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Adiabatic process
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Specific heat capacity c = {\displaystyle c=}
T {\displaystyle T} ∂ S {\displaystyle \partial S}
N {\displaystyle N} ∂ T {\displaystyle \partial T}
Compressibility β = − {\displaystyle \beta =-}
1 {\displaystyle 1} ∂ V {\displaystyle \partial V}
V {\displaystyle V} ∂ p {\displaystyle \partial p}
Thermal expansion α = {\displaystyle \alpha =}
1 {\displaystyle 1} ∂ V {\displaystyle \partial V}
V {\displaystyle V} ∂ T {\displaystyle \partial T}
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U ( S , V ) {\displaystyle U(S,V)}
Enthalpy
H ( S , p ) = U + p V {\displaystyle H(S,p)=U+pV}
Helmholtz free energy
A ( T , V ) = U − T S {\displaystyle A(T,V)=U-TS}
Gibbs free energy
G ( T , p ) = H − T S {\displaystyle G(T,p)=H-TS}
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Book:Thermodynamics
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This article is about adiabatic processes in thermodynamics. For the adiabatic theorem in quantum mechanics, see adiabatic theorem.
In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process is one that occurs without transfer of heat or matter between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings. In an adiabatic process, there is no energy or matter transferred to its surroundings .[1][2] The adiabatic process provides a rigorous conceptual basis for the theory used to expound the first law of thermodynamics, and as such it is a key concept in thermodynamics.
Some chemical and physical processes occur so rapidly that they may be conveniently described by the term "adiabatic approximation", meaning that there is not enough time for the transfer of energy as heat to take place to or from the system.[3]
By way of example, the adiabatic flame temperature is an idealization that uses the "adiabatic approximation" so as to provide an upper limit calculation of temperatures produced by combustion of a fuel. The adiabatic flame temperature is the temperature that would be achieved by a flame if the process of combustion took place in the absence of heat loss to the surroundings.
Contents
1 Description
1.1 Various applications of the adiabatic assumption
2 Adiabatic heating and cooling
3 Ideal gas (reversible process)
3.1 Example of adiabatic compression
3.2 Adiabatic free expansion of a gas
3.3 Derivation of P–V relation for adiabatic heating and cooling
3.4 Derivation of P–T relation for adiabatic heating and cooling
3.5 Derivation of discrete formula
4 Graphing adiabats
5 Etymology
6 Conceptual significance in thermodynamic theory
7 Divergent usages of the word adiabatic
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Description[edit]
A process that does not involve the transfer of heat or matter into or out of a system, so that Q = 0, is called an adiabatic process, and such a system is said to be adiabatically isolated.[4][5] The assumption that a process is adiabatic is a frequently made simplifying assumption. For example, the compression of a gas within a cylinder of an engine is assumed to occur so rapidly that on the time scale of the compression process, little of the system's energy can be transferred out as heat to the surroundings. Even though the cylinders are not insulated and are quite conductive, that process is idealized to be adiabatic. The same can be said to be true for the expansion process of such a system.
The assumption of adiabatic isolation of a system is a useful one, and is often combined with others so as to make the calculation of the system's behaviour possible. Such assumptions are idealizations. The behaviour of actual machines deviates from these idealizations, but the assumption of such "perfect" behaviour provide a useful first approximation of how the real world works. According to Laplace, when sound travels in a gas, there is no time for heat conduction in the medium and so the propagation of sound is adiabatic. For such an adiabatic process, the modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) can be expressed as E = γP, where γ is the ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume (γ = Cp/Cv ) and P is the pressure of the gas .
Various applications of the adiabatic assumption[edit]
For a closed system, one may write the first law of thermodynamics as : ΔU = Q + W, where ΔU denotes the change of the system's internal energy, Q the quantity of energy added to it as heat, and W the work done on it by its surroundings.
If the system has rigid walls such that work cannot be transferred in or out (W = 0), and the walls of the system are not adiabatic and energy is added in the form of heat (Q > 0), and there is no phase change, the temperature of the system will rise.
If the system has rigid walls such that pressure–volume work cannot be done, and the system walls are adiabatic (Q = 0), but energy is added as isochoric work in the form of friction or the stirring of a viscous fluid within the system (W > 0), and there is no phase change, the temperature of the system will rise.
If the system walls are adiabatic (Q = 0), but not rigid (W ≠ 0), and, in a fictive idealized process, energy is added to the system in the form of frictionless, non-viscous pressure–volume work, and there is no phase change, the temperature of the system will rise. Such a process is called an isentropic process and is said to be "reversible". Fictively, if the process is reversed, the energy added as work can be recovered entirely as work done by the system. If the system contains a compressible gas and is reduced in volume, the uncertainty of the position of the gas is reduced, and seemingly would reduce the entropy of the system, but the temperature of the system will rise as the process is isentropic (ΔS = 0). Should the work be added in such a way that friction or viscous forces are operating within the system, then the process is not isentropic, and if there is no phase change, then the temperature of the system will rise, the process is said to be "irreversible", and the work added to the system is not entirely recoverable in the form of work.
If the walls of a system are not adiabatic, and energy is transferred in as heat, entropy is transferred into the system with the heat. Such a process is neither adiabatic nor isentropic, having Q > 0, and ΔS > 0 according to the second law of thermodynamics.
Naturally occurring adiabatic processes are irreversible (entropy is produced).
The transfer of energy as work into an adiabatically isolated system can be imagined as being of two idealized extreme kinds. In one such kind, there is no entropy produced within the system (no friction, viscous dissipation, etc.), and the work is only pressure-volume work (denoted by P dV). In nature, this ideal kind occurs only approximately, because it demands an infinitely slow process and no sources of dissipation.
The other extreme kind of work is isochoric work (dV = 0), for which energy is added as work solely through friction or viscous dissipation within the system. A stirrer that transfers energy to a viscous fluid of an adiabatically isolated system with rigid walls, without phase change, will cause a rise in temperature of the fluid, but that work is not recoverable. Isochoric work is irreversible.[6] The second law of thermodynamics observes that a natural process, of transfer of energy as work, always consists at least of isochoric work and often both of these extreme kinds of work. Every natural process, adiabatic or not, is irreversible, with ΔS > 0, as friction or viscosity are always present to some extent.
Adiabatic heating and cooling[edit]
The adiabatic compression of a gas causes a rise in temperature of the gas.
Adiabatic expansion against pressure, or a spring, causes a drop in temperature. In contrast, free expansion is an isothermal process for an ideal gas.

Adiabatic heating occurs when the pressure of a gas is increased from work done on it by its surroundings, e.g., a piston compressing a gas contained within a cylinder and raising the temperature where in many practical situations heat conduction through walls can be slow compared with the compression time. This finds practical application in diesel engines which rely on the lack of heat dissipation during the compression stroke to elevate the fuel vapor temperature sufficiently to ignite it.
Adiabatic heating occurs in the Earth's atmosphere when an air mass descends, for example, in a katabatic wind, Foehn wind, or chinook wind flowing downhill over a mountain range. When a parcel of air descends, the pressure on the parcel increases. Due to this increase in pressure, the parcel's volume decreases and its temperature increases as work is done on the parcel of air, thus increasing its internal energy, which manifests itself by a rise in the temperature of that mass of air. The parcel of air can only slowly dissipate the energy by conduction or radiation (heat), and to a first approximation it can be considered adiabatically isolated and the process an adiabatic process.
Adiabatic cooling occurs when the pressure on an adiabatically isolated system is decreased, allowing it to expand, thus causing it to do work on its surroundings. When the pressure applied on a parcel of air is reduced, the air in the parcel is allowed to expand; as the volume increases, the temperature falls as its internal energy decreases. Adiabatic cooling occurs in the Earth's atmosphere with orographic lifting and lee waves, and this can form pileus or lenticular clouds.
