text:
Phytophthora ramorum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Phytophthora ramorum
Canker on an infected oak
Scientific classification
Phylum: Heterokontophyta
Class: Oomycota
Order: Peronosporales
Family: Peronosporaceae
Genus: Phytophthora
Species: P. ramorum
Binomial name
Phytophthora ramorum
Werres et al. 2001
Phytophthora ramorum is the oomycete plant pathogen known to cause the disease sudden oak death (SOD). The disease kills oak and other species of trees and has had devastating effects on the oak populations in California and Oregon, as well as being present in Europe. Symptoms include bleeding cankers on the tree's trunk and dieback of the foliage, in many cases eventually leading to the death of the tree.
P. ramorum also infects a great number of other plant species, significantly woody ornamentals such as Rhododendron, Viburnum, and Pieris, causing foliar symptoms known as ramorum dieback or ramorum blight. Such plants can act as a source of inoculum for new infections, with the pathogen-producing spores that can be transmitted by rainsplash and rainwater.
P. ramorum was first reported in 1995, and the origins of the pathogen are still unclear, but most evidence suggests it was repeatedly introduced as an exotic species.[1] Very few control mechanisms exist for the disease, and they rely upon early detection and proper disposal of infected plant material.
Contents
1 Presence
2 Hosts and symptoms
2.1 In North America
2.2 In Europe
3 Transmission
4 The two mating types
5 Possible origins
5.1 Introduction as an exotic species
5.2 Hybridization events
5.3 A native organism
6 Ecological impacts
7 Control
7.1 Early detection
7.2 Wildland management
7.3 Nursery management
7.4 General sanitation in infested areas
8 Government agency involvement
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Presence[edit]
The disease is known to exist in California's coastal region between Big Sur (in Monterey County) and southern Humboldt County. It is confirmed to exist in all coastal counties in this range, as well as in all immediately inland counties from Santa Clara County north to Lake County. It has not been found east of the California Coast Ranges, however. It was reported in Curry County, Oregon just north of the California border, in 2001. Sonoma County has been hit hardest, having more than twice the area of new mortality of any other county in California.[2]
About the same time, a similar disease in continental Europe and the UK was also identified as Phytophthora ramorum.[3]
Hosts and symptoms[edit]
In North America[edit]
A hillside in Big Sur, California, devastated by sudden oak death
It was first discovered in California in 1995 when large numbers of tanoaks (Notholithocarpus densiflorus) died mysteriously, and was described as a new species of Phytophthora in 2000. It has subsequently been found in many other areas, including Britain, Germany, and some other U.S. states, either accidentally introduced in nursery stock, or already present undetected.
In tanoaks, the disease may be recognized by wilting new shoots, older leaves becoming pale green, and after a period of two to three weeks, foliage turning brown while clinging to the branches. Dark brown sap may stain the lower trunk's bark. Bark may split and exude gum, with visible discoloration. After the tree dies back, suckers try to sprout the next year, but their tips soon bend and die. Ambrosia beetles (Monarthrum scutellare) will most likely infest a dying tree during midsummer, producing piles of fine white dust near tiny holes. Later, bark beetles (Pseudopityophthorus pubipennis) produce fine, red boring dust. Small black domes, the fruiting bodies of the Hypoxylon fungus, may also be present on the bark. Leaf death may occur more than a year after the initial infection and months after the tree has been girdled by beetles.[citation needed]
In coast live oaks and Californian black oaks, the first symptom is a burgundy-red to tar-black thick sap bleeding from the bark surface. These are often referred to as bleeding cankers.
In addition to oaks, many other forest species may be hosts for the disease; in fact, it was observed in the USA that nearly all woody plants in some Californian forests were susceptible to P. ramorum.[4] including rhododendron, madrone (Arbutus menziesii), evergreen huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum), California bay laurel (Umbellularia californica), buckeye (Aesculus californica), bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia), manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.), coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), coffeeberry (Rhamnus californica), honeysuckle (Lonicera hispidula), and Shreve oak (Quercus parvula). P. ramorum more commonly causes a less severe disease known as ramorum dieback/leaf blight on these hosts. Characteristic symptoms are dark spots on foliage and in some hosts the dieback of the stems and twigs.[5] The disease is capable of killing some hosts, such as rhododendron, but most survive. Disease progression on these species is not well documented. Redwoods exhibit needle discoloration and cankers on small branches, with purple lesions on sprouts that may lead to sprout mortality.
In Europe[edit]
Leaf death caused by P. ramorum
In Europe, Ramorum blight was first observed on rhododendron and viburnum in the early 1990s,[3] where it was initially found mainly on container-grown plants in nurseries.[6] The principal symptoms were leaf and twig blight.[7] By 2007, it had spread throughout nurseries and retail centers in 16 European countries, and had been detected in gardens, parks, and woodlands in at least eight countries.[3] It has not caused significant harm to European oak species.[7]
In 2009, the pathogen was found to be infecting and killing large numbers of Japanese larch trees (Larix kaempferi) in the United Kingdom at sites in the English counties of Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall.[8] It was the first time in the world that Phytophthora ramorum had been found infecting this species.[9] Since then, it has also been found extensively in larch plantations in Wales[10][11] and in southwest Scotland, leading to the deliberate felling of large areas.[6] The UK Forestry Commission noted that eradication of the disease would not be possible, and instead adopted a strategy of containing the disease to reduce its spread.[9] Symptoms of the disease on larch trees include dieback of the tree's crown and branches, and a distinctive yellowing or ginger colour beneath the bark.[9] In August 2010, the disease was found in Japanese larch trees in Counties Waterford and Tipperary in Ireland.[12] It had spread to Japanese larch plantations across the south of the country by February 2014.[13] Coillte, who owned twenty forests where the disease was present, felled 16,000 trees in one of its forests, having already felled 150 hectares to contain the disease.[14]
The closely related Phytophthora kernoviae causes similar symptoms to P. ramorum, but infects the European beech (Fagus sylvatica).[15]
Transmission[edit]
P. ramorum produces both resting spores (chlamydospores) and zoospores, which have flagella enabling swimming. P. ramorum is spread by air;[16] one of the major mechanisms of dispersal is rainwater splashing spores onto other susceptible plants, and into watercourses to be carried for greater distances.[16] Chlamydospores can withstand harsh conditions and are able to overwinter.[16] The pathogen will take advantage of wounding, but it is not necessary for infection to occur.[17]
As mentioned above, P. ramorum does not kill every plant that can be used as a host, and these plants are most important in the epidemiology of the disease as they act as sources of inoculum.[18] In California, California bay laurel (Umbellularia californica) seems to be the main source of inoculum.[19] Green waste, such as leaf litter and tree stumps, are also capable of supporting P. ramorum as a saprotroph and acting as a source of inoculum. Because P. ramorum is able to infect many ornamental plants, it can be transmitted by ornamental plant movement.
Hikers, mountain bikers, equestrians, and other people engaged in various outdoor activities may also unwittingly move the pathogen into areas where it was not previously present. Those travelling in an area known to be infested with SOD can help prevent the spread of the disease by cleaning their (and their animals') feet, tyres, tools, camping equipment, etc. before returning home or entering another uninfected area, especially if they have been in muddy soil. Additionally, the movement of firewood[20] could introduce sudden oak death to otherwise uninfected areas. Both homeowners and travelers are advised to buy and burn local firewood.
The two mating types[edit]
Mating structures
P. ramorum is heterothallic and has two mating types, A1 and A2, required for sexual reproduction.[21] The European population is predominantly A1 while both mating types A1 and A2 are found in North America.[22] Genetics of the two isolates indicate that they are reproductively isolated.[23] On average, the A1 mating type is more virulent than the A2 mating type, but more variation occurs in the pathogenicity of A2 isolates.[24] It is currently not clear whether this pathogen can reproduce sexually in nature and genetic work has suggested that the lineages of the two mating types might be isolated reproductively or geographically given the evolutionary divergence observed.[25]
Possible origins[edit]
P. ramorum is a relatively new disease, and several debates have occurred about where it may have originated or how it evolved.
Introduction as an exotic species[edit]
Evidence suggests P. ramorum may be an introduced species, and these introductions occurred separately for the European and North American populations, hence why only one mating type exists on each continent – this is called a founder effect.[26] The differences between the two populations are thus caused by adaptation to separate climates. Evidence includes little genetic variability, as P. ramorum has not had time to diversify since being introduced. Existing variability may be explained by multiple introductions with a few individuals adapting best to their respective environments.[27] The behavior of the pathogen in California is also indicative of being introduced; it is assumed that such a high mortality rate of trees would have been noticed sooner if P. ramorum were native.
