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Hum Hain Kamaal Ke
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Hum Hain Kamaal Ke
हम हैं कमाल के
Directed by
Vijay Reddy
Produced by
Ashok Adnani
Written by
Anwar Khan
Story by
Anwar Khan
Starring
Sheeba Akashdeep
Kader Khan
Anupam Kher
Aruna Irani
Raza Murad
Sadashiv Amrapurkar
Sujoy Mukherjee
Rucha Gujarathi
Music by
Naresh Sharma &
Raju Singh
Cinematography
Ashok Rao
Edited by
V.N. Mayekar
Production
company
Evershine Studio
Release date
21 September 1993 (1993-09-21) (India)
Country
India
Language
Hindi
Hum Hain Kamaal Ke (Hindi: हम हैं कमाल के) is a Bollywood action & comedy film released on 21 September 1993. The film had a multi star cast; Sheeba Akashdeep, Kader Khan, Anupam Kher, Aruna Irani, Raza Murad, Sadashiv Amrapurkar, Sujoy Mukherjee and Rucha Gujarathi. This movie was produced by Ashok Adnani, directed by Vijay Reddy and story was written by Anwar Khan.[1][2] The film is loosely based on the 1989 American film See No Evil, Hear No Evil which was also the inspiration for Hindi movie Pyare Mohan , Marathi movie Eka Peksha Ek , Tamil movie Andipatti Arasampatti and Kannada movies Akka Pakka and Baduku Jataka Bandi.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Songs
4 See also
5 References
Plot[edit]
The film revolves around two physically challenged friends; Nilamber (Kader Khan) and Pitamber (Anupam Kher). Nilambar is deaf and Pitamber is blind since birth. Both friends developed special skills and also good coordination between themselves, due to which others fail to realize that they are differently abled. Jebago (Raza Murad) is head of some gangsters. Nilambar and Pitamber attempt to solve a murder mystery with series of comic mishaps.[3]
Cast[edit]
#
Actor
Role
01 Sheeba Akashdeep Shallu
02 Kader Khan Pitamber
03 Anupam Kher Nilamber
04 Aruna Irani Mrs. Lado Godbole
05 Raza Murad Sibago
06 Sadashiv Amrapurkar Police Inspector Godbole
07 Sujoy Mukherjee Vishal (as Sujoy Mukerji)
08 Rucha Gujarathi Baby Rucha (Sheeba's sister)
Songs[edit]
"Agar Tum Hum Se" - Alka Yagnik, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
"Agar Tum Hum Se" - Alka Yagnik, Kumar Sanu
"Kaise Mujhe Chhua Yeh Batao Na" - Alisha Chinoy
"Kitne Haseen Kitne Jawan" - Alka Yagnik
"Kitne Haseen Kitne Jawan v2" - S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
"Mere Paas Bachi Nahi Kaudi" - Sudesh Bhonsle, Falguni Sheth
"Nazaron Ka Kya Kasoor Hai" - Alka Yagnik, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
"Sun Sun Re Sajan" - Alka Yagnik, S. P. Balasubrahmanyam
See also[edit]
India portal
Bollywood portal
Cinema of India
Bollywood
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Hum Hain Kamaal Ke". IMDb. Retrieved Feb 2015. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ "Full cast". IMDb. Retrieved Feb 2015. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
Jump up ^ "Plot". in.com. Retrieved Feb 2015. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)

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Exit numbers in the United States
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: Exit number
In the United States, exit numbers are assigned to freeway junctions, and are usually numbered as exits from freeways. Exit numbers generally are found above the destinations (and route number(s) ) of the exit, as well as a sign in the gore. Exit numbers typically reset at political borders such as state lines. Some major streets also use exit numbers. Freeway exits in the United States are usually numbered in two formats: distance-based and sequential.
Contents
1 Interstate Highways
2 Other highways
3 Early exit numbers
4 References
5 Further reading
Interstate Highways[edit]
An example of a green exit number plaque for two exits at the same interchange
An example of a green exit number plaque for a left exit with a yellow "left" panel
Old mile tabs on Interstate 295 in Rhode Island; several other states did this. As of September 2007[update], these signs have been replaced and use only the sequential exit number scheme. Exit numbers on I-295 have since been converted to mile-based numbers.
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) generally requires exit numbers (mile-based or consecutively) on the Interstate Highway System; the FHWA established that requirement in 1970.[1] The Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) encouraged use of mileposts and exit numbering by 1961. The MUTCD mandated exit numbering in 1971.[1] The FHWA granted California an exception due to the cost of installing and maintaining additional signage. California was able to obtain a waiver because it had already built most of its freeways, although some freeways in Los Angeles County received junction numbers: Interstate 10 was the only freeway in the county that had a complete set of junction numbers. Interstate 5, US 101, and then CA 11 (now I-110/CA 110) were numbered for short distances from downtown Los Angeles. Freeway connections were unnumbered, and junction numbers were only shown on plates, not on gore signs. In 2002, the Cal-NExUS program began to completely number California's junctions.[2] The program is not well-funded, especially because of California's budget woes, so exits are only being signed with numbers when signs need to be replaced. As the efficiency of an exit numbering system for navigational purposes depends on all exits being consistently numbered, the usefulness of the system while only some exits are numbered is limited. Originally, the initial completion date for this project was set as November 2004. The deadline was then extended to 2008. However, the 2006 edition of the California MUTCD removed any sort of compliance deadline for the exit numbers.[3]
Nine states as of June 2008[update] and the District of Columbia use sequential numbering schemes on at least one highway, although the 2009 edition of the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) requires these jurisdictions to transition to distance-based numbering. Although a ten-year compliance period was proposed for the new edition of the MUTCD,[4] a compliance date for this change was ultimately not adopted with the 2009 edition, meaning that the transition is accomplished through a systematic upgrading of existing signing and there is no specific date by which the change must be implemented. However, the FHWA has required that all federally funded routes with sequential numbering eventually be converted to mileage-based exit numbers. To that end, the FHWA has required each state that currently uses sequential exit numbering to submit a plan to eventually transition to distance-based exit numbers.[5] Some of the states that currently have sequential numbering either have or intend to request a waiver from the Federal Highway Administration to retain their current numbering systems, while others have planned a gradual transition to mileage-based exit numbering over time as existing signage reaches the end of its serviceable life and is replaced.
The mile-based requirement also mandates multiple exits in the same mile to use A, B, C, etc. This also applies to divided interchanges, where two exits are used for opposite directions of the road, for example on full cloverleaf interchanges. Older exit numbering schemes sometimes use cardinal directions (E, N, S, W; often E-W or N-S) depending on the directionality of the cross route(s), for example Interstate 93 in New Hampshire uses exits 15E and 15W for the cloverleaf interchange with U.S. Route 202 in Concord which is signed "east" and "west" at the interchange. Many exits in the Northeastern states which currently or formerly used sequential numbering schemes had these directional abbreviations, but most have converted to A-B schemes. (As of 2017, New Hampshire is the only state to have never used distance-based exits, including "experimental" dual exit/mile numbers/letters.)
Several exits on the New Jersey Turnpike use E and W suffixes on the portion where the roadways split (interchanges 15-18); one interchange is numbered 15X.
An example of sequentially-numbered exits in Connecticut on the Charter Oak Bridge, CT 15/U.S. 5. (Connecticut has begun the federally-mandated conversion of mile-based exits.)
Several states still maintain systems other than the MUTCD-standard mileage based systems, among these are:
Connecticut – Sequential, except for I-395, Route 2A, and "secret" CT 695 which are mileage-based; these changes include the eastern end of the former Connecticut Turnpike. Several non-Interstate freeways have interchanges without exit numbers.
Connecticut planned to convert I-91 to mileage-based exit numbering in 1974; however, CONNDOT abandoned that initiative due to objections from local businesses.[6][7]
Delaware – On I-95, I-495, and Delaware Route 141 only. Delaware Route 1 uses kilometer-based exit numbers despite using milemarkers since 2003 (and newer exits use numbers making no sense to either system, such as Exit 86 in Frederica not being 86 miles or kilometers from the Maryland line), and I-295 has no exit numbers at all, however, DelDOT has made a reference on a 2016 construction notice referring to the exit to I-495 north as "Exit 2".