Adiabatic cooling does not have to involve a fluid. One technique used to reach very low temperatures (thousandths and even millionths of a degree above absolute zero) is via adiabatic demagnetisation, where the change in magnetic field on a magnetic material is used to provide adiabatic cooling. Also, the contents of an expanding universe can be described (to first order) as an adiabatically cooling fluid. (See heat death of the universe.)
Rising magma also undergoes adiabatic cooling before eruption, particularly significant in the case of magmas that rise quickly from great depths such as kimberlites.[7]
Such temperature changes can be quantified using the ideal gas law, or the hydrostatic equation for atmospheric processes.
In practice, no process is truly adiabatic. Many processes rely on a large difference in time scales of the process of interest and the rate of heat dissipation across a system boundary, and thus are approximated by using an adiabatic assumption. There is always some heat loss, as no perfect insulators exist.
Ideal gas (reversible process)[edit]
Main article: Reversible adiabatic process
For a simple substance, during an adiabatic process in which the volume increases, the internal energy of the working substance must decrease
The mathematical equation for an ideal gas undergoing a reversible (i.e., no entropy generation) adiabatic process can be represented by the polytropic process equation[3]
P V n = constant , {\displaystyle PV^{n}={\text{constant}},}
where P is pressure, V is volume, and for this case n = γ, where
γ = C P C V = f + 2 f , {\displaystyle \gamma ={\frac {C_{P}}{C_{V}}}={\frac {f+2}{f}},}
CP being the specific heat for constant pressure, CV being the specific heat for constant volume, γ is the adiabatic index, and f is the number of degrees of freedom (3 for monatomic gas, 5 for diatomic gas and collinear molecules e.g. carbon dioxide).
For a monatomic ideal gas, γ = 5/3, and for a diatomic gas (such as nitrogen and oxygen, the main components of air) γ = 7/5.[8] Note that the above formula is only applicable to classical ideal gases and not Bose–Einstein or Fermi gases.
For reversible adiabatic processes, it is also true that[3]
P 1 − γ T γ = constant , {\displaystyle P^{1-\gamma }T^{\gamma }={\text{constant}},}
V T f 2 = constant , {\displaystyle VT^{\frac {f}{2}}={\text{constant}},}
where T is an absolute temperature. This can also be written as[3]
T V γ − 1 = constant . {\displaystyle TV^{\gamma -1}={\text{constant}}.}
Example of adiabatic compression[edit]
The compression stroke in a gasoline engine can be used as an example of adiabatic compression. The model assumptions are: the uncompressed volume of the cylinder is one litre (1 l = 1000 cm3 = 0.001 m3); the gas within is the air consisting of molecular nitrogen and oxygen only (thus a diatomic gas with 5 degrees of freedom, and so γ = 7/5); the compression ratio of the engine is 10:1 (that is, the 1 l volume of uncompressed gas is reduced to 0.1 l by the piston); and the uncompressed gas is at approximately room temperature and pressure (a warm room temperature of ~27 °C, or 300 K, and a pressure of 1 bar = 100 kPa, i.e. typical sea-level atmospheric pressure).
P V γ = constant 1 = 100 000 Pa × ( 0.001 m 3 ) 7 5 {\displaystyle PV^{\gamma }=\operatorname {constant} _{1}=100\,000~{\text{Pa}}\times (0.001~{\text{m}}^{3})^{\frac {7}{5}}}
= 10 5 × 6.31 × 10 − 5 Pa m 21 / 5 = 6.31 Pa m 21 / 5 , {\displaystyle =10^{5}\times 6.31\times 10^{-5}~{\text{Pa}}\,{\text{m}}^{21/5}=6.31~{\text{Pa}}\,{\text{m}}^{21/5},}
so our adiabatic constant for this example is about 6.31 Pa m4.2.
The gas is now compressed to a 0.1 l (0.0001 m3) volume (we will assume this happens quickly enough that no heat can enter or leave the gas through the walls). The adiabatic constant remains the same, but with the resulting pressure unknown
P V γ = constant 1 = 6.31 Pa m 21 / 5 = P × ( 0.0001 m 3 ) 7 5 , {\displaystyle PV^{\gamma }=\operatorname {constant} _{1}=6.31~{\text{Pa}}\,{\text{m}}^{21/5}=P\times (0.0001~{\text{m}}^{3})^{\frac {7}{5}},}
so solving for P:
P = 6.31 Pa m 21 / 5 ( 0.0001 m 3 ) 7 5 = 6.31 Pa m 21 / 5 2.5 × 10 − 6 m 21 / 5 = 2.51 × 10 6 Pa , {\displaystyle P={\frac {6.31~{\text{Pa}}\,{\text{m}}^{21/5}}{(0.0001~{\text{m}}^{3})^{\frac {7}{5}}}}={\frac {6.31~{\text{Pa}}\,{\text{m}}^{21/5}}{2.5\times 10^{-6}~{\text{m}}^{21/5}}}=2.51\times 10^{6}~{\text{Pa}},}
or 25.1 bar. Note that this pressure increase is more than a simple 10:1 compression ratio would indicate; this is because the gas is not only compressed, but the work done to compress the gas also increases its internal energy, which manifests itself by a rise in the gas temperature and an additional rise in pressure above what would result from a simplistic calculation of 10 times the original pressure.
We can solve for the temperature of the compressed gas in the engine cylinder as well, using the ideal gas law, PV = nRT (n is amount of gas in moles and R the gas constant for that gas). Our initial conditions being 100 kPa of pressure, 1 l volume, and 300 K of temperature, our experimental constant (nR) is:
P V T = constant 2 = 10 5 Pa × 10 − 3 m 3 300 K = 0.333 Pa m 3 K − 1 . {\displaystyle {\frac {PV}{T}}=\operatorname {constant} _{2}={\frac {10^{5}~{\text{Pa}}\times 10^{-3}~{\text{m}}^{3}}{300~{\text{K}}}}=0.333~{\text{Pa}}\,{\text{m}}^{3}{\text{K}}^{-1}.}
We know the compressed gas has V = 0.1 l and P = 7006251000000000000♠2.51×106 Pa, so we can solve for temperature:
T = P V constant 2 = 2.51 × 10 6 Pa × 10 − 4 m 3 0.333 Pa m 3 K − 1 = 753 K . {\displaystyle T={\frac {PV}{\operatorname {constant} _{2}}}={\frac {2.51\times 10^{6}~{\text{Pa}}\times 10^{-4}~{\text{m}}^{3}}{0.333~{\text{Pa}}\,{\text{m}}^{3}{\text{K}}^{-1}}}=753~{\text{K}}.}
That is a final temperature of 753 K, or 479 °C, or 896 °F, well above the ignition point of many fuels. This is why a high-compression engine requires fuels specially formulated to not self-ignite (which would cause engine knocking when operated under these conditions of temperature and pressure), or that a supercharger with an intercooler to provide a pressure boost but with a lower temperature rise would be advantageous. A diesel engine operates under even more extreme conditions, with compression ratios of 20:1 or more being typical, in order to provide a very high gas temperature, which ensures immediate ignition of the injected fuel.
Adiabatic free expansion of a gas[edit]
See also: Free expansion
For an adiabatic free expansion of an ideal gas, the gas is contained in an insulated container and then allowed to expand in a vacuum. Because there is no external pressure for the gas to expand against, the work done by or on the system is zero. Since this process does not involve any heat transfer or work, the first law of thermodynamics then implies that the net internal energy change of the system is zero. For an ideal gas, the temperature remains constant because the internal energy only depends on temperature in that case. Since at constant temperature, the entropy is proportional to the volume, the entropy increases in this case, therefore this process is irreversible.
