text:
Nedbank
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Nedbank
Nedbank Western Cape regional office in Cape Town.
Type
Public (JSE: NED)
Industry
Banking
Founded
1 March 1888; 129 years ago (1888-03-01)
Headquarters
Sandton, South Africa
Area served
South Africa
Key people
Michael William Thomas Brown (CEO)
Raisibe Morathi (CFO)
Mfundo Nkuhlu (COO)
Trevor Adams (CRF)
Vassi Naidoo (Chairman)
Products
Financial Services
Revenue
ZAR: 35,016 Million (2013)
Total assets
ZAR: 866.5 Billion (2015)
Number of employees
30,739 (2015)
Website
Home Page
Nedbank is one of the largest banks in South Africa; however, it is one of the newest banks to be incorporated. It is headquartered in Johannesburg. Market capitalization was ZAR:120 billion (approximately US$9.85 billion), as of 30 June 2015.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Nedbank Group
3 HSBC buyout bid
4 Ownership
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
The bank was founded in 1888 in Amsterdam as the Nederlandsche Bank en Credietvereeniging voor Zuid-Afrika ("Dutch Bank and Credit Union for South Africa"). In the same year the bank opened an office in Pretoria, South African Republic; in 1898 the bank moved its office to Church Square. In 1903 the company was renamed to Nederlandsche Bank voor Zuid-Afrika ("Dutch Bank for South Africa"). In 1906, the bank expanded and an office in London was opened. The bank split in 1951, renaming its South African part as Nederlandse Bank in Suid-Afrika Beperk/Netherlands Bank of South Africa Limited. The number of South African shareholders increased greatly, and in 1969 the company became 100% South African-owned after the Bank Mees en Hope sold 20 percent of its shares. The South African part was completely independent. The Dutch part of the bank no longer exists; it's currently part of ABN AMRO.
In 1992, the name of the bank was changed to Nedcor Bank Limited, of which Nedbank became the largest division. In 1992, Syfrets, UAL, and Nedbank Investment Bank merged to become Nedcor Investment Bank (NIB). Old Mutual, Nedcor's holding company, was demutualised and listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1999. It became a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index. Nedbank acquired the Isle of Man and Jersey private banking business of Robert Fleming & Co. in 2001.
The new Nedcor Group was formed on 1 January 2003, combining Nedcor, BoE, Nedcor Investment Bank, and Cape of Good Hope Bank into one legal entity. The Nedcor Group was renamed the Nedbank Group on 6 May 2005. Nedbank headquarters are in Sandton, South Africa. In August 2009, Nedbank bought the remaining 49.9% of Imperial Bank South Africa, which is now fully owned by Nedbank.[1]
Nedbank Group[edit]
Nedbank is the holding company of all Nedbank's businesses, subsidiaries and affiliates. Those subsidiaries and affiliates include the following:[2]
Nedbank local subsidiaries ltd
Peoples Mortgage Ltd
Nedcor Investments Ltd
Nedgroup Investment 102 Ltd
Depfin Investmentss (Pty) Ltd
BoE Holdings Ltd
Nedbank Ltd foreign subsidiaries
Nedbank (Lesotho) Ltd
Nedbank (Swaziland) Ltd 65%
Nedcor Trade Services Ltd
Foreign Nedbank Group subsidiaries
NedEurope Ltd
MN Holdings Ltd
Nedbank (Malawi) Ltd 97.1%
MBCA Bank ltd 70.9%
NedNamibia Holdings Ltd
Nedbank Namibia Ltd
Nedgroup International Holdings
Nedbank Private Wealth Ltd, formerly Fairbairn Private Bank (IOM) Ltd
Nedgroup Trust Ltd, formerly Fairbairn Trust Company Ltd
Alliance Investments Ltd
Boe Investment Holdings Ltd
BoE Private Client Investment Holdings Ltd
Nedgroup Structured Life Ltd, formerly BoE Life Ltd
Nedgroup Life Assurance Company Ltd
Nedgroup Investment Holdings 101 Ltd
Nedgroup Securities (Pty) Ltd
NBG Capital Management Ltd
NIB Blue Capital Investments (Pty) Ltd
Nedgroup Private Wealth (Pty) Ltd, formerly BoE (Pty) Ltd
