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Medieval India
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Outline of South Asian history
Palaeolithic (2,500,000–250,000 BC)[show]
Madrasian Culture
Soanian Culture
Neolithic (10,800–3300 BC)[show]
Bhirrana Culture (7570–6200 BC)
Mehrgarh Culture (7000–3300 BC)
Edakkal Culture (5000–3000 BC)
Chalcolithic (3500–1500 BC)[show]
Ahar-Banas Culture (3000–1500 BC)
Pandu Culture (1600–1500 BC)
Malwa Culture (1600–1300 BC)
Jorwe Culture (1400–700 BC)
Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC)[show]
Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1300 BC)
– Early Harappan Culture (3300–2600 BC)
– Mature Harappan Culture (2600–1900 BC)
– Late Harappan Culture (1900–1300 BC)
Vedic Civilisation (2000–500 BC)
– Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (2000–1600 BC)
– Swat culture (1600–500 BC)
Iron Age (1500–200 BC)[show]
Vedic Civilisation (1500–500 BC)
– Janapadas (1500–600 BC)
– Black and Red ware culture (1300–1000 BC)
– Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BC)
– Northern Black Polished Ware (700–200 BC)
Pradyota Dynasty (799–684 BC)
Haryanka Dynasty (684–424 BC)
Three Crowned Kingdoms (c. 600 BC–AD 1600)
Maha Janapadas (c. 600–300 BC)
Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)
Ror Dynasty (450 BC–AD 489)
Shishunaga Dynasty (424–345 BC)
Nanda Empire (380–321 BC)
Macedonian Empire (330–323 BC)
Maurya Empire (321–184 BC)
Seleucid India (312–303 BC)
Pandya Empire (c. 300 BC–AD 1345)
Chera Kingdom (c. 300 BC-AD 1102)
Chola Empire (c. 300 BC–AD 1279)
Pallava Empire (c. 250 BC–AD 800)
Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire (c. 250 BC–c. AD 500)
Parthian Empire (247 BC– AD 224)
Middle Kingdoms (230 BC– AD 1206)[show]
Satavahana Empire (230 BC–AD 220)
Kuninda Kingdom (200 BC–AD 300)
Mitra Dynasty (c. 150 –c. 50 BC)
Shunga Empire (185–73 BC)
Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC–AD 10)
Kanva Empire (75–26 BC)
Indo-Scythian Kingdom (50 BC–AD 400)
Indo-Parthian Kingdom (AD 21–c. 130)
Western Satrap Empire (AD 35–405 )
Kushan Empire (AD 60–240)
Bharshiva Dynasty (170–350)
Nagas of Padmavati (210–340)
Sasanian Empire (224–651)
Indo-Sassanid Kingdom (230–360)
Vakataka Empire (c. 250–c. 500)
Kalabhras Empire (c. 250–c. 600)
Gupta Empire (280–550)
Kadamba Empire (345–525)
Western Ganga Kingdom (350–1000)
Kamarupa Kingdom (350–1100)
Vishnukundina Empire (420–624)
Maitraka Empire (475–767)
Huna Kingdom (475–576)
Rai Kingdom (489–632)
Kabul Shahi Empire (c. 500–1026)
Chalukya Empire (543–753)
Maukhari Empire (c. 550–c. 700)
Harsha Empire (606–647)
Tibetan Empire (618–841)
Eastern Chalukya Kingdom (624–1075)
Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)
Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (650–1036)
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
Pala Empire (750–1174)
Rashtrakuta Empire (753–982)
Paramara Kingdom (800–1327)
Yadava Empire (850–1334)
Chaulukya Kingdom (942–1244)
Western Chalukya Empire (973–1189)
Lohara Kingdom (1003–1320)
Hoysala Empire (1040–1346)
Sena Empire (1070–1230)
Eastern Ganga Empire (1078–1434)
Kakatiya Kingdom (1083–1323)
Zamorin Kingdom (1102–1766)
Kalachuris of Tripuri (675-1210)
Kalachuris of Kalyani (1156–1184)
Chutiya Kingdom (1187–1673)
Deva Kingdom (c. 1200–c. 1300)
Late medieval period (1206–1526)[show]
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)
– Mamluk Sultanate (1206–1290)
– Khalji Sultanate (1290–1320)
– Tughlaq Sultanate (1320–1414)
– Sayyid Sultanate (1414–1451)
– Lodi Sultanate (1451–1526)
Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826)
Chitradurga Kingdom (1300–1779)
Reddy Kingdom (1325–1448)
Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646)
Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576)
Garhwal Kingdom (1358–1803)
Mysore Kingdom (1399–1947)
Gajapati Kingdom (1434–1541)
Deccan Sultanates (1490–1596)
– Ahmadnagar Sultanate (1490–1636)
– Berar Sultanate (1490–1574)
– Bidar Sultanate (1492–1619)
– Bijapur Sultanate (1492–1686)
– Golkonda Sultanate (1518–1687)
Keladi Kingdom (1499–1763)
Koch Kingdom (1515–1947)
Early modern period (1526–1858)[show]
Mughal Empire (1526–1858)
Sur Empire (1540–1556)
Madurai Kingdom (1559–1736)
Thanjavur Kingdom (1572–1918)
Bengal Subah (1576–1757)
Marava Kingdom (1600–1750)
Thondaiman Kingdom (1650–1948)
Maratha Empire (1674–1818)
Sikh Confederacy (1707–1799)
Travancore Kingdom (1729–1947)
Sikh Empire (1799–1849)
Colonial states (1510–1961)[show]
Portuguese India (1510–1961)
Dutch India (1605–1825)
Danish India (1620–1869)
French India (1759–1954)
Company Raj (1757–1858)
British Raj (1858–1947)
Periods of Sri Lanka[show]
Prehistory (Until 543 BC)
Early kingdoms period (543 BC–377 BC)
Anuradhapura period (377 BC–AD 1017)
Polonnaruwa period (1056–1232)
Transitional period (1232–1505)
Crisis of the Sixteenth Century (1505–1594)
Kandyan period (1594–1815)
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Medieval India refers to a long period of the Indian subcontinent's history between "ancient India" and "modern India". Definitions of the period itself vary widely, and partly for this reason, many historians now prefer to avoid the term completely.[1]
One definition, used in the rest of this article, includes the period from the 6th century[2] to the 16th century, essentially the same period as the Middle Ages of Europe. It may be divided into two periods: The 'early medieval period' which lasted from the 6th to the 13th century and the 'late medieval period' which lasted from the 13th to the 16th century, ending with the start of the Mughal Empire in 1526. The Mughal era, from the 16th century to the 18th century, is often referred to as the early modern period,[3] but is sometimes also included in the 'late medieval' period.
