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.44 Magnum
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This article is about the firearm cartridge. For the Japanese heavy metal band, see 44 Magnum (band).
.44 Remington Magnum
.44 Remington Magnum cartridge
Type
Handgun/Revolver/Rifle
Place of origin
United States
Production history
Designer
Elmer Keith/Smith & Wesson
Designed
1950s
Produced
1955–Present
Specifications
Parent case
.44 S&W Special
Bullet diameter
.429 in (10.9 mm)
Neck diameter
.457 in (11.6 mm)
Base diameter
.457 in (11.6 mm)
Rim diameter
.514 in (13.1 mm)
Rim thickness
.060 in (1.5 mm)
Case length
1.285 in (32.6 mm)
Overall length
1.61 in (41 mm)
Case capacity
37.9 gr H2O (2.46 cm3)
Primer type
Large revolver
Maximum pressure
36,000 psi (250 MPa)
Ballistic performance
Bullet mass/type
Velocity
Energy
240 gr (16 g) SJHP Remington 1,180 ft/s (360 m/s) 741 ft·lbf (1,005 J)
240 gr (16 g) JHP Cor-Bon 1,475 ft/s (450 m/s) 1,160 ft·lbf (1,570 J)
270 gr (17 g) LFN GC Buffalo Bore Heavy 1,450 ft/s (440 m/s) 1,260 ft·lbf (1,710 J)
300 gr (19 g) JSP Cor-Bon 1,250 ft/s (380 m/s) 1,041 ft·lbf (1,411 J)
340 gr (22 g) LFN +P+ Buffalo Bore Heavy 1,425 ft/s (434 m/s) 1,533 ft·lbf (2,078 J)
Test barrel length: 7.5 in (190 mm) [*6.5 in (170 mm)]
Source(s): DoubleTap[1] Buffalo Bore[2]
The .44 Remington Magnum, or simply .44 Magnum (10.9×33mmR), and frequently .44 Mag, is a large-bore cartridge originally designed for revolvers. After its introduction, it was quickly adopted for carbines and rifles. Despite the ".44" designation, guns chambered for the .44 Magnum round, and its parent, the .44 Special, use 0.429 in (10.9 mm) diameter bullets.[3]
The .44 Magnum is based on a lengthened .44 Special case, loaded to higher pressures for greater velocity (and thus, energy). The .44 Magnum has since been eclipsed in power by the .454 Casull, and most recently by the .460 S&W Magnum and .500 S&W Magnum, among others; nevertheless, it has remained one of the most popular commercial large-bore magnum cartridges.[4][5] When loaded to its maximum and with heavy, deeply penetrating bullets, the .44 Magnum cartridge is suitable for short-range hunting of all North American game—though at the cost of heavy recoil and muzzle flash when fired in handguns, less so in carbines and rifles.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin
2 Technical specifications
2.1 Dual-purpose use
2.2 Suitable game
2.3 Range
3 In popular culture
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Origin[edit]
The .44 Magnum cartridge was the end result of years of tuned handloading of the .44 Special.[7] The .44 Special, and other large-bore handgun cartridges, were being loaded with heavy bullets, pushed at higher than normal velocities for better hunting performance. One of these handloaders was Elmer Keith, a writer and outdoorsman of the 20th century.[8]
.44 Magnum revolver photographed with a high-speed air-gap flash clearly showing the bullet.
Elmer Keith settled on the .44 Special cartridge as the basis for his experimentation, rather than the larger .45 Colt. At the time, the selection of .44 caliber projectiles for handloaders was more varied, and .44 special brass was thicker and stronger than the dated .45 Colt case. Also, the .44 Special case was smaller in diameter than the .45 Colt case. In revolvers of the same cylinder size, this meant the .44 caliber revolvers had thicker, and thus stronger, cylinder walls than the .45. This allowed higher pressures to be used with less risk of a burst cylinder.[4]
Keith encouraged Smith & Wesson and Remington to produce a commercial version of this new high-pressure loading, and revolvers chambered for it. Smith & Wesson's first .44 Magnum revolver, the Model 29, was built on December 15, 1955, and the gun was announced to the public on January 19, 1956[9] for a price of $140. Julian Hatcher (technical editor of American Rifleman) and Elmer Keith received two of the first production models. Hatcher's review of the new Smith & Wesson revolver and the .44 Magnum cartridge appeared in the March, 1956 issue of the magazine. Smith & Wesson produced 3,100 of these revolvers in 1956.[10]
By the summer of 1956, Sturm, Ruger became aware of this project and began work on a single action Blackhawk revolver for the new .44 Magnum cartridge. Popular rumor says a Ruger employee found a cartridge case marked ".44 Remington Magnum" and took it to Bill Ruger, while another says a Remington employee provided Ruger with early samples of the ammunition.[11] Ruger began shipping their new revolver in late November, 1956.
The .44 Magnum case is slightly longer than the .44 Special case, not because of the need for more room for propellant, but to prevent the far higher pressure cartridge from being chambered in older, weaker .44 Special firearms, thus preventing injuries and possible deaths.[4]
The .44 Magnum was an immediate success, and the direct descendants of the S&W Model 29 and the .44 Magnum Ruger Blackhawks are still in production, and have been joined by numerous other makes and models of .44 Magnum revolvers and even a handful of semi-automatic models, the first being produced in the 1960s.[12] The film "Dirty Harry", prominently featuring the S&W M29, contributed to that model's popularity (as well as the cartridge itself).[13]
Ruger introduced its first long gun, a semi-automatic carbine called the Ruger Model 44 chambered for .44 Magnum, in 1959. Marlin followed soon after with a lever action Model 1894 in .44 Magnum.[5][8] Having a carbine and a handgun chambered in the same caliber is an old tradition; the .44-40 Winchester was introduced by Winchester in a lever action in 1873, and Colt followed in 1878 with a revolver in the same caliber. The .38-40 Winchester and .32-20 Winchester were also available in both carbines and revolvers, allowing the shooter to use one type of ammunition for both firearms.[14]
Although improved modern alloys and manufacturing techniques have allowed even stronger cylinders to be made, leading to larger and more powerful cartridges such as the .454 Casull and .480 Ruger in revolvers the same size as a .44 Magnum, the .44 Magnum is still considered an exceptional weapon.[6] In 2006, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the .44 Magnum, Ruger introduced a special 50th anniversary Blackhawk revolver, in the "Flattop" style.[11]
Technical specifications[edit]
.44 Magnum Colt Anaconda
The .44 Magnum delivers a large, heavy bullet with high velocity for a handgun. In its full-powered form, it produces so much recoil and muzzle blast that it is generally considered to be unsuitable for use as a police weapon. Rapid fire is difficult and strenuous on the users' hands, especially for shooters of smaller build or with small hands.[15][16]
Although marketed as a .44 caliber, the .44 Magnum and its parent .44 Special are actually .429-.430 caliber. The .44 designation is a carryover from the early measurements of "heeled" bullets, used in the later 19th century. In those times, bullets were measured on the outside of the cartridge, not the inside of the cartridge. After the .44 S&W Russian was developed, the forefather of the .44 Special and thus the .44 Magnum, the measurement of bullet caliber, was taken from inside of the cartridge resulting in .429 caliber. Instead of confusing buyers who were used to .44 caliber revolvers, the original .44 designation was kept for market recognition.
Some gun styles are more comfortable to use when shooting this caliber. Many shooters find the rounded grip shape of the single action better for handling heavy recoil than the grip shape of double-action revolvers, which have a shoulder on top of the grip. Many shooters, consider the ideal type of grip for heavy recoiling guns to be the longer "Bisley" style single action grip, and it can be found on single actions from Ruger (models marked "Bisley") and Freedom Arms, as well as many custom makers.[17]
Dual-purpose use[edit]
.44 Magnum Marlin Model 1894 carbine
The concept of a dual-purpose handgun/rifle cartridge has been popular since the Old West, with cartridges like the .44-40 Winchester, whose "High-Speed" rifle loadings were precursor magnum loads. Other dual-use rounds were the .32-20 Winchester and the .38-40 Winchester.[5][14]
Some past dual-purpose cartridges, like the .44-40 Winchester, gave their manufacturers trouble when people loaded the "High-Speed" versions designed for rifles into handguns.[5] Since the .44 Magnum was designed from the start as a revolver cartridge, such issues are moot, and SAAMI-compliant ammunition should fire from any handguns or rifles chambered for the .44 Magnum.