Trust and securities entities
Syfrets Securities Ltd
Nedgroup Private Stockbrokers (Pty) Ltd, formerly BoE Stockbrokers (Pty) Ltd
Nedgroup Collective Investments Ltd
Dr Holsboer Benefit Fund
Other insurance entities
Nedgroup Insurance Company Ltd
Nedbank Group Insurance Company Ltd, formerly Nedcor Group Insurance Company Ltd[3]
HSBC buyout bid[edit]
On 23 August 2010, HSBC made an offer to buy up to 70% of Nedbank in a deal worth R49.9 billion (US$6.8 billion). If the South African government had approved the deal and it had gone through, the buyout would have given HSBC a strong foothold in Africa's financial services sector.[4] On 15 October 2010 HSBC withdrew its offer to Nedbank following the expiration of the agreed exclusivity period. If the deal had gone through it could have been worth an estimated R45 billion.[5]
Ownership[edit]
The shares of the stock of Nedbank Group are traded on the JSE and on the Namibian Stock Exchange. As at June 30, 2015, the shareholding in the group's stock consisting of 494,411,956 shares was as depicted in the table below:[6]
Nedbank Group
Rank
Name of Owner
Percentage Ownership
1 Old Mutual Life Assurance Company Limited 55.43
2 Coronation Fund Managers 7.96
3 Public Investment Corporation 6.29
4 Nedbank treasury - BEE trusts 3.73
5 Lazard Asset Management 2.72
6 Sanlam Investment Management 1.63
7 Dimensional Fund Advisors 1.62
8 BlackRock 1.60
9 Other Investors via the JSE and NSX 19.02
Total 100.00
See also[edit]
BoE Stockbrokers
List of banks in South Africa
Economy of South Africa
South African Reserve Bank
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Business Report | IOL | Breaking News | South Africa News | World News | Sport | Business | Entertainment | IOL.co.za". Retrieved 2017-08-31.
Jump up ^ "Request Rejected". www.nedbankgroup.co.za. Retrieved 2017-08-31.
Jump up ^ [1], Nedbank 2012 Interim Report
Jump up ^ HSBC to buy up to 70% of Nedbank, Mail & Guardian, DAVID DOLAN AND KELVIN SOH, 23 Aug 2010
Jump up ^ Chinese Abandon Nedbank Bid, Times Live, By Sapa ,15 October 2010, 4:32pm
Jump up ^ "2015 Nedbank Group Interim Results Booklet" (PDF). Nedbank Group. June 30, 2015. Retrieved February 1, 2016.
External links[edit]
Nedbank South Africa website
Nedbank Group website
Nedbank Facebook page
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text:
Effective nuclear charge
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Effective Nuclear Charge Diagram
The effective nuclear charge (often symbolized as Z e f f {\displaystyle Z_{\mathrm {eff} }} or Z ∗ {\displaystyle Z^{\ast }} ) is the net positive charge experienced by an electron in a polyelectronic atom. The term "effective" is used because the shielding effect of negatively charged electrons prevents higher orbital electrons from experiencing the full nuclear charge of the nucleus due to the repelling effect of inner-layer electrons. The effective nuclear charge experienced by the outer shell electron is also called the core charge. It is possible to determine the strength of the nuclear charge by the oxidation number of the atom.
Contents
[hide]
1 Calculation
2 Values
3 See also
4 References
5 Resources
Calculation[edit]
In an atom with one electron, that electron experiences the full charge of the positive nucleus. In this case, the effective nuclear charge can be calculated from Coulomb's law.
However, in an atom with many electrons, the outer electrons are simultaneously attracted to the positive nucleus and repelled by the negatively charged electrons. The effective nuclear charge on such an electron is given by the following equation:
Z e f f = Z − S {\displaystyle Z_{\mathrm {eff} }=Z-S}
where
Z is the number of protons in the nucleus (atomic number), and
S is the average number of electrons between the nucleus and the electron in question (the number of non-valence electrons).
