text:
The Swiss Family Robinson
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This article is about the original novel. For later adaptations, see The Swiss Family Robinson (disambiguation).
The Swiss Family Robinson
frontispiece from the 1851 American edition by John Gilbert
Author
Johann David Wyss
Original title
Der Schweizerische Robinson
Illustrator
Johann Emmanuel Wyss
Country
Switzerland
Language
German
Genre
Adventure fiction
Publisher
Johann Rudolph Wyss (the author's son)
Publication date
1812
Media type
Print (Hardback and Paperback)
Pages
50
The Swiss Family Robinson (German: Der Schweizerische Robinson) is a novel by Johann David Wyss, first published in 1812, about a Swiss family shipwrecked in the East Indies en route to Port Jackson, Australia.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Plot
3 Characters
4 Other adaptations
5 See also
6 Footnotes
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Written by Swiss pastor Johann David Wyss, edited by his son Johann Rudolf Wyss and illustrated by another son, Johann Emmanuel Wyss, the novel was intended to teach his four sons about family values, good husbandry, the uses of the natural world and self-reliance. Wyss' attitude toward education is in line with the teachings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and many episodes involve Christian-oriented moral lessons such as frugality, husbandry, acceptance and cooperation.[1]
Wyss presents adventures as lessons in a natural history way and physical sciences. This resembles other educational books for young ones published about the same time. These include Charlotte Turner Smith's Rural Walks: in Dialogues intended for the use of Young Persons (1795), Rambles Farther: A continuation of Rural Walks (1796), A Natural History of Birds, intended chiefly for young persons (1807). But Wyss' novel is also modeled after Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, an adventure story about a shipwrecked sailor first published in 1719 and the source of the "Robinson" in the title "Swiss Family Robinson".[1]
The book presents a geographically impossible array of large mammals (including antelopes, brown bears, capybaras, cheetahs, dingos, elephants, giraffes, hippos, hyenas, jackals, kangaroos, koalas, leopards, lions, monkeys, moose, muskrat, mustangs, onagers, pangolins, peccaries, platypuses, porcupines, rhinos, tapirs, tigers, walruses, wild boars, wolves, wombats, and zebras), birds (including black swans, blue jays, bustards, ducks, eagles, falcons, flamingos, grosbeaks, herons, ostriches, parakeets, parrots, peafowls, penguins, pigeons, and snipes), and plants (including the bamboos, cassavas, cinnamon trees, coconut palm trees, fir trees, flax, Myrica cerifera, rice, rubber plant, potatoes, sago palms, and an entirely fictitious kind of sugarcane) that probably could never have existed together on a single island for the children's education, nourishment, clothing and convenience.
Over the years there have been many versions of the story with episodes added, changed, or deleted. Perhaps the best-known English version is by William H. G. Kingston, first published in 1879.[1] It is based on Isabelle de Montolieu's 1813 French adaptation and 1824 continuation (from chapter 37) Le Robinson suisse, ou, Journal d'un père de famille, naufragé avec ses enfants in which were added further adventures of Fritz, Franz, Ernest, and Jack.[1] Other English editions that claim to include the whole of the Wyss-Montolieu narrative are by W. H. Davenport Adams (1869–1910) and Mrs H. B. Paull (1879). As Carpenter and Prichard write in The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature (Oxford, 1995), "with all the expansions and contractions over the past two centuries (this includes a long history of abridgments, condensations, Christianizing, and Disney products), Wyss's original narrative has long since been obscured."[1] The closest English translation to the original is William Godwin's 1816 translation, reprinted by Penguin Classics.[2]
Although movie and television adaptations typically name the family "Robinson", it is not a Swiss name. The German title translates as The Swiss Robinson which identifies the novel as part of the Robinsonade genre, rather than a story about a family named Robinson.
Plot[edit]
The Map of "New Switzerland."
This article needs an improved plot summary. (January 2012)
The novel opens with the family in the hold of a sailing ship, weathering a great storm. The ships' passengers evacuate without them, and William and Elizabeth and their four children (Fritz, Ernest, Jack and Francis) are left to survive alone. As the ship tosses about, the father - William - prays that God will spare them.
