text:
Cohort study
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For other senses of this word, see cohort (disambiguation).
A cohort study is a particular form of longitudinal study that sample a cohort (a group of people who share a defining characteristic, typically who experienced a common event in a selected period, such as birth or graduation), performing a cross-section at intervals through time. A cohort study is a panel study, but a panel study is not always a cohort study as individuals in a panel study do not always share a common characteristic.[1]
Cohort studies are one of the fundamental designs of epidemiology; and are used in research for medicine, nursing, psychology, social science, and any field reliant on hard to reach answers based on evidence (statistics). In medicine for instance: while clinical trials are used primarily for assessing the safety of newly developed pharmaceuticals before they are approved for sale, epidemiological analysis on how risk factors affect the incidence of diseases is often used to identify the causes of diseases in the first place, and to help provide pre-clinical justification for the plausibility of protective factors (treatments). Cohort studies differ from clinical trials in that no intervention, treatment, or exposure is administered to participants in a cohort design; and no control group is defined. Rather, cohort studies are largely about the life histories of segments of populations, and the individual people who constitute these segments.[2][3] Exposures or protective factors are identified as preexisting characteristics of participants, and the study is controlled by including other common characteristics of the cohort in the statistical analysis. Both exposure/treatment and control variables are measured at baseline. Participants are then followed over time to observe the incidence rate of the disease or outcome in question. Regression analysis can then be used to evaluate the extent to which the exposure or treatment variable contributes to the incidence of the disease, while accounting for other variables that may be at play.
Double-Blind Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are generally considered superior methodology in the hierarchy of evidence in treatment, because they allow for the most control over other variables that could affect the outcome, and the randomization and blinding processes reduce bias in the study design. This minimizes the chance that results will be influenced by confounding variables, particularly ones that are unknown. However, educated hypotheses based on prior research and background knowledge are used to select variables to be included in the regression model for cohort studies, and statistical methods can be used to identify and account potential confounders from these variables. Bias can also be mitigated in a cohort study when selecting participants for the cohort. It is also important to note that RCTs may not be suitable in all cases; such as when the outcome is a negative health effect and the exposure is hypothesized to be a risk factor for the outcome. Ethical standards, and morality, would prevent the use of risk factors in RCTs. The natural or incidental exposure to these risk factors (e.g. time spent in the sun), or self-administered exposure (e.g. smoking), can measured without subjecting participants to risk factors outside of their individual lifestyles, habits, and choices.
Cohort studies can be retrospective (looking back in time, thus using existing data such as medical records or claims database) or prospective (requiring the collection of new data).[4] Retrospectives cohort studies restrict the investigators ability to reduce confounding and bias because collected information is restricted to data that already exists. There are advantages to this design however, as retrospective studies are much cheaper and faster because the data has already been collected and stored.
A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined period (e.g., are currently living, are exposed to a drug or vaccine or pollutant, or undergo a certain medical procedure). Thus a group of people who were born on a day or in a particular period, say 1948, form a birth cohort. The comparison group may be the general population from which the cohort is drawn, or it may be another cohort of persons thought to have had little or no exposure to the substance under investigation, but otherwise similar. Alternatively, subgroups within the cohort may be compared with each other.
Indicators of cohort study:
When there is a strong association between cause and effect, established by any observational study
When the exposure is rare, but incidence of disease among exposed is high
When people's attrition can be minimized
When resources are ample
Contents
[hide]
1 Application
2 Examples
3 Variations
3.1 Current and historical cohorts
3.2 Nested case-control study
3.3 Household panel survey
3.4 Cohort analysis in business
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Application[edit]
In medicine, a cohort study is often undertaken to obtain evidence to try to refute the existence of a suspected association between cause and effect; failure to refute a hypothesis often strengthens confidence in it. Crucially, the cohort is identified before the appearance of the disease under investigation. The study groups follow a group of people who do not have the disease for a period of time and see who develops the disease (new incidence). The cohort cannot therefore be defined as a group of people who already have the disease. Prospective (longitudinal) cohort studies between exposure and disease strongly aid in studying causal associations, though distinguishing true causality usually requires further corroboration from further experimental trials.