S can be found by the systematic application of various rule sets, the simplest of which is known as "Slater's rules" (named after John C. Slater). Douglas Hartree defined the effective Z of a Hartree–Fock orbital to be:
Z e f f = ⟨ r ⟩ H ⟨ r ⟩ Z {\displaystyle Z_{\mathrm {eff} }={\frac {\langle r\rangle _{\rm {H}}}{\langle r\rangle _{Z}}}}
where
⟨ r ⟩ H {\displaystyle \langle r\rangle _{\rm {H}}} is the mean radius of the orbital for hydrogen, and
⟨ r ⟩ Z {\displaystyle \langle r\rangle _{Z}} is the mean radius of the orbital for an electron configuration with nuclear charge Z.
Values[edit]
Updated values of screening constants were provided by Clementi et al.[1][2]
Effective Nuclear Charges
H He
Z 1 2
1s 1.000 1.688
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Z 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1s 2.691 3.685 4.680 5.673 6.665 7.658 8.650 9.642
2s 1.279 1.912 2.576 3.217 3.847 4.492 5.128 5.758
2p 2.421 3.136 3.834 4.453 5.100 5.758
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Z 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1s 10.626 11.609 12.591 13.575 14.558 15.541 16.524 17.508
2s 6.571 7.392 8.214 9.020 9.825 10.629 11.430 12.230
2p 6.802 7.826 8.963 9.945 10.961 11.977 12.993 14.008
3s 2.507 3.308 4.117 4.903 5.642 6.367 7.068 7.757
3p 4.066 4.285 4.886 5.482 6.116 6.764
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Z 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
1s 18.490 19.473 20.457 21.441 22.426 23.414 24.396 25.381 26.367 27.353 28.339 29.325 30.309 31.294 32.278 33.262 34.247 35.232
2s 13.006 13.776 14.574 15.377 16.181 16.984 17.794 18.599 19.405 20.213 21.020 21.828 22.599 23.365 24.127 24.888 25.643 26.398
2p 15.027 16.041 17.055 18.065 19.073 20.075 21.084 22.089 23.092 24.095 25.097 26.098 27.091 28.082 29.074 30.065 31.056 32.047
3s 8.680 9.602 10.340 11.033 11.709 12.368 13.018 13.676 14.322 14.961 15.594 16.219 16.996 17.790 18.596 19.403 20.219 21.033
3p 7.726 8.658 9.406 10.104 10.785 11.466 12.109 12.778 13.435 14.085 14.731 15.369 16.204 17.014 17.850 18.705 19.571 20.434
4s 3.495 4.398 4.632 4.817 4.981 5.133 5.283 5.434 5.576 5.711 5.842 5.965 7.067 8.044 8.944 9.758 10.553 11.316
3d 7.120 8.141 8.983 9.757 10.528 11.180 11.855 12.530 13.201 13.878 15.093 16.251 17.378 18.477 19.559 20.626
4p 6.222 6.780 7.449 8.287 9.028 9.338
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Z 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
1s 36.208 37.191 38.176 39.159 40.142 41.126 42.109 43.092 44.076 45.059 46.042 47.026 48.010 48.992 49.974 50.957 51.939 52.922
2s 27.157 27.902 28.622 29.374 30.125 30.877 31.628 32.380 33.155 33.883 34.634 35.386 36.124 36.859 37.595 38.331 39.067 39.803
2p 33.039 34.030 35.003 35.993 36.982 37.972 38.941 39.951 40.940 41.930 42.919 43.909 44.898 45.885 46.873 47.860 48.847 49.835
3s 21.843 22.664 23.552 24.362 25.172 25.982 26.792 27.601 28.439 29.221 30.031 30.841 31.631 32.420 33.209 33.998 34.787 35.576
3p 21.303 22.168 23.093 23.846 24.616 25.474 26.384 27.221 28.154 29.020 29.809 30.692 31.521 32.353 33.184 34.009 34.841 35.668
4s 12.388 13.444 14.264 14.902 15.283 16.096 17.198 17.656 18.582 18.986 19.865 20.869 21.761 22.658 23.544 24.408 25.297 26.173
3d 21.679 22.726 25.397 25.567 26.247 27.228 28.353 29.359 30.405 31.451 32.540 33.607 34.678 35.742 36.800 37.839 38.901 39.947
4p 10.881 11.932 12.746 13.460 14.084 14.977 15.811 16.435 17.140 17.723 18.562 19.411 20.369 21.265 22.181 23.122 24.030 24.957
5s 4.985 6.071 6.256 6.446 5.921 6.106 7.227 6.485 6.640 (empty) 6.756 8.192 9.512 10.629 11.617 12.538 13.404 14.218
4d 15.958 13.072 11.238 11.392 12.882 12.813 13.442 13.618 14.763 15.877 16.942 17.970 18.974 19.960 20.934 21.893
5p 8.470 9.102 9.995 10.809 11.612 12.425
See also[edit]
Valence electrons
Shielding effect
Atomic orbitals
Slater-type orbitals
Electronegativity
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Clementi, E.; Raimondi, D. L. (1963). "Atomic Screening Constants from SCF Functions". J. Chem. Phys. 38 (11): 2686–2689. Bibcode:1963JChPh..38.2686C. doi:10.1063/1.1733573.
