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Atacama Desert
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"Atacama" redirects here. For other uses, see Atacama (disambiguation).
Coordinates: 24°30′S 69°15′W / 24.500°S 69.250°W / -24.500; -69.250
Atacama Desert
Desert
Atacama by NASA World Wind
Country
Chile
Area
105,000 km2 (40,541 sq mi)
Biome
Desert
Map of the Atacama Desert: The area most commonly defined as Atacama is yellow. In orange are the outlying arid areas of the southern Chala, Altiplano, Puna de Atacama, and Norte Chico.
The Atacama Desert (Spanish: Desierto de Atacama) is a plateau in South America, covering a 1000-km (600-mi) strip of land on the Pacific coast, west of the Andes mountains. It is the driest desert in the world, as well as the only true desert to receive less precipitation than the polar deserts.[1][2][3][4][5] According to estimates, the Atacama Desert occupies 105,000 km2 (41,000 sq mi),[6] or 128,000 km2 (49,000 sq mi) if the barren lower slopes of the Andes are included.[7] Most of the desert is composed of stony terrain, salt lakes (salares), sand, and felsic lava that flows towards the Andes.
Geographically, the aridity of the Atacama is explained by it being situated between two mountain chains (the Andes and the Chilean Coast Range) of sufficient height to prevent moisture advection from either the Pacific or the Atlantic Oceans, a two-sided rain shadow.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Setting
2 Climate
2.1 Aridity
2.2 Comparison to Mars
3 Flora
4 Fauna
5 Human presence
5.1 Chinchorro culture
5.2 Abandoned nitrate mining towns
6 Astronomical observatories
7 Other uses
7.1 Sports
7.2 Solar car racing
7.3 Tourism
8 El Tatio Geyser
9 Termas Baños de Puritama
10 Gallery
11 Protected areas
12 Legends
13 See also
14 References
14.1 Notes
14.2 Bibliography
15 External links
Setting[edit]
See also: Andean orogeny and Arid Diagonal
According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the Atacama Desert ecoregion occupies a continuous strip for nearly 1,600 km along the narrow coast of the northern third of Chile, from near Arica (18°24'S) southward to near La Serena (29°55'S).[9] The National Geographic Society considers the coastal area of southern Peru to be part of the Atacama Desert[10][11] and also includes the deserts south of the Ica Region in Peru.
Peru borders it on the north and the Chilean Matorral ecoregion borders it on the south. To the east lies the less arid Central Andean dry puna ecoregion. The drier portion of this ecoregion is located south of the Loa River between the parallel Sierra Vicuña Mackenna and Cordillera Domeyko. To the north of the Loa lies the Pampa del Tamarugal.
The Coastal Cliff of northern Chile west of the Chilean Coast Range is the main topographical feature of the coast.[12] The geomorphology of the Atacama Desert has been characterized as a low-relief bench "similar to a giant uplifted terrace" by Armijo and co-workers.[13] The intermediate depression (or Central Valley) forms a series of endorheic basins in much of Atacama Desert south of latitude 19°30'S. North of this latitude, the intermediate depression drains into the Pacific Ocean.[14]
Climate[edit]
Snow in Paranal Observatory at 2,600 masl[15]
Although the almost total lack of precipitation is the most prominent characteristic of the Atacama Desert, exceptions may occur. In July 2011, an extreme Antarctic cold front broke through the rain shadow, bringing 80 cm (31 in) of snow to the plateau, stranding residents across the region, particularly in Bolivia, where many drivers became stuck in snow drifts and emergency crews became overtaxed with a large number of rescue calls.[16]
In 2012, the altiplano winter brought floods to San Pedro de Atacama.[17][18]
On 25 March 2015, heavy rainfall affected the southern part of the Atacama Desert.[19][20] Resulting floods triggered mudflows that affected the cities of Copiapo, Tierra Amarilla, Chanaral, and Diego de Almagro, causing the deaths of more than 100 people.
Aridity[edit]
A flat area of the Atacama Desert between Antofagasta and Taltal
The Atacama Desert is commonly known as the driest nonpolar place in the world, especially the surroundings of the abandoned Yungay town[21] (in Antofagasta Region, Chile).[22] The average rainfall is about 15 mm (0.6 in) per year,[23] although some locations, such as Arica and Iquique, receive 1 to 3 mm (0.04 to 0.12 in) in a year.[24] Moreover, some weather stations in the Atacama have never received rain. Periods up to four years have been registered with no rainfall in the central sector, delimited by the cities of Antofagasta, Calama, and Copiapó, in Chile.[1] Evidence suggests that the Atacama may not have had any significant rainfall from 1570 to 1971.[6]
Wild donkey in the Atacama desert
The Atacama Desert may be the oldest desert on earth, and has experienced extreme hyperaridity for at least 3 million years, making it the oldest continuously arid region on earth. The long history of aridity raises the possibility that supergene mineralisation, under the appropriate conditions, can form in arid environments, instead of requiring humid conditions.[25] Geological research suggests that in some sections of the Atacama Desert, such as in today's Chile, hyperaridity has persisted for the last 200 million years (since the Triassic), competing only with Africa's Namib Desert for such a title.