As a rifle or carbine cartridge the .44 Magnum is sufficiently powerful for medium-sized game, yet fits easily into a compact, lightweight package. In 1969, Ruger introduced their .44 Carbine, the first .44 Magnum carbine. The lever-action Marlin Model 1894, and many other firearms are currently available in this caliber. With significantly longer barrels than revolvers and no cylinder gap (except in revolving rifles), carbines will generate a significantly higher velocity than a revolver loaded with the same ammunition.[18] Tests with various ammunition in the Ruger Deerfield yielded a 100 yd (91 m) velocity of over 1,300 ft/s (400 m/s) with a 240-grain (16 g) bullet, comparable to the muzzle velocity out of a revolver.[19][20] Loads using slow burning powders maximize performance in both short and long barrels, with one published load generating 1,500 ft/s (460 m/s) from a revolver, and 1,625 ft/s (495 m/s) from a carbine with a 240-grain (16 g) bullet.[21]
Suitable game[edit]
The .44 Magnum is well suited for game up to elk size. With precise shot placement and deep-penetrating cartridges, it has even been used to take the largest of game, including Cape Buffalo. Publisher Robert E. Petersen took a record-setting polar bear with a Smith & Wesson Model 29 .44 Magnum.[8][22] It has even been used against elephants with success.[23]
In addition to beating the ballistics of the old .44-40 rifle loads, long considered a top deer cartridge,[5] the heavy, flat-point bullets typically used in the .44 Magnum have an additional advantage. Tests performed where bullets are shot through light cover, intended to represent twigs and brush, have shown that the high-velocity, lightweight, thin-jacketed, pointed bullets used by most hunting cartridges today are easily deflected by contact with the brush. The ideal bullets for penetrating brush with minimal deflection are heavy, flat-point bullets at moderate velocities.[19]
Range[edit]
The accuracy of the .44 Magnum is very good, with models from Colt, Smith & Wesson, and Ruger producing bullet groups of 3 to 4 inches (7.6 to 10.2 centimetres) at 50 yards (46 m), with most ammunition.[24][25] The limiting factor of the .44 Magnum cartridge is not terminal ballistics. When fired from a 6 in (150 mm) revolver, a typically loaded .44 Magnum 240 gr (16 g) bullet will have more impact energy at 150 yd (140 m) than a 246 gr (15.9 g) .44 Special has at the muzzle, when fired from the same weapon.[citation needed] When loaded with a heavy, non-expanding bullet, the .44 Magnum will easily shoot through large game such as elk and even bison.[26]
The limiting factor is the bullet's trajectory: the best hunting bullets are heavy, so they are relatively slow. This means the projectile's trajectory will drop significantly at ranges beyond 100 yards (91 m); there will be virtually zero significant drop at 50 yd (46 m), so the gun's aimed "line of sight" can meet the "bullet's trajectory" at the same point. When drop-out at 100 yd (91 m) is about 2 inches (5.1 centimetres), the drop-out at 150 yards (140 m) is more than 8 inches (20 centimetres); with a 100 yd (91 m) zero drop-out, the drop-out at 150 yd (140 m) will still measure more than 6 inches (15 centimetres).[27] Experts recommend limiting hunting ranges to 100 yards (91 m) when shooting .44 Magnum cartridges, less if practical accuracy requires it.[19][28]
In popular culture[edit]
Smith & Wesson Model 629 with the 8 in (200 mm) barrel
The .44 Magnum remained mildly popular among shooters for many years after its introduction, but did not come to the attention of the general public until 1971, when it was prominently featured in the American feature film Dirty Harry starring Clint Eastwood.[29] In one of the classic lines in cinema, titular character Harry Callahan describes his Smith & Wesson Model 29 as "the most powerful handgun in the world". Although not strictly true (the more powerful wildcat .454 Casull was announced in 1959[5]), the .44 Magnum was the most powerful then in production. Demand for the Model 29 increased so much, they were selling for up to three times suggested retail price. When the Model 29 could not be obtained, customers sought other handguns chambered in this caliber, such as the Ruger Redhawk.[30]
See also[edit]
.357 Magnum, the first "magnum" cartridge and the immediate predecessor of the .44 Magnum
.44 AutoMag
.445 SuperMag
Table of handgun and rifle cartridges
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "DoubleTap". Archived from the original on 2009-07-31. Retrieved 2009-07-29.
Jump up ^ "Buffalo Bore". Archived from the original on 2009-05-06. Retrieved 2009-05-04.
Jump up ^ Lyman Reloading Handbook, 48th edition, 2002
^ Jump up to: a b c Taffin, John. (September–October 2005). "The .44 Magnum: 50 years young!". American Handgunner.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Frank C. Barnes, ed. Stan Skinner (2003). Cartridges of the World, 10th Ed. Krause Publications. ISBN 978-0-87349-605-6.
^ Jump up to: a b Boddington, Craig. "The Fabulous .44 Mag". Guns & Ammo. Archived from the original on 2006-03-26.
Jump up ^ Barnes, Frank C.; Skinner, Steve (2003). Cartridges of the World: 10th Edition, Revised and Expanded. Krause Publications. p. 528. ISBN 978-0-87349-605-6.
^ Jump up to: a b c Garry James (June 2005). "A Big 50 For The .44". Guns & Ammo.
Jump up ^ Rick Hacker (July 21, 2011). "Smith & Wesson Model 29". ShootingIllustrated.com.
Jump up ^ Supica, Jim; Nahas, Richard (2006). Standard Catalog of Smith & Wesson : 3rd Edition. Gun Digest Books. p. 162. ISBN 978-0-89689-293-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Bill Hamm (September 28, 2004). "Ruger Blackhawk .44 Magnum 'Flattop'". GunBlast.com.
Jump up ^ Dougherty, Martin J., Small Arms: From the Civil War to the Present Day Fall River: 2005, page 61, ISBN 978-0-7607-6329-2
Jump up ^ Dougherty, Martin J., Small Arms: From the Civil War to the Present Day Fall River: 2005, page 46, ISBN 978-0-7607-6329-2
^ Jump up to: a b Abraham Lincoln Artman Himmelwright (1908). The Pistol and Revolver.
Jump up ^ Terry Riebling (November 1996). "Taking the Bite Out of the Mighty .44 Magnum". Performance Shooter.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Chuck (1981). Complete Book Of Combat Handgunning. Boulder, CO: Paladin Press. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-87364-327-6.
Jump up ^ John Taffin. "I LIKE SINGLE ACTIONS BECAUSE.." Sixguns.com.
Jump up ^ Ballistics By The Inch .44 Magnum results.
^ Jump up to: a b c Chuck Hawks. "Woods and Brush Rifles".
Jump up ^ Jamison, Rick (August 2000). "Ruger's All New .44 Deerfield". Shooting Times. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007.
Jump up ^ Accurate Arms, 21.3 grains of #9 and an IMI 240 grain JHP bullet; see rifle and handgun data.
Jump up ^ JOHN TAFFIN. "TAFFIN TESTS: THE .44 MAGNUM".
Jump up ^ Fryxell, Glen E. "The Bullets of SSK". Sixguns. John Taffin. Retrieved 2009-10-20.
Jump up ^ GGG Staff (October 1997). ".44 Magnums: Accuracy Problems Plague the Model 29". Guns, Gear & Game.
Jump up ^ PS Staff (July 1997). "Stock Silhouette Revolvers: Anaconda Versus Redhawk". Performance Shooter.
Jump up ^ Patrick Sweeney. "Reloading the .44 Magnum". Guns & Ammo Handguns.
Jump up ^ "Ballistics Results". Remington.
Jump up ^ Chuck Hawks. "Handgun Hunting".
Jump up ^ "Dirty Harry".
Jump up ^ Goldberg, Jefferey (6 September 1993). "The Deadliest Gun in Town". New York Magazine: 32–34. ISSN 0028-7369.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to .44 Remington Magnum.