Jump up ^ Clementi, E.; Raimondi, D. L.; Reinhardt, W. P. (1967). "Atomic Screening Constants from SCF Functions. II. Atoms with 37 to 86 Electrons". Journal of Chemical Physics. 47: 1300–1307. Bibcode:1967JChPh..47.1300C. doi:10.1063/1.1712084.
Resources[edit]
Brown, Theodore; LeMay, H.E.; & Bursten, Bruce (2002). Chemistry: The Central Science (8th revised edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-061142-5.
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Columbian Exchange
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Biological exchange across Atlantic Ocean
New World native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. Maize (Zea mays) 2. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) 3. Potato (Solanum tuberosum) 4. Vanilla (Vanilla) 5. Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) 6. Cacao (Theobroma cacao) 7. Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica)
Old World native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. Citrus (Rutaceae); 2. Apple (Malus domestica); 3. Banana (Musa); 4. Mango (Mangifera); 5. Onion (Allium); 6. Coffee (Coffea); 7. Wheat (Triticum spp.); 8. Rice (Oryza sativa)
The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries, related to European colonization and trade following Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage.[1] Invasive species, including communicable diseases, were a byproduct of the Exchange. The changes in agriculture significantly altered and changed global populations. However, the most significant immediate impact of the Columbian Exchange was the cultural exchanges and the transfer of people between continents.
The new contact between the global population circulated a wide variety of crops and livestock, which supported increases in population in both hemispheres, although diseases initially caused precipitous declines in the numbers of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Traders returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which became very important crops in Europe by the 18th century.
The term was first used in 1972 by American historian Alfred W. Crosby in his environmental history book The Columbian Exchange.[2] It was rapidly adopted by other historians and journalists and has become widely known.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin of the term
2 Influence
2.1 Crops
2.1.1 Tomatoes
2.2 Livestock
2.3 Disease
2.4 Cultural exchanges
3 Organism examples
4 Later history
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Origin of the term[edit]
In 1972 Alfred W. Crosby, an American historian at the University of Texas at Austin, published The Columbian Exchange.[2] This book covers the environmental impact of Columbus' landing in the new world.[3]
The term has become popular among historians and journalists, such as Charles C. Mann, whose book 1493 expands and updates Crosby's original research.[4]
Influence[edit]
Inca-era terraces on Taquile are used to grow traditional Andean staples such as quinoa and potatoes, alongside wheat, a European introduction.
Crops[edit]
Portuguese trading animals in Japan; detail of Nanban panel (1570–1616)
Four plants native to the Americas have spread around the world: Potato, maize, tomato, and tobacco.[5] Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of South America. By the 1840s, Ireland was so dependent on the potato that the proximate cause of the Great Famine was a potato disease.[6] Potatoes eventually became an important staple of the diet in much of Europe, contributing to about 25% of the population growth in Afro-Eurasia between 1700 and 1900.[7] Many European rulers, including Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, encouraged the cultivation of the potato.[8]
Maize and cassava, introduced to the Portuguese from South America in the 16th century,[9] have replaced sorghum and millet as Africa's most important food crops.[10] 16th-century Spanish colonizers introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet potatoes, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia.[11] On a larger scale, the coming of potatoes and maize to the old world "resulted in caloric and nutritional improvements over previously existing staples" throughout the Eurasian landmass[12] as they created more varied and abundant food production.[13]
Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New World via Spain, were initially prized in Italy mainly for their ornamental value (see below). From the 19th century tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cuisine and, ultimately, Italian cuisine in general.[14] Coffee (introduced in the Americas circa 1720) from Africa and the Middle East and sugarcane (introduced from South Asia) from the Spanish West Indies became the main export commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili and potatoes from South America have become an integral part of Indian cuisine.[15]
Before the Columbian Exchange, there were no oranges in Florida, no bananas in Ecuador, no paprika in Hungary, no potatoes in Ireland, no coffee in Colombia, no pineapples in Hawaii, no rubber trees in Africa, no chili peppers in Thailand, no tomatoes in Italy, and no chocolate in Switzerland.
