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Lake Superior
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For other uses, see Lake Superior (disambiguation).
Lake Superior
Gitche Gumee
Lake Superior and the other Great Lakes
Location
North America
Group
Great Lakes
Coordinates
47°42′N 87°30′W / 47.7°N 87.5°W / 47.7; -87.5 (Lake Superior)Coordinates: 47°42′N 87°30′W / 47.7°N 87.5°W / 47.7; -87.5 (Lake Superior)
Lake type
Glacial
Primary inflows
Nipigon, St. Louis, Pigeon, Pic, White, Michipicoten, Kaministiquia Rivers
Primary outflows
St. Marys River
Catchment area
49,300 sq mi (127,700 km2)[1]
Basin countries
United States
Canada
Max. length
350 mi (560 km)[2]
Max. width
160 mi (260 km)[2]
Surface area
31,700 sq mi (82,100 km2)[1]
Average depth
483 ft (147 m)[1]
Max. depth
1,333 ft (406 m)[1][3]
Water volume
2,900 cu mi (12,000 km3)[1]
Residence time
191 years
Shore length1
1,729 mi (2,783 km) plus 997 mi (1,605 km) for islands[4]
Surface elevation
601.71 ft (183 m) (2013 average)[5]
Islands
Isle Royale, Apostle Islands, Michipicoten Island, Slate Islands
Settlements
Thunder Bay, Ontario
Duluth, Minnesota
Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario
Marquette, Michigan
Superior, Wisconsin
Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan
1 Shore length is not a well-defined measure.
Lake Superior is the largest of the Great Lakes of North America. The lake is shared by the Canadian province of Ontario to the north, the US state of Minnesota to the west, and Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to the south. It is generally considered the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface area. It is the world's third-largest freshwater lake by volume and the largest by volume in North America.[6] The furthest north and west of the Great Lakes chain, Superior has the highest elevation and drains into the St. Mary's River.
Contents
[hide]
1 Name
2 Hydrography
2.1 Tributaries and outlet
2.2 Water levels
2.3 Climate change
3 Geography
3.1 Great Lakes Circle Tour
4 Climate
5 Geology
6 History
6.1 Shipping
6.2 Shipwrecks
7 Ecology
8 See also
8.1 General
9 References
9.1 Notes
10 Bibliography
10.1 Further reading
11 External links
Name[edit]
The Ojibwe call the lake gichi-gami (pronounced as gitchi-gami and kitchi-gami in other dialects),[7] meaning "be a great sea." Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote the name as "Gitche Gumee" in The Song of Hiawatha, as did Gordon Lightfoot in his song, "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald". According to other sources, the actual Ojibwe name is Ojibwe Gichigami ("Ojibwe's Great Sea") or Anishinaabe Gichigami ("Anishinaabe's Great Sea").[8] The 1878 dictionary by Father Frederic Baraga, the first one written for the Ojibway language, gives the Ojibwe name as Otchipwe-kitchi-gami (reflecting Ojibwe Gichigami).[7] The first French explorers approaching the great inland sea by way of the Ottawa River and Lake Huron during the 17th century referred to their discovery as le lac supérieur. Properly translated, the expression means "Upper Lake," that is, the lake above Lake Huron. The lake was also called Lac Tracy (named for Alexandre de Prouville de Tracy) by 17th century Jesuit missionaries.[9] The British, upon taking control of the region from the French in the 1760s following the French and Indian War, anglicized the lake's name to Superior, "on account of its being superior in magnitude to any of the lakes on that vast continent."[10]
Hydrography[edit]
Lake Superior bathymetric map.[11][12][13] The deepest point, roughly off its southeastern shore, is marked with "×".[14] The deep trenches in its eastern part may have originated from tunnel valleys.[15][16]
Lake Superior empties into Lake Huron via the St. Marys River and the Soo Locks. Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world in area (if Lakes Michigan and Huron are taken separately; see Lake Michigan–Huron), and the third largest in volume, behind Lake Baikal in Siberia and Lake Tanganyika in East Africa. The Caspian Sea, while larger than Lake Superior in both surface area and volume, is brackish; though presently isolated, prehistorically the Caspian has been repeatedly connected to and isolated from the Mediterranean via the Black Sea.
Lake Superior deepest point[14] on the bathymetric map.[11]
Lake Superior has a surface area of 31,700 square miles (82,103 km2),[1] which is approximately the size of South Carolina or Austria. It has a maximum length of 350 statute miles (560 km; 300 nmi) and maximum breadth of 160 statute miles (257 km; 139 nmi).[2] Its average depth is 80.5 fathoms (483 ft; 147 m) with a maximum depth of 222.17 fathoms (1,333 ft; 406 m).[1][2][3] Lake Superior contains 2,900 cubic miles (12,100 km³) of water.[1] There is enough water in Lake Superior to cover the entire land mass of North and South America to a depth of 30 centimetres (12 in).[17] The shoreline of the lake stretches 2,726 miles (4,387 km) (including islands).[1]
American limnologist J. Val Klump was the first person to reach the lowest depth of Lake Superior on July 30, 1985, as part of a scientific expedition, which at 122 fathoms 1 foot (733 ft or 223 m) below sea level is the second-lowest spot in the continental interior of the United States and the third-lowest spot in the interior of the North American continent after Iliamna Lake in Alaska (942 feet [287 m] below sea level) and Great Slave Lake in the Northwest Territories of Canada at (1,503 feet [458 m] below sea level). (Though Crater Lake is the deepest lake in the United States and deeper than Lake Superior, Crater Lake's elevation is higher and consequently its deepest point is 4,229 feet (1,289 m) above sea level.)
While the temperature of the surface of Lake Superior varies seasonally, the temperature below 110 fathoms (660 ft; 200 m) is an almost constant 39 °F (4 °C).[citation needed] This variation in temperature makes the lake seasonally stratigraphic. Twice per year, however, the water column reaches a uniform temperature of 39 °F (4 °C) from top to bottom, and the lake waters thoroughly mix. This feature makes the lake dimictic. Because of its volume, Lake Superior has a retention time of 191 years.[18][19]
Annual storms on Lake Superior regularly feature wave heights of over 20 feet (6 m).[20] Waves well over 30 feet (9 m) have been recorded.[21]
Tributaries and outlet[edit]
Lake Superior basin
The lake is fed by over 200 rivers. The largest include the Nipigon River, the St. Louis River, the Pigeon River, the Pic River, the White River, the Michipicoten River, the Bois Brule River and the Kaministiquia River. Lake Superior drains into Lake Huron via the St. Marys River. There are rapids at the river's upper (Lake Superior) end where the river bed has a relatively steep gradient. The Soo Locks were built to enable ships to bypass the rapids and to overcome the 25-foot (8 m) height difference between Lakes Superior and Huron.
