was a requirement of the post-war Four Powers Agreements. A particular area of concern for the Western Allies involved official dealings with East German authorities when crossing the border, since Allied policy did not recognize the authority of the GDR to regulate Allied military traffic to and from West Berlin, as well as the Allied presence within Greater Berlin, including entry into, exit from, and presence within East Berlin.[citation needed]
The Allies held that only the Soviet Union, and not the GDR, had authority to regulate Allied personnel in such cases. For this reason, elaborate procedures were established to prevent inadvertent recognition of East German authority when engaged in travel through the GDR and when in East Berlin. Special rules applied to travel by Western Allied military personnel assigned to the Military Liaison Missions accredited to the commander of Soviet forces in East Germany, located in Potsdam.[citation needed]
Allied personnel were restricted by policy when travelling by land to the following routes:
Transit between West Germany and West Berlin
Road: the Helmstedt-Berlin autobahn (A2) (checkpoints Alpha and Bravo respectively). Soviet military personnel manned these checkpoints and processed Allied personnel for travel between the two points. Military personnel were required to be in uniform when traveling in this manner.
Rail: Western Allied military personnel and civilian officials of the Allied forces were forbidden to use commercial train service between West Germany and West Berlin, because of GDR passport and customs controls when using them. Instead, the Allied forces operated a series of official (duty) trains that traveled between their respective duty stations in West Germany and West Berlin. When transiting the GDR, the trains would follow the route between Helmstedt and Griebnitzsee, just outside West Berlin. In addition to persons traveling on official business, authorized personnel could also use the duty trains for personal travel on a space-available basis. The trains traveled only at night, and as with transit by car, Soviet military personnel handled the processing of duty train travelers.[citation needed]
Entry into and exit from East Berlin
Checkpoint Charlie (as a pedestrian or riding in a vehicle)
As with military personnel, special procedures applied to travel by diplomatic personnel of the Western Allies accredited to their respective embassies in the GDR. This was intended to prevent inadvertent recognition of East German authority when crossing between East and West Berlin, which could jeopardize the overall Allied position governing the freedom of movement by Allied forces personnel within all Berlin.
Ordinary citizens of the Western Allied powers, not formally affiliated with the Allied forces, were authorized to use all designated transit routes through East Germany to and from West Berlin. Regarding travel to East Berlin, such persons could also use the Friedrichstraße train station to enter and exit the city, in addition to Checkpoint Charlie. In these instances, such travelers, unlike Allied personnel, had to submit to East German border controls.[citation needed]
Defection attempts
Further information: List of deaths at the Berlin Wall
NVA soldier Conrad Schumann defecting to West Berlin during the Wall's early days in 1961.
During the years of the Wall, around 5,000 people successfully defected to West Berlin. The number of people who died trying to cross the Wall, or as a result of the Wall's existence, has been disputed. The most vocal claims by Alexandra Hildebrandt, Director of the Checkpoint Charlie Museum and widow of the Museum's founder, estimated the death toll to be well above 200.[7][74] A historic research group at the Center for Contemporary Historical Research (ZZF) in Potsdam has confirmed 136 deaths.[8] Prior official figures listed 98 as being killed.
The East German government issued shooting orders (Schießbefehl) to border guards dealing with defectors, though such orders are not the same as "shoot to kill" orders. GDR officials denied issuing the latter. In an October 1973 order later discovered by researchers, guards were instructed that people attempting to cross the Wall were criminals and needed to be shot: "Do not hesitate to use your firearm, not even when the border is breached in the company of women and children, which is a tactic the traitors have often used".[75]
Early successful escapes involved people jumping the initial barbed wire or leaping out of apartment windows along the line, but these ended as the Wall was fortified. East German authorities no longer permitted apartments near the Wall to be occupied, and any building near the Wall had its windows boarded and later bricked up. On 15 August 1961, Conrad Schumann was the first East German border guard to escape by jumping the barbed wire to West Berlin.[76]
On 22 August 1961, Ida Siekmann was the first casualty at the Berlin Wall: she died after she jumped out of her third floor apartment at 48 Bernauer Strasse.[77] The first person to be shot and killed while trying to cross to West Berlin was Günter Litfin, a twenty-four-year-old tailor. He attempted to swim across the Spree Canal to West Germany on 24 August 1961, the same day that East German police had received shoot-to-kill orders to prevent anyone from escaping.[78]
Another dramatic escape was carried out on April 1963 by Wolfgang Engels, a 19-year-old civilian employee of the Nationale Volksarmee. Engels stole a Soviet armored personnel carrier from a base where he was deployed and drove it right into the Wall. He was fired at and seriously wounded by border guards. But a West German policeman intervened, firing his weapon at the East German border guards. The policeman removed Engels from the vehicle, which had become entangled in the barbed wire.[79]
Memorial to the Victims of the Wall, with graffiti, 1982.
