text:
List of South American countries by population
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This is a list of the countries of South American countries and dependent territories by population, which is sorted by the 2015 mid-year normalized demographic projections.
Table[edit]
Rank
Country
(or dependent territory)
July 1, 2015
projection[1]
% of
pop.
Average
relative
annual
growth
(%)[2]
Average
absolute
annual
growth
[3]
Estimated
doubling
time
(years)[4]
Official
figure
(where
available)
Date of
last figure
Source
1 Brazil 204,519,000 49.36 0.86 1,750,000 81 209,039,000 April 3, 2018 Official population clock
2 Colombia 48,549,000 11.64 1.16 555,000 60 49,678,000 April 3, 2018 Official population clock
3 Argentina 43,132,000 10.41 1.09 463,000 64 43,590,368 July 1, 2016 Official estimate
4 Peru 31,153,000 7.52 1.10 338,000 64 31,488,625 June 30, 2016 Official estimate
5 Venezuela 30,620,000 7.39 1.37 414,000 51 31,028,637 2016 Official estimate
6 Chile 18,006,000 4.35 1.05 187,000 66 18,191,884 2016 Official estimate
7 Ecuador 16,279,000 3.93 1.57 252,000 44 16,983,800 April 3, 2018 Official population clock
8 Bolivia 10,520,000 2.54 1.73 179,000 40 10,985,059 2016 Official estimate
9 Paraguay 7,003,000 1.69 1.58 109,000 44 6,854,536 2016 Official estimate
10 Uruguay 3,310,000 0.80 0.18 6,000 382 3,480,222 June 30, 2016 Official estimate
11 Guyana 747,000 0.18 0.00 0 - 747,884 September 15, 2012 Preliminary 2012 census result
12 Suriname 560,000 0.14 1.08 6,000 64 541,638 August 13, 2012 Final 2012 census result
13 French Guiana (France) 262,000 0.06 2.75 7,000 26 239,648 January 1, 2012 Official estimate
14 Falkland Islands (UK)[5] 3,000 0.00 0.00 0 - 2,563 April 15, 2012 Final 2012 census result
Total 414,663,000 100.00 1.04 4,266,000 67
South American population by country (top 8).
Brazil (49.36%)
Colombia (11.64%)
Argentina (10.41%)
Peru (7.52%)
Venezuela (7.39%)
Chile (4.35%)
Ecuador (3.93%)
Bolivia (2.54%)
Other (2.86%)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Calculated, when available, from the latest national censuses or most recent official estimates (many of which are cited in their respective column), using the exponential formula shown on the List of countries by past and future population article. This is done to normalize the different populations to a unique date, so that they are really comparable.
Jump up ^ It corresponds to the following formula: projection2015/projection2014x100-100.
Jump up ^ It corresponds to the calculation: projection2015*annual_growth/100.
Jump up ^ It corresponds to the formula: LN(2)/LN(growth/100+1), which produces exactly the same result as LOG10(2)/LOG10(growth/100+1).
Jump up ^ Islands claimed by Argentina. Possessed by the British from 5 January 1833, it was briefly captured by the Argentinian forces during the Falklands War (April 2-June 14, 1982)
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text:
Great Railroad Strike of 1877
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Great Railroad Strike of 1877
Blockade of engines at Martinsburg, West Virginia, 16 July 1877
Date
July 14 – September 4, 1877
Goals
Wage increases
Methods
Strikes, Protest, Demonstrations
Parties to the civil conflict
Railroad workers; Workingmen's Party
Federal troops
Lead figures
Monroe Heath
The Great Railroad Strike of 1877, sometimes referred to as the Great Upheaval, began on July 14 in Martinsburg, West Virginia, United States after the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) cut wages for the third time in a year. This strike finally ended some 45 days later, after it was put down by local and state militias, and federal troops. Because of economic problems and pressure on wages by the railroads, workers in numerous other cities, in New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland, into Illinois and Missouri, also went out on strike. An estimated 100 people were killed in the unrest across the country. In Martinsburg, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia and other cities, workers burned down and destroyed both physical facilities and the rolling stock of the railroads—engines and railroad cars. Local populations feared that workers were rising in revolution such as the Paris Commune of 1871.
At the time, the workers were not represented by trade unions. The city and state governments organized armed militias, aided by national guard, federal troops and private militias organized by the railroads, who fought against the workers. Disruption was widespread and at its height, the strikes were supported by about 100,000 workers. With the intervention of federal troops in several locations, most of the strikes were suppressed by early August. Labor continued to work to organize into unions to work for better wages and conditions. Fearing the social disruption, many cities built armories to support their militias; these defensive buildings still stand as symbols of the effort to suppress the labor unrest of this period.
With public attention on workers' wages and conditions, the B&O in 1880 founded an Employee Relief Association to provide death benefits and some health care. In 1884 it established a worker pension plan. Other improvements generally had to await further economic growth and associated wage increases.
