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Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution
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The drafting of the Constitution of the United States began on May 25, 1787, when the Constitutional Convention met for the first time with a quorum at the Pennsylvania State House (now Independence Hall) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to revise the Articles of Confederation, and ended on September 17, 1787, the day the Constitution drafted by the convention's delegates to replace the Articles was adopted and signed. The ratification process for the Constitution began that day, and ended when the final state, Rhode Island, ratified it on May 29, 1790. In addition to key events during the Constitutional Convention and afterward while the Constitution was before the states for their ratification, this timeline includes important events that occurred during the run-up to the convention and during the nation's transition from government under the Articles of Confederation to government under the Constitution, and concludes with the unique ratification vote of Vermont, which at the time was a sovereign state outside the Union. The time span covered is 5 years, 9 months, from March 25, 1785 to January 10, 1791.
Contents
[hide]
1 1785
2 1786
3 1787
4 1788
5 1789
6 1790
7 1791
8 Gallery
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links
1785[edit]
March 25 • Maryland–Virginia conference convenes
Initially scheduled to assemble in Alexandria, Virginia on March 21, delegates representing the states of Maryland and Virginia gather at Mount Vernon, the Fairfax County home of George Washington, to address navigational rights in the states' common waterways.[1] Attending what later became known as the Mount Vernon Conference were: Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Thomas Stone, and Samuel Chase, from Maryland; along with George Mason, and Alexander Henderson of Virginia.[2]
March 28 • Maryland–Virginia conference concludes
Delegates approve a thirteen-point agreement, commonly known as the Mount Vernon Compact, regulating commerce, fishing, and navigation in the waters of the Potomac and Pocomoke Rivers, and Chesapeake Bay.[1] The agreement was subsequently ratified by both the Virginia and Maryland General Assemblies, becoming the nation's first interstate compact.[3][4]
1786[edit]
January 21 • Conference to address certain defects of the federal government called
Virginia General Assembly calls for an interstate convention for the purpose of discussing and developing a consensus about reversing the protectionist trade and commerce barriers existing between the various states.[5]
September 11 • Annapolis Convention convenes
Delegates representing Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia meet at George Mann's Tavern[6] in Annapolis, Maryland to discuss ways to facilitate commerce between the states and establish standard rules and regulations. Appointed delegates from Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North Carolina, and Rhode Island either arrived too late to participate or otherwise did not attend.[7] Four states: Connecticut, Georgia, Maryland and South Carolina, did not appoint delegates.
September 14 • Annapolis Convention adjourns
The convention report, sent to Congress and the legislatures of the various states, contains a request that another convention be held the following May at Philadelphia to discuss amending the Articles of Confederation.[5][6]
November 23 •
New Jersey elects delegates to the proposed constitutional convention. David Brearley, Jonathan Dayton, William Houston, William Livingston, and William Paterson will attend.[8]
December 4 •
Virginia elects delegates to the proposed constitutional convention. John Blair Jr., James Madison, Jr., George Mason, James McClurg, Edmund Randolph, George Washington, and George Wythe will attend.[8]
December 30 •
Pennsylvania elects delegates to the proposed constitutional convention. George Clymer, Thomas FitzSimons, Benjamin Franklin, Jared Ingersoll, Thomas Mifflin, Gouverneur Morris, Robert Morris, and James Wilson will attend.[8]
1787[edit]
January 6 •
North Carolina elects delegates to the proposed constitutional convention. William Blount, William Davie, Alexander Martin, Richard Dobbs Spaight, and Hugh Williamson will attend.[8]
January 17 •
New Hampshire elects delegates to the proposed Philadelphia Convention. Nicholas Gilman and John Langdon will attend.[8]
February 3 •
Delaware elects delegates to the proposed constitutional convention. Richard Bassett, Gunning Bedford, Jr., Jacob Broom, and John Dickinson, and George Read will attend.[8]
February 10 •
Georgia elects delegates to the proposed constitutional convention. Abraham Baldwin, William Few, William Houstoun, and William Pierce will attend.[8]
February 21 • Convention to discuss revisions to the Articles of Confederation called
The Congress of the Confederation calls a constitutional convention "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation and reporting to Congress and the several legislatures such alterations and provisions therein and when agreed to in Congress and confirmed by the States render the Federal Constitution adequate to the exigencies of Government and the preservation of the Union".[9]
March 3 •
Massachusetts elects delegates to the upcoming constitutional convention. Elbridge Gerry, Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King, and Caleb Strong will attend.[8]
March 6 •
New York elects delegates to the upcoming constitutional convention. Alexander Hamilton, John Lansing, Jr., and Robert Yates will attend.[8]
March 8 •