Water levels[edit]
Lake Superior in winter, as seen from Duluth, Minnesota in December 2004
A frozen Duluth Harbor Entrance
The lake's average surface elevation is 600 feet (183 m)[2][18] above sea level. Until approximately 1887 the natural hydraulic conveyance through the St. Marys River rapids determined outflow from Lake Superior. By 1921 development in support of transportation and hydroelectric power resulted in gates, locks, power canals and other control structures completely spanning St. Marys rapids. The regulating structure is known as the Compensating Works and is operated according to a regulation plan known as Plan 1977-A. Water levels, including diversions of water from the Hudson Bay watershed, are regulated by the International Lake Superior Board of Control which was established in 1914 by the International Joint Commission.
Lake Superior's water level was at a new record low in September 2007, slightly less than the previous record low in 1926.[22] However, the water levels returned within a few days.[23]
Historic high water The lake's water level fluctuates from month to month, with the highest lake levels in October and November. The normal high-water mark is 1.17 feet (0.36 m) above datum (601.1 ft or 183.2 m). In the summer of 1985, Lake Superior reached its highest recorded level at 2.33 feet (0.71 m) above datum.[24] The winter of 1986 set new high-water records through the winter and spring months (January to June), ranging from 1.33 feet (0.41 m) to 1.833 feet (0.559 m) above Chart Datum.[24]
Historic low water The lake's lowest levels occur in March and April. The normal low-water mark is 0.33 feet (0.10 m) below datum (601.1 ft or 183.2 m). In the winter of 1926 Lake Superior reached its lowest recorded level at 1.58 feet (0.48 m) below datum.[24] Additionally, the entire first half of the year (January to June) included record low months. The low water was a continuation of the dropping lake levels from the previous year, 1925, which set low-water records for October through December. During the nine-month period October 1925 to June 1926 water levels ranged from 1.58 feet (0.48 m) to 0.33 feet (0.10 m) below Chart Datum.[24] In the summer of 2007 monthly historic lows were set; August at 0.66 feet (0.20 m), September at 0.58 feet (0.18 m).[24]
Climate change[edit]
According to a study by professors at the University of Minnesota Duluth, Lake Superior may have warmed faster than its surrounding area.[25] Summer surface temperatures in the lake appeared to have increased by about 4.5 °F (2.5 °C) since 1979, compared with an approximately 2.7 °F (1.5 °C) increase in the surrounding average air temperature. The increase in the lake's surface temperature may be related to the decreasing ice cover. Less winter ice cover allows more solar radiation to penetrate and warm the water. If trends continue, Lake Superior, which freezes over completely once every 20 years, could routinely be ice-free by 2040.[26] This would be a significant departure from historical records as, according to Hubert Lamb, Samuel Champlain reported ice along the shores of Lake Superior in June 1608.[27] Warmer temperatures could actually lead to more snow in the lake effect snow belts along the shores of the lake, especially in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. However, two recent consecutive winters (2013–2014 and 2014–2015) brought unusually high ice coverage to the Great Lakes, and on March 6, 2014 overall ice coverage peaked at 92.5%, the second-highest in recorded history.[28]
Geography[edit]
Brooklyn Museum – Lake Superior – Walter Shirlaw
The largest island in Lake Superior is Isle Royale in the state of Michigan. Isle Royale contains several lakes, some of which also contain islands. Other well-known islands include Madeline Island in the state of Wisconsin, Michipicoten Island in the province of Ontario, and Grand Island (the location of the Grand Island National Recreation Area) in the state of Michigan.
The larger cities on Lake Superior include the twin ports of Duluth, Minnesota and Superior, Wisconsin; Thunder Bay, Ontario; Marquette, Michigan; and the twin cities of Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. Duluth-Superior, at the western end of Lake Superior, is the most inland point on the St. Lawrence Seaway and the most inland port in the world.
Among the scenic places on the lake are Apostle Islands National Lakeshore, Isle Royale National Park, Porcupine Mountains Wilderness State Park, Pukaskwa National Park, Lake Superior Provincial Park, Grand Island National Recreation Area, Sleeping Giant (Ontario) and Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore.
Great Lakes Circle Tour[edit]
The Great Lakes Circle Tour is a designated scenic road system connecting all of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.[29]
Climate[edit]
Lake Superior's size reduces the severity of the seasons of its humid continental climate (more typically seen in locations like Nova Scotia).[30] The water surface's slow reaction to temperature changes, seasonally ranging between 32 and 55 °F (0–13 °C) around 1970,[31] helps to moderate surrounding air temperatures in the summer and winter, and creates lake effect snow in colder months. The hills and mountains that border the lake hold moisture and fog, particularly in the fall.
The lake's surface temperature has risen by 4.5 °F (2.5 °C) since 1979.[32]
Bedrock geologic map of the U.S. area bordering Lake Superior: Minnesota, Wisconsin, and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan
North American cratons and basement rock, showing the formation of the Midcontinent Rift containing today's Lake Superior
Geology[edit]
The rocks of Lake Superior's northern shore date back to the early history of the earth. During the Precambrian (between 4.5 billion and 540 million years ago) magma forcing its way to the surface created the intrusive granites of the Canadian Shield.[33] These ancient granites can be seen on the North Shore today. It was during the Penokean orogeny, part of the process that created the Great Lakes Tectonic Zone, that many valuable metals were deposited. The region surrounding the lake has proved to be rich in minerals. Copper, iron, silver, gold and nickel are or were the most frequently mined. Examples include the Hemlo gold mine near Marathon, copper at Point Mamainse, silver at Silver Islet and uranium at Theano Point.
The mountains steadily eroded, depositing layers of sediments that compacted and became limestone, dolostone, taconite and the shale at Kakabeka Falls.
The continent was later riven, creating one of the deepest rifts in the world.[34] The lake lies in this long-extinct Mesoproterozoic rift valley, the Midcontinent Rift. Magma was injected between layers of sedimentary rock, forming diabase sills. This hard diabase protects the layers of sedimentary rock below, forming the flat-topped mesas in the Thunder Bay area.
