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Period (periodic table)
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In the periodic table of the elements, each numbered row is a period.
A period in the periodic table is one of the horizontal rows. All of those elements in the row have the same number of electron shells. Going across a period, each element has one more proton and is less metallic than its predecessor. Arranged this way, groups of elements in the same column have similar chemical and physical properties, reflecting the periodic law. For example, the alkali metals lie in the first column (group 1) and share similar properties, such as high reactivity and the tendency to lose one electron to arrive at a noble-gas electronic configuration. As of 2016 a total of 118 elements have been discovered and confirmed.
The Madelung energy ordering rule describes the order in which orbitals are arranged by increasing energy according to the Madelung rule. Each diagonal corresponds to a different value of n + l.
Modern quantum mechanics explains these periodic trends in properties in terms of electron shells. As atomic number increases, shells fill with electrons in approximately the order shown at right. The filling of each shell corresponds to a row in the table.
In the s-block and p-block of the periodic table, elements within the same period generally do not exhibit trends and similarities in properties (vertical trends down groups are more significant). However, in the d-block, trends across periods become significant, and in the f-block elements show a high degree of similarity across periods.
Contents
[hide]
1 Periods
1.1 Period 1
1.2 Period 2
1.3 Period 3
1.4 Period 4
1.5 Period 5
1.6 Period 6
1.7 Period 7
1.8 Period 8
2 References
Periods[edit]
Seven periods of elements occur naturally on Earth. For period 8, which includes elements which may be synthesized after 2016, see the extended periodic table.
A group in chemistry means a family of objects with similarities like different families. There are 7 periods, going horizontally across the periodic table.
Period 1[edit]
Group
1
18
Atomic #
Name
1
H 2
He
The first period contains fewer elements than any other, with only two, hydrogen and helium. They therefore do not follow the octet rule. Chemically, helium behaves as a noble gas, and thus is taken to be part of the group 18 elements. However, in terms of its nuclear structure it belongs to the s block, and is therefore sometimes classified as a group 2 element, or simultaneously both 2 and 18. Hydrogen readily loses and gains an electron, and so behaves chemically as both a group 1 and a group 17 element.
Hydrogen (H) is the most abundant of the chemical elements, constituting roughly 75% of the universe's elemental mass.[1] Ionized hydrogen is just a proton. Stars in the main sequence are mainly composed of hydrogen in its plasma state. Elemental hydrogen is relatively rare on Earth, and is industrially produced from hydrocarbons such as methane. Hydrogen can form compounds with most elements and is present in water and most organic compounds.[2]
Helium (He) exists only as a gas except in extreme conditions.[3] It is the second-lightest element and is the second-most abundant in the universe.[4] Most helium was formed during the Big Bang, but new helium is created through nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars.[5] On Earth, helium is relatively rare, only occurring as a byproduct of the natural decay of some radioactive elements.[6] Such 'radiogenic' helium is trapped within natural gas in concentrations of up to seven percent by volume.[7]
Period 2[edit]
Group
1
2
13
14
15
16
17
18
Atomic #
Name
3
Li 4
Be 5
B 6
C 7
N 8
O 9
F 10
Ne
Period 2 elements involve the 2s and 2p orbitals. They include the biologically most essential elements besides hydrogen: carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen.
Lithium (Li) is the lightest metal and the least dense solid element.[8] In its non-ionized state it is one of the most reactive elements, and so is only ever found naturally in compounds. It is the heaviest primordial element forged in large quantities during the Big Bang.
Beryllium (Be) has one of the highest melting points of all the light metals. Small amounts of beryllium were synthesised during the Big Bang, although most of it decayed or reacted further within stars to create larger nuclei, like carbon, nitrogen or oxygen. Beryllium is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as a group 1 carcinogen.[9] Between 1% and 15% of people are sensitive to beryllium and may develop an inflammatory reaction in their respiratory system and skin, called chronic beryllium disease.[10]
Boron (B) does not occur naturally as a free element, but in compounds such as borates. It is an essential plant micronutrient, required for cell wall strength and development, cell division, seed and fruit development, sugar transport and hormone development,[11][12] though high levels are toxic.