An alternative definition, often seen in those more recent authors who still use the term at all, brings the start of the medieval period forward, either to about 1,000, or to the 12th century. The end may be pushed back to the 18th century, making the period in effect that between the start of Muslim domination (at least in north India) and British India. Or the "early medieval" period is begun in the 8th century, ending with the 11th.[4]
The use of "medieval" at all as a term for periods in Indian history has often been objected to, and is probably becoming more rare (there is a similar discussion in terms of the history of China).[5] It is argued that neither the start nor the end of the period really mark fundamental changes in Indian history, comparable to the European equivalents.[6] Burton Stein still used the concept in his A History of India (1998, referring to the period from the Guptas to the Mughals), but most recent authors using it are Indian. Understandably, they often specify the period they cover within their titles.[7] The critic Peter Hardy argues that Muslim historiography on medieval India is often motivated by Islamic apologetics, which tries to justify "the life of medieval Muslims to the modern world".[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Early medieval period
2 Late medieval era
3 Early modern era
4 Notes
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Early medieval period[edit]
Main article: Middle kingdoms of India
The start of the period is typically taken to be the slow collapse of the Gupta Empire from about 480 to 550,[9] ending the "classical" period, as well as "ancient India",[10] although both these terms may be used for periods with widely different dates, especially in specialized fields such as the history of art or religion.[11] At least in north India, there was no comparably large state until perhaps the Delhi Sultanate, or certainly the Mughal Empire,[12] but there were several different dynasties ruling large areas for long periods, as well as many other dynasties ruling smaller areas, often paying some form of tribute to larger states. John Keay puts the typical number of dynasties within the subcontinent at any one time at between 20 and 40,[13] not including local rajas.
Rashtrakuta dynasty was a Kannada Royal Dynasty Ruling large parts Of the Indian subcontinent between the 6th and the 10th centuries and one who built World Heritage center Ellora, Maharashtra.
Eastern Chalukyas, 7th to 12th centuries, a South Indian kannada dynasty whose kingdom was located in the present day Andhra Pradesh they were the desendants of western Chalukyas
Pallava dynasty Important rulers of Telugu and some Tamil areas from the 6th to 9th centuries.
Pala Empire The last major Buddhist rulers, from the 8th to 12th centuries in Bengal. Briefly controlled most of north India in the 9th century.
Chola Empire, a South Indian empire which ruled from Tamil Nadu and extended to include south east Asian territories at its height. From 9th century to 13th century.
Empire of Harsha, a brief period of control of most of north India, from 601 to 647, under Harsha of the Pushyabhuti dynasty.
Western Chalukya Empire The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan and some of South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. Kannada-speaking, with capital at Badami.
Kalachuri dynasty The Kalachuri dynasty ruled areas in Central India during 10th-12th centuries.
Western Ganga dynasty was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka, often under the overlordship of larger states, from about 350 to 1000 AD. The large monolithic Bahubali of Shravanabelagola was built during their rule.
Eastern Ganga dynasty was a royal dynasty ruling Odisha region who are descendants of Kannada Western Ganga Dynasty and Tamil Chola empire. They have built famous Konark Sun Temple and Jagannath Temple, Puri.
Hoysala Empire a prominent South Indian Kannadiga empire that ruled most of the modern day state of Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur but was later moved to Halebidu.
Kakatiya Kingdom a Telugu dynasty that ruled most of current day Andhra Pradesh, India from 1083 to 1323
The Sena dynasty was a Hindu dynasty that ruled from Bengal through the 11th and 12th centuries. The empire at its peak covered much of the north-eastern region of the Indian subcontinent. The rulers of the Sena Dynasty traced their origin to the south Indian region of Karnataka.
Late medieval era[edit]
Delhi Sultanate five short-lived dynasties, based in Delhi, from 1206 to 1526, when it fell to the Mughal Empire.
Bengal Sultanate 1352 to 1576 ruled over Bengal and much of Burma
Ahom Kingdom 1228–1826, Brahmaputra valley in Assam, resisted the Mughals, eventually taken by the British
Reddy Kingdom 1325 to 1448 in Andrya Pradesh.
Seuna (Yadava) dynasty 1190-1315 as independent rulers, an old Kannada-Maratha dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Tungabhadra to the Narmada rivers, including present-day Maharashtra, north Karnataka and parts of Madhya Pradesh, from its capital at Devagiri.
Rajput States - a group of Rajput Hindu states that ruled present day Rajasthan, and at times much of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Western Uttar Pradesh and Central Uttar Pradesh. Many Rajput kingdoms continued under the Mughals and as Princely States in British India until Indian independence.
Vijayanagara Empire 1336–1646, a Hindu-kannadiga empire based in Karnataka, in the Deccan Plateau region. UNESCO World Heritage site Hampi in Karnataka destrict of Bellary was their capital city.
Gajapati Kingdom was a medieval Hindu dynasty that ruled over Kalinga (the present day Orissa)
Early modern era[edit]
The start of the Mughal Empire in 1526 marked the beginning of the early modern period of Indian history,[3] often referred to as the Mughal era. Sometimes, the Mughal era is also referred to as the 'late medieval' period.
Mughal Empire was an imperial state founded by Babar, who had Turco-Mongol origin from Central Asia. The empire ruled most of the Indian subcontinent from 16th to 18th century, though it lingered for another century, formally ending in 1857.
Maratha Empire was an imperial power based in modern-day Maharashtra in western India. Marathas replaced the Mughal rule over large parts of India in the 18th century, but lost the Anglo-Maratha Wars in the early 19th century, and became rulers of Princely States.