South Carolina elects delegates to the upcoming constitutional convention. Pierce Butler, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, and John Rutledge will attend.[8]
April 23 •
Maryland elects delegates to the upcoming constitutional convention. Daniel Carroll, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Luther Martin, James McHenry, and John Mercer will attend.[8]
May 5 •
A motion to send delegates to the constitutional convention fails in the Rhode Island General Assembly.[10]
South facade of Independence Hall (formerly the Pennsylvania Statehouse), Philadelphia, where the Constitution was forged
May 14 • Constitutional Convention scheduled to begin
As only a small number of delegates have arrived in Philadelphia, the convention's opening meeting is postponed for lack of a quorum.[11]
May 14 •
Connecticut elects delegates to the constitutional convention. Oliver Ellsworth, William Samuel Johnson and Roger Sherman will attend.[8]
May 17 •
A letter from "Certain Citizens of Rhode Island" is sent to the convention expressing their support for its work and their regret that not every state will be participating.[10]
May 25 • Constitutional Convention convenes
As enough delegates have gathered at the Pennsylvania State House to constitute a quorum, the constitutional convention is called to order and delegates begin their work. George Washington is elected president of the convention. William Jackson is selected as the secretary to the convention. Alexander Hamilton, Charles Pinckney and George Wythe are chosen to prepare rules for the convention.[12]
George Washington, who served as president of the 1787 Constitutional Convention
Nathaniel Gorham, who served as chairman when delegates met as a Committee of the Whole
May 29 •
Virginia Plan (also known as the Large State Plan or the Randolph Plan) for structuring the federal government is presented by Edmund Randolph.[13]
May 29 •
Pinckney Plan for structuring the federal government is presented by Charles Pinckney.[14]
May 30 •
Nathaniel Gorham is elected to serve as chairman of the Committee of the Whole.[15]
June 15 •
New Jersey Plan (also known as the Small State Plan or the Paterson Plan) for structuring the federal government is presented by William Paterson.[16]
June 18 •
Hamilton Plan (also known as the British Plan) for structuring the federal government is presented by Alexander Hamilton.[17]
July 2 •
Committee of Eleven composed of Abraham Baldwin, Gunning Bedford, William Davie, Oliver Ellsworth, Benjamin Franklin, Elbridge Gerry, Luther Martin, George Mason, John Rutledge, William Patterson, and Robert Yates, is selected to work out a compromise on the issue of representation in the two houses of the federal legislature. Committees like this one, composed of one delegate from each state represented, were established on several occasions during the convention in order to secure a breakthrough so that the deliberative process could move forward in a productive fashion.[18]
July 16 •
Committee of Eleven report, proposing proportional representation for seats in the House of Representatives based on population, equal representation for each State in the Senate, and that all money bills would originate in the House, is approved by the convention (5–4–1). This is known as the Connecticut Compromise (also known as the Great Compromise).[19]
July 24 •
Committee of Detail, composed of John Rutledge, Edmund Randolph, Nathaniel Gorham, Oliver Ellsworth, and James Wilson, is selected to write a first draft constitution reflective of the Resolutions passed by the convention up to that point.[12]
August 6 •
Committee of Detail report, proposing a twenty-three article (plus preamble) constitution is presented.[20]
August 18 •
Committee of Eleven composed of Abraham Baldwin, George Clymer, John Dickinson, Rufus King, John Langdon, William Livingston, George Mason, James McHenry, Charles C. Pinkney, Roger Sherman, and Hugh Williamson, is selected to address issues related to Federal assumption of state debts. Issues related to the militia are referred to this committee on August 20.[18]
August 22 •
Committee of Eleven composed of Abraham Baldwin, George Clymer, John Dickinson, William Johnson, Rufus King, John Langdon, William Livingston, Luther Martin, James Madison, Charles C. Pinkney, and Hugh Williamson, is selected to address issues related to federal tax and duty levying powers and also its power to regulate or prohibit the migration or importation of slaves.[18]
August 25 •
Committee of Eleven composed of Pierce Butler, Daniel Carrol, Jonathan Dayton, William Few, Thomas FitzSimons, Nathaniel Gorham, John Langdon, George Mason, George Read, Roger Sherman, and Hugh Williamson, is selected to consider issues related to interstate trade and navigation.[18]
August 31 •
Committee of Eleven (Leftover Business) composed of Abraham Baldwin, David Brearly, Pierce Butler, Daniel Carrol, John Dickinson, Nicholas Gilman, Rufus King, James Madison, Gouvernour Morris, Roger Sherman, and Hugh Williamson, is selected to settle "such parts of the Constitution as have been postponed, and such parts of Reports as have not been acted on".[12]
The convention voting record, which reflects the mutual concessions and compromises that produced the Constitution; this page records the final vote taken September 15, 1787
September 1–8 •
Committee of Eleven (Leftover Business) addresses several outstanding issues—including the method of choosing a president, the length of a presidential term of office, the president's treaty making power, and the impeachment of the president—and makes a series of reports.[18]
September 8 •
Committee of Style and Arrangement, composed of Alexander Hamilton, William Johnson, Rufus King, James Madison, and Gouverneur Morris, is selected to distill a final draft constitution from the twenty-three approved articles.[12]