Amethyst formed in some of the cavities created by the Midcontinent Rift and there are several amethyst mines in the Thunder Bay area.[35]
Basaltic columns along Lake Superior
Lava erupted from the rift and formed the black basalt rock of Michipicoten Island, Black Bay Peninsula, and St. Ignace Island.
During the Wisconsin glaciation 10,000 years ago, ice covered the region at a thickness of 1.25 miles (2 km). The land contours familiar today were carved by the advance and retreat of the ice sheet. The retreat left gravel, sand, clay and boulder deposits. Glacial meltwaters gathered in the Superior basin creating Lake Minong, a precursor to Lake Superior.[36] Without the immense weight of the ice, the land rebounded, and a drainage outlet formed at Sault Ste. Marie, which would become known as St. Mary's River.
History[edit]
Pictographs at Lake Superior Provincial Park, Ontario
The first people came to the Lake Superior region 10,000 years ago after the retreat of the glaciers in the last Ice Age. They are known as the Plano, and they used stone-tipped spears to hunt caribou on the northwestern side of Lake Minong.
The next documented people are known as the Shield Archaic (c. 5000–500 BC). Evidence of this culture can be found at the eastern and western ends of the Canadian shore. They used bows and arrows, dugout canoes, fished, hunted, mined copper for tools and weapons, and established trading networks. They are believed to be the direct ancestors of the Ojibwe and Cree.[37]
The Laurel people (c. 500 BC to AD 500) developed seine net fishing, evidence being found at rivers around Superior such as the Pic and Michipicoten.
Another culture known as the Terminal Woodland Indians (c. AD 900–1650) has been found. They were Algonkian people who hunted, fished and gathered berries. They used snow shoes, birch bark canoes and conical or domed lodges. At the mouth of the Michipicoten River, nine layers of encampments have been discovered. Most of the Pukaskwa Pits were likely made during this time.[37]
The Anishinaabe, which includes the Ojibwe or Chippewa, have inhabited the Lake Superior region for over five hundred years and were preceded by the Dakota, Fox, Menominee, Nipigon, Noquet and Gros Ventres. They called Lake Superior either Ojibwe Gichigami ("the Ojibwe's Great Sea") or Anishnaabe Gichgamiing ("the Anishinaabe's Great Sea"). After the arrival of Europeans, the Anishinaabe made themselves the middle-men between the French fur traders and other Native peoples. They soon became the dominant Native American nation in the region: they forced out the Sioux and Fox and won a victory against the Iroquois west of Sault Ste. Marie in 1662. By the mid-18th century, the Ojibwe occupied all of Lake Superior's shores.[38]
Reconstructed Great Hall, Grand Portage National Monument, Minnesota
In the 18th century, the fur trade in the region was booming, with the Hudson's Bay Company having a virtual monopoly. In 1783, however, the North West Company was formed to rival the Hudson's Bay Company. The North West Company built forts on Lake Superior at Grand Portage, Fort William, Nipigon, the Pic River, the Michipicoten River, and Sault Ste. Marie. But by 1821, with competition taking too great a toll on both, the companies merged under the Hudson's Bay Company name.
Many towns around the lake are either current or former mining areas, or engaged in processing or shipping. Today, tourism is another significant industry; the sparsely populated Lake Superior country, with its rugged shorelines and wilderness, attracts tourists and adventurers.
Shipping[edit]
Vintage stereoscopic photo titled, "Ice blockade in Marquette Harbor, June 1873
Lake Superior has been an important link in the Great Lakes Waterway, providing a route for the transportation of iron ore as well as grain and other mined and manufactured materials. Large cargo vessels called lake freighters, as well as smaller ocean-going freighters, transport these commodities across Lake Superior.
Because of ice, the Lake is closed to shipping from mid-January to late March. Exact dates for the shipping season vary each year,[39] depending on weather conditions that form and break the ice.
Shipwrecks[edit]
See also: Great Storms of the North American Great Lakes, List of shipwrecks of Isle Royale, and Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve
According to shipwreck historian Frederick Stonehouse, the southern shore of Lake Superior between Grand Marais, Michigan, and Whitefish Point is known as the "Graveyard of the Great Lakes" and more ships have been lost around the Whitefish Point area than any other part of Lake Superior.[40] These shipwrecks are now protected by the Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve.
Storms that claimed multiple ships include the Mataafa Storm in 1905 and the Great Lakes Storm of 1913.
Wreckage of SS Cyprus – a 420-foot (130 m) ore carrier that sank on October 11, 1907, during a Lake Superior storm in 77 fathoms (460 ft or 140 m) of water – was located in August 2007. All but Charles G. Pitz of Cyprus's 23 crew perished . The ore carrier sank in Lake Superior on her second voyage, while hauling iron ore from Superior, Wisconsin, to Buffalo, New York. Built in Lorain, Ohio, Cyprus was launched August 17, 1907.[41]
In 1918 the last warships to sink in the Great Lakes, French minesweepers Inkerman and Cerisoles, vanished in a Lake Superior storm. With 78 crewmembers dead, their sinking marked the largest loss of life on Lake Superior to date.
SS Edmund Fitzgerald was the latest major shipwreck on Lake Superior, sinking 15 nautical miles (28 km; 17 mi) from Whitefish Point in a storm on November 10, 1975. The wreck was immortalized by Gordon Lightfoot in his ballad "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald". All 29 crew members perished when the ship sank, and no bodies were ever recovered. Edmund Fitzgerald was swallowed up so intensely by Lake Superior that the 729-foot (222 m) ship split in half; her two pieces are approximately 170 feet (52 m) apart in a depth of 91 fathoms 4 feet (550 ft or 170 m).
