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Linda Perry
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Linda Perry
Perry at Lincoln Center on September 12, 2010
Born
(1965-04-15) April 15, 1965 (age 52)
Springfield, Massachusetts, United States
Occupation
Singer-songwriter, producer
Years active
1989–present
Spouse(s)
Sara Gilbert (m. 2014)
Children
1
Website
lindaperry.com
Linda Perry (born April 15, 1965)[1] is an American singer-songwriter and record producer. She first became known as the lead singer and primary songwriter of 4 Non Blondes and has since founded two record labels and composed and produced hit songs for several other artists. They include: "Beautiful" by Christina Aguilera; "What You Waiting For?" by Gwen Stefani; and "Get the Party Started" by P!nk. Perry has also contributed to albums by Adele, Alicia Keys, and Courtney Love, as well as signing and distributing James Blunt[2] in the United States. Perry was also inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2015.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
2 Career
2.1 1987–89: Early career
2.2 1989–95: 4 Non Blondes
2.3 1996–2010: Solo career
2.4 2001–2010: Production and songwriting
2.5 2010–present: Recent career
2.5.1 iPhone sessions
3 Personal life
4 Discography
4.1 Solo works
4.2 Production and songwriting
4.3 Other appearances
4.4 Singles produced or written by Linda Perry
5 Awards
6 References
7 External links
Early life[edit]
Perry was born in Springfield, Massachusetts.[1] Growing up in an artistic and musical household, Perry displayed musical talent and interest from an early age. Despite struggling with kidney disease and then drug addiction, she still focused on music.[1] Her mother is Brazilian (Marluce Martins Perry) and her father was Portuguese (Alfred Xavier Perry).
Career[edit]
1987–89: Early career[edit]
In early 1986, at the age of 21, Perry moved to San Francisco. As a teenager in San Diego, she had pursued an interest in music, playing the guitar and auditioning for all-girl cover bands. Her arrival in San Francisco would mark the beginning of a career in music, though not before waiting tables, working coat-check, and working at a pizzeria.[citation needed] In San Francisco, Perry lived in a small, windowless room, and would play her guitar and sing her own songs on city streets. Eventually, people began to recognize her as "that chick with the big voice."[citation needed]
1989–95: 4 Non Blondes[edit]
After some time spent performing solo at Bay Area (San Francisco) clubs and coffeehouses, Perry composed her first professional song, called "Down On Your Face," and was recruited into the band 4 Non Blondes by its founder Christa Hillhouse in the middle of 1989. After several years of playing locally and negotiating with various record companies, the band finally signed with Interscope Records and released its debut album, Bigger, Better, Faster, More! on October 9, 1992. The album, featuring Perry as lead singer and dominated by her compositions, was an immediate success and spawned a hit single, the Perry-penned "What's Up?" (often erroneously called "What's Going On?" after its prominent chorus lyric).
In February 1994, Perry had a solo appearance in Roger Daltrey's production, album and video A Celebration: The Music of Pete Townshend and The Who. She shared the stage with the Juilliard Orchestra and members of The Who as she sang "Doctor Jimmy", "Acid Queen", "I'm Free" (in a duet with Roger Daltrey), and the encore for "Join Together" with original The Who members John Entwistle and Pete Townshend. In 1994, a CD and a VHS video of the shows were issued with the songs "Doctor Jimmy" and "I'm Free", while in 1998 a DVD was released with the song "I'm Free" only.
In June 1994, 4 Non Blondes guitarist Roger Rocha was replaced by Concrete Blonde member Jim Mankey, who had just played for Van Halen's cover "I'm the One" recorded as the theme from the movie Airheads. During sessions at Interscope studios in Los Angeles, the band struggled to come up with a followup to Bigger, and Perry left the band during the attempt to pursue a solo career. The band recorded one last video, for a cover of Led Zeppelin's "Misty Mountain Hop" with Dave Navarro on guitar.
In a 2011 Rolling Stone interview, while promoting her most recent band, Deep Dark Robot, Perry was quoted saying, "I wasn't really a big fan of my band" due to the "fluffy polished bullshit" sound of Bigger, Better, Faster, More![3]
1996–2010: Solo career[edit]
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Linda Perry
With the band in disarray and the recording contract unfulfilled, Interscope reluctantly allowed Perry to make a solo CD, dropping the rest of the band. Interscope insisted on choosing the album's producer; the production team selected was Bill Bottrell and members of the Tuesday Night Music Club, who had recently produced Sheryl Crow's debut. Released in 1996, In Flight was moody, mellow and, at times, dark, far removed from the 4 Non Blondes sound.[citation needed] The release received positive notices, but was a poor seller. Perry joined Red Fish, Blue Fish for her world tour, supporting such acts as The Who.[citation needed] She promoted her CD with her own funds, including an appearance on The Howard Stern Show, during which she participated in "lesbian dial-a-date" and performed her former band's only hit single, "What's Up?" Perry also hosted the 1997 and 1998 Bammies (Bay Area Music Awards).
In 1997, Perry produced a film, Pink as the Day She Was Born, featuring cameos by Les Claypool of Primus and comedian Margaret Cho. She also launched her own record label, Rockstar Records, for the primary purpose of releasing a CD of band Stone Fox. In addition, she signed another local San Francisco band, 2 Lane Blacktop. The year 1998 saw Perry appearing and performing on CNN as part of a special on music and the Internet—how independent artists are cutting out the major labels. In 1999, she released her second solo album on Rockstar Records, After Hours. For the rest of 1999, she opened for Bryan Adams, reuniting with 4 Non Blondes' bassist Christa Hillhouse, then toured behind After Hours, with Hillhouse and San Francisco-based drummer Claudia Page.
In 2001, Perry again returned to music and touring. She wrote a handful of songs, two of which, "Beautiful" and "Cruz," would eventually be recorded and appear on Christina Aguilera's hit album Stripped. In 2001, she closed most of her shows with "Beautiful," a song she hoped would be her own comeback hit.
In 2002, Perry made a rare live performance at the Knitting Factory in Los Angeles, where she performed a set of original music and a set of Zeppelin covers. Also in 2002, she made an appearance on a solo record of Gordon Gano, Hitting the Ground, performing the song "So It Goes."
Perry made a live appearance at a DKNY benefit show in Los Angeles, where she joined Slash on stage for a version of Led Zeppelin's "Whole Lotta Love."
In 2005, Perry was a performer at ASCAP's showcase at the Sundance Film Festival. In August 2006, she played piano on Christina Aguilera's performance of "Hurt" at the MTV Video Music Awards.
Perry has signed with the independent label Kill Rock Stars Records, who re-released her solo album In Flight in October 2005. Featuring new artwork, the re-release includes original videos for "Fill Me Up" and "Freeway". In 2008, Perry played guitar in the video for Christina Aguilera's "Save Me From Myself." Perry made a live appearance at "Hope For Haiti Now" playing piano while Aguilera premiered a stripped-down version of their song "Lift Me Up." She also made guest appearances on Hole's "Nobody's Daughter" tour and on a concert of the Perry-signed band Little Fish in London. In May 2010, Perry again hosted the "Evening with Women" at L.A.'s Gay and Lesbian Centre, where she reunited with P!nk for a live duet of Perry's song "What's Up?" Christina Aguilera invited Perry to her VH1 Storytellers concert in May 2010. Perry played piano to Aguilera's "Beautiful" and talked about the song.