Contents
[hide]
1 The Panic and Long Depression
2 Causes of the strike
3 The strike
3.1 Maryland
3.2 New York
3.3 Pennsylvania
3.3.1 Pittsburgh
3.3.2 Philadelphia
3.3.3 Reading
3.3.4 Shamokin
3.3.5 Scranton
3.4 Illinois
3.5 Missouri
4 Strike over
5 Aftermath and legacy
5.1 Economic effects
5.2 Labor relations
5.3 National Guard
5.4 Commemoration
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
8.1 Scholarly studies
8.2 Popular history
9 External links
The Panic and Long Depression[edit]
The Long Depression, beginning in the United States with the financial Panic of 1873 and lasting 65 months, became the longest economic contraction in American history, including the later more famous, 45-month-long Great Depression of the 1930s.[1][2] The failure of the Jay Cooke bank in New York, was followed quickly by that of Henry Clews, and set off a chain reaction of bank failures, temporarily closing the New York stock market.[3]:65
Unemployment rose dramatically, reaching 14 percent by 1876, many more were severely underemployed, and wages overall dropped to 45% of their previous level.[4] Thousands of American businesses failed, defaulting on more than a billion dollars of debt.[5] One in four laborers in New York were out of work in the winter of 1873-1874.[5]:167 National construction of new rail lines dropped from 7,500 miles of track in 1872 to just 1,600 miles in 1875,[6] and production in iron and steel alone dropped as much as 45%.[7][5]:167
Causes of the strike[edit]
When the Civil War ended, a boom in railroad construction ensued, with roughly 55,000 kilometers (35,000 miles) of new track being laid from coast-to-coast between 1866 and 1873. The railroads, then the second largest employer outside of agriculture, required large amounts of capital investment, and thus entailed massive financial risk. Speculators fed large amounts of money into the industry, causing abnormal growth and over-expansion. Jay Cooke's firm, like many other banking firms, invested a disproportionate share of depositors' funds in the railroads, thus paving the way for the ensuing collapse.[citation needed]
In addition to Cooke's direct infusion of capital in the railroads, the firm had become a federal agent for the government in the government's direct financing of railroad construction. As building new track in areas where land had not yet been cleared or settled required land grants and loans that only the government could provide, the use of Jay Cooke's firm as a conduit for federal funding worsened the effects that Cooke's bankruptcy had on the nation's economy.[citation needed]
In the wake of the Panic of 1873, a bitter antagonism between workers and the leaders of industry developed. Immigration from Europe was underway, as was migration of rural workers into the cities, increasing competition for jobs and enabling companies to drive down wages and easily lay off workers. By 1877, 10 percent wage cuts, distrust of capitalists and poor working conditions led to workers conducting numerous railroad strikes that prevented the trains from moving, with spiraling effects in other parts of the economy. Suppressed by violence, workers continued to organize to try to improve their conditions. Management worked to break up such movements, and mainstream society and the Catholic Church feared labor organizing as signs of revolutionary socialism. Tensions lingered well after the depression ended in 1878–79.[citation needed]
Many of the new immigrant workers were Catholics, and their church had forbidden participation in secret societies since 1743, partially as a reaction against the anti-Catholicism of Freemasonry. But by the late 19th century, the Knights of Labor, a national and predominately Catholic organization, had 700,000 members seeking to represent all workers. In 1888 Archbishop James Cardinal Gibbons of Baltimore sympathized with the workers and collaborated with other bishops to lift the prohibition against workers joining the KOL. Other workers also took actions, and unrest marked the following decades. In 1886 Samuel Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor for the skilled craft trades, attracting skilled workers from other groups. Other labor organizing followed.[8]
The strike[edit]
Maryland National Guard's Sixth Regiment fighting its way west along main downtown commercial thoroughfare Baltimore Street through Baltimore, Maryland, 20 July 1877
The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 started on July 14 in Martinsburg, West Virginia, in response to the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (B&O) cutting wages of workers for the third time in a year. Striking workers would not allow any of the trains, mainly freight trains, to roll until this third wage cut was revoked. West Virginia Governor Henry M. Mathews sent in state militia units to restore train service but the soldiers refused to fire on the strikers. The governor in Charleston, West Virginia then appealed for federal troops.
Maryland[edit]
Main article: Baltimore railroad strike of 1877
Meanwhile, the Strike also spread into western Maryland to the major railroad hub of Cumberland, county seat of Allegany County where railway workers stopped freight and passenger traffic.
In Baltimore with the famous Fifth ("Dandy Fifth") and Sixth Regiments of the former state militia, now reorganized since the war as the Maryland National Guard were also called up by 37th Maryland Governor John Lee Carroll, (1830-1911), in Annapolis at the request of powerful B. & O. President John Work Garrett, (1820-1884). The Fifth marched down North Howard Street from their armory above the old Richmond Market (at present North Howard and West Read Streets) in the Mount Vernon-Belvedere neighborhood and were generally unopposed heading south for the B. & O.'s general headquarters and main depot at the Camden Street Station to board the waiting westward trains to Hagerstown and Cumberland. But the unfortunate Sixth assembled at their armory at East Fayette and North Front Streets (by the old Phoenix Shot Tower) in the Old Town /Jonestown area and had to fight their way west through regular sympathetic Baltimore citizens, rioters and striking workers which erupted into bloodshed along main downtown commercial thoroughfare of Baltimore Street to get to Camden. It was a horrible scene reminiscent of the worst of the bloody "Pratt Street Riots" of the Civil War era disturbances of April 1861, over 15 years earlier of the "first bloodshed" of the war. When the outnumbered troops of the 6th Regiment finally fired volleys on an attacking crowd on Baltimore Street, they killed 10 civilians and wounded 25.[9] The rioters injured several members of the militia, damaged B. & O. engines and train cars, and burned portions of the train station at South Howard and West Camden Streets.[9] The militia remained trapped in the surrounding Camden Yards, besieged by armed rioters until July 21–22, when the 19th President Rutherford B. Hayes sent federal troops and the U.S. Marines to Baltimore to restore order.