According to legend, "Lake Superior seldom gives up her dead".[42] This is because of the unusually low temperature of the water, estimated at under 36 °F (2 °C) on average around 1970.[31] Normally, bacteria feeding on a sunken decaying body will generate gas inside the body, causing it to float to the surface after a few days. However, Lake Superior's water is cold enough year-round to inhibit bacterial growth, and bodies tend to sink and never resurface.[43] This is alluded to in Lightfoot's "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald" ballad. Fitzgerald adventurer Joe MacInnis reported that, in July 1994, explorer Frederick Shannon's Expedition 94 to the wreck of Edmund Fitzgerald discovered and filmed a man's body near the port side of her pilothouse, not far from the open door, "fully clothed, wearing an orange life jacket, and lying face down in the sediment."[44]
Ecology[edit]
Bedrock shoreline, Neys Provincial Park, Ontario
Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, Michigan
Over 80 species of fish have been found in Lake Superior. Species native to the lake include: banded killifish, bloater, brook trout, burbot, cisco, lake sturgeon, lake trout, lake whitefish, longnose sucker, muskellunge, northern pike, pumpkinseed, rock bass, round whitefish, smallmouth bass, walleye, white sucker and yellow perch. In addition, many fish species have been either intentionally or accidentally introduced to Lake Superior: Atlantic salmon, brown trout, carp, chinook salmon, coho salmon, freshwater drum, pink salmon, rainbow smelt, rainbow trout, round goby, ruffe, sea lamprey and white perch.[45][46]
Lake Superior has fewer dissolved nutrients relative to its water volume than the other Great Lakes and so is less productive in terms of fish populations and is an oligotrophic lake. This is a result of the underdeveloped soils found in its relatively small watershed.[18] However, nitrate concentrations in the lake have been continuously rising for more than a century. They are still much lower than levels considered dangerous to human health; but this steady, long-term rise is an unusual record of environmental nitrogen buildup. It may relate to anthropogenic alternations to the regional nitrogen cycle, but researchers are still unsure of the causes of this change to the lake's ecology.[47]
As for other Great Lakes fish, populations have also been affected by the accidental or intentional introduction of foreign species such as the sea lamprey and Eurasian ruffe. Accidental introductions have occurred in part by the removal of natural barriers to navigation between the Great Lakes. Overfishing has also been a factor in the decline of fish populations.[6]
See also[edit]
North Shore of Lake Superior
South Shore of Lake Superior
General[edit]
Great Lakes
Great Lakes Areas of Concern
Great Lakes census statistical areas
Great Lakes Commission
Great Recycling and Northern Development Canal
Great Lakes Storm of 1913
International Boundary Waters Treaty
List of cities along the Great Lakes
Seiche
Shipwrecks of the 1913 Great Lakes storm
Sixty Years' War for control of the Great Lakes
Third Coast
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i "Great Lakes: Basic Information: Physical Facts". U.S. Government. May 25, 2011. Archived from the original on October 29, 2010. Retrieved November 9, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Great Lakes Atlas: Factsheet #1". United States Environmental Protection Agency. April 11, 2011. Retrieved November 10, 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Wright, John W., ed. (2006). The New York Times Almanac (2007 ed.). New York, New York: Penguin Books. p. 64. ISBN 0-14-303820-6.
Jump up ^ Shorelines of the Great Lakes Archived April 5, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Great Lakes Water Levels, published by the US Army Corps of Engineers. The link also has daily elevations for the current month.
^ Jump up to: a b Superior Pursuit: Facts About the Greatest Great Lake – Minnesota Sea Grant University of Minnesota. Retrieved on August 9, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b Kitchi-Gami Almanac – The Name. lakesuperior.com. January 1, 2006
Jump up ^ Under the Shadow of the Gods: A guide to the History of the Canadian Shore of Lake Superior by Barbara Chisholm & Andrea Gutsche 1st edition 1998 printed bound in Canada by Transcontinental Printing Inc
Jump up ^ Great Lakes Atlas, Environment Canada and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1995.
Jump up ^ George R. Stewart, "Names on the Land, A historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States," 1945, p. 83
^ Jump up to: a b National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Bathymetry of Lake Superior. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. [access date: 2015-03-23].
(the general reference to NGDC because this lake was never published, compilation of Great Lakes Bathymetry at NGDC has been suspended).
Jump up ^ National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Bathymetry of Lake Huron. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V5G15XS5 [access date: March 23, 2015]. (only small portion of this map)
Jump up ^ National Geophysical Data Center, 1999. Global Land One-kilometer Base Elevation (GLOBE) v.1. Hastings, D. and P.K. Dunbar. National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA. doi:10.7289/V52R3PMS [access date: March 16, 2015].
^ Jump up to: a b "About Our Great Lakes: Tour". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) – Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory (GLERL). Retrieved April 2, 2015. Google Earth Great Lakes Tour GreatLakesTour_Merged.kmz
Jump up ^ Wright Jr., H. E. (1973). Black, Robert Foster; Goldthwait, Richard Parker; Willman, Harold, eds. "Tunnel Valleys, Glacial Surges, and Subglacial Hydrology of the Superior Lobe, Minnesota". Geological Society of America Memoirs. Geological Society of America Memoirs. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America Inc. 136: 251–276. ISBN 0813711363. doi:10.1130/MEM136-p251. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ Regis, Robert S., Jennings-Patterson, Carrie, Wattrus, Nigel, and Rausch, Deborah, Relationship of deep troughs in the eastern Lake Superior basin and large-scale glaciofluvial landforms in the central upper peninsula of Michigan. The Geological Society of America. North-Central Section – 37th Annual Meeting (March 24–25, 2003) Kansas City, Missouri. Paper No. 19-10.
Jump up ^ North America (2.47×107 km²) and South America (1.78×107 km²) combined cover 4.26×107 km². Lake Superior's volume (1.20×104 km³) over 4.26×107 km² gives a depth of 0.282 m.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Lake Superior". Minnesota Sea Grant, University of Minnesota. Retrieved August 9, 2007.
Jump up ^ Lake Superior's Natural Processes | Minnesota Sea Grant. Seagrant.umn.edu (October 15, 2014). Retrieved on 2015-11-17.
Jump up ^ "The fall storm season." (Website.) National Weather Service, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved on September 25, 2007
Jump up ^ Chisholm, B. & Gutsche, p. xiii
Jump up ^ Associated Press. (October 1, 2007.) "Lake Superior hits record lows." The Globe and Mail, via globeandmail.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-06. Archived June 10, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Current Great Lakes Water Levels. Great Lakes Information Network. Retrieved on October 23, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Monthly bulletin of Lake Levels for The Great Lakes; September 2009; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Detroit District
Jump up ^ Marshall, Jessica. (May 30, 2007.) "Global warming is shrinking the Great Lakes." New Scientist, via newscientist.com. Retrieved on 2007-09-25. Archived October 13, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Associated Press. (June 4, 2007.) "Lake Superior warming faster than surrounding climate." The Globe and Mail, via globeandmail.com (fee required). Retrieved on 2007-09-25. Archived April 9, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Lamb, Hubert H. (1995). "The little ice age". Climate, history and the modern world. London: Routledge. p. 241. ISBN 0-415-12734-3.