The ship survives the night and the family finds themselves within sight of a tropical desert island. The next morning, they decide to get to the island they can see beyond the reef. With much effort, they construct a vessel out of tubs. After they fill the tubs with food and ammunition and all other articles of value they can safely carry, they row toward the island. Two dogs from the ship named Turk and Juno swim beside them. The ship's cargo of livestock (including chickens, domestic ducks, domestic geese, and domestic pigeons), guns & powder, carpentry tools, books, a disassembled pinnace, and provisions have survived.
Upon reaching the island, the family set up a makeshift camp. The father knows that they must prepare for a long time on the island and his thoughts are as much on provisions for the future as for their immediate wants. William and his oldest son Fritz spend the next day exploring the island.
The family spends the next few days securing themselves against hunger. William and Fritz make several trips to the ship in their efforts to bring ashore everything useful from the vessel. The domesticated animals on the ship are towed back to the island. There is also a great store of firearms and ammunition, hammocks for sleeping, carpenter’s tools, lumber, cooking utensils, silverware, and dishes. Initially they construct a treehouse, but as time passes (and after Elizabeth is injured climbing the stairs down from it), they settle in a more permanent dwelling in part of a cave. Fritz rescues a young Englishwoman (Jenny Montrose) shipwrecked elsewhere on their island.
The book covers more than ten years. The father and older boys explore various environments and develop homes and gardens in various sites about the island. At the end, the father wonders if they will ever again see the rest of humanity. Eventually a British ship that is in search of Jenny Montrose anchors near the island and is discovered by the family. The captain is given the journal containing the story of their life on the island which is eventually published. Several members of the family choose to continue to live tranquilly on their island while several of them return to Europe with the British ship.
Characters[edit]
William – The father. He is the narrator of the story and leads the family. He knows an enormous amount of information on almost everything the family comes across, demonstrating bravery and self-reliance.
Elizabeth – The mother. She is intelligent and resourceful, arming herself even before leaving the ship with a "magic bag" filled with supplies, including sewing materials and seeds for food crops. She is also a remarkably versatile cook, taking on anything from Porcupine Soup to Roast Penguin.
Fritz – The oldest of the four boys, he is 15. Fritz is intelligent but impetuous. He is the strongest and accompanies his father on many quests.
Ernest – The second oldest of the boys, he is 13. Ernest is the most intelligent, but a less physically active boy, often described by his father as "indolent". Like Fritz however, he comes to be an excellent shot.
Jack – The third oldest of the boys, 11 years old. He is thoughtless, bold, vivacious, and the quickest of the group.
Franz (sometimes translated as Francis) – The youngest of the boys, he is 8 years old when the story opens. He usually stays home with his mother.
Turk - The family's English dog.
Juno - The family's Danish dog.
Emily Montrose (called Jenny in Montolieu's version) – An English girl found on Smoking Rock near the end of the novel. She is shy, but soon is adopted into the family. Emily is not a character in the original German, but was invented by Isabelle de Montolieu.
Nip (also called Knips or Nips in some editions) – An orphan monkey adopted by the family after their dogs Turk and Juno have killed his mother. The family use him to test for poisonous fruits.
Fangs – A jackal that was tamed by the family.
Other adaptations[edit]
The novels in one form or another have also been adapted numerous times, sometimes changing location and/or time period:
Book sequels
Willis the Pilot: a sequel to The Swiss family Robinson; or, Adventures of an emigrant family wrecked on an unknown coast of the Pacific Ocean (1858) has been attributed to Johann Wyss or to Johanna Spyri, author of Heidi.
Second Fatherland (Seconde Patrie, 1900), by Jules Verne takes up the story at the point where Wyss's tale left off. It has also been published in two volumes, Their Island Home and Castaways of the Flag.
Return to Robinson Island (2015), by TJ Hoisington, Based on the original 1812 Swiss Family Robinson novel.[3]
Film versions
Al-Ṭurfa al-Šahiyya fī aḫbār al-ʿAʾila al-Swīsiyya, Arabic translation (c. 1900)
Swiss Family Robinson (1940 film)
Swiss Cheese Family Robinson (Mighty Mouse short, 1947)
Swiss Family Robinson (1960 Walt Disney film)
The Swiss Family Robinson (1976)
The Adventures of Swiss Family Robinson (1998)
Television series
English Family Robinson (1957)
Lost in Space (1965-1968) - A science fiction adaptation in which the Robinsons are a family of explorers whose spacecraft goes off course. Identical concept to, but not based upon, the Space Family Robinson comic book listed below.