The advantage of prospective cohort study data is that it can help determine risk factors for contracting a new disease because it is a longitudinal observation of the individual through time, and the collection of data at regular intervals, so recall error is reduced. However, cohort studies are expensive to conduct, are sensitive to attrition and take a long follow-up time to generate useful data. Nevertheless, the results that are obtained from long-term cohort studies are of substantially superior quality to those obtained from retrospective/cross-sectional studies. Prospective cohort studies are considered to yield the most reliable results in observational epidemiology. They enable a wide range of exposure-disease associations to be studied.
Some cohort studies track groups of children from their birth, and record a wide range of information (exposures) about them. The value of a cohort study depends on the researchers' capacity to stay in touch with all members of the cohort. Some studies have continued for decades.
In a cohort study, the population under investigation consists of individuals who are at risk of developing a specific disease or health outcome.[5]
Examples[edit]
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An example of an epidemiological question that can be answered using a cohort study is whether exposure to X (say, smoking) associates with outcome Y (say, lung cancer). In 1951 commenced the British Doctors Study, a cohort that included both smokers (the exposed group) and non-smokers (the unexposed group). The study continued through 2001. By 1956, the study provided convincing proof of the association of smoking with the incidence of lung cancer. In a cohort study, the groups are matched in terms of many other variables such as economic status and other health status so that the variable being assessed, the independent variable (in this case, smoking) can be isolated as the cause of the dependent variable (in this case, lung cancer). In this example, a statistically significant increase in the incidence of lung cancer in the smoking group as compared to the non-smoking group is evidence in favor of the hypothesis. However, rare outcomes, such as lung cancer, are generally not studied with the use of a cohort study, but are rather studied with the use of a case-control study.
Shorter term studies are commonly used in medical research as a form of clinical trial, or means to test a particular hypothesis of clinical importance. Such studies typically follow two groups of patients for a period of time and compare an endpoint or outcome measure between the two groups.
Randomized controlled trials, or RCTs are a superior methodology in the hierarchy of evidence, because they limit the potential for bias by randomly assigning one patient pool to an intervention and another patient pool to non-intervention (or placebo). This minimizes the chance that the incidence of confounding variables will differ between the two groups.
Nevertheless, it is sometimes not practical or ethical to perform RCTs to answer a clinical question. To take our example, if we already had reasonable evidence that smoking causes lung cancer then persuading a pool of non-smokers to take up smoking in order to test this hypothesis would generally be considered quite unethical.
Two examples of cohort studies that have been going on for more than 50 years are the Framingham Heart Study and the National Child Development Study (NCDS), the most widely researched of the British birth cohort studies. Key findings of NCDS and a detailed profile of the study appear in the International Journal of Epidemiology.[6]
The Dunedin Longitudinal Study, started in 1975, has been studying the thousand people born in Dunedin, New Zealand in 1972-73. The subjects are interviewed regularly, with Phase 45 starting in 2017.
The largest cohort study in women is the Nurses' Health Study. Started in 1976, it is tracking over 120,000 nurses and has been analyzed for many different conditions and outcomes.
The largest cohort study in Africa is the Birth to Twenty Study, which began in 1990 and tracks a cohort of over 3,000 children born in the weeks following Nelson Mandela's release from prison.