New York[edit]
There were strike actions also further north in Albany, Syracuse and Buffalo, New York on other railroad lines. Workers in the cities in industries other than railroads still attacked them because of how they cut through the cities and dominated city life. Their resentment of the railroads' economic power was expressed in physical attacks against them at a time when many workers' wages were lowered. Protestors "included cross-class elements from other work sites, small businesses, and commercial establishments. Some protestors acted out of solidarity with the strikers, but many more vented militant displeasure against dangerous railroad traffic that crisscrossed urban centers in that area."[10]
Pennsylvania[edit]
Pittsburgh[edit]
Main article: Pittsburgh railroad strike of 1877
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania became the site of the worst violence of related strikes. Thomas Alexander Scott of the Pennsylvania Railroad, described as one of the first robber barons, suggested that the strikers should be given "a rifle diet for a few days and see how they like that kind of bread."[11] As in some other cities and towns, local law enforcement officers such as sheriffs, deputies and police refused to fire on the strikers. Several state militia units were ordered into service by Governor John Hartranft, including the 3rd Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment under the command of Colonel George R. Snowden.[12]
Burning of Pennsylvania Railroad and Union Depot, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 21–22 July 1877, engraving from Harper's Weekly
Burning of Union Depot, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 21–22 July 1877, engraving from Harper's Weekly
On July 21, militiamen bayoneted and fired on rock-throwing strikers, killing 20 people and wounding 29.[13] Rather than quell the uprising, these actions infuriated the strikers, who retaliated and forced the militia to take refuge in a railroad roundhouse. Strikers set fires that razed 39 buildings and destroyed rolling stock: 104 locomotives and 1,245 freight and passenger cars. On July 22, the militia mounted an assault on the strikers, shooting their way out of the roundhouse and killing 20 more people on their way out of the city. After more than a month of rioting and bloodshed in Pittsburgh, President Rutherford B. Hayes sent in federal troops as in West Virginia and Maryland to end the strikes and strife.
Philadelphia[edit]
Three hundred miles to the east, Philadelphia strikers battled local militia and set fire to much of Center City before Pennsylvania Governor John Hartranft gained assistance and federal troops from President Hayes to put down the uprising.
Reading[edit]
Main article: Reading Railroad Massacre
Workers in Reading, Pennsylvania's third-largest industrial city at the time, also broke out into a strike. This city was home of the engine works and shops of the Reading Railroad, against which engineers had struck since April 1877. State militia shot 16 citizens. Preludes to the massacre included: fresh work stoppage by all classes of the railroad's local workforce; mass marches; blocking of rail traffic; and trainyard arson. Workers burned down the only railroad bridge offering connections to the west, in order to prevent local militia from being mustered to actions in the state capital of Harrisburg or Pittsburgh. Authorities used state militia, local police and the Pennsylvania Pinkerton National Detective Agency in an attempt to break the strike.[14] Reading Railroad management mobilized a private militia, which members committed the shootings in the city. This militia was not mobilized by local public officials.[15]
Shamokin[edit]
Main article: 1877 Shamokin uprising
On July 25, 1000 men and boys, many of them coal miners, marched to the Reading Railroad Depot in Shamokin, east of Sunbury along the Susquehanna River valley. They looted the depot when the town announced it would pay them only $1/day for emergency public employment. The mayor, who owned coal mines, organized a city militia. It committed 14 civilian shooting casualties, resulting in the deaths of two persons.[citation needed]
Scranton[edit]
Main article: Scranton General Strike
On August 1, 1877, in Scranton in northeast Pennsylvania, one day after railroad workers conceded a strike, a city posse of 51 men armed with new rifles and under the command of William Walker Scranton, general manager of the Lackawanna Iron & Coal Company,[16] returned fire at a group of rioters, strikers, and, most likely, bystanders. The posse killed or fatally wounded four and wounded an undetermined number of others, estimated at 20 to 50, according to different sources.[17][18]
Pennsylvania Governor Hartranft declared Scranton to be under martial law; it was occupied by state and federal troops armed with Gatling guns. Later the posse leader and about 20 of his men were charged with assault and murder. They were all acquitted. Under the effects of the shootings and military occupation, the miners ended their strike without gaining any of their demands.[17][19]
Illinois[edit]
Main article: Chicago railroad strike of 1877
On July 24, rail traffic in Chicago was paralyzed when angry mobs of unemployed citizens wreaked havoc in the rail yards, shutting down both the Baltimore and Ohio and the Illinois Central railroads. Soon, other railroads throughout the state were brought to a standstill, with demonstrators shutting down railroad traffic in Bloomington, Aurora, Peoria, Decatur, Urbana and other rail centers throughout Illinois. In sympathy, coal miners in the pits at Braidwood, LaSalle, Springfield, and Carbondale went on strike as well. In Chicago, the Workingmen's Party organized demonstrations that drew crowds of 20,000 people.
Judge Thomas Drummond of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, who was overseeing numerous railroads that had declared bankruptcy in the wake of the earlier financial Panic of 1873, ruled that "A strike or other unlawful interference with the trains will be a violation of the United States law, and the court will be bound to take notice of it and enforce the penalty."[20] Drummond told the U.S. Marshals to protect the railroads, and asked for federal troops to enforce his decision: he subsequently had strikers arrested and tried them for contempt of court.[20]
The Mayor of Chicago, Monroe Heath, recruited 5,000 men as volunteer militia, asking for help in restoring order. They were partially successful, and shortly thereafter were reinforced by the arrival of the Illinois National Guard and U.S. Army troops, mobilized by the governor. On July 25, violence between police and the mob erupted, with events reaching a peak the following day. These blood-soaked confrontations between police and enraged mobs are known as the Battle of the Viaduct as they took place near the Halsted Street viaduct, although confrontations also took place at nearby 16th Street, on 12th, and on Canal Street. The headline of the Chicago Times screamed, "Terrors Reign, The Streets of Chicago Given Over to Howling Mobs of Thieves and Cutthroats."[13] Order was finally restored. An estimated 20 men and boys died, none of whom were law enforcement or troops; scores more were wounded; and the loss of property was valued in the millions of dollars.