September 12 •
Committee of Style and Arrangement presents the completed final draft of the Constitution to the convention for its consideration. The twenty-three articles have been reorganized into a cohesive document containing seven articles, a preamble and a closing endorsement, of which Gouverneur Morris was the primary author.[8] The committee also presented a proposed letter to accompany the constitution when delivered to Congress.[21]
September 13–14 •
The official copy of the draft Constitution is engrossed by Jacob Shallus.[22]
September 15 •
The draft Constitution receives the unanimous approval of the state delegations.[23]
Howard Chandler Christy's Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States
September 17 • Constitution signed and convention adjourns
The approved Constitution is signed by thirty-nine delegates from twelve states (all but Rhode Island). One delegate, John Dickinson, who was ill and not present, had George Read sign his name by proxy. Three delegates present declined to sign the document: Edmund Randolph, George Mason, and Elbridge Gerry. George Washington, as president of the convention, signed first. The other delegates then signed, grouped by state in strict congressional voting order. Washington, however, signed near the right margin, and so when the delegates ran out of space beneath his signature, they began a second column of signatures to the left. Jackson, the convention secretary, also signed as a witness. The convention then adjourned sine die.[6]
September 18 • Proposed Constitution published
The Pennsylvania Packet prints the first public copies of the proposed Constitution in Philadelphia.[11]
September 20 •
Proposed Constitution is received by Congress.[24]
September 27 •
First Anti-Federalist letter by "Cato" is published.[25]
September 28 •
Congress of the Confederation votes to transmit the proposed Constitution to the thirteen states for ratification.[26]
October 5 •
First Anti-Federalist letter by "Centinel" is published.[27]
October 8 •
First Anti-Federalist letter by "Federal Farmer" is published.[28]
October 18 •
First Anti-Federalist letter by "Brutus" is published.[29]
An advertisement for The Federalist, 1787, using the pseudonym "Philo-Publius"
October 27 •
First of The Federalist Papers by "Publius", Federalist No. 1, is published in The Independent Journal.[30] The planned series of essays would, the authors hoped, "give a satisfactory answer to all the [Anti-Federalist] objections which shall have made their appearance, that may seem to have any claim to your attention."[31]
November 20 •
Ratifying convention begins in Pennsylvania.[32]
December 3 •
Ratifying convention begins in Delaware.[33]
December 7 • Ratification
Delaware becomes the first state to ratify the Constitution (30–0).[34][35]
December 11 •
Ratifying convention begins in New Jersey.[36]
December 12 • Ratification
Pennsylvania becomes the second state to ratify the Constitution (46–23).[34][35]
December 18 • Ratification
New Jersey becomes the third state to ratify the Constitution (38–0).[34][35][36]
December 18 •
Pennsylvania convention Anti-Federalist minority publishes their "Dissent".[37]
December 25 •
Ratifying convention begins in Georgia.[38]
1788[edit]
January 2 • Ratification
Georgia becomes the fourth state to ratify the Constitution (26–0).[34][35]
January 3 •
Ratifying convention begins in Connecticut.[39]
January 9 • Ratification
Connecticut becomes the fifth state to ratify the Constitution (128–40).[34][35]
January 9 •
Ratifying convention begins in Massachusetts.[40]
February 6 • Ratification
Massachusetts becomes the sixth state to ratify the Constitution (187–168).[34][35] In addition to ratifying the constitution, Massachusetts requests that nineteen alterations be made to it.[41]
February 13–22 •
Ratifying convention (first session) held in New Hampshire.[42]
March 1 •
Rhode Island legislature calls for popular referendum on the proposed Constitution.[43]
March 24 •
Voters in Rhode Island vote down the Constitution (2,708–237).[43]
April 10 •
Albany Antifederal Committee publishes a circular forcefully objecting to the proposed constitution, calling the frame of government "more arbitrary and despotic than that of Great Britain."[44]
April 21 •
Ratifying convention begins in Maryland.[42]
April 28 • Ratification
Maryland becomes the seventh state to ratify the Constitution (63–11).[34][35]
May 12 •
Ratifying convention begins in South Carolina.[45]
May 23 • Ratification
South Carolina becomes the eighth state to ratify the Constitution (149–73).[34][35] In addition to ratifying the constitution, South Carolina requests that two alterations be made to it.[45]
June 2 •
Ratifying convention begins in Virginia.[42]
June 17 •
Ratifying convention begins in New York.[46]
June 18 •
Ratifying convention (second session) begins in New Hampshire.[47]
June 21 • Ratification
New Hampshire becomes the ninth state to ratify the Constitution (57–47).[34][35] In addition to ratifying the constitution, New Hampshire requests that twelve alterations be made to it.[48]
Dates the 13 states ratified the Constitution
June 21 •
Having been ratified by nine of the thirteen states, the Constitution is officially established.[49]
June 25 • Ratification
Virginia becomes the tenth state to ratify the Constitution (89–79).[34][35] In addition to ratifying the constitution, Virginia requests that 20 alterations be made to it.[50]
July 2 •
Congress President Cyrus Griffin informs Congress that New Hampshire has ratified the Constitution and notes that this is the ninth ratification transmitted to them. A committee is formed to examine all ratifications received thus far and to develop a plan for putting the new Constitution into operation.[51][52]