Kingdom of Mysore was a Kannada kingdom have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. Fully independent after the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1646, reduced in size by the British, but ruled until 1947.
Nayak dynasty group of Kannada, Telugu, Tamil kings ruled parts of south India after the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1646. Their contribution can be seen in Ikkeri, Sri ranga, Madurai, Chitradurga.
Sikh Empire[14] was a major power in the Northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, which arose under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in the Punjab region. They were usurped by the British East India Company between early and mid 19th century, following the British victory in the Anglo-Sikh wars.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Keay, 155 "... the history of what used to be called 'medieval' India ..."; Harle, 9 "I have eschewed the term 'medieval', meaningless in the Indian context, for the years from c. 950 to c. 1300 ..."
Jump up ^ Stein, Burton (27 April 2010), Arnold, D., ed., A History of India (2nd ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, p. 105, ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6
^ Jump up to: a b "India before the British: The Mughal Empire and its Rivals, 1526-1857". University of Exeter.
Jump up ^ Ahmed, xviii
Jump up ^ Keay, 155 "... the history of what used to be called 'medieval' India ..."
Jump up ^ Rowland, 273
Jump up ^ Examples: Farooqui; Radhey Shyam Chaurasia, History of Medieval India: From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D., 2002, google books; Satish Chandra, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals, 2004 (2 vols), google books; Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th century, 2008, google books
Jump up ^ A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000 By E. Sreedharan, p. 457, referencing Peter Hardy
Jump up ^ Rowland, 273; Stein, 105
Jump up ^ Not for Burjor Avari, who ends "ancient India" at 1200. Avari, 2
Jump up ^ For architecture, see Michell, 87-88. For "classical hinduism", see the note at Outline of ancient India.
Jump up ^ Keay, xxii-xxiii
Jump up ^ Keay, xx-xxi
Jump up ^ Zubair, Syed (4 November 2012). "Before India". Deccan Chronicle.
References[edit]
Avari, Burjor, India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Subcontinent from C. 7000 BCE to CE 1200, 2016 (2nd edn), Routledge, ISBN 1317236734, 9781317236733, google books
Farooqui, Salma Ahmed, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century, 2011, Pearson Education India, ISBN 8131732029, 9788131732021, google books
Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
Keay, John, India, a History, 2000, HarperCollins, ISBN 0002557177
Michell, George, (1977) The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms, 1977, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-53230-1
Rowland, Benjamin, The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, 1967 (3rd edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin, ISBN 0140561021
Further reading[edit]
Elliot and Dowson: The History of India as told by its own Historians, New Delhi reprint, 1990.
Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 – This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List)
Gommans, Jos J. L. (2002), Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500-1700, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-23989-3.
Lal, K. S. (1999). Theory and practice of Muslim state in India. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan.
Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra; Pusalker, A. D.; Majumdar, A. K., eds. (1960). The History and Culture of the Indian People. VI: The Delhi Sultanate. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra; Pusalker, A. D.; Majumdar, A. K., eds. (1973). The History and Culture of the Indian People. VII: The Mughal Empire. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
Misra, R. G. (1993). Indian resistance to early Muslim invaders up to 1206 AD. Meerut City: Anu Books.
Sarkar, Jadunath. (1997). Fall of the Mughal Empire: Vol. 1-4. Hyderabad: Orient Longman.
Sarkar, Jadunath. (1975). Studies in economic life in Mughal India. Delhi: Oriental Publishers & Distributors.; (1987). Mughal economy: Organization and working. Calcutta, India: Naya Prokash.
Srivastava, A. L. (1970). The Mughal Empire, 1526-1803 A.D. ... Seventh revised edition. Agra: Shiva Lal Agarwala & Co.
Srivastava, A. L. (1975). Medieval Indian culture. Agra: Agarwala.
Wink, André (2004). Indo-Islamic society: 14th - 15th centuries. Volume 3 of Al-Hind Series. BRILL. ISBN 9004135618. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
Wink, André (1996). Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic Worlds Vol 1. E. J. Brill. ISBN 0-391-04173-8.
Primary Sources
Babur, ., & Thackston, W. M. (2002). The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, prince and emperor. New York: Modern Library.
Muḥammad, A. K., & Pandit, K. N. (2009). A Muslim missionary in mediaeval Kashmir: Being the English translation of Tohfatu'l-ahbab.
V. S. Bhatnagar (1991). Kānhaḍade Prabandha, India's Greatest Patriotic Saga of Medieval Times: Padmanābha's Epic Account of Kānhaḍade. Aditya Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-85179-54-4.
Jain, M. The India They Saw : Foreign Accounts (4 Volumes) Delhi: Ocean Books, 2011.
External links[edit]
Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 – This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List
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Interpersonal relationship
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Relationships
Types[show]
Genetic
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Polyandry
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Polygyny
Partner · Partners
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Bonding
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Meet market
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Affinity
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Practices[show]
Bride price
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Love
Types of love[show]
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Broken heart
Compassionate love
Conjugal love
Courtly love
troubadours
Falling in love
Free love
Friendship
romantic
Interpersonal relationship
Intimacy
Limerence
Love addiction
Love at first sight
Love triangle
Loving-kindness
Lovesickness
Lovestruck
Obsessive love
Passion
Puppy love
Relationship
Self-love
Amour de soi
Unconditional love
Unrequited love
Cultural views[show]
Chinese
Ren
Greek
words for love
Agape
Eros
Philia
Platonic
Storge
Xenia
Indian
Kama
Bhakti
Islamic
Ishq
Jewish
Chesed
Latin
Amore
Charity
Romance
Related[show]
Biological basis
Love letter
Valentine's Day
Philosophy
Religious views
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An interpersonal relationship is a strong, deep, or close association or acquaintance between two or more people that may range in duration from brief to enduring. This association may be based on inference, love, solidarity, regular business interactions, or some other type of social commitment. Interpersonal relationships are formed in the context of social, cultural and other influences. The context can and may and perhaps vary from family or kinship relations, friendship, marriage, relations with associates, work, clubs, neighborhoods, and places of worship. They may be regulated by law, custom, or mutual agreement, and are the basis of social groups and society as a whole.