Missouri[edit]
Main article: 1877 St. Louis general strike
On July 21, disgruntled workers in the industrial rail hub of East St. Louis, Illinois, halted all freight traffic, with the city remaining in the control of the strikers for almost a week. The St. Louis Workingman's Party led a group of approximately 500 men across the Missouri River in an act of solidarity with the nearly 1,000 workers on strike. It was a catalyst for labor unrest spreading, with thousands of workers in several industries striking for the eight-hour day and a ban on child labor. This was the first such general strike in the United States.[21]
The strike on both sides of the river was ended after the governor appealed for help and gained the intervention of some 3,000 federal troops and 5,000 deputized special police. These armed forces killed at least eighteen people in skirmishes around the city. On July 28, 1877, they took control of the Relay Depot, the Commune's command center, and arrested some seventy strikers.
Strike over[edit]
The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 began to lose momentum when President Hayes sent federal troops from city to city. These troops suppressed strike after strike, until at last, approximately 45 days after it had started, the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 was over.[citation needed]
Aftermath and legacy[edit]
Economic effects[edit]
Strikers in Pittsburgh burned in total 39 buildings, 104 engines, 46–66 passenger cars, and 1,200–1,383 freight cars.[22][23] Damage estimates ranged from five to 10 million dollars.[24][25]:118
Labor relations[edit]
After the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, union organizers planned for their next battles while politicians and business leaders took steps to prevent a repetition of this chaos. Many states enacted conspiracy statutes. States formed new militia units and constructed National Guard armories in numerous industrial cities. For workers and employers alike, the strikes had shown the power of workers in combination to challenge the status quo. A state militiaman in Pittsburgh, ordered to break the 1877 strike, pointed out that the workers were driven by "one spirit and one purpose among them -– that they were justified in resorting to any means to break down the power of the corporations."[citation needed]
Unions became better organized as well as more competent, and the number of strikes increased. The Knights of Labor grew to be a national organization of predominately Catholic workers, numbering 700,000 by the early 1880s. In the 1880s nearly 10,000 strike actions and lockouts took place. In 1886 nearly 700,000 workers went on strike. Business leaders strengthened their opposition to the unions, often firing men who tried to organize or join them. Nonetheless, the labor movement continued to grow.
One result of the strike was increased public awareness of the grievances of railroad workers. On May 1, 1880, the B&O Railroad, which had the lowest wage rate of any major railroad, established the Baltimore and Ohio Employees' Relief Association, which provided coverage for sickness, injury from accidents, and a death benefit.[26][27] In 1884, the B&O became the first major employer to offer a pension plan.[26]
National Guard[edit]
Attempts to utilize local militia to quell violent outbreaks in 1877 highlighted their ineffectiveness, and in some cases their propensity to outright side with strikers and rioters. In response, as earlier riots in the mid 1800s had prompted the modernization of police forces, the violence of 1877 provided the impetus for the formation of the modern National Guard, "to aid the civil officers, to suppress or prevent riot or insurrections."[28]:118[29]:30
Commemoration[edit]
In 2003 the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Martinsburg Shops, where the strike began, were declared a National Historic Landmark.[30][31]
In 2013 a historical marker commemorating the event was placed in Baltimore, MD, by the Maryland Historical Trust and Maryland State Highway Administration. Its inscription reads:
The first national strike began July 16, 1877, with Baltimore and Ohio Railroad workers in Martinsburg, West Virginia, and Baltimore, Maryland. It spread across the nation halting rail traffic and closing factories in reaction to widespread worker discontent over wage cuts and conditions during a national depression. Broken by Federal troops in early August, the strike energized the labor movement and was precursor to labor unrest in the 1880s and 1890s.[32]
Another was placed in 1978 in Martinsburg, WV by the West Virginia Department of Culture and History.[33]
See also[edit]
Organized labour portal
Railways portal
Great Railroad Strike of 1922
History of rail transport in the United States
List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Masur, Gerhard (1970). Imperial Berlin. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0465032095.
Jump up ^ Shelton, Josh. "Pages from US Labor History: The Great Railroad Strike of 1877". Archived from the original on November 19, 2003. Retrieved May 25, 2008. (Saved version of article available at )
^ Jump up to: a b c Philip Mark Katz (1998). Appomattox to Montmartre: Americans and the Paris Commune. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-32348-3.
Jump up ^ Paul Kleppner, "The Greenback and Prohibition Parties," in Arthur M. Schlesinger (ed.), History of U.S. Political Parties: Volume II, 1860–1910, The Gilded Age of Politics. New York: Chelsea House/R.R. Bowker Co., 1973; pg. 1556.
Jump up ^ David Glasner, Thomas F. Cooley (1997). "Depression of 1873-1879". Business Cycles and Depressions: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-8240-0944-4.
Jump up ^ "The Catholic Church and the Knights of Labor", American Catholic History Classroom, The Catholic University of America, accessed 20 May 2016
^ Jump up to: a b Scharf, J. Thomas (1967) [1st. Pub. 1879]. "History of Maryland From the Earliest Period to the Present Day". 3. Hatboro, PA: Tradition Press: 733–42.
