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Small Business Administration
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Small Business Administration
Seal of the SBA
Logo of the SBA
Agency overview
Formed
July 30, 1953
Preceding agency
Small Defense Plants Administration, Reconstruction Finance Corporation
Jurisdiction
Federal government of the United States
Headquarters
409 Third Street, SW, Washington, D.C.
Employees
3,293 (2015)[1]
Annual budget
$710 million USD (2015)[2]
Agency executives
Linda McMahon, Administrator
Althea Coetzee, Deputy Administrator
Website
sba.gov
The Small Business Administration (SBA) is a United States government agency that provides support to entrepreneurs and small businesses. The mission of the Small Business Administration is "to maintain and strengthen the nation's economy by enabling the establishment and viability of small businesses and by assisting in the economic recovery of communities after disasters". The agency's activities are summarized as the "3 Cs" of capital, contracts and counseling.[3]
SBA loans are made through banks, credit unions and other lenders who partner with the SBA. The SBA provides a government-backed guarantee on part of the loan. Under the Recovery Act and the Small Business Jobs Act, SBA loans were enhanced to provide up to a 90 percent guarantee in order to strengthen access to capital for small businesses after credit froze in 2008. The agency had record lending volumes in late 2010.[4]
SBA helps lead the federal government's efforts to deliver 23 percent of prime federal contracts to small businesses. Small business contracting programs include efforts to ensure that certain federal contracts reach woman-owned and service-disabled veteran-owned small businesses as well as businesses participating in programs such as 8(a) and HUBZone.[5]
SBA has at least one office in each U.S. state. In addition, the agency provides grants to support counseling partners, including approximately 900 Small Business Development Centers (often located at colleges and universities), 110 Women's Business Centers, and SCORE, a volunteer mentor corps of retired and experienced business leaders with approximately 350 chapters. These counseling services provide services to over 1 million entrepreneurs and small business owners annually. President Obama announced in January 2012 that he would elevate the SBA into the Cabinet, a position it last held during the Clinton administration,[6] thus making the Administrator of the Small Business Administration a cabinet-level position.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Organizational structure
3 Lending programs
3.1 Loan Guarantee Program
3.2 504 Fixed Asset Financing Program
3.3 MicroLoan Program
3.4 Disaster Loan Program
4 Entrepreneurial development programs
4.1 Small Business Development Centers
4.2 Women's Business Centers
4.3 SCORE
4.4 Veteran Business Outreach Centers (VBOC)
4.5 Innovation and Strategic Initiatives
5 Federal contracting and business development programs
5.1 8(a) Business Development Program
5.2 HUBZone
6 SBA loan industry
7 Small Business Investment Companies
8 Criticism
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
History[edit]
The SBA was created on July 30, 1953, by President Eisenhower with the signing of the Small Business Act, currently codified at 15 U.S.C. ch. 14A. The Small Business Act was originally enacted as the "Small Business Act of 1953" in Title II (67 Stat. 232) of Pub.L. 83–163 (ch. 282, 67 Stat. 230, July 30, 1953); The "Reconstruction Finance Corporation Liquidation Act" was Title I, which abolished the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC). The Small Business Act Amendments of 1958 (Pub.L. 85–536, 72 Stat. 384, enacted July 18, 1958) withdrew Title II as part of that act and made it a separate act to be known as the "Small Business Act". Its function was and is to "aid, counsel, assist and protect, insofar as is possible, the interests of small business concerns".
The SBA has survived a number of threats to its existence. In 1996, the Republican-controlled House of Representatives planned to eliminate the agency.[7] It survived and went on to receive a record high budget in 2000.[8] Renewed efforts by the Bush Administration to end the SBA loan program met congressional resistance, although the SBA's budget was repeatedly cut, and in 2004 certain expenditures were frozen. The Obama Administration has supported the SBA budget. Significant supplemental appropriations for the agency strengthened SBA lending through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 and the Small Business Jobs Act of 2010.[9]
Organizational structure[edit]
The SBA has an Administrator and a Deputy Administrator. It has an associate administrator or director for the following offices:[10]
Business Development
Capital Access
Communications and Public Liaison
Congressional and Legislative Affairs
Credit Risk Management
Disaster Assistance
Entrepreneurial Development
Entrepreneurship Education
Equal Employment Opportunity and Civil Rights Compliance
Faith Based and Neighborhood Partnerships
Field Operations
Government Contracting and Business Development
Hearings and Appeals
HUBZone Program
International Trade
Investment and Innovation
Management and Administration
Native American Affairs
Performance Management
Small Business Development Centers
Veterans Business Development
Women's Business Ownership
Senate-confirmed appointees include: Administrator, Deputy Administrator, Chief Counsel for Advocacy, and Inspector General.
Lending programs[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The most visible elements of the SBA are the loan programs it administers. The SBA does not provide grants or direct loans with the exception of Disaster Relief Loans. Instead, the SBA guarantees against default certain portions of business loans made by banks and other lenders that conform to its guidelines.
The primary use of the programs is to make loans for longer repayment periods based in part upon looser underwriting criteria than normal commercial business loans, though these programs can enable owners with bad credit to receive a loan. A business can qualify for the loan even if the yearly payment approximates previous year's profit. Most banks want annual payment for loans no more than two-thirds (2/3) of prior year's operating profits. Lower payments, longer terms and loosened criteria allow some businesses to borrow more money than otherwise.
One of the most popular uses of SBA loans is commercial mortgages on buildings occupied or to be occupied by small business. These programs are beneficial to small business because most bank programs frequently require larger down payments and/or have repayment terms requiring borrowers refinance every five years. They can be beneficial to the bank in that banks can reduce risk by taking a first-lien position for a smaller percentage of the project, then arranging for a SBA Certified Development Company to finance the remainder through a second-lien position.
Loan Guarantee Program[edit]
The 7(a) Loan Guarantee Program is designed to help entrepreneurs start or expand their small businesses. The program makes capital available to small businesses through bank and non-bank lending institutions.[11] The Small Business Jobs Act of 2010 increased the maximum size of these loans, indefinitely, from $2 million to $5 million.
504 Fixed Asset Financing Program[edit]
The 504 Fixed Asset Financing Program is administered through non-profit Certified Development Companies throughout the country. This program provides funding for the purchase or construction of real estate and/or the purchase of business equipment/machinery. Of the total project costs, a lender must provide 50% of the financing, a Certified Development Company provides up to 40% of the financing through a 100% SBA-guaranteed debenture, and the applicant provides approximately 10% of the financing. Thorough due diligence of properties purchased through this program is required. Specific SBA Level I Environmental Site Assessment guidelines apply as all properties are treated as "high risk." The Small Business Jobs Act permanently increased the maximum size of these loans from $2 million to $5 million ($5.5 million for manufacturers).