Where P. ramorum originated remains unclear, but most researchers feel Asia is the most likely, since many of the hosts of P. ramorum originated there.[28] Since certain climates are best suited to P. ramorum, the most likely sources are the southern Himalayas, Tibet, or Yunnan province.[29]
Hybridization events[edit]
Species of Phytophthora have been shown to have evolved by the interspecific hybridization of two different species from the genus.[30] When a species is introduced into a new environment, it causes episodic selection. The invading species is exposed to other resident taxa, and hybridization may occur to produce a new species. If these hybrids are successful, they may outcompete their parent species.[31] Thus, P, ramorum is possibly a hybrid between two species. Its unique morphology does support this. Also, three sequences studied to establish the phylogeny of Phytophthora: ITS, cox II and nad 5, were identical, supporting P. ramorum having recently evolved.
A native organism[edit]
P. ramorum may be native to the United States. Infection rates could have previously been at a low level, but changes in the environment caused a change to the population structure.[32] Alternatively, the symptoms of P. ramorum may have been mistaken for that of other pathogens. When SOD first appeared in the United States, many other pathogens and conditions were blamed before P. ramorum was found to be the causal agent.[33] With many of the most seriously affected plants being in the forest, the likelihood of seeing diseased trees is also low.
Ecological impacts[edit]
In relation to human ecology, the loss of tanoak as the pathogen spreads to culturally sensitive indigenous lands represents a loss of tanoak acorn as one of the most important traditional and ceremonial foods still used in Northern California such as among Yurok people, Hupa, Miwok, and Karuk peoples. Similar impact applies to the decline of other native plant species that are traditional food sources in tanoak and oak regimens infected by the pathogen.[34]
In forest ecology, the pathogen contributes to loss of environmental services provided by diversity of plant species and interdependent wildlife.
The mortality caused by this emerging disease is expected to cause many indirect effects. Several predictions of long-term impacts have been discussed in the scientific literature.[35] While such predictions are necessarily speculative, indirect impacts occurring on shorter time scales have been documented in a few cases. For instance, one study demonstrated that redwood trees (Sequoia sempervirens) grew faster after neighboring tanoaks were killed by sudden oak death.[36] Other studies have combined current observations and reconstruction/projection techniques to document short-term impacts while also inferring future conditions. One study used this approach to investigate the effects of SOD on the structural characteristics of redwood forests.[37]
Additional long-term impacts of SOD may be inferred from regeneration patterns in areas that have experienced severe mortality. These patterns may indicate which tree species will replace tanoak in diseased areas. Such transitions will be of particular importance in forest types that were relatively poor in tree species diversity before the introduction of SOD, e.g., redwood forest. As of 2011[update], the only study to comprehensively examine regeneration in SOD-impacted redwood forests found no evidence that other broadleaf tree species are beginning to recruit.[38] Instead, redwood was colonizing most mortality gaps. However, they also found inadequate regeneration in some areas and concluded that regeneration is continuing. Since this study only considered one site in Marin County, California, these results may not apply to other forests. Other impacts to the local ecology include, among others, the residual effects of spraying heavy pesticides (Agrifos) to treat SOD symptoms, and the heavy mortality of the native pollinator community that occurs as a result. Bee hives situated in areas of heavy Agrifos spraying have incurred significant losses of population in direct correlation to the application of these chemicals. Counties such as Napa and Sonoma may be doing significant damage to their native pollinator populations by virtue of adopting broad-based prophylactic pesticide policies. Such damage to the pollinator populations may have tertiary negative effects on the entire local plant community, compounding the loss of biodiversity, and thus environmental value, attributable to SOD.[citation needed]
Control[edit]
Early detection[edit]
Early detection of P. ramorum is essential for its control. On an individual-tree basis, preventive treatments, which are more effective than therapeutic treatments,[39] depend on knowledge of the pathogen’s movement through the landscape to know when it is nearing prized trees. On the landscape level, P. ramorum’s fast and often undetectable movement means that any treatment hoping to slow its spread must happen very early in the development of an infestation. Since P. ramorum’s discovery, researchers have been working on the development of early detection methods on scales ranging from diagnosis in individual infected plants to landscape-level detection efforts involving large numbers of people.
Detecting the presence of Phytophthora species requires laboratory confirmation. The traditional method of culturing is on a growth medium selective against fungi (and, in some cases, against other oomycetes such as Pythium species). Host material is removed from the leading edge of a plant tissue canker caused by the pathogen; resulting growth is examined under a microscope to confirm the unique morphology of P. ramorum. Successful isolation of the pathogen often depends on the type of host tissue and the time of year that detection is attempted.[40]
Because of these difficulties, researchers have developed some other approaches for identifying P. ramorum. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test can be the first step in nonculture methods of identifying P. ramorum, but it can only be a first step, because it detects the presence of proteins that are produced by all Phytophthora species. In other words, it can identify to the genus level, but not to the species level. ELISA tests can process large numbers of samples at once, so researchers often use it to screen out likely positive samples from those that are not when the total number of samples is very large.[40] Some manufacturers produce small-scale ELISA “field kits” that the homeowner can use to determine if plant tissue is infected by Phytophthora.
Researchers have also developed numerous molecular techniques for P. ramorum identification. These include amplifying DNA sequences in the internal transcribed spacer region of the P. ramorum genome (ITS polymerase chain reaction, or ITS PCR); real-time PCR, in which DNA abundance is measured in real time during the PCR reaction, using dyes or probes such as SBYR-Green or TaqMan; multiplex PCR, which amplifies more than one region of DNA at the same time; and single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP), which uses the ITS DNA sequence amplified by the PCR reaction to differentiate Phytophthora species according to their differential movement through a gel.[40]
Additionally, researchers have begun using features of the DNA sequence of P. ramorum to pinpoint the minuscule differences of separate P. ramorum isolates from each other. Two techniques for doing this are amplified fragment length polymorphism, which through comparing differences between various fragments in the sequence has enabled researchers to differentiate correctly between EU and U.S. isolates,[40] and the examination of microsatellites, which are areas on the sequence featuring repeating base pairs. When P. ramorum propagules arrive in a new geographic location and establish colonies, these microsatellites begin to display mutation in a relatively short time, and they mutate in a stepwise fashion. Based on this, researchers in California have been able to construct trees, based on microsatellite analyses of isolates collected from around the state, that trace the movement of P. ramorum from two likely initial points of establishment in Marin and Santa Cruz Counties and out to subsequent points.[41]
Early detection of P. ramorum on a landscape scale begins with the observation of symptoms on individual plants (and/or detecting P. ramorum propagules in watercourses; see below). Systematic ground-based monitoring has been difficult within the range of P. ramorum because most infected trees stand on a complex mosaic of lands with various ownerships. In some areas, targeted ground-based surveys have been conducted in areas of heavy recreation or visitor use such as parks, trailheads, and boat ramps. In California, when conducting ground-based detection, looking for symptoms on bay laurel is the most effective strategy, since P. ramorum infection of true oaks and tanoaks is almost always highly associated with bay laurel, the main epidemiological springboard for the pathogen.[42][43][44] Moreover, on many sites in California (though not all), P. ramorum can typically be detected from infected bay laurel tissues via culturing techniques year-round; this is not the case for most other hosts, nor is it the case in Oregon, where tanoak is the most reliable host.[45]
As part of a nationwide USDA program, a ground-based detection survey was implemented from 2003 to 2006 in 39 U.S. states to determine whether the pathogen was established outside the West Coast areas already known to be infested. Sampling areas were stratified by environmental variables likely to be conducive to pathogen growth and by proximity to possible points of inoculum introduction such as nurseries. Samples were collected along transects established in potentially susceptible forests or outside the perimeters of nurseries. The only positive samples were collected in California, confirming that P. ramorum was not yet established in the environment outside the West Coast.[46]