On November 5, 2010, Perry appeared live in San Francisco with 4 Non Blondes guitar player Roger Rocha at TwentyFifty (formerly CELLSpace). The appearance celebrated the release of Rocha's album with his band The Golden Hearts. It was the first time in 20 years the two had appeared together live. Perry performed a solo set of cover tunes, including Radiohead's "Creep" and Soundgarden's "Black Hole Sun." Perry and Roger Rocha performed one song together, Led Zeppelin's "Since I've Been Loving You."[4]
2001–2010: Production and songwriting[edit]
In 2000, Perry was contacted by pop rock singer Pink, seeking production and songwriting assistance on her second album. Perry commented on the experience in an interview with HitQuarters: "She was this white girl singing R&B music, and it made absolutely no sense to me why she would call me. So when I got together with her my instinct said, 'Don’t go and be an artist again, don’t get another record deal, find out what you can do with her.' My manager freaked out when I called her and said, cancel all the showcases!"[2] Perry co-wrote and produced much of Pink's successful album Missundaztood, which brought Perry back into the spotlight as a music producer. Perry took full writing credits for the songs "Get the Party Started" and "Lonely Girl." Perry next provided Christina Aguilera the hit "Beautiful."
Since then, she has gone on to work with many artists, including Jewel, Courtney Love, Gwen Stefani, Alicia Keys, Celine Dion, Blaque, Sugababes, Lillix, Robbie Williams, Melissa Etheridge, Sierra Swan, Solange Knowles, Gavin Rossdale, Juliette and the Licks, Lisa Marie Presley, Fischerspooner, Unwritten Law, L.P., Kelly Osbourne, James Blunt, Cheap Trick, Ben Jelen, Enrique Iglesias and Giusy Ferreri.
The 2002 Faith Hill album Cry has a song co-written by Perry and Alecia B. Moore (Pink).
In 2003, Perry won two ASCAP awards for her songwriting, and a Grammy Awards nomination for her song "Beautiful" as a contender for "Song of the Year"; the song received the award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 2004 Grammy Awards.
With actress Gina Gershon, she wrote the song "StupidStar" for the movie Prey for Rock and Roll. With Brooklyn rocker L.P., she co-wrote "The Darkside."
For most of 2004, Perry remained behind the scenes, making another appearance with Camp Freddy, this time at Los Angeles' Live 103's Birthday Concert. She joined Lisa Marie Presley on stage for songs they wrote together. The year 2004 also saw the release of Courtney Love's solo America's Sweetheart, to which Perry heavily contributed.
A song called "Girls & Boys", which was originally intended for Pink but later recorded by Britney Spears, was released as a bonus track on Spears' European DVD release. The track marked Perry's foray into more electroclash-inspired tunes.
She collaborated with art-dance duo Fischerspooner on a few songs for their upcoming release and ended the year with a few co-writing credits on Gwen Stefani's debut, Love. Angel. Music. Baby., including the album's first single, "What You Waiting For?" Additionally, her Atlantic-distributed label, Custard Records, was launched to promote two new acts, Sunshine and James Blunt. She produced and played guitar on the recording of Blunt's song "No Bravery".[5] The year ended with Perry co-writing "Save Me" for the southern California punk rock band Unwritten Law.
Releases for 2005 included Kelly Osbourne's second album, which was written and produced by Perry. The lead track from Osbourne's second album, "One Word," reached the top of the UK and US dance charts.
Perry contributed to Christina Aguilera's third studio album, Back to Basics (2006). Perry and Aguilera co-wrote every song.
2007 saw Perry working with Vanessa Carlton on her third studio album, Heroes and Thieves. She also co-wrote and did session work on many of the songs on Sierra Swan's solo album, Ladyland. She continued work with Courtney Love, Kelis, Cheap Trick, Ziggy Marley, Ben Jelen, Skin, Enrique Iglesias, The Format on the song "Dead End," and "Darker Side of The Moon" on Bay Area artist Goapele's Change It All album.
Perry won an award from the San Francisco chapter of the Recording Academy for her contribution to the world of music. The years 2007 and 2008 saw more tunes written or produced by Linda Perry: The Section Quartet, Alicia Keys, Vanessa Carlton, and Gina Gershon.
Perry signed the group Little Fish to her label in 2008 and began producing its album,[6][7] titled Baffled and Beat,[8] which was released in August 2010.[9]
She wrote and produced "A Loaded Smile" for the 2009 debut album For Your Entertainment by Adam Lambert. Aguilera's fourth studio album, Bionic, released in 2010, included another track, written and produced solely by Perry, "Lift Me Up."
2010–present: Recent career[edit]
In 2010, Perry worked with KT Tunstall and wrote a few songs with her, some of which would later be featured on Tunstall's third studio album Tiger Suit, released in September of that year.
Perry announced on her Facebook and Twitter profiles in June that she was "going to make an album" with her new band Deep Dark Robot, which she founded with Tony Tornay.[10][11][12] The album, 8 Songs About a Girl, was promoted with the single "Won't You Be My Girl?" Perry imagined the name Deep Dark Robot as part of an ad-libbed song lyric—"deep dark robot falling in love"—and decided to hang onto the name for her next musical project.[13] The band released the album in March 2011 and began touring.
Perry also worked with Rivers Cuomo and Weezer on their song "Brave New World."[citation needed]
In 2010 and 2011, Perry, along with Fox Entertainment Group, was the Presenting Sponsor of the Los Angeles talent show STARFEST, benefiting The L.A.C.E.R. Afterschool Programs.[citation needed]
In 2014, Perry appeared in the VH1 reality television show Make or Break: The Linda Perry Project, in which she worked with up-and-coming musicians, like VanJess and winner Hemming.[14]
Perry is scheduled to appear as the house band in a special series of late night editions of The Talk airing the week of January 12, 2015 in the 12:34 am time slot of The Late Late Show.[15]
In June 2015, Perry was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame at a ceremony in New York.
In 2015, Perry wrote the theme song for the film Freeheld titled "Hands of Love," performed by Miley Cyrus.
Perry co-wrote a song with Adele for her 2015 album 25 titled "Can't Let Go" which was included as a bonus track on the Adele 25 - Target Deluxe Edition. Perry played piano, produced and engineered the track.[16]
In 2017 she co-wrote and produced the song "Shine", which was sung and co-written by Pat Benatar. It was written for the Women's March on Washington. Later that year she teamed again with Benatar for the song "Dancing Through the Wreckage" which was featured as the lead single from the documentary "Serve Like a Girl".
iPhone sessions[edit]
In July 2011, Perry started to publish a set of acoustic cover songs that she recorded with her iPhone,[citation needed] including "Mad World" by Tears for Fears, "Just What I Needed" by The Cars, and "Creep" by Radiohead, among many others. On her Facebook account, she wrote: "iPhone sessions are me sitting at my piano an recording song into iPhone voice memo. Then I post it. Very simple enjoy :)"[17]
Personal life[edit]
Perry with her wife Sara Gilbert at the Los Angeles LGBT Center's An Evening with Women event in 2014
Perry is openly lesbian. She famously displayed the slang word "dyke" on her guitar for a performance with 4 Non Blondes at the 1994 Billboard Music Awards.[18]
Perry was in a relationship with actress Clementine Ford from 2009 to 2010.[19][20][21]
Perry began a relationship with actress Sara Gilbert in 2011.[22][23] They announced their engagement in April 2013 and married on March 30, 2014.[24] Gilbert gave birth to their son Rhodes Emilio Gilbert Perry, on February 28, 2015. Perry is stepmother to Gilbert's son and daughter from a previous relationship.[25][26]
Discography[edit]
Solo works[edit]
In Flight (1995), Interscope Records
The Crow: City of Angels (1996), Hollywood Records
After Hours (1999), Rockstar Records
In Flight (2005), re-released by Custard Records and Kill Rock Stars
8 Songs About a Girl (2011), as Deep Dark Robot, Custard Records
Deer Sounds (2015), as Linda Perry + Sara Gilbert's Deer Sounds, Custard Media Inc
Production and songwriting[edit]
For Perry's work as a producer & songwriter, see Linda Perry songwriting and production discography.