Other famous examples are the Grant Study tracking a number of Harvard graduates from ca. 1950.77, the Whitehall Study tracking 10,308 British civil servants, and the Caerphilly Heart Disease Study, which since 1979 has studied a representative sample of 2,512 men, drawn from the Welsh town of Caerphilly.[7]
Variations[edit]
Comparison of timelines of case-control and cohort studies
The diagram indicates the starting point and direction of cohort and case-control studies. In Case-control studies the analysis proceeds from documented disease and investigations are made to arrive at the possible causes of the disease. In cohort studies the assessments starts with the putative cause of disease, and observations are made of the occurrence of disease relative to the hypothesized causal agent.[8]
Current and historical cohorts[edit]
Main article: Retrospective cohort study
A current cohort study represents a true prospective study where the data concerning exposure are assembled prior to the occurrence of the fact to be studied, for instance a disease. An example of a current cohort study is the Oxford Family Planning Association Study in the United Kingdom, which aimed to provide a balanced view of the beneficial and harmful effects of different methods of contraception. This study has provided a large amount of information on the efficacy and safety of contraceptive methods, and in particular oral contraceptives (OCs), diaphragms and intrauterine device (IUDs).[citation needed]
In a historical cohort study the data concerning exposure and occurrence of a disease, births, a political attitude or any other categorical variable are collected after the events have taken place, and the subjects (those exposed and unexposed to the agent under study) are assembled from existing records or health care registers.
A "prospective cohort" defines the groups before the study is done, while historical studies, which are sometimes referred to as "retrospective cohort", defines the grouping after the data is collected. Examples of a retrospective cohort are Long-Term Mortality after Gastric Bypass Surgery[9] and The Lothian Birth Cohort Studies.[10]
Though historical studies are sometimes referred to as retrospective study, it a misnomer as the methodological principles of historical cohort studies and prospective studies are the same.[8]
Nested case-control study[edit]
Main article: Nested case-control study
An example of a nested case-control study is Inflammatory markers and the risk of coronary heart disease in men and women, which was a case control analyses extracted from the Framingham Heart Study cohort.[11]
Household panel survey[edit]
Household panel surveys are an important sub-type of cohort study. These draw representative samples of households and survey them, following all individuals through time on a usually annual basis. Examples include the US Panel Study of Income Dynamics (since 1968), the German Socio-Economic Panel (since 1984), the British Household Panel Survey (since 1991), the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey (since 2001) and the European Community Household Panel (1994–2001).
Cohort analysis in business[edit]
For an example in business analysis, see cohort analysis.
See also[edit]
Panel analysis
Panel data
Cohort (statistics)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "What is the difference between a Panel Study and a Cohort Study?". Academia Stack Exchange. Retrieved 3 February 2016.
Jump up ^ "Cohort Studies". Web Center for Social Research Methods. Archived from the original on 2011-09-09.
Jump up ^ Porta, Miquel, ed. (2008). A Dictionary of Epidemiology (5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ "FAQ: What is a cohort study?". California Department of Public Health, Environmental Health Investigations Branch. June 2, 2001.
Jump up ^ Blumenthal, Ursula J.; Fleisher, Jay M.; Esrey, Steve A.; Peasey, Anne (2001). "Chapter 7: Epidemiology: a tool for the assessment of risk" (PDF). In Fewtrell, Lorna; Bartram, Jamie. Water Quality: Guidelines, Standards, and Health : Assessment of Risk and Risk Management for Water-related Infectious Disease. IWA Publishing. pp. 143–144.
Jump up ^ Power C, Elliott J (2006). "Cohort profile: 1958 British Cohort Study". International Journal of Epidemiology. 35 (1): 34–41. doi:10.1093/ije/dyi183. PMID 16155052.
Jump up ^ "Caerphilly and Speedwell collaborative heart disease studies. The Caerphilly and Speedwell Collaborative Group". Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 38 (3): 259–262. 1984. doi:10.1136/jech.38.3.259. PMC 1052363  . PMID 6332166. .
^ Jump up to: a b Meirik, O. "Cohort and Case-Control Studies". In Campana, Aldo. Reproductive Health. Geneva Foundation for Medical Education and Research.
Jump up ^ Adams TD, Gress RE, Smith SC, et al. (2007). "Long-term mortality after gastric bypass surgery". N. Engl. J. Med. 357 (8): 753–61. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa066603. PMID 17715409.