MicroLoan Program[edit]
The Small Business Jobs Act increased the maximum amount of SBA microloans from $35,000 to $50,000. These are offered through non-profit microloan financial intermediaries.
Disaster Loan Program[edit]
SBA opens Disaster Loan Center in Austell, GA, October 26, 2009
Homeowners and renters are eligible for long-term, low-interest loans to rebuild or repair a damaged property to pre-disaster condition.[12] Before making a loan, the SBA must establish the cost of repairing or rebuilding the structure (determined by SBA's Field Inspectors who visit the property), applicant's repayment ability (determined by applicant's creditworthiness and income) and whether the applicant can secure credit in the commercial market (called the credit elsewhere test). Applicants who do not qualify for disaster assistance loans are referred to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for grants. Although SBA won’t decline a loan for lack of collateral, the agency is statutorily required to collateralize whatever assets are available including the damaged property, a second home or other real estate.
Businesses are also eligible for long-term, low-interest loans to recover from declared disasters.[13] Similar to the homeowner's loan program mentioned above, small business owners pledge any available assets and acquire a similar pledge from a spouse or partner in the case of shared assets. If defaulting on the debt, the spouse or partner must surrender their value in the assets. The total value of an applicant’s assets is not considered by the SBA; therefore, a company may be approved for a loan regardless of whether that entity has little or substantial net worth.
Once an SBA loan is approved, the SBA mails closing documents to the applicant for signature. Disbursements include an initial unsecured amount of $25,000 (See latest fact sheet), and subsequent disbursements depending upon construction progress and continued insurance coverage. After final disbursement, the loan is transferred to one of the SBA's servicing offices for management, or to its collections office in the case of default.
Disaster Relief Loans are often approved within 21 days. However, after Hurricane Katrina the SBA processed applications, on average, in about 74 days.[14]
If a business with a Disaster Relief Loan defaults on the loan, and the business is closed, the SBA will pursue the business owner to liquidate all personal assets, to satisfy an outstanding balance. The IRS will withhold any tax refund expected by the former business owner and apply the amount toward the loan balance.
Entrepreneurial development programs[edit]
Small Business Development Centers[edit]
Approximately 900 Small Business Development Center sites are funded through a combination of state and SBA support in the form of matching grants. Typically, SBDCs are co-located at community colleges, state universities, and/or other entrepreneurial hubs. Cole Browne leads the SBA in purchasing of new Development Center sites.
Women's Business Centers[edit]
Women's Business Centers (WBCs) represent a national network of over 100 non-profit educational centers throughout the United States and its territories, funded in part through SBA support.[15] The maximum SBA grant for a WBC is $150,000 per year, although most centers receive less.[15] WBCs are required to provide non-federal matching funds of 50% of the grant in the first two years and 100% thereafter.
WBCs are designed to assist women in starting and growing small businesses, though their services are available to all.[16] WBCs help women succeed in business by providing training, mentoring, business development, and financing opportunities to over 100,000 women entrepreneurs annually across the nation.[15] Women’s Business Centers are mandated to serve a significant number of socially and economically disadvantaged individuals.[16]
Research conducted by the Association of Women’s Business Centers indicates that 64% of WBC clients in 2012 were low-income, 39% were persons of color, and 70% were nascent businesses.[17] WBC services are provided in more than 35 languages, with 64% of WBCs providing services in two or more languages. In addition to business training services, 68% of WBCs provide mentoring services, and 45% provide microloans.[17]
SCORE[edit]
SCORE, the nation’s largest network of volunteer, expert business mentors, was founded in 1964[18] as a resource partner of the U.S. Small Business Administration. SCORE has since educated more than 10 million current and aspiring U.S. small business owners through its free mentoring and free and low-cost workshops[18]. In 2016, SCORE’s more than 10,000 volunteer mentors helped their 125,000 clients create 54,072 small businesses, adding 78,691 non-owner jobs to the U.S. economy[18].
SCORE’s core service offering is its mentoring program, through which volunteer mentors (all experienced in entrepreneurship and related areas of expertise) provide free counsel to small business clients. Mentors, operating out of 300 chapters nationwide[18], work with their clients to address issues related to starting and growing a business, including writing business plans, developing products, conceiving marketing strategies, hiring staff, and more. Clients access their mentors via free, ongoing face-to-face mentoring sessions or through email or video mentoring services.
In addition to mentoring, SCORE also offers free and low-cost educational workshops each year, both online and in-person. In 2016, clients attended 119,957 online workshop sessions, while 237,712 local workshop attendees benefited from SCORE’s in-person educational programming[18].
Hundreds of educational resources are also available for free on SCORE’s website (http://www.score.org), including downloadable templates and tools and daily blog posts on best practices in business. In 2016, 2,982,519 unique visitors accessed the www.score.org website[18].
Veteran Business Outreach Centers (VBOC)[edit]
SBA's Office of Veteran Business Development operates twenty[19] Veteran Business Outreach Centers[20] through grants and cooperative agreements with organizations which provide technical assistance to businesses owned by veterans and family members. VBOCs also provide instructors for the SBA's program Boots to Business.[21] Boots to Business is delivered in partnership with SBA’s Resource Partners, SCORE Mentors, Small Business Development Centers, Women’s Business Centers, and Veterans Business Outreach Centers and the Institute for Veterans and Military Families at Syracuse University. It is available free on participating installations to service members and their dependents transitioning or retiring from the U.S. military. Additional SBA resources for veterans are available from http://www.sba.gov/vets.
Innovation and Strategic Initiatives[edit]
The SBA also supports regional innovation clusters across the country.[22]
Federal contracting and business development programs[edit]
8(a) Business Development Program[edit]
The 8(a) Business Development Program assists in the development of small businesses owned and operated by individuals who are socially and economically disadvantaged, such as women and minorities. The following ethnic groups are classified as eligible: Black Americans; Hispanic Americans; Native Americans (American Indians, Eskimos, Aleuts, or Native Hawaiians); Asian Pacific Americans (persons with origins from Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, Japan, China (including Hong Kong), Taiwan, Laos, Cambodia (Kampuchea), Vietnam, Korea, The Philippines, U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (Republic of Palau), Republic of the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, Samoa, Macao, Fiji, Tonga, Kiribati, Tuvalu, or Nauru); Subcontinent Asian Americans (persons with origins from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, the Maldives Islands or Nepal). In 2011, the SBA, along with the FBI and the IRS, uncovered a massive scheme to defraud this program. Civilian employees of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, working in concert with an employee of Alaska Native Corporation Eyak Technology LLC allegedly submitted fraudulent bills to the program, totaling over 20 million dollars, and kept the money for their own use.[23]
HUBZone[edit]
HUBZone is an SBA program for small companies that operate and employ people in Historically Underutilized Business Zones (HUBZones). The HUBZone program was created in response to the HUBZone Empowerment Act created by the US Congress in 1998.