The Atacama is so arid that many mountains higher than 6,000 m (20,000 ft) are completely free of glaciers. Only the highest peaks (such as Ojos del Salado, Monte Pissis, and Llullaillaco) have some permanent snow coverage.
The southern part of the desert, between 25 and 27°S, may have been glacier-free throughout the Quaternary (including during glaciations), though permafrost extends down to an altitude of 4,400 m (14,400 ft) and is continuous above 5,600 m (18,400 ft). Studies by a group of British scientists have suggested that some river beds have been dry for 120,000 years.[26] However, some locations in the Atacama receive a marine fog known locally as the camanchaca, providing sufficient moisture for hypolithic algae, lichens, and even some cacti—the genus Copiapoa is notable among these.
Geographically, the aridity of the Atacama is explained by it being situated between two mountain chains (the Andes and the Chilean Coast Range) of sufficient height to prevent moisture advection from either the Pacific or the Atlantic Oceans, a two-sided rain shadow.[8]
Comparison to Mars[edit]
The lack of humidity, rain, and light pollution together produce a dusty, rocky landscape.[27]
In a region about 100 km (60 mi) south of Antofagasta, which averages 3,000 m (10,000 ft) in elevation, the soil has been compared to that of Mars. Owing to its otherworldly appearance, the Atacama has been used as a location for filming Mars scenes, most notably in the television series Space Odyssey: Voyage to the Planets.
In 2003, a team of researchers published a report in which they duplicated the tests used by the Viking 1 and Viking 2 Mars landers to detect life, and were unable to detect any signs in Atacama Desert soil in the region of Yungay.[28] The region may be unique on Earth in this regard, and is being used by NASA to test instruments for future Mars missions. The team duplicated the Viking tests in Mars-like Earth environments and found that they missed present signs of life in soil samples from Antarctic dry valleys, the Atacama Desert of Chile and Peru, and other locales. However, in 2014, a new hyperarid site was reported, María Elena South, which was much drier than Yungay, and thus, a better Mars-like environment.[29]
Towards Atacama, near the deserted coast, you see a land without men, where there is not a bird, not a beast, nor a tree, nor any vegetation.
“
”
La Araucana by Alonso de Ercilla, 1569[30]
In 2008, the Phoenix Mars Lander detected perchlorates on the surface of Mars at the same site where water was first discovered.[31] Perchlorates are also found in the Atacama and associated nitrate deposits have contained organics, leading to speculation that signs of life on Mars are not incompatible with perchlorates. The Atacama is also a testing site for the NASA-funded Earth–Mars Cave Detection Program.[32]
Flora[edit]
Rare rainfall events cause the flowering desert phenomenon in the southern Atacama Desert.
In spite of the geographic and climatic conditions of the desert, a rich variety of flora has evolved there. Over 500 species have been gathered within the border of this desert. These species are characterized by their extraordinary ability to adapt to this extreme environment.[33] Most common species are the herbs and flowers such as thyme, llareta, and saltgrass (Distichlis spicata), and where humidity is sufficient, trees such as the chañar (Geoffroea decorticans), the pimiento tree, and the leafy algarrobo (Prosopis chilensis).
Vegetation in Pan de Azúcar National Park on the coast of the Atacama Desert
The llareta is one of the highest-growing wood species in the world. It is found at altitudes between 3,000 and 5,000 m (9,800 and 16,400 ft). Its dense form is similar to a pillow some 3 to 4 m (9.8 to 13.1 ft) thick. It concentrates and retains the heat from the day to cope with low evening temperatures. The growth rate of the llareta has been recently estimated at about 1.5 cm per year, making many llaretas over 3,000 years old. It produces a much-prized resin, which the mining industry once harvested indiscriminately as fuel, making this plant endangered.
The desert is also home to cacti, succulents, and other plants that thrive in a dry climate. Cactus species here include the candelabro (Browningia candelaris) and cardon (Echinopsis atacamensis), which can reach a height of 7 m (23 ft) and a diameter of 70 cm (28 in).