East Germans successfully defected by a variety of methods: digging long tunnels under the Wall, waiting for favorable winds and taking a hot air balloon, sliding along aerial wires, flying ultralights and, in one instance, simply driving a sports car at full speed through the basic, initial fortifications. When a metal beam was placed at checkpoints to prevent this kind of defection, up to four people (two in the front seats and possibly two in the boot) drove under the bar in a sports car that had been modified to allow the roof and windscreen to come away when it made contact with the beam. They lay flat and kept driving forward. The East Germans then built zig-zagging roads at checkpoints. The sewer system predated the Wall, and some people escaped through the sewers, in a number of cases with assistance from the Unternehmen Reisebüro.[citation needed]
An airborne escape was made by Thomas Krüger, who landed a Zlin Z 42M light aircraft of the Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik, an East German youth military training organization, at RAF Gatow. His aircraft, registration DDR-WOH, was dismantled and returned to the East Germans by road, complete with humorous slogans painted on it by RAF airmen, such as "Wish you were here" and "Come back soon". DDR-WOH is still flying today, but under the registration D-EWOH.[citation needed]
If an escapee was wounded in a crossing attempt and lay on the death strip, no matter how close they were to the Western wall, Westerners could not intervene for fear of triggering engaging fire from the 'Grepos', the East Berlin border guards. The guards often let fugitives bleed to death in the middle of this ground, as in the most notorious failed attempt, that of Peter Fechter (aged 18). He was shot and bled to death, in full view of the Western media, on 17 August 1962. Fechter's death created negative publicity worldwide that led the leaders of East Berlin to place more restrictions on shooting in public places, and provide medical care for possible "would-be escapers".[80] The last person to be shot and killed while trying to cross the border was Chris Gueffroy on 6 February 1989, while the final person to die in an escape attempt was Winfried Freudenberg who was killed when his homemade natural gas-filled balloon crashed on 8 March 1989.
The Wall gave rise to a widespread sense of desperation and oppression in East Berlin, as expressed in the private thoughts of one resident, who confided to her diary "Our lives have lost their spirit…we can do nothing to stop them."[81]
Concerts by Western artists and growing anti-Wall sentiment
“ Every stone bears witness to the moral bankruptcy of the society it encloses ”
— Margaret Thatcher commenting about the wall, West Berlin, 1982[82]
David Bowie, 1987
On 6 June 1987, David Bowie, who earlier for several years lived and recorded in West Berlin, played a concert close to the Wall. This was attended by thousands of Eastern concertgoers across the Wall,[83] followed by violent rioting in East Berlin. According to Tobias Ruther, these protests in East Berlin were the first in the sequence of riots that led to those of November 1989.[84][85] Although other factors were probably more influential in the fall of the Wall,[83] on his death, the German Foreign Office tweeted "Good-bye, David Bowie. You are now among #Heroes. Thank you for helping to bring down the #wall."[86]
Bruce Springsteen, 1988
On 19 July 1988, 16 months before the Wall came down, Bruce Springsteen and the E-Street Band, played Rocking the Wall, a live concert in East Berlin, which was attended by 300,000 in person and broadcast delayed on television. Springsteen spoke to the crowd in German, saying: "I'm not here for or against any government. I've come to play rock 'n' roll for you in the hope that one day all the barriers will be torn down".[87] East Germany and its FDJ youth organization were worried they were losing an entire generation. They hoped that by letting Springsteen in, they could improve their sentiment among East Germans. However, this strategy of "one step backwards, two steps forwards" backfired and the concert only made East Germans hungrier for more of the freedoms that Springsteen epitomized. While John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan delivered their famous speeches from the safety of West Berlin, Springsteen's speaking out against the Wall in the middle of East Berlin added to the euphoria.[87]
David Hasselhoff, 1989
On 31 December 1989, American TV actor and pop music singer David Hasselhoff was the headlining performer for the Freedom Tour Live concert, which was attended by over 500,000 people on both sides of the Wall. The live concert footage was directed by music video director Thomas Mignone and aired on broadcast television station Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen ZDF throughout Europe. During shooting film crew personnel pulled people up from both sides to stand and celebrate on top of the wall. Hasselhoff sang his Number One hit song "Looking For Freedom" on a platform at the end of a twenty-meter steel crane that swung above and over the Wall adjacent to the Brandenburg Gate.[88]
"Ich bin ein Berliner" and "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this Wall."
Main articles: Ich bin ein Berliner and Tear down this wall!
Ich bin ein Berliner (I am a Berliner) speech
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Speech from the Rathaus Schöneberg by John F. Kennedy, 26 June 1963. Duration 9:01.
Ich bin ein Berliner ("I am a Berliner") speech (audio)
Audio-only version (Duration 9:22)
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Complete speech by Ronald Reagan at the Brandenburg Gate, 12 June 1987. Famous passage begins at 11:10 into this video.
On 26 June 1963, 22 months after the erection of the Berlin Wall, U.S. President John F. Kennedy visited West Berlin. Speaking from a platform erected on the steps of Rathaus Schöneberg for an audience of 450,000 he declared in his Ich bin ein Berliner speech the support of the United States for West Germany and the people of West Berlin in particular:
Two thousand years ago, the proudest boast was civis romanus sum ["I am a Roman citizen"]. Today, in the world of freedom, the proudest boast is "Ich bin ein Berliner!"... All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, and therefore, as a free man, I take pride in the words "Ich bin ein Berliner!"
The message was aimed as much at the Soviets as it was at Berliners and was a clear statement of U.S. policy in the wake of the construction of the Berlin Wall. The speech is considered one of Kennedy's best, both a notable moment of the Cold War and a high point of the New Frontier. It was a great morale boost for West Berliners, who lived in an exclave deep inside East Germany and feared a possible East German occupation.