SBA loan industry[edit]
The SBA loan industry can be divided into distinct categories:
Large bank institutions, such as Chase, Bank of America and Wells Fargo, generate the bulk of their SBA loan volume by loans, especially the express loan and line of credit, offered to those who would be declined for 'normal' bank credit due to factors such as length of time in business or slightly more conservative underwriting factors. Banks have sophisticated computer systems that generally make this process seamless, and are quite different from other financial institutions who utilize SBA lending for separate and distinct purposes.
SBA loans are used heavily by banks of all sizes to finance the purchase or construction of business owner-occupied real estate (i.e., real property purchased for commerce). Many banks offer SBA loans only for this purpose. In particular, they finance properties that a bank would consider too risky to finance conventionally, due to being of a special use [bowling alley, automobile repair] or environmentally risky nature [petroleum products storage, electrical substation] that can make their resale value limited. Some example properties include motels, gas stations and car washes.
SBA loans also encourage individuals to buy existing business. Since, unlike in real estate transactions, commercial lenders can fund referral fee earned by business brokers helping people buy and sell businesses, this segment of industry is supported by smaller banks and standalone finance companies who understand this sector.
Small Business Investment Companies[edit]
One of the first steps toward a professionally managed private equity and venture capital industry was the passage of the Small Business Investment Act of 1958. The 1958 Act officially allowed the SBA to license private "Small Business Investment Companies" (SBICs) to help with financing and managing small entrepreneurial businesses in the United States. Passage of the Act addressed concerns raised in a Federal Reserve Board report to Congress that concluded that a major gap existed in the capital markets for long-term funding for growth-oriented small businesses. Additionally, it was thought that fostering entrepreneurial companies would spur technological advances to compete with the Soviet Union. Facilitating the flow of capital through the economy up to the pioneering small concerns in order to stimulate the U.S. economy was and still is today the main goal of the SBIC program.[24] The passage of the Small Business Investment Act of 1958 by the federal government was an important incentive for would-be venture capital organizations.[citation needed] The act provided venture capital firms structured either as SBICs or Minority Enterprise Small Business Investment Companies (MESBICs) access to federal funds which could be leveraged at a ratio of up to 4:1 against privately raised investment funds. In 2005, in response to extensive losses incurred in connection with tech boom investments, the SBA decided to wind down its "Participating Securities" SBIC program, which had provided equity-like SBA backing for equity-oriented SBIC funds. The SBA's "Debenture" SBIC program, the original SBIC vehicle founded in 1958, continues to license and contribute capital to SBIC funds.[citation needed] The SBIC program had its highest ever year in Fiscal Year 2010.[25]
Criticism[edit]
The Cato Institute has challenged the justification of the federal government in intervening in credit markets.[26][27] Among other criticisms, Cato argues that "the SBA benefits a relatively tiny number of small businesses at the expense of the vast majority of small business that do not receive government assistance. SBA subsidies also represent a form of corporate welfare for the banking industry." Cato notes that the failure rate of all SBA loans from 2001 to 2010 is 19.4%,[26] contributing to a cost to taxpayers of $6.2 billion in 2011.[28]
In 2005, SBA Inspector General Report 5-15 stated, "One of the most important challenges facing the Small Business Administration and the entire Federal government today is that large businesses are receiving small business procurement awards and agencies are receiving credit for these awards."[29]
In October 2009, the Government Accountability Office released Report 10-108 which stated, "By failing to hold firms accountable, SBA and contracting agencies have sent a message to the contracting community that there is no punishment or consequences for committing fraud."[30]
See also[edit]
Administrator of the Small Business Administration
Title 13 of the Code of Federal Regulations
Business Development Bank of Canada
References[edit]
Jump up ^ https://www.sba.gov/about-sba/sba-performance/performance-budget/congressional-budget-justificationannual-performance-reports. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ - "Small Business Administration Fiscal Year 2015 Congressional Budget Justification and Fiscal Year 2013 Annual Performance Report Fiscal Year 2015 Congressional Budget Justification and Fiscal Year 2013 Annual Performance Report" Check |url= value (help).
Jump up ^ "SBA Blog Post by Deputy Administrator Marie Johns".
Jump up ^ Atlanta Journal Constitution http://www.ajc.com/business/small-business-loans-soar-795135.html. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "SBA News Release".
Jump up ^ Emily Maltby (13 January 2012). "Obama to Elevate SBA Chief". WSJ. Retrieved 9 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "Reducing the Deficit: Spending and Revenue Options, Section 9" (PDF). Congressional Budget Office. March 1997.
Jump up ^ "Small Business: Expectations of Firms in SBA's 8(a) Program Are Not Being Met". Government Accountability Office. July 20, 2000.
Jump up ^ "Office of Management and Budget, White House" (PDF).
Jump up ^ "Our People". Small Business Administration. Retrieved 19 November 2013.
Jump up ^ "New Rules Make SBA Loans Easier To Obtain".
Jump up ^ "SBA: Home and Personal Property Loans". Retrieved 23 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "SBA: Business Physical Disaster Loans". Retrieved 23 July 2014.
Jump up ^ "GAO.gov" (PDF). gao.gov.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Women's Business Centers: Effectively Growing Entrepreneurship". http://www.awbc.org. Association of Women's Business Centers. Retrieved 11 November 2014. External link in |website= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b "Women's Business Centers". http://www.sba.gov. Small Business Administration. Retrieved 11 November 2014. External link in |website= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b "Women's Business Center Overview" (PDF). http://www.awbc.org. Association of Women's Business Centers. Retrieved 11 November 2014. External link in |website= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "2017 Media FAQs - SCORE". www.score.org.
Jump up ^ "Office of Veterans Business Development - Resources - The U.S. Small Business Administration - SBA.gov". www.sba.gov.
Jump up ^ "Veterans Business Centers Receive Funding To Expand Entrepreneurship Outreach". https://www.sba.gov/offices/headquarters/ovbd/resources/362341. Small Business Administration. Retrieved 8 May 2015. External link in |website= (help)
Jump up ^ "Office of Veterans Business Development Resources". SBA. Retrieved 2015-05-08.
Jump up ^ "Clusters". Small Business Administration. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
Jump up ^ LibCasey, C-SPAN (4 October 2011). "EyakTek Director Arrested in Major Bribery Case". Alaska Public Media. Retrieved 9 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "SBA Offices and Resource Partners". Retrieved 9 May 2016.
Jump up ^ "SBA News Release" (PDF).
^ Jump up to: a b "Terminating the Small Business Administration". Cato Institute. August 2011. Retrieved 2012-08-23.