District of Columbia – Historically, the only exit numbers posted in the District consisted of sequential numbers on I-295. The other freeways within the District of Columbia did not have exit numbers, but in 2008 the District began posting sequential numbers on I-395. As of June 2008[update], not all interchanges had received numbers. The close proximity of the interchanges on this short freeway, coupled with the lack of space for new interchanges, renders the sequential system more practical than the mileage-based.[citation needed]
Massachusetts – Sequential (experimented with dual exit/mile tabs in the 1970s). A contract (MassDOT Project 608024) to change over most highways to mileage-based has been awarded. Work was to start in January 2016 to convert all highway exit numbers, though local opposition has caused the state to halt immediate plans and re-evaluate the scheme.[8] and the State Highway Administrator, Tom Tinlin is quoted in a Worcester Telegram & Gazette[9][10]
Maryland – The Baltimore Beltway is sequentially numbered.[11]
New Hampshire – All sequential. New Hampshire DOT has reportedly received permission to use Federal funding to convert to mileage-based, but has yet to announce a formal plan for conversion.
New Jersey – Sequential numbering on the New Jersey Turnpike, Palisades Interstate Parkway, and I-676. Other New Jersey exit numbering is mile-based, except for the Brigantine Connector in Atlantic City, which uses letters for exits. Many New Jersey freeways lack exit numbers.
New York – Mostly sequential; exceptions include I-781 (Fort Drum spur), I-890 in Schenectady,[12] and I-95 south of the Pelham Parkway. The recently-opened section of I-99/US 15 also has mileage-based numbers. The Taconic State Parkway introduced mileage-based exit numbers beginning in 2016. I-84 will switch to mile-based exits beginning in 2018.
The mainline of the New York State Thruway utilizes a separate exit-numbering scheme separate from its Interstates; I-87 and I-90 each use three independent exit-numbering schemes.
Pennsylvania - Interstates are numbered by milepost with the exception of Interstate 579 and Interstate 676. Both are short urban freeways with no exit numbers at all.
Rhode Island – Sequential, except for I-295 and RI-99 which have been converted to mile-based numbering as of December 2017; experimented with dual exit/mile tabs in the 1970s. Rhode Island was denied a waiver from the FHWA to retain its sequential numbering system, and has started the process to convert all limited access highways to mile-based exit numbering by 2019.[13]
Vermont – Sequential, except Route 289 (Circumferential Highway), which has mileage-based exit numbering.
Wyoming - While all highway exits are mile-based, Wyoming uses the letter combinations A-C and B-D (for example, the I-80/I-25 interchange) to denote cardinal directions.
Many states formerly used sequential numbers, and in some cases used exit numbers sparingly, if at all:
California – Began widespread exit numbering in January 2002, although some exits in Los Angeles received mile-based numbers in the 1970s. California was the only state not to require exit numbers or mileposts, because most of their highway system was built prior to the federal requirement. Before adopting exit numbering, California relied on its system of county-based mileposts on all highways, without having explicitly numbered exits. Originally, the initial completion date for installing exit numbers statewide was set as November 2004. But because of California's budget woes, exits (especially in the Greater Los Angeles and San Francisco Bay areas) have generally been numbered only when signs needed to be replaced. The state may eventually replace all older overhead signs (and thus add exit numbers) as part of an energy-saving measure: in 2014, Roads & Bridges reported that the California Department of Transportation was testing types of reflective sheeting to eliminate the need for electrical-sign lighting.[14]
Colorado – Initially sequential; used dual mile/sequential plates in the mid-1970s.
Connecticut – Started a gradual transition from sequential to mileage-based exit numbers in 2015, with secret CT 695 and I-395 converted that year, and Route 2A in early 2016 under the same contract. The next freeways to be converted to mileage-based exit numbering will be Routes 25 and 8, with each project scheduled for completion in 2017 and 2019, respectively. The Connecticut Department of Transportation let one contract to replace signage and renumber exits on the Route 25 freeway north of the Route 8 split in July 2015, and a second contract for Route 8 in September 2015.[15] Two short freeways whose exits are currently unnumbered, Route 184 and Route 349 in Groton will both receive mileage-based exit numbers starting in 2018 as part of a sign replacement project that includes I-95 from New London to the Rhode Island state line (this section of I-95 will retain sequential exit numbers for the time being until signs along the entire length of I-95 are updated and ready for conversion). Exit numbers on other highways will be converted to mile-based numbering over a 20-year period as existing highway signs reach the end of their serviceable life and are replaced with new signage. As highways are converted to mile-based exit numbers, sequential numbers will be posted on "Old Exit XX" placards on advance guide signs and gore signs for two years following the conversion.
Mile-based exit numbers on Interstate 4 in Volusia County, Florida circa 2003. In this case, mile-based exits 111A and 111B had been sequential exits 53CA and 53CB, as the 'OLD 53CA' tab shows. The 'OLD 53CA' tabs have been removed and the signs now solely use the mileage based exits.
Florida – Began January 28, 2002; now complete. However, I-110 retained its sequential exit numbers.[16]
Georgia – Began January 4, 2000, now complete; no "former exit" signs were used in the renumbering.[17] (Interstate highways only).
Illinois formerly did not number exits on its original Illinois Tollways, including those overlaid with Interstate highways. Starting with Interstate 355 (a toll road from its inception in 1989), toll roads began to be numbered according to standard mile-based exit signage. From the 1990s through the 2010s, Illinois gradually added exit numbers to its remaining toll interstates.
Indiana – Around 1980. Exits on I-69 between Indianapolis and the Michigan state line underwent a second renumbering in 2012, when the first portion of the I-69 extension to Evansville opened that year.
Iowa – Adopted distance-based exit numbering in 1977.
Maine – Early 2004 (experimented with dual exit/mile tabs in the 1970s). Sequential exit numbers were retained for two years on yellow "Formerly Exit XX" placards below advance guide signs, which have since been removed.
Maryland - All interstates (except I-695; the Baltimore Beltway) use mileage-based exits except for the unsigned Interstate 595, it uses miles based on concurrent US Route 50 starting with the District of Columbia border.
Massachusetts - Exit renumbering was scheduled to start in January 2016 with completion slated for early 2018 but is now on hold with no specific start date announced. If and when Massachusetts proceeds with exit numbering conversion, sequential exit numbers will be retained temporarily on "Formerly Exit XX" placards below each advance guide sign.
Mississippi – 1980s.
New Jersey – Around 1970. The New Jersey Turnpike kept sequential exit numbering.
New York – New interstates (I-781 and I-99) have mileage-based exit numbers. The New York State Department of Transportation, which had replaced mile-based exits with sequential on I-95 in New York City, reverted to distance-based. The state has no timeline for converting its remaining highways to mileage-based numbering, although it appears that NYSDOT and NYSTA will gradually transition to mile-based exit numbers through sign replacement projects, as evidenced by a sign replacement and exit numbering contract for the Taconic State Parkway to be completed in 2017. Bills directing the NYSDOT and the New York State Thruway Authority to renumber exits from sequential to mile-based have been introduced into the state legislature since 2008; none of which have been approved by both chambers.
North Dakota – 1980s
Ohio – Interstate 475 was its first highway to receive mileage-based exit numbers, in October 1974.[18] The Ohio Turnpike used both systems from January 1998[19] to September 2002.[20]
Pennsylvania – Began April 2001 on Interstates and all highways of the Pennsylvania Turnpike system. Prior to renumbering, junctions solely between two-digit interstates were not numbered (for example, the junction of I-79 and I-80). Sequential numbering skipped these junctions. Signage approaching many interchanges still includes former sequential numbers on "Old Exit XX" placards below the exit signs. Neither Interstate 579 nor Interstate 676 have exit numbers.