Other appearances[edit]
Susanna Hoffs by Susanna Hoffs (1996):
"Weak With Love" Guitar and Backing Vocals by Linda Perry
Missundaztood by P!nk (2001)
"Lonely Girl" featuring Linda Perry
Hitting the Ground by Gordon Gano (2002), Instinct Records (August 19, 2002):
"So It Goes" Music and Lyrics by Gordon Gano, Vocals by Linda Perry also featuring Frank Ferrer
Prey for Rock & Roll (OST) by Various Artists (2003)
"Stupid Star" performed by Gina Gershon, Linda Perry & Patty Schemel
Odyssey by Fischerspooner (2005)
"Happy" Additional Vocals by Linda Perry
Back to Basics by Christina Aguilera (2006)
"Enter the Circus" performed by Linda Perry (uncredited)
Plain Girl, Wild Love by Planet Swan (2007)
"Chompin' on a Bit" performed by Planet Swan featuring Linda Perry & Sierra Swan
Fuzzbox by The Section Quartet (2007)
"Paranoid Android" Operatic Vocals by Linda Perry
Cheat the Gallows by Bigelf (2008)
"Superstar" & "Race With Time" Backing Vocals by Linda Perry
Under the Radar by Daniel Powter (2008)
Gravity by Nico Vega (2009)
Wooden Dolls by Nico Vega (2009)
So So Fresh by Nico Vega (2009)
"Am I Still the One?" performed by Daniel Powter with Linda Perry
Singles produced or written by Linda Perry[edit]
Year
Song
Artist
Peak chart positions
US
UK
GER
ITA
AUS
2001 "Get the Party Started" Pink 4 2 2 4 1
2002 "Beautiful" Christina Aguilera 2 1 4 8 1
2003 "Tomorrow" Lillix - - - - -
2004 "What You Waiting For?" Gwen Stefani 47 4 22 2 1
"Mono" Courtney Love - 41 - - -
2005 "One Word" Kelly Osbourne 121 9 38 64 69
"Idiot" Lisa Marie Presley - - - - -
"Save Me (Wake Up Call)" Unwritten Law 108 - - - -
"Redlight" Kelly Osbourne - 73 - - -
2006 "Wonderful Life" Gwen Stefani - - - - -
"Perfect Stranger" Cheap Trick - - - - -
"Hurt" Christina Aguilera 19 11 2 11 9
"Nothing But" Skin - - - - -
2007 "Candyman" Christina Aguilera 25 17 11 8 2
"Where Do We Go" Ben Jelen - - - - -
2008 "Superwoman" Alicia Keys 82 128 43 - 57
"Keeps Gettin' Better" Christina Aguilera 7 14 14 12 26
"My Love" Celine Dion 15 - - - -
2009 "La Scala (The Ladder)" Giusy Ferreri 27
2011 "Put Your Hearts Up" Ariana Grande
2015 "Hands Of Love" Miley Cyrus
Awards[edit]
2004 – Grammy Award for Song of the Year – Nominated for "Beautiful"
2015 – In June 2015, Perry was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Anderson, Jason. "Artist Biography [Linda Perry]". AllMusic.com. Retrieved 2014-03-31.
^ Jump up to: a b "Linda Perry interview". HitQuarters. Retrieved 5 January 2006.
Jump up ^ "Linda Perry Forms New Band, Admits She Never Liked 4 Non Blondes". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Chad Tasky, video footage posted on YouTube, recorded November 5, 2010 at Cell Space in San Francisco.
Jump up ^ Liner notes from Back to Bedlam
Jump up ^ "Little Fish Sign Record Deal!". Little Fish Official Website. June 20, 2008. Retrieved 2010-02-14. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Little Fish special". BBC Oxford. Retrieved 19 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "First Review Of Our Album "Baffled & Beat"". Myspace. February 9, 2010. Archived from the original on February 7, 2009. Retrieved 2010-02-17.
Jump up ^ "CUSTARD RECORDS: Little Fish Bio". Custard Records. Retrieved 2010-02-17.
Jump up ^ "LINDA PERRY on Twitter". Twitter. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Deep Dark Robot". Retrieved 10 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Featured Content on Myspace". Myspace. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Linda Perry with her new project Deep Dark Robot, you dont want to miss it". Archived from the original on 6 April 2011. Retrieved 10 June 2015. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ Leight, Elias (2014-10-22), "Exclusive: Hemming Premieres 'Vitamins,' A Song That Made Linda Perry Cry", Billboard, retrieved 2015-07-06
Jump up ^ "Breaking News - Guests Announced for "The Late Late Show" with Guest Host Drew Carey (1/5-1/9) and After-Dark Edition of "The Talk" (1/12-1/16) - TheFutonCritic.com". Retrieved 10 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Adele - 25 - Target Exclusive". Target. Retrieved 2015-11-22.
Jump up ^ "Profile of on Konect.me". Konect.me. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
Jump up ^ "Music Video". glbtq.com. Archived from the original on 2007-03-24. Retrieved 2007-03-13.
Jump up ^ Flick, Larry (January 2004). "'Beautiful', Damn It: The Linda Perry-Penned Christina Aguilera Hit—Not to Mention the Sexy Video—Was the Great Queer Anthem of 2003". The Advocate. Retrieved 2011-11-29.
Jump up ^ "Clementine Ford Confirms Relationship with Linda Perry". afterellen.com. Archived from the original on 2009-05-22. Retrieved 2009-05-19.
Jump up ^ Comingore, Aly (April 20, 2011). "Five Questions With Linda Perry". independent.com. Retrieved June 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ Grossberg, Josh. "Sara Gilbert Talks Relationship With Linda Perry on The Talk". E Online. November 30, 2011. Retrieved December 1, 2011.
Jump up ^ Gilbert has a new girlfriend, wishes she'd told you herself
Jump up ^ Lee, Esther (2014-03-31). "Sara Gilbert and Linda Perry Are Married". US Weekly. Retrieved 2014-03-31.
Jump up ^ "Sara Gilbert and Linda Perry Welcome Son Rhodes Emilio". People. Retrieved March 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Christie D'Zurilla (March 2, 2015). "Sara Gilbert, Linda Perry are parents of a new baby boy". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 21 October 2017.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Linda Perry.
Official website
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v
t
e
4 Non Blondes
Linda Perry
Christa Hillhouse
Shaunna Hall
Wanda Day
Dawn Richardson
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WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 75977624
LCCN: no2002007800
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linda_Perry&oldid=824254608"
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Mechanism of action of aspirin
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This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: the article reproduces content from other articles, reproducing/introducing problems: (i) material lacking citations, (ii) extensive information marginally germane to the title subject (on generalities, rather than mechanism). Please help improve this article if you can. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Tridimensional model of the chemical structure of aspirin.
Aspirin causes several different effects in the body, mainly the reduction of inflammation, analgesia (relief of pain), the prevention of clotting, and the reduction of fever. Much of this is believed to be due to decreased production of prostaglandins and TXA2. Aspirin's ability to suppress the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes is due to its irreversible inactivation of the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme. Cyclooxygenase is required for prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis. Aspirin acts as an acetylating agent where an acetyl group is covalently attached to a serine residue in the active site of the COX enzyme.[1] This makes aspirin different from other NSAIDs (such as diclofenac and ibuprofen), which are reversible inhibitors. However, other effects of aspirin, such as uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria, and the modulation of signaling through NF-κB, are also being investigated. Some of its effects are like those of salicylic acid, which is not an acetylating agent.