Derivation of P–V relation for adiabatic heating and cooling[edit]
The definition of an adiabatic process is that heat transfer to the system is zero, δQ = 0. Then, according to the first law of thermodynamics,
(1) d U + δ W = δ Q = 0 , {\displaystyle {\text{(1)}}\qquad dU+\delta W=\delta Q=0,}
where dU is the change in the internal energy of the system and δW is work done by the system. Any work (δW) done must be done at the expense of internal energy U, since no heat δQ is being supplied from the surroundings. Pressure–volume work δW done by the system is defined as
(2) δ W = P d V . {\displaystyle {\text{(2)}}\qquad \delta W=P\,dV.}
However, P does not remain constant during an adiabatic process but instead changes along with V.
It is desired to know how the values of dP and dV relate to each other as the adiabatic process proceeds. For an ideal gas the internal energy is given by
(3) U = α n R T , {\displaystyle {\text{(3)}}\qquad U=\alpha nRT,}
where α is the number of degrees of freedom divided by two, R is the universal gas constant and n is the number of moles in the system (a constant).
Differentiating equation (3) and use of the ideal gas law, PV = nRT, yields
(4) d U = α n R d T = α d ( P V ) = α ( P d V + V d P ) . {\displaystyle {\text{(4)}}\qquad dU=\alpha nR\,dT=\alpha \,d(PV)=\alpha (P\,dV+V\,dP).}
Equation (4) is often expressed as dU = nCV dT because CV = αR.
Now substitute equations (2) and (4) into equation (1) to obtain
− P d V = α P d V + α V d P , {\displaystyle -P\,dV=\alpha P\,dV+\alpha V\,dP,}
factorize −P dV:
− ( α + 1 ) P d V = α V d P , {\displaystyle -(\alpha +1)P\,dV=\alpha V\,dP,}
and divide both sides by PV:
− ( α + 1 ) d V V = α d P P . {\displaystyle -(\alpha +1){\frac {dV}{V}}=\alpha {\frac {dP}{P}}.}
After integrating the left and right sides from V0 to V and from P0 to P and changing the sides respectively,
ln  ( P P 0 ) = − α + 1 α ln  ( V V 0 ) . {\displaystyle \ln \left({\frac {P}{P_{0}}}\right)=-{\frac {\alpha +1}{\alpha }}\ln \left({\frac {V}{V_{0}}}\right).}
Exponentiate both sides, substitute α + 1/α with γ, the heat capacity ratio
( P P 0 ) = ( V V 0 ) − γ , {\displaystyle \left({\frac {P}{P_{0}}}\right)=\left({\frac {V}{V_{0}}}\right)^{-\gamma },}
and eliminate the negative sign to obtain
( P P 0 ) = ( V 0 V ) γ . {\displaystyle \left({\frac {P}{P_{0}}}\right)=\left({\frac {V_{0}}{V}}\right)^{\gamma }.}
Therefore,
( P P 0 ) ( V V 0 ) γ = 1 , {\displaystyle \left({\frac {P}{P_{0}}}\right)\left({\frac {V}{V_{0}}}\right)^{\gamma }=1,}
and
P 0 V 0 γ = P V γ = constant . {\displaystyle P_{0}V_{0}^{\gamma }=PV^{\gamma }=\operatorname {constant} .}
Derivation of P–T relation for adiabatic heating and cooling[edit]
Substituting the ideal gas law into the above, we obtain
P ( n R T P ) γ = constant , {\displaystyle P\left({\frac {nRT}{P}}\right)^{\gamma }=\operatorname {constant} ,}
which simplifies to
P 1 − γ T γ = constant . {\displaystyle P^{1-\gamma }T^{\gamma }=\operatorname {constant} .}
Derivation of discrete formula[edit]
The change in internal energy of a system, measured from state 1 to state 2, is equal to
(1) Δ U = α R n T 2 − α R n T 1 = α R n Δ T . {\displaystyle {\text{(1)}}\qquad \Delta U=\alpha RnT_{2}-\alpha RnT_{1}=\alpha Rn\Delta T.}
At the same time, the work done by the pressure–volume changes as a result from this process, is equal to
(2) W = ∫ V 1 V 2 P d V . {\displaystyle {\text{(2)}}\qquad W=\int _{V_{1}}^{V_{2}}P\,dV.}
Since we require the process to be adiabatic, the following equation needs to be true
(3) Δ U + W = 0. {\displaystyle {\text{(3)}}\qquad \Delta U+W=0.}
By the previous derivation,
(4) P V γ = constant = P 1 V 1 γ . {\displaystyle {\text{(4)}}\qquad PV^{\gamma }={\text{constant}}=P_{1}V_{1}^{\gamma }.}
Rearranging (4) gives
P = P 1 ( V 1 V ) γ . {\displaystyle P=P_{1}\left({\frac {V_{1}}{V}}\right)^{\gamma }.}
Substituting this into (2) gives
W = ∫ V 1 V 2 P 1 ( V 1 V ) γ d V . {\displaystyle W=\int _{V_{1}}^{V_{2}}P_{1}\left({\frac {V_{1}}{V}}\right)^{\gamma }\,dV.}
Integrating,
W = P 1 V 1 γ V 2 1 − γ − V 1 1 − γ 1 − γ . {\displaystyle W=P_{1}V_{1}^{\gamma }{\frac {V_{2}^{1-\gamma }-V_{1}^{1-\gamma }}{1-\gamma }}.}
Substituting γ = α + 1/α,
W = − α P 1 V 1 γ ( V 2 1 − γ − V 1 1 − γ ) . {\displaystyle W=-\alpha P_{1}V_{1}^{\gamma }\left(V_{2}^{1-\gamma }-V_{1}^{1-\gamma }\right).}
Rearranging,
W = − α P 1 V 1 ( ( V 2 V 1 ) 1 − γ − 1 ) . {\displaystyle W=-\alpha P_{1}V_{1}\left(\left({\frac {V_{2}}{V_{1}}}\right)^{1-\gamma }-1\right).}
Using the ideal gas law and assuming a constant molar quantity (as often happens in practical cases),
W = − α n R T 1 ( ( V 2 V 1 ) 1 − γ − 1 ) . {\displaystyle W=-\alpha nRT_{1}\left(\left({\frac {V_{2}}{V_{1}}}\right)^{1-\gamma }-1\right).}
By the continuous formula,
P 2 P 1 = ( V 2 V 1 ) − γ , {\displaystyle {\frac {P_{2}}{P_{1}}}=\left({\frac {V_{2}}{V_{1}}}\right)^{-\gamma },}
or
( P 2 P 1 ) − 1 γ = V 2 V 1 . {\displaystyle \left({\frac {P_{2}}{P_{1}}}\right)^{-{\frac {1}{\gamma }}}={\frac {V_{2}}{V_{1}}}.}
Substituting into the previous expression for W,
W = − α n R T 1 ( ( P 2 P 1 ) γ − 1 γ − 1 ) . {\displaystyle W=-\alpha nRT_{1}\left(\left({\frac {P_{2}}{P_{1}}}\right)^{\frac {\gamma -1}{\gamma }}-1\right).}
Substituting this expression and (1) in (3) gives
α n R ( T 2 − T 1 ) = α n R T 1 ( ( P 2 P 1 ) γ − 1 γ − 1 ) . {\displaystyle \alpha nR(T_{2}-T_{1})=\alpha nRT_{1}\left(\left({\frac {P_{2}}{P_{1}}}\right)^{\frac {\gamma -1}{\gamma }}-1\right).}
Simplifying,
T 2 − T 1 = T 1 ( ( P 2 P 1 ) γ − 1 γ − 1 ) , {\displaystyle T_{2}-T_{1}=T_{1}\left(\left({\frac {P_{2}}{P_{1}}}\right)^{\frac {\gamma -1}{\gamma }}-1\right),}
T 2 T 1 − 1 = ( P 2 P 1 ) γ − 1 γ − 1 , {\displaystyle {\frac {T_{2}}{T_{1}}}-1=\left({\frac {P_{2}}{P_{1}}}\right)^{\frac {\gamma -1}{\gamma }}-1,}
T 2 = T 1 ( P 2 P 1 ) γ − 1 γ . {\displaystyle T_{2}=T_{1}\left({\frac {P_{2}}{P_{1}}}\right)^{\frac {\gamma -1}{\gamma }}.}
Graphing adiabats[edit]
An adiabat is a curve of constant entropy in a diagram. Some properties of adiabats on a P–V diagram are indicated. These properties may be read from the classical behaviour of ideal gases, except in the region where PV becomes small (low temperature), where quantum effects become important.