Contents
[hide]
1 Field of study
2 Types
3 Importance
3.1 Need to belong
3.2 Social exchange
3.3 Relational self
4 Power and dominance
5 Stages
6 Relationship satisfaction
7 Flourishing, budding, blooming, blossoming relationships
7.1 Background
7.1.1 Adult attachment and attachment theory
7.1.2 Romantic love
7.2 Theories and empirical research
7.2.1 Confucianism
7.2.2 Minding relationships
7.2.3 Theory of intertype relationships
7.2.4 Culture of appreciation
7.2.5 Capitalizing on positive events
7.2.6 The Vulnerability Stress Adaptation (VSA) Model
7.3 Other perspectives
7.4 Neurobiology of interpersonal connections
7.5 Behavioral
7.6 Applications
7.7 Controversies
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Field of study[edit]
The study of interpersonal relationships involves several branches of the social sciences, including such disciplines as sociology, communication studies, psychology, anthropology, and social work. Interpersonal skills are vital when trying to develop a relationship with another person. The scientific study of relationships evolved during the 1990s and came to be referred to as 'relationship science',[1] which distinguishes itself from anecdotal evidence or pseudo-experts by basing conclusions on data and objective analysis. Interpersonal ties are also a subject in mathematical sociology.[2]
Types[edit]
Main article: Outline of relationships § Types of relationships
Intimate relationships
Lovers
Significant other
Spouse
Family relationships
Egalitarian and Platonic friendship[3]
Enemy or frenemy
Neighbor
Business relationships
Partnership
Employer and employee
Contractor
Customer
Landlord and tenant
Official
Importance[edit]
Human beings are innately social and are shaped by their experiences with others. There are multiple perspectives to understand this inherent motivation to interact with others.
Need to belong[edit]
According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, humans need to feel love (sexual/nonsexual) and acceptance from social groups (family, peer groups). In fact, the need to belong is so innately ingrained that it may be strong enough to overcome physiological and safety needs, such as children's attachment to abusive parents or staying in abusive romantic relationships. Such examples illustrate the extent to which the psychobiological drive to belong is entrenched.
Social exchange[edit]
Another way to appreciate the importance of relationships is in terms of a reward framework. This perspective suggests that individuals engage in relations that are rewarding in both tangible and intangible ways. The concept fits into a larger theory of social exchange. This theory is based on the idea that relationships develop as a result of cost-benefit analysis. Individuals seek out rewards in interactions with others and are willing to pay a cost for said rewards. In the best-case scenario, rewards will exceed costs, producing a net gain. This can lead to "shopping around" or constantly comparing alternatives to maximize the benefits or rewards while minimizing costs.
Relational self[edit]
Relationships are also important for their ability to help individuals develop a sense of self. The relational self is the part of an individual's self-concept that consists of the feelings and beliefs that one has regarding oneself that develops based on interactions with others.[4] In other words, one's emotions and behaviors are shaped by prior relationships. Thus, relational self theory posits that prior and existing relationships influence one's emotions and behaviors in interactions with new individuals, particularly those individuals that remind him or her of others in his or her life. Studies have shown that exposure to someone who resembles a significant other activates specific self-beliefs, changing how one thinks about oneself in the moment more so than exposure to someone who does not resemble one's significant other.[5]
Power and dominance[edit]
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Power is the ability to influence the behavior of other people. When two parties have or assert unequal levels of power, one is termed "dominant" and the other "submissive". Expressions of dominance can communicate intention to assert or maintain dominance in a relationship. Being submissive can be beneficial because it saves time, emotional stress, and may avoid hostile actions such as withholding of resources, cessation of cooperation, termination of the relationship, maintaining a grudge, or even physical violence. Submission occurs in different degrees; for example, some employees may follow orders without question, whereas others might express disagreement but concede when pressed.
Groups of people can form a dominance hierarchy. For example, a hierarchical organization uses a command hierarchy for top-down management. This can reduce time wasted in conflict over unimportant decisions, prevents inconsistent decisions from harming the operations of the organization, maintain alignment of a large population of workers with the goals of the owners (which the workers might not personally share) and if promotion is based on merit, help ensure that the people with the best expertise make important decisions. This contrasts with group decision-making and systems which encourage decision-making and self-organization by front-line employees, who in some cases may have better information about customer needs or how to work efficiently. Dominance is only one aspect of organizational structure.
A power structure describes power and dominance relationships in a larger society. For example, a feudal society under a monarchy exhibits a strong dominance hierarchy in both economics and physical power, whereas dominance relationships in a society with democracy and capitalism are more complicated.
In business relationships, dominance is often associated with economic power. For example, a business may adopt a submissive attitude to customer preferences (stocking what customers want to buy) and complaints ("the customer is always right") in order to earn more money. A firm with monopoly power may be less responsive to customer complaints because it can afford to adopt a dominant position. In a business partnership a "silent partner" is one who adopts a submissive position in all aspects, but retains financial ownership and a share of the profits.
Two parties can be dominant in different areas. For example, in a friendship or romantic relationship, one person may have strong opinions about where to eat dinner, whereas the other has strong opinions about how to decorate a shared space. It could be beneficial for the party with weak preferences to be submissive in that area, because it will not make them unhappy and avoids conflict with the party that would be unhappy.
The breadwinner model is associated with gender role assignments where the male in a heterosexual marriage would be dominant in all areas.
Stages[edit]
Interpersonal relationships are dynamic systems that change continuously during their existence. Like living organisms, relationships have a beginning, a lifespan, and an end. They tend to grow and improve gradually, as people get to know each other and become closer emotionally, or they gradually deteriorate as people drift apart, move on with their lives and form new relationships with others. One of the most influential models of relationship development was proposed by psychologist George Levinger.[6] This model was formulated to describe heterosexual, adult romantic relationships, but it has been applied to other kinds of interpersonal relations as well. According to the model, the natural development of a relationship follows five stages:
Acquaintance and acquaintanceship – Becoming acquainted depends on previous relationships, physical proximity, first impressions, and a variety of other factors. If two people begin to like each other, continued interactions may lead to the next stage, but acquaintance can continue indefinitely. Another example is association.