In a speech at the Brandenburg Gate commemorating the 750th anniversary of Berlin[89] on 12 June 1987, U.S. President Ronald Reagan challenged Mikhail Gorbachev, then the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, to tear down the Wall as a symbol of increasing freedom in the Eastern Bloc:
We welcome change and openness; for we believe that freedom and security go together, that the advance of human liberty can only strengthen the cause of world peace. There is one sign the Soviets can make that would be unmistakable, that would advance dramatically the cause of freedom and peace. General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization, come here to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this Wall![90]
Fall of the Berlin Wall
In June 1989 the Hungarian government began dismantling the electrified fence along its border with Austria (with Western TV crews present), and then, in September, more than 13,000 East German tourists escaped through Hungary to Austria.[91] This set up a chain of events. The Hungarians prevented many more East Germans from crossing the border and returned them to Budapest. These East Germans flooded the West German embassy and refused to return to East Germany.[92]
The East German government responded by disallowing any further travel to Hungary, but allowed those already there to return to East Germany.[9] This triggered similar events in neighboring Czechoslovakia. This time, however, the East German authorities allowed people to leave, provided that they did so by train through East Germany. This was followed by mass demonstrations within East Germany itself. Protest demonstrations spread throughout East Germany in September 1989. Initially, protesters were mostly people wanting to leave to the West, chanting "Wir wollen raus!" ("We want out!"). Then protestors began to chant "Wir bleiben hier!" ("We are staying here!"). This was the start of what East Germans generally call the "Peaceful Revolution" of late 1989.[93] The protest demonstrations grew considerably by early November. The movement neared its height on 4 November, when half a million people gathered to demand political change, at the Alexanderplatz demonstration, East Berlin's large public square and transportation hub.[94]
The longtime leader of East Germany, Erich Honecker, resigned on 18 October 1989 and was replaced by Egon Krenz that day. Honecker had predicted in January of that year that the Wall would stand for 50 or 100 more years[92] if the conditions that had caused its construction did not change.
The wave of refugees leaving East Germany for the West kept increasing. By early November refugees were finding their way to Hungary via Czechoslovakia, or via the West German Embassy in Prague. This was tolerated by the new Krenz government, because of long-standing agreements with the communist Czechoslovak government, allowing free travel across their common border. However this movement of people grew so large it caused difficulties for both countries. To ease the difficulties, the politburo led by Krenz decided on 9 November to allow refugees to exit directly through crossing points between East Germany and West Germany, including between East and West Berlin. Later the same day, the ministerial administration modified the proposal to include private, round-trip, travel. The new regulations were to take effect the next day.[95]
Günter Schabowski, the party boss in East Berlin and the spokesman for the SED Politburo, had the task of announcing the new regulations. However, he had not been involved in the discussions about the new regulations and had not been fully updated.[96] Shortly before a press conference on 9 November, he was handed a note announcing the changes, but given no further instructions on how to handle the information. These regulations had only been completed a few hours earlier and were to take effect the following day, so as to allow time to inform the border guards. But this starting time delay was not communicated to Schabowski.[46]
At the end of the press conference, Schabowski read out loud the note he had been given. One of the reporters, ANSA's Riccardo Ehrman,[97] asked when the regulations would take effect. After a few seconds' hesitation, Schabowski assumed it would be the same day based on the wording of the note and replied, "As far as I know, it takes effect immediately, without delay".[46] After further questions from journalists, he confirmed that the regulations included the border crossings through the Wall into West Berlin, which he had not mentioned until then.[98]
Excerpts from Schabowski's press conference were the lead story on West Germany's two main news programs that night—at 7:17 p.m. on ZDF's heute and at 8 p.m. on ARD's Tagesschau. This, of course, meant that the news was broadcast to nearly all of East Germany as well. Later that night, on ARD's Tagesthemen, anchorman Hanns Joachim Friedrichs proclaimed, "This 9 November is a historic day. The GDR has announced that, starting immediately, its borders are open to everyone. The gates in the Wall stand open wide."[46][96]
After hearing the broadcast, East Germans began gathering at the Wall, at the six checkpoints between East and West Berlin, demanding that border guards immediately open the gates.[96] The surprised and overwhelmed guards made many hectic telephone calls to their superiors about the problem. At first, they were ordered to find the "more aggressive" people gathered at the gates and stamp their passports with a special stamp that barred them from returning to East Germany—in effect, revoking their citizenship. However, this still left thousands of people demanding to be let through "as Schabowski said we can".[46]
It soon became clear that no one among the East German authorities would take personal responsibility for issuing orders to use lethal force, so the vastly outnumbered soldiers had no way to hold back the huge crowd of East German citizens. Finally, at 10:45 p.m., Harald Jäger, the commander of the Bornholmer Straße border crossing yielded, allowing for the guards to open the checkpoints and allowing people through with little or no identity checking.[99] As the Ossis swarmed through, they were greeted by Wessis waiting with flowers and champagne amid wild rejoicing. Soon afterward, a crowd of West Berliners jumped on top of the Wall, and were soon joined by East German youngsters. They danced together to celebrate their new freedom.[citation needed]
Walking through Checkpoint Charlie, 10 November 1989.
Germans stand on top of the Wall in the days before it was torn down.
At the Brandenburg Gate, 10 November 1989.
Juggling on the Wall on 16 November 1989.
"Mauerspecht" (November 1989).
The Fall of the Wall (November 1989)
Another border crossing to the south may have been opened earlier. An account by Heinz Schäfer indicates that he also acted independently and ordered the opening of the gate at Waltersdorf-Rudow a couple of hours earlier.[100] This may explain reports of East Berliners appearing in West Berlin earlier than the opening of the Bornholmer Straße border crossing.[citation needed]
Demolition
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A Berlin Wall segment in Los Angeles at 5900 Wilshire Boulevard.