July 21 – August 2 •
First ratifying convention held in North Carolina. With the hope of effecting the incorporation of a bill of rights into the frame of government, delegates vote (184–84) neither to ratify nor to reject the Constitution.[53]
July 26 • Ratification
New York becomes the eleventh state to ratify the Constitution (30–27).[34][35] In addition to ratifying the constitution, New York requests that thirty-three alterations be made to it.[54]
September 13 •
Congress of the Confederation certifies that the new constitution has been duly ratified and sets date for first meeting of the new federal government and the presidential election.[51][55]
December 15, 1788 – January 10, 1789 • Presidential election held
First quadrennial presidential election under the new Constitution is held.[56]
1789[edit]
February 4 • Electoral College convenes
Presidential electors meet to cast their votes in their respective states. George Washington is unanimously elected to be the nation's first president and John Adams is elected its first vice president, receiving 34 of 69 votes cast. Only ten of the thirteen states cast electoral votes in this election. North Carolina and Rhode Island were ineligible to participate as they had not yet ratified the Constitution. The New York legislature failed to appoint its allotted electors in time, so there were no voting electors from New York.[56][57]
Federal Hall, New York City, first seat of government of the United States under the Constitution
March 4 • United States Congress convenes
The federal government begins operations under the new form of government as members of the 1st United States Congress are seated at Federal Hall in New York City. The Senate of eleven states would include 20 Federalists and two Anti-federalists (both from Virginia). The House would seat 48 Federalists and 11 Anti-federalists (from four states: Massachusetts, New York, South Carolina, and Virginia).[58] However, the initial meeting of each chamber must be adjourned due to lack of a quorum.[59]
April 1 • House of Representatives reconvenes
With a quorum being present representatives begin their work. Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania is elected Speaker of the House.[60]
April 6 • Senate reconvenes
With a quorum being present senators begin their work. John Langdon of New Hampshire is elected President pro tempore of the Senate.[61]
April 6 • Electoral votes counted
The House and Senate, meeting in joint session, certify that George Washington has been elected President of the United States and John Adams elected as Vice President.[56][62]
April 21 • John Adams assumes vice presidential duties
John Adams is sworn in as Vice President of the United States in the Senate chamber at Federal Hall in New York City.[63]
George Washington's inauguration as the first President of the United States, April 30, 1789
April 30 • George Washington assumes presidential duties
George Washington inaugurated as President of the United States at Federal Hall in New York City. Washington placed his hand upon a Bible belonging to the St. John's Lodge No. 1, A.Y.M.[64] as Chancellor of New York Robert Livingston administered the presidential oath of office.[56][65]
September 25 • Constitutional amendments proposed by Congress
Twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution are approved by the Senate, having been passed by the House on the preceding day, both without recorded vote, and sent to the states for ratification.[66] Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution December 15, 1791, and are collectively known as the Bill of Rights.[67] Article Two became part of the Constitution May 7, 1992 as the Twenty-seventh Amendment.[68] Article One is technically still pending before the states.[34]
November 16 •
Second ratifying convention begins in North Carolina.[69]
November 21 • Ratification
North Carolina becomes the twelfth state to ratify the Constitution (194–77).[34][35] In addition to ratifying the constitution, North Carolina requests that twenty-six alterations be made to it.[70]
1790[edit]
February 2 • Supreme Court of the United States convenes
The Supreme Court of the United States holds its inaugural session with a quorum present at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street in New York City, with Chief Justice John Jay presiding.[71] As set by the Judiciary Act of 1789, the Supreme Court would initially consist of a chief justice and five associate justices.[72]
March 1–6 •
Ratifying convention (first session) held in Rhode Island.[43]
May 24 •
Ratifying convention (second session) begins in Rhode Island.[43]
May 29 • Ratification
Rhode Island becomes the thirteenth and final state to ratify the Constitution (34–32).[34][35] In addition to ratifying the constitution, Rhode Island requests that twenty-one alterations be made to it.[73]
1791[edit]
January 6 •
Convention to consider joining the United States begins in Vermont.[74]
January 10 • Ratification and application
Vermont votes to ratify the Constitution and to apply for admission to the Union (105–2).[74]
Gallery[edit]
Original parchment pages of the United States Constitution
See also[edit]
America's Critical Period
Federal Procession of 1788
Founding Fathers of the United States
History of the United States (1776–89)
Republicanism in the United States
References[edit]
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Bibliography[edit]
Elliot, Jonathan (1836a). Elliot's Debates. Volume One (2nd ed.). Washington D.C.: Published under the sanction of Congress. LCCN 17007172.
Elliot, Jonathan (1836c). Elliot's Debates. Volume Three (2nd ed.). Washington D.C.: Published under the sanction of Congress. LCCN 17007172.