Contents
[hide]
1 History of discovery
2 Effects on cyclooxygenase
3 Effects on prostaglandins and thromboxanes
4 Other methods of action
5 Salicylate sensitivity
5.1 Reye's syndrome
6 Notes and references
History of discovery[edit]
This section may stray from the topic of the article into the topic of another article, [[instead of covering the hist. discov. of the mechanism of action of aspirin, per se]]. Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page. (June 2016)
See also: History of aspirin
The mechanism of aspirin's analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties was unknown through the drug's heyday in the early- to mid-twentieth century; Heinrich Dreser's explanation, widely accepted since the drug was first brought to market, was that aspirin relieved pain by acting on the central nervous system. In 1958 Harry Collier, a biochemist in the London laboratory of pharmaceutical company Parke Davis, began investigating the relationship between kinins and the effects of aspirin. In tests on guinea pigs, Collier found that aspirin, if given beforehand, inhibited the bronchoconstriction effects of bradykinin. He found that cutting the guinea pigs' vagus nerve did not affect the action of bradykinin or the inhibitory effect of aspirin—evidence that aspirin worked locally to combat pain and inflammation, rather than on the central nervous system. In 1963, Collier began working with University of London pharmacology graduate student Priscilla Piper to determine the precise mechanism of aspirin's effects. However, it was difficult to pin down the precise biochemical goings-on in live research animals, and in vitro tests on removed animal tissues did not behave like in vivo tests.[2]:223–226
After five years of collaboration, Collier arranged for Piper to work with pharmacologist John Vane at the Royal College of Surgeons of England, in order to learn Vane's new bioassay methods, which seemed like a possible solution to the in vitro testing failures. Vane and Piper tested the biochemical cascade associated with anaphylactic shock (in extracts from guinea pig lungs, applied to tissue from rabbit aortas). They found that aspirin inhibited the release of an unidentified chemical generated by guinea pig lungs, a chemical that caused rabbit tissue to contract. By 1971, Vane identified the chemical (which they called "rabbit-aorta contracting substance," or RCS) as a prostaglandin. In a June 23, 1971 paper in the journal Nature,[3] Vane and Piper suggested that aspirin and similar drugs (the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs) worked by blocking the production of prostaglandins. For this discovery, Vane was awarded both a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1982 and a knighthood. Later research showed that NSAIDs such as aspirin worked by inhibiting cyclooxygenase, the enzyme responsible for converting arachidonic acid into a prostaglandin.[2]:226–231
Effects on cyclooxygenase[edit]
See also: Cyclooxygenase
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Structure of COX-2 inactivated by Aspirin. In the active site of each of the two enzymes, Serine 516 has been acetylated. Also visible is the salicylic acid which has transferred the acyl group, and the heme cofactor.
There are at least two different cyclooxygenase isozymes: COX-1 (PTGS1) and COX-2 (PTGS2). Aspirin is non-selective and irreversibly inhibits both forms[4][better source needed] (but is weakly more selective for COX-1[5]). It does so by acetylating the hydroxyl of a serine residue.[6] Normally COX produces prostaglandins, most of which are pro-inflammatory, and thromboxanes, which promote clotting. Aspirin-modified COX-2 produces lipoxins, most of which are anti-inflammatory. Newer NSAID drugs called COX-2 selective inhibitors have been developed that inhibit only COX-2, with the hope for reduction of gastrointestinal side-effects.[7]
However, several COX-2 selective inhibitors have subsequently been withdrawn after evidence emerged that COX-2 inhibitors increase the risk of heart attack (e.g., see the article on Vioxx).[citation needed] The underlying mechanism for the deleterious effect proposes that endothelial cells lining the microvasculature in the body express COX-2, whose selective inhibition results in levels of prostaglandin I2 (PGI2, prostacyclin) down-regulated relative to thromboxane (since COX-1 in platelets is unaffected).[citation needed] Thus, the protective anti-coagulative effect of PGI2 is decreased, increasing the risk of thrombus and associated heart attacks and other circulatory problems.[citation needed] As platelets have no DNA, they are unable to synthesize new COX once aspirin has irreversibly inhibited the enzyme, an important difference between aspirin and the reversible inhibitors.[clarification needed][citation needed]
Effects on prostaglandins and thromboxanes[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Prostaglandins are local hormones (paracrine) produced in the body and have diverse effects in the body, including but not limited to transmission of pain information to the brain, modulation of the hypothalamic thermostat, and inflammation.[citation needed] Thromboxanes are responsible for the aggregation of platelets that form blood clots.[citation needed]
Low-dose, long-term aspirin use irreversibly blocks the formation of thromboxane A2 in platelets, producing an inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation.[8]
This antiplatelet property makes aspirin useful for reducing the incidence of heart attacks;[8] heart attacks are primarily caused by blood clots, and their reduction with the introduction of small amounts of aspirin has been seen to be an effective medical intervention.[citation needed] A dose of 40 mg of aspirin a day is able to inhibit a large proportion of maximum thromboxane A2 release provoked acutely, with the prostaglandin I2 synthesis being little affected; however, higher doses of aspirin are required to attain further inhibition.[9]
A side-effect of aspirin mechanism is that the ability of the blood in general to clot is reduced, and excessive bleeding may result from the use of aspirin.[citation needed]
Other methods of action[edit]
Aspirin has been shown to have three additional modes of action. It uncouples oxidative phosphorylation in cartilaginous (and hepatic) mitochondria, by diffusing from the intermembrane space as a proton carrier back into the mitochondrial matrix, where it ionizes once again to release protons.[10] In short, aspirin buffers and transports the protons, acting as a competitor to ATP synthase. When high doses of aspirin are given, aspirin may actually cause fever due to the heat released from the electron transport chain, as opposed to the antipyretic action of aspirin seen with lower doses.
Additionally, aspirin induces the formation of NO-radicals in the body, which have been shown in mice to have an independent mechanism of reducing inflammation. This reduces leukocyte adhesion, which is an important step in immune response to infection. There is currently insufficient evidence to show that aspirin helps to fight infection.[11]
More recent data also suggests that salicylic acid and its derivatives modulate signaling through NF-κB.[12] NF-κB is a transcription factor complex that plays a central role in many biological processes, including inflammation.
Salicylate sensitivity[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
See also: Salicylate sensitivity
Salicylates are derivatives of salicylic acid that occur naturally in plants and serve as a natural immune hormone and preservative, protecting the plants against diseases, insects, fungi, and harmful bacteria.[citation needed] Salicylates can also be found in many medications, perfumes and preservatives.[citation needed] Both natural and synthetic salicylates can cause health problems in anyone when consumed in large doses,[citation needed] but for those who exhibit salicylate sensitivity (also known as salicylate intolerance), even small doses of salicylate can cause adverse reactions.
Specifically, salicylate sensitivity refers to any adverse effect that occurs when a normal amount of salicylate is introduced into a person's body.[citation needed] People with salicylate intolerance are unable to consume a normal amount of salicylate without adverse effects.[citation needed]
Salicylate sensitivity differs from salicylism, which occurs when an individual takes an overdose of salicylates.[13] Salicylate overdose can occur in people without salicylate sensitivity, and can be deadly if untreated. For more information, see aspirin poisoning.
Reye's syndrome[edit]
See also: Reye's syndrome
Reye's syndrome is a potentially fatal disease that causes numerous detrimental effects to many organs, especially the brain and liver, as well as causing hypoglycemia.[14] The exact cause is unknown, and while it has been associated with aspirin consumption by children with viral illness, it also occurs in the absence of aspirin use.
The disease causes fatty liver with minimal inflammation and severe encephalopathy (with swelling of the brain). The liver may become slightly enlarged and firm, and there is a change in the appearance of the kidneys. Jaundice is not usually present.[15]
Early diagnosis is vital; while most children recover with supportive therapy, severe brain injury or death are potential complications.
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ Tóth, L; Muszbek, L; Komáromi, I (2013). "Mechanism of the irreversible inhibition of human cyclooxygenase-1 by aspirin as predicted by QM/MM calculations". Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling. 40: 99–109. PMID 23384979. doi:10.1016/j.jmgm.2012.12.013.
^ Jump up to: a b Jeffreys, Diarmuid (2008). Aspirin: The Remarkable Story of a Wonder Drug. Philadelphia, PA: Chemical Heritage Foundation. ISBN 1596918160. Retrieved 2013-06-23.