The fall of the Berlin Wall (German: Mauerfall) began the evening of 9 November 1989 and continued over the following days and weeks, with people nicknamed Mauerspechte (wall woodpeckers) using various tools to chip off souvenirs, demolishing lengthy parts in the process, and creating several unofficial border crossings.[101]
Television coverage of citizens demolishing sections of the Wall on 9 November was soon followed by the East German regime announcing ten new border crossings, including the historically significant locations of Potsdamer Platz, Glienicker Brücke, and Bernauer Straße. Crowds gathered on both sides of the historic crossings waiting for hours to cheer the bulldozers that tore down portions of the Wall to reconnect the divided roads. While the Wall officially remained guarded at a decreasing intensity, new border crossings continued for some time, including the Brandenburg Gate on 22 December 1989. Initially the East German military attempted repairing damage done by the "Wall peckers"; gradually these attempts ceased, and guards became more lax, tolerating the increasing demolitions and "unauthorized" border crossing through the holes.[citation needed]
West Germans and West Berliners were allowed visa-free travel starting 23 December. Until then, they could only visit East Germany and East Berlin under restrictive conditions that involved application for a visa several days or weeks in advance and obligatory exchange of at least 25 DM per day of their planned stay, all of which hindered spontaneous visits. Thus, in the weeks between 9 November and 23 December, East Germans could actually travel more freely than Westerners.[citation needed]
On 13 June 1990, the East German military officially began dismantling the Wall, beginning in Bernauer Straße and around the Mitte district. From there, demolition continued through Prenzlauer Berg/Gesundbrunnen, Helligensee and throughout the city of Berlin until that December. Various military units dismantled the Berlin/Brandenberg border wall, completing the job in November 1991. Virtually every road that was severed by the Berlin Wall (that links from West Berlin to East Berlin) was reconstructed and reopened by 1 August 1990.[citation needed]
On 1 July, the day East Germany adopted the West German currency, all de jure border controls ceased, although the inter-German border had become meaningless for some time before that.[citation needed]
The fall of the Wall marked the first critical step towards German reunification, which formally concluded a mere 339 days later on 3 October 1990 with the dissolution of East Germany and the official reunification of the German state along the democratic lines of the West German Basic Law.[101]
An East German guard talks to a Westerner through a broken seam in the wall in late November 1989.
A crane removes a section of the Wall near Brandenburg Gate on 21 December 1989.
Almost all of the remaining sections were rapidly chipped away. December 1990.
West Germans peer at East German border guards through a hole in the wall on 5 January 1990.
Short section of the Berlin Wall at Potsdamer Platz, March 2009
Souvenir chunk of concrete from the Wall
Part of the Berlin Wall at Potsdamer Platz in Berlin
Opposition
In some European capitals at the time, there was a deep anxiety over prospects for a reunified Germany. In September 1989, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher pleaded with Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev not to let the Berlin Wall fall and confided that she wanted the Soviet leader to do what he could to stop it.[102][103]
"We do not want a united Germany. This would lead to a change to postwar borders and we cannot allow that because such a development would undermine the stability of the whole international situation and could endanger our security," Thatcher told Gorbachev.[102]
After the fall of the Berlin Wall, French President François Mitterrand warned Thatcher that a unified Germany could make more ground than Adolf Hitler ever had and that Europe would have to bear the consequences.[104]
Celebrations
On 21 November 1989, Crosby, Stills & Nash performed the song "Chippin' Away" from Graham Nash's 1986 solo album Innocent Eyes in front of the Brandenburg Gate.[105]
On 25 December 1989, Leonard Bernstein gave a concert in Berlin celebrating the end of the Wall, including Beethoven's 9th symphony (Ode to Joy) with the word "Joy" (Freude) changed to "Freedom" (Freiheit) in the lyrics sung. The poet Schiller may have originally written "Freedom" and changed it to "Joy" out of fear.[106] The orchestra and choir were drawn from both East and West Germany, as well as the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States.[107] On New Year's Eve 1989, David Hasselhoff performed his song "Looking for Freedom" while standing atop the partly demolished wall.[108]
Roger Waters performed the Pink Floyd album The Wall just north of Potsdamer Platz on 21 July 1990, with guests including Bon Jovi, Scorpions, Bryan Adams, Sinéad O'Connor, Cyndi Lauper, Thomas Dolby, Joni Mitchell, Marianne Faithfull, Levon Helm, Rick Danko and Van Morrison.
Over the years, there has been a repeated controversial debate[109] as to whether 9 November would make a suitable German national holiday, often initiated by former members of political opposition in East Germany, such as Werner Schulz.[110] Besides being the emotional apogee of East Germany's peaceful revolution, 9 November is also the date of the 1918 abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II and declaration of the Weimar Republic, the first German republic. However, 9 November is also the anniversary of the execution of Robert Blum in following the 1848 Vienna revolts, the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch and the infamous Kristallnacht pogroms of the Nazis in 1938. Nobel Laureate Elie Wiesel criticized the first euphoria, noting that "they forgot that 9 November has already entered into history—51 years earlier it marked the Kristallnacht."[111] As reunification was not official and complete until 3 October, that day was finally chosen as German Unity Day.