Jump up ^ Scott Molloy, "Book Review: Streets, Railroads, and the Great Strike of 1877 By David O. Stowell", Technology and Culture 41.3 (2000) 636-638, via Project MUSE, accessed 20 May 2016
Jump up ^ Ingham, John N., Biographical Dictionary of American Business Leaders: N-U, Greenwood Press, 1983.
Jump up ^ "The Great Strike". The National Guardsman. New York: Charles A. Coffin. I (2 (Supplement)): 37. 1877-09-01.
^ Jump up to: a b "The Great Strike of 1877: Remembering a Worker Rebellion". UE News. June 2002. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
Jump up ^ Singer, Merrill (2007). Drugging the Poor: Legal and Illegal Drugs and Social Inequality. Waveland Press. pp. 47–48. ISBN 1478610247.
Jump up ^ Zinn, Howard (1995). A People's History of the United States 1492-present. New York: Harper Collins. p. 248. ISBN 0-06-052842-7. Retrieved 2009-10-05.
Jump up ^ Cutter, William, ed. (1913). New England Families, Genealogical and Memorial: A Record of the Achievements of Her People in the Making of Commonwealths and the Founding of a Nation, Volume 4. Lewis Historical Publishing Company. p. 1841. Retrieved 2015-09-11.
^ Jump up to: a b Hitchcock, Frederick L. (1914). History of Scranton and Its People. I. New York: Lewis Historical Publishing Co. pp. 496–516.
Jump up ^ "Hyde Park History". Retrieved 2015-09-11.
Jump up ^ Logan, Samuel C. (1887). A City's Danger and Defense. Philadelphia: J.B. Rogers.
^ Jump up to: a b Cahan, Richard (2002). A Court That Shaped America: Chicago's Federal District Court from Abe Lincoln to Abbie Hoffman. Northwestern University Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN 0-8101-1981-1. Retrieved 2009-10-05.
Jump up ^ Brecher, Jeremy (1974). "Strike!" (3rd ed.). Fawcett Publications.
Jump up ^ "The Great Railroad Strike of 1877"- Digital History ID 1097, Digital History, University of Houston (and others), accessed 27 May 2016
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Jump up ^ Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots in July, 1877, Harrisburg: L.S. Hart, state printer, 1878, p. 19
Jump up ^ McCabe, James Dabney; Edward Winslow Martin. The History of the Great Riots: The Strikes and Riots on the Various Railroads of the United States and in the Mining Regions Together with a Full History of the Molly Maguires.
^ Jump up to: a b Gillett, Sylvia (1991). "Camden Yards and the Strike of 1877". In Fee, Elizabeth, Shopes, Linda; and Zeidman, Linda (eds.). The Baltimore Book: New Views of Local History. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. pp. 11–14. ISBN 0-87722-823-X. CS1 maint: Uses editors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Guide to the Baltimore and Ohio Employees Relief Association, Annual Reports, 1880-1918. Special Collections Research Center, Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library, The George Washington University.
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Jump up ^ Brown, Richard (1975). Strain of Violence: Historical Studies of American Violence and Vigilantism. Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ "Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Martinsburg Shops". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Retrieved 2007-10-13.
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Jump up ^ "Great Railroad Strike of 1877". Historical Marker Project. 15 September 2014. Retrieved 2 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Roundhouses and Shops / Railroad Strike of 1877". Historical Marker Project. 27 September 2014. Retrieved 2 June 2016.
Further reading[edit]
"The Great Strike", Harper's Weekly, August 11, 1877. (Catskill Archive)
"The B&O Railroad Strike of 1877." The Statesman (Martinsburg, WV), July 24, 1877. (West Virginia Division of Culture and History)
"Catholics and Labor Unionization", American Catholic History Classroom, The Catholic University of America; Overview, archives and primary documents
Scholarly studies[edit]
Bruce, Robert V. (1959) [1st pub. 1957]. 1877: Year of Violence. I.R. Dee. ISBN 9780929587059.
Mofford, Juliet Haines (editor). Talkin' Union: The American Labor Movement. Carlisle, MA: Discovery Enterprises, Ltd., 1997.
Salvatore, Nick. "Railroad Workers and the Great Strike of 1877," Labor History (1980) 21#4 pp 522–45
Stowell, David O. Streets, Railroads, and the Great Strike of 1877, University of Chicago Press, 1999
Stowell, David O., editor. The Great Strikes of 1877, University of Illinois Press, 2008
Yearley, Clifton K., Jr. "The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Strike of 1877," Maryland Historical Magazine (1956) 51#3 pp. 118–211.
White, Richard. "Railroaded." W.EW. Norton, 2011.
Popular history[edit]
Illinois Museum of History
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Great Railroad Strike of 1877.
"The Strike of 1877." Teaching Resources—Maryland State Archives
Bruce Lesh, "Using Primary Sources to Teach the Rail Strike of 1877", OAH Magazine of History Vol. 13, No. 4, The Gilded Age (Summer, 1999), pp. 38–47, via JSTOR
"The Great Railway Strike of 1877 and Newspaper Coverage". Railroads and the Making of Modern America. University of Nebraska Lincoln. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
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The Giving Tree
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Giving Tree
Cover depicting the tree giving away an apple
Author
Shel Silverstein
Genre
Children's picture book
Publisher
Harper & Row
Publication date
October 7, 1964
ISBN
978-0-06-025665-4
The Giving Tree Garden in Holon, Israel
The Giving Tree is a children's picture book written and illustrated by Shel Silverstein. First published in 1964 by Harper & Row, it has become one of Silverstein's best known titles and has been translated into numerous languages.