Elliot, Jonathan (1836d). Elliot's Debates. Volume Four (2nd ed.). Washington D.C.: Published under the sanction of Congress. LCCN 17007172.
Ferling, John (2003). A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515924-1.
Gunn, Giles B., ed. (1994). Early American Writing. New York, New York: Penguin Group. ISBN 0-14-039087-1.
Kilpatrick, James J., ed. (1961). The Constitution of the United States and Amendments Thereto. Richmond, Virginia: Virginia Commission on Constitutional Government.
Labunski, Richard (2006). James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518105-0.
Madison, James (1787) [Published by Oxford University Press, 1920]. Hund, Gaillard; Scott, James Brown, eds. "The Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 ..." – via The Avalon Project at Yale Law School, New Haven Connecticut. Missing or empty |url= (help)
Maier, Pauline (2010). Ratification: The People Debate the Constitution, 1787–1788. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-86854-7.
Millican, Edward (1990). One United People: The Federalist Papers and the National Idea. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-08131-6033-7.
Scharf, J. Thomas (1888). History of Delaware 1609–1888. Volume One. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: L. J. Richards and Company.
Smith, Page (1962). John Adams. Volume Two 1784-1826. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.
Vile, John R. (2005). The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America's Founding. Volume 1: A-M. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-669-8.
Wright Jr, Robert K.; MacGregor Jr, Morris J. (1987). "Appendix A: The Annapolis Convention". Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History. ISBN 0-16-035959-7. CMH Pub 71-25.
External links[edit]
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Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)
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For the modern country, see State of Israel. For the two split kingdoms, see Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) and Kingdom of Judah.
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Map of the Kingdom of Israel as described in the Hebrew Bible around the narrative time of David and Saul (vassal states and defeated kingdoms in red)
The United Monarchy (Hebrew: המלוכה המאוחדת) is the name given to the Israelite[note 1] kingdom of Israel and Judah,[2][3][4] during the reigns of Saul, David and Solomon, as depicted in the Hebrew Bible. This is traditionally dated between 1050 BCE and 930 BCE. On the succession of Solomon's son, Rehoboam, around 930 BCE, the biblical account reports that the country split into two kingdoms: the Kingdom of Israel (including the cities of Shechem and Samaria) in the north and the Kingdom of Judah (containing Jerusalem) in the south.
In contemporary scholarship the united monarchy is generally held to be a literary construction and not a historical reality, pointing to the lack of archaeological evidence. Some scholars argue that there is historical evidence to support its existence. It is generally accepted that a "House of David" existed, but many believe that David could have only been the monarch or chieftain of Judah, which was likely small, and that the northern kingdom was a separate development. There are some dissenters to this view.[5] [6][7][8]
Contents
1 Sources
2 Biblical narrative
2.1 Origin
2.2 Civil war
2.3 Golden Age
2.4 End
3 Biblical chronology
4 Archaeological record
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Sources[edit]
Main articles: Books of Samuel and History of Ancient Israel and Judah
According to standard source criticism, a number of distinct source texts were spliced together to produce the current Books of Samuel.[8] The most prominent in the early parts of the first book are the pro-monarchical source and the anti-monarchical source. In identifying these two sources, two separate accounts can be reconstructed. The anti-monarchical source describes Samuel as having thoroughly routed the Philistines, yet begrudgingly accepting the people's demand for a ruler, subsequently appointing Saul by cleromancy.[citation needed]
The pro-monarchical source describes the divinely appointed birth of Saul (a single word being changed by a later editor so that it referred to Samuel instead), and his leading of an army to victory over the Ammonites, resulted in the clamouring of the people for him to lead them against the Philistines, whereupon he is appointed king.[9]
Textual critics also point to disparities in the account of David's rise to power as indicative of separate threads being merged later to create a Golden Age of a united monarchy. David is thought by scholars to have been a ruler in Judah, while Israel, comparatively immense and highly developed, continued unfettered. Modern archaeology also supports this view.[6]
Most scholars believe the Books of Samuel exhibit too many anachronisms to have been a contemporary account. For example, there is mention of later armor (1 Samuel 17:4–7, 38–39; 25:13), use of camels (1 Samuel 30:17), cavalry (as distinct from chariotry) (1 Samuel 13:5, 2 Samuel 1:6), and iron picks and axes (as though they were common) (2 Samuel 12:31). The historicity of the conquest described in the Book of Samuel is not attested, and many scholars regard this conquest as legendary in origin, particularly given the lack of evidence for the battles described involving the destruction of the Canaanite peoples. Most scholars believe that Samuel was compiled in the 8th century BCE (rather than the 10th century when most of the events described take place) based on both historical and legendary sources, primarily serving to fill the gap in Israelite history after the events described in Deuteronomy. This gap in the historical record is characteristic of the Late Bronze Age collapse; cultural memories of times before the disaster often became embellished as stories of a "lost golden age", as in the Trojan Epic Cycle.[citation needed]
Biblical narrative[edit]
Origin[edit]
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According to the Book of Judges, before the rise of the united monarchy the Israelite tribes lived as a confederation under ad hoc charismatic leaders called judges. Abimelech the first judge to be declared king by the men of Shechem and the house of Millo,[10][unreliable source?] reigned over Israel for three years before he was killed during the Battle of Thebez.[11][unreliable source?]