Jump up ^ "The Lothian Birth Cohort Studies". University of Edinburgh. Archived from the original on 2009-10-22. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
Jump up ^ Pai, JK; Pischon, T; Ma, J; et al. (2004). "Inflammatory markers and the risk of coronary heart disease in men and women". N. Engl. J. Med. 351 (25): 2599–2610. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa040967. PMID 15602020.
External links[edit]
Prospective cohorts
Retrospective cohorts
Study Design Tutorial Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine
Birth cohort study timelines (ESDS Longitudinal)
Centre for Longitudinal Studies
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Our House (Madness song)
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"Our House"
Single by Madness
from the album The Rise & Fall
B-side
"Walking with Mr. Wheeze" (UK)
"Cardiac Arrest" (US)
Released
12 November 1982
Format
7"
12"
Recorded
1982
Genre
Pop[1]
new wave[2]
Length
3:23
Label
Stiff (UK)
Geffen (US)
Songwriter(s)
Chris Foreman
Cathal Smyth
Producer(s)
Clive Langer
Alan Winstanley
Madness singles chronology
"Driving in My Car"
(1982) "Our House"
(1982) "Tomorrow's (Just Another Day)" / "Madness (Is All in the Mind)"
(1983)
"Driving in My Car"
(1982) "Our House"
(1982) "Tomorrow's (Just Another Day)"/"Madness (Is All in the Mind)"
(1983)
Audio sample
file
help
"Our House" is a song by English ska and pop band Madness. It was released as the lead single from their fourth studio album, The Rise & Fall, on 12 November 1982. The song charted within the top ten in multiple countries and won Best Pop Song at the May 1983 Ivor Novello Awards.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 About
2 Music video
3 Use in media
4 Track listing
5 Charts
6 References
7 External links
8 See also
About[edit]
Released in November 1982, it peaked at #5 in the UK singles chart.[4] In 1983, "Our House" was their biggest hit in the US, reaching #7 on the Billboard Hot 100.[5] On the US rock chart the song peaked at #9, and also reached #21 on the US dance chart.[6] It receives constant airplay by radio stations.
The B-side, "Walking With Mr. Wheeze", is an instrumental song. The title is a play on "Groovin' With Mr. Bloe", an instrumental hit of 1970 by the session group Mr. Bloe.[7] In 1984, Madness performed Our House on the episode "Sick" of The Young Ones.[8]
Music video[edit]
The video depicts the band acting out the song's lyrics in an old Victorian terraced house. The song's lyrics mostly describe the working-class family lifestyle, and the band acts them out by portraying such a family in the video. The band plays their instruments in the living room, prepares for work and school as the family plays squash and relaxes in a hot tub. The video also includes exterior shots of various other houses including the "Playboy Mansion" Stocks House in Aldbury, Hertfordshire,[9] and Buckingham Palace. The property that featured in the video is a terrace house on Stephenson Street in north west London, near Willesden Junction.[10]
Use in media[edit]
In 1982, Madness made a guest appearance in series 2 of The Young Ones performing "Our House". They had previously appeared in series 1 performing "House of Fun".
In 1985 "Our House" was the theme song for a children's drama series, Dodger, Bonzo and the Rest.[11] The version featured on the show was performed by the cast members.
A 1992 episode of Spitting Image featured a satirical version of the song highlighting the negative equity crisis being faced by many British homeowners at the time.
The original recording was also used as the theme for a 1998 ITV docusoap series, The Estate Agents.
A musical called Our House, featuring Madness songs, ran in London's West End between October 2002 and August 2003.[12] A recording of the show was broadcast on BBC Three and was released as a DVD.[13]
An altered version of the song was used in a Maxwell House commercial and the real version was featured in a montage for an episode of the BBC comedy, My Family,[14] as well as for a 2004 American reality game, House of Dreams.