Ballistics By The Inch .44magnum results
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Family Guy (season 16)
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Family Guy (season 16)
Country of origin
United States
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Original network
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Original release
October 1, 2017 (2017-10-01) – present
Season chronology
← Previous
Season 15
List of Family Guy episodes
Family Guy's sixteenth season premiered on Fox in the United States on October 1, 2017.[1]
The series follows the dysfunctional Griffin family, consisting of father Peter, mother Lois, daughter Meg, son Chris, baby Stewie and the family dog Brian, who reside in their hometown of Quahog. The executive producers for the sixteenth production season are Seth MacFarlane, Richard Appel, Alec Sulkin, Steve Callaghan, Danny Smith and Kara Vallow. Sulkin returns after a two-season absence as the new showrunner for the series, replacing previous showrunner Callaghan. Appel will continue to serve as showrunner alongside Sulkin.
The season will feature guest appearances from Danny Trejo, Ian McKellen, Kristen Bell, Louis C.K., Bill Maher, and Modern Family cast members Ty Burrell, Julie Bowen and Sofía Vergara.[2][3]
The season will also mark the final appearances of Adam West and Carrie Fisher following their deaths, as well as the show's 300th episode.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Episodes
2 Unscheduled episodes
3 References
4 External links
Episodes[edit]
See also: List of Family Guy episodes
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Prod.
code
U.S. viewers
(millions)
290
1 "Emmy-Winning Episode" James Purdum
Dominic Bianchi
Peter Shin Aaron Lee October 1, 2017 (2017-10-01) FACX06 2.80[5]
Peter goes out of his way to earn an Emmy win after getting fed up with not being nominated. He tries to make Family Guy more like several Emmy-nominated television shows, including Modern Family and Transparent.
291
2 "Foxx in the Men House" Brian Iles Andrew Goldberg October 8, 2017 (2017-10-08) EACX20 3.05[6]
Peter meets a paramedic named Striker after being knocked unconscious. He later dumps Quagmire, Cleveland and Joe as friends, due to his friendship with Striker giving him inflated self-esteem. Later on, Peter comes to realize he does not have the strength to do the physical activities that Striker wants to do.
292
3 "Nanny Goats" Steve Robertson Tom Devanney October 15, 2017 (2017-10-15) FACX02 2.54[7]
Barbara hires a nanny for the Griffin family when she gets displeased with recent living arrangements for the kids. This enables Peter and Lois to reconnect with their love.
293
4 "Follow the Money" Mike Kim Kevin Biggins October 22, 2017 (2017-10-22) EACX15 2.69[8]
Chris receives a dollar for his birthday from Carter and loses it at the same time, only to realize it is a rare dollar. Chris and Carter begin an adventure to find the dollar, as it's being passed by every citizen of Quahog.
294
5 "Three Directors" Joe Vaux Travis Bowe November 5, 2017 (2017-11-05) EACX18 TBD
The story of Peter's firing from the brewery, as told in the styles of Quentin Tarantino, Wes Anderson, and Michael Bay.
295
6 "The D in Apartment 23"[9] TBA TBA November 12, 2017 (2017-11-12) FACX03 TBD
296
7 "Petey IV"[10] TBA TBA November 19, 2017 (2017-11-19) FACX04 TBD
298
9 "Don't Be a Dickens at Christmas"[11] TBA TBA December 10, 2017 (2017-12-10) FACX07 TBD
Unscheduled episodes[edit]
Production code
Title
Reference
FACX01 "Dog Bites Bear" [12]
FACX10 "Send in Stewie, Please" [13]
FACX15 "HTTPete" [14]
FACX?? "Doc Brown" [15]
FACX?? "Crimes and Meg's Demeanor" [16]
FACX?? "V is for Mystery" [17]
FACX?? "Brian Dates a Bitch" [18]
FACX?? "Veteran Guy" [19]
FACX?? "Family Guy Through the Years" [20]
FACX?? "The Woof of Wall Street" [21]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (June 22, 2017). "Fox Sets Fall 2017 Premiere Dates: 'Empire', 'The Gifted' & 'Orville'". Deadline. Retrieved September 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Dan Snierson (July 19, 2017). "Ian McKellen to guest on Family Guy". Ew.com. Retrieved August 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Dan Snierson (August 13, 2017). "Kristen Bell, Louis C.K. to guest on Family Guy". Ew.com. Retrieved August 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (October 3, 2017). "'NCIS: LA' and '60 Minutes' adjust up, 'Wisdom of the Crowd' and 'Ten Days in the Valley' down: Sunday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (October 10, 2017). "NFL adjusts up, all others unchanged: Sunday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (October 17, 2017). "'Madam Secretary' and 'Wisdom of the Crowd' adjust down, '60 Minutes, 'AFV' and NFL up: Sunday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Porter, Rick (October 24, 2017). "'NCIS: LA' and 'Shark Tank' adjust up, 'Madam Secretary' adjusts down: Sunday final ratings". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Listings - FAMILY GUY on FOX". TheFutonCritic.com. Retrieved October 18, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Listings - FAMILY GUY on FOX". TheFutonCritic.com. Retrieved October 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Snierson, Dan (November 3, 2017). "Family Guy producer reveals details on Carrie Fisher's final two episodes". Entertainment Weekly. Retrieved November 3, 2017.
Jump up ^ Reg. # PAu003816253 at U.S. Copyright Records database.
Jump up ^ Reg. # PAu003851061 at U.S. Copyright Records database.
Jump up ^ "Instagram". Instagram. December 14, 2016. Retrieved December 31, 2016.
Jump up ^ Reg. # PAu003803650 at U.S. Copyright Records database.
Jump up ^ Reg. # PAu003844797 at U.S. Copyright Records database.
Jump up ^ Reg. # PAu003848125 at U.S. Copyright Records database.
Jump up ^ Reg. # PAu003848227 at U.S. Copyright Records database.
Jump up ^ Reg. # PAu003852729 at U.S. Copyright Records database.
Jump up ^ Reg. # PAu003852731 at U.S. Copyright Records database.
Jump up ^ Reg. # PAu003852736 at U.S. Copyright Records database.
External links[edit]
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History of the Puritans in North America
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Part of a series on
Puritans
The Puritan (1887), a statue in Springfield, Massachusetts by Augustus Saint-Gaudens
Background[show]
Christianity
Protestantism
Reformation
English Reformation
Calvinism
Anglicanism
Arminianism
Arminianism in the Church of England
English Dissenters
Independents
Nonconformism
English Presbyterianism
Ecclesiastical separatism
17th-century denominations in England
Crucial themes[show]
Definitions of Puritanism
Impropriation
Puritan Sabbatarianism
Millennialism
Puritan choir
Puritan work ethic
Merton thesis
History[show]
under Queen Elizabeth I
under King James I
under King Charles I
Cromwellian era and after
in North America
Confessions[show]
Westminster Confession of Faith
Savoy Declaration
Cambridge Platform
England[show]
Scrooby Congregation
Trial of Archbishop Laud
Marian exiles
Vestments controversy
Martin Marprelate
Millenary Petition
Grand Remonstrance
English Civil War
English Restoration
Act of Uniformity 1662
Great Ejection
Elizabethan Religious Settlement
America[show]
Providence Island Company
Massachusetts Bay Colony
Salem witch trials
immigration to New England
culture in New England
Christmas prohibition
Praying town
Half-Way Covenant
American exceptionalism
Elsewhere[show]
Troubles at Frankfurt
Notable individuals[show]
Peter Bulkley
John Bunyan
William Bradford
Anne Bradstreet
John Cotton
Oliver Cromwell
John Endecott
Jonathan Edwards
Anne Hutchinson
Cotton Mather
Increase Mather
James Noyes
Thomas Parker
Roger Williams
John Winthrop
Robert Woodford
Works[show]
The Godly Man's Picture
The Pilgrim's Progress
Paradise Lost
Foxe's Book of Martyrs
Continuing movements[show]
Congregational churches (U.S.)
other Reformed churches
v
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In the early 17th century, thousands of English Puritans settled in North America, mainly in New England. Puritans were generally members of the Church of England who believed that the Church of England was insufficiently reformed, retaining too much of its Roman Catholic doctrinal roots, and who therefore opposed royal ecclesiastical policy under Elizabeth I of England, James I of England, and Charles I of England. Most Puritans were "non-separating Puritans", meaning that they did not advocate setting up separate congregations distinct from the Church of England; a small minority of Puritans were "separating Puritans" who advocated setting up congregations outside the Church. The Pilgrims were a Separatist group, and they established the Plymouth Colony in 1620. Non-separating Puritans played leading roles in establishing the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629, the Saybrook Colony in 1635, the Connecticut Colony in 1636, and the New Haven Colony in 1638. The Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations was established by settlers expelled from the Massachusetts Bay Colony because of their unorthodox religious opinions. Puritans were also active in New Hampshire before it became a crown colony in 1691.