Tomatoes[edit]
It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become widely accepted. Of all the New World plants introduced to Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. In large part this was due to 16th-century physicians believing that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the generator of "melancholic humours." In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this time. On October 31, 1548 the tomato was given its first name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of Cosimo I de' Medici, Duke of Florence, wrote to the De' Medici's private secretary that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived safely." At this time, the label pomi d'oro was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.[16]
In the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovan Vettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty" and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe and were only occasionally depicted in works of art. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez near Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Spain wrote, "it is said [tomatoes] are good for sauces." Besides this account, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use. The combination of pasta with tomato sauce was developed only in the late nineteenth century. Today around 32,000 acres (12,950 ha) of tomatoes are cultivated in Italy, although there are still areas where relatively few tomatoes are grown and consumed.[16]
Livestock[edit]
Further information: Plains Indians § The horse
Initially, at least, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went through one route, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, large dogs, cats and bees were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses.[17] One of the first European exports to the Americas, the horse, changed the lives of many Native American tribes in the mountains. They shifted to a nomadic lifestyle, as opposed to agriculture, based on hunting bison on horseback and moved down to the Great Plains. The existing Plains tribes expanded their territories with horses, and the animals were considered so valuable that horse herds became a measure of wealth.[18]
Still, the effects of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New World were not always positive. In the Caribbean, the proliferation of European animals had large effects on native fauna and undergrowth and damaged conucos, plots managed by indigenous peoples for subsistence.[19]
Disease[edit]
Further information: Influx of disease in the Caribbean, Virgin soil epidemic, and Cocoliztli epidemics
European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle-cell disease.[1]:164
Before regular communication had been established between the two hemispheres, the varieties of domesticated animals and infectious diseases that jumped to humans, such as smallpox, were substantially more numerous in the Old World than in the New due to more extensive long-distance trade networks. Many had migrated west across Eurasia with animals or people, or were brought by traders from Asia, so diseases of two continents were suffered by all occupants. While Europeans and Asians were affected by the Eurasian diseases, their endemic status in those continents over centuries resulted in many people gaining acquired immunity.
By contrast, "Old World" diseases had a devastating effect when introduced to Native American populations via European carriers, as the people in the Americas had no natural immunity to the new diseases. Measles caused many deaths. The smallpox epidemics are believed to have caused the largest death tolls among Native Americans, surpassing any wars[20] and far exceeding the comparative loss of life in Europe due to the Black Death.[1]:164 It is estimated that upwards of 80–95 percent of the Native American population died in these epidemics within the first 100–150 years following 1492. Many regions in the Americas lost 100%.[1]:165 The beginning of demographic collapse on the North American continent has typically been attributed to the spread of a well-documented smallpox epidemic from Hispaniola in December 1518.[19] At that point in time, approximately only 10,000 indigenous people were still alive in Hispaniola.[19]
Similarly, yellow fever is thought to have been brought to the Americas from Africa via the Atlantic slave trade. Because it was endemic in Africa, many people there had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did African-descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, where numerous epidemics swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and continuing into the late 19th century. The disease caused widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave-based sugar plantation.[19] The replacement of native forests by sugar plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical area by reducing the number of potential natural predators.[19] Yet, the means of the transmission was unknown until 1881, when Carlos Finlay suggested that the disease was transmitted through mosquitoes, now known to be female mosquitoes of the species Aedes aegypti.[19]