Every adiabat asymptotically approaches both the V axis and the P axis (just like isotherms).
Each adiabat intersects each isotherm exactly once.
An adiabat looks similar to an isotherm, except that during an expansion, an adiabat loses more pressure than an isotherm, so it has a steeper inclination (more vertical).
If isotherms are concave towards the north-east direction (45°), then adiabats are concave towards the east north-east (31°).
If adiabats and isotherms are graphed at regular intervals of entropy and temperature, respectively (like altitude on a contour map), then as the eye moves towards the axes (towards the south-west), it sees the density of isotherms stay constant, but it sees the density of adiabats grow. The exception is very near absolute zero, where the density of adiabats drops sharply and they become rare (see Nernst's theorem).[clarification needed]
The following diagram is a P–V diagram with a superposition of adiabats and isotherms:
The isotherms are the red curves and the adiabats are the black curves.
The adiabats are isentropic.
Volume is the horizontal axis and pressure is the vertical axis.
Etymology[edit]
Look up adiabatic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The term adiabatic (/ˌædiəˈbætɪk/) is an anglicization of the Greek term ἀδιάβατος "impassable" (used by Xenophon of rivers). It is used in the thermodynamic sense by Rankine (1866),[9][10] and adopted by Maxwell in 1871 (explicitly attributing the term to Rankine).[11] The etymological origin corresponds here to an impossibility of transfer of energy as heat and of transfer of matter across the wall.
The Greek word ἀδιάβατος is formed from privative ἀ- ("not") and διαβατός, "passable", in turn deriving from διά ("through"), and βαῖνειν ("to walk, go, come").[12]
Conceptual significance in thermodynamic theory[edit]
The adiabatic process has been important for thermodynamics since its early days. It was important in the work of Joule, because it provided a way of nearly directly relating quantities of heat and work.
For a thermodynamic system that is enclosed by walls that do not allow mass transfer, energy can pass in and out only as heat or work. Thus a quantity of work can be related almost directly to an equivalent quantity of heat in a cycle of two limbs. The first is an isochoric adiabatic work process that adds to the system's internal energy. Then an isochoric and workless heat transfer returns the system to its original state. The first limb adds a definite amount of energy and the second removes it. Accordingly, Rankine measured quantity of heat in units of work, rather than as a calorimetric quantity .[13] In 1854, Rankine used a quantity that he called "the thermodynamic function" that later was called entropy, and at that time he wrote also of the "curve of no transmission of heat",[14] which he later called an adiabatic curve.[9] Besides it two isothermal limbs, Carnot's cycle has two adiabatic limbs.
For the foundations of thermodynamics, the conceptual importance of this was emphasized by Bryan,[15] by Carathéodory,[1] and by Born.[16] The reason is that calorimetry presupposes a type of temperature as already defined before the statement of the first law of thermodynamics, such as one based on empirical scales. Such a presupposition involves making the distinction between empirical temperature and absolute temperature. Rather, the definition of absolute thermodynamic temperature is best left till the second law is available as a conceptual basis.[17]
In the eighteenth century, the law of conservation of energy was yet to be fully formulated or established, and the nature of heat was debated. One approach to these problems was to regard heat, measured by calorimetry, as a primary substance that is conserved in quantity. By the middle of the nineteenth century, it was recognized as a form of energy, and the law of conservation of energy was thereby also recognized. The view that eventually established itself, and is currently regarded as right, is that the law of conservation of energy is a primary axiom, and that heat is to be analyzed as consequential. In this light, heat cannot be a component of the total energy of a single body because it is not a state variable, but, rather, is a variable that describes a process of transfer between two bodies. The adiabatic process is important because it is a logical ingredient of this current view.[17]
Divergent usages of the word adiabatic[edit]
This present article is written from the viewpoint of macroscopic thermodynamics, and the word adiabatic is used in this article in the traditional way of thermodynamics, introduced by Rankine. It is pointed out in the present article that, for example, if a compression of a gas is rapid, then there is little time for heat transfer to occur, even when the gas is not adiabatically isolated by a definite wall. In this sense, a rapid compression of a gas is sometimes approximately or loosely said to be adiabatic, though often far from isentropic, even when the gas is not adiabatically isolated by a definite wall.
Quantum mechanics and quantum statistical mechanics, however, use the word adiabatic in a very different sense, one that can at times seem almost opposite to the classical thermodynamic sense. In quantum theory, the word adiabatic can mean something perhaps near isentropic, or perhaps near quasi-static, but the usage of the word is very different between the two disciplines.
On the one hand, in quantum theory, if a perturbative element of compressive work is done almost infinitely slowly (that is to say quasi-statically), it is said to have been done adiabatically. The idea is that the shapes of the eigenfunctions change slowly and continuously, so that no quantum jump is triggered, and the change is virtually reversible. While the occupation numbers are unchanged, nevertheless there is change in the energy levels of one-to-one corresponding, pre- and post-compression, eigenstates. Thus a perturbative element of work has been done without heat transfer and without introduction of random change within the system. For example, Max Born writes "Actually, it is usually the 'adiabatic' case with which we have to do: i.e. the limiting case where the external force (or the reaction of the parts of the system on each other) acts very slowly. In this case, to a very high approximation
c 1 2 = 1 , c 2 2 = 0 , c 3 2 = 0 , . . . , {\displaystyle c_{1}^{2}=1,\,\,c_{2}^{2}=0,\,\,c_{3}^{2}=0,\,...\,,}
that is, there is no probability for a transition, and the system is in the initial state after cessation of the perturbation. Such a slow perturbation is therefore reversible, as it is classically."[18]
On the other hand, in quantum theory, if a perturbative element of compressive work is done rapidly, it randomly changes the occupation numbers of the eigenstates, as well as changing their shapes. In that theory, such a rapid change is said not to be adiabatic, and the contrary word diabatic is applied to it. One might guess that perhaps Clausius, if he were confronted with this, in the now-obsolete language he used in his day, would have said that "internal work" was done and that 'heat was generated though not transferred'.[citation needed]
In classical thermodynamics, such a rapid change would still be called adiabatic because the system is adiabatically isolated, and there is no transfer of energy as heat. The strong irreversibility of the change, due to viscosity or other entropy production, does not impinge on this classical usage.
Thus for a mass of gas, in macroscopic thermodynamics, words are so used that a compression is sometimes loosely or approximately said to be adiabatic if it is rapid enough to avoid heat transfer, even if the system is not adiabatically isolated. But in quantum statistical theory, a compression is not called adiabatic if it is rapid, even if the system is adiabatically isolated in the classical thermodynamic sense of the term. The words are used differently in the two disciplines, as stated just above.