Most Puritans who migrated to North America came in the decade 1630-1640 in what is known as the Great Migration. See the main articles on each of the colonies for information on their political and social history; this article focuses on the religious history of the Puritans in North America.
The Puritans of New England evolved into the Congregationalist churches.
Contents
1 Puritanism in England (1533–1630)
2 Migration to America (1620–1640)
3 Life in the New World
3.1 Religion
3.2 Family life
3.3 Education
3.4 Recreation and leisure
3.5 Church and state
3.6 Religious toleration
4 Controversies
4.1 Roger Williams
4.2 Antinomian Controversy
4.3 Historiography of Puritan Involvement with Witchcraft in Colonial America
5 Decline of power and influence
6 Notes
7 Bibliography
Puritanism in England (1533–1630)[edit]
Puritanism was a Protestant movement that emerged in 16th-century England with the goal of transforming it into a godly society by reforming or purifying the Church of England of all remaining Roman Catholic teachings and practices.[1] During the reign of Elizabeth I, Puritans were for the most part tolerated within the established church. Like Puritans, most English Protestants at the time were Calvinist in their theology, and many bishops and Privy Council members were sympathetic to Puritan objectives. The major point of controversy between Puritans and church authorities was over liturgical ceremonies Puritans thought too Catholic, such as wearing clerical vestments, kneeling to receive Holy Communion, and making the sign of the cross during baptism.[2]
During the reign of James I, some Puritans were no longer willing to wait for further church reforms. These Separatists left the national church and began holding their own religious meetings, with many migrating to the Netherlands in order to escape persecution and worship freely. Nevertheless, most Puritans remained within the Church of England.[3]
Under Charles I, Calvinist teachings were undermined and bishops became less tolerant of Puritan views and more willing to enforce the use of controversial ceremonies. New controls were placed on Puritan preaching, and some ministers were suspended or removed from their livings. Increasingly, many Puritans concluded that they had no choice but to emigrate.[4]
Migration to America (1620–1640)[edit]
Fictional drawing of William Brewster (c1566-1644), one of the leaders of the Pilgrims who helped found the Plymouth Colony in 1620.
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
In 1620, a group of Separatists known as the Pilgrims settled in New England and established the Plymouth Colony. The Pilgrims originated as a dissenting congregation in Scrooby led by William Brewster, Richard Clyfton and John Robinson. This congregation was subject to ecclesiastical investigation, and its members faced social hostility from conforming church members. Fearing increasing persecution, the group left England and settled in the Dutch city of Leiden. In 1620, after receiving a patent from the London Company, the Pilgrims left for New England on board the Mayflower, landing at Plymouth Rock.
Two of the Pilgrim settlers in Plymouth Colony - Robert Cushman and Edward Winslow - believed that Cape Ann would be a profitable location for a settlement. They therefore organized a company which they named the Dorchester Company and in 1622 sailed to England seeking a patent from the London Company giving them permission to settle there. They were successful and were granted the Sheffield Patent (named after Edmond, Lord Sheffield, the member of the Plymouth Company who granted the patent). On the basis of this patent, Roger Conant led a group of fishermen to found Salem in 1626, being replaced as governor by John Endecott in 1627.
Other Puritans were convinced that New England could provide a religious refuge, and the enterprise was reorganized as the Massachusetts Bay Company. In March 1629, it succeeded in obtaining from King Charles a royal charter for the establishment of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1630, the first ships of the Great Puritan Migration sailed to the New World, led by John Winthrop.[5]
John Winthrop (1587/8-1649), Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, who led the Puritans in the Great Migration, beginning in 1630.
During the crossing, Winthrop preached a sermon entitled "A Model of Christian Charity", in which he told his followers that they had entered a covenant with God according to which he would cause them to prosper if they maintained their commitment to God. In doing so, their new colony would become a "City upon a Hill", meaning that they would be a model to all the nations of Europe as to what a properly reformed Christian commonwealth should look like.[6]
Most of the Puritans who emigrated settled in the New England area. However, the Great Migration of Puritans was relatively short-lived and not as large as is often believed. It began in earnest in 1629 with the founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, and ended in 1642 with the start of the English Civil War, when King Charles I effectively shut off emigration to the colonies. Emigration was officially restricted to conforming churchmen in December 1634 by his Privy Council.[7] From 1629 through 1643, approximately 21,000 Puritans immigrated to New England.
The Great Migration of Puritans to New England was primarily an exodus of families. Between 1630 and 1640, over 13,000 men, women, and children sailed to Massachusetts. The religious and political factors behind the Great Migration influenced the demographics of the emigrants. Groups of young men seeking economic success predominated the Virginia colonies, whereas Puritan ships were laden with “ordinary” people, old and young, families as well as individuals. Just a quarter of the emigrants were in their twenties when they boarded ship in the 1630s, making young adults a minority in New England settlements. The New World Puritan population was more of a cross section in age of English population than those of other colonies. This meant that the Massachusetts Bay Colony retained a relatively normal population composition. In the colony of Virginia, the ratio of colonist men to women was 4:1 in early decades and at least 2:1 in later decades, and only limited intermarriage took place with Indian women. By contrast, nearly half of the Puritan immigrants to the New World were women, and there was very little intermarriage with Indians. The majority of families who traveled to Massachusetts Bay were families in progress, with parents who were not yet through with their reproductive years and whose continued fertility made New England’s population growth possible. The women who emigrated were critical agents in the success of the establishment and maintenance of the Puritan colonies in North America. Success in the early colonial economy depended largely on labor, which was conducted by members of Puritan families.
The struggle between the assertive Church of England and various Presbyterian and Puritan groups extended throughout the English realm in the 17th Century, prompting not only the re-emigration of British Protestants from Ireland to North America (the so-called Scotch-Irish), but prompting emigration from Bermuda, England's second-oldest overseas territory. Roughly 10,000 Bermudians emigrated before US Independence. Most of these went to the American colonies, founding, or contributing to settlements throughout the South, especially. Many had also gone to the Bahamas, where a number of Bermudian Independent Puritan families, under the leadership of William Sayle, had established the colony of Eleuthera in 1648.
Some Puritans also migrated to colonies in Central America and the Caribbean, see Providence Island Company, Mosquito Coast and Providencia Island.