Aerial surveying has proven useful for detection of P. ramorum infestations across large landscapes, although it is not as “early” a technique as some others because it depends on spotting dead tanoak crowns from fixed-wing aircraft. Sophisticated GPS and sketch-mapping technology enable spotters to mark the locations of dead trees so that ground crews can return to the area to sample from nearby vegetation.[47]
Detection of P. ramorum in watercourses has emerged as the earliest of early detection methods. This technique employs pear or rhododendron baits suspended in the watercourse using ropes, buckets, mesh bags, or other similar devices. If plants in the watershed are infected with P. ramorum, zoospores of the pathogen (as well as other Phytophthora spp.) are likely present in adjacent waterways. Under conducive weather conditions, the zoospores are attracted to the baits and infect them, causing lesions that can be isolated to culture the pathogen or analyzed via PCR assay.[48][49] This method has detected P. ramorum at scales ranging from small, intermittent seasonal drainages to the Garcia, Chetco, and South Fork Eel Rivers in California and Oregon (144, 352, and 689 mi2 drainage areas, respectively). It can detect the existence of infected plants in watersheds before any mortality from the infections becomes evident. Of course, it cannot detect the exact locations of those infected plants: at the first sign of P. ramorum propagules in the stream, crews must scour the watershed using all available means to find symptomatic vegetation.
A less technical means of detecting P. ramorum at the landscape level involves engaging local landowners across the landscape in the search. Many local county agriculture departments and University of California Cooperative Extension offices in California have been able to keep track of the distribution of the pathogen in their regions through reports and samples brought to them by the public. In 2008, the Garbelotto Laboratory at University of California, Berkeley, along with local collaborators, hosted a series of educational events, called "SOD Blitzes", designed to give local landowners basic information about P. ramorum and how to identify its symptoms; each participant was provided with a sampling kit, sampled a certain number of trees on his or her property, and returned the samples to the lab for analysis. This kind of citizen science hopefully can help generate an improved map of P. ramorum distribution in the areas where the workshops are held.
Wildland management[edit]
The course that P. ramorum management should take depends on a number of factors, including the scale of the landscape upon which one hopes to manage it. Management of P. ramorum has been undertaken at the landscape/ regional level in Oregon in the form of a campaign to completely eradicate the pathogen from the forests in which it has been found (mostly private, but also USDA Forest Service and USDI Bureau of Land Management ownership).[50][51][52] The eradication campaign involves vigorous early detection by airplane and watercourse monitoring, a U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA APHIS) and Oregon Department of Agriculture-led quarantine to prevent movement of host materials out of the area where infected trees are found, and immediate removal of P. ramorum host vegetation, symptomatic or not, within a 300-foot (91 m) buffer around each infected tree.
The Oregon eradication effort, which began near the town of Brookings in southwest Oregon in 2001, has adapted its management efforts over the years in response to new information about P. ramorum. For example, after inoculation trials of various tree species more clearly delineated which hosts are susceptible, the Oregon cooperators began leaving nonhost species such as Douglas fir and red alder on site. In another example, after finding that a small percentage of tanoak stumps that were resprouting on the host removal sites were infected with the pathogen—whether these infections were systemic or reached the sprouts from the surrounding environment is unknown—the cooperators began pretreating trees with very small, targeted amounts of herbicide to kill the root systems of infected tanoaks before cutting them down. The effort has been successful in that while it has not yet completely eradicated the pathogen from Oregon forests, the epidemic in Oregon has not taken the explosive course that it has in California forests.[53]
California, though, faces significant obstacles that preclude it from mounting the same kind of eradication effort. For one thing, the organism was too well established in forests in the Santa Cruz and San Francisco Bay areas by the time the cause of sudden oak death was discovered to enable any eradication effort to succeed. Even in still relatively uninfested areas of the north coast and southern Big Sur, regionally coordinated efforts to manage the pathogen face huge challenges of leadership, coordination, and funding. Nevertheless, land managers are still working to coordinate efforts between states, counties, and agencies to provide P. ramorum management in a more comprehensive manner.
Several options exist for landowners who want to limit the impacts of SOD death on their properties. None of these options is foolproof, guaranteed to eradicate P. ramorum, or guaranteed to prevent a tree from becoming infected. Some are still in the initial stage of testing. Nevertheless, when used thoughtfully and thoroughly, some of the treatments do improve the likelihood of either slowing the spread of the pathogen or of limiting its impacts on trees or stands of trees. Assuming that the landowner has correctly identified the host tree(s) and symptom(s), has submitted a sample to a local authority to send to an approved laboratory for testing, and has received confirmation that the tree(s) are indeed infected with P. ramorum—or, alternatively, assuming that the landowner knows that P. ramorum-infected trees are nearby and wants to protect the resources on his or her property—he or she can attempt control by cultural (individual-tree), chemical, or silvicultural (stand-level) means.
The best evidence that cultural techniques might help protect trees against P. ramorum comes from research that has established a correlation between disease risk in coast live oak trees and the trees’ proximity to bay laurel.[19] In particular, this research found that bay laurel trees growing within 5 m of the trunk of an oak tree were the best predictors of disease risk. This implies that strategic removal of bay laurel trees near coast live oaks might decrease the risk of oak infection. Wholesale removal of bay laurel trees would not be warranted, since the bay laurels close to the oak trees appear to provide the greatest risk factor. Whether the same pattern is true for other oaks or tanoaks has yet to be established. Research on this subject has been started for tanoak, but any eventual cultural recommendations will be more complicated, because tanoak twigs also serve as sources of P. ramorum inoculum.
A promising treatment for preventing infection of individual oak and tanoak trees—not for curing an already established infection—is a phosphonate fungicide marketed under the trade name Agri-fos. Phosphonate is a neutralized form of phosphorous acid that works not by direct antagonism of Phytophthora, but by stimulating various kinds of immune responses on the part of the tree.[39] It is mostly environmentally benign if not applied to nontarget plants and can be applied either as an injection into the tree stem or as a spray to the bole. When applying Agri-fos as a spray, it must be combined with an organosilicate surfactant, Pentra-bark, to enable the product to adhere to the bole long enough to be absorbed by the tree. Agri-fos has been very effective in preventing tree infections, but it must be applied when visible symptoms of P. ramorum on other trees in the immediate neighborhood are still relatively distant; otherwise, the tree to be treated likely is already infected, but visible symptoms have not yet developed (especially true for tanoak).
Trials of silvicultural methods for treating P. ramorum began in Humboldt County in northwest coastal California in 2006. The trials have taken place on a variety of infested properties both private and public and have generally focused on varying levels and kinds of host removal. The largest (50 acres (200,000 m2)) and most replicated trials have involved removal of tanoak and bay laurel by chainsaw throughout the infested stand, both with and without subsequent underburning designed to eliminate small seedlings and infested leaf litter.[54] Other treatments included host removal in a modified “shaded fuelbreak” design in which all bay laurel is removed, but not all tanoaks; bay and tanoak removal using herbicides; and removal of bay laurel alone. The results of these treatments are still being monitored, but repeated sampling has so far detected only very small amounts of P. ramorum in the soil or on vegetation in the treated sites.
Nursery management[edit]
Research and development in managing P. ramorum in nursery settings extends from P. ramorum in the individual plant, to P. ramorum in the nursery environment, to the pathogen’s movement across state and national borders in infected plants.
An array of studies have tested the curative and protective effects of various chemical compounds against P. ramorum in plants valued as ornamentals or Christmas trees. Many studies have focused on the four main ornamental hosts of P. ramorum (Rhododendron, Camellia, Viburnum, and Pieris). Several effective compounds have been found; some of the most effective include mefenoxam, metalaxyl, dimethomorph, and fenamidone. Many of these studies have converged upon the following conclusions: chemical compounds are, in general, more effective as preventives than as curatives; when used preventively, chemical compounds must be reapplied at various intervals; and chemical compounds can mask the symptoms of P. ramorum infection in the host plant, potentially interfering with inspections for quarantine efforts. In general, these compounds suppress but do not eradicate the pathogen, and some researchers are concerned that with repeated use the pathogen may become resistant to them. These studies and conclusions are summarized by Kliejunas.[55]