Despite the recognition that the book has received, it has been described as "one of the most divisive books in children’s literature."[1] The controversy concerns whether the relationship between the main characters (a boy and a tree) should be interpreted as positive (i.e., the tree gives the boy selfless love) or as negative (i.e., the boy and the tree have an abusive relationship).[2][3][4] Scholastic designates the interest level of this book to range from kindergarten to second grade.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Plot summary
3 Reception
4 Interpretations
4.1 Religious interpretations
4.2 Environmental interpretation
4.3 Friendship interpretation
4.4 Parent-child interpretation
4.5 Interpretation as satire
5 Critics
6 Author's photograph
7 Other versions
8 Cultural influences and adaptations
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Background[edit]
Silverstein had difficulty finding a publisher for The Giving Tree.[6][7] An editor at Simon & Schuster rejected the book's manuscript because he felt that it was "too sad" for children and "too simple" for adults.[6][7] Tomi Ungerer encouraged Silverstein to approach Ursula Nordstrom, who was a publisher with Harper & Row.[6]
An editor with Harper & Row stated that Silverstein had made the original illustrations "scratchy" like his cartoons for Playboy, but that he later reworked the art in a "more pared-down and much sweeter style."[3] The final black-and-white drawings have been described as "unadorned… visual minimalism."[2] Harper & Row published a small first edition of the book, consisting of only 5,000–7,500 copies, in 1964.[8]
Plot summary[edit]
The book follows the lives of a female apple tree and a boy, who develop a relationship with one another. The tree is very "giving" and the boy evolves into a "taking" teenager, man, then elderly man. Despite the fact that the boy ages in the story, the tree addresses the boy as "Boy" his entire life.
In his childhood, the boy enjoys playing with the tree, climbing her trunk, swinging from her branches, and eating her apples. However, as the boy grows older, he spends less time with the tree and tends to visit her only when he wants material items at various stages of his life. In an effort to make the boy happy at each of these stages, the tree gives him parts of herself, which he can transform into material items, such as money (from her apples), a house (from her branches), and a boat (from her trunk). With every stage of giving, "the Tree was happy".
In the final pages, both the tree and the boy feel the sting of their respective "giving" and "taking" nature. When only a stump remains for the tree, she is not happy, at least at that moment. The boy does return as a tired elderly man to meet the tree once more and states that all he wants is "a quiet place to sit and rest," which the tree could provide. With this final stage of giving, "the Tree was happy".
Reception[edit]
Interest in the book increased by word of mouth; for example, in churches "it was hailed as a parable on the joys of giving."[6] As of 2001, over 5 million copies of the book had been sold, placing it 14th on a list of hardcover "All-Time Bestselling Children's Books" from Publishers Weekly.[9] By 2011, 8.5 million copies of the book had been sold.[7]
In a 1999-2000 National Education Association online survey of children, among the "Kids' Top 100 Books," the book was 24th.[10] Based on a 2007 online "Teachers' Top 100 Books for Children" poll by the National Education Association, the book came in third.[11] It was 85th of the "Top 100 Picture Books" of all time in a 2012 poll by School Library Journal.[12] Scholastic Parent & Child magazine placed it #9 on its list of "100 Greatest Books for Kids" in 2012.[13] As of 2013, it ranked third on a Goodreads list of "Best Children's Books."[14]
Interpretations[edit]
This section contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. (April 2015)
The book has generated various opinions on how to interpret the relationship between the tree and the boy. Some possible interpretations include:[15][16]
Religious interpretations[edit]
Ursula Nordstrom attributed the book's success partially to "Protestant ministers and Sunday-school teachers", who believed that the tree represents "the Christian ideal of unconditional love."[17]
Environmental interpretation[edit]
Some people believe that the tree represents Mother Nature and the boy represents humanity. That is, the book is an "allegory about the responsibilities a human being has for living organisms in the environment,"[18] that is, as a "what-not-to-do role model."[16] The book has been used to teach children environmental ethics.[19] By the last drawing (in which the old man sits on the stump) it is clear that the boy has used the tree up completely and there is only one use left, which is to be a seat for the old man. The man seems to have little appreciation or remorse for how he has abused the tree.[20] The condition of the tree depicts how humans are constantly taking from the environment until there is nothing left to enjoy, neither beauty nor bounty.
Friendship interpretation[edit]
Some people believe that the relationship between the boy and the tree is one of friendship. As such, the book teaches children "as your life becomes polluted with the trappings of the modern world — as you 'grow up' — your relationships tend to suffer if you let them fall to the wayside."[20] One criticism of this interpretation is that the tree appears to be an adult when the boy is young, and cross-generational friendships are rare.[20]
Parent-child interpretation[edit]
The most-discussed interpretation of the book is that the tree and the boy have a parent-child relationship, as in a 1995 collection of essays about the book edited by Richard John Neuhaus in the journal First Things.[21] Among the essayists, some were positive about the relationship; for example, Amy A. Kass wrote about the story that "it is wise and it is true about giving and about motherhood," and her husband Leon R. Kass encourages people to read the book because the tree "is an emblem of the sacred memory of our own mother's love."[21] However, other essayists put forth negative views. Mary Ann Glendon wrote that the book is "a nursery tale for the 'me' generation, a primer of narcissism, a catechism of exploitation," while Jean Bethke Elshtain felt that the story ends with the tree and the boy "both wrecks."[21]
A 1998 study using phenomenographic methods found that Swedish children and mothers tended to interpret the book as dealing with friendship, while Japanese mothers tended to interpret the book as dealing with parent-child relationships.[15]
Interpretation as satire[edit]
Some authors believe that the book is not actually intended for children, but instead should be treated as a satire aimed at adults along the lines of A Modest Proposal by Jonathan Swift.[22][23]
Critics[edit]
Many writers harshly criticize the book for the way in which it depicts the relationship:[24]
Totally self-effacing, the 'mother' treats her 'son' as if he were a perpetual infant, while he behaves toward her as if he were frozen in time as an importunate baby. This overrated picture book thus presents as a paradigm for young children a callously exploitative human relationship — both across genders and across generations. It perpetuates the myth of the selfless, all-giving mother who exists only to be used and the image of a male child who can offer no reciprocity, express no gratitude, feel no empathy — an insatiable creature who encounters no limits for his demands.