Emigration resumed under the rule of Cromwell, but not in large numbers as there was no longer any need to "escape persecution" in England. In fact, many Puritans returned to England during the war. "In 1641, when the English Civil War began, some immigrants returned to fight on the Puritan side, and when the Puritans won, many resumed English life under Oliver Cromwell's more congenial Puritan sway."[1]
Life in the New World[edit]
Religion[edit]
Pilgrims Going to Church by George Henry Boughton (1867)
Main article: Puritans § Beliefs
Once in New England, the Puritans established Congregational churches that subscribed to Reformed theology. The Savoy Declaration, a modification of the Westminster Confession of Faith, was adopted as a confessional statement by the churches in Massachusetts in 1680 and the churches of Connecticut in 1708.[8]
The Cambridge Platform describes congregationalist polity as practiced by Puritans in the 17th century. Every congregation was founded upon a church covenant, a written agreement signed by all members in which they agreed to uphold congregational principles, to be guided by sola scriptura in their decision making, and to submit to church discipline. The right of each congregation to elect its own officers and manage its own affairs was upheld.[9][10] For church offices, Puritans imitated the model developed in Calvinist Geneva. There were two major offices: elder (or presbyter) and deacon. There were two types of elders. Ministers, whose responsibilities included preaching and administering the sacraments, were referred to as teaching elders. Large churches would have two ministers, one to serve as pastor and the other to serve as teacher. Prominent laymen would be elected for life as ruling elders. Ruling elders governed the church alongside teaching elders, and, while they could not administer the sacraments, they could preach. The duties of deacons largely revolved around financial matters. Other than elders and deacons, congregations also elected messengers to represent them in synods (church councils) for the purpose of offering non-binding advisory opinions.[11]
The essential Puritan belief was that people are saved by grace alone and not by any merit from doing good works. At the same time, Puritans also believed that men and women "could labor to make themselves appropriate vessels of saving grace" [emphasis in original].[12] They could accomplish this through Bible reading, prayer and doing good works. This doctrine was called preparationism, and nearly all Puritans were preparationists to some extent.[12] The process of conversion was described in different ways, but most ministers agreed that there were three essential stages. The first stage was humiliation or sorrow for having sinned against God. The second stage was justification or adoption characterized by a sense of having been forgiven and accepted by God through Christ's mercy. The third stage was sanctification, the ability to live a holy life out of gladness toward God.[13]
Puritans believed churches should be composed of "visible saints" or the elect. To ensure that only regenerated persons were admitted as full members, New England churches required prospective members to provide a conversion narrative describing their personal conversion experience.[14] All settlers were required to attend church services and were subject to church discipline.[15] The Lord's Supper, however, was reserved to full members only.[14] Puritans practiced infant baptism, but only church members in full communion could present their children for baptism. Members' children were considered part of the church and covenant by birth and were entitled to baptism. Nevertheless, these children would not enjoy the full privileges of church membership until they provided a public account of conversion.[16][17]
Church services were held in the morning and afternoon on Sunday, and there was usually a mid-week service. The ruling elders and deacons sat facing the congregation on a raised seat.[18] Men and women sat on opposites sides of the meeting house, and children sat in their own section under the oversight of a tithingman, who corrected unruly children (or sleeping adults) with a long staff.[19] The pastor opened the service with prayer for about 15 minutes, the teacher then read and explained the selected Bible passage, and a ruling elder then led in singing a Psalm, usually from the Bay Psalm Book. The pastor then preached for an hour or more, and the teacher ended the service with prayer and benediction. In churches with only one minister, the morning sermon was devoted to the argument (interpreting the biblical text and justifying that interpretation) and the afternoon sermon to its application (the lessons that could be drawn from the text for the individual or for the collective community).[20][21]
Family life[edit]
For Puritans, the family was the "locus of spiritual and civic development and protection",[22] and marriage was the foundation of the family and, therefore, society. Unlike in England, where people were married by ministers in church according to the Book of Common Prayer, Puritans saw no biblical justification for church weddings or the exchange of wedding rings. While marriage held great religious significance for Puritans—they saw it as a covenant relationship freely entered into by both man and wife—the wedding was viewed as a private, contractual event officiated by a civil magistrate either in the home of the magistrate or a member of the bridal party.[23] Massachusetts ministers were not legally permitted to solemnize marriages until 1686, after the colony had been placed under royal control, but by 1726 it had become the accepted tradition.[24]
According to scholars Gerald Moran and Maris Vinovskis, some historians argue that Puritan child-rearing was repressive. Central to this argument are the views of John Robinson, the Pilgrims' first pastor, who wrote in a 1625 treatise "Of Children and Their Education", "And surely there is in all children, though not alike, a stubborness, and stoutness of mind arising from natural pride, which must, in the first place, be broken and beaten down."[25] Moran and Vinovskis, however, argue that Robinson's views were not representative of 17th-century Puritans. They write that Puritan parents "exercised an authoritative, not an authoritarian, mode of child rearing" that aimed to cultivate godly affections and reason, with corporal punishment used as a last resort.[26]
Education[edit]
Boston Latin School, opened 1635, is the oldest public school in the United States.
Further information: History of education in the United States
According to historian Bruce C. Daniels, the Puritans were "[o]ne of the most literate groups in the early modern world", with about 60 percent of New England able to read.[27] At a time when the literacy rate in England was less than 30 percent, the Puritan leaders of colonial New England believed children should be educated for both religious and civil reasons, and they worked to achieve universal literacy. In 1642, Massachusetts required heads of households to teach their wives, children and servants basic reading and writing so that they could read the Bible and understand colonial laws. In 1647, the government required all towns with 50 or more households to hire a teacher and towns of 100 or more households to hire a grammar school instructor to prepare promising boys for college. Boys interested in the ministry were often sent to colleges such as Harvard (founded in 1636) or Yale (founded in 1707).[28]
The Puritans anticipated the educational theories of John Locke and other Enlightenment thinkers. Like Locke's blank slate, Puritans believed that a child's mind was "an empty receptacle, one that had to be infused with the knowledge gained from careful instruction and education."[26]
Recreation and leisure[edit]
Puritans did not celebrate traditional holidays such as Christmas, Easter or May Day. They also did not observe personal annual holidays, such as birthdays or anniversaries. They did, however, celebrate special occasions such as military victories, harvests, ordinations, weddings and births. These celebrations consisted of food and conversation. Beyond special occasions, the tavern was an important place for people to gather for fellowship on a regular basis.[27]
Increase Mather wrote that dancing was "a natural expression of joy; so that there is no more sin in it, than in laughter." Puritans generally discouraged mixed or "promiscuous" dancing between men and women, which according to Mather would lead to "unchaste touches and gesticulations. .. [that] have a palpable tendency to that which is evil." Some ministers, including John Cotton, thought that mixed dancing was appropriate under special circumstances, but all agreed it was a practice not to be encouraged. Dancing was also discouraged at weddings or on holidays (especially dancing around the Maypole) and was illegal in taverns.[29]
Puritans had no theological objections to sports and games as long as they did not involve gambling (which eliminated activities such as billiards, shuffleboard, horse racing, bowling and cards). They also opposed blood sports, such as cockfighting, cudgel-fighting and bear-baiting. Team sports, such as football, were problematic because "they encouraged idleness, produced injuries, and created bitter rivalries." Hunting and fishing were approved because they were productive. Other sports were encouraged for promoting civic virtue, such as competitions of marksmanship, running, and wrestling held within militia companies.[30]
Only a few activities were completely condemned by Puritans. They were most opposed to the theater. According to historian Bruce Daniels, plays were seen as "false recreations because they exhausted rather than relaxed the audience and actors" and also "wasted labor, led to wantonness and homosexuality, and invariably were represented by Puritans as a foreign—particularly French or Italian—disease of a similar enervating nature as syphilis."[31] All forms of gambling were illegal. Not only were card playing, dice throwing and other forms of gambling seen as contrary to the values of "family, work, and honesty", they were religiously offensive because gamblers implicitly asked God to intervene in trivial matters, violating the Third Commandment against taking the Lord's name in vain.[32]
Church and state[edit]
For Puritans, the people of a society were bound together by a social covenant (such as Plymouth's Mayflower Compact, Connecticut's Fundamental Orders, New Haven's Fundamental Agreement, and Massachusetts' colonial charter). Having entered into such a covenant, eligible voters were responsible for choosing qualified men to govern and to obey such rulers, who ultimately received their authority from God and were responsible for using it to promote the common good. If the ruler was evil, however, the people were justified in opposing and rebelling against him. Such notions helped New Englanders justify the English Puritan Revolution of the 1640s, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the American Revolution of 1775.[33]
The Puritans also believed they were in a national covenant with God. They believed they were chosen by God to help redeem the world by their total obedience to his will. If they were true to the covenant, they would be blessed; if not, they would fail.[33] Within this worldview, it was the government's responsibility to enforce moral standards and ensure true religious worship was established and maintained.[34] In the Puritan colonies, the Congregational church functioned as a state religion. In Massachusetts, no new church could be established without the permission of the colony's existing Congregational churches and the government.[35] Likewise, Connecticut allowed only one church per town or parish, which had to be Congregational.[36] All residents in Massachusetts and Connecticut were required to pay taxes for the support of the Congregational churches, even if they were religious dissenters.[37] The franchise was limited to Congregational church members in Massachusetts and New Haven, but voting rights were more extensive in Connecticut and Plymouth.[38][39] In Connecticut, church attendance on Sundays was mandatory (for both church members and non-members), and those who failed to attend were fined.[40]
There was a greater separation of church and state in the Puritan commonwealths than existed anywhere in Europe at the time. In England, the king was head of both church and state, bishops sat in Parliament and the Privy Council, and church officials exercised many secular functions. In New England, secular matters were handled only by civil authorities, and those who held offices in the church were barred from holding positions in the civil government.[41]
When dealing with unorthodox persons, Puritans believed that the church, as a spiritual organization, was limited to "attempting to persuade the individual of his error, to warn him of the dangers he faced if he publicly persisted in it, and—as a last resort—to expel him from the spiritual society by excommunication."[42] Citizens who lost church membership by excommunication retained the right to vote in civil affairs.[43]
Religious toleration[edit]
The Puritans did not come to America to establish a theocracy, but neither did they institute religious freedom.[44] Puritans believed that the state was obligated to protect society from heresy, and it was empowered to use corporal punishment, banishment and execution. New England magistrates did not investigate private views, but they did take action against public dissent from the religious establishment. Puritan sentiments were expressed by Nathaniel Ward in The Simple Cobbler of Agawam: "all Familists, Antinomians, Anabaptists, and other Enthusiasts shall have free Liberty to keep away from us, and such as will come [shall have liberty] to be gone as fast as they can, the sooner the better."[42]
The period 1658–1692 saw the execution of Quakers and the imprisonment of Baptists.[45] Quakers were initially banished by colonial courts, but they often returned in defiance of authorities. Historian Daniel Boorstin stated, "the Puritans had not sought out the Quakers in order to punish them; the Quakers had come in quest of punishment."[46]
Controversies[edit]
Engraving of a statue of Roger Williams (1603-1683), Puritan minister who was expelled from the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1636 for his views and who advocated religious liberty. Williams founded the city of Providence, Rhode Island.