Buildup – During this stage, people begin to trust and care about each other. The need for intimacy, compatibility and such filtering agents as common background and goals will influence whether or not interaction continues.
Continuation – This stage follows a mutual commitment to quite a strong and close long-term friendship, romantic relationship, or even marriage. It is generally a long, relatively stable period. Nevertheless, continued growth and development will occur during this time. Mutual trust is important for sustaining the relationship.
Deterioration – Not all relationships deteriorate, but those that do tend to show signs of trouble. Boredom, resentment, and dissatisfaction may occur, and individuals may communicate less and avoid self-disclosure. Loss of trust and betrayals may take place as the downward spiral continues, eventually ending the relationship. (Alternately, the participants may find some way to resolve the problems and reestablish trust and belief in others.)
Ending – The final stage marks the end of the relationship, either by breakups, death, or by spatial separation for quite some time and severing all existing ties of either friendship or romantic love.
Friendships may involve some degree of transitivity. In other words, a person may become a friend of an existing friend's friend. However, if two people have a sexual relationship with the same person, they may become competitors rather than friends. Accordingly, sexual behavior with the sexual partner of a friend may damage the friendship (see love triangle). Sexual activities between two friends tend to alter that relationship, either by "taking it to the next level" or by severing it.[citation needed]
A list of interpersonal skills includes:
Verbal communication – What we say and how we say it.
Nonverbal communication – What we communicate without words, body language is an example.
Listening skills – How we interpret both the verbal and non-verbal messages sent by others.
Negotiation – Working with others to find a mutually agreeable outcome.
Problem solving – Working with others to identify, define and solve problems.
Decision making – Exploring and analysing options to make sound decisions.
Assertiveness – Communicating our values, ideas, beliefs, opinions, needs and wants freely.
Relationship satisfaction[edit]
Social exchange theory and Rusbult's investment model shows that relationship satisfaction is based on three factors: rewards, costs, and comparison levels (Miller, 2012). Rewards refer to any aspects of the partner or relationship that are positive. Conversely, costs are the negative or unpleasant aspects of the partner or their relationship. Comparison level includes what each partner expects of the relationship. The comparison level is influenced by past relationships, and general relationship expectations they are taught by family and friends.
There is research showing that individuals in long-distance relationships, LDRs, rated their relationships as more satisfying than individuals in proximal relationship, PRs (Stafford, & Reske, 1990; Stafford, 2005). Alternatively, Holt and Stone (1988) found that long distance couples who were able to meet with their partner at least once a month had similar satisfaction levels to unmarried couples who cohabitated. Also, the relationship satisfaction was lower for members of LDRs who saw their partner less frequently than once a month. Agreeing with Holt and Stone was Guldner and Swenson (1995), who found that LDR couples reported same level of relationship satisfaction as couples in PRs, despite only seeing each other on average once every 23 days.
Social exchange theory and the investment model both theorize that relationships that are high in costs would be less satisfying than relationships that are low in costs. LDRs have a higher level of costs than PRs, therefore, one would assume that LDRs are less satisfying than PRs. As previously stated, current research shows that individuals in LDRs are actually more satisfied with their relationships compared to individuals in PRs (Stafford, 2005). This can be explained by unique aspects of the LDRs, how the individuals use relationship maintenance behaviors, and the attachment styles of the individuals in the relationships. Therefore, the costs and benefits of the relationship are subjective to the individual, and recent research implies that people in LDRs tend to report lower costs and higher rewards in their relationship compared to PRs (Stafford, 2005).
Flourishing, budding, blooming, blossoming relationships[edit]
Positive psychologists use the various terms "flourishing, budding, blooming, blossoming relationships" to describe interpersonal relationships that are not merely happy, but instead characterized by intimacy, growth, and resilience.[7] Flourishing relationships also allow a dynamic balance between focus on the intimate relationships and focus on other social relationships.
Background[edit]
While traditional psychologists specializing in close relationships have focused on relationship dysfunction, positive psychology argues that relationship health is not merely the absence of relationship dysfunction.[8] Healthy relationships are built on a foundation of secure attachment and are maintained with love and purposeful positive relationship behaviors. Additionally, healthy relationships can be made to "flourish." Positive psychologists are exploring what makes existing relationships flourish and what skills can be taught to partners to enhance their existing and future personal relationships. A social skills approach posits that individuals differ in their degree of communication skill, which has implications for their relationships. Relationships in which partners possess and enact relevant communication skills are more satisfying and stable than relationships in which partners lack appropriate communication skills.[9]
Adult attachment and attachment theory[edit]
Healthy relationships are built on a foundation of secure attachments. Adult attachment models represent an internal set of expectations and preferences regarding relationship intimacy that guide behavior.[10] Secure adult attachment, characterized by low attachment-related avoidance and anxiety, has numerous benefits. Within the context of safe, secure attachments, people can pursue optimal human functioning and flourishing.[8] This is because social acts that reinforce feelings of attachment also stimulate the release of neurotransmitters such as oxytocin and endorphin, which alleviate stress and create feelings of contentment.[11] Attachment theory can also be used as a means of explaining adult relationships.[12]
Secure attachment styles are characterized by low avoidance of intimacy and low anxiety over abandonment. Secure individuals are comfortable with intimacy and interdependence, and are usually optimistic and social in everyday life. Securely attached individuals usually use their partners for emotion regulation so they prefer to have their partners in close proximity (Conde, Figueiredo, & Bifulco, 2011; Miller, 2012). Preoccupied individuals tend to be low on avoidance of intimacy and high on anxiety about abandonment. Preoccupied people are normally uneasy and vigilant towards any threat to the relationship and tend to be needy and jealous. Dismissing individuals are low on anxiety over abandonment and high in avoidance of intimacy. Dismissing people are usually self-reliant and uninterested in intimacy, and are independent and indifferent towards acquiring romantic partners (Chopik, Edelstein, & Fraley, 2013). Fearful attachment styled individuals are high in avoidance of intimacy and high in anxiety over abandonment, which means they rarely allow themselves to be in relationships, and if they do get into one, are very anxious about losing the partner. They are very fearful of rejection, mistrustful of others, and tend to be suspicious and shy in everyday life. Attachment styles are created during childhood but can adapt and evolve to become a different attachment style based on individual experiences (Chopik et al., 2013). A bad breakup or a bad romantic situation can change someone from being in a secure attachment to insecure. On the contrary, a good romantic relationship can take a person from an avoidant attachment style to more of a secure attachment style.