See also[edit]
Adiabatic conductivity
Cyclic process
First law of thermodynamics
Heat burst
Isobaric process
Isenthalpic process
Isentropic process
Isochoric process
Isothermal process
Polytropic process
Entropy (classical thermodynamics)
Quasistatic process
Total air temperature
Magnetic refrigeration
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Carathéodory, C. (1909). "Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Thermodynamik". Mathematische Annalen. 67: 355–386. doi:10.1007/BF01450409. . A translation may be found here. Also a mostly reliable translation is to be found in Kestin, J. (1976). The Second Law of Thermodynamics. Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross.
Jump up ^ Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics. New York, NY: American Institute of Physics Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-88318-797-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Bailyn, M. (1994), pp. 52–53.
Jump up ^ Tisza, L. (1966). Generalized Thermodynamics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. p. 48. (adiabatic partitions inhibit the transfer of heat and mass)
Jump up ^ Münster, A. (1970), p. 48: "mass is an adiabatically inhibited variable."
Jump up ^ Münster, A. (1970). Classical Thermodynamics. Translated by Halberstadt, E. S. London: Wiley–Interscience. p. 45. ISBN 0-471-62430-6.
Jump up ^ Kavanagh, J. L.; Sparks, R. S. J. (2009). "Temperature changes in ascending kimberlite magmas". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Elsevier. 286 (3–4): 404–413. Bibcode:2009E&PSL.286..404K. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.07.011. Retrieved 18 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Adiabatic Processes.
^ Jump up to: a b Rankine, W.J.McQ. (1866). On the theory of explosive gas engines, The Engineer, July 27, 1866; at page 467 of the reprint in Miscellaneous Scientific Papers, edited by W.J. Millar, 1881, Charles Griffin, London.
Jump up ^ Partington, J. R. (1949), An Advanced Treatise on Physical Chemistry., volume 1, Fundamental Principles. The Properties of Gases, London: Longmans, Green and Co., p. 122
Jump up ^ Maxwell, J. C. (1871), Theory of Heat (first ed.), London: Longmans, Green and Co., p. 129
Jump up ^ Liddell, H.G., Scott, R. (1940). A Greek-English Lexicon, Clarendon Press, Oxford UK.
Jump up ^ Rankine, W. J. M. (1854). "On the geometrical representation of the expansive action of heat, and theory of thermodynamic engines". Proc. Roy. Soc. 144: 115–175. Miscellaneous Scientific Papers p. 339
Jump up ^ Rankine, W. J. M. (1854). "On the geometrical representation of the expansive action of heat, and theory of thermodynamic engines". Proc. Roy. Soc. 144: 115–175. Miscellaneous Scientific Papers p. 341.
Jump up ^ Bryan, G. H. (1907). Thermodynamics. An Introductory Treatise dealing mainly with First Principles and their Direct Applications. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner.
Jump up ^ Born, M. (1949). "Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance". London: Oxford University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Bailyn, M. (1994). "Chapter 3". A Survey of Thermodynamics. New York, NY: American Institute of Physics. ISBN 0-88318-797-3.
Jump up ^ Born, M. (1927). "Physical aspects of quantum mechanics". Nature. 119: 354–357. Bibcode:1927Natur.119..354B. doi:10.1038/119354a0. (Translation by Robert Oppenheimer.)
General
Silbey, Robert J.; et al. (2004). Physical chemistry. Hoboken: Wiley. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-471-21504-2.
Broholm, Collin. "Adiabatic free expansion". Physics & Astronomy @ Johns Hopkins University. N.p., 26 Nov. 1997. Web. 14 Apr.
Nave, Carl Rod. "Adiabatic Processes". HyperPhysics. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2011. [1].
Thorngren, Dr. Jane R.. "Adiabatic Processes". Daphne – A Palomar College Web Server. N.p., 21 July 1995. Web. 14 Apr. 2011. [2].
External links[edit]
Media related to Adiabatic process at Wikimedia Commons
Article in HyperPhysics Encyclopaedia
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Super Bowl XLVII halftime show
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Super Bowl XLVII halftime show
Part of
Super Bowl XLVII
Date
February 3, 2013
Location
New Orleans, Louisiana, United States
Venue
Mercedes-Benz Superdome
Headliner
Beyoncé
Special guests
Destiny's Child (Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams)
Sponsor
Pepsi
Director
Hamish Hamilton
Producer
Ricky Kirshner
Super Bowl halftime show chronology
XLVI
(2012) XLVII
(2013) XLVIII
(2014)
The Super Bowl XLVII halftime show occurred on February 3, 2013 at the Mercedes-Benz Superdome in New Orleans as part of Super Bowl XLVII and featured American entertainer Beyoncé with special guests Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams from Destiny's Child. The show was produced by Ricky Kirshner and directed by Hamish Hamilton. It received acclaim from music critics who commented that Beyoncé once more proved her abilities during live performances. It became the then second most watched show in Super Bowl history by garnering 110.8 million viewers. The performance, and the stadium blackout that followed, generated more than 299,000 tweets per minute, making it the then second most tweeted moment in the history of Twitter. This would be the first Pepsi sponsored halftime show since Prince's performance in Super Bowl XLI.
Contents
1 Background
2 Development
3 Synopsis
4 Reception
4.1 Critical
4.2 Recognition
4.3 Media
5 Set list
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Background[edit]
In October 2012, news sources confirmed Beyoncé would headline the halftime show at the Super Bowl XLVII. Beyoncé made the announcement on her website prior to the National Football League's confirmation by posting an image of her face with the date of the game stenciled into eye black.[1] Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post quipped that she would become the first "female solo artist under the age of AARP eligibility" to headline the Super Bowl halftime show.[2] Initial reports mentioned that Beyoncé's husband, Jay-Z was a potential collaborator on the show.[3][4] However, he did not appear during the show, and a source told to Us Weekly that he changed his decision at the last minute as he wanted the performance "to be her moment and didn't want to take away from it".[5]
Development[edit]
Beyoncé wearing an oversized black jacket over a lace-and-leather bodysuit, and thigh-high stockings for the halftime show.
The halftime show was produced by Ricky Kirshner and directed by Hamish Hamilton.[1][2] During the performance Beyoncé was dressed in an oversized black jacket, lace-and-leather bodysuit and thigh-high stockings.[6] Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams were also dressed in a matching "black-leather dominatrix-wear", as stated by David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter.[7] Two logos of Beyoncé's portraits opposite each other were put on stage and the show began with Beyoncé emerging from the floor between them while a blaze of flames also appeared on stage.[8][9] Throughout the performance, she was backed by her all-female band, her back-up dancers as well as the Saintsations, a 32-girl cheerleader troupe of host-city New Orleans team the Saints and a horn section made up of female musicians.[6][7]
Following Beyoncé's performance of the American national anthem "The Star-Spangled Banner" at President Obama's second inauguration on January 21, 2013, she was accused for lip sync.[10][11][12] During a news conference where she discussed her halftime performance, she admitted that she sang the song along with a pre-recorded track during the ceremony, but confirmed that she's going to sing live during the Super Bowl halftime show, saying "I will absolutely be singing live... This is what I was born to do, what I was born for. I've had a 16-year career. All the things I've done have prepared me for this."[10] Following her performance at the halftime show, Jon Caramanica of The New York Times wrote that Beyoncé, who wasn't "used to having her reputation impugned", silenced the "doubters" who criticized her after the performance at the inauguration.[13] Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times also wrote in his review: "As she danced and asked that the crowd clap along, her microphone hand made an audible thump. It was loud and obvious. And it proved something true: The mike was live, and our singer was too."[14]
Synopsis[edit]
Beyoncé performing during the halftime show.