The history of syphilis has been well-studied, but the exact origin of the disease is unknown and remains a subject of debate.[21] There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the Americas by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized.[22] These are referred to as the "Columbian" and "pre-Columbian" hypotheses.[22] The first written descriptions of the disease in the Old World came in 1493.[23] The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494/1495 in Naples, Italy, among the army of Charles VIII, during their invasion of Naples.[22][24][25][26]
Cultural exchanges[edit]
One of the influences related to the migration of people were cultural exchanges. For example, in the article "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800" Pieter Remmer makes the point that "from 1500 onward, a 'clash of cultures' had begun in the Atlantic".[27] This clash of culture transferred European values to indigenous cultures. For example, the emergence of private property in regions where there were little to no rights to lands, the concepts of monogamy and the nuclear family, the role of women and children in the family system, and the "superiority of free labor".[28] An example of this type of cultural exchange occurred during the 1500s in North America. When these early European colonizers first entered North America, they encountered fence-less lands which indicated to them that this land was unimproved. For these Europeans, they were seeking economic opportunities, therefore, land and resources were important for the success of the mission. When these colonizers entered North America they encountered a fully established culture of people called the Powhatan. The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their farm plots within larger cleared areas. These larger cleared areas were a communal place for naturally growing and useful plants. As the Europeans viewed fences as "hallmarks of civilization" they set about transforming "the land into something more suitable for themselves".[29] In implementing their practices, the Europeans enslaved, murdered, and exploited indigenous populations. Furthermore, in cases of enslaved peoples (and in particular, enslaved Africans) the Europeans simultaneously implemented their value system while at the same time justifying enslaving people through a philosophy which reduced the enslaved people to property. Thus, the slave traders and some of the plantation owners used the concept of family to exploit and control the enslaved people. In other subtle ways, which had a large impact the cultural exchanges involved sharing practices and traditions. An example of this can be found in the tobacco industry.
Tobacco was one of the luxury goods which was spread as a direct result of the Columbian Exchange. As is discussed in regard to the trans-Atlantic slave trade, the tobacco trade increased demand for free labor and spread tobacco worldwide. In discussing the widespread uses of tobacco, the Spanish physician Nicolas Monardes (1493–1588) noted that "The black people that have gone from these parts to the Indies, have taken up the same manner and use of tobacco that the Indians have".[30] As the European colonizers and enslaved Africans traveled the globe and came into contact with indigenous peoples, they took with them the cultural practices related to tobacco, and spread them to additional regions. Therefore, demand for tobacco grew in the course of the cultural exchanges and increased contacts among peoples.
Organism examples[edit]
See also: New World crops, Agriculture in Mesoamerica, and Muisca agriculture
Post-Columbian transfers of native organisms with close ties to humans
Type of organism
Old World to New World
New World to Old World
Domesticated animals
cat (domestic – wild species already present)
cattle
chicken
donkey
goat (the goats of the Old World, genus Capra, are different from the mountain goat of the New World, genus Oreamnos)
guineafowl
honey bee (European honey bee – other wild and domesticated species already present)
horse
rabbit (domestic)
pig
sheep (domestic)
water buffalo
alpaca
guinea pig
llama
Muscovy duck
turkey
Cultivated plants
almond
apple
apricot
asparagus
banana (including cooking banana)
barley
basil
beetroot
Brassica oleracea-derived vegetables
broccoli
Brussels sprout
cabbage
cauliflower
collard greens
kale
cantaloupe
carrot
celery
chickpea
citrus (orange, lemon, etc.)
coffee
common fig
coriander (also known as cilantro)
cucumber
cumin
eggplant
Elaeis (oil palm)
fennel
flax
garlic
ginger
hemp (including cannabis)
leek
lentil
lettuce
mango
millet
Momordica charantia (bitter melon)
oat
okra
olive
onion
opium
oregano
pea
peach
pear
pistachio
pomegranate
radish
rice
rye
sesame
sorghum
soybean
spinach
sugarcane and sugar beet
turmeric
turnip
watermelon
wheat
yam (sometimes misnamed "sweet potato")
Acca sellowiana (feijoa, pineapple guava, Brazilian guava, guavasteen)
Annona reticulata (custard apple)
agave
allspice
amaranth (as grain)
annatto
arrowroot or Maranta arundinacea
avocado
bell pepper
Calathea allouia (leren)
Canna indica (achira)
cashew
cassava (manioc, tapioca, yuca)
chili pepper
cherimoya
cocoa bean
cotton (long-staple species)
cranberry (large cranberry, or bearberry species)
cucurbita (squash)
Eryngium foetidum (culantro, Mexican coriander)
guava (common)
Helianthus (sunflower)
Jerusalem artichoke
Pachyrhizus erosus (jícama)
maize (corn)
Manilkara zapota (sapodilla)
Opuntia ficus-indica (prickly pear)
papaya
passionfruit
peanut
pecan
Phaseolus vulgaris (beans: pinto, lima, kidney, etc.)