The Atacama Desert flowering (Spanish: desierto florido) can be seen from September to November in years with sufficient precipitation, as happened in 2015.[19][20]
Fauna[edit]
Andean flamingos in Salar de Atacama
The climate of the Atacama Desert limits the number of animals living permanently in this extreme ecosystem. Some parts of the desert are so arid, no plant or animal life can survive. Outside of these extreme areas, sand-colored grasshoppers blend with pebbles on the desert floor, and beetles and their larvae provide a valuable food source in the lomas (hills). Desert wasps and butterflies can be found during the warm and humid season, especially on the lomas. Red scorpions also live in the desert.
Liolaemus nitidus, a lizard native to the southern reaches of the Atacama Desert
A unique environment is provided by some lomas, where the fog from the ocean provides enough moisture for seasonal plants and a few animal species. Surprisingly few reptile species inhabit the desert and even fewer amphibian species. Chaunus atacamensis, the Vallenar toad or Atacama toad, lives on the lomas, where it lays eggs in permanent ponds or streams. Iguanas and lava lizards inhabit parts of the desert, while salt flat lizards, Liolaemus, live in the dry areas bordering the ocean.[34] One species, Liolaemus fabiani, is endemic to the Salar de Atacama, the Atacama salt flat.[35]
Birds are probably the largest animal group in the Atacama. Humboldt penguins live year-round along the coast, nesting in desert cliffs overlooking the ocean. On salt flats both near the Pacific and inland, Andean flamingos flock to eat algae. Other birds (including species of hummingbirds and sparrows) visit the lomas seasonally to feed on insects, nectar, seeds, and flowers. The lomas help sustain several threatened species, such as the endangered Chilean woodstar.
Because of the desert's extreme aridity, only a few specially adapted mammal species live in the Atacama, such as Darwin's leaf-eared mouse. The less arid parts of the desert are inhabited by the South American gray fox and the viscacha (a relative of the chinchilla). Larger animals, such as guanacos and vicuñas, graze in areas where grass grows, mainly because it is seasonally irrigated by melted snow. Vicuñas need to remain near a steady water supply, while guanacos can roam into more arid areas and survive longer without fresh water. Seals and sea lions often gather along the coast.
Human presence[edit]
View of Chuquicamata, a large, state-owned copper mine
The Atacama is sparsely populated, with most towns located along the Pacific coast.[36] In interior areas, oases and some valleys have been populated for millennia and were the location of the most advanced pre-Columbian societies found in Chile.
Chinchorro culture[edit]
Main article: Chinchorro culture
The Chinchorro culture developed in the Atacama Desert area from 7,000 to 1,500 BCE. These peoples were sedentary fishermen inhabiting mostly coastal areas. Their presence is found from today's towns of Ilo, in southern Peru, to Antofagasta in northern Chile. Presence of fresh water in the arid region on the coast facilitated human settlement in these areas. The Chinchorro were famous for their detailed mummification and funerary practices.[37]
In later times, the Atacama oases experienced little population growth and urban development. During the 20th century, they have had conflicts over water resources with the coastal cities and the mining industry.
San Pedro de Atacama, at about 2,400 m (8,000 ft) elevation, is like many of the small towns. Before the Inca empire and prior to the arrival of the Spanish, the extremely arid interior was inhabited primarily by the Atacameño tribe. They are noted for building fortified towns called pucarás, one of which is located a few kilometers from San Pedro de Atacama. The town's church was built by the Spanish in 1577.
The coastal cities originated in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries during the time of the Spanish Empire, when they emerged as shipping ports for silver produced in Potosí and other mining centers. During the 19th century, the desert came under control of Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. With the discovery of sodium nitrate deposits and as a result of unclear borders, the area soon became a zone of conflict and resulted in the War of the Pacific. Chile annexed most of the desert, and cities along the coast developed into international ports, hosting many Chilean workers who migrated there.[38][39][40]
With the guano and saltpeter booms of the 19th century, the population grew immensely, mostly as a result of immigration from central Chile. In the 20th century, the nitrate industry declined and at the same time, the largely male population of the desert became increasingly problematic for the Chilean state. Miners and mining companies came into conflict, and protests spread throughout the region.