Jump up ^ Terminating the Small Business Administration – Reader Response | Cato @ Liberty. Cato.org (2012-08-22). Retrieved on 2013-08-12.
Jump up ^ Budget of the United States Government, Fiscal Year 2012. Washington: Government Printing Office. 2011. pp. 161–62.
Jump up ^ http://www.asbl.com/documents/05-15.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d10108.pdf
External links[edit]
Official website
SBA in the Federal Register
SBA History
8a Certification Faqs
8a Certification Package
Public Law 85-699, 85th Congress, S. 3651: Small Business Investment Act of 1958
Official SBA YouTube Channel
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Small_Business_Administration&oldid=832835775"
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The Keys to the Kingdom
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Not to be confused with The Keys of the Kingdom.
This article is about the book series. For the song, see Keys to the Kingdom.
To comply with the Wikipedia quality standards, this book-related article may require cleanup. This article contains very little context, or is unclear to readers who know little about the book. See this article's talk page before making any large and/or controversial edits. (February 2011)
The Keys to the Kingdom
Scholastic Inc. Covers for Mister Monday, Grim Tuesday, Drowned Wednesday and Sir Thursday.
Mister Monday
Grim Tuesday
Drowned Wednesday
Sir Thursday
Lady Friday
Superior Saturday
Lord Sunday
Author
Garth Nix
Country
United Kingdom
Language
English
Genre
Fantasy, thriller, Young adult fiction
Publisher
Scholastic Publishing
Published
1 July 2003 - 2010
Media type
Print (hardcover and paperback)
Audiobook
The Keys to the Kingdom is a fantasy–adventure book series written by Garth Nix, published in seven books between 2003 and 2010. The series chronicles the adventures of Arthur Penhaligon, an asthmatic 12-year-old boy who is chosen to become the Rightful Heir of the House, the center of the universe. The core storyline involves Arthur attempting to defeat the Morrow Days, the criminal Trustees of the House. The series takes place over a span of three weeks (time moves at different speeds at different locations in the series).
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Characters
3 The House and The Morrow Days
4 The Keys
5 Nothing
6 Nithlings
7 Religious, cultural, and literary references
8 Books in the series
9 Possible film adaptation
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Plot[edit]
The series' protagonist is an asthmatic 12-year-old boy, Arthur Penhaligon. The series begins on a Monday, with the main events starting a week later on the next Monday. Each book moves onto the next day of the week, over the course of about three weeks in Earth time, concluding on a Sunday. Each day features beings, collectively known as the Trustees, who each govern a portion of the House, which is the center of the Universe. The seven demesnes of the House are, in the order Arthur visits them: the Lower House, the Far Reaches, the Border Sea, the Great Maze, the Middle House, the Upper House, and the Incomparable Gardens.
In the beginning of the first book, Arthur lives a relatively normal life as an adopted child in a large and caring family. An asthma attack on a Monday that should have killed him brings him into contact with Mister Monday, who rules the Lower House. He eventually finds his way to the Lower House himself, where he is to find the cure to a plague brought to his world by dog faced 'Fetchers'. By convenience, he is declared Heir to the Kingdom and given the Lesser Half of the First Key, which is shaped like the minute hand of a clock. Because of this Key's magical properties, Arthur is relieved of his asthma while in contact with the Key or in the House, and proceeds to a strange and dangerous set of adventures.
As Arthur discovers, the Will of the Architect (creator of the House and the "Secondary Realms" that surround it) was not fulfilled as it should have been. Instead, it was broken into seven pieces by the Architect's Trustees, the self-named Morrow Days. The Will was forced to act on its own, and its First Part chooses Arthur to be the Heir to the Kingdom. It thus becomes Arthur's responsibility to recover each of the missing pieces of the Will, defeat each Trustee – each of whom has been afflicted with one of the seven deadly sins - claim their domains by taking each Key, and ultimately fulfill the Will.
After Arthur has taken each of the seven keys, and the will becomes fulfilled, a huge wave of Nothing dissolves the Incomparable Gardens, Lord Sunday's domain, and the first thing the Architect created. This causes the whole of creation to be destroyed with it including all of the secondary realms (including Earth). Arthur regains consciousness in the void of Nothing (as he holds the power of all seven keys, he is unable to be destroyed unless he so wishes), and he meets the Architect, who is revealed to be the Old One and the Will, once split into two parts to govern the house and the secondary realms respectively. When the Architect and the Old One fell out, the Architect chained the Old One eternally. Doing this meant that she could not return to Nothing when she wished, as she had to go as one. The only way to release the Old One was to destroy creation. These terms were laid out in the will.
In the void of Nothing, the Architect explains this and also explains how she has appointed Arthur as the New Architect. When the Architect finally lets Nothing destroy her, Arthur decides what to do as the New Architect. He uses the Compleat Atlas of the House, a magic book which contains all the information of the entire house, to rebuild the house, and the secondary realms exactly as it was a few seconds before its ultimate demise. Unfortunately, as it only "saved" the universe a few seconds before its end, only one tiny part of the house remained, containing only a few people. The Great Architect splits himself into two, one part himself and the other part Arthur, whom he lets go back to Earth.
Author Garth Nix's approach to the narrative has drawn heavily on Joseph Campbell's Hero's Journey, with continuous references to archetype and the number 7.[citation needed]
Characters[edit]
Main article: Characters of The Keys to the Kingdom
Arthur Penhaligon — The 12-year-old boy was chosen as the Rightful Heir of the House by the embodiment of the Architect's Last Will and Testament.
Suzy Turquoise Blue — A female Piper's Child who chooses to work with the Will and the Rightful Heir. Though she appears to be 12 years old, Suzy has been in the House since the Black Plague on Earth and is centuries old. After Mister Monday, she gains the title of Monday's Tierce, assistant to Monday's Noon.
Leaf — A 12-year-old human girl who befriends Arthur. She unexpectedly becomes involved with Arthur's adventures in the House.
Dr. Scamandros — An Upper House trained sorcerer, he set about looking for his lost test results in the Border Sea as a ship shaman before meeting and subsequently helping Arthur. Arthur appointed him the Dusk of Wednesday and is one of Arthur's most helpful allies.
Dame Primus — The personification of the Will of the Architect, who agrees to act as Arthur's steward in the House when he chooses to return to the Secondary Realms at the end of Mister Monday. While she supports Arthur as the Rightful Heir, her true intentions regarding the Will of the Architect appears to be ambiguous.
The Trustees — The seven Morrow Days (Mister Monday, Grim Tuesday, Drowned Wednesday, Sir Thursday, Lady Friday, Superior Saturday, and Lord Sunday) who were each entrusted with a Key to the Kingdom to keep safe and then hand over to the Rightful Heir. Instead, they broke the Architect's Will into seven pieces and locked it up, as they did not want to follow the will, which would entail the destruction of all reality.