A countdown to the halftime show began under the music for "Countdown". It then opened with an instrumental portion of "Run the World (Girls)" and Beyoncé ascended on a stage lift while a Vince Lombardi speech was heard in the background:
"Excellence must be pursued, it must be wooed with all of one's might and every bit of effort that we have; each day there's a new encounter, each week is a new challenge. All of the noise and all of the glamour, all of the color all of the excitement, all of the rings and all of the money. These are the things that linger only in the memory. But the spirit, the will to excel, the will to win, these are the things that endure."[13][15]
Beyoncé is joined by her Destiny's Child bandmates Kelly Rowland (left) and Michelle Williams (right).
Then Beyoncé started singing an a cappella version of the chorus of "Love on Top" which later led to a performance of "Crazy in Love" when as stated by Jon Caramanica of The New York Times Beyoncé was "virtually growling, giving that song a ferocity it has never before had".[13] Beyoncé went on the perform "End of Time" which began with stomping dance.[13] A performance of "Baby Boy" followed when Beyoncé danced while screens behind and below her projected clones of herself dancing the same choreography.[13] Former Destiny's Child members Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams joined her on stage, after being launched off the floor to perform "Bootylicious" and "Independent Women Part I" from the Charlie's Angels soundtrack which they finished with a pose in the form of the film's lead female characters.[6] They continued with a version of Beyoncé's "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)". After they left the stage, Beyoncé said to the crowd, "Everybody put your hands toward me – I want to feel your energy!"[8] and ended the show with an "emotional" rendition of "Halo".[6][16] After her last song, Beyoncé told the crowd, "Thank you for this moment. God bless y'all".[17]
Reception[edit]
Critical[edit]
"Why would you ever have a Super Bowl without Beyoncé? Now that was a halftime show, and that is a star. This woman single-handedly blew out the power in the Superdome. No special guests, no costume changes – just Beyoncé, her heels, her thighs, her leather-and-lace corset and a freewheeling romp through her songbook, ignoring most of her proven crowd-pleasers just because she's Beyoncé and Beyoncé can get away with doing whatever Beyoncé feels like doing."
—Rob Sheffield, Rolling Stone[8]
Beyoncé's performance was acclaimed by critics. Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times commented that Beyoncé's performance at the half time show "reconfirms her skills as a live performer, silencing anyone who might have wondered about them in the wake of a certain revelation."[14] David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "Continuing in the vein of Madonna in 2012, [Beyoncé] steered the Super Bowl halftime show away from dad rock to embrace girl power."[7] Melinda Newman of the website HitFix commented: "In a Super Bowl half-time performance that was as frenetic as it was fierce, [Beyoncé] delivered a sexy segment that was part Victoria's Secret fashion show, part tutorial on how to dazzle an audience."[18] Jon Caramanica of The New York Times praised the performance at the show, commenting that "for 12 or so minutes... she balanced explosions and humanity, imperiousness with warmth, an arena-ready sense of scale with a microscopic approach to the details of her vocals. Amid all the loudness were small things to indicate Beyoncé was answering her skeptics, quietly but effectively."[13] He finished his review with the conclusion that Beyoncé "the machine had made her point" and that the performance was "proof of life".[13] Jim Farber of Daily News wrote in his review of the performance that "It's hard to think of a star better suited to the Super Bowl than she is".[19] Dan Hyman of Rolling Stone magazine wrote in his review that Beyoncé "flaunted her supreme vocal and dancing chops throughout the halftime show" and added that the set's biggest moment was when she was joined on stage by her former bandmates.[6] Rob Sheffield of the same publication praised the performance of Beyoncé's guitarist Bibi McGil during the show, commenting that it was a "ready-made obligatory-Slash-cameo guitar solo".[8] He finished his review by writing, "The actual game wasn't bad, either. Sorry, 49ers. But there's no question who the night belonged to: Beyoncé."[8]
Recognition[edit]
In March 2013, Michael Hogan of The Observer put the performance in his list of "The 10 best Beyoncé moments – in pictures".[20] Beyoncé's performance at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show received three nominations for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards which took place on September 22, 2013. It was nominated in the categories for Outstanding Special Class – Short-Format Live-Action Entertainment Programs; Outstanding Technical Direction, Camerawork, Video Control for a Miniseries, Movie, or a Special; and Outstanding Lighting Design/Lighting Direction for a Variety Special[21][22] eventually winning in the last category.[23] In next year, the performance was nominated for Best Awards, Music, or Game Shows at 2014 Art Directors Guild.[24]
Media[edit]
Nielsen ratings confirmed that the show was watched by 110.8 million viewers, thus becoming the fourth most watched halftime show in the history after Madonna's performance at the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show which was watched by 112.5 million viewers, Bruno Mars' performance at the Super Bowl XLVIII halftime show which attracted 115.3 million viewers and Katy Perry's Super Bowl XLIX halftime show with 118.5 million viewers.[25][26][27] Beyoncé's performance at the Super Bowl XLVII halftime show became the most tweeted-about moment in Twitter history with 268,000 tweets per minute.[28][29]
In the week ending February 10, 2013, Beyoncé sold 220,000 digital song downloads in the US, while Destiny's Child sold 60,000; up 80% and 36% on the previous week, respectively.[30]
Set list[edit]
"Run the World (Girls)" (Intro) (Vince Lombardi "Excellence" speech voiceover)
"Love on Top"
"Crazy in Love"
"End of Time"
"Baby Boy"
"Bootylicious" (Destiny's Child)
"Independent Women Part I" (Destiny's Child)
"Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" (featuring Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams)
"Halo"
Set list adapted from BBC.[9]
See also[edit]
2013 in American music
2013 in American television
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Wallenstein, Andrew (October 16, 2012). "Beyoncé tapped for Super Bowl halftime show". Variety. PMC. Retrieved February 4, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b de Moraes, Lisa (October 16, 2012). "Beyoncé confirmed for Super Bowl halftime show on CBS". The Washington Post. The Washington Post Company. Retrieved February 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Source: Beyoncé set for Super Bowl halftime". Times-Union. Associated Press. October 16, 2012. Retrieved October 16, 2012.
Jump up ^ Chase, Chris (January 31, 2013). "Beyoncé's Super Bowl halftime performance preview: A minute-by-minute breakdown". USA Today. Gannett Company. Retrieved February 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Zach (February 4, 2013). "Exclusive: Beyoncé Performs at the Super Bowl: Why Jay-Z Didn't Join Her on Stage". Us Weekly. Wenner Media. Retrieved April 4, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Hyman, Dan (February 3, 2013). "Beyoncé Rocks Super Bowl Halftime Show With Destiny's Child". Rolling Stone. Wenner Media. Retrieved March 18, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rooney, David (February 3, 2013). "Super Bowl 2013 Halftime Show: TV Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved February 8, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Sheffield, Rob (February 4, 2013). "Super Bowl XLVII: The Night Belonged to Beyoncé". Rolling Stone. Wenner Media. Retrieved March 21, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Super Bowl: Beyoncé wows at half-time show". BBC Online. BBC. February 4, 2013. Retrieved March 21, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Wete, Brad (January 22, 2013). "Beyoncé's Lip-Synced Inaugural Anthem: Is It Really a Big Deal?". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved March 24, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Beyoncé answers lip-sync critics at Super Bowl presser". Associated Press. January 31, 2013. Retrieved March 24, 2013.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Reed (January 24, 2013). "Rumor mill churns around Beyoncé's guests at Super Bowl halftime show". Los Angeles Times. Tribune Company. Retrieved March 24, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Caramanica, Jon (February 4, 2013). "Beyoncé Silences Doubters With Intensity at Halftime". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Retrieved February 21, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b Roberts, Randall (February 3, 2013). "Review: Beyoncé leaves no doubt at Super Bowl". Los Angeles Times. Tribune Company. Retrieved February 5, 2013.