The song also featured in a 2007-08 series of TV advertisements for Bird's Eye in which Suggs appeared,[15] as well as an advertisement for the 2008 ABC reality game show Opportunity Knocks, and in episode 4 of season 3 of US TV show Brothers & Sisters, during the yard sale scene.
In 2010, a mashup of "Jingle Bells" and "Our House", created by New York music and audio branding company Expansion Team, was used in a Christmastime commercial for Verizon.[16]
At the 2012 Olympic Games Madness performed "Our House" in the closing Olympic ceremonies during an elaborate light show with scores of dancers.[17]
An altered version of the song is used in a 2014 TV advertisement for Chemist Warehouse.[18]
In Chile, the song was used in the spot and theme song of Chilean Canal 13 TV series Papá Mono.[19]
Track listing[edit]
7" single
"Our House" – 3:23
"Walking with Mr. Wheeze" – 3:31
French 7" single
"Our House (Stretch mix)" – 3:45
"Walking with Mr. Wheeze" – 3:31
US 7" single
"Our House" - 3:20
"Cardiac Arrest" - 2:58
("Stretch mix" is a mostly instrumental edit of the extended mix)
12" single
"Our House" (Extended Mix) – 6:00
"Our House" (7" Version) – 3:23
"Walking with Mr. Wheeze" – 3:31
U.S. 12" single
"Our House (Dance mix)" – 5:02
"Mad House (Our House dub mix)" – 4:35
Charts[edit]
Chart (1982–83)
Peak
position
Australia (Kent Music Report)[20] 17
Belgium (Ultratop 50 Flanders)[21] 15
Canada (CHUM)[22] 3
Canada Top Singles (RPM)[23] 1
Germany (Official German Charts)[24] 8
Ireland (IRMA)[25] 3
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[26] 3
New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)[27] 49
Norway (VG-lista)[28] 4
Sweden (Sverigetopplistan)[29] 1
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[30] 4
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[31] 5
US Billboard Hot 100[32] 7
US Hot Dance Club Play [6] 21
US Cash Box[33] 5
Chart (2017)
Peak
position
Poland (Polish Airplay Top 100) [34] 64
References[edit]
Jump up ^ https://www.soundonsound.com/people/classic-tracks-madness-our-house
Jump up ^ Glenn Gaslin; Rick Porter (1 January 1998). The Complete, Cross-referenced Guide to the Baby Buster Generation's Collective Unconscious. Boulevard Books. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-57297-335-0. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "1983 Winners". Ivor Novello Awards. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Madness". Official Charts Company. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Madness". Billboard Hot 100. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Whitburn, Joel (2004). Hot Dance/Disco: 1974-2003. Record Research. p. 163.
Jump up ^ "Mr. Bloe". imuzdb.com. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Young Ones - Sick". imdb.com. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ Reed, John. House of Fun: The Story of Madness. Omnibus Press. ISBN 9780857127150.
Jump up ^ "It's Madness! Iconic terrace home featured in 1980s Our House pop video sells for more than £500K (Suggs not included)". Daily Mail. 13 November 2015. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Dodger, Bonzo and the Rest Episode Guide". IMDb. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Our House". www.guidetomusicaltheatre.com. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ " Our House - The Musical: BBC3 cast list" BBC Archived 31 January 2005 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "May family - Reloaded". IMDb. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Birds Eye – In Our House". www.tvadmusic.co.uk. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ coronagarretts (2010-12-09), Verizon - Jingle Bells - Our House mash up, retrieved 2018-03-15
Jump up ^ "London 2012 Olympic Closing Ceremony - Madness singing Our House". YouTube. Retrieved 2016-11-05.
Jump up ^ Chemist Warehouse TV (2014-08-10), "Our House" 2014 Chemist Warehouse TV Ad (45s), retrieved 2017-03-28
Jump up ^ "[Video] Canal 13 estrenó spot de su nueva serie 'Papá Mono'". www.cooperativa.cl (in Spanish).