Roger Williams[edit]
Roger Williams, a Separating Puritan minister, arrived in Boston in 1631. He was almost immediately invited to become the teacher at the Boston church, but he refused the invitation on the grounds that the congregation had not separated from the Church of England. He then was invited to become the teacher of the church at Salem but was blocked by Boston political leaders, who objected to his separatism. He thus spent two years with his fellow Separatists in the Plymouth Colony but ultimately came into conflict with them and returned to Salem, where he became the unofficial assistant pastor to Samuel Skelton.[47]
Williams held many controversial views that irritated the colony's political and religious leaders. He criticized the Puritan clergy's practice of meeting regularly for consultation, seeing in this a drift toward Presbyterianism.[47] William's concern for the purity of the church led him to oppose the mixing of the elect and the unregenerate for worship and prayer, even when the unregenerate were family members of the elect.[48] He also believed that Massachusetts rightfully belonged to the Native Americans and that the king had no authority to give it to the Puritans.[47] Because he feared that government interference in religion would corrupt the church, Williams rejected the government's authority to punish violations of the first four Ten Commandments and believed that magistrates should not tender oaths to unconverted persons, which would have effectively abolished civil oaths.[48]
In 1634, Skelton died, and the Salem congregation called Williams to be its pastor.[47] In July 1635, however, he was brought before the General Court to answer for his views on oaths. Williams refused to back down, and the General Court warned Salem not to install him in any official position. In response, Williams decided that he could not maintain communion with the other churches in the colony nor with the Salem church unless they joined him in severing ties with the other churches.[48] Caught between Williams and the General Court, the Salem congregation rejected Williams's extreme views.[49]
In October, Williams was once again called before the General Court and refused to change his opinions. Williams was ordered to leave the colony and given until spring to do so, provided he ceased spreading his views. Unwilling to do so, the government issued orders for his immediate return to England in January 1636, but John Winthrop warned Williams, allowing him to escape.[49] In 1636, the exiled Williams founded the colony of Providence Plantation. He was one of the first Puritans to advocate separation of church and state, and Providence Plantation was one of the first places in the Christian world to recognize freedom of religion.[citation needed]
Antinomian Controversy[edit]
Anne Hutchinson on Trial (1901) by Edwin Austin Abbey
Main article: Antinomian Controversy
Anne Hutchinson and her family moved from Boston, Lincolnshire, to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1634, following their Puritan minister John Cotton. Cotton became the teacher of the Boston church, working alongside its pastor John Wilson, and Hutchinson joined the congregation.[49] In 1635, Hutchinson began holding meetings in her home to summarize the previous week's sermons for women who had been absent. Such gatherings were not unusual.[50]
In October 1635, Wilson returned from a trip to England, and his preaching began to concern Hutchinson. Like most of the clergy in Massachusetts, Wilson taught preparationism, the belief that human actions were "a means of preparation for God’s grant of saving grace and ... evidence of sanctification."[51] Cotton's preaching, however, emphasized the inevitability of God's will rather than human preparatory action. These two positions were a matter of emphases, as neither Cotton nor Wilson believed that good works could save a person. For Hutchinson, however, the difference was significant, and she began to criticize Wilson in her private meetings.[51]
In the summer of 1636, Hutchinson's meetings were attracting powerful men such as William Aspinwall, William Coddington, John Coggeshall, and the colony's governor, Henry Vane. The group's credibility was increased due to the perceived support of Cotton and the definite support of Hutchinson's brother-in-law, the minister John Wheelwright.[52] By this time, Hutchinson was criticizing all the ministers in the colony, with the exception of Cotton and Wheelwright, for teaching legalism and preaching a "covenant of works" rather than a "covenant of grace".[53] While denouncing the Puritan clergy as Arminians, Hutchinson maintained "that assurance of salvation was conveyed not by action but by an essentially mystical experience of grace—an inward conviction of the coming of the Spirit to the individual that bore no relationship to moral conduct."[52] By rejecting adherence to the moral law, Hutchinson was teaching Antinomianism, according to her clerical opponents.[52]
Tensions continued to increase in the Boston church between Wilson and Hutchinson's followers, who formed a majority of the members. In January 1637, they were nearly successful in censuring him, and in the months that followed, they left the meeting house whenever Wilson began to preach.[54] The General Court ordered a day of fasting and prayer to help calm tensions, but Wheelwright preached a sermon on that day that further inflamed tensions, for which he was found guilty of sedition. Because Governor Vane was one of Hutchinson's followers, the general election of 1637 became a battlefront in the controversy, and Winthrop was elected to replace Vane.[55]
A synod of New England clergy was held in August 1637. The ministers defined 82 errors attributed to Hutchinson and her followers. It also discouraged private religious meetings and criticizing the clergy. In November, Wheelwright was banished from the colony. Hutchinson herself was called before the General Court where she ably defended herself. Nevertheless, she was ultimately convicted and sentenced to banishment from the colony due in part to her claims of receiving direct personal revelations from God. Other supporters were disenfranchised or forbidden from bearing arms unless they admitted their errors.[55] Hutchinson received a church trial in March 1638 in which the Boston congregation switched sides and unanimously voted for Hutchinson's excommunication. This effectively ended the controversy.[56]
While often described as a struggle for religious liberty, historian Francis Bremer states that this is a misunderstanding. Bremer writes, "Anne Hutchinson was every bit as intolerant as her enemies. The struggle was over which of two competing views would be crowned and enforced as New England orthodoxy. As a consequence of the crisis she precipitated, the range of views that were tolerated in the Bay actually narrowed."[52]
In the aftermath of the crisis, ministers realized the need for greater communication between churches and standardization of preaching. As a consequence, nonbinding ministerial conferences to discuss theological questions and address conflicts became more frequent in the following years.[57] A more substantial innovation was the implementation of the "third way of communion", a method of isolating a dissident or heretical church from neighboring churches. Members of an offending church would be unable to worship or receive the Lord's Supper in other churches.[58]
Historiography of Puritan Involvement with Witchcraft in Colonial America[edit]
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As time passes and different perspectives arise within the scholarship of witchcraft and its involvement in Puritan New England, many scholars have stepped forth to contribute to what we know in regards to this subject. For instance, diverse perspectives involving the witch trials have been argued involving gender, race, economics, religion, and the social oppression that Puritans lived through that explain in a more in-depth way how Puritanism contributed to the trials and executions. Puritan fears, beliefs and institutions were the perfect storm that fueled the witch craze in towns such as Salem from an interdisciplinary and anthropological approach.[59] From a gendered approach, offered by Carol Karlsen and Elizabeth Reis, the question of why witches were primarily women did not fully surface until after the second wave of feminism in the 1980s. Some believe that women who were gaining economic or social power, specifically in the form of land inheritance, were at a higher risk of being tried as witches.[60] Others maintain that females were more susceptible to being witches as the Puritans believed that the weak body was a pathway to the soul which both God and the Devil fought for. Due to the Puritan belief that female bodies "lacked the strength and vitality" compared to male bodies, females were more susceptible to make a choice to enter a covenant with Satan as their fragile bodies could not protect their souls.[61] From a racial perspective, Puritans believed that African Americans and Native Americans living within the colonies were viewed as "true witches" from an anthropological sense as Blacks were considered "inherently evil creatures, unable to control their connection to Satanic wickedness."[62] Another contribution made to scholarship includes the religious perspective that historians attempt to understand its effect on the witch trials. John Demos, a major scholar in the field of Puritan witchcraft studies, maintains that the intense and oppressive nature of Puritan religion can be viewed as the main culprit in the Colonial witch trials.[63] While many scholars provide different arguments to Puritanism and witchcraft, all of the various camps mentioned rely on each other in numerous ways in order to build on our understanding of the witch craze in early American History. As more perspectives from different scholars add to the knowledge of the Puritan involvement in the witch trials, a more complete picture and history will form.