pineapple
pitaya (dragon fruit)
potato
pumpkin
quinoa
soursop
stevia
strawberry (commercial varieties)
sugar-apple
sweet potato
tobacco
tomato
vanilla
yerba mate
yucca
zucchini (courgette)
Infectious diseases
bubonic plague
chickenpox
cholera
diphtheria
influenza
leprosy
malaria
measles
pertussis
scarlet fever
smallpox
typhoid fever
typhus
yaws
yellow fever
Chagas disease
Nonvenereal endemic syphilis
pinta
syphilis (disputed)
Later history[edit]
Further information: Introduced species, Invasive species, and Lists of invasive species
Plants that arrived by land, sea, or air in the times before 1492 are called archaeophytes, and plants introduced to Europe after those times are called neophytes. Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced by chance, including such weeds as tumbleweeds (Salsola spp.) and wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants introduced intentionally, such as the kudzu vine introduced in 1894 from Japan to the United States to help control soil erosion, have since been found to be invasive pests in the new environment.
Fungi have also been transported, such as the one responsible for Dutch elm disease, killing American elms in North American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street trees. Some of the invasive species have become serious ecosystem and economic problems after establishing in the New World environments.[31][32] A beneficial, although probably unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast responsible for lager beer now thought to have originated in Patagonia.[33]
In addition to these, many animals were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world either accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals as brown rats, earthworms (apparently absent from parts of the pre-Columbian New World), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships.[34] Escaped and feral populations of non-indigenous animals have thrived in both the Old and New Worlds, often negatively impacting or displacing native species. In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses and cattle are common, and Burmese pythons are considered problematic. In the Old World, Eastern gray squirrel have been particularly successful in colonising Great Britain and populations of raccoons can now be found in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus and Japan. Fur farm escapees such as coypu and American mink have extensive populations. Canada geese are also common.
See also[edit]
Agriculture and agronomy portal
Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal
New Spain portal
Alfred W. Crosby
Domestication
Great American Interchange
Glossary of invasion biology terms
Guns, Germs, and Steel
Indian Givers: How the Indians of the Americas Transformed the World
List of food plants native to the Americas
Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories
Transformation of culture
1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created
1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Nunn, Nathan; Qian, Nancy (2010). "The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 24 (2): 163–188. doi:10.1257/jep.24.2.163. JSTOR 25703506.
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/alfred-w-crosby-on-the-columbian-exchange-98116477/?no-ist
Jump up ^ Crosby, Alfred W. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1972
Jump up ^ de Vorsey, Louis (2001). "The Tragedy of the Columbian Exchange". In McIlwraith, Thomas F; Muller, Edward K. North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 27. Thanks to…Crosby's work, the term 'Columbian exchange' is now widely used…
Jump up ^ Ley, Willy (December 1965). "The Healthfull Aromatick Herbe". For Your Information. Galaxy Science Fiction. pp. 88–98.
Jump up ^ "The Impact of the Potato", History Magazine
Jump up ^ Nathan, Nunn; Nancy, Qian (2011). "The Potato's Contribution to Population and Urbanization: Evidence from a Historical Experiment". Quarterly Journal of Economics. 2: 593–650.
Jump up ^ Crosby, Alfred (2003). The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. p. 184.