Abandoned nitrate mining towns[edit]
Main article: List of saltpeter works in Tarapacá and Antofagasta
The desert has rich deposits of copper and other minerals and the world's largest natural supply of sodium nitrate, which was mined on a large scale until the early 1940s. The Atacama border dispute over these resources between Chile and Bolivia began in the 19th century and resulted in the War of the Pacific.[citation needed]
The desert is littered with about 170 abandoned nitrate (or "saltpeter") mining towns, almost all of which were shut down decades after the invention of synthetic nitrate in Germany at the turn of the 20th century (see Haber process).[citation needed] The towns include Chacabuco, Humberstone, Santa Laura, Pedro de Valdivia, Puelma, María Elena, and Oficina Anita.[citation needed]
The Atacama Desert is rich in metallic mineral resources such as copper, gold, silver and iron, as well as nonmetallic minerals including important deposits of boron, lithium, sodium nitrate, and potassium salts. The Salar de Atacama is where bischofite is extracted.[citation needed] These resources are exploited by various mining companies such as Codelco, Lomas Bayas, Mantos Blancos, and Soquimich.[41][42]
Astronomical observatories[edit]
ALMA and the center of the Milky Way[43]
Because of its high altitude, nearly nonexistent cloud cover, dry air, and lack of light pollution and radio interference from widely populated cities and towns, this desert is one of the best places in the world to conduct astronomical observations.[44][45] The European Southern Observatory operates two major observatories in the Atacama:
La Silla Observatory
Paranal Observatory, which includes the Very Large Telescope
A new radio astronomy telescope, called the Atacama Large Millimeter Array, built by European countries, Japan, the United States, Canada, and Chile in the Llano de Chajnantor Observatory officially opened on 3 October 2011.[46] A number of radio astronomy projects, such as the CBI, the ASTE and the ACT, among others, have been operating in the Chajnantor area since 1999.
Other uses[edit]
Sports[edit]
The Atacama Desert is popular with all-terrain sports enthusiasts. Various championships have taken place here, including the Lower Atacama Rally, Lower Chile Rally, Patagonia-Atacama Rally, and the latter Dakar Rally's editions. The rally was organized by the Amaury Sport Organisation and held in 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012. The dunes of the desert are ideal rally races located in the outskirts of the city of Copiapó.[47] The 2013 Dakar 15-Day Rally started on 5 January in Lima, Peru, through Chile, Argentina and back to Chile finishing in Santiago.[48] Visitors also use the Atacama Desert sand dunes for sandboarding (Spanish: duna).
A week-long foot race called the Atacama Crossing has the competitors cross the various landscapes of the Atacama.[49]
An event called Volcano Marathon takes place near the Lascar volcano in the Atacama Desert.[50]
Solar car racing[edit]
Eighteen solar powered cars were displayed in front of the presidential palace (La Moneda) in Santiago in November 2012.[51] The cars were then raced 1,300 km (810 mi) through the desert from 15–19 November 2012.[52]
Tourism[edit]
Most people who go to tour the sites in the desert stay in the town of San Pedro de Atacama.[53] The Atacama Desert is in the top three tourist locations in Chile. The specially commissioned ESO hotel is reserved for astronomers.[54]
El Tatio Geyser[edit]
Main article: El Tatio
About 80 geysers occur in a valley about 80 km from the town of San Pedro de Atacama. They are closer to the town of Chiu Chiu.[55]
Termas Baños de Puritama[edit]
The Baños de Puritama are rock pools which are 37 miles from the geysers.[56]
Gallery[edit]
"Icy Penitents by Moonlight"
Valle de la Luna, near San Pedro de Atacama
Laguna Verde
Valley in Atacama
Vista before sunset.
Chajnantor Plateau in the Chilean Andes, home to the ESO/NAOJ/NRAO ALMA
Salt evaporation ponds in the Atacama Desert
Paranal Observatory
Flowering desert
Llamas
Valley of Death
Machuca chapel
Protected areas[edit]
Pan de Azúcar National Park
Pampa del Tamarugal National Reserve
La Chimba National Reserve
Legends[edit]
Alicanto
Atacama Giant
See also[edit]
Puna de Atacama
Norte Grande, Chile
2010 Copiapó mining accident
Atacama border dispute
Salar de Atacama
List of deserts by area
Llano de Chajnantor Observatory
Transverse Valleys
Mano del Desierto
Pulpería
The asteroid 18725 Atacama has been named after the Atacama Desert.
Paposo
Lomas
Camanchaca
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
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Bibliography[edit]
Braudel, Fernand (1984) [1979]. The perspective of the world. Civilization and Capitalism. 3. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08116-1. OCLC 505033669.
Sagaris, Lake (2000). Bone and dream: into the world's driest desert. Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf Canada. ISBN 978-0-676-97223-8. OCLC 57692400.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Atacama Desert.
"Mars-like Soils in the Atacama Desert, Chile, and the Dry Limit of Microbial Life", NASA press release
"Roving robot finds desert life", article in Nature
"A Lady in the Atacama Desert, from the travel blog A Lady in London
Detailed article issued by the Geological Society of America on the history of aridity of the Atacama Desert
Atacama Desert Photo Gallery, photos of many different landscapes, flora and fauna of the Atacama Desert
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atacama_Desert&oldid=832417654"
Categories:
Atacama Desert
Deserts of Chile
Deserts and xeric shrublands
Ecoregions of Chile
Dunes of South America
Ergs
Geography of Atacama Region
Plateaus of Chile
Landforms of Atacama Region
Natural regions of South America
Regions of Chile
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