Rhode Island - Transition will occur in four phases starting in 2016, with the full conversion scheduled for completion by the end of 2019. As of August 2017, mile-based exit numbers are being added to Route 146 as part of a sign replacement project. A second contract to convert exit numbers to mile-based on I-295 and Route 99 is scheduled to be let on August 25, 2017. Exit conversion began on I-295 on November 27, 2017 and was completed on December 8, 2017.[21]
Texas – late 1970s
Virginia – Early 1990s; exceptions include Route 267 (suburban Washington, D.C.), Interstate 581 (Roanoke), and Interstate 664 (Newport News - Chesapeake). I-581 and I-664 both utilize sequential exit numbers; furthermore, Exit 1 is at the highways' northern ends.
Two highways (Interstate 19 in Arizona and Delaware Route 1) have metric numbering, because they were constructed during the time when the U.S. was thought to be completely converting to metric. Delaware Route 1 currently uses standard milepost (since 2003) when the metric-based posts were replaced, and several newer exit numbers (79, 86, 91, 98) do not coincide with either the milemarker nor its kilometer conversion as they are offset by miles from a kilometer-based exit. I-19 currently has all exit numbers and distances in kilometers, but speed limits in miles per hour. The road has received funding for the distances to be changed back to miles, but in response to local opposition against exit number changes, the Arizona Department of Transportation had decided to spend the money on other roads instead.[22]
Other highways[edit]
Exit numbering on non-Interstate highways is less consistent. For example, Texas, which normally uses mile-based exit numbering, uses sequential numbering on U.S. Route 75 between downtown Dallas and the Oklahoma border. Similarly, the U.S. Route 54 freeway from El Paso to the New Mexico border also uses sequential exit numbering.
Alabama: only on U.S. Route 78 (future Interstate 22).
In Arizona, many of its non-interstate freeways utilize exit numbers such as the freeway loops (Arizona State Highway 101 and Arizona State Highway 202) around Phoenix, U.S. Route 60 and Arizona State Route 51.
In Arkansas, U.S. Route 67 and State Highway 549 are the only non-interstate freeways to have exit numbers.
California uses exit numbers on all of its non-interstate highways statewide when they are built to freeway standards. However like its interstate highways (as stated above), the state's budget woes have caused exits on these routes to only be signed with numbers when signs need to be replaced.
Colorado does not use exit numbers on non-interstate highways. The exception is E-470 and the Northwest Parkway, which are separate toll highways.
Connecticut uses sequential exit numbers on longer non-interstate freeways, such as CT Routes 2, 8, 9, 11, 25, 40, and 72, but will eventually transition to distance-based exit numbers. Exit numbers on Route 2A are distance-based.
Exit numbers on Route 15 (Merritt and Wilbur Cross parkways) are sequential; CT 15's exit numbers are a continuation of exit numbers from the Hutchinson River Parkway in New York, except that the Route 120A interchange on the state line is Exit 30 eastbound, and Exit 27 westbound. The Wilbur Cross Parkway, eastbound, takes over the Merritt's sequential numbering. Freeway sections of US 7 also use sequential numbering.
Shorter freeway sections, such as the US-6 Windham Bypass, Route 20 (Bradley Airport Connector), and freeway sections of Route 17 lack exit numbers.
In Florida, the Turnpike and other expressways owned and operated by the Florida Turnpike Enterprise use distance-number exits. Toll roads under the Central Florida Expressway Authority also use distance-number exits. The Lee Roy Selmon Expressway in Tampa uses a sequential-based exit numbering system. Expressways under the authority of the Miami-Dade Expressway Authority have no exit numbers.[23]
Georgia does not carry exit numbers on non-interstate expressways except for the Georgia 400 and Stone Mountain Freeway, which run on a sequential system, and Georgia State Route 10 Loop, running on a distance-numbers system.
In Illinois, the Illinois Tollway system has begun numbering exits. They plan to all be numbered by the end of 2010.[citation needed]
The state of Iowa uses exit numbers on non-interstate expressways, such as Iowa 163 or the non-Interstate portions of the Avenue of the Saints.
Kentucky does not limit exit numbers to interstate highways.
Exits on the controlled-access portion of New Circle Road (KY 4), which surrounds the urban core of Lexington, are numbered on the standard distance-based system. Numbering increases in clockwise order, starting and finishing at the interchange with Nicholasville Road (US 27) near New Circle's southernmost point.
All roads within the state's parkway system of former toll roads (some of which have been converted to interstates, with others in the process of conversion) use the same distance-based numbering system used on interstates.
In addition to these instances, several smaller cities, mainly in the southeastern and south-central portions of the Commonwealth, mark traffic lights on a main commercial road with sequential numbers, usually beginning at an intersection with a primary highway:
Berea — KY 21, starting at the I-75 interchange until KY 21 meets US 25. Numbering continues on US 25 until the road leaves the city limits. Throughout this stretch, numbering increases as one travels north.
Corbin — US 25E, starting at the I-75 interchange at North Corbin and continuing for approximately 5 miles (8 km) until its intersection with KY 830 east of Corbin. Numbering increases as one travels east (which is signed as south on 25E).
London has two sets of numbered lights. The Hal Rogers Parkway, starting at KY 192 (which is not numbered, as it is a flashing yellow light for parkway traffic instead of a fully controlled signal) and ending at US 25, uses increasing westbound numbering. KY 192, starting at the I-75 interchange, uses increasing eastbound numbering until the Hal Rogers Parkway.
Manchester — US 421, starting at the Hal Rogers Parkway and increasing as one travels north through the city.
Middlesboro — KY 74 through the downtown area, with numbering increasing as one travels west.
Monticello — KY 90, starting at the northern end of the city and increasing until exiting the city.
Radcliff — US 31W, also known as Dixie Highway, starting at an intersection at the city's border with Elizabethtown and increasing as one travels north until reaching the main entrance to Fort Knox.
Richmond also has two sets of numbered lights. U.S. Route 25 Business uses exit numbers through downtown numbers lights 1–6 from KY 52 at Lancaster Avenue and the next 5 consecutive lights south; however, the lights south of the railroad tracks and north of the KY 52 multiplex are not numbered. The bypass route wrapping east around Richmond uses exit numbers from KY 876 (locally known as Eastern Bypass) east of I-75 exit 87, and continues onto Dr. Robert R. Martin Highway US 25/US 421 to I-75 exit 90; however, the traffic lights at the interstate are not numbered.
Somerset — US 27, starting at the northern limits of the city and increasing as one travels south. The numbering continues even after the road leaves the city limits, with the final numbered intersection occurring shortly before US 27 enters the city of Burnside.
Maine has exit numbers only in Interstates; its other limited-access highways with limited exceptions lack mile markers.
In Maryland, there are three state highways that use exit numbers. Maryland Route 200 continues the distance-based exits from its parent Interstate 370. Maryland Route 32 has a peculiar distance-based exit set up in that the exits are numbered from east to west from Interstate 97 to Maryland Route 108 so that the eastern terminus of MD 32 starts at mile 0. Maryland Route 100 uses distance-based exits until Edwin Raynor Blvd (Exit 20).
Minnesota distance-numbers its exits on Interstates, but leaves other freeways or expressways with unnumbered exits. The first exception was US 52's freeway portion through Rochester, which received mileage-based exit numbers in 2004 as part of a major widening project. Since then, exit numbers also started appearing on US 169 in Shakopee in 2016.
In Mississippi, exits from Interstate 69 and non-Interstate freeways are not currently numbered.
In Missouri, non-Interstate Highways do not have exit numbers, the exceptions being Route 364 and Route 370 in St. Charles and St. Louis counties, which use mile-based exit numbers.
In New England, except for Maine (which assigned exit numbers based on mileage), exit numbers are posted on express highways of any significant length, regardless of designation. Some at-grade intersections have posted numbers; such as on CT 9 in Middletown.
New Hampshire does not assign numbers to exits to junctions with Interstates (with the exception of I-393 in Concord, in which exit 15W from I-93 connected to the US 4/US 202 interchange prior to the construction of I-393). For example, I-293's southern exit from I-93 is between exits 5 and 6, but is not numbered; NH-101 eastbound, however, despite being an interstate grade freeway, is assigned Exit 7. NH-101's own exit to Interstate 95 in Hampton is between exits 12 and 13, but is also not numbered.