20th anniversary celebrations
On 9 November 2009, Berlin celebrated the 20th Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall with a "Festival of Freedom" with dignitaries from around the world in attendance for an evening celebration around the Brandenburg Gate. A high point was when over 1,000 colourfully designed foam domino tiles, each over 8 feet (2.4 m) tall, that were stacked along the former route of the Wall in the city center were toppled in stages, converging in front of the Brandenburg Gate.[93]
A Berlin Twitter Wall was set up to allow Twitter users to post messages commemorating the 20th anniversary. The Chinese government quickly shut down access to the Twitter Wall after masses of Chinese users began using it to protest the Great Firewall of China.[112][113][114]
In the United States, the German Embassy coordinated a public diplomacy campaign with the motto "Freedom Without Walls", to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall. The campaign was focused on promoting awareness of the fall of the Berlin Wall among current college students. Students at over 30 universities participated in "Freedom Without Walls" events in late 2009. First place winner of the Freedom Without Walls Speaking Contest[115] Robert Cannon received a free trip to Berlin for 2010.[116]
An international project called Mauerreise (Journey of the Wall) took place in various countries. Twenty symbolic Wall bricks were sent from Berlin starting in May 2009, with the destinations being Korea, Cyprus, Yemen, and other places where everyday life is characterised by division and border experience. In these places, the bricks will become a blank canvas for artists, intellectuals and young people to tackle the "wall" phenomenon.[117]
To commemorate the 20th Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall, Twinity reconstructed a true-to-scale section of the Wall in virtual Berlin.[118] The MTV Europe Music Awards, on 5 November, had U2 and Tokio Hotel perform songs dedicated to, and about the Berlin Wall. U2 performed at the Brandenburg Gate, and Tokio Hotel performed "World Behind My Wall".
Palestinians in the town of Kalandia, West Bank pulled down parts of the Israeli West Bank barrier, in a demonstration marking the 20th Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall.[119]
The International Spy Museum in Washington DC hosted a Trabant car rally where 20 Trabants gathered in recognition of the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall. Rides were raffled every half-hour and a Trabant crashed through a Berlin Wall mock up. The Trabant was the East German people's car that many used to leave DDR after the collapse.[citation needed]
The Allied Museum in the Dahlem district of Berlin hosted a number of events to mark the Twentieth Anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall. The museum held a Special Exhibition entitled "Wall Patrol – The Western Powers and the Berlin Wall 1961–1990" which focused on the daily patrols deployed by the Western powers to observe the situation along the Berlin Wall and the fortifications on the GDR border.[120] A sheet of "Americans in Berlin" Commemorative Cinderella stamps designed by T.H.E. Hill, the author of Voices Under Berlin, was presented to the Museum by David Guerra, Berlin veteran and webmaster of the site www.berlinbrigade.com. The stamps splendidly illustrate that even twenty years on, veterans of service in Berlin still regard their service there as one of the high points of their lives.[121]
Legacy
Remaining stretch of the Wall near Ostbahnhof in Friedrichshain called East Side Gallery, August 2006
Remains of the Wall adjacent to the Topography of Terror, August 2007
A memorial of over a thousand crosses and a segment of the Wall for those who died trying to cross. The memorial stood for ten months in 2004 and 2005 before it was removed.
A "BERLINER MAUER 1961–1989" plaque near Checkpoint Charlie signifying where the Wall stood
Display of two sections of the Wall and a "You are leaving" sign at Fort Gordon, Georgia
The Berlin Wall from the East Berlin side, 1967
A sign reading "Until we see each other again in the capital of the GDR"
Czech hedgehog antitank obstacles and the Wall
An exhibition dedicated to the 25th anniversary to the Berlin Wall destruction was located at Potsdamer Platz Arkaden
Line indicating where the Wall once stood, just off Potsdamer Platz, in 2015
Little is left of the Wall at its original site, which was destroyed almost in its entirety. Three long sections are still standing: an 80-metre-long (260 ft) piece of the first (westernmost) wall at the Topography of Terror, site of the former Gestapo headquarters, halfway between Checkpoint Charlie and Potsdamer Platz; a longer section of the second (easternmost) wall along the Spree River near the Oberbaumbrücke, nicknamed East Side Gallery; and a third section that is partly reconstructed, in the north at Bernauer Straße, which was turned into a memorial in 1999. Other isolated fragments, lampposts, other elements, and a few watchtowers also remain in various parts of the city.
The former leadership in the Schlesischen Busch in the vicinity of the Puschkinallee—the listed, twelve-meter high watchtower stands in a piece of the wall strip, which has been turned into a park, near the Lohmühleninsel[122]
The former "Kieler Eck" (Kieler Eck) on Kieler Strasse in Mitte, close to the Berlin-Spandau Schifffahrtskanal—the tower is protected as a historic monument and now surrounded on three sides by new buildings. It houses a memorial site named after the Wallopfer Günter Litfin, who was shot at Humboldthafen in August 1961. The memorial site, which is run by the initiative of his brother Jürgen Liftin, can be viewed after registration.
The former management office at Nieder Neuendorf, in the district of Hennigsdorf of the same name—here is the permanent exhibition on the history of the border installations between the two German states.
The former management station at Bergfelde, today the district of Hohen Neuendorf—The tower is located in an already reforested area of the border strip and is used together with surrounding terrain as a nature protection tower by the Deutschen Waldjugend.
The only one of the much slimmer observation towers (BT-11) in the Erna-Berger-Strasse also in Mitte—however, was moved by a few meters for construction work and is no longer in the original location; There is an exhibition about the wall in the area of the Potsdamer Platz in planning.
Nothing still accurately represents the Wall's original appearance better than a very short stretch at Bernauer Straße associated with the Berlin Wall Documentation Center.[123] Other remnants are badly damaged by souvenir seekers. Fragments of the Wall were taken and some were sold around the world. Appearing both with and without certificates of authenticity, these fragments are now a staple on the online auction service eBay as well as German souvenir shops. Today, the eastern side is covered in graffiti that did not exist while the Wall was guarded by the armed soldiers of East Germany. Previously, graffiti appeared only on the western side. Along some tourist areas of the city centre, the city government has marked the location of the former Wall by a row of cobblestones in the street. In most places only the "first" wall is marked, except near Potsdamer Platz where the stretch of both walls is marked, giving visitors an impression of the dimension of the barrier system.[citation needed]
After the fall of Berlin Wall, there were initiatives that they want to preserve the death strip walkways and redevelop it into a hiking and cycling area, known as Berliner Mauerweg. It is part of the initiative by Berlin Senate since 2005.