Decline of power and influence[edit]
The decline of the Puritans and the Congregational churches was brought about first through practices such as the Half-Way Covenant and second through the rise of dissenting Baptists, Quakers, Anglicans and Presbyterians in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.[64]
There is no consensus on when the Puritan era ended, though it is agreed that it was over by 1740. Historian Thomas S. Kidd argues that after 1689 and the success of the Glorious Revolution, "[New Englanders'] religious and political agenda had so fundamentally changed that it doesn't make sense to call them Puritans any longer."[65] Denominations that are directly descended from the Puritan churches of New England include the United Church of Christ, the National Association of Congregational Christian Churches, the Conservative Congregational Christian Conference and the Unitarian Universalist Association.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Bremer 2009, pp. 2–3.
Jump up ^ Bremer 2009, pp. 7,10.
Jump up ^ Bremer 2009, p. 12.
Jump up ^ Bremer 2009, p. 15.
Jump up ^ Bremer 2009, pp. 17–18.
Jump up ^ Bremer 2009, p. 18.
Jump up ^ Gardiner, History of England from the Accession of James I to the Outbreak of the Civil War, Longmans, Green, 1884 page 167, page 172 (Volume 8).
Jump up ^ Youngs 1998, p. 52.
Jump up ^ Bremer 2009, p. 20.
Jump up ^ Cooper 1999, p. 13.
Jump up ^ Cooper 1999, pp. 24,26.
^ Jump up to: a b Youngs 1998, p. 88.
Jump up ^ Youngs 1998, p. 41.
^ Jump up to: a b Youngs 1998, pp. 40–41.
Jump up ^ Youngs 1998, p. 50.
Jump up ^ Walker 1894, p. 170.
Jump up ^ Dunning 1894, p. 171.
Jump up ^ Dunning 1894, p. 150.
Jump up ^ "The Puritan Tithingman".
Jump up ^ Dunning 1894, p. 151.
Jump up ^ Von Wallmenich.
Jump up ^ Hochstetler 2013, p. 489.
Jump up ^ Hochstetler 2013, p. 490.
Jump up ^ Hochstetler 2013, pp. 494–495.
Jump up ^ Moran & Vinovskis 1985, p. 26.
^ Jump up to: a b Moran & Vinovskis 1985, p. 29.
^ Jump up to: a b Daniels 1993, p. 130.
Jump up ^ Bremer 2009, pp. 81–82.
Jump up ^ Daniels 1993, pp. 128–129.
Jump up ^ Daniels 1993, p. 129.
Jump up ^ Daniels 1993, p. 126.
Jump up ^ Daniels 1993, p. 127.
^ Jump up to: a b Bremer 1995, p. 89.
Jump up ^ Bremer 1995, pp. 91–92.
Jump up ^ Bremer 1995, p. 61.
Jump up ^ Hull & Moran 1999, p. 167.
Jump up ^ Bremer 1995, p. 226.
Jump up ^ Bremer 1995, p. 86.
Jump up ^ Langdon 1963, p. 514.
Jump up ^ Hull & Moran 1999, p. 168.
Jump up ^ Bremer 1995, p. 91–94.
^ Jump up to: a b Bremer 1995, p. 92.
Jump up ^ Bremer 1995, p. 94.
Jump up ^ Bremer 1995, p. 91.
Jump up ^ Bremer 1995, p. 154.
Jump up ^ Bremer 1995, p. 155.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bremer 1995, p. 63.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bremer 1995, p. 64.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bremer 1995, p. 65.
Jump up ^ Youngs 1998, pp. 42–43.
^ Jump up to: a b Bremer 1995, p. 66.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bremer 1995, p. 67.
Jump up ^ Cooper 1999, pp. 47–49.
Jump up ^ Bremer 1995, p. 68.
^ Jump up to: a b Bremer 1995, p. 69.
Jump up ^ Cooper 1999, pp. 50–52.
Jump up ^ Cooper 1999, pp. 55–56.
Jump up ^ Cooper 1999, p. 57.
Jump up ^ Reed 2007.
Jump up ^ Karlsen 1998.
Jump up ^ Reis 1995.
Jump up ^ McMillan 1994.
Jump up ^ Demos 2004.
Jump up ^ Lucas 1972, p. 129.
Jump up ^ Kidd 2005.
Bibliography[edit]
Bremer, Francis J. (1995). The Puritan Experiment: New England Society from Bradford to Edwards (Revised ed.). University Press of New England. ISBN 9780874517286.
—— (2009). Puritanism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199740871.
Cooper, James F., Jr. (1999). Tenacious of Their Liberties: The Congregationalists in Colonial Massachusetts. Religion in America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195152875.
Daniels, Bruce C. (Spring 1993). "Sober Mirth and Pleasant Poisons: Purltan Ambivalence Toward Leisure and Recreation in Colonial New England". American Studies. Mid-America American Studies Association. 34 (1): 121–137. JSTOR 40642499.
Demos, John (2004). Entertaining Satan: Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199726318.
Dunning, Albert E. (1894). Congregationalists in America: A Popular History of Their Origin, Belief, Polity, Growth and Work. New York: J. A. Hill and Company.
Hochstetler, Laurie (September 2013). "Making Ministerial Marriage: The Social and Religious Legacy of the Dominion of New England". The New England Quarterly. The New England Quarterly, Inc. 86 (3): 488–499. JSTOR 43285011.
Hull, Brooks B.; Moran, Gerald F. (December 1999). "The Churching of Colonial Connecticut: A Case Study". Review of Religious Research. Religious Research Association, Inc. 41 (2): 165–183. JSTOR 3512105.
Karlsen, Carol F. (1998). The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393347197.
Kidd, Thomas S. (September–October 2005). "What Happened to the Puritans?". Historically Speaking. Johns Hopkins University Press. 7 (1): 32–34. doi:10.1353/hsp.2005.0084. CS1 maint: Date format (link)
Lucas, Paul R. (Summer 1972). "Presbyterianism Comes to Connecticut: The Toleration Act of 1669". Journal of Presbyterian History. Presbyterian Historical Society. 50 (2): 129–147. JSTOR 23327366.
McMillan, Timothy J. (September 1994). "Black Magic: Witchcraft, Race, and Resistance in Colonial New England". Journal of Black Studies. SAGE Publications. 25 (1): 99–117. JSTOR 2784416.
Moran, Gerald F.; Vinovskis, Maris A. (1985). "The Great Care of Godly Parents: Early Childhood in Puritan New England". Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development. Wiley for the Society for Research in Child Development. 50 (4/5): 24–37. doi:10.2307/3333861. JSTOR 3333861.
"The Puritan Tithingman—The Most Powerful Man in New England". New England Historical Society. Archived from the original on October 2, 2017. Retrieved June 10, 2018.