Jump up ^ "Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa" Archived December 8, 2013, at the Wayback Machine., The Ohio State University
Jump up ^ "Maize Streak Virus-Resistant Transgenic Maize: an African solution to an African Problem", Scitizen, August 7, 2007
Jump up ^ "China's Population: Readings and Maps", Columbia University, East Asian Curriculum Project
Jump up ^ Nathan, Nunn; Nancy, Qian (2010). "The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food and Ideas" (PDF). Journal of Economic Perspectives. 2: 163–88, 167.
Jump up ^ Crosby, Alfred W. (2003). The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Praeger. p. 177.
Jump up ^ Riley, Gillian, ed. (2007). "Tomato". The Oxford Companion to Italian Food. Oxford University Press. pp. 529–530. ISBN 978-0-19-860617-8.
Jump up ^ Collingham, Lizzie (2006). "Vindaloo: the Portuguese and the chilli pepper". Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 47–73. ISBN 978-0-19-988381-3.
^ Jump up to: a b A History of the Tomato in Italy Pomodoro!, David Gentilcore (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2010).
Jump up ^ Michael Francis, John, ed. (2006). "Columbian Exchange—Livestock". Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History: a Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 303–308. ISBN 978-1-85109-421-9.
Jump up ^ This transfer reintroduced horses to the Americas, as the species had died out there prior to the development of the modern horse in Eurasia.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Palmié, Stephan (2011). The Caribbean: A History of the Region and Its Peoples. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226645087.
Jump up ^ "The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs", Guns, Germs and Steel, PBS Archived 17 January 2010 at WebCite
Jump up ^ Kent ME, Romanelli F (February 2008). "Reexamining syphilis: an update on epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and management". Ann Pharmacother. 42 (2): 226–36. doi:10.1345/aph.1K086. PMID 18212261.
^ Jump up to: a b c Farhi, D; Dupin, N (Sep–Oct 2010). "Origins of syphilis and management in the immunocompetent patient: facts and controversies". Clinics in dermatology. 28 (5): 533–8. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2010.03.011. PMID 20797514.
Jump up ^ Smith, Tara C. (December 23, 2015). "Thanks Columbus! The true story of how syphilis spread to Europe". Quartz. Retrieved 1 September 2016. The first cases of the disease in the Old World were described in 1493.
Jump up ^ Franzen, C (December 2008). "Syphilis in composers and musicians—Mozart, Beethoven, Paganini, Schubert, Schumann, Smetana". European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases. 27 (12): 1151–7. doi:10.1007/s10096-008-0571-x. PMID 18592279.
Jump up ^ A New Skeleton and an Old Debate About Syphilis; The Atlantic; Cari Romm; February 18, 2016
Jump up ^ Choi, Charles Q. (December 27, 2011). "Case Closed? Columbus Introduced Syphilis to Europe". Scientific American. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Emmer, Pieter. "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800." European Review 11, no. 1. Feb. 2003. p. 45-46
Jump up ^ Emmer, Pieter. "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800." European Review 11, no. 1. Feb. 2003. p. 46
Jump up ^ Mann, Charles. 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. New York, New York: Vintage Books, 2011. loc. 1094 and 1050
Jump up ^ Monardes, Nicholas. "Of the Tabaco and of his Greate Vertues." Frampton, John trans, Wolf, Michael, ed. Taboacco.org. Accessed June 1, 2017 http://archive.tobacco.org/History/monardes.html
Jump up ^ Simberloff, Daniel (2000). "Introduced Species: The Threat to Biodiversity & What Can Be Done". American Institute of Biological Sciences: Bringing biology to informed decision making.
Jump up ^ Fernández Pérez, Joaquin and Ignacio González Tascón (eds.) (1991). La agricultura viajera. Barcelona, Spain: Lunwerg Editores, S. A.
Jump up ^ Elusive Lager Yeast Found in Patagonia, Discovery News, August 23, 2011
Jump up ^ Hoddle, M. S. "Quagga & Zebra Mussels". Center for Invasive Species Research, University of California, Riverside . Retrieved June 29, 2010.
External links[edit]
The Columbian Exchange: Plants, Animals, and Disease between the Old and New Worlds by Alfred W. Crosby (2009)
Worlds Together, Worlds Apart by Jeremy Adelman, Stephen Aron, Stephen Kotkin, et al.
Foods that Changed the World by Steven R. King from the Wayback Machine
The Columbian Exchange video, study guide, analysis, and teaching guide
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