Swiss Family Robinson (1974) — Canadian series starring Chris Wiggins
Swiss Family Robinson (1975) — American series starring Martin Milner
The Swiss Family Robinson: Flone of the Mysterious Island(1981) — An anime series.
The Adventures of Swiss Family Robinson (1998) — New Zealand series starring Richard Thomas
Made for TV movies
The Swiss Family Robinson (1958)
The Swiss Family Robinson (1973)
The Swiss Family Robinson (1973)
The Swiss Family Robinson (1975)
Beverly Hills Family Robinson (1998)
The New Swiss Family Robinson (1998) — Starring Jane Seymour, James Keach, and David Carradine
Stranded (2002)
Comic book series
Space Family Robinson (1962 to 1984) - science fiction adaptation
Stage adaptations
Swiss Family Robinson written by Jerry Montoya and performed at B Street Theatre in Sacramento, California in 2009.
Computer adventure game
Swiss Family Robinson created in 1984 by Tom Snyder Productions for the Apple II and Commodore 64, published under the Windham Classics label. The player takes the role of Fritz, the eldest brother.
Parody
The New Swiss Family Robinson by Owen Wister (1882).
See also[edit]
Novels portal
Robinson Crusoe
Castaway
The Coral Island
Lost in Space
Footnotes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "A Note on Wyss's Swiss Family Robinson, Montolieu's Le Robinson suisse, and Kingston's 1879 text" by Ellan Moody.
Jump up ^ John Seelye, ed. The Swiss Family Robinson. Penguin Classics. 2007. ISBN 978-0-14-310499-5
Jump up ^ "TJ Hoisington Pens the First Swiss Family Robinson Sequel in Over 100 Years".
References[edit]
Weber, Marie-Hélène (1993). Robinson et robinsonnades: étude comparée de "Robinson Crusoe" de Defoe, "Le Robinson suisse" de J.R. Wyss, "L'Ile mystérieuse" de J. Verne, "Sa majesté des mouches" de W. Golding, "Vendredi ou les limbes du Pacifique" de M. Tournier, Ed. Universitaires du Sud.
Wyss, Johann. The Swiss Family Robinson, ed. John Seelye. Penguin Classics, 2007. The only unabridged complete text genuinely by Wyss (and his son) currently in print.
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Swiss Family Robinson
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Swiss Family Robinson.
The Swiss Family Robinson, available at Internet Archive (original edition scanned books with illustrations in color)
The Swiss Family Robinson, available at Google Books (original edition scanned books with illustrations)
The Swiss Family Robinson at Project Gutenberg (plain text and HTML). Version unknown, ca. 1850, missing two pages of text.
The Swiss Family Robinson at Project Gutenberg (plain text). Kingston's 1879 translation.
"A Note on Wyss's Swiss Family Robinson, Montolieu's Le Robinson suisse, and Kingston's 1879 text", by Ellen Moody. Information about the book and its many versions.
The Swiss Family Robinson public domain audiobook at LibriVox
[hide]
v
t
e
The Swiss Family Robinson by Johann David Wyss
Sequel novels
The Castaways of the Flag (1900)
Films
Perils of the Wild (1925)
Swiss Family Robinson (1940)
Swiss Family Robinson (1960)
Television
Lost in Space (1965)
Swiss Family Robinson (1974)
Swiss Family Robinson (1975)
The Swiss Family Robinson: Flone of the Mysterious Island (1981)
The Swiss Family Robinson (1975)
Beverly Hills Family Robinson (1997)
The New Swiss Family Robinson (1998)
Stranded (2002)
Other
Space Family Robinson
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National Institutes of Health
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"NIH" redirects here. For other uses, see NIH (disambiguation).
National Institutes of Health (NIH)
National Institutes of Health logo

Aerial photo of the NIH Mark O. Hatfield Clinical Research Center, Bethesda, Maryland
Agency overview
Formed
1887 (1887)
Preceding agency
Hygienic Laboratory
Headquarters
Bethesda, Maryland, U.S.