In New Mexico, U.S. 84/285 between Pojoaque and Santa Fe was the first non-Interstate highway in New Mexico to use exit numbers. The NM 599 and Santa Fe County Road 62 interchange, which was completed in mid-2013, is the only non-freeway within New Mexico using an exit number (Exit 6). The US-70/285 Relief Route around Roswell has an interchange with two exits marked "Exit A" and "Exit B." Other freeways (US-70 east of Las Cruces and NM 423 in Albuquerque) have no exit numbers due to their relatively short lengths.
In New York, most highways in the New York City metro region of this type use sequential numbering (an exception is the Belt Parkway system, which uses directional suffixes (N, S, E, W) and alphabetical suffixes.) Expressways and freeways without interstate designations upstate have unnumbered interchanges. In addition:
All parkways on Long Island, except the Southern State Parkway, Heckscher State Parkway, and Northern State Parkway preface exit numbers with a one or two letter prefix indicating the parkway's name. For example, exits on the Meadowbrook Parkway are numbered M1 through M10, and exits on the Sunken Meadow Parkway are numbered SM1 through SM5. Some of these exits have a letter suffix as well (usually N, S, E, and/or W).
Some at-grade intersections (level junctions) have posted numbers; former examples are the Taconic State Parkway, NY 17, and within New York City, NY 27 along only the section of Linden Boulevard east of Kings Highway. Current examples are the Bronx River Parkway and, within New York City, NY 27 along Conduit Avenue only.
The Taconic State Parkway formerly numbered exits and at-grade intersections sequentially by county, with a one-letter prefix indicating the county. Interchanges in Westchester County were prefixed with W (e.g., W5), Putnam with P, Dutchess with D, and Columbia with C. The Taconic Parkway will receive mile-based exit numbers by the summer of 2017 as part of an ongoing sign replacement project.[24]
Exits on the Berkshire Spur (part of which is I-90) of the New York Thruway are B1, B2 and B3, as the spur is part of the mainline ticket system. (Exits 1, 2, and 3 on the mainline Thruway are in Yonkers.)
In North Carolina, non-interstate freeways formerly did not use exit numbers. Beginning in the 1990s, all interchanges on U.S. highways have been assigned exit numbers, either when they were constructed, or when the signage was updated. There is still an incomplete conversion, as some highways which have not been upgraded in many decades (such as portions of the U.S. 64 freeway in Nash County) lack exit numbers. Also, exit numbers have been assigned to all U.S. highway grade-separated interchanges, even when the U.S. highway is not a freeway, such as the interchange between the boulevard-grade U.S. 70 and I-540 in Wake County.
In Ohio, exits on non-Interstate highways generally go unnumbered. However, Ohio Department of Transportation Districts 2 and 6 have begun to employ exit numbers on non-Interstates using the south or west entrance into the state or highway beginning as the point of origin,[25] and District 3 measures them from the south or west entrance into the respective county.[25][26]
Oklahoma posts exit numbers on its turnpike system.
Oregon originally did not post exit numbers on any of its non-Interstates. In the 1990s, the Oregon Department of Transportation began numbering most sections of its freeways with mile-based exits, starting with US-26 and OR-217 west of Portland. As of 2013, almost all Oregon freeway interchanges are numbered; new interchanges are also numbered. (These exits are based on internal limited-access road mileage; see State highways in Oregon for an explanation on these differences.)
Pennsylvania's non-Interstate highways that have numbered exits are still numbered sequentially (such as the freeway portion of PA 28 between Pittsburgh and Kittanning) with the exception of the toll roads that are part of the Pennsylvania Turnpike system. PA 60 was one of these roads, but the numbers were converted to the mileage-based system (since reversed) in November 2009 when I-376 replaced PA 60 to Mercer County. The Pennsylvania Turnpike Northeast Extension, opened in 1957, originally had a unique system in which the mileposts were separate from that of the mainline turnpike, starting at milepost A0.0 (the mainline turnpike went from 0.0 to roughly 359.0), but used the sequential exit numbers 31 to 39 (the mainline turnpike went from 1 to 30). Upon the conversion to the mile-based system, the mainline turnpike uses the distance of I-76 from the Ohio state line to New Jersey (as I-276), while the Northeast Extension was converted in 2000–2003 using the mileage based on the southern junction of I-476 (with I-95 in Chester), with the southernmost Northeast Extension exit being numbered as Exit 20, using the I-476 mileage instead of Exit 333A or Exit 334 on the east–west mileage, thus making the highways separate, but distinct systems despite the use of the common ticket system. (Coincidentally, Exit 31 for Lansdale kept its original number being between Mile 30 and 31 when the extension was renumbered for I-476's mileage.) Additionally, freeway sections can have independent mileposting systems that apply exclusively to the freeway: an example of this being the Robert Casey Highway-US 6 extending northeast of Scranton, which has mileposts reflecting the length of the freeway section. Conversely, the US 22 Lehigh Valley Thruway through Bethlehem and US 30 between York and Lancaster have no exit numbering, but do have mileposts that reflect the appropriate distance from the Ohio border.
Tennessee generally does not post exit numbers on its non-Interstate freeways, with the exception of Nashville's partial beltway TN 155 (Briley Parkway).
Texas currently has three non-interstates that use exit numbers. US 75 uses a sequential scheme. Due to a major reconstruction project in the 1990s, which combined many exits, these jump from 8B to 20B. Similarity, US 54 in El Paso uses sequential exits, starting at exit 20. SH 130 uses mile-based exits starting at 497 and decreases to 411 at its northern terminus. Exits on completed sections of Interstate 69 around Houston are currently unnumbered.
Exits on other freeways are based off a statewide reference system where the exit number is determined by the distance from either the northernmost (northwest corner of the Texas Panhandle) or westernmost (Texas/New Mexico/Mexico tripoint, near El Paso) geographic reference point in Texas.
Vermont does not use the mileage-based system on non-Interstates, with two exceptions: VT 127 and VT 289 in the Burlington area. The numbers would have been continuous if the Chittenden County Circumferential Highway were completed. The numbers start at Manhattan Drive just north of Burlington and end at Interstate 89 near Williston. Freeway sections of US-4 and US-7 in the western part of the state use sequential numbering.
Washington state does not number most of its non-Interstate freeway exits. Two exceptions are SR-14 from Vancouver to Camas (since the 1990s) and SR-16 from Tacoma to near Gig Harbor (since 2006, possibly to extend along all of SR-16 to its northern terminus in Gorst), both milepost-based. It is unclear if other freeways will receive numbers in the future.
West Virginia has only one non-interstate with exit numbers, the US 22 freeway in Weirton.[27]
Wisconsin has exit numbers on the freeway and expressway portions of US 12 WIS 16, WIS 29, WIS 64, US 41, US 45, US 51, US 53, WIS 145 and US 151.[28]
Early exit numbers[edit]
This transport-related list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
In April 1938, the New York City Department of Parks installed exit numbers on New York City's parkways, specifically:
Grand Central Parkway – 1 at Triborough Bridge to 11 at Kew Gardens, and on to 24 at Marcus Avenue, then continuing from 25 (Lakeville Road) on the Northern State Parkway (run by the Long Island State Park Commission, which also planned numbers on its other parkways)
Interborough Parkway (now the Jackie Robinson Parkway) – 4 at Pennsylvania Avenue to 11 at Kew Gardens (Exits 1, 2, and 3 were intended for a formerly proposed extension to Belt Parkway)
Henry Hudson Parkway – 1 at 72nd Street to 19 at Mosholu Parkway
Hutchinson River Parkway – beginning with 7 in Pelham Bay Park
As other New York-area parkways were completed, they too got numbers.