Another area of research and evolving practice deals with eliminating P. ramorum from nursery environments in which it is established to prevent human-mediated pathogen movement within the ornamental plant trade. One way of approaching this is through a robust quarantine and inspection program, which the various federal and state regulatory agencies have implemented. Under the federal P. ramorum quarantine program implemented by USDA APHIS, nurseries in California, Oregon, and Washington are regulated and must participate in an annual inspection regimen; nurseries in the 14 infested counties in coastal California, plus the limited infested area in Curry County, Oregon, must participate in a more stringent inspection schedule when shipping out of this area.[56]
Much of the research into disinfesting nurseries has focused on the voluntary best management practices (BMPs) that nurseries can implement to prevent P. ramorum’s introduction into the nursery and movement from plant to plant. In 2008, a group of nursery industry organizations issued a list of BMPs that includes subsections on pest prevention/management, training, internal/external monitoring/audits, records/traceability, and documentation. The document includes such specific recommendations as “Avoid overhead irrigation of high-risk plants”; “After every crop rotation, disinfect propagation mist beds, sorting area, cutting benches, machines and tools to minimize the spread or introduction of pathogens”; and “Nursery personnel should attend one or more P. ramorum trainings conducted by qualified personnel or document self-training”.[57][58]
Research on control of P. ramorum in nurseries has also focused on disinfesting irrigation water containing P. ramorum inoculum. Irrigation water can become infested from bay trees in the forest (if the irrigation source is a stream), from bay trees overhanging irrigation ponds, from runoff from infested forests,[59] or from recirculated irrigation water.[60] Experiments in Germany with three types of filters—slow sand filters, lava filters, and constructed wetlands—showed that the first two removed P. ramorum from the irrigation water completely, while 37% of the post-treatment water samples from the constructed wetland still contained P. ramorum.[61]
Since P. ramorum can persist for an undetermined period of time within the soil profile, management programs in nurseries should also deal with delineating the pathogen’s distribution in nursery soil and eliminating it from infested areas. A variety of chemical options has been tested for soil disinfestation, including such chemicals as chloropicrin, metham sodium, iodomethane, and dazomet. Lab tests indicated that all of these chemicals were effective when applied to infested soil in glass jars. Additionally, tests on volunteer nurseries with infested soil demonstrated that dazomet (trade name Basamid) fumigation followed by a 14-day tarping period successfully removed P. ramorum from the soil profile.[62] Other soil disinfestation practices under investigation, or in which interest has been expressed, include steam sterilization, solarization, and paving of infested areas.
General sanitation in infested areas[edit]
One of the most important aspects of P. ramorum control involves interrupting the human-mediated movement of the pathogen by ensuring that infested materials do not move from location to location. While enforceable quarantines perform part of this function, basic cleanliness when working or recreating in infested areas is also important. In most cases, cleanliness practices involve ridding potentially infested surfaces—such as shoes, vehicles, and pets—of foliage and mud before leaving the infested area. The demands of implementing these practices become more complex when large numbers of people are working in infested areas, as in construction, timber harvesting, or wildfire suppression. The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection and USDA Forest Service have implemented guidelines and mitigation requirements for the latter two situations; basic information about cleanliness in P. ramorum-infested areas can be found at the California Oak Mortality Task Force web site (www.suddenoakdeath.org) under the “Treatment and Management” section (subsection “Sanitation and Reducing Spread”).
Government agency involvement[edit]
In England in 2009, the Forestry Commission, DEFRA, the Food and Environment Research Agency, Cornwall County Council, and Natural England are working together to record the locations and deal with this disease. Natural England is offering grant funding through its Environmental Stewardship, Countryside Stewardship, and Environmentally Sensitive Area schemes to clear rhododendron.[63] In 2011, the Forestry Commission started felling 10,000 acres (40 km2) of larch forest in the south-west of England, as an attempt to halt the spread of the disease. In Northern Ireland at the end of 2011, the Department of Agriculture and Rural Development’s Forest Service began felling 14 hectares of affected Larch woodland at Moneyscalp, on the edge of Tollymore Forest Park in County Down.[64]
See also[edit]
Acute oak decline
Forest pathology
Forest disturbance of invasive insects and diseases in the United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Grünwald, N. J.; Garbelotto, M.; Goss, E. M.; Heungens, K.; Prospero, S. (2012). "Emergence of the sudden oak death pathogen Phytophthora ramorum". Trends in Microbiology. 20 (3): 131–138. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2011.12.006. PMID 22326131.
Jump up ^ http://www.sonoma-county.org/des/pdf/sodsr_plan.pdf Sonoma County Sudden Oak Death Strategic Response Plan, University of California Cooperative Extension, Sonoma County and the Sonoma County Department of Emergency Services (February, 2008)
^ Jump up to: a b c Parke (2008). "Sudden oak death, ramorum leaf blight, ramorum shoot blight". The Plant Health Instructor. doi:10.1094/PHI-I-2008-0227-01.
Jump up ^ Rizzo, D.M., et al. Phytophthora ramorum and Sudden Oak Death in California 1: Host Reletionships. in Fifth Symposium on Oak Woodlands: Oaks in California's Changing Landscapes. 2001. San Diego, California.
Jump up ^ Werres, S., et al., Phytophthora ramorum sp. nov., a new pathogen on Rhododendron and Viburnun. Mycological Research, 2001. 105(10): p. 1155–1165.
^ Jump up to: a b "Phytophthora ramorum". FERA. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Phytophthora ramorum". European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "UK Tree health recommendations aim to 'stop the spread". BBC News. 20 May 2013. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c "'Unprecedented threat' for UK trees from pests". BBC News. 3 September 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Thousands of Afan Forest trees planted after infected larch". BBC. 21 February 2015. Retrieved 23 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Richard Youle (21 June 2018). "Thousands more infected larch trees to be felled". Wales online. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Disease found in Japanese Larch Trees in Ireland". Department of Agriculture, Food & the Marine. 17 August 2010. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Roche, Barry (6 February 2014). "Coillte urged to clarify extent of larch disease in Gougane Barra". Irish Times. Retrieved 22 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Roche, Barry (4 January 2014). "Cork's Gougane Barra Forest Park closing due to tree fungus". Irish Times. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Phytophthora ramorum and P. kernoviae". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Davidson, J.M., et al. Phytophthora ramorum and Sudden Oak Death in California: II. Transmission and Survival. in Fifth Symposium on Oak Woodlands: Oaks in California's Changing Landscape. 2001. San Diego, California.
Jump up ^ Anon, Phytophthora ramorum and Phytophthora kernoviae: Key findings from research, DEFRA, Editor. 2005, DEFRA.
Jump up ^ Garbelotto, M., et al., Non-oak native plants are the main hosts for sudden oak death pathogen in California. Californian Agriculture, 2003. 57(1): p. 18-23.
^ Jump up to: a b Swiecki, T. J. and E. A. Bernhardt. 2007. Increasing Distance from California Bay Laurel Reduces the Risk and Severity of Phytophthora ramorum Canker in Coast Live Oak. Pages 181-194 in Sudden Oak Death Third Science Symposium. USDA Forest Service, Santa Rosa, CA.
Jump up ^ "Moving Firewood Spreads Forest Pests". Don't Move Firewood. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
Jump up ^ Boutet, X.; Vercauteren, A.; Heungens, K.; Laurent, F.; Chandelier, A. (2010). "Oospores progenies from Phytophthora ramorum". Fungal Biology. 114 (4): 369–378. doi:10.1016/j.funbio.2010.02.009. PMID 20943147.
Jump up ^ Grünwald, N. J.; Goss, E. M.; Press, C. M. (2008). "Phytophthora ramorum: a pathogen with a remarkably wide host range causing sudden oak death on oaks and ramorum blight on woody ornamentals". Mol. Plant Pathol. 9 (6): 729–740. doi:10.1111/j.1364-3703.2008.00500.x. PMID 19019002.
Jump up ^ Ivors, K., et al., AFLP and phylogenetic analyses of North American and European populations of Phytophthora ramorum. Mycological Research, 2004. 108(4): p. 378-392.
Jump up ^ Brasier, C., et al. Pathogenicity of Phytophthora ramorum isolates from North America and Europe to bark of European Fagaceae, American Quercus rubra and other forest trees. In Sudden Oak Death Science Symposium. 2002. Marriott Hotel, Monterey.
Jump up ^ Grünwald, N. J.; Goss, E. M. (2011). "Evolutionary and Population Genetics of Exotic and Re-emerging Pathogens: Traditional and Novel Tools and Approaches". Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 49: 249–267. doi:10.1146/annurev-phyto-072910-095246.