Employees
20,262[1]
Annual budget
Template:US$26.4 billion (as of 2010[update])[2]
Agency executive
Francis S. Collins, Director
Parent agency
Department of Health & Human Services
Child agencies
National Cancer Institute
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
National Library of Medicine
Website
www.nih.gov
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and public health research, founded in the late 1870s. It is part of the United States Department of Health and Human Services with facilities mainly located in Bethesda, Maryland. It conducts its own scientific research through its Intramural Research Program (IRP) and provides major biomedical research funding to non-NIH research facilities through its Extramural Research Program.
As of 2013[update], the IRP had 1,200 principal investigators and more than 4,000 postdoctoral fellows in basic, translational, and clinical research, being the largest biomedical research institution in the world,[3] while, as of 2003, the extramural arm provided 28% of biomedical research funding spent annually in the U.S., or about US$26.4 billion.[4]
The NIH comprises 27 separate institutes and centers of different biomedical disciplines and is responsible for many scientific accomplishments, including the discovery of fluoride to prevent tooth decay, the use of lithium to manage bipolar disorder, and the creation of vaccines against hepatitis, Haemophilus influenzae (HIB), and human papillomavirus (HPV).[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Directors
3 Locations and campuses
4 Research
4.1 Public Access Policy
4.2 NIH Interagency Pain Research Coordinating Committee
4.3 NIH Toolbox
4.4 Economic impact
5 Funding
5.1 Research project grants
5.2 Grant allocation bias controversy
6 Stakeholders
6.1 General public
6.2 Extramural researchers and scientists
7 Commercial partnerships
8 Institutes and centers
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
History[edit]
The Laboratory of Hygiene in 1887
Ida A. Bengtson, a bacteriologist who in 1916 was the first woman hired to work in the Hygienic Laboratory.[6]
Dedication of first six NIH buildings by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1940
NIH campus in Bethesda, Maryland, in 1945
NIH's roots extend back to a Marine Hospital Service in the late 1790s that provided medical relief to sick and disabled men in the U.S. Navy. By 1870, a network of marine hospitals had developed and was placed under the charge of a medical officer within the Bureau of the Treasury Department. In the late 1870s, Congress allocated funds to investigate the causes of epidemics like cholera and yellow fever, and it created the National Board of Health, making medical research an official government initiative.[7]
In 1887 a laboratory for the study of bacteria, the Hygienic Laboratory, was established at the Marine Hospital in New York.[8][9] In the early 1900s, Congress began appropriating funds for the Marine Hospital Service. By 1922, this organization changed its name to Public Health Services and established a Special Cancer Investigations laboratory at Harvard Medical School. This marked the beginning of a partnership with universities. In 1930 the Hygienic Laboratory was re-designated as the National Institute of Health by the Ransdell Act and was given $750,000 to construct two NIH buildings. Over the next few decades, Congress would increase its funding tremendously to the NIH, and various institutes and centers within the NIH were created for specific research programs.[10] In 1944, the Public Health Service Act was approved, and National Cancer Institute became a division of NIH. In 1948, the name changed from National Institute of Health to National Institutes of Health.
In the 1960s virologist and cancer researcher Chester M. Southam injected HeLa cancer cells into patients at the Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital.[11]:130 When three doctors resigned after refusing to inject patients without their consent, the experiment gained considerable media attention.[11]:133 The NIH was a major source of funding for Southam’s research and had required all research involving human subjects to obtain their consent prior to any experimentation.[11]:135 Upon investigating all of their grantee institutions, the NIH discovered that the majority of them did not protect the rights of human subjects. From then on, the NIH has required all grantee institutions to approve any research proposals involving human experimentation with review boards.[11]:135
In 1967 the Division of Regional Medical Programs was created to administer grants for research for heart disease, cancer, and strokes. That same year, the NIH director lobbied the White House for increased federal funding in order to increase research and the speed with which health benefits could be brought to the people. An advisory committee was formed to oversee further development of the NIH and its research programs. By 1971 cancer research was in full force and President Nixon signed the National Cancer Act, initiating a National Cancer Program, President's Cancer Panel, National Cancer Advisory Board, and 15 new research, training, and demonstration centers.[12]
Funding for the NIH has often been a source of contention in Congress, serving as a proxy for the political currents of the time. During the 1980s, President Reagan repeatedly tried to cut funding for research, only to see Congress partly restore funding. The political contention over NIH funding slowed the nation's response to the AIDS epidemic; while AIDS was reported in newspaper articles from 1981, no funding was provided for research on the disease. In 1984 National Cancer Institute scientists found implications that "variants of a human cancer virus called HTLV-III are the primary cause of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)," a new epidemic that gripped the nation.[13] It was not until July 1987, as NIH celebrated its 100th anniversary, that President Reagan announced a committee to research the HIV epidemic.[citation needed]
By the 1990s, the NIH committee focus had shifted to DNA research, and launched the Human Genome Project.