Connecticut's Merritt Parkway (CT-15) got sequential numbers in 1948, continuing the numbers of the Hutchinson River Parkway. The Merritt Parkway's lowest-numbered exit remains Exit 27, although the "Hutch" exits were renumbered; traveling towards Connecticut, Exit 30 is encountered at the border (also the beginning of Route 15), where the number "resets" to 27 before reascending. The remainder of Route 15's exit numbers (on the Wilbur Cross Parkway and Wilbur Cross Highway) continue the Merritt sequence.[29]
The Pennsylvania Turnpike had sequential numbers when its first section opened on October 1, 1940, eventually using Exits 1 to 30 for the mainline from Ohio to New Jersey. When the Northeast Extension was opened in the 1950s, it numbered the exits from 31 to 38 (and later 39). Only Exit 31 retained its original number when the exits were renumbered.
The New Jersey Turnpike had sequential numbers when it opened in late 1951. Residents of New Jersey identify with these exit numbers, and even an in-state brewery made beers named for the exit numbers.[30]
In the early 1950s, New Jersey's Garden State Parkway opened, probably the first road to use distance-based exit numbers.
The Gulf Freeway (US 75, later Interstate 45) in Houston, Texas had sequential numbers by 1956. The numbering scheme started at the freeway's northern end in downtown Houston, and counted up towards the southeast and Galveston.[31]
Massachusetts started handing out exit numbers in the 1950s to its freeways in and around the Boston area, with an uncommon system of making sure every freeway's intersection with Route 128 was an "Exit 25", numbers increasing away from Boston. Starting in 1976, these freeways started to receive more conventional numbering. As of 2018, only the US 3 freeway retains its original numbering with the older system, to avoid exit confusion with MA 3, whose northernmost non-multiplexed numbered exit is 20.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b California Highways: Numbering Conventions – Postmiles. Accessed: 17 July 2008.
Jump up ^ Brown, Patricia Leigh. "Counting the way to San Jose." New York Times, 10 February 2002, sec. WK, p. 2.
Jump up ^ "California Highways: Numbering Conventions Exit Numbers". Retrieved 2009-03-05.
Jump up ^ Proposed Amendments to the MUTCD Section 2E.27 Lines 33–41
Jump up ^ MUTCD 2009 Edition Introduction, Paragraphs 22 through 24 and Table I-2
Jump up ^ Exit Numbering, www.kurumi.com, Accessed Nov 15, 2009
Jump up ^ I-395 Exit Re-Numbering Will Create Problems, Montville Patch, May 16, 2013
Jump up ^ http://www.capecodtimes.com/article/20160223/NEWS/160229761
Jump up ^ http://www.berkshireeagle.com/news/ci_29689438/no-signs-yet-from-massachusetts-exit-conversion-launch
Jump up ^ http://www.gribblenation.net/mass21/intexits.html
Jump up ^ Röckers Meet King Tubbys Inna Fire House
Jump up ^ Upstate New York Roads – Interstate 890 Interchange Guide
Jump up ^ http://wpri.com/2016/03/29/ri-set-to-renumber-all-its-highway-exit-signs/
Jump up ^ Lozier, Marcia (January 3, 2014). "Caltrans tests reflective sheeting for guide-sign visibility and cost savings". Roads & Bridges. Retrieved October 8, 2015.
Jump up ^ Bid Results, Connecticut Department of Transportation, Accessed December 30, 2015
Jump up ^ Operations – Florida's Interstate Exit Numbers
Jump up ^ Georgia DOT – Interstate Exit Numbers Archived 2009-08-11 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "I-475 Exits To Conform To Mileposts". The Blade. 138. Toledo, Ohio. August 7, 1973. p. 17 – via Google News Archive.
Jump up ^ "Turnpike interchange numbers start changing after Labor Day". The Bryan Times. 54 (125). Bryan, Ohio. May 28, 2002. p. 10 – via Google News Archive.
Jump up ^ "Turnpike signs will be changing". The Bryan Times. 54 (217). Bryan, Ohio. September 14, 2002. p. 7 – via Google News Archive.
Jump up ^ Bidding Opportunities, Rhode Island Department of Transportation, Retrieved Aug 17, 2017
Jump up ^ Holley, Denise (March 17, 2009). "New signs on Interstate 19 courtesy of recovery funds". Nogales International. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
Jump up ^ "Florida Department of Transportation Interchange Report" (PDF). Florida Department of Transportation. 2008-11-24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-08. Retrieved 2009-07-27.
Jump up ^ Taconic State Parkway to get exit numbers, The Journal News, Sep 4, 2016
^ Jump up to: a b Patch, David (February 10, 2007). "ODOT extends numbered exits to noninterstates". The Blade. 157 (41). p. B1. Archived from the original on February 10, 2007. Retrieved September 28, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Lorain County Photos: OH 2 through Lorain County". Roadfan.com.
Jump up ^ US 22 at Weirton Archived May 13, 2008, at Archive.is
Jump up ^ Wisconsin Department of Transportation. "Exit Numbers on Wisconsin's Freeways". Archived from the original on 2007-10-10. Retrieved 2007-12-06.
Jump up ^ Merritt Parkway (CT 15)
Jump up ^ https://www.flyingfish.com/beers/categories/all/
Jump up ^ http://www.texasfreeway.com/Houston/historic/photos/images/i45_safety_barrier_july_1956.jpg
Further reading[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Exit number road signs in the United States.
Signs Numbering Exits Installed on Parkways, New York Times April 24, 1938 page 26
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History of calendars
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The history of calendars, means that people creating and using methods for keeping track of days and larger divisions of time, covers a practice with ancient roots.
Archeologists have reconstructed methods of timekeeping that go back to prehistoric times at least as old as the Neolithic. The natural units for timekeeping used by most historical societies are the day, the solar year and the lunation. Calendars are explicit schemes used for timekeeping. The first historically attested and formulized calendars date to the Bronze Age, dependent on the development of writing in the Ancient Near East. The Sumerian calendar was the earliest, followed by the Egyptian, Assyrian and Elamite calendars.
A larger number of calendar systems of the ancient Near East appear in the Iron Age archaeological record, based on the Assyrian and Babylonian calendars. This includes the calendar of the Persian Empire, which in turn gave rise to the Zoroastrian calendar as well as the Hebrew calendar.
Calendars in antiquity were usually lunisolar, depending on the introduction of intercalary months to align the solar and the lunar years. This was mostly based on observation, but there may have been early attempts to model the pattern of intercalation algorithmically, as evidenced in the fragmentary 2nd-century Coligny calendar. Nevertheless, the Roman calendar contained very ancient remnants of a pre-Etruscan 10-month solar year.[1]
The Roman calendar was reformed by Julius Caesar in 45 BCE. The Julian calendar was no longer dependent on the observation of the new moon but simply followed an algorithm of introducing a leap day every four years. This created a dissociation of the calendar month from the lunation.
In the 11th century in Persia, a calendar reform led by Khayyam was announced in 1079, when the length of the year was measured as 365.24219858156 days.[2] Given that the length of the year is changing in the sixth decimal place over a person's lifetime, this is outstandingly accurate. For comparison the length of the year at the end of the 19th century was 365.242196 days, while today it is 365.242190 days.[2]
The Gregorian calendar was introduced as a refinement of the Julian calendar in 1582, and is today in worldwide use as the de facto calendar for secular purposes.
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Prehistory
3 Ancient Near East
4 Antiquity
4.1 Babylonia and Persia
4.1.1 Old Persian calendar
4.1.2 Zoroastrian calendar
4.1.3 Modifications by Parthians, Ardashir I, Hormizd I, Yazdgerd III
4.1.4 The formation of the current Persian calendar in the 11th century
4.2 Classical Greece
4.3 Hellenistic period
4.4 China
4.5 Ancient India
4.6 Roman Empire
5 Middle Ages
5.1 Christian Europe
5.2 Bulgar calendar
5.3 Islamic calendar
5.4 Icelandic calendar
5.5 Indo-Islamic calendars
6 Mesoamerica
7 Modern calendars
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Etymology[edit]
The term calendar itself is taken from the calends, the term for the first day of the month in the Roman calendar, related to the verb calare "to call out", referring to the calling or the announcement that the new moon was just seen. Latin calendarium meant "account book, register", as accounts were settled and debts were collected on the calends of each month.