Carbon (C) is the fourth-most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium and oxygen[13] and is the second-most abundant element in the human body by mass after oxygen,[14] the third-most abundant by number of atoms.[15] There are an almost infinite number of compounds that contain carbon due to carbon's ability to form long stable chains of C—C bonds.[16][17] All organic compounds, those essential for life, contain at least one atom of carbon;[16][17] combined with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, carbon is the basis of every important biological compound.[17]
Nitrogen (N) is found mainly as mostly inert diatomic gas, N2, which makes up 78% of the Earth's atmosphere by volume. It is an essential component of proteins and therefore of life.
Oxygen (O) comprising 21% of the atmosphere by volume and is required for respiration by all (or nearly all) animals, as well as being the principal component of water. Oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe, and oxygen compounds dominate the Earth's crust.
Fluorine (F) is the most reactive element in its non-ionized state, and so is never found that way in nature.
Neon (Ne) is a noble gas used in neon lighting.
Period 3[edit]
Group
1
2
13
14
15
16
17
18
Atomic #
Name
11
Na 12
Mg 13
Al 14
Si 15
P 16
S 17
Cl 18
Ar
All period three elements occur in nature and have at least one stable isotope. All but the noble gas argon are essential to basic geology and biology.
Sodium (Na) is an alkali metal. It is present in Earth's oceans in large quantities in the form of sodium chloride (table salt).
Magnesium (Mg) is an alkaline earth metal. Magnesium ions are found in chlorophyll.
Aluminium (Al) is a post-transition metal. It is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust.
Silicon (Si) is a metalloid. It is a semiconductor, making it the principal component in many integrated circuits. Silicon dioxide is the principal constituent of sand. As Carbon is to Biology, Silicon is to Geology.
Phosphorus (P) is a nonmetal essential to DNA. It is highly reactive, and as such is never found in nature as a free element.
Sulfur (S) is a nonmetal. It is found in two amino acids: cysteine and methionine.
Chlorine (Cl) is a halogen. It is used as a disinfectant, especially in swimming pools.
Argon (Ar) is a noble gas, making it almost entirely nonreactive. Incandescent lamps are often filled with noble gases such as argon in order to preserve the filaments at high temperatures.
Period 4[edit]
Group
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Atomic #
Name
19
K 20
Ca 21
Sc 22
Ti 23
V 24
Cr 25
Mn 26
Fe 27
Co 28
Ni 29
Cu 30
Zn 31
Ga 32
Ge 33
As 34
Se 35
Br 36
Kr
From left to right: aqueous solutions of: Co(NO3)2 (red); K2Cr2O7 (orange); K2CrO4 (yellow); NiCl2 (green); CuSO4 (blue); KMnO4 (purple).
Period 4 includes the biologically essential elements potassium and calcium, and is the first period in the d-block with the lighter transition metals. These include iron, the heaviest element forged in main-sequence stars and a principal component of the Earth, as well as other important metals such as cobalt, nickel, and copper. Almost all have biological roles.
Completing the fourth period are the post-transition metals zinc and gallium, the metalloids germanium and arsenic, and the nonmetals selenium, bromine, and krypton.
Period 5[edit]
Group
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Atomic #
Name
37
Rb 38
Sr 39
Y 40
Zr 41
Nb 42
Mo 43
Tc 44
Ru 45
Rh 46
Pd 47
Ag 48
Cd 49
In 50
Sn 51
Sb 52
Te 53
I 54
Xe
Period 5 has the same number of elements as period 4 and follows the same general structure but with one more post transition metal and one fewer nonmetal. Of the three heaviest elements with biological roles, two (molybdenum and iodine) are in this period; tungsten, in period 6, is heavier, along with several of the early lanthanides. Period 5 also includes technetium, the lightest exclusively radioactive element.