Dawn, Noon and Dusk
Each Trustee was assigned three principal servants; however, technically there are only six of each as Grim Tuesday reshaped his attendants into seven beings, of lesser power than the original Dawn, Noon and Dusk, known as the Grim's Grotesques.
Dawn - A Dawn represents the hour of sunrise, and is usually dressed in bright colours and speaks loudly. They possess a golden tongue.
Noon — A Noon represents the hour between 12 noon and 1 pm, and is recognisable for his red, yellow, and white colouring. Noon is the most powerful of the trio. He has a silver tongue.
Dusk - A Dusk represents the hour of sunset, and is known for dressing in dark colours and speaks softly. He has a black tongue.[1]
The Mariner — Known as Tom Shelvocke, the second son of the Architect and usually an ally to Arthur. His character is implied to be based on The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. His harpoon is based on the spear used by the soldier who stabbed Jesus, one of the relics connected to the Holy Grail.
The Piper — The third son of the Architect, who is able to take control of the Piper's Children he brought into the House with his pipes. He is the creator and leader of the New Nithlings, and intends to take control of the House. The piper is based on the Pied Piper of Hamelin.
Pravuil — A spy trying to kill Arthur all the way through his campaign, serving under all seven of the trustees.
The House and The Morrow Days[edit]
Main article: The House (The Keys to the Kingdom)
The House is the second creation of the Architect and its purpose is to record and acknowledge the events of the Secondary Realms, essentially making it the epicentre of the Universe. The House is divided into seven parts, each ruled by a respective Trustee. Each is related to one of the seven deadly sins. These parts include the following.
The Lower House — Ruled by Mister Monday who is afflicted by Sloth
The Far Reaches — Ruled by Grim Tuesday who is afflicted by Greed
The Border Sea — Ruled by Drowned Wednesday who is afflicted by Gluttony
The Great Maze — Ruled by Sir Thursday who is afflicted by Wrath
The Middle House — Ruled by Lady Friday who is afflicted by Lust
The Upper House — Ruled by Superior Saturday who is afflicted by Envy
The Incomparable Gardens — Ruled by Lord Sunday who is afflicted by Pride
The Keys[edit]
The Keys to the Kingdom are seven objects of power given to the Trustees along with command over their demesnes. It is unknown whether, but implied that, control of the Key is that which gives one control over a demesne and its namesake day in the Secondary Realms. The Key will bond to the rightful owner of a Key, and protect him or her from harm, somewhat from pain but not at all from discomfort. A rightful owner of a Key is an Heir, the Trustee to whom it was originally entrusted, or a Steward. Over time, the use of a Key will irreparably turn a mortal into a Denizen, though it is mentioned that after a few centuries, this process may reverse a little. Because the presence of a Denizen in the Secondary Realms is inimical to mortal life, Arthur attempted to use the Keys as little as possible, as he wishes to remain mortal and return to his family; however, he later realizes that without the keys he would not be alive, and used the powers to protect the Lower House and his home town.
The Keys hold sovereign power in their own demesne and their day. All other Keys are of equal power when they are not in their realm. The exception to this is Sunday's Key, which is paramount over the others. They can do much of what is asked of them, such as opening, locking, manipulating, and freezing items. The full powers of the Keys are not known, as of Lady Friday. According to Arthur, the Keys have the ability to kill anything they wish, be it Denizen, mortal, or Nithling. Beings that are none of these, such as the Architect, her consort the Old One, their three sons, and possibly Arthur in later books, may be immune.
The First Key can be separated into two Keys, taking the forms of the minute and hour hands of a clock. The Hour Hand is more powerful than the Minute Hand, but the Minute Hand is quicker and can be used more often. When combined, they make the First Key and take the form of a sword which bears some resemblance to the clock hands, having a silver and golden blade. It gives dominion over the Lower House and Monday.
The Second Key takes the form of two large silver gauntlets (gloves when Dame Primus wears it), laced with gold, which were used by Grim Tuesday to form objects and creatures from Nothing. It gives dominion over the Far Reaches and Tuesday.
The Third Key takes the form of a trident that is capable of increasing and decreasing its size. Drowned Wednesday once used it as a fork. Wednesday's use of the Key was limited keeping her from becoming any bigger than the massive 126 mile long Leviathanesque whale she has become after her failed attempt to fulfill the Will and the subsequent betrayal by the Morrow Days (with the exception of Monday, who was incapacitated by his sloth). It was used by the Will to control the borders of the Border Sea that were spilling out into the Secondary (mortal) Realms and in battle to remove the inherent water from others' bodies. It gives dominion over the Border Sea and Wednesday.
The Fourth Key takes the form of a Marshal's baton, white and glowing green, and wrapped in gold laurel leaves, but it can take on the form of any weapon depending on its wielder, notably a broadsword when used by Sir Thursday, and a rapier for when Arthur fights. It gives dominion over the Great Maze, the Glorious Army of the Architect and Thursday.
The Fifth Key takes the form of a bright silver mirror. Using it, one can travel to any reflective surface in existence, provided the owner of the Fifth Key has been there before by other means. So far, it is the only Key that has been used in a way other than to accomplish a mundane task; it is able to drain the experiences from mortals, which Friday can then absorb, enabling her to experience mortal emotions for a short time. Experiences can also be returned to mortals (as shown in Lady Friday, wherein Arthur does so), within a time limit, by one who can control the Key's power. It gives dominion over the Middle House and Friday.
The Sixth Key takes the form of a quill pen. It can be used to write extremely powerful spells that are capable of creating illusions and wiping out large numbers of the creatures of the Incomparable Gardens, among other things. Saturday is also seen combining the power of the Key with ordinary sorcery. It gives dominion over the Upper House and Saturday.
The Seventh Key takes the form of a small, golden key. Unlike the other Keys, this Key is paramount, retaining its full, sovereign power anywhere in the House or Secondary Realms. Among its powers seem to be the ability to suppress the powers of other keys, and confer a greater power upon the wielder. It gives dominion over the Incomparable Gardens and Sunday.
Nothing[edit]
Nothing is the mythical substance used in the series. From it the entire Universe formed through a concentration-based process. It appears as oily black smoke, or a black liquid, and contains the properties of being able to dissolve (with the exception of Immaterial objects) or create anything. When enough Nothing comes together, it can form a Nithling. Nithlings are creatures not created by the Architect, but self-made from uncontained or uncontrolled Nothing. The Nithlings have this autonomy in common with both the Architect and the Old One, but apparently lack the power and creative impulses demonstrated by those elder beings. Nothing is likely based on Aether. For more information on the various types of Nithling, see below.