The Latin term was adopted in Old French as calendier and from there in Middle English as calender by the 13th century. The spelling calendar is from Early Modern English.
An alternative hypothesis connects "calendar" with Koledari in Slavic, pre-Christian tradition, which was later incorporated into Christmas. Kolo means "circle, cycle" and dar means "a gift".
equinox seen from the astronomic calendar of Pizzo Vento at Fondachelli Fantina, Sicily
Prehistory[edit]
A number of prehistoric structures have been proposed as having had the purpose of timekeeping (typically keeping track of the course of the solar year). This includes many megalithic structures, and reconstructed arrangements going back far into the Neolithic period.
A ceramic artefact from Bulgaria, known as the Slatino furnace model, has been pronounced by local archeologists and media to be the oldest known calendar representation, a claim not endorsed in mainstream views.[3]
A mesolithic arrangement of twelve pits and an arc found in Warren Field, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, dated to roughly 10,000 years ago, has been described as a lunar calendar and was dubbed the "world's oldest known calendar" in 2013.[4]
The Oldest European calendar is found near to Vukovar in modern-day Croatia. It is a ceramic vessel bearing inscribed ideograms of celestial objects.
Ancient Near East[edit]
The ancient Sumerian calendar divided a year into 12 lunar months of 29 or 30 days.[5] Each month began with the sighting of a new moon. Sumerian months had no uniform name throughout Sumer because of the religious diversity.[6] This resulted in scribes and scholars referring to them as "the first month", "the fifth month" etc.[citation needed] To keep the lunar year of 354 days in step with the solar year of 365.242 days an extra month was added periodically, much like a Gregorian leap year.[6]
There were no weeks in the Sumerian calendar.[7] Holy days and time off from work were usually celebrated on the first, seventh and fifteenth of each month. In addition to these holy days, there were also feast days which varied from city to city.
Antiquity[edit]
Babylonia and Persia[edit]
Further information: Babylonian calendar and Zoroastrian calendar
Although the earliest evidence of Iranian calendrical traditions is from the second millennium BCE, predating the appearance of the Iranian prophet Zoroaster, the first fully preserved calendar is that of the Achaemenids. Throughout recorded history, Persians have been keen on the idea and importance of having a calendar. They were among the first cultures to use a solar calendar and have long favoured a solar over lunar and lunisolar approaches. The sun has always been a symbol in Iranian culture and is closely related to the folklore regarding Cyrus the Great.[8]
Old Persian calendar[edit]
Old Persian inscriptions and tablets indicate that early Iranians used a 360-day calendar based on the solar observation directly and modified for their beliefs. Days were not named. The months had two or three divisions depending on the phase of the moon. Twelve months of 30 days were named for festivals or activities of the pastoral year. A 13th month was added every six years to keep the calendar synchronized with the seasons.
Zoroastrian calendar[edit]
Main article: Zoroastrian calendar
The first calendars based on Zoroastrian cosmology appeared in the later Achaemenid period (650 to 330 BCE). They evolved over the centuries, but month names changed little until now.
The unified Achaemenid Empire required a distinctive Iranian calendar, and one was devised in Egyptian tradition, with 12 months of 30 days, each dedicated to a yazata (Eyzad), and four divisions resembling the Semitic week. Four days per month were dedicated to Ahura Mazda and seven were named after the six Amesha Spentas. Thirteen days were named after Fire, Water, Sun, Moon, Tiri and Geush Urvan (the soul of all animals), Mithra, Sraosha (Soroush, yazata of prayer), Rashnu (the Judge), Fravashi, Bahram (yazata of victory), Raman (Ramesh meaning peace), and Vata, the divinity of the wind. Three were dedicated to the female divinities, Daena (yazata of religion and personified conscious), Ashi (yazata of fortune) and Arshtat (justice). The remaining four were dedicated to Asman (lord of sky or Heaven), Zam (earth), Manthra Spenta (the Bounteous Sacred Word) and Anaghra Raocha (the 'Endless Light' of paradise).
Modifications by Parthians, Ardashir I, Hormizd I, Yazdgerd III[edit]
The Parthians (Arsacid dynasty) adopted the same calendar system with minor modifications, and dated their era from 248 BCE, the date they succeeded the Seleucids. Their names for the months and days are Parthian equivalents of the Avestan ones used previously, differing slightly from the Middle Persian names used by the Sassanians. For example, in Achaemenid times the modern Persian month 'Day' was called Dadvah (Creator), in Parthian it was Datush and the Sassanians named it Dadv/Dai (Dadar in Pahlavi).
When in April of AD 224 the Parthian dynasty fell and was replaced by the Sasanid, the new king, Ardashir I, abolished the official Babylonian calendar and replaced it with the Zoroastrian. This involved a correction to the places of the gahanbar, which had slipped back in the seasons since they were fixed. These were placed eight months later, as were the epagemonai, the 'Gatha' or 'Gah' days after the ancient Zoroastrian hymns of the same name. Other countries, such as the Armenians and Choresmians, did not accept the change.
The formation of the current Persian calendar in the 11th century[edit]
Toghril Beg, the founder of the Seljuq dynasty, had made Esfahan the capital of his domains and his grandson Malik-Shah was the ruler of that city from 1073. An invitation was sent to Khayyam from Malik-Shah and from his vizier Nizam al-Mulk asking Khayyam to go to Esfahan to set up an Observatory there. Other leading astronomers were also brought to the Observatory in Esfahan and for 18 years Khayyam led the scientists and produced work of outstanding quality. During this time Khayyam led work on compiling astronomical tables and he also contributed to calendar reform in 1079.
Cowell quotes The Calcutta Review No 59:- When the Malik Shah determined to reform the calendar, Omar was one of the eight learned men employed to do it, the result was the Jalali era (so called from Jalal-ud-din, one of the king's names) - 'a computation of time,' says Gibbon, 'which surpasses the Julian, and approaches the accuracy of the Gregorian style.'
Khayyam measured the length of the year as 365.24219858156 days. Two comments on this result. Firstly it shows an incredible confidence to attempt to give the result to this degree of accuracy. We know now that the length of the year is changing in the sixth decimal place over a person's lifetime. Secondly it is outstandingly accurate. For comparison the length of the year at the end of the 19th century was 365.242196 days, while today it is 365.242190 days.[9]
Classical Greece[edit]
The Greeks, as early as the time of Homer, appear to have been familiar with the division of the year into the twelve lunar months but no intercalary month Embolimos or day is then mentioned. Independent of the division of a month into days, it was divided into periods according to the increase and decrease of the moon. Thus, the first day or new moon was called Noumenia. The month in which the year began, as well as the names of the months, differed among the states, and in some parts even no names existed for the months, as they were distinguished only numerically, as the first, second, third, fourth month, etc.
The ancient Athenian calendar was a lunisolar calendar with 354-day years, consisting of twelve months of alternating length of 29 or 30 days. To keep the calendar in line with the solar year of 365.242 days, an extra, intercalary month was added in every other year.[citation needed] The Athenian months were called Hekatombion, Metageitnion, Boedromion, Pyanepsion, Maimakterion, Poseidon, Gamelion, Anthesterion, Elaphebolion, Munychion, Thargelion, and Skirophorion.[10] The intercalary month usually came after Poseidon, and was called second Poseidon.[citation needed]
In addition to their regular, "festival" calendar, the Athenians maintained a second, political calendar . This "conciliar" calendar divided the year into "prytanies", one for each of the "phylai", the subdivisions of Athenian citizens. The number of phylai, and hence the number of prytanies, varied over time. Until 307 BC, there were 10 phylai. After that the number varies between 11 and 13 (usually 12). Even more confusing, while the conciliar and festival years were about the same length in the 4th century BC, such was not regularly the case earlier or later. Documents dated by prytany are frequently very difficult to assign to a particular equivalent in the Julian calendar.