Jump up ^ Vane, J. R. (23 June 1971). "Inhibition of Prostaglandin Synthesis as a Mechanism of Action for Aspirin-like Drug". Nature. 231 (25): 232–235. PMID 5284360. doi:10.1038/newbio231232a0. Retrieved 16 November 2011.
Jump up ^ Sharma S, Sharma SC (October 1997). "An update on eicosanoids and inhibitors of cyclooxygenase enzyme systems". Indian J. Exp. Biol. 35 (10): 1025–31. PMID 9475035. [better source needed]
Jump up ^ Kerola M, Vuolteenaho K. Effects of nimesulide, acetylsalicylic acid, ibuprofen and nabumetone on cyclooxygenase-1- and cyclooxygenase-2-mediated prostanoid production in healthy volunteers ex vivo.. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. January 2009;104(1):17-21. PMID 19152549.
Jump up ^ Vane, J. R; Botting, R. M (2003-06-15). "The mechanism of action of aspirin". Thrombosis Research. In Honour of Sir John Vane, F.R.S., Nobel laureate, the Discoverer of the Machanism of Action of Aspirin, Krakow, 31 May-3 June 2003. 110 (5–6): 255–258. doi:10.1016/S0049-3848(03)00379-7.
Jump up ^ Cyclooxygenase-3 (COX-3): Filling in the gaps toward a COX continuum? - Warner and Mitchell 99 (21): 13371 - Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
^ Jump up to: a b [1] American Heart Association: Aspirin in Heart Attack and Stroke Prevention "The American Heart Association recommends aspirin use for patients who've had a myocardial infarction (heart attack), unstable angina, ischemic stroke (caused by blood clot) or transient ischemic attacks (TIAs or "little strokes"), if not contraindicated. This recommendation is based on sound evidence from clinical trials showing that aspirin helps prevent the recurrence of such events as heart attack, hospitalization for recurrent angina, second strokes, etc. (secondary prevention). Studies show aspirin also helps prevent these events from occurring in people at high risk (primary prevention)."
Jump up ^ Tohgi, H; S Konno; K Tamura; B Kimura; K Kawano (1992). "Effects of low-to-high doses of aspirin on platelet aggregability and metabolites of thromboxane A2 and prostacyclin". Stroke. 23 (10): 1400–1403. PMID 1412574. doi:10.1161/01.STR.23.10.1400.
Jump up ^ Somasundaram, S., S; et al. (2000). "Uncoupling of intestinal mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and inhibition of cyclooxygenase are required for the development of NSAID-enteropathy in the rat". Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 14 (5): 639–650. PMID 10792129. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2036.2000.00723.x.
Jump up ^ Paul-Clark, M. J.; Van Cao, T; Moradi-Bidhendi, N; Cooper, D; Gilroy, D. W. (2004). "15-epi-lipoxin A4-mediated induction of nitric oxide explains how aspirin inhibits acute inflammation". The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 200 (1): 69–78. PMC 2213311  . PMID 15238606. doi:10.1084/jem.20040566.
Jump up ^ McCarty, MF; KI Block (2006). "Preadministration of high-dose salicylates, suppressors of NF-kappaB activation, may increase the chemosensitivity of many cancers: an example of proapoptotic signal modulation therapy.". Integr Cancer Ther. 5 (3): 252–268. PMID 16880431. doi:10.1177/1534735406291499.
Jump up ^ "salicylism" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
Jump up ^ "Reye syndrome" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
Jump up ^ Suchy, FJ, el al.; Sokol, RJ; Balistreri, WF (2007). Liver Disease in Children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-85657-4.
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text:
Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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AD 79 eruption of Mount Vesuvius
Destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum (c. 1821) by John Martin
Volcano
Mount Vesuvius
Date
August 24–25 (probable), AD 79
Type
Vesuvian
Location
Campania, Italy
40°49′N 14°26′E / 40.817°N 14.433°E / 40.817; 14.433Coordinates: 40°49′N 14°26′E / 40.817°N 14.433°E / 40.817; 14.433
VEI
5
Impact
Buried the Roman settlements of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis and Stabiae.
The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 was one of the most catastrophic volcanic eruptions in European history. Historians have learned about the eruption from the eyewitness account of Pliny the Younger, a Roman administrator and poet.[1] It is the namesake for Vesuvian eruptions.
Mount Vesuvius spewed forth a deadly cloud of tephra and gases to a height of 33 kilometres (21 mi), ejecting molten rock, pulverized pumice and hot ash at the rate of 1.5 million tons per second, ultimately releasing 100,000 times the thermal energy of the Hiroshima-Nagasaki bombings.[2] Several Roman settlements were obliterated and buried underneath massive pyroclastic surges and ashfall deposits, the best known being Pompeii and Herculaneum.[1][2]
The total inhabitants of the cities were 16,000–20,000; the remains of about 1,500 people have been found at Pompeii and Herculaneum, but the overall death toll is still unknown.
Contents
[hide]
1 Precursors and foreshocks
2 Nature of the eruption
2.1 Stratigraphic studies
2.2 Magnetic studies
3 The two Plinys
3.1 Pliny the Younger
3.2 Pliny the Elder
4 Casualties from the eruption
5 Date of the eruption
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Precursors and foreshocks[edit]
The Last Day of Pompeii. Painting by Karl Brullov, 1830–1833
The AD 79 eruption was preceded by a powerful earthquake seventeen years before on February 5, AD 62, which caused widespread destruction around the Bay of Naples, and particularly to Pompeii.[3] Some of the damage had still not been repaired when the volcano erupted.[4] The deaths of 600 sheep from "tainted air" in the vicinity of Pompeii, reported by Seneca the Younger, leads vulcanologist Haraldur Sigurdsson to compare them to similar deaths of sheep in Iceland from pools of volcanic carbon dioxide and to speculate that the earthquake of AD 62 was related to new activity by Mount Vesuvius.[5]
Another smaller earthquake took place in AD 64; it was recorded by Suetonius in his biography of Nero,[6] and by Tacitus in Annales because it took place while Nero was in Naples performing for the first time in a public theatre.[7] Suetonius recorded that the emperor continued singing through the earthquake until he had finished his song, while Tacitus wrote that the theatre collapsed shortly after being evacuated.
The Romans grew accustomed to minor earth tremors in the region; the writer Pliny the Younger wrote that they "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania". Small earthquakes started taking place on 20 August 79,[4] becoming more frequent over the next four days, but the warnings were not recognized.[8]
Nature of the eruption[edit]
Vesuvius erupting. Painting by Norwegian painter J.C. Dahl, 1826.
Reconstructions of the eruption and its effects vary considerably in the details but have the same overall features. The eruption lasted for two days. The morning of the first day, August 22, was perceived as normal by the only eyewitness to leave a surviving document, Pliny the Younger, who at that point was staying at Misenum, on the other side of the Bay of Naples about 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the volcano, which may have prevented him from noticing the early signs of the eruption. He was not to have any opportunity, during the next two days, to talk to people who had witnessed the eruption from Pompeii or Herculaneum (indeed he never mentions Pompeii in his letter), so he would not have noticed early, smaller fissures and releases of ash and smoke on the mountain, if such had occurred earlier in the morning. Around 1:00 P.M., Mount Vesuvius violently erupted, spewing up a high-altitude column from which ash and pumice began to fall, blanketing the area. Rescues and escapes occurred during this time. At some time in the night or early the next day, August 23, pyroclastic flows in the close vicinity of the volcano began. Lights seen on the mountain were interpreted as fires. People as far away as Misenum fled for their lives. The flows were rapid-moving, dense, and very hot, knocking down wholly or partly all structures in their path, incinerating or suffocating all population remaining there and altering the landscape, including the coastline. These were accompanied by additional light tremors and a mild tsunami in the Bay of Naples. By evening of the second day, the eruption was over, leaving only haze in the atmosphere through which the sun shone weakly.