Jump up ^ Brasier, C., Evolutionary Biology of Phytophthora PART I: Genetic System, Sexuality and the Generation of Variation. Annual Review of Phytopathology, 1992. 30: p. 153-171.
Jump up ^ Garbelotto, M., et al. Phytophthora ramorum and Sudden Oak Death in California: III. Preliminary Studies in Pathogen Genetics. in Fifth Symposium on Oak Woodlands: Oaks in California's Changing Landscape. 2001. San Diego, California.
Jump up ^ Martin, F.N. and P.W. Tooley, Phylogenetic relationships of Phytophthora ramorum, P. nemorosa and P. pseudosyringae, three species recovered from areas in California with sudden oak death. Mycological Research, 2003. 107(12): p. 1379–1391.
Jump up ^ Nicholls, H., Stopping the Rot. PLoS Biology, 2004. 2(7): p. 891-895.
Jump up ^ Brasier, C. and E.M. Hansen, Evolutionary Biology of Phytophthora PART II: Phylogeny, Speciation, and Population Structure. Annual Review of Phytopathology, 1992. 30: p. 173-200.
Jump up ^ Brasier, C., Episodic Selection as a force in fungal microevolution, with special reference to clonal speciation and hybrid introgression. Canadian Journal of Botany, 1994. 73 (suppl. 1.): p. S1213-S1220.
Jump up ^ Rizzo, D.M., et al., Phytophthora ramorum as the Cause of Extensie Mortality of Quercus spp. and Luthocarpus densiflorus in California. Plant Disease, 2002. 86(3): p. 205-214.
Jump up ^ Garbelotto, M., P. Svihra, and D.M. Rizzo, Sudden oak death syndrome fells 3 oak species. Californian Agriculture, 2001. 55(1): p. 9-19.
Jump up ^ Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)
Jump up ^ Rizzo, D.; Garbelotto, M.; Hansen, E. (2005). "Phytophthora ramorum: Integrative research and management of an emerging pathogen in California and Oregon forests". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 43: 309–335. doi:10.1146/annurev.phyto.42.040803.140418.
Jump up ^ Waring, K.M., and O’Hara, K.L. 2008. Redwood/tanoak stand development and response to tanoak mortality caused by Phytophthora ramorum. Forest Ecology and Management. 255: 2650–2658.
Jump up ^ Ramage, B. S., and O’Hara, K. L. 2010. Sudden oak death-induced tanoak mortality in coast redwood forests: Current and predicted impacts to stand structure. Forests. 1: 114-130, [1].
Jump up ^ Ramage, B.S.; OʼHara, K.L.; Forrestel, A.B. (2011). "Forest transformation resulting from an exotic pathogen: regeneration and tanoak mortality in coast redwood stands affected by sudden oak death". Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 41 (4): 763–772. doi:10.1139/x11-020.
^ Jump up to: a b Garbelotto, M., D. J. Schmidt, and T. Y. Harnik. 2007. Phosphite Injections and Bark Application of Phosphite + Pentrabark Control Sudden Oak Death in Coast Live Oak. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry 33:8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kliejunas, J. T. 2007c. Chapter 2: Identification and Distribution. Sudden Oak Death and Phytophthora ramorum: A Summary of the Literature. California Oak Mortality Task Force.
Jump up ^ Mascheretti, S.; Croucher, P. J. P.; Vettraino, A.; Prospero, S.; Garbelotto, M. (2008). "Reconstruction of the Sudden Oak Death epidemic in California through microsatellite analysis of the pathogen Phytophthora ramorum". Molecular Ecology. 17 (11): 2755–2768. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294x.2008.03773.x.
Jump up ^ Davidson, J. M., D. M. Rizzo, M. Garbelotto, S. Tjosvold, and G. W. Slaughter. 2001. Phytophthora ramorum and Sudden Oak Death in California: II. Transmission and Survival. Pages 741-749 in Fifth Symposium on Oak Woodlands: Oaks in California's Changing Landscape. USDA Forest Service, San Diego, CA.
Jump up ^ Davidson, J. M. and C. G. Shaw. 2003. Pathways of Movement for Phytophthora ramorum, the Causal Agent of Sudden Oak Death. Sudden Oak Death Online Symposium. The American Phytopathological Society.
Jump up ^ Maloney, P. E.; Lynch, S. C.; Kane, S. F.; Jensen, C. E.; Rizzo, D. M. (2005). "Establishment of an Emerging Generalist Pathogen in Redwood Forest Communities". Journal of Ecology. 93 (5): 6. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2745.2005.01031.x.
Jump up ^ E. Goheen, USDA Forest Service, personal communication
Jump up ^ Oak, S. W., A. H. Elledge, E. K. Yockey, W. D. Smith, and B. M. Tkacz. 2008. Phytophthora ramorum Early Detection Suveys for Forests in the United States, 2003–2006. Pages 413-416 in Proceedings of the Sudden Oak Death Science Symposium. USDA Forest Service, Santa Rosa, CA.
Jump up ^ Mai, J. A., W. Mark, L. Fischer, and A. Jirka. 2006. Aerial and Ground Surveys for Mapping the Distribution of Phytophthora ramorum in California. Pages 345-360 in Proceedings of the Sudden Oak Death Second Science Symposium: The State of Our Knowledge. USDA Forest Service, Monterey, Calif.
Jump up ^ Murphy, S. K., C. Lee, J. Bienapfl, Y. Valachovic, and D. M. Rizzo. 2006. Monitoring Phytophthora ramorum Distribution in Streams within Coastal California Watersheds. Page 531 in Proceedings of the Sudden Oak Death Second Science Symposium: The State of Our Knowledge, Monterey, Calif.
Jump up ^ Murphy, S. K., C. Lee, Y. Valachovic, J. Bienapfl, W. Mark, A. Jirka, D. R. Owen, T. Smith, and D. M. Rizzo. 2008. Monitoring Phytophthora ramorum Distribution in Streams within Coastal California Watersheds. Pages 409-411 in Proceedings of the Sudden Oak Death Third Science Symposium. USDA Forest Service, Santa Rosa, CA.
Jump up ^ Goheen, E. M.; Hansen, E. M.; Kanaskie, A.; McWilliams, M. G.; Osterbauer, N.; Sutton, W. (2002). "Eradication of Sudden Oak Death in Oregon". Phytopathology. 92: S30.
Jump up ^ Goheen, E.; Hansen, E.; Kanaskie, A.; McWilliams, M.; Osterbauer, N.; Sutton, W.; Rehms, L. (2004). "An Eradication Strategy for Phytophthora ramorum in Oregon Forests". Phytopathology. 94: S35.
Jump up ^ A. Kanaskie, N. Osterbauer, M. McWilliams, E. Goheen, E. Hansen, and W. Sutton. 2006. Eradication of Phytophthora ramorum in Oregon Forests — Status after Three Years. Pages 489-490 in Proceedings of the Sudden Oak Death Second Science Symposium: The State of Our Knowledge. USDA Forest Service, Monterey, Calif.
Jump up ^ citation needed
Jump up ^ Valachovic, Y., C. Lee, J. Marshall, and H. Scanlon. 2008. Wildland Management of Phytophthora ramorum in Northern California Forests. Pages 305-312 in Sudden Oak Death Third Science Symposium. USDA Forest Service, Santa Rosa.
Jump up ^ Kliejunas, J. T. 2007b. Chapter 5: Management and Control. Sudden Oak Death and Phytophthora ramorum: A Summary of the Literature. California Oak Mortality Task Force.
Jump up ^ USDA APHIS. 2007. Phytophthora ramorum; Quarantine and Regulations. Pages 8585-8604 7 CFR Part 301. Federal Register, Washington, D.C.
Jump up ^ Suslow, K. 2008. Recommended Industry Best Management Practices for the Prevention of Phytophthora ramorum Introductions in Nursery Operations. Pages 115-128 in Proceedings of the Sudden Oak Death Third Science Symposium. USDA Forest Service, Santa Rosa, CA.
Jump up ^ HRI P. ramorum Industry Working Group. 2008. Nursery Industry Best Management Practices for Phytophthora ramorum to Prevent the Introduction or Establishment in California Nursery Operations.
Jump up ^ Tjosvold, S. A., D. L. K. Chambers, S., and E. Fichtner. 2006. Epidemiology of Phytophthora ramorum Infecting Rhododendrons under Simulated Nursery Conditions. Pages 459-461 in Proceedings of the Sudden Oak Death Science Symposium: The State of Our Knowledge. USDA Forest Service, Monterey, Calif.
Jump up ^ Werres, S.; Wagner, S.; Brand, T.; Kaminski, K.; Seipp, D. (2007). "Infectivity and Survival of Phytophthora ramorum in Recirculation Water". Plant Disease. 91 (8): 1034–1044. doi:10.1094/pdis-91-8-1034.
Jump up ^ Ufer, T., M. Posner, H.-P. Wessels, S. Wagner, K. Kaminski, T. Brand, and S. Werres. 2008. Four Years Experience with Filtration Systems in Commercial Nurseries for Eliminating Phytophthora Species from Recirculation Water. Page 111 in Proceedings of the Sudden Oak Death Third Science Symposium. USDA Forest Service, Santa Rosa, CA.
Jump up ^ Yakabe, L. E. and J. D. MacDonald. 2008. Soil Treatments for the Elimination of Phytophthora ramorum from Nursery Beds: Current Knowledge from the Laboratory and the Field. Pages 113-114 in Proceedings of the Sudden Oak Death Third Science Symposium. USDA Forest Service, Santa Rosa, CA.
Jump up ^ GB, Forestry Commission,. "Phytophthora ramorum - Tree pests and diseases". www.forestry.gov.uk. Retrieved 25 June 2018.
Jump up ^ http://www.northernireland.gov.uk/index/media-centre/news-departments/news-dard/news-dard-291111-phytophthora-ramorum-disease.htm
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Phytophthora ramorum.
www.suddenoakdeath.org, California Oak Mortality Task Force
Phytophthora ramorum, UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
Sudden Oak Death, Center for Invasive Species Research
Species Profile- Sudden Oak Death (Phytophthora ramorum), National Invasive Species Information Center, United States National Agricultural Library. General information and resources for Sudden Oak Death.
Gallery of Pests — Sudden Oak Death Syndrome, Don't Move Firewood
Taxon identifiers
Wikidata: Q3382075
EPPO: PHYTRA
GBIF: 3203610
iNaturalist: 48802
MycoBank: 474485
NBN: NHMSYS0020721042
NCBI: 164328
NZOR: 5ab811e0-a626-4f2f-a66a-4c0f48d45e3e
uBio: 1629002
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phytophthora_ramorum&oldid=854188429"
Categories:
Phytophthora
Tree diseases
Water mould plant pathogens and diseases
Biota of California
Natural history of the California chaparral and woodlands
Quercus
Species described in 1995
Hidden categories:
Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL
Articles with 'species' microformats
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from December 2014
Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2011
All articles containing potentially dated statements
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2013
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Català
Čeština
Eesti
Español
Français
Nederlands
Polski
Português
Suomi
Edit links
This page was last edited on 9 August 2018, at 15:09 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: p