The table of Greek Olympiads, following the four-year cycles between the Olympic Games from 1 July 776 BC, continued until the end of the 4th century AD.[11] The Babylonian Era of Nabonassar, beginning on 26 February 747 BC, was used by the Greeks of Alexandria.[11] It was later known in the Middle Ages from the works of Ptolemy.[11]
Hellenistic period[edit]
Further information: Roman calendar
The Greek calendars were greatly diversified by the Hellenistic period, with separate traditions in every Greek state. Of primary importance for the reconstruction of the regional Greek calendars is the calendar of Delphi, because of the numerous documents found there recording the manumission of slaves, many of which are dated both in the Delphian and in a regional calendar.
The Macedonian Era of the Seleucids, which began with the conquest of Babylon by Seleucus Nicator in 312 BC.[11] It became widely used in the Levant.[11] The Jews knew it as the "era of contracts", and used it in Europe until the 15th century.[11]
The Roman Republican calendar numbered years based on the sitting consuls.[11] References to the year of consulship were used in both conversation and official records.[11] Romans from the same family often had the same praenomen, which sometimes makes it difficult to distinguish them, and there were two consuls at any one time, each of whom might sometimes hold the appointment more than once, meaning that it was (and is) necessary to be well educated in history to understand the references.[11] The Romans had an eight-day week, with the market-day falling every eight days. It was called a nundinum or 'nine-day' in inclusive counting.
Most of the regional Hindu calendars are inherited from a system standardized in classical Hindu astronomy as adopted via Indo-Greek transmission in the final centuries BCE, and reformed by Gupta era astronomers such as Āryabhaṭa and Varāhamihira.
China[edit]
Main article: Chinese calendar
Before the Spring and Autumn period (before 770 BC), the Chinese Calendars were solar calendars.[citation needed] In the so-called five-phase calendar, the year consists of 10 months and a transition, each month being 36 days long, and the transitions 5 or 6 days. During the Warring States period (~475-220 BC), the primitive lunisolar calendars were established under the Zhou Dynasty, known as the six ancient calendars (simplified Chinese: 古六历; traditional Chinese: 古六曆). The months of these calendars begin on the day with the new moon, with 12 or 13 months (lunations) in a year. The intercalary month is placed at the end of the year. In Qin China, the Qin calendar (simplified Chinese: 秦历; traditional Chinese: 秦曆) was introduced. It follows the rules of Zhuanxu's calendar, but the months order follows the Xia's calendar.
Ancient India[edit]
Main article: Hindu calendar
Time keeping was important to Vedic rituals, and Jyotisha was the Vedic era field of tracking and predicting the movements of astronomical bodies in order to keep time, in order to fix the day and time of these rituals.[12][13][14] This study was one of the six ancient Vedangas, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas – the scriptures of Hinduism.[12][13]
Hindu calendar, sometimes referred to as Panchanga, is a collective term for the various lunisolar calendars traditionally used in Hinduism. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle, the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start.[15][16] The ancient Hindu calendar is similar in conceptual design to the Jewish calendar, but different from the Gregorian calendar.[17] Unlike Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to lunar month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days)[18] and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but insert an extra full month by complex rules, every few years, to ensure that the festivals and crop related rituals fall in the appropriate season.[17][19]
The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times, and remains in use by the Hindus in India and Nepal particularly to set the Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist and Jain communities of India adopted the ancient Hindu calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local Buddhist calendars. Buddhist and Jain festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system in the luni-solar calendar.[20][21][22]
Roman Empire[edit]
Main article: Julian calendar
The old Roman year had 304 days divided into 10 months, beginning with March. However the ancient historian Livy gave credit to the second early Roman king Numa Pompilius for devising a calendar of 12 months. The extra months Ianuarius and Februarius had been invented, supposedly by Numa Pompilius, as stop-gaps.[11] Julius Caesar realized that the system had become inoperable, so he effected drastic changes in the year of his third consulship.[11] The New Year in 709 AUC began on 1 January and ran over 365 days until 31 December.[11] Further adjustments were made under Augustus, who introduced the concept of the "leap year" in 757 AUC (AD 4)[conversion is 1 year out].[11] The resultant Julian calendar remained in almost universal use in Europe until 1582,[11] and in some countries until as late as the twentieth century.
Marcus Terentius Varro introduced the Ab urbe condita epoch, assuming a foundation of Rome in 753 BC. The system remained in use during the early Middle Ages until the widespread adoption of the Dionysian era in the Carolingian period.
In the Roman Empire, the AUC year could be used alongside the consular year, so that the consulship of Quintus Fufius Calenus and Publius Vatinius could be determined as 707 AUC (or 47 BC), the third consulship of Caius Julius Caesar, with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, as 708 AUC (or 46 BC), and the fourth consulship of Gaius Julius Caesar as 709 AUC (or 45 BC).[11]
The seven-day week has a tradition reaching back to the ancient Near East, but the introduction of the "planetary week" which remains in modern use dates to the Roman Empire period (see also names of the days of the week).
Middle Ages[edit]
The page for May in the Bedford Psalter and Hours ms. (British Library Add MS 42131, fol. 3r, early 15th century)
Christian Europe[edit]
Main article: Anno Domini
For the first six centuries since the birth of Jesus Christ, European countries used various local systems to count years, most usually regnal years, modeled on the Old Testament.[11] In some cases, Creation dating was also used. In the 6th century, the Christian monk Dionysius Exiguus devised the Anno Domini system, dating from the Incarnation of Jesus.[11] In the 8th century, the Anglo-Saxon historian Bede the Venerable used another Latin term, "ante uero incarnationis dominicae tempus" ("the time before the Lord's true incarnation", equivalent to the English "before Christ"), to identify years before the first year of this era.[23]
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, even Popes continued to date documents according to regnal years, and usage of AD only gradually became common in Europe from the 11th to the 14th centuries.[citation needed] In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to adopt the Anno Domini system.[citation needed]
In 1267, the medieval scientist Roger Bacon stated the times of full moons as a number of hours, minutes, seconds, thirds, and fourths (horae, minuta, secunda, tertia, and quarta) after noon on specified calendar dates.[24] Although a third for 1⁄60 of a second remains in some languages, for example Arabic ثالثة, the modern second is further divided decimally.
Rival calendar eras to Anno Domini remained in use in Christian Europe.[11] In Spain, the "Era of the Caesars" was dated from Octavian's conquest of Iberia in 39 BC.[11] It was adopted by the Visigoths and remained in use in Catalonia until 1180, Castille until 1382 and Portugal until 1415.[11]
For chronological purposes, the flaw of the Anno Domini system was that dates have to be reckoned backwards or forwards according as they are BC or AD. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, "in an ideally perfect system all events would be reckoned in one sequence. The difficulty was to find a starting point whence to reckon, for the beginnings of history in which this should naturally be placed are those of which chronologically we know least."[citation needed] For both Christians and Jews, the prime historical date was the Year of Creation, or Annus Mundi.[25] The Eastern Orthodox Church fixed the date of Creation at 5509 BC.[25] This remained the basis of the ecclesiastical calendar in the Greek and Russian Orthodox world until modern times.[25] The Coptic Church fixed on 5500 BC. Later, the Church of England, under Archbishop Ussher in 1650, would pick 4004 BC.[25]
Bulgar calendar[edit]
The Bulgar calendar was a calendar system used by the Bulgars, a seminomadic people, originally from Central Asia, who from the 2nd century onwards dwelled in the Eurasian steppes north of the Caucasus and around the banks of river Volga. In 681 part of the Bulgars settled in the Balkan peninsula and established Bulgaria. The main source of information used for reconstruction of the Bulgar calendar is a short 15th century transcript, which contains 10 pairs of calendar terms, the same dating system being found in a marginal note of a manuscript from the 10th c. According to the reconstructed calendar, the Bulgars used a 12-year cyclic calendar similar to the one adopted by Turkic peoples from the Chinese calendar, with names and numbers that are deciphered as in Bulgar language.