Other writers[who?] would counter-argue that the assumption that the story represents a mother-child relationship may be incorrect and that the tree may continually refer to the boy as "Boy" because the boy never emotionally matures and perpetually acts like a child.
Critics of the book point out that the boy never thanks the tree for its gifts.[25] An editor with Harper & Row was quoted as saying that the book is "about a sadomasochistic relationship" and that it "elevates masochism to the level of a good."[3]
One college instructor discovered that the book caused both male and female remedial reading students to be angry because they felt that the boy exploited the tree.[26] For teaching purposes, he paired the book with a short story by Andre Dubus entitled "The Fat Girl" because its plot can be described as The Giving Tree "in reverse."[26]
Other writers[who?] are of the opinion that interpretations of the book are heavily influenced by an individual's life experiences. That is, a parent, who is overwhelmed with parenting a child, may identify with the tree. A person who was in an exploitative relationship with a narcissist, may also identify with the tree.[citation needed]
Author's photograph[edit]
Photograph of Silverstein that is used on the back cover of the book.
The photograph of Silverstein on the back cover of the book has attracted attention.[1][27] One writer described the photograph as showing the author's "jagged menacing teeth" and "evil, glaring eyes."[28] Another writer compared the photograph to the one on the back of Where the Sidewalk Ends in which Silverstein resembles "the Satanist Anton LaVey."[29] In the book Diary of a Wimpy Kid: The Last Straw, the father threatens the protagonist with the photograph to make sure that he does not leave his room at night.[1][30]
Other versions[edit]
A short animated film of the book, produced in 1973, featured Silverstein's narration.[31][32]
Silverstein also wrote a song of the same name, which was performed by Bobby Bare and his family on his album Singin' in the Kitchen (1974).[33]
Silverstein created an adult version of the story in a cartoon entitled "I Accept the Challenge."[29] In the cartoon, a nude woman cuts off a nude man's arms and legs with scissors, then sits on his torso in a pose similar to the final drawing in Giving Tree in which the old man sits on the stump.[29]
Cultural influences and adaptations[edit]
Jackson and Dell (1979) wrote an "alternative version" of the story for teaching purposes that was entitled "The Other Giving Tree."[22] It featured two trees next to each other and a boy growing up. One tree acted like the one in The Giving Tree, ending up as a stump, while the other tree stopped at giving the boy apples, and does not give the boy its branches or trunk. At end of the story, the stump was sad that the old man chose to sit under the shade of the other tree.[22]
The Giving Tree Band took its name from the book.[34] Plain White T's EP Should've Gone to Bed has a song The Giving Tree, written by Tim Lopez.
The 2010 short film I'm Here, written and directed by Spike Jonze, is based on The Giving Tree; the main character Sheldon is named after Shel Silverstein.[35]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Bird, Elizabeth (May 18, 2012). "Top 100 Picture Books #85: The Giving Tree by Shel Silverstein". School Library Journal "A Fuse #8 Production" blog. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Spitz, Ellen Handler (1999). Inside Picture Books. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. pp. 142–144. ISBN 0300076029.
^ Jump up to: a b c Marcus, Leonard S. (March–April 1999). "An Interview with Phyllis J. Fogelman" (PDF). Horn Book Magazine. 75 (2): 148–164. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Daly, Mary (1990). Gyn/Ecology: the Metaethics of Radical Feminism. Boston: Beacon Press. p. 90. ISBN 0807014133.
Jump up ^ "The Giving Tree By Shel Silverstein". Scholastic.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Cole, William (September 9, 1973). "About Alice, a Rabbit, a Tree...". The New York Times. p. 394.
^ Jump up to: a b c Paul, Pamela (September 16, 2011). "The Children’s Authors Who Broke the Rules". The New York Times. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Natov, Roni & Geraldine DeLuca (1979). "Discovering Contemporary Classics: an Interview with Ursula Nordstrom". The Lion and the Unicorn. 3 (1): 119–135. doi:10.1353/uni.0.0355. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Roback, Diane, Jason Britton, and Debbie Hochman Turvey (December 17, 2001). "All-Time Bestselling Children's Books". Publishers Weekly. 248 (51). Retrieved May 18, 2013. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ National Education Association. "Kids' Top 100 Books". Retrieved May 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ National Education Association (2007). "Teachers' Top 100 Books for Children". Retrieved May 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Bird, Elizabeth (May 18, 2013). "Top 100 Picture Books Poll Results". School Library Journal "A Fuse #8 Production" blog. Retrieved August 19, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Parent & Child 100 Greatest Books for Kids" (PDF). Scholastic Corporation. 2012. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Best Children's Books". Goodreads. 2008. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Pramling Samuelsson, Ingrid; Mauritzson, Ulla; Asplund Carlsson, Maj; Ueda, Miyoko (1998). "A Mother and a Friend: Differences in Japanese and Swedish Mothers' Understanding of a Tale". Childhood. 5 (4): 493–506. ISSN 0907-5682. doi:10.1177/0907568298005004008.