Cultural differences
For many years after reunification, people in Germany talked about cultural differences between East and West Germans (colloquially Ossis and Wessis), sometimes described as Mauer im Kopf (The wall in the head). A September 2004 poll found that 25 percent of West Germans and 12 percent of East Germans wished that East and West should be separated again by a "Wall".[124] A poll taken in October 2009 on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Wall indicated, however, that only about a tenth of the population was still unhappy with the unification (8 percent in the East; 12 percent in the West). Although differences are still perceived between East and West, Germans make similar distinctions between North and South.[125]
A 2011 poll conducted by Russia's VTsIOM, found that more than half of all Russians do not know who built the Berlin Wall. Ten percent of people surveyed thought Berlin residents built it themselves. Six percent said Western powers built it and four percent thought it was a "bilateral initiative" of the Soviet Union and the West. Fifty-eight percent said they did not know who built it, with just 24 percent correctly naming the Soviet Union and its then-communist ally East Germany.[126]
Wall segments around the world
Segment of the Berlin wall in the Sanctuary of Fátima, Portugal
Main article: List of Berlin Wall segments
Not all segments of the Wall were ground up as the Wall was being torn down. Many segments have been given to various institutions around the world. They can be found, for instance, in presidential and historical museums, lobbies of hotels and corporations, at universities and government buildings, and in public spaces around the world.[127]
Remains of the Berlin wall, still in its original spot, 2016
50th anniversary commemoration
On 13 August 2011, Germany marked the 50th anniversary of East Germany beginning the erection of the Berlin Wall. Chancellor Angela Merkel joined with President Christian Wulff and Berlin Mayor Klaus Wowereit at the Bernauer Straße memorial park to remember lives and liberty. Speeches extolled freedom and a minute of silence at noon honored those who died trying to flee to the West. "It is our shared responsibility to keep the memory alive and to pass it on to the coming generations as a reminder to stand up for freedom and democracy to ensure that such injustice may never happen again," entreated Mayor Wowereit. "It has been shown once again: Freedom is invincible at the end. No wall can permanently withstand the desire for freedom", proclaimed President Wulff."[128][129][130][131]
Related media
Documentary films specifically about the Berlin Wall:
The Tunnel, a NBC News Special documentary film broadcast in December 1962
The Road to the Wall, a 1962 documentary film
Something to Do with the Wall, 1991 documentary about the fall of the Berlin Wall by Ross McElwee and Marilyn Levine, originally conceived as a commemoration of the 25th anniversary of its construction.[citation needed]
Fictional films featuring the Berlin Wall have included:
The Spy Who Came in from the Cold, 1965 – Cold War classic set on both sides of The Wall, from the book by John le Carré, directed by Martin Ritt
The Boy and the Ball and the Hole in the Wall, Spanish-Mexican co-production, 1965[132]
Funeral in Berlin, 1966 – Spy movie starring Michael Caine, directed by Guy Hamilton
Casino Royale, 1967 – featuring a segment centred on a house apparently bisected by the Wall.
The Wicked Dreams of Paula Schultz, 1968 – Cold War spy farce about an Olympic athlete who defects. Director George Marshall
Berlin Tunnel 21, 1981 – A made-for-TV movie about a former American officer leading an attempt to build a tunnel underneath The Wall as a rescue route.
The Soldier, 1982 – A renegade KGB team put nuclear weapons in Saudi Arabia to force America to make the Israelis pull out of the West Bank or the bomb will make 50% of the world's oil radioactive for decades. The title character of the movie has a team break into a missile silo in Smith Center, Kansas to obtain independent launch capability, then he and an Israeli security agent drive an automobile from West Germany over the Berlin Wall into East Germany where he informs the KGB agents that if the nuke goes off in Saudi Arabia, his team in Kansas will nuke Moscow.
The Innocent, 1993 – About the joint CIA/MI6 operation to build a tunnel under East Berlin in the 1950s. Directed by John Schlesinger
The Tunnel, 2001 – Dramatization of a collaborative tunnel under the Wall. Film by Roland Suso Richter
In the 2015 film Bridge of Spies, Frederic Pryor, an American economics graduate student, visits his German girlfriend in East Berlin just as the Berlin Wall is being built. He tries to bring her back into West Berlin, but is stopped by Stasi agents and arrested as a spy.
Some novels specifically about the Berlin Wall:
John le Carré, The Spy Who Came in from the Cold, 1963 – Classic Cold War spy fiction
Len Deighton, Berlin Game, 1983 – Classic Cold War spy fiction
T.H.E. Hill, The Day Before the Berlin Wall: Could We Have Stopped It? – An Alternate History of Cold War Espionage,[133] 2010 – based on a legend told in Berlin in the 1970s
John Marks, The Wall, 1999 NYT Review[134] – an American spy defects to the East just hours before the Wall falls
Marcia Preston, West of the Wall (published as Trudy's Promise in North America), 2008 – Left behind in East Berlin, the heroine waits for news of her husband after he makes his escape over the Berlin Wall[135]
Peter Schneider, The Wall Jumper, 1984 (German: Der Mauerspringer, 1982) – the Wall plays a central role in this novel set in Berlin of the 1980s
Music related to the Berlin Wall
"Holidays in the Sun", a song by the English punk rock band The Sex Pistols prominently mentions the Wall, specifically singer Johnny Rotten's fantasy of digging a tunnel under it.