Islamic calendar[edit]
The Islamic calendar is based on the prohibition of intercalation (nasi') by Muhammad, in Islamic tradition dated to a sermon held on 9 Dhu al-Hijjah AH 10 (Julian date: 6 March 632). This resulted in an observationally based lunar calendar shifting relative to the seasons of the solar year.
Icelandic calendar[edit]
Main article: Icelandic calendar
In medieval Iceland, a calendar was introduced in the 10th century. While the ancient Germanic calendars were based on lunar months, the new Icelandic calendar introduced a purely solar reckoning, with a year having a fixed number of weeks (52 weeks or 364 days). This necessitated the introduction of "leap weeks" instead of the Julian leap days.
Indo-Islamic calendars[edit]
See also: Fasli calendar
During the Mughal rule, land taxes were collected from Bengali people according to the Islamic Hijri calendar. This calendar was a lunar calendar, and its new year did not coincide with the solar agricultural cycles. According to some sources, Mughal Emperor Akbar asked his royal astronomer Fathullah Shirazi to create a new calendar by combining the lunar Islamic calendar and solar Hindu calendar already in use, and this was known as Fasholi shan (harvest calendar).[26][27] According to Amartya Sen, Akbar's official calendar "Tarikh-ilahi" with the zero year of 1556 CE was a blend of pre-existing Hindu and Islamic calendars. It was not used much in India outside of Akbar's Mughal court, and after his death the calendar he launched was abandoned. However, adds Sen, there are traces of the "Tarikh-ilahi" that survive in the Bengali calendar.[28] Some historians attribute the Bengali calendar to the 7th century Hindu king Shashanka.[26][29][30]
Mesoamerica[edit]
Main article: Mayan calendar
Of all the ancient calendar systems, the Maya and other Mesoamerican systems are the most complex. The Mayan calendar had 2 years, the 260-day Sacred Round, or tzolkin, and the 365-day Vague Year, or haab.[31]
A modern pictogram of the Mayan god Ahau, after which the 20th day of the tzolkin cycle was named
The Sacred Round of 260 days is composed of two smaller cycles: the numbers 1 through 13, coupled with 20 different day names: Imix, Ik, Akbal, Kan, Chicchan, Cimi, Manik, Lamat, Muluc, Oc, Chuen, Eb, Ben, Ix, Men, Cib, Caban, Eiznab, Cauac, and Ahau. The Sacred Round was used to determine important activities related to the gods and humans: name individuals, predict the future, decide on auspicious dates for battles, marriages, and so on.[31]
The two cycles of 13 and 20 intermesh and are repeated without interruption: the cycle would begin with 1 Imix, then 2 Ik, then 3 Akbal and so on until the number 13 was reached, at which point the number cycle was restarted so 13 Ben would be followed by 1 Ix, 2 Men and so on. This time Imix would be numbered 8. The cycle ended after 260 days, with the last day being 13 Ahau.[31]
The Vague Year of 365 days is similar to our modern calendar, consisting of 18 months of 20 days each, with an unlucky five-day period at the end. The Vague Year had to do primarily with the seasons and agriculture, and was based on the solar cycle. The 18 Maya months are known, in order, as: Pop, Uo, Zip, Zotz, Tzec, Xuc, Yaxkin, Mol, Chen, Yax, Zac, Ceh, Mac, Kankin, Maun, Pax, Kayab and Cumku. The unlucky five-day period was known as Uayeb, and was considered a time which could hold danger, death and bad luck.[31]
The Vague Year began with the month of Pop. The Maya 20-day month always begins with the seating of the month, followed by days numbered 1 to 19, then the seating of the following month, and so on. This ties in with the Maya notion that each month influences the next. The Maya new year would start with 1 Pop, followed by 2 Pop, all the way through to 19 Pop, followed by the seating of the month of Uo, written as 0 Uo, then 1 Uo, 2 Uo and so on. These two cycles coincided every 52 years. The 52-year period of time was called a "bundle" and was similar to a modern-day century.[31]
Modern calendars[edit]
Further information: List of calendars and Calendar reform
While the Gregorian calendar is now in worldwide use for secular purposes, various medieval or ancient calendars remain in regional use for religious or social purposes, including the Julian calendar, the Hebrew calendar, the Islamic calendar, various Hindu calendars, the Zoroastrian calendar etc.
There are also various modern calendars that see limited use, either created for the use of new religious movements or reformed versions of older religious calendars, or calendars introduced by regionalist or nationalist movements.
Javanese calendar (1633)
Jōkyō calendar (1685)
French Republican calendar (1793)
Baha'i calendar (1873)
Solar Hijri calendar (1925)
Indian national calendar (1957)
Discordian calendar (1963)
Juche Era calendar (1997)
See also[edit]
Week-day names
History of timekeeping devices
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b "Khayyam biography". www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk. Retrieved 2017-01-02.
Jump up ^ Bailey D., 2000, Balkan Prehistory: Exclusion, Incorporation and Identity, London:Routledge p. 325
Jump up ^ [1] Archived 9 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Mesopotamia, Calendar". History-world.org. International World History Project. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
^ Jump up to: a b "Calendar". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Britannica.com. Retrieved 2008-08-16.
Jump up ^ Yust, Walter (1947). "Encyclopædia Britannica: A New Survey of Universal Knowledge". Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 576.
Jump up ^ (Panaino 1990)
Jump up ^ http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Khayyam.html
Jump up ^ Ginzel: Handbuch der Mathematischen und Technischen Chronologie. 2. Germany: F.K. 1911. pp. 335–336.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Davies, p 267
^ Jump up to: a b Monier Monier-Williams (1923). A Sanskrit–English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 353.
^ Jump up to: a b James Lochtefeld (2002), "Jyotisha" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pages 326–327
Jump up ^ Friedrich Max Müller (1860). A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. Williams and Norgate. pp. 210–215.
Jump up ^ B. Richmond (1956). Time Measurement and Calendar Construction. Brill Archive. pp. 80–82. Retrieved 2011-09-18.
Jump up ^ Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007). A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition. State University of New York Press. p. 490. ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Eleanor Nesbitt (2016). Sikhism: a Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 122–123. ISBN 978-0-19-874557-0.
Jump up ^ Orazio Marucchi (2011). Christian Epigraphy: An Elementary Treatise with a Collection of Ancient Christian Inscriptions Mainly of Roman Origin. Cambridge University Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-521-23594-5. , Quote: "the lunar year consists of 354 days".
Jump up ^ Christopher John Fuller (2004). The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton University Press. pp. 109–110. ISBN 978-0-69112-04-85.
Jump up ^ Anita Ganeri (2003). Buddhist Festivals Through the Year. BRB. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-1-58340-375-4.
Jump up ^ Jeffery D Long (2013). Jainism: An Introduction. I.B.Tauris. pp. 6–7. ISBN 978-0-85771-392-6.
Jump up ^ Robert E. Buswell Jr.; Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2013). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8.
Jump up ^ Bede. "Historiam Ecclesiasticam Gentis Anglorum: Liber Primus" (in Latin). Thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 2008-07-06.
Jump up ^ The Opus Majus of Roger Bacon, tr. Robert Belle Burke (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1928, reprinted 2000) table facing page 231, ISBN 978-1-85506-856-8.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Davies, p 268
^ Jump up to: a b Kunal Chakrabarti; Shubhra Chakrabarti (2013). Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis. Scarecrow. pp. 114–115. ISBN 978-0-8108-8024-5.
Jump up ^ "Pahela Baishakh". Banglapedia. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. 2015.
Jump up ^ Amartya Sen (2005). The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian History, Culture and Identity. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. pp. 319–322. ISBN 978-0-374-10583-9.
Jump up ^ Guhathakurta, Meghna; Schendel, Willem van (2013). The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN 9780822353188.
Jump up ^ Nitish K. Sengupta (2011). Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib. Penguin Books India. pp. 96–98. ISBN 978-0-14-341678-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Maya civilization". Civilization.ca. Archived from the original on 5 March 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-03.
External links[edit]
"The Calendar", BBC Radio 4 discussion with Robert Poole, Kristen Lippincott & Peter Watson (In Our Time, Dec. 19, 2002)
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