In 1992 the NIH encompassed nearly 1 percent of the federal government's operating budget and controlled more than 50 percent of all funding for health research, and 85 percent of all funding for health studies in universities.[14] In 2001 President Bush banned federally funded stem-cell research, a ban which President Obama revoked in 2009.[15]
Under the Clinton administration 1993-2001 the NIH budget doubled. Since then, funding essentially remained flat, and during the decade following the financial crisis, the NIH budget struggled to keep up with inflation.[16]
Directors[edit]
Joseph J. Kinyoun, served August 1887 - April 30, 1899
Milton J. Rosenau, served May 1, 1899 – September 30, 1909
John F. Anderson, served October 1, 1909 – November 19, 1915
George W. McCoy, served November 20, 1915 – January 31, 1937
Lewis R. Thompson, served February 1, 1937 – January 31, 1942
Rolla Dyer, served February 1, 1942 – September 30, 1950
William H. Sebrell, Jr, served October 1, 1950 – July 31, 1955
James Augustine Shannon, served August 1, 1955 – August 31, 1968
Robert Q. Marston, served September 1, 1968 – January 21, 1973
Robert Stone, served May 29, 1973 – January 31, 1975
Donald S. Fredrickson, served July 1, 1975 – June 30, 1981
James B. Wyngaarden, served April 29, 1982 – July 31, 1989
Bernadine Healy, served April 9, 1991 – June 30, 1993
Harold E. Varmus, served November 23, 1993 – December 31, 1999
Elias A. Zerhouni, served May 2, 2002 – October 31, 2008
Francis S. Collins, served August 17, 2009 – Present[17]
Locations and campuses[edit]
Intramural research is primarily conducted at the main campus in Bethesda, Maryland, and the surrounding communities. The National Institute on Aging and the National Institute on Drug Abuse are located in Baltimore, Maryland, and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences is located in the Research Triangle region of North Carolina. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases maintains its Rocky Mountain Labs in Hamilton, Montana,[18] with an emphasis on BSL3 and BSL4 laboratory work.
Research[edit]
Clinical Center – Building 10
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2011)
NIH devotes 10% of its funding to research within its own facilities (intramural research). The institution gives 80% of its funding in research grants to extramural (outside) researchers. Of this extramural funding, a certain percentage (2.8% in 2014) must be granted to small businesses under the SBIR/STTR program.[19] The extramural funding consists of about 50,000 grants to more than 325,000 researchers at more than 3000 institutions.[20] In FY 2010[update], NIH spent US$10.7bn (not including temporary funding from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009) on clinical research, US$7.4bn on genetics-related research, US$6.0bn on prevention research, US$5.8bn on cancer, and US$5.7bn on biotechnology.[21]
Public Access Policy[edit]
Main article: NIH Public Access Policy
In 2008 a Congressional mandate called for investigators funded by the NIH to submit an electronic version of their final manuscripts to the National Library of Medicine's research repository, PubMed Central (PMC), no later than 12 months after the official date of publication.[22] The NIH Public Access Policy was the first public access mandate for a U.S. public funding agency.[23]
NIH Interagency Pain Research Coordinating Committee[edit]
On February 13, 2012, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) announced a new group of individuals assigned to research pain. This committee is composed of researchers from different organizations and will focus to "coordinate pain research activities across the federal government with the goals of stimulating pain research collaboration… and providing an important avenue for public involvement" ("Members of new," 2012). With a committee such as this research will not be conducted by each individual organization or person but instead a collaborating group which will increase the information available. With this hopefully more pain management will be available including techniques for arthritis sufferers.