values:
/wiki/File:Sudden_Oak_Death.jpg
image
Canker on an infected oak

attrs: alt src width height data-file-width data-file-height

values: font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;

values: min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(200,250,80)

values: text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%

values:
/wiki/Plant_pathogen
mw-redirect
Plant pathogen

values:
/wiki/Exotic_species
mw-redirect
Exotic species

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/Notholithocarpus_densiflorus
mw-redirect
Notholithocarpus densiflorus

values: Monarthrum scutellare (page does not exist)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2014)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Coast_live_oak
mw-redirect
Coast live oak

values:
/wiki/California_bay_laurel
mw-redirect
California bay laurel

values:
/wiki/Bigleaf_maple
mw-redirect
Bigleaf maple

values:
/wiki/Coast_redwood
mw-redirect
Coast redwood

values:
/wiki/Rhamnus_californica
mw-redirect
Rhamnus californica

values: Edit section: Introduction as an exotic species

values:
/wiki/Yunnan_province
mw-redirect
Yunnan province

values: Episodic selection (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Yurok_people
mw-redirect
Yurok people

values: plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)

values:
/wiki/Multiplex_PCR
mw-redirect
Multiplex PCR

values:
/wiki/Microsatellite_(genetics)
mw-redirect
Microsatellite (genetics)

values:
/wiki/USDA_Forest_Service
mw-redirect
USDA Forest Service

values: Best management practices (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Slow_sand_filters
mw-redirect
Slow sand filters

values:
/wiki/Metham_sodium
mw-redirect
Metham sodium

values: Edit section: General sanitation in infested areas

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.suddenoakdeath.org

values: Edit section: Government agency involvement

values:
/wiki/Cornwall_County_Council
mw-redirect
Cornwall County Council

values:
/wiki/Environmental_Stewardship
mw-redirect
Environmental Stewardship

values:
/wiki/Countryside_Stewardship
mw-redirect
Countryside Stewardship

values:
/wiki/Environmentally_Sensitive_Area
mw-redirect
Environmentally Sensitive Area

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2011.12.006

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22326131

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1094/PHI-I-2008-0227-01

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.dontmovefirewood.org

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1016/j.funbio.2010.02.009

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20943147

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19019002

values:
nofollow
http://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/1/3/114/
external autonumber

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1139/x11-020

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1094/pdis-91-8-1034

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pramorum

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
http://www.suddenoakdeath.org/
external text

values: United States National Agricultural Library

values:
Taxon_identifiers
row
navbox-group
width:1%;text-align: left;

values:
nofollow
external text
https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/PHYTRA

values: Global Biodiversity Information Facility

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.gbif.org/species/3203610

values:
nofollow
external text
https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/48802

values: National Center for Biotechnology Information

values: Category:Water mould plant pathogens and diseases

values: Category:Natural history of the California chaparral and woodlands

values: Category:Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL

values: Category:Articles with 'species' microformats

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2014

values: Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2011

values: Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2013

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Phytophthora_ramorum
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Phytophthora_ramorum rootpage-Phytophthora_ramorum skin-vector action-view