^ Jump up to: a b Fraustino, Lisa Rowe (2008). "At the Core of The Giving Tree’s Signifying Apples". In Magid, Annette M. You Are What You Eat: Literary Probes into the Palate. Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars. pp. 284–306. ISBN 9781847184924.
Jump up ^ Marcus, Leonard S. (May 15, 2005). "'Runny Babbit': Hoppity Hip". The New York Times. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Fredericks, Anthony D. (1997). "26. The Giving Tree". The Librarian's Complete Guide to Involving Parents Through Children's Literature Grades K-6. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. p. 28. ISBN 1563085380.
Jump up ^ Goodnough, Abby (April 16, 2010). "The Examined Life, Age 8". The New York Times. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Belkin, Lisa (September 8, 2010). "Children’s Books You (Might) Hate". "Motherlode: Adventures in Parenting" blog. New York Times. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c May, William F., Amy A. Kass, Marc Gellman, Midge Decter, Gilbert Meilaender, Mary Ann Glendon, William Werpehowski, Timothy Fuller, Leon R. Kass, Timothy P. Jackson, Jean Bethke Elshtain, Richard John Neuhaus (January 1995). "The Giving Tree: A Symposium". First Things. The Institute on Religion and Public Life. Retrieved May 18, 2013. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b c Jackson, Jacqueline & Carol Dell (1979). "The Other Giving Tree". Language Arts. 56 (4): 427–429. JSTOR 41404822.
Jump up ^ Strandburg, Walter L. & Norma J. Livo (1986). "The Giving Tree or There is a Sucker Born Every Minute". Children's Literature in Education. 17 (1): 17–24. doi:10.1007/BF01126946.
Jump up ^ Spitz, Ellen Handler (May–June 1999). "Classic children's book". American Heritage. 50 (3): 46. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Prosapio, Winter (May 12, 2006). "A Lesson from 'The Giving Tree'". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Juchartz, Larry R (December 2003 – January 2004). "Team Teaching with Dr. Seuss and Shel Silverstein in the College Basic Reading Classroom". Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy. 47 (4): 336–341.
Jump up ^ Kogan, Rick (July 12, 2009). "'SHELebration: A Tribute to Shel Silverstein' to Honor Writer Born in Chicago". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Ruhalter, Eric (January 11, 2010). "Children's books that creep me out: What was up with 'Natural Bear?'". New Jersey On-Line. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Thomas Jr.; Joseph T. (May–June 2005). "Reappraising Uncle Shelby" (PDF). Horn Book Magazine. 81 (3): 283–293. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Kinney, Jeff (2009). Diary of a Wimpy Kid: the Last Straw. New York: Amulet Books. pp. 17–19. ISBN 9780810970687.
Jump up ^ Bosustow, Nick, and Shel Silverstein (Producers); Hayward, Charlie O. (Director and Animator); Silverstein, Shel (Original Story, Music, and Narration) (1973). The Giving Tree (VHS). Chicago, IL: SVE & Churchill Media. OCLC 48713769.
Jump up ^ "The Giving Tree: Based on the Book and Drawings by Shel Silverstein". YouTube. Churchill Films. 1973. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Bobby Bare and the Family (Musicians); Silverstein, Shel (Principal Composer) (1973). Singin' in the Kitchen (LP). New York: RCA Victor. OCLC 6346534.
Jump up ^ Markstrom, Serena (June 18, 2010). "Giving Tree Band Takes Story to Heart". The Register-Guard. Retrieved May 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Coates, Kristen (February 8, 2010). "[Sundance Review] Spike Jonze Creates Unique Love Story With 'I'm Here'". The Film Stage. Retrieved May 18, 2013. 'I was trying to take the influence of The Giving Tree, but write about relationships,' says Jonze. 'I love Shel Silverstein. I just love him.'
Further reading[edit]
Moriya, Keiko (1989). "A Developmental and Crosscultural Study on the Interpersonal Cognition of Swedish and Japanese Children". Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research. 33 (3): 215–227. doi:10.1080/0031383890330304.
Asplund Carlsson, Maj; Pramling, Ingrid; Wen, Qiufeng; Izumi, Chise (1996). "Understanding a Tale in Sweden, Japan and China". Early Child Development and Care. 120 (1): 17–28. doi:10.1080/0300443961200102.
Miller, Ellen (2012). "15: The Giving Tree and Environmental Philosophy: Listening to Deep Ecology, Feminism and Trees". In Costello, Peter R. Philosophy in Children's Literature. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. pp. 251–266. ISBN 9780739168233.
Radeva, Milena (2012). "16: The Giving Tree, Women, and the Great Society". In Costello, Peter R. Philosophy in Children's Literature. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. pp. 267–283. ISBN 9780739168233.
Hinson-Hasty, Elizabeth (2012). "Revisiting Feminist Discussions of Sin and Genuine Humility". Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion. 28 (1): 108–114. doi:10.2979/jfemistudreli.28.1.108.
External links[edit]
Children's literature portal
Lindsey, Charley (June 11, 2004). "Silverstein's 'The Giving Tree' Celebrates 40 Years in Print". Knight Ridder Newspapers.
Westley, Christopher (October 21, 2004). "That Insufferable 'Giving Tree'". Mises Daily. Ludwig von Mises Institute.
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