NIH Toolbox[edit]
In September 2006, the NIH Blueprint for Neuroscience Research started a contract for the NIH Toolbox for the Assessment of Neurological and Behavioral Function to develop a set of state-of-the-art measurement tools to enhance collection of data in large cohort studies. Scientists from more than 100 institutions nationwide contributed. In September 2012, the NIH Toolbox was rolled out to the research community. NIH Toolbox assessments are based, where possible, on Item Response Theory and adapted for testing by computer.[citation needed]
Economic impact[edit]
In 2000, the Joint Economic Committee of Congress reported NIH research, which was funded at $16 billion a year in 2000, that some econometric studies had given a rate of return of 25 to 40 percent per year by reducing the economic cost of illness in the US. It found that of the 21 drugs with the highest therapeutic impact on society introduced between 1965 and 1992, public funding was "instrumental" for 15.[24] As of 2011 NIH-supported research helped to discover 153 new FDA-approved drugs, vaccines, and new indications for drugs in the 40 years prior.[25] In 2015, the National Bureau of Economic Research estimated $10 million invested in research generated two to three new patents.[26]
Funding[edit]
Budget and politics. To allocate funds, the NIH must first obtain its budget from Congress. This process begins with institute and center (IC) leaders collaborating with scientists to determine the most important and promising research areas within their fields. IC leaders discuss research areas with NIH management who then develops a budget request for continuing projects, new research proposals, and new initiatives from the Director. NIH submits its budget request to the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), and the HHS considers this request as a portion of its budget. Many adjustments and appeals occur between NIH and HHS before the agency submits NIH's budget request to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). OMB determines what amounts and research areas are approved for incorporation into the President's final budget. The President then sends NIH's budget request to Congress in February for the next fiscal year's allocations.[27] The House and Senate Appropriations Subcommittees deliberate and by fall, Congress usually appropriates funding. This process takes approximately 18 months before the NIH can allocate any actual funds.[28]
In 1999 Congress increased the NIH's budget by $2.3 billion[29] to $17.2 billion in 2000.[30] In 2009 Congress again increased the NIH budget to $31 billion in 2010.[30] In March 2017, President Trump proposed to cut the 2018 budget by 18.3%, or about $5.8 billion to $25.9 billion.[31]:26
Over the last century, the responsibility to allocate funding has shifted from the OD and Advisory Committee to the individual ICs and Congress increasingly set apart funding for particular causes. In the 1970s, Congress began to earmark funds specifically for cancer research, and in the 1980s there was a significant amount allocated for AIDS/HIV research.[29]
Decision criteria. NIH employs five broad decision criteria in its funding policy. First, ensure the highest quality of scientific research by employing an arduous peer review process. Second, seize opportunities that have the greatest potential to yield new knowledge and that will lead to better prevention and treatment of disease. Third, maintain a diverse research portfolio in order to capitalize on major discoveries in a variety of fields such as cell biology, genetics, physics, engineering, and computer science. Fourth, address public health needs according to the disease burden (e.g., prevalence and mortality). And fifth, construct and support the scientific infrastructure (e.g., well-equipped laboratories and safe research facilities) necessary to conduct research.[32]
In 2007 the director of the agency stated "responsibilities for identifying ... FCOIs (financial conflict of interest) must remain with grantee institutions" but institutions that administer grants have no interest to identify grantee's conflicts of interest.[33]
The NIH issued dozens of waivers for NIH's advisory committee members up to 2012. Such waivers exempt a conflicted government employee from ethics laws. Since 2005 the U.S. Office of Government Ethics had documented only three times where the NIH consulted with the office as required by law, and none of the waivers in question had to do with a member of an advisory committee.[34] Advisory committee members advise the Institute on policy and procedures affecting the external research programs and provide a second level of review for all grant and cooperative agreement applications considered by the Institute for funding.[35]
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Research project grants[edit]
Researchers outside NIH, that is, at universities or other institutions can apply for research project grants (RPGs) from the NIH. There are numerous funding mechanisms for different project types (e.g., basic research, clinical research etc.) and career stages (e.g., early career, postdoc fellowships etc.). Importantly, the NIH regularly issues requests for applications (RFAs), e.g., on timely medical problems (such as Zika virus research in early 2016). In addition, researchers can apply for investigator-initiated grants whose subject is completely determined by the scientist.