Romantic love[edit]
Main article: Romantic love
The capacity for love gives depth to human relationships, brings people closer to each other physically and emotionally, and makes people think expansively about themselves and the world.[8]
Stages of romantic interpersonal relationships can also be characterized more generally by the following: attraction; initiation; development; sustaining vs. terminating.
Attraction – Premeditated or automatic, attraction can occur between acquaintances, coworkers, lovers, etc., be based on sexual arousal, intellectual stimulation, or respect. Studies have shown that attraction can be susceptible to influence based on context and externally induced arousal, with the caveat that participants be unaware of the source of their arousal. A study by Cantor, J. R., Bryant, J., & Zillmann, D. (1975), induced arousal through physical exercise and found that participants rated erotic pictures highly 4 minutes post-exercise (when no longer realized aroused by exercise) than either immediately after (when arousal and awareness were greater) or 10 minutes later (when exercise-induced arousal had dissipated). As supported by a series of studies, Zillman and colleagues showed that a preexisting state of arousal can heighten reactions to affective stimuli.[13] A classic study by Dutton & Aron (1974) showed that fear arousal from suspension bridges leads to higher attraction ratings by males of a female confederate.[14]
Initiation – There are several catalysts in the initiation of a new relationship. One commonly studied factor is physical proximity (also known as propinquity). The MIT Westgate studies famously showed that greater physical proximity between incoming students in a university residential hall led to greater relationship initiation. More specifically, only 10% of those living on opposite ends of Westgate West considered each other friends while more than 40% of those living in adjacent apartments considered each other friends.[15] The theory behind this effect is that proximity facilitates chance encounters, which lead to initiation of new relationships. This is closely related to the mere exposure effect, which states that the more an individual is exposed to a person or object, the more s/he likes it. Another important factor in the initiation of new relationships is similarity. Put simply, individuals tend to be attracted to and start new relationships with those who are similar to them. These similarities can include beliefs, rules, interests, culture, education, etc. Individuals seek relationships with like others because like others are most likely to validate shared beliefs and perspectives, thus facilitating interactions that are positive, rewarding and without conflict.
Development – Development of interpersonal relationships can be further split into committed versus non-committed romantic relationships, which have different behavioral characteristics. In a study by Miguel & Buss (2011), men and women were found to differ in a variety of mate-retention strategies depending on whether their romantic relationships were committed or not. More committed relationships by both genders were characterized by greater resource display, appearance enhancement, love and care, and verbal signs of possession. In contrast, less committed relationships by both genders were characterized by greater jealousy induction. In terms of gender differences, men used greater resource display than women, who used more appearance enhancement as a mate-retention strategy than men.[16]
Sustaining vs. terminating – After a relationship has had time to develop, it enters into a phase where it will be sustained if it is not otherwise terminated. Some important qualities of strong, enduring relationships include emotional understanding and effective communication between partners. Research has also shown that idealization of one's partner is linked to stronger interpersonal bonds. Idealization is the pattern of overestimating a romantic partner's positive virtues or underestimating a partner's negative faults in comparison to the partner's own self-evaluation. In general, individuals who idealize their romantic partners tend to report higher levels of relationship satisfaction.[17] Other research has examined the impact of joint activity on relationship quality. In particular, studies have shown that romantic partners that engage in a novel and exciting physical activity together are more likely to report higher levels of relationship satisfaction than partners that complete a mundane activity.[18]
In his triangular theory of love, psychologist Robert Sternberg theorizes that love is a mix of three components: some (1) passion, or physical attraction; (2) intimacy, or feelings of closeness; and (3) commitment, involving the decision to initiate and sustain a relationship. The presence of all three components characterizes consummate love, the most durable type of love. In addition, the presence of intimacy and passion in marital relationships predicts marital satisfaction. Also, commitment is the best predictor of relationship satisfaction, especially in long-term relationships. Positive consequences of being in love include increased self-esteem and self-efficacy.[8]
Referring to the emotion of love, Psychiatrist Daniel Casriel defined the "logic of love" as "the logic of pleasure and pain" in the concept of a "Relationship Road Map" that became the foundation of PAIRS' relationship education classes.[19]
"We are drawn to what we anticipate will be a source of pleasure and will look to avoid what we anticipate will be a source of pain. The emotion of love comes from the anticipation of pleasure."[19]
Based on Casriel's theory, sustaining feelings of love in an interpersonal relationship requires "effective communication, emotional understanding and healthy conflict resolution skills."[20]
Theories and empirical research[edit]
Confucianism[edit]
Confucianism is a study and theory of relationships especially within hierarchies.[21] Social harmony—the central goal of Confucianism—results in part from every individual knowing his or her place in the social order, and playing his or her part well. Particular duties arise from each person's particular situation in relation to others. The individual stands simultaneously in several different relationships with different people: as a junior in relation to parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to younger siblings, students, and others. Juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe their seniors reverence and seniors have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. A focus on mutuality is prevalent in East Asian cultures to this day.
Minding relationships[edit]
The mindfulness theory of relationships shows how closeness in relationships may be enhanced. Minding is the "reciprocal knowing process involving the nonstop, interrelated thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of persons in a relationship."[22] Five components of "minding" include:[8]
Knowing and being known: seeking to understand the partner
Making relationship-enhancing attributions for behaviors: giving the benefit of the doubt
Accepting and respecting: empathy and social skills
Maintaining reciprocity: active participation in relationship enhancement
Continuity in minding: persisting in mindfulness
Theory of intertype relationships[edit]
Socionics has proposed a theory of intertype relationships between psychological types based on a modified version of C.G. Jung's theory of psychological types. Communication between types is described using the concept of information metabolism proposed by Antoni Kępiński. Socionics allocates 16 types of the relations — from most attractive and comfortable up to disputed. The understanding of a nature of these relations helps to solve a number of problems of the interpersonal relations, including aspects of psychological and sexual compatibility. The researches of married couples by Aleksandr Bukalov et al., have shown that the family relations submit to the laws, which are opened by socionics. The study of socionic type allocation in casually selected married couples confirmed the main rules of the theory of intertype relations in socionics.[23][24] So, the dual relations (full addition) make 45% and the intraquadral relations make 64% of investigated couples.