Period 6[edit]
Group
1
2
3 (Lanthanides)
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Atomic #
Name
55
Cs 56
Ba 57
La 58
Ce 59
Pr 60
Nd 61
Pm 62
Sm 63
Eu 64
Gd 65
Tb 66
Dy 67
Ho 68
Er 69
Tm 70
Yb 71
Lu 72
Hf 73
Ta 74
W 75
Re 76
Os 77
Ir 78
Pt 79
Au 80
Hg 81
Tl 82
Pb 83
Bi 84
Po 85
At 86
Rn
Period 6 is the first period to include the f-block, with the lanthanides (also known as the rare earth elements), and includes the heaviest stable elements. Many of these heavy metals are toxic and some are radioactive, but platinum and gold are largely inert.
Period 7[edit]
Group
1
2
3 (Actinides)
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Atomic #
Name
87
Fr 88
Ra 89
Ac 90
Th 91
Pa 92
U 93
Np 94
Pu 95
Am 96
Cm 97
Bk 98
Cf 99
Es 100
Fm 101
Md 102
No 103
Lr 104
Rf 105
Db 106
Sg 107
Bh 108
Hs 109
Mt 110
Ds 111
Rg 112
Cn 113
Nh 114
Fl 115
Mc 116
Lv 117
Ts 118
Og
All elements of period 7 are radioactive. This period contains the heaviest element which occurs naturally on Earth, plutonium. All of the subsequent elements in the period have been synthesized artificially. Whilst five of these (from americium to einsteinium) are now available in macroscopic quantities, most are extremely rare, having only been prepared in microgram amounts or less. Some of the later elements have only ever been identified in laboratories in quantities of a few atoms at a time.
Although the rarity of many of these elements means that experimental results are not very extensive, periodic and group trends in behaviour appear to be less well defined for period 7 than for other periods. Whilst francium and radium do show typical properties of groups 1 and 2, respectively, the actinides display a much greater variety of behaviour and oxidation states than the lanthanides. These peculiarities of period 7 may be due to a variety of factors, including a large degree of spin-orbit coupling and relativistic effects, ultimately caused by the very high positive electrical charge from their massive atomic nuclei.
Period 8[edit]
Main article: Extended periodic table
No element of the eighth period has yet been synthesized. A g-block is predicted. It is not clear if all elements predicted for the eighth period are in fact physically possible. There may therefore be no eighth period.
Legend for the background color
v
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Background color shows subcategory in the metal–metalloid–nonmetal trend:
Metal Metalloid Nonmetal Unknown
chemical
properties
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post-transition metal Reactive nonmetal Noble gas
[show]
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References[edit]
Jump up ^ Palmer, David (November 13, 1997). "Hydrogen in the Universe". NASA. Retrieved 2008-02-05.
Jump up ^ "hydrogen". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
Jump up ^ "Helium: physical properties". WebElements. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Jump up ^ "Helium: geological information". WebElements. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Jump up ^ Cox, Tony (1990-02-03). "Origin of the chemical elements". New Scientist. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Jump up ^ "Helium supply deflated: production shortages mean some industries and partygoers must squeak by". Houston Chronicle. 2006-11-05.
Jump up ^ Brown, David (2008-02-02). "Helium a New Target in New Mexico". American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
Jump up ^ Lithium at WebElements.
Jump up ^ "IARC Monograph, Volume 58". International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1993. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
Jump up ^ Information about chronic beryllium disease.
Jump up ^ "Functions of Boron in Plant Nutrition" (PDF). U.S. Borax Inc. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-20.
Jump up ^ Blevins, Dale G.; Lukaszewski, Krystyna M. (1998). "Functions of Boron in Plant Nutrition". Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology. 49: 481–500. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.49.1.481. PMID 15012243.
Jump up ^ Ten most abundant elements in the universe, taken from The Top 10 of Everything, 2006, Russell Ash, page 10. Retrieved October 15, 2008. Archived February 10, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Chang, Raymond (2007). Chemistry, Ninth Edition. McGraw-Hill. p. 52. ISBN 0-07-110595-6.