Reed, Isaac (July 2007). "Why Salem Made Sense: Culture, Gender, and the Puritan Persecution of Witchcraft". Cultural Sociology. British Sociological Association and SAGE Publications. 1 (2): 209–234. doi:10.1177/1749975507078188.
Reis, Elizabeth (June 1995). "The Devil, the Body, and the Feminine Soul in Puritan New England". The Journal of American History. Oxford University Press for the Organization of American Historians. 82 (1): 15–36. doi:10.2307/2081913. JSTOR 2081913.
Von Wallmenich, Laura. "Reading the Sermon: Some Thoughts on Critical Strategies" (PDF). www.alma.edu. Alma College. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 3, 2018. Retrieved June 10, 2018.
Walker, Williston (1894). A History of the Congregational Churches in the United States. American Church History. 3. New York: The Christian Literature Company.
Youngs, J. William T. (1998). The Congregationalists. Denominations in America. 4 (Student ed.). Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. ISBN 9780275964412.
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Other events of 1993
List of years in Pakistan
The year 1993 saw political unrest within Pakistan as president Ghulam Ishaq Khan and prime minister Nawaz Sharif duelled for supremacy. Khan dissolved Sharif's government, only for it to be restored by a Supreme Court verdict.
While Pakistan moved closer to peaceful negotiations with Afghanistan, its relationships continued to worsen with India over the Kashmir issue and the 1993 Bombay bombings. Meanwhile, the United States imposes stricter sanctions on Pakistan and any country that traded with Pakistan.
Contents
[hide]
1 Incumbents
1.1 Federal government
2 Events
2.1 January
2.2 February
2.3 March
2.4 April
2.5 May
2.6 June
2.7 July
2.8 August
2.9 October
2.10 November
2.11 December
3 Deaths
4 See also
5 References
Incumbents[edit]
Federal government[edit]
President
Ghulam Ishaq Khan: until 18 July 1993
Wasim Sajjad: 18 July – 13 November 1993 (caretaker)
Farooq Laghari: since 13 November 1993
Prime Minister
Nawaz Sharif: until 18 April 1993
Balakh Sher Mazari: 18 April – 26 May 1993 (caretaker)
Nawaz Sharif: 26 May – 18 July 1993
Moeenuddin Ahmad Qureshi: 18 August – 19 October 1993 (caretaker)
Benazir Bhutto: since 19 October 1993
Chief Justice: Muhammad Afzal Zullah (until 18 April), Nasim Hasan Shah
Events[edit]
January[edit]
8 January – The United States decides against branding Pakistan a terrorist nation.[1]
9 January – The US president-elect Bill Clinton gives Pakistan six months to refute Indian charges that it is sponsoring international terrorism.[2]
February[edit]
5 February – Kashmir Solidarity Day is observed for the very first time in Pakistan.
March[edit]
7 March – Political groups from Afghanistan sign the Islamabad Accord in Pakistan, forming a coalition until elections can be held.[3][4]
17 March – Mian Zahid Sarfaraz demands an early dissolution of the National Assembly.[5]
27 March – Hamid Nasir Chattha and three other ministers resign from the federal cabinet.[5]
April[edit]
2 April – The Pakistan government vows to crack down on Arab militants.[6]
4 April
India presents evidence implicating Pakistan in the 1993 Bombay bombings.[7]
The federal cabinet nominates Ghulam Ishaq Khan as the president for a second term.[5]
3 MNAs resign from the National Assembly.[5]
8 April
After a crack down on illegal immigrants, hundreds of Arab nationals are arrested on suspected links to Islamic militants.[8]
92 MNAs tender their resignation from the house.
13 April – Crack down continues against illegal Arab immigrants to prevent any extremists among them from using Pakistan to foment violence in other countries.[9]
18 April
President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dissolves the National Assembly, dismissing the Sharif cabinet.
Balakh Sher Mazari is appointed the caretaker prime minister.
19 April – Federal ministers in the Mazari caretaker ministry are sworn into office and handed ministerial portfolios.
May[edit]
23 May – In record busts against drug smugglers in southeastern Balochistan, navy officers seize 132,000 pounds of hashish and 440 pounds of heroin.[10]
26 May – The Supreme Court restores the National Assembly and prime minister Nawaz Sharif.
June[edit]
5–24 June Pakistani soldiers are massacred in Somalia while serving with a UN peacekeeping mission.
16 June – Bosnian Muslim refugees leave Croatia for Pakistan.[11]
July[edit]
18 July
After weeks of negotiations with army chief Gen Abdul Waheed Kakar, both president Khan and prime minister Sharif resign from their posts.
Wasim Sajjad becomes the caretaker president.
20 July – The US threatens to impose sanctions on China if it continues to ship missiles to Pakistan in defiance of an international agreement.[12]
August[edit]
18 August – Moeenuddin Ahmad Qureshi becomes the caretaker prime minister.
October[edit]
6 October – General elections are held. PPP wins 86; PML-N secures 72 seats.
19 October – Benazir Bhutto becomes the prime minister by 121 votes for a second time.[13]
November[edit]
4 November – Police arrest Murtaza Bhutto, the brother of PM Bhutto, moments after his plane landed in Pakistan ending his 16 years in exile.[14]
9 November – Fire rages through the National Assembly building, destroying the main chamber. According to PTV, the cause is believed to be an electric short circuit.[15]
13 November – Farooq Laghari is sworn in as the eighth elected president of Pakistan.
24 November – India and Pakistan agree to resume talks on the Kashmir issue.[16]
December[edit]
16 December – Pakistan accuses India of stepping up attacks on civilians in Kashmir.[17]
28 December – Pakistan begins a campaign to eradicate polio.[18]
Deaths[edit]
8 January – Gen Asif Nawaz dies of a heart attack in Rawalpindi.
18 March – Former prime minister Muhammad Khan Junejo dies in a hospital in the United States undergoing treatment for leukaemia.[19]
See also[edit]
1992 in Pakistan
Other events of 1993
1994 in Pakistan
Timeline of Pakistani history
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Gedda, George (8 January 1993). "US decides against branding Pakistan a terrorist nation". Washington: Associated Press. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Gannon, Kathy (9 January 1993). "Clinton asks Pakistan to prove it does not back terrorism". Islamabad: Associated Press. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Afghanistan Human Rights Practices, 1993 – U.S. Department of State
Jump up ^ Afghan Peace Accord (Islamabad Accords)
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Nawaz Sharif (1990–1993); Perspective on Current Debate". Pakistani Spectator. 9 September 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Gannon, Kathy (2 April 1993). "Pakistan vows to expel thousands of Arab militants". Islamabad: Associated Press. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Joshi, Vijay (4 April 1993). "Newspapers: Evidence implicates Pakistan in Bombay blasts". New Delhi: Associated Press. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Gannon, Kathy (7 April 1993). "Pakistan cracks down on illegal Arabs". Islamabad: Associated Press. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Gannon, Kathy (13 April 1993). "Pakistan cracks down on illegal Arab immigrants". Peshawar: Associated Press. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Associated Press (23 May 1993). "Pakistan sets new record for drug busts". Islamabad: Associated Press. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Kuzmanovic, Jasmina (16 June 1993). "Bosnian Muslim refugees to leave Croatia for Pakistan". Promajna, Croatia: Associated Press. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Schweid, Barry (20 July 1993). "Sanctions threatened over sales to Pakistan". Washington: Associated Press. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Timeline: Pakistan's political rivals – BBC News
Jump up ^ Hussain, Zahid (4 November 1993). "Bhutto's brother arrested after returning to Pakistan". Karachi: Associated Press. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Myre, Greg (9 November 1993). "Pakistan parliament burns". Islamabad: Associated Press. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Joshi, Vijay (24 November 1993). "India, Pakistan agree to resume talks on Kashmir". New Delhi: Associated Press. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Altaf, Musfirah (16 December 1993). "Pakistan accuses India of killing Kashmiri civilians". Islamabad: Associated Press. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
Jump up ^ Pakistan aims to eradicate Polio – BBC News Online: Despatches
Jump up ^ Associated Press (18 March 1993). "Former prime minister dies in U.S.". Islamabad: Associated Press. Retrieved 13 July 2014.
[show]
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recognition
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Cocos (Keeling) Islands
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