Nithlings[edit]
Nithlings are entities formed from Nothing. They are feared by most of the House due to their ability to kill even an immortal Denizen with a festering bite. Nithlings take a variety of shapes and are incorporated into every book in some form. They appear to lack complex intelligence, although some types can be used as servants (notably the Fetchers, sent to retrieve the Key in Book One). Most lower forms of Nithling can be dispatched with silver or salt, though this has little effect on higher or more substantially Made Nithlings.
Nithlings dissolve into Nothing when killed. They are employed by many Denizens and the Morrow Days for menial tasks, especially when someone is needed to venture into the Secondary Realms. Nithling species usually are named; this implies that they are usually made in regular forms. The Nithlings seen so far in the books are:
Fetchers (Mister Monday, Lady Friday) — resembling men with the faces of bloodhounds, sent to retrieve objects. Fetchers cannot cross thresholds uninvited. They can be banished with salt, which causes them to dissolve, and are forbidden to wear wings or carry weapons.
Bibliophages (Mister Monday) — a snake-like Nithling, expelling a venom that reduces any kind of writing to Nothing. They are attracted to writing, which they then try to destroy.
Spirit-Eater (Grim Tuesday, Drowned Wednesday, Sir Thursday) — a creature made by sorceries and a seed item belonging to the person whose physical form it assumes, being designed to imitate them. It requires a year of House Time to grow from Nothing. It can grow mentally conducive mold on people and can only be destroyed if its seed item is plunged into Nothing. The mold originates from the (fictional) planet called Avraxyn; its mutant form, present in Spirit-Eaters, is transmitted by skin-to-skin contact between and only between the Spirit-Eater and natural beings, wherein after it communicates knowledge of its model to the former. A Spirit-Eater's true form varies and can only be seen through a veil of raindrops on a sunny day. At all other times, it resembles its model. Its technical name is 'Cocigrue', which it shares with a legendary monster called Cocquigrue or Coquecigrue.
Scoucher (Grim Tuesday) — a Nithling originating from small, semi-enclosed spaces. Can take any form, but always has long, sharp, ribbon-like tentacles, with which it causes mortals or Denizens to bleed uncontrollably. It then obtains strength from their blood. Silver, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium and platinum can kill a Scoucher upon contact.
Feverfew's Cormorants (Drowned Wednesday) — heralds that communicate to the pirate Feverfew that his treasures have been breached.
Feverfew (Drowned Wednesday) — Part Nithling, part human, this cruel pirate sails on the Border Sea. He is eventually killed while fighting Lord Arthur.
Gore-Draken (Drowned Wednesday) — A rare type of Nithling created when certain lost items come into contact with Nothing.
Not-Horse (Sir Thursday, Lord Sunday) — A Near Creation made in the workshops of Grim Tuesday. Not-Horses are red-eyed equines having a metallic skin, three clawed toes on each foot, discerning intelligence, personalities suited for battle, and the ability to march in step with each other. They are used as beasts of burden by the Glorious Army of the Architect, particularly by the pseudo- Mongol division thereof known as the Horde. Other versions of Not-Horses include Winged Not-Horses as in Lord Sunday.
New Nithlings or Newniths (Sir Thursday, Lady Friday, Superior Saturday,Lord Sunday) — Creatures created by the Piper in vast numbers to invade and conquer the Great Maze. The Piper made them as "new Denizens", incorporating as many mortal traits as he could. New Nithlings are much more docile then regular Nithlings. They possess creative impulses and the ability to adapt; without the Piper's leadership, he has said, they would probably prefer to become farmers.
Nightsweeper (Mister Monday) — A Nithling taking the form of a tiny horse whose sole purpose is to spend one night gathering any contamination that has emanated from the House into the Secondary Realms, with which it then becomes Nothing.
Soot, Grim Tuesday's Eyebrow (Grim Tuesday) — One of Tuesday's eyebrows, which was blown from its face when he was experimenting with Nothing. It was blasted into the Pit, where accumulation of Nothing upon it made it strong, mobile, and self-aware.
Grannow-Hoinch (Lady Friday) — a monstrous creature consisting of pure Nothing contained within a silver armature or framework. It resembles a combination of a wild boar and a Unicorn, having a six-foot horn. It is black, and has no visible eyes or mouth. It is extremely aggressive, and will go to great lengths to defeat its opponent.
Elephant (Lord Sunday) — Arthur's stuffed elephant which, while Arthur was trying to break free from a clock face and thinking of the elephant, was animated by residual powers of the Fifth and Sixth Keys and grew to the size of a large dog with sharp tusks.
Note: There is some question on whether all of the above species classify as Nithlings, shown in Mister Monday, when the Atlas says (in reference to creating Fetchers) "...it is not the high treason of treating with the Nithlings, those self-willed things that occasionally emerge from Nothing". This seems to imply that species created by someone are not true Nithlings, as a true Nithling is self-made.
Religious, cultural, and literary references[edit]
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The Keys to the Kingdom appears to contain many examples of religious symbolism and references, possibly as a reference to the idea that not even the architect is as creative as humans, particularly in Judeo-Christian tradition. One example is the title of the series, a reference to the words spoken by Jesus Christ to the Apostle Peter in the Bible at Matthew 16:19 - "I will give you the keys to the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven". Another example is the affliction of each Morrow Day with one of the seven deadly sins that results from their choice not to obey the Will.
Mister Monday: Sloth
Grim Tuesday: Greed
Drowned Wednesday: Gluttony
Sir Thursday: Wrath
Lady Friday: Lust
Superior Saturday: Envy
Lord Sunday: Pride
Other religious references include the Old One, a Prometheus-like character who held great power but was chained and punished by the Architect for his interference with Her creations, including the liver being chopped out and regrown before the 'eagles' come back again, only difference is that it is clockwork characters and they only chopped the liver previously, now they do eyeballs. (alternatively seen as a Lucifer character). However, the revelation in the final installment that the Old One was split from the entity of the Architect, and retained her powers, strongly suggest that he is a reference to God. The Drasil trees' name resembles that of the Norse "World Tree", Yggdrasil. There is even a range of literary and mythological reference in the series: Mister Monday's butler is compared to Nestor of The Adventures of Tintin; a character describes Monday's Noon as exactly how she imagined Jane Austen's Mr Darcy; the Piper is a re-creation of the legendary Pied Piper of Hamelin, who with his music led a population of rats from a city, later to do the same to the town's children, whose parents had refused to pay him the promised fee. The Mariner is likely a reference to the title character of the ballad The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Both the mariner of the book and the one of the poem had shot a bird and suffered misery as a result, though Garth Nix does not specify what type of bird the mariner in his book had shot. In addition, the name "Artful Loungers", used for Superior Saturday's servants, may be a reference to "Artful Dodger", the name of a street thief in Charles Dickens' novel Oliver Twist. References to Dickens and the society wherein he lived are also implied in the personalities of the Piper's Children and in the Denizens' clothes. In Drowned Wednesday, Arthur suggests that a passage may open 'through the wardrobe', which is most likely a reference to the wardrobe in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, through which the protagonist children enter Narnia. The same book also includes an "exchange of blows" wherein each fighter tries to kill each other by means of one strike only, similar to the challenge issued by the Green Knight. Also, the Incomparable Gardens may represent the Garden of Eden,and Saturday's Tower would be analogous to the Tower of Babel, an attempt to reach Heaven.