Culture of appreciation[edit]
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After studying married couples for many years, psychologist John Gottman has proposed the theory of the "magic ratio" for successful marriages. The theory says that for a marriage to be successful, couples must average a ratio of five positive interactions to one negative interaction. As the ratio moves to 1:1, divorce becomes more likely.[8] Interpersonal interactions associated with negative relationships include criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling. Over time, therapy aims to turn these interpersonal strategies into more positive ones, which include complaint, appreciation, acceptance of responsibility, and self-soothing. Similarly, partners in interpersonal relationships can incorporate positive components into difficult subjects in order to avoid emotional disconnection.[25]
In addition, Martin Seligman proposes the concept of Active-Constructive Responding, which stresses the importance of practicing conscious attentive listening and feedback skills. In essence, practicing this technique aims to improve the quality of communication between members of the relationship, and in turn the gratitude expressed between said members.[26]
Capitalizing on positive events[edit]
People can capitalize on positive events in an interpersonal context to work toward flourishing relationships. People often turn to others to share their good news (termed "capitalization"). Studies show that both the act of telling others about good events and the response of the person with whom the event was shared have personal and interpersonal consequences, including increased positive emotions, subjective well-being, and self-esteem, and relationship benefits including intimacy, commitment, trust, liking, closeness, and stability.[27] Studies show that the act of communicating positive events was associated with increased positive effect and well-being (beyond the impact of the positive event itself). Other studies have found that relationships in which partners responded to "good news" communication enthusiastically were associated with higher relationship well-being.[28]
The Vulnerability Stress Adaptation (VSA) Model[edit]
The VSA is a framework for conceptualizing the dynamic processes of intimate relationships, which emphasizes the consideration of multiple dimensions of functioning, including couple members’ enduring vulnerabilities, experiences of stressful events, and adaptive processes, to account for variations in marital quality and stability over time. According to the VSA model, in order to achieve a complete understanding of relationship functioning, research must consider all functional dimensions, including enduring vulnerabilities, stress, and adaptive processes simultaneously.[29]
Other perspectives[edit]
Neurobiology of interpersonal connections[edit]
Humans are social creatures, and there is no other behavioral process that is more important than attachment. Attachment requires sensory and cognitive processing that lead to intricate motor responses. As humans, the end goal of attachment is the motivation to acquire love, which is different from other animals who just seek proximity.[30] There is an emerging body of research across multiple disciplines investigating the neurological basis of attachment and the prosocial emotions and behaviors that are the prerequisites for healthy adult relationships.[8] The social environment, mediated by attachment, influences the maturation of structures in a child's brain. This might explain how infant attachment affects adult emotional health. This continues on throughout child bearing.[31] Researchers are currently investigating the link between positive caregiver–child relationships and the development of hormone systems, such as the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis) and Oxytocinergic system. In order to accurately study the neurobiology of interpersonal connection, the behavior must fulfill three requirements. The first is that the behavior must have a noticeable onset so that researchers are able to examine the formation of the attachment bond or how it is inhibited. Second, the behavior must be selective in order differentiate it from normal social interaction. Lastly, the behavior being studied has to be testable so it can be measured and manipulated, in order to establish reliability.[30]
The mother–infant attachment – Key biological factors have emerged that can explain the motivation behind maternal caregiving behavior in humans and mammals. However, it does differ from species to species, due to that some species only exhibit maternal care postpartum, others exhibit it only slightly and some are very maternal.[30] Two main neuroendocrine systems that revolved around Oxytocin and Dopamine,[32] and another neuropeptide, prolactin are directly involved as mediators of maternal care.[30] The mother–infant bond is so complex and strong due to these biological systems, that a response to maternal separation exists. The response to separation is due to the withdrawal of several different components from behavioral and biological systems.[33] Separation anxiety, the psychological term that describes the response that occurs when an infant is separated from the mother, causes loss of those components, as seen in studies done with rats.[34]
Oxytocinergic system – Oxytocin is a peptide hormone produced in the hypothalamus that is passed through the posterior pituitary gland into the bloodstream. Oxytocin acts on the mammary glands and uterine muscles to stimulate the secretion of milk and uterine contractions during childbirth. However, it is a crucial factor in many aspects of social bonding, specifically the onset of the mother–infant attachment bond.[32] It acts on the medial preoptic area (MPOA) and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) in the brain which are critical for integration of sensory information in maternal care.[30] Oxytocin plays a key role in physical proximity and nurturing care and leads (as shown in studies with rats) the mother to go from avoiding behavior to caring for their young. Oxytocin knockout rats or injection of an oxytocin receptor antagonist will lead to neglect of the infant or pup.[32] In mammals, the development of the Oxytocinergic system has led to the basis of the mother–infant attachment.
Dopaminergic system – Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that affects behavior in not just the mother but in the offspring as well. Dopamine is essential in for reinforcing behavior that gives us pleasure because it is part of the limbic system that deals with emotion. Therefore, it is able to stimulate responsive maternal care and reinforce attachment. Understanding the dopaminergic system is important because it could make the difference between maternal neglect and nurture.[32]
Prolactin – As seen in lesion studies of rats prolactin, which is also involved in lactation, is important in encouraging maternal behavior. Decreasing the levels of prolactin or lack of the receptor of prolactin leads to inhibition of maternal care in rats.
Adult–adult pair bond formation – Oxytocin and vasopressin play a crucial part in the process of bond formation of mates. Vasopressin is a peptide hormone whose main function is to retain water in the body, and is also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Pair bonding is studied using voles and it has been found that injection of both hormones stimulates the behavioral responses needed in pair bond formation, even when mating hasn't occurred.[30] These results are also proven when injection of receptor antagonists of this hormones inhibits mating and necessary behaviors.