Pliny the Younger wrote an account of the eruption:
Broad sheets of flame were lighting up many parts of Vesuvius; their light and brightness were the more vivid for the darkness of the night... it was daylight now elsewhere in the world, but there the darkness was darker and thicker than any night.[9]
Stratigraphic studies[edit]
Pompeii and Herculaneum, as well as other cities affected by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The black cloud represents the general distribution of ash, pumice and cinders. Modern coast lines are shown; Pliny the Younger was at Misenum.
According to a stratigraphic study (a study of the layers of ash) by Sigurdsson, Cashdollar, and Sparks, published in 1982, and now a standard reference, the eruption of Vesuvius of AD 79 unfolded in two phases:[10] a Plinian eruption that lasted eighteen to twenty hours and produced a fall of pumice and ash southward of the volcano that accumulated up to depths of 2.8 metres (9 ft 2 in) at Pompeii, followed by a pyroclastic surge or nuée ardente in the second Peléan phase that reached as far as Misenum but was concentrated to the west and northwest. Two pyroclastic surges engulfed Pompeii, burning and asphyxiating the stragglers who had remained behind. Oplontis and Herculaneum received the brunt of the surges and were buried in fine ash, pumice, lava fragments and pyroclastic deposits.
In an article published in 2002, Sigurdsson and Casey elaborate on the stratigraphic evidence based on excavations and surveys up until then. In this interpretation, the quasi-initial explosion (not quite initial) produced a column of ash and pumice ranging between 15 kilometres (49,000 ft) and 30 kilometres (98,000 ft) high, which, due to northwest winds, rained on Pompeii to the southeast but not on Herculaneum upwind. The eruption is viewed as primarily phreatomagmatic; that is, the chief energy supporting the column came from the escape of steam generated by the magma, created from seawater seeping over time into the deep-seated faults of the region, that came into interaction with magma and heat.
Subsequently, the cloud collapsed as the gases densified and lost their capability to support their solid contents, releasing it as a pyroclastic surge, which first reached Herculaneum, not Pompeii. Additional explosions reinstituted the column. The eruption alternated between Vesuvian and Peléan six times. Surges 4 and 5 are believed by the authors to have destroyed and buried Pompeii.[11] Surges are identified in the deposits by dune and cross-bedding formations, which are not produced by fallout.
The authors suggest that the first ash falls are to be interpreted as early-morning, low-volume explosions not seen from Misenum, causing Rectina to send her messenger on a ride of several hours around the Bay of Naples, then passable, providing an answer to the paradox of how the messenger might miraculously appear at Pliny's villa so shortly after a distant eruption that would have prevented him.
Magnetic studies[edit]
Inside the crater of Vesuvius
A 2006 study by Zanella, Gurioli, Pareschi, and Lanza used the magnetic characteristics of over 200 samples of lithic, roof-tile, and plaster fragments collected from pyroclastic deposits in and around Pompeii to estimate the equilibrium temperatures of the deposits.[12] The deposits were placed by pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) resulting from the collapses of the Plinian column. The authors argue that fragments over 2–5 cm (0.8–2 in) were not in the current long enough to acquire its temperature, which would have been much higher, and therefore they distinguish between the depositional temperatures, which they estimated, and the emplacement temperatures, which in some cases based on the cooling characteristics of some types and fragment sizes of rocks they believed they also could estimate. Final figures are considered to be those of the rocks in the current just before deposition.[13]
All crustal rock contains some iron or iron compounds, rendering it ferromagnetic, as do Roman roof tiles and plaster. These materials may acquire a residual field from a number of sources. When individual molecules, which are magnetic dipoles, are held in alignment by being bound in a crystalline structure, the small fields reinforce each other to form the rock's residual field.[14] Heating the material adds internal energy to it. At the Curie temperature, the vibration of the molecules is sufficient to disrupt the alignment; the material loses its residual magnetism and assumes whatever magnetic field might be applied to it only for the duration of the application. The authors term this phenomenon unblocking. Residual magnetism is considered to "block out" non-residual fields.
A rock is a mixture of minerals, each with its own Curie temperature; the authors therefore looked for a spectrum of temperatures rather than a single temperature. In the ideal sample, the PDC did not raise the temperature of the fragment beyond the highest blocking temperature. Some constituent material retained the magnetism imposed by the Earth's field when the item was formed. The temperature was raised above the lowest blocking temperature and therefore some minerals on recooling acquired the magnetism of the Earth as it was in AD 79. The overall field of the sample was the vector sum of the fields of the high-blocking material and the low-blocking material.
This type of sample made possible estimation of the low unblocking temperature. Using special equipment that measured field direction and strength at various temperatures, the experimenters raised the temperature of the sample in increments of 40 °C (70 °F) from 100 °C (210 °F) until it reached the low unblocking temperature.[15] Deprived of one of its components, the overall field changed direction. A plot of direction at each increment identified the increment at which the sample's resultant magnetism had formed.[16] That was considered to be the equilibrium temperature of the deposit. Considering the data for all the deposits of the surge arrived at a surge deposit estimate. The authors discovered that the city, Pompeii, was a relatively cool spot within a much hotter field, which they attributed to interaction of the surge with the "fabric" of the city.[17]
The investigators reconstruct the sequence of volcanic events as follows. On the first day of the eruption a fall of white pumice containing clastic fragments of up to 3 centimetres (1 in) fell for several hours.[18] It heated the roof tiles to 120–140 °C (250–280 °F).[19] This period would have been the last opportunity to escape. Subsequently, a second column deposited a grey pumice with clastics up to 10 cm (4 in), temperature unsampled, but presumed to be higher, for 18 hours. These two falls were the Plinian phase. The collapse of the edges of these clouds generated the first dilute PDCs, which must have been devastating to Herculaneum, but did not enter Pompeii.
Early in the morning of the second day the grey cloud began to collapse to a greater degree. Two major surges struck and destroyed Pompeii. Herculaneum and all its population no longer existed. The emplacement temperature range of the first surge was 180–220 °C (360–430 °F), minimum temperatures; of the second, 220–260 °C (430–500 °F). The depositional temperature of the first was 140–300 °C (280–570 °F). Upstream and downstream of the flow it was 300–360 °C (570–680 °F).[20]
The variable temperature of the first surge was due to interaction with the buildings. Any population remaining in structural refuges could not have escaped, as the city was surrounded by gases of incinerating temperatures. The lowest temperatures were in rooms under collapsed roofs. These were as low as 100 °C (210 °F), the boiling point of water.[21] The authors suggest that elements of the bottom of the flow were decoupled from the main flow by topographic irregularities and were made cooler by the introduction of ambient turbulent air. In the second surge the irregularities were gone and the city was as hot as the surrounding environment.
During the last surge, which was very dilute, one meter more of deposits fell over the region.[22]
The two Plinys[edit]
Pompeii, with Vesuvius towering above
The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger, who was 17 at the time of the eruption,[23] to the historian, Tacitus.[24] Observing the first volcanic activity from Misenum across the Bay of Naples from the volcano, approximately 35 kilometres (22 mi), the elder Pliny launched a rescue fleet and went himself to the rescue of a personal friend. His nephew declined to join the party. One of the nephew's letters relates what he could discover from witnesses of his uncle's experiences.[25] In a second letter the younger Pliny details his own observations after the departure of his uncle.[26]
Pliny the Younger[edit]
Further information: Pliny the Younger
The two men saw an extraordinarily dense cloud rising rapidly above the mountain:[25]
I cannot give you a more exact description of its appearance than by comparing to a pine tree; for it shot up to a great height in the form of a tall trunk, which spread out at the top as though into branches. [...] Occasionally it was brighter, occasionally darker and spotted, as it was either more or less filled with earth and cinders.