The character of Lord Sunday who claims that his only wish is to care for his garden may be a reference to Candide, who decides that "we must all tend to our gardens". In addition, the three sons of the Architect and the Old One may reference the Holy Trinity, the Father (Lord Sunday), the Son (The Mariner), and the Holy Spirit (The Piper), as well as the three Greek gods Zeus (Lord Sunday), Poseidon (The Mariner), and Hades (Pied Piper; he was banished to the Void of Nothing)
Another cultural reference is the usage of the name Seven Dials to describe the Lower House's transport into the Secondary Realms. The Seven Dials is a large conjunction of roads in the West End of London.
Arthur's name implies reference to archetypes: Arthur Penhaligon might be a play on Arthur Pendragon, who is otherwise known as King Arthur. A pun to this is that he is known as Lord Arthur, by some Denizens. The "Return of the Pendragon", a supposedly prophesied idea wherein King Arthur would return from the land of the dead and bring a golden age to the Earth, may be implied here; Lord Arthur of the House represents the Pendragon, in which role he restores balance to the House and thence to the Universe.
The metal gloves of Grim Tuesday may be a reference to Járngreipr, a pair of metal gloves that Thor used in Norse mythology. This is made more likely by the fact that Thor used them to catch balls of molten iron, and Arthur and Grim Tuesday used them to catch floating gobbets of Nothing.
Books in the series[edit]
The title of each book refers to the antagonist that Arthur fights in the novel.
Nix, Garth (2003). Mister Monday. ISBN 0-00-717501-9.
Nix, Garth (2004). Grim Tuesday. ISBN 0-00-717503-5.
Nix, Garth (2005). Drowned Wednesday. ISBN 0-00-717505-1.
Nix, Garth (2006). Sir Thursday. ISBN 0-00-717507-8.
Nix, Garth (2007). Lady Friday. ISBN 0-00-717509-4.
Nix, Garth (2008). Superior Saturday. ISBN 0-00-717511-6.
Nix, Garth (2010). Lord Sunday. ISBN 978-1-74114-591-5.
Possible film adaptation[edit]
In an interview, Garth Nix said that he was willing to sell the rights to studios and directors for an adaptation of the series, if they were "the right person". His reason is that he does not want to sell it to any studio over concerns that the studio would ruin the film.[2] At the 2012 Texas Book Festival, Nix stated that "(I) have no plans for movies but would like to see a card game."
See also[edit]
Seven Deadly Sins
Seven Heavenly Virtues
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Nix, Garth: Mister Monday, page 218. Harper Collins, 2003.
Jump up ^ Author News & Interviews | Kidsreads
[1]
Book: Keys to the Kingdom (series)7 books (Mister Monday, Grim Tuesday, Drowned Wednesday, Sir Thursday, Lady Friday, Superior Saturday, Lord Sunday)
External links[edit]
Series listing at SciFan
Allen and Unwin - Keys to the Kingdom
Scholastic's Keys to the Kingdom website
HarperCollins Publishers' Keys to the Kingdom website[dead link]
Author Garth Nix's personal website
Books info page on authors official UK site[dead link]
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Garth Nix
The Keys to the Kingdom
Novels
Mister Monday (2003)
Grim Tuesday (2004)
Drowned Wednesday (2005)
Sir Thursday (2006)
Lady Friday (2007)
Superior Saturday (2008)
Lord Sunday (2010)
Related
List of characters
The House
Old Kingdom
Novels
Sabriel (1995)
Lirael (2001)
Abhorsen (2003)
Clariel (2014)
Goldenhand (2016)
Related
List of characters
Across the Wall (2006 collection)
The Bells
The Seventh Tower
Novels
The Fall (2000)
Castle (2000)
Aenir (2001)
Above the Veil (2001)
Into Battle (2001)
The Violet Keystone (2001)
Related
List of characters
Troubletwisters
Troubletwisters (2011)
The Monster (2012)
Other books
The Ragwitch (1990)
Shade's Children (1997)
A Confusion of Princes (2012)
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Regional accreditation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Regional accreditation map
Regional accreditation is the educational accreditation of schools, colleges, and universities in the United States by one of seven regional accrediting agencies. Accreditation is a voluntary process by which colleges demonstrate to each other, and sometimes to employers and licensing agencies, that their credits and degrees meet minimum standards. It is the self-regulation of the higher education industry.
Each regional accreditor oversees the vast majority of public and private educational institutions, both not-for-profit and for-profit, in its region. Their primary function is accreditation of post-secondary institutions, though there is a limited amount of accreditation of primary and secondary schools.[1][2][3]
While it might seem that national accreditation would be more important than regional accreditation, this is generally not the case. Regional accreditation is older, and with a few exceptions, more prestigious than national accreditation.[4] Most non-profit institutions are regionally accredited, while most for-profit colleges and universities are served primarily by national accrediting agencies.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 List of regional accreditors
2 History
3 Regional accreditation vs. national accreditation
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
List of regional accreditors[edit]
The following are the seven active regional accrediting agencies for educational institutions in the United States:[5][6]
Middle States Commission on Higher Education, formerly part of the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools - Postsecondary institutions in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands.
New England Association of Schools and Colleges - Educational institutions in the six New England states (Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont).
Higher Learning Commission, formerly part of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools[7] - Educational institutions in Arkansas, Arizona, Colorado, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, North Dakota, Nebraska, New Mexico, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Wisconsin, West Virginia, and Wyoming.
Northwest Accreditation Commission for primary and secondary schools and Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities (NWCCU) for postsecondary institutions in Alaska, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, and Washington.
Southern Association of Colleges and Schools - Educational institutions in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia.
Western Association of Schools and Colleges - 4-year educational institutions in California, Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa, Micronesia, Palau, and Northern Marianas Islands, as well as schools for American children in Asia.
Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges, formerly part of the Western Association of Schools and Colleges - 2-year educational institutions in California, Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa, Micronesia, Palau, and Northern Marianas Islands, as well as schools for American children in Asia.