Jump up ^ Ohlheiser, Abby. "A Surprise Super Bowl Halftime Duet: Beyoncé and Vince Lombardi". Slate. The Washington Post Company. Retrieved March 24, 2013.
Jump up ^ Minsker, Evan (February 3, 2013). "Watch Beyoncé's Super Bowl Performance". Pitchfork. Retrieved February 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ Mesfin Fekadu: Beyoncé electrifies at Super Bowl halftime show; Chicago Defender [Chicago, III] 06 Feb 2013: 14.
Jump up ^ Newman, Melinda (February 3, 2013). "Review: Beyoncé delivers a sexy, if rushed, Super Bowl half-time show". HitFix. Retrieved February 8, 2013.
Jump up ^ Farber, Jim (February 3, 2013). "Super Bowl XLVII Halftime Show: Beyoncé has fans 'Crazy in Love', especially with reunion of Destiny's Child". Daily News. Daily News, L.P. Retrieved February 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ Hogan, Michael (March 30, 2013). "The 10 best Beyoncé moments – in pictures". The Observer. Guardian Media Group. p. 10. Retrieved April 2, 2013.
Jump up ^ "2013 Emmys - Nominations" (PDF) (Press release). Emmy Awards. Retrieved July 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Tate, Amethyst (July 18, 2013). "Beyoncé Emmy Nominations 2013: Superstar Nominated For Three Emmys For Super Bowl Halftime Performance". International Business Times. Retrieved July 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ Martins, Chris (September 17, 2013). "Beyoncé Wins Early Emmy for Super Bowl Halftime Show". Spin. Spin Media LLC. Retrieved September 18, 2013.
Jump up ^ "2014 Art Directors Guild Nominations". The Hollywood Reporter. January 9, 2013. Retrieved March 3, 2013.
Jump up ^ Gallo, Phil (February 4, 2013). "Beyoncé's Super Bowl Halftime Show Draws Estimated 104 Million Viewers". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved April 4, 2013.
Jump up ^ Gallo, Phil (February 3, 2014). "Bruno Mars Scores Most-Watched Super Bowl Halftime Show Ever". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. Retrieved February 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Katy Perry's Halftime Show the Most-Watched in Super Bowl History". Billboard. Retrieved 2017-02-04.
Jump up ^ Rogers, Simon. "Behind the numbers: how to understand big moments on Twitter". Twitter. Retrieved August 10, 2013.
Jump up ^ Hu, Elise (August 12, 2013). "The Biggest Twitter Moments Ever Feature Beyoncé, Romney". NPR. National Public Radio, Inc. Retrieved August 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ Caulfield, Keith (January 30, 2014). "How Super Bowl Halftime Shows Sell Music: From MJ to Beyoncé (1993-Present)". Billboard. Retrieved January 31, 2014.
External links[edit]
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Royal corgis
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Queen Mother Memorial bronze on The Mall, by Paul Day, shows her with two corgis.
Queen Elizabeth's corgis were the Pembroke Welsh Corgi dogs owned by Queen Elizabeth II and her parents, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother and King George VI. Fond of corgis since she was a small child, Elizabeth II has owned more than 30 corgis since she became Queen of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms in 1952.[1]
In 2007, Elizabeth II had five corgis: Monty, Emma, Linnet, Willow and Holly; five cocker spaniels: Bisto, Oxo, Flash, Spick and Span; and four dorgis (dachshund-corgi crossbreeds): Cider, Berry, Vulcan and Candy. Monty, Willow and Holly appeared in the 2012 Olympic opening ceremony when James Bond arrived at Buckingham Palace to escort the Queen to the event. Monty had previously belonged to the Queen Mother, and died in September 2012.[citation needed] It was reported in 2015 that the Queen stopped breeding corgis so as not to leave any behind when she died.[2] Her final corgi, Willow, died in April 2018. Two 'dorgis', Vulcan and Candy, are still alive.[3]
The royal corgis are known all across the world and have been portrayed in many ways such as statues and works of art. For example, the crown coin which commemorated the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II shows her with a corgi.[4]
Contents
1 History
2 Domestic life
3 Injuries
4 Influence
5 See also
6 References
History[edit]
The first three generations from Susan.[5]
The Queen has been very fond of corgis since she was a small child,[6] having fallen in love with the corgis owned by the children of the Marquess of Bath.[7] King George VI brought home Dookie in 1933.[8] A photograph from George VI's photo album shows a ten-year-old Elizabeth with Dookie at Balmoral. Princess Elizabeth and her sister Princess Margaret would feed Dookie by hand from a dish held by a footman.[9] The other early favourite corgi during the same time was Jane.[10]
Elizabeth II's mother, at that time Queen Elizabeth, introduced a disciplined regimen for the dogs; each was to have its own wicker basket, raised above the floor to avoid drafts. Meals were served for each dog in its own dish, the diet approved by veterinary experts with no tidbits from the royal table. A proprietary brand of meat dog biscuits was served in the morning, while the late afternoon meal consisted of dog meal with gravy. Extra biscuits were handed out for celebrations and rewards.[11]
Crackers (24 December 1939, Windsor – November, 1953) was one of the Queen Mother's corgis, and nearly a constant companion; he retired with the Queen Mother to the Castle of Mey in Scotland.[12] In 1944, Elizabeth was given Susan as a gift on her 18th birthday.[13] Susan accompanied Elizabeth on her honeymoon in 1947. The corgis owned by the Queen are descended from Susan.[9][14][15] Rozavel Sue, daughter of Rozavel Lucky Strike, an international champion, was one of the Queen's corgis in the early 1950s.