Jump up ^ Freitas Jr., Robert A. (1999). Nanomedicine. Landes Bioscience. Tables 3-1 & 3-2. ISBN 1-57059-680-8.
^ Jump up to: a b "Structure and Nomenclature of Hydrocarbons". Purdue University. Retrieved 2008-03-23.
^ Jump up to: a b c Alberts, Bruce; Alexander Johnson; Julian Lewis; Martin Raff; Keith Roberts; Peter Walter. Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Science.
[show]
v
t
e
Periodic table
Periodic table forms
Standard
18-column
18-column, large cells
32-column, large cells
Alternative
Alternatives
Janet's left step table
Extended
Extension beyond the 7th period
Fricke model
large cells
Pyykkö model
Sets of elements
By periodic table structure
Groups
1 (Alkali metals)
2 (Alkaline earth metals)
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15 (Pnictogens)
16 (Chalcogens)
17 (Halogens)
18 (Noble gases)
Periods
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8+
Aufbau
Fricke
Pyykkö
Blocks
s-block
p-block
d-block
f-block
g-block
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Lists of metalloids by source
Dividing line
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Reactive nonmetals
Noble gases
Other sets
Nutritional elements
Platinum-group metals (PGM)
Rare-earth elements
Refractory metals
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Coinage metals
Noble metal
Heavy metals
Native metals
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Transactinide elements
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Lists
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Maximum valence
Data pages
Abundance
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Boiling point
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Elasticity
Electrical resistivity
Electron affinity
Electron configuration
Electronegativity
Hardness
Heat capacity
Heat of fusion
Heat of vaporization
Ionization energy
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Oxidation state
Speed of sound
Thermal conductivity
Thermal expansion coefficient
Vapor pressure
History
Element discoveries
Mendeleev's predictions
Naming
Etymology
controversies
places
scientists
in East Asia
See also
IUPAC
nomenclature
systematic element name
Trivial name
Dmitri Mendeleev
Book
Category
Chemistry Portal
[hide]
v
t
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Periodic table (Large cells)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1
H He
2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
6
Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
7
Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Actinide Transition metal Post-transition metal Metalloid Reactive nonmetal Noble gas Unknown
chemical
properties
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Consumer Protection Act, 1986 (India)
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Consumer Protection Act, 1986
An Act to provide for better protection of the interests of consumers and for that purpose to make provision for the establishment of consumer councils and other authorities for the settlement of consumers' disputes and for matters connected there with.
Citation
Act No. 68 of 1986
Enacted by
Parliament of India
Date commenced
24 December 1986
Status: In force
Consumer Protection Act, 1986 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted in 1986 to protect the interests of consumers in India. It makes provision for the establishment of consumer councils and other authorities for the settlement of consumers' disputes and for matters connected therewith also.The act was passed in Assembly in October 1986
Contents
1 Significance of the statute
2 Consumer Protection Council
2.1 VARIOUS CONSUMER ORGANISATIONS
2.2 The Central Consumer Protection Council
3 Consumer Disputes Redressal Agencies
4 Objectives
4.1 Objectives of Central Council
5 Jurisdiction
5.1 Jurisdiction of District Forum
5.2 Jurisdiction of State Commission
6 References
7 External links
Significance of the statute[edit]
This statute is regarded as the 'Magna Carta' in the field of consumer protection for checking the unfair trade practices and ‘defect in goods’ and ‘deficiencies in services’ as far as India is concerned. It led to the establishment of a widespread network of consumer forums and appellate courts all over India. It has significantly impacted how businesses approach consumer complaints and empowered consumers to a great extent.[1]
Consumer Protection Council[edit]
Consumer Protection Councils are established at the national, state and district level to increase consumer awareness.[2]
VARIOUS CONSUMER ORGANISATIONS[edit]
To increase the awareness of consumer, there are many consumer organisations and NGOs that established, such as- (1) Consumer Education And Research Centre (Ahmedabad) (2) Bureau Of Indian Standard (3) Federation Of Consumer Organisation In Tamilnadu (4) Mumbai Grahak Panchayet (5) Consumer Voice (New Delhi) (6) Legal Aid Society (Kolkata)

The Central Consumer Protection Council[edit]
The Central Govt. shall by notification establish with effect from (w.e.f) such date as it may specify in such notification a Council to be known as the Central Consumer Protection Council
Consumer Disputes Redressal Agencies[edit]
Main article: Consumer Court
District Consumer Disputes Redressal Forum (DCDRF): Also known as the "District Forum" established by the State Government in each district of the State. The State Government may establish more than one District Forum in a district. It is a district level court that deals with cases valuing up to ₹2 million (US$28,000).[2]
State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (SCDRC): Also known as the "State Commission" established by the State Government in the State. It is a state level court that takes up cases valuing less than ₹10 million (US$140,000)[2]
National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (NCDRC): Established by the Central Government. It deals with matters of more than 10 million.