The seven organizations form the Council of Regional Accrediting Commissions (C-RAC).[8] Each regional accrediting commissions’ executive directors and commission chairs sit on C-RAC and periodically promulgate principles and guidelines which are followed by the regional commissions. Although the principles do not replace individual commission regulations, they provide a basis for assessing accreditation practice between regions.[9]
All regional agencies have accrediting authority for colleges and universities, 2-year, 4-year, or both. Some agencies also have accrediting authority over K-12 schools (primary and secondaryschools). Both the northwestern and mid-Atlantic regions divide responsibility between two separate accreditation agencies with one focusing on primary and secondary schools and the other focusing on postsecondary institutions.[10][11][12] In the western region, there is a separate commission that accredits 2-year colleges.
History[edit]
The regional accrediting agencies were established in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in response to a perceived need for better articulation between secondary schools and higher education institutions (the school offered the courses the college needed applicants to have taken; this helped colleges and universities evaluate prospective students).[13][14] The New England Association was formed in 1885 by a group of schoolmasters of secondary schools. The Middle States Association formed in 1887.[13] The faculty of Vanderbilt University led the establishment of the Southern Association in 1895, and the North Central Association was organized the same year at a meeting of 36 administrators of midwestern schools, colleges, and universities.[13][14] The Northwest Association of Secondary and Higher Schools (predecessor of the two organizations that now serve that region) was formed in 1917 and the Western Association was founded in 1923.[13] Initially the main focus of the organizations was on accreditation of secondary schools and establishment of uniform college entrance requirements.[13][14]
Accreditation first emerged as a regional rather than national activity because it typically involved site visits, and the fastest transportation available at the time was the railroad.[citation needed]
Regional accreditation vs. national accreditation[edit]
Regionally accredited institutions are usually academically-oriented, state-owned or non-profit private institutions.[15] Nationally accredited schools are usually career-oriented and for profit. Both regional and national accreditations are recognized by the United States Department of Education (U.S.DoED) [[1]], the Council for High Education Accreditation (CHEA).
Every college in the United States has the right to set standards and to accept or refuse to accept transfer credits.[16] If a student has attended a school that is not regionally accredited, it may be difficult or impossible to have the credits, or even the degree earned, recognized by a regionally-accredited college (or employer).[17] A 2005 study by the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) found that, in making decisions on credit transfer, about 84 percent of U.S. higher education institutions considered whether the sending institution is accredited, and many had policies stating that they would accept credits only from regionally accredited institutions.[18] About 63 percent of institutions told the GAO that they would accept credit from any regionally accredited institution, but only 14 percent similarly accepted credits from nationally accredited schools.[18] Regionally accredited institutions are reluctant to accept credits from nationally accredited institutions due, in part, to national accreditors' less stringent standards for criteria such as faculty qualifications and library resources.[18] Students who anticipate transferring credits from a nationally accredited school to a regionally accredited one are advised to verify in advance that the credits will be accepted.[19][17][16][unreliable source?]
In general, the names of U.S. post-secondary institutions and their degree titles do not indicate whether the institution is accredited or the type of accreditation it holds. Rules on this topic vary from state to state. For example, Tennessee Higher Education Commission regulations require that post-secondary institutions in the state of Tennessee must be regionally accredited to use the word "university" in their names, and that a school lacking regional accreditation may not use the word "college" in its name without adding a qualifier such as "career", "vocational", "business", "technical", "art", "Bible", or "Christian". Tennessee rules also specify that only regionally accredited schools can issue "liberal arts" degrees or degree titles such as Associate of Arts or Science and Bachelor of Arts or Science.[20][dead link]
See also[edit]
Council for Higher Education Accreditation
List of recognized higher education accreditation organizations
List of unrecognized higher education accreditation organizations
Pre-tertiary education accreditation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Statement of Commitment by the Regional Accrediting Commissions for the Evaluation of Electronically Offered Degree and Certificate Programs, retrieved from University of Hawaii website, June 19, 2011. "The eight regional accrediting commissions assure the quality of the great majority of degree-granting institutions of higher learning in the United States." (Page i)
Jump up ^ Catherine Finnegan, Aligning Information Technology with Academic Standards, Educause Center for Applied Research Research Bulletin, volume 2006, Issue 10, May 9, 2006. "Regional acceditors include among their membership nearly all community colleges and public and private colleges universities in the region that they serve." (Page 2)
Jump up ^ Janice M. Karlen, Accreditation and Assessment in Distance Learning, Academic Leadership: The Online Journal, Volume 1, Issue 4, Fall 2003 (November 2003). "Most institutions rely upon one of the eight regional accreditation organizations for their accreditation status."
^ Jump up to: a b Lechuga, Vicente (2005). The Changing Landscape of the Academic Profession. New York: Routledge, p. 48.
Jump up ^ Regional Accrediting Organizations 2010-2011, Council for Higher Education Accreditation, accessed June 19, 2011
Jump up ^ Regionally Accredited Colleges/Universities, State of Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction, accessed June 19, 2011
Jump up ^ https://www.ncahlc.org/About-the-Commission/about-hlc.html
Jump up ^ http://www.berkeleycitycollege.edu/accred/Assessment%20Guide%20-%20C-RAC.pdf
Jump up ^ https://www.msche.org/publications/Regnlsl050208135331.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.nwccu.org/About/History/NWCCU%20History.htm
Jump up ^ http://www.northwestaccreditation.org/our-history
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions About the Middle States Association and the Middle States Commission on Higher Education". Middle States Commission on Higher Education. 2015. Retrieved December 18, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Fred F. Harcleroad and Judith S. Eaton (2005), "The Hidden Hand: External Constituencies and their Impact," Chapter 9 in Philip G. Altbach, Robert Oliver Berdahl, and Patricia J. Gumport, editors, American higher education in the twenty-first century: social, political, and economic challenges. Page 263. JHU Press. ISBN 0-8018-8035-1, ISBN 978-0-8018-8035-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c History of the North Central Association
Jump up ^ Judith S. Eaton, Accreditation and Recognition in the United States, CHEA, 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b Demanding Credit, Inside Higher Ed, Oct. 19, 2005 by Scott Jaschik
^ Jump up to: a b Tussling Over Transfer of Credit, Inside Higher Ed, February 26, 2007 by Doug Lederman
^ Jump up to: a b c Government Accountability Office, Transfer Students: Postsecondary Institutions Could Promote More Consistent Consideration of Coursework by Not Basing Determinations on Accreditation, GAO-06-22, October 2005.
Jump up ^ What is the Difference Between Regional and National Accreditation, Yahoo! Education website[unreliable source?]
Jump up ^ Tennessee Comptroller of the Treasury, Protecting Tennesseans from Education Fraud, March 2007. Page 7.
External links[edit]
U.S. Department of Education, Accreditation in the United States
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