The Queen has owned over thirty corgis since her ascension to the thrones of the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms in 1952.[16]
The Queen's fondness for corgis and horses is known even in places such as Grand Cayman; when Elizabeth and Prince Philip visited the island in 1983, government officials gave her black coral sculptures of a corgi and a horse as a gift, both made by Bernard Passman.[17]
Domestic life[edit]
Sugar was the nursery pet of Prince Charles and Princess Anne.[18] In 1955, her dogs, Whisky and Sherry, were surprise Christmas gifts from the Queen to the Prince and Princess.[19] Pictured with the royal family, the corgi Sugar made the cover of The Australian Women's Weekly on 10 June 1959.[20] Sugar's twin, Honey, belonged to the Queen Mother; Honey took midday runs with Johnny and Pippin, Princess Margaret's corgis, while the Princess lived in Buckingham Palace.[11] Heather was born in 1962 and became one of the Queen's favourites. Heather was the mother of Tiny, Bushy, and Foxy; Foxy gave birth to Brush in 1969.[21]
The corgis enjoy a privileged life in Buckingham Palace. They reside in the Corgi Room, and continue to sleep in elevated wicker baskets.[22] The Queen tends to the corgis in her kennel herself. She also chooses the sires of litters that are bred in her kennel. The corgis have an extensive menu at the palace which includes fresh rabbit and beef, served by a gourmet chef.[22] At Christmas, the Queen makes stockings for pets full of toys and delicacies such as biscuits.[22] In 1999, one of Queen Elizabeth's royal footmen was demoted from Buckingham Palace for his "party trick of pouring booze into the corgis' food and water" and watching them "staggering about" with relish.[23]
In 2007, the Queen was noted to have five corgis, Monty, Emma, Linnet, Willow, and Holly; five cocker spaniels, Bisto, Oxo, Flash, Spick, and Span; and four "dorgis" (dachshund-corgi crossbreeds), Cider, Berry, Vulcan, and Candy.[9] In 2012, Queen Elizabeth II's corgis Monty, Willow, and Holly appeared during the brief James Bond sketch when Daniel Craig arrived at Buckingham Palace for a mission to take the queen to the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony. Monty, who had previously belonged to the Queen Mother, and one of her "Dorgis" died in September 2012.[24] Monty had been named for the horse whisperer and friend of the queen, Monty Roberts.[25] As of November 2012, it was reported that Elizabeth owns two corgis, Willow and Holly, and two Dorgis, Candy and Vulcan.[26] It was reported in July 2015 that the Queen has stopped breeding corgis as she does not wish any to survive her in the event of her death. Monty Roberts had urged Elizabeth to breed more corgis in 2012 but she had told him that she "didn't want to leave any young dog behind" and wanted to put an end to the practice.[27]
As of April 2018, with the death of Willow, the Queen no longer has any full-bred corgis. Only two dorgis, Vulcan and Candy, are still alive.[28]
The dogs have traditionally been buried at the royal residence, Sandringham estate in Norfolk, at which they died.[26][29] The graveyard was first used by Queen Victoria when her Collie, Noble, died in 1887.[26] In 1959, the Queen used it to bury Susan, creating a cemetery for her pets.[26] However, Monty was buried in Balmoral estate.[26]
Injuries[edit]
On several occasions, the Queen or her staff have been injured by the corgis. In 1954, the Royal Clockwinder, Leonard Hubbard, was bitten by Susan[30] upon entering the nursery at the Royal Lodge, Windsor.[31] Later in the same year, one of the Queen Mother's corgis bit a policeman on guard duty in London.[32]
In 1968, Peter Doig called for the royal staff to put up a "Beware of the dog" sign at Balmoral after one of the corgis bit the postman.[33] In February 1989, it was reported that the royal family had hired an animal psychologist to tame the dogs after they developed a habit of nipping them and the staff.[34] "And in 1989, the Queen Mother’s dog, Ranger, led a pack of corgis that attacked and killed the Queen’s beloved dorgi, Chipper."[35] In March 1991, the Queen was bitten after trying to break up a fight between ten or so of her corgis. She had to have three stitches to her left hand. John Collins, the Queen Mother's chauffeur, had to have a tetanus injection after he also tried to intervene.[36] In 2003, Pharos, a tenth-generation offspring of Susan, was put down after being mauled by Princess Anne's English bull terrier Dottie. Anne arrived at Sandringham to visit her mother for Christmas and the corgis rushed out of the front door as they arrived. It was reported that "Dottie went for Pharos, savaging the corgi's hind legs and breaking one in three places."[37]
Influence[edit]
The royal corgis are known all across the world and are closely associated with the Queen. The corgis have had numerous items dedicated to them, in particular being the subject of many statues and works of art. Because of the Queen's fondness for the Welsh Corgi, an increased number of corgis were exhibited in the 1954 West Australian Canine Association's Royal Show.[38] Queen Elizabeth II’s crown coin KM# 1135, made of copper nickel of size 33 mm, issued during her Golden Jubilee year, shows the Queen with a corgi.[4]
See also[edit]
Pembroke Welsh Corgi
Pets of Vladimir Putin
Queen Elizabeth's horses
Queen Victoria's pets
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Belam, Martin (2018-04-18). "The Queen's corgis are dead: long live the 'dorgis'". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
Jump up ^ Ward, Victoria (2015-07-14). "Queen stops breeding corgis as 'she doesn't want to leave any behind'". ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
Jump up ^ Belam, Martin (2018-04-18). "The Queen's corgis are dead: long live the 'dorgis'". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
^ Jump up to: a b Bruce, Colin; Thomas Michael, Thomas (2006). Standard Catalog of World Coins: 2001-Present. Krause Publications. p. 144. ISBN 9780896894297. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Felicity Wigan, Victoria Mather (1987), "Corgi family tree", The English Dog at Home, p. 75, ISBN 9780881622645
Jump up ^ Goode, David (1 September 2006). Playing with My Dog, Katie: An Ethnomethodological Study of Canine-Human Interaction. Purdue University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-55753-420-0. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Hug for Queen Elizabeth's first corgi". The Telegraph. 1 October 2007. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Eldredge, Debra M. (2009). Pembroke Welsh Corgi: Your Happy Healthy Pet, with DVD. John Wiley & Sons. p. 24. ISBN 9780470443644. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Karen, Brush (26 October 2007). Everything dogs expect you to know. London: New Holland Publishers. p. 115. ISBN 978-1-84537-954-4. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Summer clothes of the Royal children". The Sydney Morning Herald. 11 May 1937. Retrieved 20 July 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Where are the dogs going to sit?". The Mail. Adelaide. December 4, 1954. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Condell, Merna (9 September 1953). "The Royal farms must pay their way". The Courier-Mail. Brisbane. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Queen to stop breeding beloved corgis after more than half a century of royal pets". Daily Mail. 25 May 2009. Retrieved 17 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Ewing, Susan M. (1 February 2011). Pembroke Welsh Corgi. TFH Publications Inc. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-7938-4177-6. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Ryan O'Meara (2011), Clever Dog, Veloce Publishing Ltd, p. 20, ISBN 9781845843458
Jump up ^ Wines, J. A. (30 October 2007). Dogs' Miscellany. Random House Publishing Group. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-385-34156-1. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Cruise Travel. Lakeside Publishing Co. May 1986. p. 15. ISSN 0199-5111. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Corgi tops "Foxie"". The Argus. Melbourne. 12 March 1952. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Corgi Gifts". The Argus. Melbourne. 15 December 1955. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Our cover". The Australian Women's Weekly. June 10, 1959. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Room, Adrian (1 October 1993). The naming of animals: an appellative reference to domestic, work, and show animals, real and fictional. McFarland. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-89950-795-8. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Binney, Ruth. Amazing and Extraordinary Facts: Royal Family Life. David & Charles. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-4463-5746-0. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "News Lite". Daily News of Los Angeles. 23 July 1999. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Queen Elizabeth's corgi, star of Olympic sketch dies". New Zealand Herald. 10 September 2012. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
Jump up ^ Flora Roberts (12 September 2012). "'The Queen's corgis are part of her family – Monty's death is a great loss'". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Reynolds, Emma (26 November 2012). "The Queen's Corgi graveyard". Daily Mail. Retrieved 17 June 2013.
Jump up ^ "Queen stops breeding corgis as 'she doesn't want to leave any behind'". The Daily Telegraph. 14 July 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
Jump up ^ Belam, Martin (2018-04-18). "The Queen's corgis are dead: long live the 'dorgis'". the Guardian. Retrieved 2018-04-18.
Jump up ^ Davies, Caroline (12 June 2003). "Another of the Queen's corgis, Swift, has died". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 5 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Queen's Dog Spots Man, Zip – Teeth in Pants". Calgary Herald. 16 February 1959. Retrieved 5 February 2012.
Jump up ^ "Queen's corgi attacked Royal Clockwinder". Queensland: Townsville Daily Bulletin. June 26, 1954. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Royal Corgi biting again". The Courier-Mail. Brisbane. 16 October 1954. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Postman Bitten by Queen's Dog". St. Joseph Gazette. 23 October 1968. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Counselling the Queen's naughty Corgis". Anchorage Daily News. 9 February 1989. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Queen left heartbroken by the death of her last corgi". The New Zealand Herald. 18 April 2018. Retrieved 19 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Pet dog bites British Queen". Toledo Blade. 5 March 1991. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "Queen in mourning over corgi". The Age. 24 December 2003. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
Jump up ^ "The Queen makes the Corgi popular". Perth, WA: Western Mail. 23 September 1954. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
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