These events and a request by messenger for an evacuation by sea prompted the elder Pliny to order rescue operations in which he sailed away to participate. His nephew attempted to resume a normal life, continuing to study, and bathing, but that night a tremor awoke him and his mother, prompting them to abandon the house for the courtyard. At another tremor near dawn the population abandoned the village. After still a third "the sea seemed to roll back upon itself, and to be driven from its banks", which is evidence for a tsunami. There is, however, no evidence of extensive damage from wave action.
The early light was obscured by a black cloud through which shone flashes, which Pliny likens to sheet lightning, but more extensive. The cloud obscured Point Misenum near at hand and the island of Capraia (Capri) across the bay. Fearing for their lives the population began to call to each other and move back from the coast along the road. Pliny's mother requested him to abandon her and save his own life, as she was too corpulent and aged to go further, but seizing her hand he led her away as best he could. A rain of ash fell. Pliny found it necessary to shake off the ash periodically to avoid being buried. Later that same day the ash stopped falling and the sun shone weakly through the cloud, encouraging Pliny and his mother to return to their home and wait for news of Pliny the Elder. The letter compares the ash to a blanket of snow. Evidently the earthquake and tsunami damage at that location were not severe enough to prevent continued use of the home.
Pliny the Elder[edit]
Further information: Pliny the Elder
Pliny's uncle Pliny the Elder was in command of the Roman fleet at Misenum, and had meanwhile decided to investigate the phenomenon at close hand in a light vessel. As the ship was preparing to leave the area, a messenger came from his friend Rectina (wife of Tascius) living on the coast near the foot of the volcano, explaining that her party could only get away by sea and asking for rescue.[27] Pliny ordered the immediate launching of the fleet galleys to the evacuation of the coast. He continued in his light ship to the rescue of Rectina's party.[27]
He set off across the bay but in the shallows on the other side encountered thick showers of hot cinders, lumps of pumice, and pieces of rock. Advised by the helmsman to turn back he stated "Fortune favors the brave" and ordered him to continue on to Stabiae (about 4.5 km or 2.8 mi from Pompeii), where Pomponianus was.[27] Pomponianus had already loaded a ship with possessions and was preparing to leave, but the same onshore wind that brought Pliny's ship to the location had prevented anyone from leaving.[27]
Pliny and his party saw flames coming from several parts of the mountain, which Pliny and his friends attributed to burning villages. After staying overnight, the party was driven from the building by an accumulation of material which threatened to block all egress.[27] They woke Pliny, who had been napping and emitting loud snoring. They elected to take to the fields with pillows tied to their heads to protect them from rockfall. They approached the beach again but the wind had not changed. Pliny sat down on a sail that had been spread for him and could not rise even with assistance when his friends departed, escaping ultimately by land.[28] Very likely, he had collapsed and died, which is the most popular explanation of why his friends abandoned him, although Suetonius offers an alternative story of his ordering a slave to kill him to avoid the pain of incineration. How the slave would have escaped to tell the tale remains a mystery. There is no mention of such an event in his nephew's letters.
In the first letter to Tacitus his nephew suggested that his death was due to the reaction of his weak lungs to a cloud of poisonous, sulphurous gas that wafted over the group.[27] However, Stabiae was 16 km (9.9 mi) from the vent (roughly where the modern town of Castellammare di Stabia is situated) and his companions were apparently unaffected by the fumes, and so it is more likely that the corpulent Pliny died from some other cause, such as a stroke or heart attack.[29] An asthmatic attack is also not out of the question. His body was found with no apparent injuries on the next day, after dispersal of the plume.
Casualties from the eruption[edit]
The skeleton called the "Ring Lady" unearthed in Herculaneum
Along with Pliny the Elder, the only other noble casualties of the eruption to be known by name were Agrippa (a son of the Jewish princess Drusilla and the procurator Antonius Felix) and his wife.[30]
By 2003 around 1,044 casts made from impressions of bodies in the ash deposits had been recovered in and around Pompeii, with the scattered bones of another 100.[31] The remains of about 332 bodies have been found at Herculaneum (300 in arched vaults discovered in 1980).[32] What percentage these numbers are of the total dead or the percentage of the dead to the total number at risk remain completely unknown.
Thirty-eight percent of the 1044 were found in the ash fall deposits, the majority inside buildings. These are thought to have been killed mainly by roof collapses, with the smaller number of victims found outside buildings probably killed by falling roof slates or by larger rocks thrown out by the volcano. This differs from modern experience, since over the last four hundred years only around 4% of victims have been killed by ash falls during explosive eruptions. The remaining 62% of remains found at Pompeii were in the pyroclastic surge deposits,[31] and thus were probably killed by them. It was initially believed that due to the state of the bodies found at Pompeii and the outline of clothes on the bodies it was unlikely that high temperatures were a significant cause. But in 2010, studies indicated that during the fourth pyroclastic surge – the first surge to reach Pompeii – temperatures reached 300 °C (572 °F). Volcanologist Giuseppe Mastrolorenzo, who led the study noted that "(It was) enough to kill hundreds of people in a fraction of a second". In reference as to why the bodies were frozen in suspended action, "The contorted postures are not the effects of a long agony, but of the cadaveric spasm, a consequence of heat shock on corpses."[33]
Herculaneum, which was much closer to the crater, was saved from tephra falls by the wind direction, but was buried under 23 metres (75 ft) of material deposited by pyroclastic surges. It is likely that most, or all, of the known victims in this town were killed by the surges, particularly given evidence of high temperatures found on the skeletons of the victims found in the arched vaults, and the existence of carbonised wood in many of the buildings.
These people were all caught on the former seashore by the first surge and died of thermal shock but not of carbonization, although some were partly carbonized by later and hotter surges. The arched vaults were most likely boathouses, as the crossbeams in the overhead were probably for the suspension of boats. No boats have been found, indicating they may have been used for the earlier escape of some of the population. The rest were concentrated in the chambers at a density of as high as 3 persons per square meter. As only 85 metres (279 ft) of the coast have been excavated, the casualties waiting to be excavated may well be as high as the thousands.[34]
Date of the eruption[edit]
The year of the eruption is pinned to AD 79 by references in contemporary Roman writers, a number of them apart from Pliny the Younger, and has never been seriously questioned. It is determined by the well-known events of the reign of Titus. Vespasian died that year. When Titus visited Pompeii to give orders for the relief of the displaced population, he was the sole ruler. In the year after the eruption, AD 80, he faced another disaster, a great fire at Rome.
The time of year is stated once in one historical document, the first letter of Pliny the Younger to Tacitus,[25] where it appears as "nonum kal. Septembres". This seems to be an abbreviation of a standard date, to be interpreted as "the ninth day before the Kalends of September", which in the Julian calendar, in general use by then, would have been eight days before September 1, that is August 24 (the Romans counted September 1 as one of the nine).
August 24 is not necessarily the date given by Pliny. It represents an editorial collusion to use the manuscript text of Pliny's letters in the Medicean Laurentian Library, which also appears in the edition printed by Aldus Manutius (1508) and in all recensions since then, even though the numerous other Pliny manuscripts, as well as the works of other authors, offer many alternative dates.[35] Unfortunately, the portion of Tacitus' Histories in which he most likely made specific use of the letter – requested for that purpose from his friend Pliny – and where he would have mentioned the date, does not survive; although Tacitus would have made use of Pliny's letter, the textual traditions of the two works, with their likely references to the date, would have been completely separate and not contaminated by each other. Since the textual tradition of any of Tacitus' works through the Middle Ages, up to the first printed editions, is much slimmer than that of Pliny's letters,[36] and rests directly on relatively early textual witnesses (although the direct parent codices of these have been lost) the risk of multiple scribal errors and variants of the date creeping in would have been much smaller for this lost Tacitus text.