Jump up ^ "Forum – ARIA Charts: Special Occasion Charts – CHART POSITIONS PRE 1989, part 1". Australian-charts.com. Hung Medien. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Ultratop.be – Madness – Our House" (in Dutch). Ultratop 50. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "CHART NUMBER 1388 – Saturday, August 20, 1983". Archived from the original on 13 February 2006. Retrieved 2014-01-11. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) . CHUM.
Jump up ^ "Top RPM Singles: Issue 6286." RPM. Library and Archives Canada. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Offiziellecharts.de – Madness – Our House". GfK Entertainment Charts. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Irish Charts – Search Results – Our House". Irish Singles Chart. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – Madness – Our House" (in Dutch). Single Top 100. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Charts.org.nz – Madness – Our House". Top 40 Singles. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Topp 20 Single uke 10, 1983 – VG-lista. Offisielle hitlister fra og med 1958" (in Norwegian). VG-lista. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Swedishcharts.com – Madness – Our House". Singles Top 100. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – Madness – Our House". Swiss Singles Chart. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
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Jump up ^ "CASH BOX Top 100 Singles – Week ending AUGUST 6, 1983". Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 2016-05-16. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link) . Cash Box magazine.
Jump up ^ "Listy bestsellerów, wyróżnienia :: Związek Producentów Audio-Video". Polish Airplay Top 100. Retrieved 24 July 2017.
External links[edit]
Music video of "Our House" on YouTube
Classic Tracks: 'Our House' by Madness
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
See also[edit]
The Young Ones
List of number-one singles of 1983 (Canada)
List of number-one singles and albums in Sweden
[hide]
v
t
e
Madness
Chris Foreman
Mike Barson
Lee Thompson
Suggs
Dan Woodgate
Mark Bedford
Studio albums
One Step Beyond...
Absolutely
7
The Rise & Fall
Keep Moving
Mad Not Mad
The Madness
Wonderful
The Dangermen Sessions Vol. 1
The Liberty of Norton Folgate
Oui Oui, Si Si, Ja Ja, Da Da
Can't Touch Us Now
Compilation albums
Complete Madness
Madness
Utter Madness
It's... Madness
It's... Madness Too
Divine Madness
The Business
Total Madness (1997)
Our House
Total Madness (2009)
Ultimate Madness
A Guided Tour of Madness
Forever Young: The Ska Collection
Live albums
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Madness Live: To the Edge of the Universe and Beyond
Box sets
The Business
The Lot
The Singles Box: Vol. 1
A Guided Tour of Madness
Singles
"The Prince"
"One Step Beyond"
"My Girl"
"Work Rest and Play EP"
"Baggy Trousers"
"Embarrassment"
"The Return of the Los Palmas 7"
"Grey Day"
"Shut Up"
"It Must Be Love"
"Cardiac Arrest"
"House of Fun"
"Driving in My Car"
"Our House"
"Tomorrow's (Just Another Day)" / "Madness (Is All in the Mind)"
"Wings of a Dove"
"The Sun and the Rain"
"Michael Caine"
"One Better Day"
"Yesterday's Men"
"Uncle Sam"
"Sweetest Girl"
"(Waiting For) The Ghost Train"
"Night Boat to Cairo"
"The Harder They Come"
"Lovestruck"
"Johnny the Horse"
"Drip Fed Fred"
"Shame & Scandal"
"Girl Why Don't You"
"Sorry"
"NW5"
"Dust Devil"
"Sugar and Spice"
"Forever Young"
"My Girl 2"
"Never Knew Your Name"
Related articles
Discography
Lucky 7 Records
Dikran Tulaine
Our House the Musical
2 Tone
Zarjazz Records
Starvation/Tam Tam Pour L'Ethiopie
The Madness
Take It or Leave It
The Lee Thompson Ska Orchestra
Boring (The Young Ones)
Sick (The Young Ones)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Our_House_(Madness_song)&oldid=835321862"
Categories:
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