According to the biblical account, the united monarchy was formed when there was a large popular expression in favour of introducing a king to rule over the decentralised Israelite confederacy. Increasing pressure from the Philistines and other neighboring peoples is said by the Bible to have forced the Israelites to unite as state following the anointing of Saul by Samuel. The Bible treats the notion of kingship as having been anathema, it being viewed as the placing of one man in a position of reverence and power that ought to be reserved for God.[citation needed]
Civil war[edit]
David and Saul become bitter enemies, at least from Saul's point of view, although sources describe Jonathan, Saul's son, and Michal, Saul's daughter, as assisting David to escape Saul, ultimately leading to a brief reconciliation before Saul's death.[citation needed]
According to the Second Book of Samuel, Saul's disobedience prompts God to curtail his reign and hand his kingdom over to another dynasty. Saul dies in battle against the Philistines[citation needed] after a reign of just two years.[12] His heir, Ishbaal, rules for only two years before being assassinated. David, heretofore king of Judah only, ends the conspiracy and is appointed king of Israel in Ishbaal's place. Some textual critics and biblical scholars suggest that David was actually responsible for the assassination and that David's innocence was a later invention to legitimize his actions.[13]
Israel rebels against David and appoints David's son Absalom king, forcing David into exile east of the Jordan.[citation needed] David eventually launches a successful counterattack that results in the loss of Absalom. Having retaken Judah and asserted control over Israel, David returns west of the Jordan. Throughout the remainder of his reign, he continues to suppress rebellions that arise among the people of Israel.[citation needed]
This section of the biblical text, and the bulk of the remainder of the Books of Samuel, is thought by textual critics to belong to a single large source known as the Court History of David. Although reflecting the political bias of the kingdom of Judah following the destruction of Israel, the source remains somewhat more neutral than the pro- and antimonarchical sources comprising earlier parts of the text. Israel and Judah are portrayed in this source as quite distinct kingdoms.[citation needed]
Golden Age[edit]
Prior to the ascension of Saul, the city of Shiloh is seen as the national capital, at least in the religious sense, a claim that from an archaeological standpoint is considered plausible. Throughout the monarchy of Saul, the capital is located in Gibeah. After Saul's death, Ishbaal rules over the kingdom of Israel from Mahanaim, while David establishes the capital of the kingdom of Judah in Hebron.[citation needed]
Following the civil war with Saul, David forges a strong and unified Israelite monarchy, reigning c. 1000 to 961 BCE[14] and establishing Jerusalem as his national capital in 1006 BCE.[15] Some modern archaeologists, however, believe that the two distinct cultures and geographic entities of Judah and Israel continued uninterrupted, and that if a political union between them did exist, it possibly had no practical effect on their relationship.[6]
In the biblical account, David embarks on successful military campaigns against the enemies of Judah and Israel, defeating such regional entities as the Philistines to secure his borders. Israel grows from kingdom to empire, its sphere of influence—militarily and politically—expanding to control the weaker client states of Philistia, Moab, Edom and Ammon, with Aramaean city-states Aram-Zobah and Aram-Damascus becoming vassal states.[16][unreliable source?] The imperial border is described as stretching from the Mediterranean Sea to the Arabian Desert, from the Red Sea to the Euphrates River. Some modern archaeologists believe that the area under the control of Judah and Israel, excluding the Phoenician territories on the shore of the Mediterranean, did not exceed 34,000 square kilometres (13,000 sq mi), of which the kingdom of Israel encompassed about 24,000 square kilometres (9,300 sq mi).[citation needed]
David is succeeded by his son Solomon, who obtains the throne in a somewhat disreputable manner from rival claimant Adonijah, his elder brother.[citation needed] The reign of Solomon (c. 961 to 922 BCE)[14] proves to be a period of unprecedented peace, prosperity, and cultural development. Solomon embarks on an aggressive campaign of public building, erecting the First Temple in Jerusalem with assistance from the King of Tyre, with whom he has maintained the strong alliance forged by his father.[citation needed] Like the palace of David, Solomon's temple is designed and built with the assistance of Tyrian architects, master craftsmen, skilled labourers, money, jewels, cedar, and other goods obtained in exchange for land ceded to Tyre.[citation needed]
Solomon goes on to rebuild numerous major cities, including Megiddo, Hazor, and Gezer. Some scholars have attributed aspects of archaeological remains excavated from this sites, including six-chambered gates and ashlar palaces, to this building programme. However, excavation teams at Meggido later established that these structures are from different time periods. Yigael Yadin subsequently concluded that the stables once believed to have served Solomon's vast collection of horses were actually built by King Ahab in the 9th century BCE.[17]
End[edit]
Main articles: Jeroboam's Revolt, Kingdom of Israel (Samaria), and Kingdom of Judah
Map showing the Kingdoms of Israel (blue) and Judah (orange), ancient Southern Levant borders and ancient cities such as Urmomium and Jerash. The map shows the region in the 9th century BCE.