Objectives[edit]
Objectives of Central Council[edit]
The objectives of the Central Council is to promote and to protect the rights of the consumers such as:-
The right to be protected against the marketing of goods and services which are hazardous to life and property.
The right to be informed about the quality, quantity, potency, purity, standard and price of goods or services, as the case may be so as to protect the consumer against unfair trade practices;
The right to be assured, wherever possible, access to a variety of goods and services at competitive prices ;
The right to be heard and to be assured that consumer's interest will receive due consideration at appropriate forums;
The right to seek redressal against unfair trade practices or restrictive trade practices or unscrupulous exploitation of consumers; and
The right to consumer education.
Jurisdiction[edit]
Jurisdiction of District Forum[edit]
Subject to the other provisions of this Act, the District Forum shall have jurisdiction to entertain complaints where the value of the goods or services and the compensation, if any, claimed does not exceed rupees twenty lakhs.
A complaint shall be instituted in a District Forum within the local limits of whose jurisdiction:-
a) – the opposite party or each of the opposite parties, where there are more than one, at the time of the institution of the complaint, actually and voluntarily resides or carries on business or has a branch office or personally works for gain, or
b) – any of the opposite parties, where there are more than one, at the time of the institution of the complaint, actually and voluntarily resides, or carries on business or has a branch office, or personally works for gain, provided that in such case either the permission of the District Forum is given, or the opposite parties who do not reside, or carry on business or have a branch office, or personally work for gain, as the case may be, acquiesce in such institution; or
c) – the cause of action, wholly or in part, arises.
Consumer courts do not have jurisdiction over matters where services or goods were bought for a commercial purpose.[3]
Jurisdiction of State Commission[edit]
Subject to the other provisions of this Act, the State Commission shall have jurisdiction:-
a) – to entertain
i) – complaints where the value of the goods or services and compensation, if any, claimed exceeds rupees twenty lakhs but does not exceed rupees one crore (R10 million); and
ii) – appeals against the orders of any District Forum within the State; and
b) – to call for the records and pass appropriate orders in any consumer dispute

(a) to entertain—
(i) complaints where the value of the goods or services and compensation, if any, claimed exceeds rupees one crore; and
(ii) appeals against the orders of any State Commission; and
(b) to call for the records and pass appropriate orders in any consumer dispute which is pending before or has been decided by any State Commission. However, the Supreme Court of India has held that the jurisdiction of National Commission under Revision Jurisdiction is very limited and can only be exercised when State Commission exceeds its jurisdiction, fails to exercise its jurisdiction or there is material illegality in the order passed by State Commission.[4]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Kumar, Vineet. "An Analysis of Consumer Protection Laws in India". iPleaders. Retrieved 10 December 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "CONSUMER PROTECTION AND NATIONAL CONSUMER DISPUTES REDRESSAL COMMISSION". NCDRC. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Meera Industries, Howrah vs. Modern Constructions, Howrah
Jump up ^ "Jurisdiction of National Commission under Revision Application is limited". Consumer Law India. 2016-11-13. Retrieved 2017-01-28.
.
External links[edit]
Text of the Act
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