Number of applicants and funding success. The total number of unique applicants has increased substantially, from about 60,000 investigators who had applied during the period from 1999 to 2003 to slightly less than 90,000 in who had applied during the period from 2011 to 2015.[36] However, the "cumulative investigator rate," that is, the likelihood that unique investigators are funded over a 5-year window has declined from 43% to 31%.[36]
R01 grants are the major funding mechanism and include investigator-initiated projects (as opposed to NIH-initiated requests for applications). The roughly 27,000 to 29,000 R01 applications had a funding success of 17-19% during 2012 though 2014. Similarly, the 13,000 to 14,000 R21 applications had a funding success of 13-14% during the same period.[37]
Government shutdown
When a government shutdown occurs, the NIH continues to treat people who are already enrolled in clinical trials, but does not start any new clinical trials and does not admit new patients who are not already enrolled in a clinical trial, except for the most critically ill,[38][39][40] as determined by the NIH Director.[41]
Gender and sex bias
In 2014, it was announced that the NIH is directing scientists to perform their experiments with both female and male animals, or cells derived from females as well as males if they are studying cell cultures, and that the NIH would take the balance of each study design into consideration when awarding grants.[42] However, the announcement also stated that this rule would probably not apply when studying sex-specific diseases (for example, ovarian or testicular cancer).[42]
Grant allocation bias controversy[edit]
In 2011, a paper published in Science found that black researchers were 10% less likely to win NIH R01 grants (the oldest and most widely used) than white researchers, after controlling for "educational background, country of origin, training, previous research awards, publication record, and employer characteristics." It also found that black researchers are significantly less likely to resubmit an unapproved grant than white researchers.[43] The study lead and economist Donna Grant said that grant reviewers do not have access to the applicant race, but may infer it from biographies or names. She also speculated that the decreased re-submission rate may be due to lack of mentoring. The study, which was commissioned by the NIH, included in its analysis 83,000 grant applications, made between 2000 and 2006.[44] Dr. Otis W. Brawley, chief medical officer at the American Cancer Society and a black man, commented on the cause of the disparity as one unrelated to racism per se, but rather to the reviewers' unconscious tendency to more likely give the benefit of the doubt to someone they are familiar with, in a scientific world where black researchers tend to keep a lower profile than other groups. The study did not reveal similar difficulties for members of other races and ethnic groups (e.g., Hispanics).[44]
Stakeholders[edit]
Many groups are highly invested in NIH funding.
General public[edit]
One of the goals of the NIH is to "expand the base in medical and associated sciences in order to ensure a continued high return on the public investment in research."[45] Taxpayer dollars funding NIH are from the taxpayers, making them the primary beneficiaries of advances in research. Thus, the general public is a key stakeholder in the decisions resulting from the NIH funding policy. Congress theoretically represents the public interest as the NIH Advisory Committee allocates to the NIH, and the funds to the Director.[46] However, many in the general public do not feel their interests are being accurately represented. As a result, individuals have formed patient advocacy groups to represent their own interests.[47] Patient advocacy groups tend to focus on specific aspects of health care or diseases. Advocates get involved in many different areas such as organizing awareness campaigns, promoting patients' rights, and enhancing health policy initiatives. Most importantly, patient advocacy groups are often involved with advisory panels to ensure that current projects and those projects being considered for funding will directly impact patients' lives, improve delivery of care, and provide support for tertiary care. Advocacy groups strive to promote a health care system that is beneficial for all parties involved. Through congressional representation, NIH Advisory Committee efforts, and patient advocacy groups, the public is able to influence funding allocation as well as the policy itself.[48]
Extramural researchers and scientists[edit]
Other important stakeholders of the NIH funding policy are the researchers and scientists themselves. Extramural researchers differ from intramural researchers in that they are not employed by the NIH but must apply for funding. Throughout the history of the NIH, the amount of funding received has increased, but the proportion to each IC remains relatively constant. The individual ICs then decide who will receive the grant money and how much will be allotted. Research funding is important to extramural researchers for multiple reasons. Without the help of an NIH grant (or a similar type of funding), researchers and scientists are unable to pursue their own research interests but are obliged to follow the agenda of the company or university for which they work. This could potentially hinder discoveries in novel research areas. In 2000, Brian Jacobs and Lars Lefgren researched extensively the impact of NIH grants on basic research and development, and the careers of grant recipients. For the period of 1980–2000, they reviewed all postdoctoral research grants and standard research grants for those who received funding and those who did not.[49] Jacobs and Lefgren found that scientists who received postdoctoral research grants were 20 percent more likely to be published within the first five years after receiving the grant.[49] They also found that scientists who received grants were 11 percent more likely to have one publication and 23 percent more likely to have five publications. Due to the 'publish or perish' standard that many researchers face, NIH funding can have a great impact on researchers' careers.[49] Receiving a standard research grant also has a significant impact on researchers. Young scientists who receive a first-time grant (R01) usually produce more than one additional publication in the five-year period after they receive the grant. Those who receive an NIH grant will typically receive $252,000 more in NIH funding in the following six to ten years,[49] and a statistically significant relationship exists between scientists receiving NIH grants and their research productivity throughout their careers.