Following Solomon's death in c. 926 BCE, tensions between the northern part of Israel containing the ten northern tribes, and the southern section dominated by Jerusalem and the southern tribes reached boiling point. When Solomon's successor Rehoboam dealt tactlessly with economic complaints of the northern tribes, in about 930 BCE (there are differences of opinion as to the actual year) the United Kingdom of Israel and Judah split into two kingdoms: the northern Kingdom of Israel, which included the cities of Shechem and Samaria, and the southern Kingdom of Judah, which contained Jerusalem; with most of the non-Israelite provinces achieving independence.[citation needed]
The Kingdom of Israel (or Northern Kingdom, or Samaria) existed as an independent state until 722 BCE when it was conquered by the Assyrian Empire, while the Kingdom of Judah (or Southern Kingdom) existed as an independent state until 586 BCE when it was conquered by the Neo-Babylonian Empire.[citation needed]
Biblical chronology[edit]
Further information: Kings of Israel and Judah
Many alternative chronologies have been suggested, and there is no ultimate consensus between the different factions and scholarly disciplines concerned with this period, as to when it is depicted as having begun or when it ended.[18][19][20]
Most bibical scholars follow either of the older chronologies established by William F. Albright or Edwin R. Thiele, or the newer chronology of Gershon Galil, all of which are shown below. All dates are BCE. Thiele's chronology generally corresponds with Galil's chronology below with a difference of at most one year.[21]
Albright/Thiele dates
Galil dates
Common/Biblical name
Regnal Name and style
Notes
House of Saul
c. 1021–1000 c. 1030–1010 Saul Shaul ben Qysh, Melekh Ysra'el Killed in battle, suicide
c. 1000 c. 1010–1008 Ishbaal
(Ish-boseth) Ishba'al ben Shaul, Melekh Ysra'el Assassinated
House of David
c. 1000–962 c. 1008–970 David Dawidh ben Yishai, Melekh Ysra’el Son-in-law of Saul, brother-in-law of Ish-boseth
c. 962–c. 922 c. 970–931 Solomon Sh'lomoh ben Dawidh, Melekh Ysra'el Son of David and Bathsheba
Archaeological record[edit]
In contemporary scholarship the united monarchy is generally held to be a literary construction and not a historical reality, due to the lack of archeological evidence for it. It is generally accepted that a "House of David" existed, but many believe that David could have only been the monarch or chieftain of Judah, and that the northern kingdom was a separate development. There are some dissenters to this view.[citation needed]
Oded Lipschits wrote in the Jewish Study Bible that
the premonarchic period long ago became a literary description of the mythological roots, the early beginnings of the nation and the way to describe the right of Israel on its land. The archeological evidence also does not support the existence of a united monarchy under David and Solomon as described in the Bible, so the rubric of "united monarchy" is best abandoned, although it remains useful for discussing how the Bible views the Israelite past.[5]
According to Israel Finkelstein and Neil Silberman, authors of The Bible Unearthed, ideas of a united monarchy are not accurate history but rather "creative expressions of a powerful religious reform movement," possibly "based on certain historical kernels."[6] Finkelstein and Silberman do accept that David and Solomon were real kings of Judah about the 10th century BCE, but they cite the fact that the earliest independent reference to the Kingdom of Israel dates to about 890 BCE, while that for the kingdom of Judah dates to about 750 BCE.[22] This is supported by Jonathan Tubb, who argues that the story of the united monarchy was fabricated as a Golden Age tale during the Exile. He accepts the historicity of David and Solomon but cautions that "[t]hey must be seen . . . as local folk heroes and not as rulers of international status."[23]
On the other hand, while Amélie Kuhrt does acknowledge that "there are no royal inscriptions from the time of the united monarchy (indeed very little written material altogether), and not a single contemporary reference to either David or Solomon," she concludes that "[a]gainst this must be set the evidence for substantial development and growth at several sites, which is plausibly related to the tenth century."[7] Kenneth Kitchen reaches a similar conclusion, arguing that "the physical archaeology of tenth-century Canaan is consistent with the former existence of a unified state on its terrain."[24]
Aerial view of Khirbet Qeiyafa.
Excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa, an Iron Age site located in Judah, found an urbanized settlement radiocarbon dated well before scholars such as Finklestein suggest urbanization began in Judah, supporting existence of a Judahite kingdom. The Israel Antiquities Authority stated: "The excavations at Khirbat Qeiyafa clearly reveal an urban society that existed in Judah already in the late eleventh century BCE. It can no longer be argued that the Kingdom of Judah developed only in the late eighth century BCE or at some other later date."[25] The techniques and interpretations used to reach some conclusions related to Khirbet Qeiyafa have been criticized by some scholars, among them Finkelstein and Alexander Fantalkin of Tel Aviv University.[26]
In August 2015, Israeli archaeologists discovered massive fortifications in the ruins of the ancient city of Gath, supposed birthplace of Goliath. The size of the fortifications show Gath to have been a very large city in the 10th century BCE, perhaps the largest in Canaan at the time. The professor leading the dig, Aren Maeir, estimated that Gath was as much as four times the size of contemporary Jerusalem, casting doubt that David's kingdom could have been as powerful as described in the Bible.[27]
See also[edit]
Canaan
Historicity of the Bible
Ir Ovot
Kings of Israel and Judah
Ancient Near East portal
Israel portal
Palestine portal
Jordan portal
Judaism portal
Bible portal
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ This article uses the term "Israelite" as defined by The Encyclopedia of the Jewish Religion:
The name . . . signifies the people composed of [Jacob's] descendants (the "children of Israel"), being applied (a) to the whole people (including Judah) . . . [but] (b) with the division of the kingdom after the death of Solomon, to the Northern Kingdom only."[1]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Werblowsky, R.J. Zwi; Wigoder, Geoffrey, eds. (1966). "Israelite". The Encyclopedia of the Jewish Religion. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. pp. 206–207.
Jump up ^ Cundall, Arthur E. (1973). "The United Monarchy: fact or fiction?" (PDF). Vox Evangelica. 8: 33–39.
Jump up ^ Harvey, Graham (1996). The True Israel: Uses of the Names Jew, Hebrew, and Israel in Ancient Jewish and Early Christian Literature. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, Inc. p. 164. ISBN 0-391-04119-3.
Jump up ^ de Vaux, O.P., Roland (1997). Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions. Translated by McHugh, John. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-4278-X.
^ Jump up to: a b Lipschits, Oded (2014). "The history of Israel in the biblical period". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi. The Jewish Study Bible (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-997846-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of its Stories. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-86912-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Kuhrt, Amélie (1995). The Ancient Near East, c. 3000-330 BC, Band 1. New York: Routledge. p. 438. ISBN 978-0-41516-762-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Wright, Jacob L. (July 2014). "David, King of Judah (not Israel)". The Bible and Interpretation.
Jump up ^ Jones, Gwilym H. (2001). "1 and 2 Samuel". In Barton, John; Muddiman, John. The Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press. pp. 197–199. ISBN 978-0-19875-500-5.
Jump up ^ "Judges 9:20". Bible Gateway. HarperCollins Christian Publishing.
Jump up ^ "2 Samuel 11:21". Bible Gateway. HarperCollins Christian Publishing.
Jump up ^ Lemaire, Andre. "King Saul." Archived 2014-05-27 at the Wayback Machine. My Jewish Learning. 27 May 2014.
Jump up ^ Stanley Jerome Isser (January 2003). The Sword of Goliath: David in Heroic Literature. BRILL. pp. 152–. ISBN 90-04-12737-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Edited by Robert G. Boling (1975). Judges (The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries). Garden City, New York: Doubleday. p. XXI. ISBN 0300139454. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "The Jewish temples: Jerusalem in the First Temple Period (1006–586 BCE)". Jewish Virtual Library. American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
Jump up ^ 2 Sam 8:1-14
Jump up ^ Finkelstein, Israel; Maza, Amihay (2007). The Quest for the Historical Israel. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. p. 102. ISBN 978-1-58983-277-0.
Jump up ^ Shanks, Hershel (2010). Ancient Israel (3rd Edition). Pearson. ISBN 0205096433.
Jump up ^ Friedman, Richard (1987). Who Wrote The Bible. HarperOne. ISBN 0060630353.
Jump up ^ Bloom, Harold (2004). The Book of J. Grove Press. ISBN 0802141919.
Jump up ^ Kenneth Kitchen, How We Know When Solomon Ruled: Israel's Kings, BAR September/October 2001
Jump up ^ Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2007). David and Solomon: In Search of the Bible's Sacred Kings and the Roots of the Western Tradition. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-416-55688-6.
Jump up ^ Tubb, Jonathan (2006). Canaanites. London: The British Museum Press. p. 115. ISBN 0-7141-2766-3.
Jump up ^ Kitchen, Kenneth (2003). On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-80280-396-2.
Jump up ^ Garfinkel, Yossi; Ganor, Sa'ar; Hasel, Michael (19 April 2012). "Journal 124: Khirbat Qeiyafa preliminary report". Hadashot Arkheologiyot: Excavations and Surveys in Israel. Israel Antiquities Authority. Archived from the original on 1 January 2018. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Finkelstein, Israel; Fantalkin, Alexander (May 2012). "Khirbet Qeiyafa: an unsensational archaeological and historical interpretation" (PDF). Tel Aviv. 39: 38–63. doi:10.1179/033443512x13226621280507. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
Jump up ^ Hasson, Nir (4 August 2015). "Philistine city of Gath a lot more powerful than thought, archaeologists suggest". Haaretz. Haaretz Daily Newspaper Ltd. Retrieved 12 June 2018.
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