The ability to study the biological processes behind attachment allows scientists to be able to understand the fundamental levels to makeup a psychological construct. It provides a link between a psychological concept and it's physiological foundation.[34]
Behavioral[edit]
In interpersonal relationship those who feel secure are open with their emotional expression, those who are anxious-ambivalent don't express them and process them internally which might lead to immune system disorders, those who are avoidant direct their emotions onto others. Those who have similar coping system have a positive relationship status. Those who are open with their emotional expression with appropriateness is found to have a positive well being. Culture, personal characteristics and experiences are influencing factors in behavioral aspects of interpersonal relationship.[citation needed]
Applications[edit]
Researchers are developing an approach to couples therapy that moves partners from patterns of repeated conflict to patterns of more positive, comfortable exchanges. Goals of therapy include development of social and interpersonal skills. Expressing gratitude and sharing appreciation for a partner is the primary means for creating a positive relationship. Positive marital counseling also emphasizes mindfulness. The further study of "flourishing relationships could shape the future of premarital and marital counseling as well."[8]
Controversies[edit]
Some researchers criticize positive psychology for studying positive processes in isolation from negative processes.[35] Positive psychologists argue that positive and negative processes in relationships may be better understood as functionally independent, not as opposites of each other.[36]
See also[edit]
Interactionism
Interpersonal attraction
Interpersonal tie
Outline of relationships
Relationship status
Relationship forming
Socionics
References[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b Casriel, Daniel (1976). A Scream Away from Happiness. New York: Grosset & Dunlap. ASIN B003A1JRCI.
Jump up ^ Eisenberg, Seth; PAIRS Foundation (2007). PAIRS Essentials. Florida: PAIRS Foundation. p. 72. ISBN 0985427817.
Jump up ^ Richey, Jeff (2011). "Confucius". iep.utm.edu. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved August 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ John H. Harvey, J.H., & Pauwels, B.G. (2009). Relationship Connection: A Redux on the Role of Minding and the Quality of Feeling Special in the Enhancement of Closeness. [Eds.] Snyder, C.D., & Lopez, S.J. Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology: Second Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 385–392.
Jump up ^ Bukalov A.V., Karpenko O.B., Chykyrysova G.V.Statistics of intertype relationships in married couples
Jump up ^ Bukalov A.V., Karpenko O.B., Chykyrysova G.V.Socionics: the effective theory of the mental structure and the interpersonal relations forecasting
Jump up ^ Gottman, John (1999). The Seven Principles For Making Marriage Work. UK: Hachette. p. 288. ISBN 9781409137139.
Jump up ^ Seligman, Martin (2011). Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-being. New York: Free Press. pp. 48–51.
Jump up ^ Gable, S.L., & Reis, H.T. (2010). Good News! Capitalizing on Positive Events in an Interpersonal Context. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 195–257.
Jump up ^ Gable, S.L., Reis, H.T., Impett, E.A., Asher, E.R. (2004). What Do You Do When Things Go Right? The Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Benefits of Sharing Positive Events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 228–245.
Jump up ^ Karney, B. R., & Bradbury, T. N. (1995). The longitudinal course of marital quality and stability: A review of theory, methods, and research. Psychological bulletin, 118(1), 3. Chicago
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Insel, Thomas (February 2001). "The neurobiology of attachment". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2: 129–136. doi:10.1038/35053579.
Jump up ^ Studies show that couples report higher marital satisfaction during the first three years of child raising, but also report a decline in satisfaction after the child's fifth year (Carlson, Pilkauskas, and McLanahan).
^ Jump up to: a b c d Strathearn, L. (November 2011). "Maternal Neglect: Oxytocin, Dopamine and the Neurobiology of Attachment". Journal of Neuroendocrinology. 23: 1054–1065. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2826.2011.02228.x.
Jump up ^ , Having children is related to enjoyable interaction and the idea of expressing satisfaction toward a partner (Willén and Montgomery, 1996).
^ Jump up to: a b Hofer, Myron (April 2006). "Psychobiological Roots of Early Attachment". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 15: 84–88. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2006.00412.x.
Jump up ^ Gable, S.L., Haidt, J. (2005). "What (and Why) Is Positive Psychology?" Review of General Psychology. 9(2), 103-110.
Jump up ^ Maniaci, M.R., & Reis, H.T. (2010). The Marriage of Positive Psychology and Relationship Science: A Reply to Fincham and Beach. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 2, 47–53.
Further reading[edit]
Rowland Miller (2 September 2014). Intimate Relationships. McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0-07-786180-3.
Kipling D. Williams; Steve A. Nida (1 December 2016). Ostracism, Exclusion, and Rejection. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-315-30845-6.
Conde, A., Figueiredo, B., & Bifulco, A. (2011). Attachment style and psychological adjustment in couples. Attachment & Human Development, 13(3), 271-291.
Chopik, W. J., Edelstein, R. S., & Fraley, R. C. (2013). From the cradle to the grave: Adult attachment across the lifespan. Journal of Personality, 81, 171–183.
Guldner, G.T. & Swensen, C.H. (1995). Time spent together and relationship quality: Long distance relationships as a test case. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 12, 313-320.
Holt, P. & Stone, G. (1988). Needs, coping strategies, and coping outcomes associated with long-distance relationships. Journal of college student development, 29, 136-141.
Miller, R. (2012). Attraction In Intimate Relationships (6th ed., pp. 71–14). New York: Mc-Graw Hill.
Stafford, L. (2005). Maintaining long-distance and cross residential relationships. Mahwah, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Stafford, L., & Reske, J. (1990). Idealization and communication in long-distance premarital relationships, Family Relations, 39, 274-279.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497-529. PMID 7777651.
Hartgerink, C. H. J., van Beest, I., Wicherts, J. M., & Williams, K. D. (2015). "The ordinal effects of ostracism: a meta-analysis of 120 Cyberball studies.". PLoS One. 10 (5): e0127002. PMID 26023925. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127002. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
External links[edit]
Media related to Relationships at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of interpersonal at Wiktionary
Quotations related to Interpersonal relationship at Wikiquote
Learning materials related to interpersonal relationships at Wikiversity
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