Policy changes on who receives funding also significantly affect researchers. For example, the NIH has recently attempted to approve more first-time NIH R01 applicants, or the research grant applications of young scientists. To encourage the participation of young scientists who potentially think outside the box, the application process has been shortened and made easier.[50] In addition, first-time applicants are being offered more funding for their research grants than those who have received grants in the past.[51] Although this change provides greater opportunities for young scientists, it also places older, more experienced scientists at a funding disadvantage.
Commercial partnerships[edit]
In 2011 and 2012 the Department of Health and Human Services Office of Inspector General published a series of audit reports revealing that throughout the fiscal years 2000–2010, institutes under the aegis of the NIH, did not comply with the time and amount requirements specified in appropriations statutes, in awarding federal contracts to commercial partners, committing the federal government to tens of millions of dollars of expenditure ahead of appropriation of funds from Congress.[52]
Institutes and centers[edit]
Main article: List of NIH ICs
The NIH is composed of 27 separate institutes and centers (ICs) that conduct and coordinate research across different disciplines of biomedical science. These are:
National Cancer Institute
National Eye Institute
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
National Human Genome Research Institute
National Institute on Aging
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases
National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders
National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
National Institute on Drug Abuse
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
National Institute of General Medical Sciences
National Institute of Mental Health
National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
National Institute of Nursing Research
National Library of Medicine
Center for Information Technology
Center for Scientific Review
Fogarty International Center
National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences
National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health
NIH Clinical Center
In addition, the National Center for Research Resources operated from April 13, 1962 to December 23, 2011.
See also[edit]
List of institutes and centers of the National Institutes of Health
United States Public Health Service
National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale
Heads of International Research Organizations
NIH Toolbox
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to National Institutes of Health.
Official website
National Institutes of Health in the Federal Register
U.S. Scientific Grant Funding Database
Regional Medical Programs Collection of information on NIH's Regional Medical Programs, from the National Library of Medicine
Nice health tips for all age people
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National Institutes of Health
Institutes
National Cancer Institute
National Eye Institute
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
National Human Genome Research Institute
National Institute on Aging
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases
National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders
National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
National Institute on Drug Abuse
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
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National Institute of Mental Health
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Directors
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Rolla Dyer
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James B. Wyngaarden
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Research and development agencies of the federal government of the United States
Independent agencies
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Hospitals in Maryland
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University of Maryland Medical Center (UMMC) (R Adams Cowley Shock Trauma Center)
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Walter Reed NMMC
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Freestanding Emergency Centers
Adventist HealthCare - Germantown EC
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Adventist Rehabilitation Hospital of Maryland
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Springfield
Thomas B. Finan Center
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NIH
St. Agnes Hospital
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Defunct
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Henryton State Hospital
Jarvis Hospital
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Lutheran Hospital
Memorial of Cumberland
Pine Bluff State Hospital
Provident Hospital
Rosewood Center
Sydenham
Sacred Heart
University Specialty Hospital
Walter P Carter Center
Washington County Hospital
Women's Hospital
Italics denote designated Trauma Centers
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 269519564
LCCN: n78085445
ISNI: 0000 0001 1942 0345
GND: 43109-6
SUDOC: 027215156
BNF: cb119305763 (data)
NLA: 36075808
NKC: nlk20020125344
BNE: XX114439
Coordinates: 39°00′07″N 77°06′14″W / 39.002°N 77.104°W / 39.002; -77.104
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Institutes_of_Health&oldid=813663793"
Categories:
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