Jump up ^ Extensive Great Lakes Ice Coverage to Limit Severe Weather, Pose Challenges to Shipping Industry. Accuweather.com. Retrieved on November 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ Great Lakes Circle Tour. Great-lakes.net. Retrieved on November 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ Highway 17: A Scenic Route along the northern Lake Superior shore. Thekingshighway.ca (February 18, 2012). Retrieved on 2015-11-17.
^ Jump up to: a b Derecki, J. A. (July 1980.) "NOAA Technical Memorandum ERL GLERL-29: Evaporation from Lake Superior." Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, page 37. Retrieved on September 25, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Global warming is shrinking the Great Lakes." New Scientist, via newscientist.com. Retrieved on September 25, 2007. Archived October 13, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Geology of National Parks, Second Edition, Ann G. Harris, Kendall Hunt Publishing, Dubuque, Iowa, 1977, p. 200
Jump up ^ Linder, Douglas O. (2006) ''Simply Superior: The World's Greatest Lake'' "Lake Superior facts". Law.umkc.edu. Retrieved on November 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ Ontario Amethyst: Ontario's Mineral Emblem Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines. Retrieved on August 4, 2007.
Jump up ^ Chisholm & Gutsche, p. xv
^ Jump up to: a b Chisholm & Gutsche, p. xvi
Jump up ^ Chisholm & Gutsche, p. xvii
Jump up ^ "Paul R. Treggurtha: Last trip for the Tregurtha this year". Duluth Shipping News. January 12, 2015. Retrieved January 21, 2015. Another trip here was planned but has apparently been canceled, making this her last and 41st visit this season. Last year, without a late start due to ice, the Tregurtha was here 49 times.
Jump up ^ Stonehouse, Frederick (1985, 1998). Lake Superior's Shipwreck Coast, p. 267, Avery Color Studios, Gwinn, Michigan, U.S.A. ISBN 0-932212-43-3,
Jump up ^ "Century-old shipwreck discovered: Ore carrier went down in Lake Superior on its second voyage". Traverse City, Michigan: MSNBC. Associated Press. September 10, 2007.
Jump up ^ Kohl, Cris (1998). The 100 Best Great Lakes Shipwrecks, Volume II, p. 430. Seawolf Communications, Inc. ISBN 0-9681437-3-3.
Jump up ^ Chisholm & Gutsche, p. xxxiv
Jump up ^ MacInnis, Joseph (1998). Fitzgerald's Storm: The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald. Berkeley, CA, USA: Thunder Bay Press. p. 101. ISBN 1-882376-53-6.
Jump up ^ "Lake Superior Fish Species". Minnesota Sea Grant, University of Minnesota. Retrieved June 3, 2009.
Jump up ^ Minnesota 2009 fishing regulations, p. 23
Jump up ^ Sterner, Robert W.; Anagnostou, Eleni; Brovold, Sandra; Bullerjahn, George S.; Finlay, Jacques C.; Kumar, Sanjeev; McKay, R. Michael L.; Sherrell, Robert M. (2007). "Increasing stoichiometric imbalance in North America's largest lake: Nitrification in Lake Superior". Geophysical Research Letters. 34 (10): L10406. Bibcode:2007GeoRL..3410406S. doi:10.1029/2006GL028861.
Bibliography[edit]
Chisholm, B. & Gutsche, A., Superior: Under the Shadow of the Gods, Lynx Images, 1998 ISBN 0-9698427-7-5
Further reading[edit]
Burt, Williams A., and Hubbard, Bela Reports on the Mineral Region of Lake Superior (Buffalo: L. Danforth, 1846), 113 pages.
Grady, Wayne. The Great Lakes: The Natural History of a Changing Region.Greystone Books, D&M Publishers INC, 2007
Hyde, Charles K., and Ann and John Mahan. The Northern Lights: Lighthouses of the Upper Great Lakes. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-8143-2554-8 ISBN 9780814325544.
Oleszewski, Wes, Great Lakes Lighthouses, American and Canadian: A Comprehensive Directory/Guide to Great Lakes Lighthouses, (Gwinn, Michigan: Avery Color Studios, Inc., 1998) ISBN 0-932212-98-0.
Penrod, John, Lighthouses of Michigan, (Berrien Center, Michigan: Penrod/Hiawatha, 1998) ISBN 978-0-942618-78-5 ISBN 9781893624238
Penrose, Laurie and Bill, A Traveler's Guide to 116 Michigan Lighthouses (Petoskey, Michigan: Friede Publications, 1999). ISBN 0-923756-03-5 ISBN 9780923756031
Sims, P.K. and L.M.H. Carter, eds. Archean and Proterozoic Geology of the Lake Superior Region, U.S.A., 1993 [U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1556]. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, 1996.
Splake, T. Kilgore. Superior Land Lights. Battle Creek, MI: Angst Productions, 1984
Stonehouse, Frederick. Marquette Shipwrecks. Marquette, MI: Harboridge Press, 1974
Wagner, John L., Michigan Lighthouses: An Aerial Photographic Perspective, (East Lansing, Michigan: John L. Wagner, 1998) ISBN 1-880311-01-1 ISBN 9781880311011
Wright, Larry and Wright, Patricia, Great Lakes Lighthouses Encyclopedia Hardback (Erin: Boston Mills Press, 2006) ISBN 1-55046-399-3
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. "[ Record Low Water Levels Expected on Lake Superior]." August 2007
Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory. "Great Lakes Sensitivity to Climatic Forcing: Hydrological Models." NOAA, 2006
Shipwrecks
"America"; Houghton, Michigan; Houghton Mining Gazette; Vol. 29; June 8, 1928
Stonehouse, Frederick; Isle Royale Shipwrecks; Marquette, Michigan; Arery Color Studios; 1977
"Cumberland" & "Wreck of Sidewheel Steamer Cumberland"; Detroit, Michigan; Detroit Free Press; January 29, 1974
"S.S.George M. Cox Wrecked"; Houghton, Michigan; Houghton Mining Gazette; May 28, 1933
Holdon, Thom "Reef of the Three C's"; Duluth, Minnesota; Lake Superior Marine Museum; Vol. 2, #4; July/August 1977
Holdon, Thom; "Above and Below: Steamer America"; Duluth, Minnesota; Lake Superior Marine Museum; Vol. 3, #3 & #4; May/June & July/August 1978
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lake Superior.