text:
Attorney General of Malaysia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Attorney General of
Malaysia
Incumbent
Tommy Thomas[1]
since 4 June 2018 (2018-06-04)
Attorney General's Chambers
Style
The Honourable (Malay: Yang Berbahagia)
Reports to
The Prime Minister
Seat
Putrajaya
Appointer
Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the recommendation of the Prime Minister of Malaysia
Term length
No fixed term
Constituting instrument
Article 145 of the Federal Constitution
Formation
1946 (1946)
First holder
Kenneth O'Connor
(as Attorney General
of the Malayan Union)
Deputy
Solicitor General
Website
www.agc.gov.my
The Attorney General of Malaysia (Malay: Peguam Negara; also referred to as the AG) is the principal legal adviser to the Government of Malaysia. The Attorney General is also the highest ranking public prosecutor in the country and is also known as the Public Prosecutor, or simply PP. The powers with regards to prosecution is contained in Article 145(3) of the Federal Constitution. For instance, exercisable at his discretion, the Attorney General may institute, conduct or discontinue any proceedings for an offence, other than proceedings before a Syariah court, a native court or a court-martial.
Unlike a number of other Commonwealth common law jurisdictions, the head of the prosecuting authority in Malaysia is simply known as the Public Prosecutor, or PP, instead of the Director of Public Prosecutions, or DPP. In Malaysia, a prosecuting officer is known as a Deputy Public Prosecutor, also known as DPP, and it should not be confused with the previous meaning.
The AG is also the head of the Attorney General's Chambers. There are separate chambers for the state of Sabah and Sarawak which deals with civil law matters affecting the respective state government. Criminal prosecution duties in Sabah and Sarawak are handled by the Malaysian AG. The other states in Peninsular Malaysia does not have separate chambers.
The AG has often been accused of being partial towards the executive or offering too much deference towards the executive.[2][3] The incumbent AG, Tommy Thomas, is the first non-Malay and non-Muslim Attorney General to hold office after the formation of Malaysia since 1963.[1] Pakatan Harapan leader Anwar Ibrahim clarified that his appointment will not adversely affect the status of Islam in the country.[4]
Contents
1 Article 145
2 List of Attorneys General
3 References
4 External links
Article 145[edit]
The A-G's overall powers, roles, and responsibilities are provided for in Article 145 of the Federal Constitution:
The Yang di-Pertuan Agong shall, on the advice of the Prime Minister, appoint a person who is qualified to be a judge of the Federal Court to be the Attorney General for the Federation.
It shall be the duty of the Attorney General to advise the Yang di-Pertuan Agong or the cabinet or any minister upon such legal matters, and to perform such other duties of a legal character, as may from time to time be referred or assigned to him by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong or the Cabinet, and to discharge the functions conferred on him by or under this Constitution or any other written law.
The Attorney General shall have power, exercisable at his discretion, to institute, conduct or discontinue any proceedings for an offence, other than proceedings before a Syariah court, a native court or a court-martial.
Federal law may confer on the Attorney General power to determine the courts in which or the venue at which any proceedings which he has power under Clause (3) to institute shall be instituted or to which such proceedings shall be transferred.
In the performance of his duties the Attorney General shall have the right of audience in, and shall take precedence over any other person appearing before, any court or tribunal in the Federation.
Subject to Clause (6), the Attorney General shall hold office during the pleasure of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and may at any time resign his office and, unless he is a member of the Cabinet, shall receive such remuneration as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong may determine.
The person holding the office of Attorney General immediately prior to the coming into operation of this Article shall continue to hold the office on terms and conditions not less favourable than those applicable to him immediately before such coming into operation and shall not be removed from office except on the like grounds and in the like manner as a judge of the Federal Court.
List of Attorneys General[edit]
Attorneys General of the Malayan Union
Kenneth O'Connor (1946–1948)
Attorney General of the Federation of Malaya
E. P. S. Bell (1948) (acting)
Stafford Foster Sutton (1948–1950)
Michael Joseph Hogan (1950–1955)
Thomas Vernor Alexander Brodie (1955–1959)
Cecil Majella Sheridan (1959–1963)
Attorneys General of Malaysia[5]
Abdul Kadir Yusuf (1963–1977)
Hamzah Abu Samah (1977–1980)
Abu Talib Othman (1980–1993)
Mohtar Abdullah (1994–2000)
Ainum Mohd Saaid (2001)
Abdul Gani Patail (2002–2015)
Mohamed Apandi Ali (2015–2018)
Engku Nor Faizah Engku Atek (2018) (acting)[6]
Tommy Thomas (2018-present)
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "Malaysian king consents to appointment of Tommy Thomas as Attorney-General". Channel NewsAsia. Mediacorp. 5 June 2018. Retrieved 5 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Malaysian PM pledges police chief, attorney-general not involved in Anwar's sodomy case". International Herald Tribune. 20 July 2008. Retrieved 7 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "The trial of opposition parliamentarian Lim Guan Eng:an update". Amnesty International. 1 March 1997. Archived from the original on 8 August 2009. Retrieved 7 March 2009.
Jump up ^ "Appointing Tommy Thomas as Attorney-General will not affect status of Islam: Anwar Ibrahim". Channel NewsAsia. Mediacorp. 6 June 2018. Retrieved 6 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Roll of Former Attorney Generals". Attorney General's Chambers. Retrieved 5 June 2018.
Jump up ^ "Dr M urged to disclose current status of Apandi and appoint new AG". New Straits Times. 2 June 2018. Retrieved 5 June 2018.
External links[edit]
Attorney General's Chambers of Malaysia
Malaysian Judiciary
Malaysian Bar Council

show
v
t
e
Attorneys General of the British Empire and the United Kingdom
Legend
Current territory
Former territory
* Now a Commonwealth realm
Now a member of the Commonwealth of Nations
show
Europe
1175-1921 Ireland
1708–1757 Menorca
Since 1713 Gibraltar
1763–1782 Menorca
1798–1802 Menorca
1800–1813 Malta (Protectorate)
1813–1964 Malta (Colony)
1807–1890 Heligoland
1809–1864 Ionian Islands
1878–1960 Cyprus
1921–1937 Irish Free State
show
North America
17th century and before 18th century 19th and 20th century
1579 New Albion
1583–1907 Newfoundland
1605–1979 *Saint Lucia
1607–1776 Virginia
Since 1619 Bermuda
1620–1691 Plymouth Colony
1623–1883 Saint Kitts *(Saint Kitts & Nevis)
1624–1966 *Barbados
1625–1650 Saint Croix
1627–1979 *Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
1628–1883 Nevis *(Saint Kitts & Nevis)
1629–1691 Massachusetts Bay Colony
1632–1776 Maryland
since 1632 Montserrat
1632–1860 Antigua *(Antigua & Barbuda)
1636–1776 Connecticut
1636–1776 Rhode Island
1637–1662 New Haven Colony
1643–1860 Bay Islands
Since 1650 Anguilla
1655–1850 Mosquito Coast (protectorate)
1655–1962 *Jamaica
1663–1712 Carolina
1664–1776 New York
1665–1674 and 1702–1776 New Jersey
Since 1666 British Virgin Islands
Since 1670 Cayman Islands
1670–1973 *Bahamas
1670–1870 Rupert's Land
1671–1816 Leeward Islands
1674–1702 East Jersey
1674–1702 West Jersey
1680–1776 New Hampshire
1681–1776 Pennsylvania
1686–1689 Dominion of New England
1691–1776 Massachusetts
1701–1776 Delaware
1712–1776 North Carolina
1712–1776 South Carolina
1713–1867 Nova Scotia
1733–1776 Georgia
1762–1974 *Grenada
1763–1978 Dominica
1763–1873 Prince Edward Island
1763–1791 Quebec
1763–1783 East Florida
1763–1783 West Florida
1784–1867 New Brunswick
1791–1841 Lower Canada
1791–1841 Upper Canada
Since 1799 Turks and Caicos Islands
1818–1846 Columbia District/Oregon Country1
1833–1960 Windward Islands
1833–1960 Leeward Islands
1841–1867 Province of Canada
1849–1866 Vancouver Island
1853–1863 Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands
1858–1866 British Columbia
1859–1870 North-Western Territory
1860–1981 *British Antigua and Barbuda
1862–1863 Stikine Territory
1866–1871 Vancouver Island and British Columbia
1867–1931 *Dominion of Canada2
1871–1964 British Honduras (*Belize)
1882–1983 *Saint Kitts and Nevis
1889–1962 Trinidad and Tobago
1907–1949 Dominion of Newfoundland3
1958–1962 West Indies Federation
1. Occupied jointly with the United States.
2. In 1931, Canada and other British dominions obtained self-government through the Statute of Westminster. See Canada's name.
3. Gave up self-rule in 1934, but remained a de jure Dominion until it joined Canada in 1949.
show
South America
1651–1667 Willoughbyland (Suriname)
1670–1688 Saint Andrew and Providence Islands4
1831–1966 British Guiana (Guyana)
Since 1833 Falkland Islands5
Since 1908 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands5
4. Now the San Andrés y Providencia Department of Colombia.
5. Occupied by Argentina during the Falklands War of April–June 1982.
show
Africa
17th and 18th centuries 19th century 20th century
Since 1658 Saint Helena14
1792–1961 Sierra Leone
1795–1803 Cape Colony
Since 1815 Ascension Island14
Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha14
1806–1910 Cape Colony
1807–1808 Madeira
1810–1968 Mauritius
1816–1965 The Gambia
1856–1910 Natal
1868–1966 Basutoland (Lesotho)
1874–1957 Gold Coast (Ghana)
1882–1922 Egypt
1884–1966 Bechuanaland (Botswana)
1884–1960 British Somaliland
1887–1897 Zululand
1890–1962 Uganda
1890–1963 Zanzibar (Tanzania)
1891–1964 Nyasaland (Malawi)
1891–1907 British Central Africa Protectorate
1893–1968 Swaziland
1895–1920 East Africa Protectorate
1899–1956 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
1900–1914 Northern Nigeria
1900–1914 Southern Nigeria
1900–1910 Orange River Colony
1900–1910 Transvaal Colony
1906–1954 Nigeria Colony
1910–1931 South Africa
1914–1954 Nigeria Colony and Protectorate
1915–1931 South West Africa (Namibia)
1919–1960 Cameroons (Cameroon)6
1920–1963 Kenya
1922–1961 Tanganyika (Tanzania)6
1923–1965 Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)7
1924–1964 Northern Rhodesia (Zambia)
1954–1960 Nigeria
1979–1980 Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)7
6. League of Nations mandate.
7. Self-governing Southern Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence in 1965 (as Rhodesia) and continued as an unrecognised state until the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement. After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003.
show
Asia
17th and 18th century 19th century 20th century
1652–1950 Madras Presidency
1668-1947 Bombay Presidency
1685–1824 Bencoolen (Sumatra)
1702–1705 Pulo Condore
1757–1947 Bengal Presidency (West Bengal (India) and Bangladesh)
1762–1764 Manila and Cavite
1786–1946 Penang (Malaysia)
1795–1948 Ceylon (Sri Lanka)
1796–1965 Maldives
1812–1824 Banka (Sumatra) and Billiton (Sumatra)
1819–1826 British Malaya (West Malaysia and Singapore)
1826–1946 Straits Settlements (Malaysia and Singapore)
1839–1967 Colony of Aden
1839–1842 Afghanistan
1841–1997 Hong Kong
1841–1946 Kingdom of Sarawak (Malaysia)
1848–1946 Labuan (Malaysia)
1858–1947 British India (India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, Burma)
1874–1963 British Borneo (East Malaysia and Brunei)
1879–1919 Afghanistan (protectorate)
1882–1963 British North Borneo (Malaysia)
1885–1946 Unfederated Malay States
1888–1984 Sultanate of Brunei
1891–1971 Muscat and Oman protectorate
1892–1971 Trucial States
1895–1946 Federated Malay States
1898–1930 Weihai Garrison
1878–1960 Cyprus
1907–1949 Bhutan (protectorate)
1918–1961 Kuwait protectorate
1920–1932 Iraq8
1921–1946 Transjordan8
1923–1948 Palestine8
1945–1946 South Vietnam
1946–1963 North Borneo (Malaysia)
1946–1963 Sarawak (Malaysia)
1946–1963 Singapore
1946–1948 Malayan Union
1948–1957 Federation of Malaya (Malaysia)
Since 1960 Akrotiri and Dhekelia (before as part of Cyprus)
Since 1965 British Indian Ocean Territory (before as part of Mauritius and the Seychelles)
8 League of Nations mandate. Iraq's mandate was not enacted and replaced by the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty
show
Oceania
18th and 19th centuries 20th century
1788–1901 New South Wales
1803–1901 Van Diemen's Land/Tasmania
1807–1863 Auckland Islands9
1824–1980 New Hebrides (Vanuatu)
1824–1901 Queensland
1829–1901 Swan River Colony/Western Australia
1836–1901 South Australia
since 1838 Pitcairn Islands
1841–1907 Colony of New Zealand
1851–1901 Victoria
1874–1970 Fiji10
1877–1976 British Western Pacific Territories
1884–1949 Territory of Papua
1888–1901 Cook Islands9
1889–1948 Union Islands (Tokelau)9
1892–1979 Gilbert and Ellice Islands11
1893–1978 British Solomon Islands12
1900–1970 Tonga (protected state)
1900–1974 Niue9
1901–1942 *Commonwealth of Australia
1907–1953 *Dominion of New Zealand
1919–1942 Nauru
1945–1968 Nauru
1919–1949 Territory of New Guinea
1949–1975 Territory of Papua and New Guinea13
9. Now part of the *Realm of New Zealand.
10. Suspended member.
11. Now Kiribati and *Tuvalu.
12. Now the *Solomon Islands.
13. Now *Papua New Guinea.
show
Antarctica and South Atlantic
Since 1658 Saint Helena14
Since 1815 Ascension Island14
Since 1816 Tristan da Cunha14
Since 1908 British Antarctic Territory15
1841–1933 Australian Antarctic Territory (transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia)
1841–1947 Ross Dependency (transferred to the Realm of New Zealand)
14. Since 2009 part of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha; Ascension Island (1922–) and Tristan da Cunha (1938–) were previously dependencies of Saint Helena.
15. Both claimed in 1908; territories formed in 1962 (British Antarctic Territory) and 1985 (South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands).
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Attorney_General_of_Malaysia&oldid=854836275"
Categories:
Politics of Malaysia
Prosecution
Malaysian law
Attorneys General of Malaysia
Hidden categories:
EngvarB from May 2014
Use dmy dates from May 2014
Articles containing Malay-language text
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Bahasa Melayu
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 14 August 2018, at 03:41 (UTC).
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class href