David Bowie's "Heroes" was inspired by the image of a couple kissing at the Berlin Wall (in reality, the couple was his producer Tony Visconti and backup singer Antonia Maaß). The song (which, along with the album of the same name, were recorded in Berlin), makes lyrical references to the kissing couple, and to the "Wall of Shame" ("the shame was on the other side"). Upon his death, the German Foreign Office paid homage to Bowie on Twitter,:[136] see also above
Over de muur (nl), a 1984 song by Dutch pop band Klein Orkest (nl), about the differences between East and West Berlin during the period of the Berlin Wall.[137]
"Chippin' Away",[138] a song by Tom Fedora, as performed by Crosby, Stills & Nash on the Berlin Wall appeared on Graham Nash's 1986 solo album Innocent Eyes.
The music video for Liza Fox's song "Free" (2013) contain video clips of the fall of the Berlin Wall.[139]
Art related to the Berlin Wall
In the year 1982 the West-German artist Elsner created about 500 artworks along the former border strip around West-Berlin as part of his work series "Border Injuries". On one of his actions he even tore down a large part of the Wall,[140] installed a prepared foil of 3x2m in it and finished the painting there before the border soldiers on patrol could detect him. This performance was even recorded on video.[141] His actions are well-documented both in newspapers from that time and in recent scientific publications.[142]
Video games related to the Berlin Wall
The "First Strike" downloadable content pack for 2010s Call of Duty: Black Ops includes a multiplayer map that takes place at the Berlin Wall ("Berlin Wall")
See also
The Berlin Wall (video game)
Brandenburg Gate
Chapel of Reconciliation
Checkpoint Charlie
Checkpoint Charlie stand-off (October 1961)
Dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991)
Green Line (Beirut)
Inner German Border
Korean Demilitarized Zone
Military Demarcation Line
List of walls
Operation Gold
Ostalgie
Peace Lines (Belfast)
Reunification of Jerusalem
The Wall – Live in Berlin (rock opera/concert, 21 July 1990)
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b "Untangling 5 myths about the Berlin Wall". Chicago Tribune. 31 October 2014. Retrieved 1 November 2014. (Subscription required (help)).
Jump up ^ Video: Berlin, 1961/08/31 (1961). Universal Newsreel. 1961. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "In Photos: 25 years ago todaythe Berlin Wall Fell". TheJournal.ie. 9 November 2014.
Jump up ^ Jack Marck "Over the Wall: A Once-in-a-Lifetime Experience" American Heritage, October 2006.
Jump up ^ "Berlin Wall: Five things you might not know". The Telegraph. 12 August 2011. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
Jump up ^ "Freedom! – TIME". TIME. 20 November 1989. Retrieved 9 November 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Forschungsprojekt "Die Todesopfer an der Berliner Mauer, 1961–1989": BILANZ (Stand: 7. August 2008) (in German)". Retrieved 6 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Center for Contemporary Historical Research (Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung Potsdam e.V) in German". Chronik-der-mauer.de. Retrieved 6 August 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Mary Elise Sarotte, Collapse: The Accidental Opening of the Berlin Wall, New York: Basic Books, 2014
Jump up ^ Miller 2000, pp. 4–5
Jump up ^ Miller 2000, p. 16
Jump up ^ Miller 2000, p. 10
Jump up ^ Miller 2000, p. 13
^ Jump up to: a b Wettig 2008, p. 95-5
^ Jump up to: a b Wettig 2008, p. 96
Jump up ^ The political process contrasted with that in West German zones occupied by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, where minister-presidents were chosen by freely elected parliamentary assemblies. (Turner, Henry Ashby. The Two Germanies Since 1945: East and West, Yale University Press, 1987, ISBN 0-300-03865-8, page 20)
Jump up ^ Turner 1987, p. 47
Jump up ^ Gaddis 2005, p. 33
Jump up ^ Miller 2000, pp. 65–70
Jump up ^ Turner 1987, p. 29
Jump up ^ Fritsch-Bournazel, Renata, Confronting the German Question: Germans on the East-West Divide, Berg Publishers, 1990, ISBN 0-85496-684-6, page 143
Jump up ^ Gaddis 2005, p. 34
Jump up ^ Miller 2000, pp. 180–81
Jump up ^ Wettig 2008, p. 179
Jump up ^ In a congratulatory telegram, Stalin emphasized that, with the creation of East Germany, the "enslavement of European countries by the global imperialists was rendered impossible." (Wettig, Gerhard, Stalin and the Cold War in Europe, Rowman & Littlefield, 2008, ISBN 0-7425-5542-9, page 179)
^ Jump up to: a b Thackeray 2004, p. 188
Jump up ^ Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Arbeit und Sozialordnung, Familie und Frauen, Statistik Spätaussiedler Dezember 2007, p.3 (in German)
Jump up ^ Loescher 2001, p. 60
Jump up ^ Loescher 2001, p. 68
Jump up ^ Dale 2005, p. 17
Jump up ^ Dowty 1989, p. 114
Jump up ^ Dowty 1989, p. 116
^ Jump up to: a b c Dowty 1989, p. 121
Jump up ^ Harrison 2003, p. 240-fn
Jump up ^ Harrison 2003, p. 98
^ Jump up to: a b c d Harrison 2003, p. 99
Jump up ^ Paul Maddrell, Spying on Science: Western Intelligence in Divided Germany 1945–1961, p. 56. Oxford University Press, 2006
^ Jump up to: a b c Dowty 1989, p. 122
^ Jump up to: a b c Harrison 2003, p. 100
Jump up ^ English translation of "Wer die Deutsche Demokratische Republik verläßt, stellt sich auf die Seite der Kriegstreiber" ("He Who Leaves the German Democratic Republic Joins the Warmongers", Notizbuch des Agitators ("Agitator's Notebook"), Berlin: Socialist Unity Party's Agitation Department, November 1955.