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Lake Superior NOAA nautical chart #14961 online
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EPA's Great Lakes Atlas Factsheet #1
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text:
While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Song of the Angels at the Nativity of our Blessed Saviour" from A New version of the Psalms of David
The "meane" of chapter VIII in Christopher Tye's Actes of the Apostles of 1553. The latter half was adapted and used as the tune of "Winchester Old".
"While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks"[1] is a Christmas carol describing the Annunciation to the Shepherds, with words attributed to Irish hymnist, lyricist and England's Poet Laureate Nahum Tate.[2]
The exact date of Tate's composition is not known, but the words appeared in Tate and Nicholas Brady's 1700 supplement to their New Version of the Psalms of David of 1696. It was the only Christmas hymn authorised to be sung by the Anglican Church; before 1700 only the Psalms of David were permitted to be sung. It is written in common metre and based on the Gospel of Luke 2:8-14.
It is the only one of the sixteen works in the 1700 supplement to still be sung today. It was published by Davies Gilbert (London, 1822), and William B. Sandys (London, 1833).[2] The carol is most commonly sung to two different tunes: Winchester Old in the United Kingdom and a variation on a Handel aria arranged by Lowell Mason in the United States.
Contents
[hide]
1 Tunes
1.1 Winchester Old
1.2 Other versions
1.3 Textual variants
2 References
3 External links
Tunes[edit]
Winchester Old[edit]
Winchester Old
(1.5 Mb)
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In the United Kingdom and Commonwealth countries, the standard hymn tune of "While Shepherds Watched" is "Winchester Old" (initially simply "Winchester"), originally published in Este's psalter The Whole Book of Psalmes from 1592. This tune was, in turn, arranged from chapter VIII of Cambridgeshire composer Christopher Tye's setting of the Acts of the Apostles in 1553.[3][4]
George Kirbye, an East Anglian madrigalist about whom little is known, was employed by Este to arrange some of tunes featured in his The Whole Book of Psalmes and it is his arrangement of Tye's work that appears in the psalter to accompany Psalm 84 "How Lovely is Thy Dwelling Place" with the melody in the tenor.[5] The tune and hymn text were probably first published together in an arrangement by William Henry Monk for Hymns Ancient and Modern in 1861.[5][6]
Professor Jeremy Dibble of Durham University has noted that "While Shepherds Watched" was "the only Christmas hymn to be approved by the Church of England in the 18th century and this allowed it to be disseminated across the country with the Book of Common Prayer." This was because most carols, which had roots in folk music, were considered too secular and thus not used in church services until the end of the 18th century.[3]
Other versions[edit]
Jackson's Tune
(1.5 Mb)
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David Weyman's adaptation of "Christmas", taken from an aria in the 1728 opera Siroe by George Frideric Handel was arranged by Lowell Mason in 1821, and it is now this version which is most commonly used in the United States.
American composer Daniel Read published his tune "Sherburne" in 1785, a popular setting that appeared over seventy times in print before 1810 and is still commonly sung by Sacred Harp singers. It was set to music in 1812 in Harmonia Sacra.
The hymn tune "Cranbrook" was written in 1805 by Canterbury shoe-maker Thomas Clark and named after the local village of Cranbrook.[7] It was originally set to the words 'Grace 'tis a charming sound' written by Philip Doddridge but is now better known in the UK as the tune of On Ilkla Moor Baht 'at.[3] Another popular tune for the hymn from around that time is Old Foster.
It has been set to numerous other tunes, most commonly "Martyrdom", written by Hugh Wilson in 1800 but with an arrangement by Ralph E. Hudson from around 1885, and "Shackelford" by Frederick Henry Cheeswright from 1889. Robert Jackson, parish organist at All Saints‘ Church, Oldham, Lancashire, wrote a tune to "While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks by Night" in 1903 for the Westwood Moravian Church there. Called "Jackson's Tune," it remains popular there. A note in The English Hymnal mentions "University" and "Crowle" as tunes to which is occasionally sung.[8] In Cornwall, England, the carol is popularly sung to "Lyngham", a tune usually associated with "O for a Thousand Tongues to Sing". Another tune traditionally used for it in Cornwall is "Northrop".[9] In the towns of villages in the Pennines of West Yorkshire such as Todmorden, "Shaw Lane" is used. "Sweet Chiming Bells" is an alternative folk version, commonly sung in South Yorkshire and Derbyshire, which uses the verses of the hymn but adds a new refrain.[10]
Textual variants[edit]
An arrangement from the 19th Century with music by G. W. Fink. Here the title is given as "While Humble Shepherds Watched Their Flocks"
The title in the supplement was "Song of the Angels at the Nativity of our Blessed Saviour", but it has since become known chiefly by its incipit. In Tate's original it appeared as Whilst Shepherds Watched Their Flocks (i.e. 'whilst' not 'while'), but most modern hymn books print "While".[6]
A 19th century version by Gottfried W. Fink was While humble shepherds watched their flocks and other rewritten passages (see illustration). The Hymnal 1982 published in the United States also contained a number of other modernisations, including dropping "Hallelujah" as the final line.[11]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Also known as "Whilst Shepherds Watched Their Flocks" or "The Vision of the Shepherds (ref)
^ Jump up to: a b While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks - Sandys
^ Jump up to: a b c Stephen Adams, "Carol 'While Shepherds Watch' was sung to 'Ilkley Moor' tune", Daily Telegraph, 15 December 2009
Jump up ^ The Harvard University Hymn Book (Harvard University Press, 2007), 426
^ Jump up to: a b N Temperley, "Kindred and Affinity in Hymn Tunes" in The Musical Times, 1972 - 905
^ Jump up to: a b "While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks". The Hymns and Carols of Christmas. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
Jump up ^ "While Shepherds Watched". Retrieved 2008-08-07.
Jump up ^ The English Hymnal, 1907; p. 53
Jump up ^ The English Hymnal, 1907; p. 903
Jump up ^ British Library sound recording
Jump up ^ "While Humble Shepherds Watched Their Flocks". The Hymns and Carols of Christmas. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
External links[edit]
An original arrangement of "While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks By Night" from The Library of Congress.
"While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks". The Hymns and Carols of Christmas. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
"While Shepherds Watched". carols.org.uk. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
"Nahum Tate (1652-1715)". Poem of the Week. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
The Cyber Hymnal
Steve Benner (2003). "While shepherds watched their flocks by night". Retrieved 20 December 2006.