values: mw-jump-link #mw-head

values: mw-jump-link #p-search

value: th

attrs: colspan style

value: tr

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

value: td

values: text-align:center;padding-bottom:0.4em; border-bottom:solid 1px #ccd2d9;

attrs: href title

value: sup

value: b

value: span

values: padding-bottom:0.4em; border-bottom:solid 1px #ccd2d9; line-height:1.4em;

values: Attorney General's Chambers of Malaysia (page does not exist)

values:
nofollow
http://www.agc.gov.my/
external text

values: checkbox button toctogglecheckbox toctogglecheckbox display:none

values:
/wiki/Courts_of_Malaysia
mw-redirect
Courts of Malaysia

values: Stafford Foster Sutton (page does not exist)

values: Thomas Vernor Alexander Brodie (page does not exist)

values: Cecil Majella Sheridan (page does not exist)

values: Engku Nor Faizah Engku Atek (page does not exist)

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.agc.gov.my

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.kehakiman.gov.my

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.malaysianbar.org.my

values: Template:Attorneys General of British overseas territories

values: Template talk:Attorneys General of British overseas territories

values:
;_Legend
:_Current_territory
:_Former_territory
:_Now_a_Commonwealth_realm
:_Now_a_member_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Nations

values:
/wiki/Attorney_General_for_Ireland
mw-redirect
Attorney General for Ireland

values:
/wiki/Malta_Colony
mw-redirect
Malta Colony

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values:
/wiki/British_Saint_Lucia
mw-redirect
British Saint Lucia

values:
/wiki/Saint_Croix,_U.S._Virgin_Islands
mw-redirect
Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands

values: History of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

values: Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

values: Attorney General of the British Virgin Islands

values:
/wiki/British_Dominica
mw-redirect
British Dominica

values:
/wiki/Colony_of_British_Columbia
mw-redirect
Colony of British Columbia

values:
/wiki/British_Antigua_and_Barbuda
mw-redirect
British Antigua and Barbuda

values:
/wiki/Stikine_Territory
mw-redirect
Stikine Territory

values: United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia

values:
/wiki/Attorney_General_of_Canada
mw-redirect
Attorney General of Canada

values:
/wiki/Attorney_General_of_Belize
mw-redirect
Attorney General of Belize

values: Attorney General of Saint Kitts and Nevis

values:
/wiki/British_Dominions
mw-redirect
British Dominions

values:
/wiki/Canada%27s_name
mw-redirect
Canada's name

values: Territory of Willoughbyland (page does not exist)

values: South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

values:
/wiki/British_Gambia
mw-redirect
British Gambia

values:
/wiki/Swaziland_Protectorate
mw-redirect
Swaziland Protectorate

values:
/wiki/Tanganyika_Territory
mw-redirect
Tanganyika Territory

values: Federation of Nigeria (British territory)

values: Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence

values:
/wiki/Pulo_Condore_(island)
mw-redirect
Pulo Condore (island)

values: Attorneys General of the Straits Settlements (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/Attorney_General_of_Hong_Kong
mw-redirect
Attorney General of Hong Kong

values:
/wiki/Brunei_Sultanate
mw-redirect
Brunei Sultanate

values:
/wiki/Kuwait_protectorate
mw-redirect
Kuwait protectorate

values:
/wiki/British_Mandate_of_Mesopotamia
mw-redirect
British Mandate of Mesopotamia

values:
/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_Treaty
mw-redirect
Anglo-Iraqi Treaty

values:
/wiki/Colony_of_South_Australia
mw-redirect
Colony of South Australia

values:
/wiki/Colonial_Fiji
mw-redirect
Colonial Fiji

values:
/wiki/History_of_Australia_(1901-1945)
mw-redirect
History of Australia (1901-1945)

values:
/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Australia
mw-redirect
Commonwealth of Australia

values: Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

values: nowraplinks plainlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-collapsible mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed

values: Category:Articles containing Malay-language text

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Attorney_General_of_Malaysia
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values: 马来西亚总检察长 – Chinese

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Attorney_General_of_Malaysia rootpage-Attorney_General_of_Malaysia skin-vector action-view