Archaeological dissent from this view began with the work of Carlo Maria Rosini in 1797, to be followed by a succession of archaeologists putting forward evidence to the contrary, though mainstream scholarly opinion has long been in favour of August 24.[citation needed] Discussion on the subject has increased somewhat in recent years. Some of the archaeological evidence from Pompeii does suggest that the town may likely have been buried about two or three months later. For example, people interred in the ashes appear to be wearing warmer clothing than the light summer clothes that would be expected in August. The fresh fruit, olives, and vegetables in the shops are typical of October, and conversely the summer fruit that would have been typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed over, and this would have happened around the end of October. The coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include a commemorative coin that should have been minted at the end of September.[37]
A 2007 study by Rolandi, De Lascio, and Stefani of 20 years of data concerning wind direction at meteorological stations in Rome and Brindisi established wind patterns in the Vesuvius area above 14 kilometres (46,000 ft) with more precision than was previously known.[38] From June through August the winds blow strongly from the west, for the rest of the time, from the east. This fact was known, but the easterly winds of the eruption were considered anomalous in August, caused (conjecturally) by the weak and shifting winds of the transition. The authors argued that the winds of 79 produced long depositional patterns and therefore would not have been this weak, and that the transition occurs in September, not August (their reference data, though, is from modern weather observations and might not match the patterns of those same months in antiquity with precision). The authors therefore reject the August date as being inconsistent with the patterns of nature.
The rejection is not of Pliny's eyewitness account or of Pliny's date, as transmitted in the text read in modern times. The rejection focuses on manuscript variants looking for possible sources of copyist alteration of Pliny's date. In some ancient and medieval manuscripts of other authors, the month has been omitted. If some original had no month, then the copyists may have felt obliged to provide one, but chose wrongly. Rolandi et al. suggest an original date of a.d. IX kal dec (November 23) or a.d. ix kal nov (October 24) more in line with the evidence of weather observations and wind patterns. The question remains an open one, and different reliable scholarly sources (modern secondary sources and discussions) continue to propose different dates.[citation needed]
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Andrew Wallace-Hadrill (October 15, 2010). "Pompeii: Portents of Disaster". BBC History. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Science: Man of Pompeii". Time. October 15, 1956. Retrieved February 4, 2011.
Jump up ^ Martini, Kirk (September 1998). "Chapter 2: Identifying Potential Damage Events". Patterns of Reconstruction at Pompeii. Pompeii Forum Project, Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH), University of Virginia.
^ Jump up to: a b Jones, Rick (28 September 2007). "Visiting Pompeii – AD 79 – Vesuvius explodes". Current Archeology. London: Current Publishing. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
Jump up ^ Sigurdsson 2002, p. 35 on Seneca the Younger, Natural Questions, 6.1, 6.27.
Jump up ^ Suetonius, C. Tranquillus (1914) [121]. "20". The Life of Nero. The Lives of the Caesars. Loeb Classical Library, William P. Thayer.
Jump up ^ Tacitus, Publius Cornelius (1864–1877) [117]. "Book 15.22". The Annals. Modern Library, The Internet Sacred Text Archive.
Jump up ^ The dates of the earthquakes and of the eruption are contingent on a final determination of the time of year, but there is no reason to change the relative sequence.
Jump up ^ "Pliny the Younger, Epistulae VI.16 & VI.20". Ancient Literature. Retrieved 2012-07-07.
Jump up ^ Sigurdsson, Haraldur; Cashdollar, Stanford; Sparks, R. Stephen J. (January 1982). "The Eruption of Vesuvius in A. D. 79: Reconstruction from Historical and Volcanological Evidence". American Journal of Archaeology. American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 86, No. 1. 86 (1): 39–51. JSTOR 504292. doi:10.2307/504292.
Jump up ^ Sigurdsson 2002, pp. 42–43.
Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 5.
Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 6.
Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 10.
Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 8.
Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, pp. 9–10.
Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 1.
Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 3.
Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 12.
Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 13.
Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 14.
Jump up ^ Zanella 2007, p. 15.
Jump up ^ His 18th year by Roman reckoning, as they counted the first 12 months as the first year.
Jump up ^ C. Plinii Caecilii Secundi. "Liber Sextus; 16 & 20". Epistularum. The Latin Library.
^ Jump up to: a b c Pliny the Younger (1909). Eliot, Charles W., ed. "Letters LXV. To Tacitus". The Harvard Classics. IX Part 4. New York: Bartleby.
Jump up ^ Pliny the Younger (1909). Eliot, Charles W., ed. "Letters LXVI. To Cornelius Tacitus". The Harvard Classics. IX Part 4. New York: Bartleby.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Pliny the Younger. "VI.16 To Tacitus". Letters.
Jump up ^ Richard V. Fisher and volunteers. "Derivation of the name "Plinian"". The Volcano Information Center, Department of Geological Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara. Retrieved May 15, 2010.
Jump up ^ Janick, Jules (2002). "Lecture 19: Greek, Carthaginian, and Roman Agricultural Writers". History of Horticulture. Purdue University. Archived from the original on July 7, 2012. Retrieved May 15, 2010.
Jump up ^ Josephus, Flavius. "xx.7.2". Jewish Antiquities. Also known to have been mentioned in a section now lost.
^ Jump up to: a b Giacomelli, Lisetta; Perrotta, Annamaria; Scandone, Roberto; Scarpati, Claudio (September 2003). "The eruption of Vesuvius of 79 AD and its impact on human environment in Pompei" (PDF). Episodes. 26. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
Jump up ^ Soprintendenza archeologica di Pompei (2007). "Pompeii, Stories from an eruption: Herculaneum". Chicago: The Field Museum of Natural History. Archived from the original on March 18, 2009. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
Jump up ^ Valsecchi, Maria Cristina (November 2, 2010). "Pompeiians Flash-Heated to Death—'No Time to Suffocate'". National Geographic News.
Jump up ^ Sigurdsson & Carey 2002, pp. 55–57.
Jump up ^ Rolandi 2008, p. 94.
Jump up ^ Grant, Michael, ed. (1958). Latin Literature, an Anthology. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books. p. 378.
Jump up ^ Rolandi 2008, p. 95.
Jump up ^ Rolandi 2008, p. 96.
References[edit]
Rolandi, G.; Paone, A.; De Lascio, M.; Stefani, G. (2008). "The 79 AD eruption of Somma: the relationship between the date of the eruption and the southeast tephra dispersion". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 169: 87–98. Bibcode:2008JVGR..169...87R. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2007.08.020.
Sigurdsson, Haraldur (2002). "Mount Vesuvius before the Disaster". In Jashemski, Wilhelmina Mary Feemster; Meyer, Frederick Gustav. The natural history of Pompeii. Cambridge UK: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp. 29–36.
Sigurdsson, Haraldur; Carey, Steven (2002). "The Eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79". In Jashemski, Wilhelmina Mary Feemster; Meyer, Frederick Gustav. The natural history of Pompeii. Cambridge UK: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. pp. 37–64.
Zanella, E.; Gurioli, L.; Pareschi, M.T.; Lanza, R. (2007). "Influences of urban fabric on pyroclastic density currents at Pompeii (Italy): Part II: temperature of the deposits and hazard implications" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 112 (112): B05214. Bibcode:2007JGRB..112.5214Z. doi:10.1029/2006JB004775.
External links[edit]
AD79 Destruction and Rediscovery Information on the eruption, the locations destroyed, and subsequent rediscovery.
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values: ثوران جبل فيزوف في 79 – Arabic

values: Изригване на Везувий през 79 г. – Bulgarian

values: Erupción do Vesuvio no ano 79 – Galician

values: התפרצות הר הגעש וזוב (79) – Hebrew

values: Uitbarsting van de Vesuvius in 79 – Dutch

values: Извержение Везувия (79) – Russian

values: Vesuviuksen tulivuorenpurkaus 79 – Finnish

values: Виверження Везувію 79 року – Ukrainian

values: Vụ phun trào núi Vesuvius năm 79 – Vietnamese

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