Jump up ^ Volker Rolf Berghahn, Modern Germany: Society, Economy and Politics in the Twentieth Century, p. 227. Cambridge University Press, 1987
Jump up ^ Pearson 1998, p. 75
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^ Jump up to: a b c d e Sebetsyen, Victor (2009). Revolution 1989: The Fall of the Soviet Empire. New York City: Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-375-42532-2.
Jump up ^ Kempe, Frederick (2011). Berlin 1961. Penguin Group (USA). p. 247. ISBN 0-399-15729-8.
Jump up ^ "Exchanges of Territory". City of Berlin. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 January 2016.
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^ Jump up to: a b "Wall Goes Up in Berlin – Events of 1961 – Year in Review". UPI.com. 29 May 1998. Retrieved 6 August 2011.
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Jump up ^ See also Hackworth, About Face
Jump up ^ Berliner Mauer (Stand 31. Juli 1989) Polizeipräsident von Berlin.
Jump up ^ Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung: Ministerium für Staatssicherheit der DDR, siehe: Statistiken + „Grenzsicherung in Berlin“ 1989.
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Dale, Gareth (2005). Popular Protest in East Germany, 1945–1989: Judgements on the Street. Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-5408-6.
Dowty, Alan (1989). Closed Borders: The Contemporary Assault on Freedom of Movement. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04498-4.
Gaddis, John Lewis (2005). The Cold War: A New History. Penguin Press. ISBN 1-59420-062-9.
Harrison, Hope Millard (2003). Driving the Soviets Up the Wall: Soviet-East German Relations, 1953–1961. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09678-3.
Catudal, Honoré M. (1980). "Kennedy". West Berlin: Berlin Verlag.
Hertle, Hans-Hermann (2007). "The Berlin Wall". Bonn: Federal Centre for Political Education.
Kennedy, John F. "July 25, 1961 speech". Archived from the original on 29 April 2009. Retrieved 20 October 2009.
Loescher, Gil (2001). The UNHCR and World Politics: A Perilous Path. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-829716-5.
Maclean, Rory (1992). "Stalin's Nose: Across the Face of Europe". London: HarperCollins.
Miller, Roger Gene (2000). To Save a City: The Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 0-89096-967-1.
Mynz, Rainer (1995). "Where Did They All Come From? Typology and Geography of European Mass Migration In the Twentieth Century; European Population Conference Congress European de Démographie". United Nations Population Division.
Pearson, Raymond (1998). The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire. Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-17407-1.
Schneider, Peter (2005). "The Wall Jumper". London: Penguin Classics.
Schulte, Bennet (2011). The Berlin Wall. Remains of a Lost Border. (Die Berliner Mauer. Spuren einer verschwundenen Grenze). be.bra verlag, Berlin. ISBN 978-3-8148-0185-8.
Taylor, Frederick. The Berlin Wall: 13 August 1961 – 9 November 1989. Bloomsbury 2006
Thackeray, Frank W. (2004). Events that changed Germany. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-32814-5.
Friedrich, Thomas (1996). Wo die Mauer War/Where was the Wall?. Harry Hampel (photos). Berlin: Nicolai. ISBN 3-87584-695-8.
Turner, Henry Ashby (1987). The Two Germanies Since 1945: East and West. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03865-8.
Wettig, Gerhard (2008). Stalin and the Cold War in Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-5542-9.
Luftbildatlas. Entlang der Berliner Mauer. Karten, Pläne und Fotos. Hans Wolfgang Hoffmann / Philipp Meuser (eds.) Berlin 2009. ISBN 978-3-938666-84-5
Sarotte, Mary Elise, Collapse: The Accidental Opening of the Berlin Wall, New York: Basic Books, 2014
Sarotte, Mary Elise, 1989: The Struggle to Create Post-Cold War Europe (Second Edition) Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014
Crozier, Brian (1999). The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire. Forum. pp. 170–171. ISBN 0-7615-2057-0.
Further reading
Hockenos, Paul (2017). Berlin calling: a story of anarchy, music, the Wall, and the birth of the new Berlin. New York: The New Press. ISBN 978-1-62097-195-6. OCLC 959535547.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Berlin Wall
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Berlin Wall.
Look up Berlin Wall in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Official website
"Berlin Wall Memorial". Berlin Wall Foundation.
"Chronicle of the Berlin Wall". Deutschlandradio.
"The Berlin Wall: a Multimedia Story". Rundfunk Berlin-Brandenburg (RRB).
"Berlin Wall collected news and commentary". The New York Times.
Works about Berlin Wall in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
"Berlin Wall (newsreel archives)" (Adobe Flash video)). Multimedia. British Pathe.
Berlin Wall on OpenStreetMap (zoomable and scrollable)
Other resources:
Berlin Wall at DMOZ
Berlin Wall image group on Flickr
Berlin Wall Online, historical chronicle
Nail, Norbert. "Meine Mauer – Deutsche Bilder aus der Vergangenheit" [My Wall—German Pictures from the past] (in German). University of Marburg.
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LCCN: sh85013357
GND: 4094837-7
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