Helen Yeomans (2005). "While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks". Christmas Carols and Carol Singing. Retrieved 20 December 2006.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=While_Shepherds_Watched_Their_Flocks&oldid=833826967"
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The Last Lecture
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Last Lecture
Author
Jeffrey Zaslow, Randy Pausch
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre
non-fiction
Publisher
Hyperion
Publication date
April 8, 2008
Media type
Print (Hardcover and paperback)
Pages
224
ISBN
1-4013-2325-1
OCLC
183266069
LC Class
QA76.2.P38 A3 2008b
The Last Lecture is a New York Times best-selling book co-authored by Randy Pausch[1]—a professor of computer science, human-computer interaction, and design at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania—and Jeffrey Zaslow of the Wall Street Journal. The book speaks on a lecture Pausch gave in September 2007 entitled "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams".
Contents
1 Background
2 Synopsis
3 Reception
4 References
5 External links
Background[edit]
Main article: Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams
Pausch delivered his "Last Lecture", titled "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams", at Carnegie Mellon on September 18, 2007.[2] This talk was modeled after an ongoing series of lectures where top academics are asked to think deeply about what matters to them, and then give a hypothetical "final talk", i.e., "what wisdom would you try to impart to the world if you knew it was your last chance?"
A month before giving the lecture, Pausch had received a prognosis that the pancreatic cancer, with which he had been diagnosed a year earlier, was terminal. Before speaking, Pausch received a long standing ovation from a large crowd of over 400 colleagues and students. When he motioned them to sit down, saying, "Make me earn it", someone in the audience shouted back, "You did!" During the lecture Pausch was upbeat and humorous, shrugging off the pity often given to those diagnosed with terminal illness. At one point, to prove his own vitality, Pausch dropped down and did push-ups on stage.
Pausch begins by setting up the various topics being discussed. The first of three subjects, his childhood dreams, is introduced by relaying the overall premise of why he is stating his dreams, saying, "inspiration and permission to dream are huge". The second topic in "Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams" is titled "Enabling the Dreams of Others". In this section, Pausch discusses his creation of the course "Building Virtual Worlds" that involves the student development of virtual realities. Through this course, Pausch creates a program called "Alice- The Infinitely Scalable Dream Factory" because he wants tens of millions of people to chase their dreams. This software allows kids to make movies and games, giving them the opportunity to learn something hard while still having fun. He believes that "the best way to teach somebody something is to have them think that they're learning something else." For the third and final topic in his lecture, called "Lessons Learned", Dr. Pausch reiterates and introduces a few new lessons that he has learned and accumulated over his lifetime. Arguably the most meaningful point Pausch made comes at the very end of his lecture, when he states: "It's not about how to achieve your dreams, it's about how to lead your life. If you lead your life the right way, the karma will take care of itself, the dreams will come to you.”
Synopsis[edit]
The Last Lecture fleshes out Pausch's lecture and discusses everything he wanted his children to know after his pancreatic cancer had taken his life. It includes stories of his childhood, lessons he wants his children to learn, and things he wants his children to know about him. He repeatedly stresses that one should have fun in everything one does, and that one should live life to its fullest because one never knows when it might be taken.
In the book, Pausch remarks that people told him he looked like he was in perfect health, even though he was dying of cancer. He discusses finding a happy medium between denial and being overwhelmed. He also states that he would rather have cancer than be hit by a bus, because if he were hit by a bus, he would not have had the time he spent with his family nor the opportunity to prepare them for his death.
The 2012 edition of the book features a short foreword written by Jai, his widow, reflecting on the time since her husband's death.
Reception[edit]
The Last Lecture achieved commercial success. It became a New York Times bestseller in 2008, and remained on the list for 112 weeks, continuing into the summer of 2011.[3] It has been translated into 48 languages and has sold more than 5 million copies in the United States alone. There was also speculation that the book would be turned into a movie, which was personally turned down by Pausch. He commented that "there's a reason to do the book, but if it's telling the story of the lecture in the medium of film, we already have that", in a reference to the video of the lecture.[4]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Hardcover Advice list". New York Times. 2008-06-22.
Jump up ^ "Randy Pausch". University Lecture Series: Journeys. Pennsylvania 15213, United States: Carnegie Mellon University. Retrieved 2009-01-28. Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams, September 18, 2007: Randy Pausch
Jump up ^ Schuessler, Jennifer (September 19, 2010). "Hardcover Advice". The New York Times.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Craig (April 8, 2008). "Professor Pausch's life, 'Lecture' go from Web to book". USA Today.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Randy Pausch
Official site from Hyperion
Randy Pausch delivers "The Last Lecture" at Carnegie Mellon University, Sept 18, 2007 (YouTube)
Carnegie Mellon University Randy Pausch's Web Site
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Last_Lecture&oldid=800859385"
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Ross Hagen
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Ross Hagen
Born
Leland Lando Lilly
(1938-05-21)May 21, 1938
Williams, Arizona, United States
Died
May 7, 2011(2011-05-07) (aged 72)
Brentwood, Los Angeles, California, United States
Occupation
Actor, voice actor, film director, screenwriter, film producer
Ross Hagen (May 21, 1938 – May 7, 2011) was an American voice actor, actor, director, screenwriter and producer whose television acting credits included Daktari.[1] His film credits included The Hellcats in 1967 and The Sidehackers in 1969.[1] His video game credits included Red Dead Redemption and its expansion pack Undead Nightmare.
Hagen was born Leland Lando Lilly in Williams, Arizona, on May 21, 1938.[1] However, he was raised on an Oregon farm.[1] Hagen and his first wife had two children, Bob Lilly and Julie Lilly-Beloit.[1] He was married to his second wife, Claire Polan, an actress from 1963 until her death in 2003.[1] Outside of acting, Hagen also served in the United States Army.[1]
Hagen began his acting career during the 1960s. His early career included guest appearances on The Virginian and The Big Valley.[1] He was cast in the CBS television series Daktari, in 1968.[1] He portrayed a safari photographer named Bart Jason until the end of the show in 1969.[1] Hagen's other film credits included The Mini-Skirt Mob and Speedway in 1968, The Devil's 8 (1969), The Organization (1971), Angels' Wild Women (1972), Melinda (1972), Wonder Women (1973), Night Creature (1978), Angel (1984), Avenging Angel (1985) and Armed Response (1986).[1] His other credits as a director and producer have included Reel Horror, The Media Madman and Time Wars.[1]
Hagen also provided the voice of Landon Ricketts, a retired gunslinger, in the video games Red Dead Redemption and Undead Nightmare.[2] He also starred in Dinosaur Island and Fugitive Rage, both directed by Fred Olen Ray.
Death[edit]
Ross Hagen died of cancer at his home in Brentwood, Los Angeles, on May 7, 2011, at the age of 72.[1]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Passings: Ross Hagen, Joe M. Sanchez". Los Angeles Times. 2011-05-19. Retrieved 2011-05-22.
Jump up ^ "Landon Ricketts". Giant Bomb.
External links[edit]
Ross Hagen on IMDb
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
BNE: XX1301541
BNF: cb141846841 (data)
ISNI: 0000 0001 1447 060X
LCCN: n88245724
VIAF: 68033642
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ross_Hagen&oldid=833855255"
Categories:
1938 births
2011 deaths
American male television actors
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American male film actors
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Male actors from Los Angeles
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The Big Six (Ghana)
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This is the current revision of this page, as edited by 81.157.1.104 (talk) at 18:31, 6 March 2017 (→The Big Six). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this version.
Revision as of 18:31, 6 March 2017 by 81.157.1.104 (talk) (→The Big Six)
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The Big Six were six leaders of the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC), the leading political party in the British colony of the Gold Coast. They were detained by the colonial authorities in 1948 following disturbances leading to the killing of three World War II veterans. They are pictured on the front of the Ghana cedi notes.
Contents
[hide]
1 The Big Six
2 Background
2.1 AWAM boycott
2.2 Christiansborg cross-roads shooting
3 Arrest of the Big Six
4 References
5 External links
The Big Six[edit]
They were:
Ebenezer Ako-Adjei – founding member of the UGCC
Edward Akufo-Addo – founding member of the UGCC and subsequently Chief Justice of Ghana and president of Ghana
Joseph Boakye Danquah – founding member of the UGCC
Kwame Nkrumah – Prime Minister of Ghana and first president of Ghana
Emmanuel Obetsebi-Lamptey – founding member of the UGCC
William Ofori Atta – founding member of the UGCC
Background[edit]
AWAM boycott[edit]
An organized boycott of European imports took place in January 1948. The aim was to get the foreign traders known as the Association of West African Merchants (AWAM) to reduce the prices of their goods.[1] This was followed by a series of riots in early February 1948.[2] The boycotts were scheduled to end on 28 February 1948, a day that has become significant in the history of Ghana.[1] AWAM has become a term synonymous with cheating or profiteering in Ghana.
Christiansborg cross-roads shooting[edit]
On 20 February 1948, Dr. Nkrumah and Dr. J. B. Danquah met and addressed World War II veterans who had been agitating for their end-of-service benefits following World War II at the Palladium Cinema, Accra.[1] These veterans had fought with the Gold Coast Regiment of the Royal West African Frontier Force and had not been paid their gratuities on their return home.[3] Nkrumah and Danquah both gave their support and encouraged the veterans in their protest over their post-war neglect.[4]
Later on 28 February, what became known as the "Christiansborg Cross-Roads shooting" occurred. Some of the Second World War veterans marched to the Christiansborg Castle, the seat of the colonial government. They intended submitting a petition to the Governor, Sir Gerald Creasy about their poor conditions, unpaid war benefits and neglect.[3][5] Police Superintendent Colin Imray, a British police officer, ordered the veterans to disperse but they refused. He then ordered his men to open fire on the unarmed soldiers and, when they refused, opened fire himself killing three of them, namely Sergeant Cornelius Frederick Adjetey, Private Odartey Lamptey and Corporal Attipoe.[1][5] This led to another round of riots and looting in Accra, during which foreign (European and Asian) stores were looted. This went on for five days.[1][2]
Arrest of the Big Six[edit]
On the same day, following these disturbances, the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) leaders sent a cable to the Secretary of State in London.[4]
"...unless Colonial Government is changed and a new Government of the people and their Chiefs installed at the centre immediately, the conduct of masses now completely out of control with strikes threatened in Police quarters, and rank and file Police indifferent to orders of Officers, will continue and result in worse violent and irresponsible acts by uncontrolled people.
"Working Committee United Gold Coast Convention declare they are prepared and ready to take over interim Government. We ask in name of oppressed, inarticulate, misruled and misgoverned people and their Chiefs that Special Commissioner be sent out immediately to hand over Government to interim Government of Chief and People and to witness immediate calling of Constituent Assembly."
They also blamed Sir Gerald Creasy (whom they called "Crazy Creasy")[2] for the riots due to his handling of the country's problems. The Riot Act was read on 1 March 1948. A Removal Order was issued by Sir Gerald for the arrest of the six leaders of the UGCC. They were held in the remote northern part of the Gold Coast following their arrests. A commission of enquiry chaired by Mr. Brian Otwerebemah, was set up to look into the riots. Other members of the Watson commission were Dr. Keith Murray, Mr. Andrew Dalgleish and Mr. E. G. Hanrott.[1]
Following their incarceration, the nationalists have become known as the Big Six. Their popularity also increased.[5] On 8 March 1948 some teachers and students demonstrated against the detention of the Big Six. The demonstrators were dismissed. On his release, Dr. Nkrumah set up a secondary school, Ghana National College, for the dismissed staff and students.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Kosi Dedey (8 March 2007). "The "Big Six", Myth or Reality?". Feature article. Ghana Home Page. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c Allan D. Ohene (March 2002). "Ghana before Independence". Ghana General Info-History. Lion's Den Ltd. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
^ Jump up to: a b "Christianborg Crossroad Shooting Incident marked". General News of Thursday, 28 February 2008. Ghana Home Page. Retrieved 2008-02-28.
^ Jump up to: a b "Ghana is 50, UGCC is 60, too". News:Editorials. The Statesman. 26 March 2007. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Independence". History of Ghana. BusinessGhana. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
External links[edit]
Pictures of "The Big Six"
AfricaWithin.com
GhanaWeb.com
Ten Thousand Cedis note
[hide]
v
t
e
The Big Six (Ghana)
Ebenezer Ako-Adjei
Edward Akufo-Addo
J. B. Danquah
Kwame Nkrumah
Emmanuel Obetsebi-Lamptey
William Ofori Atta
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Big_Six_(Ghana)&oldid=768950757"
Categories:
1948 in Gold Coast (British colony)
History of Ghana
United Gold Coast Convention politicians
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