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Regional variations of barbecue
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Barbecueing
Briquettes placed in a barbecue cooker
Various foods being barbecued
Barbecue varies by the type of meat, sauce, rub, or other flavorings used, the point in barbecuing at which they are added, the role smoke plays, the equipment and fuel used, cooking temperature, and cooking time.
The meat may be ground, for hamburgers, or processed into sausage or kebabs. The meat may be marinated or rubbed with spices before cooking, basted with a sauce or oil before, during or after cooking, or any combination of these.
Contents
[hide]
1 Africa
1.1 South Africa
2 Caribbean
2.1 Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico
2.2 Jamaica
3 East Asia
3.1 China
3.2 Hong Kong
3.3 Japan
3.4 Korea
3.5 Taiwan
4 Southeast Asia
4.1 Philippines
4.2 Singapore
5 Central and Southern Asia
5.1 India and Pakistan
5.2 Mongolia
6 Europe
6.1 The Alps
6.2 Germany
6.3 Mediterranean
6.4 Russia
6.5 Scandinavia
6.6 United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland
7 Middle East and Eastern Mediterranean
7.1 Iran
7.2 Lebanon and Israel
7.3 Turkey
8 North America
8.1 Canada
8.2 Mexico
8.3 United States
9 South America
9.1 Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay
9.2 Brazil
9.3 Chile
10 Oceania
10.1 Australia
10.2 Hawaii
10.3 New Zealand
10.4 South Pacific islands
11 See also
12 References
Africa[edit]
South Africa[edit]
A typical braai on a small braai stand
The word braaivleis (English: /ˈbraɪfleɪs/; Afrikaans pronunciation: [ˈbrɑːifləis]) is Afrikaans for grilled meat. The word braai (plural braais) is Afrikaans for barbecue or grill and is a social custom in South Africa, Botswana, Namibia, Lesotho, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Malawi. The term originated with the Afrikaans-speaking people,[1] but has since been adopted by South Africans of many ethnic backgrounds. The word vleis is Afrikaans for meat.
The word has been adopted by English-speaking South Africans and can be regarded as another word for barbecue, in that it serves as a verb when describing how food is cooked and a noun when describing the cooking equipment, such as a grill.[1] The traditions around a braai can be considerably different from a barbecue, even if the method of food preparation is very similar.
While wood was formerly the most widely used braai fuel, in modern times the use of charcoal, briquettes and gas has increased due to their convenience, as with barbecues elsewhere in the world.[2] There has, however, been a renewed interest in the use of wood after the South African government started its invasive plant species removal programme.[3] Many households now own both a gas and wood or charcoal braai.[4]
Boerewors and pork in a concrete braai structure
Similar to a potluck party, braais are casual and relaxed social events where families and friends converge on a picnic spot or someone's home (normally the garden or veranda) with their own meat, salad, or side dish in hand. Meats are the mainstay of the South African braai. They typically include boerewors, sosaties, kebabs, marinated chicken, pork and lamb chops, steaks, sausages of different flavors and thickness, and possibly even racks of spareribs. Fish and Rock Lobster, commonly called kreef in Afrikaans, are also popular in coastal areas.
The other main part of the meal in some regions of the country is pap (/ˈpɑːp/, meaning porridge). This dish is a thickened porridge, or krummelpap (crumb porridge), traditionally eaten with the meat. Pap is made from finely ground corn/maize (similar to polenta), and is a staple of local African communities and may be eaten with a tomato and onion sauce, a monkey gland sauce, or a more spicy chakalaka at a braai. In the Cape Town area, the common side dish is a grilled sandwich containing onions, tomatoes, and cheese, with apricot jam and grated cheese being another staple popular among children.
Sometimes this activity is also known as a tjop en dop (dop being Afrikaans slang for an alcoholic drink, literally meaning "cap" or "bottle top", and tjop being the informal Afrikaans term for lamb chop) when significant amounts of alcohol are involved.
A braai is a social occasion that has specific traditions and social norms. In black and white South African culture, women rarely cook meat at a social gathering, as this is normally the preserve of men. The men gather round the braaistand (the grill) outdoors and cook the meat, while women prepare the pap, salads, desserts, and vegetables in the kitchen. The meal is subsequently eaten outside by the braai stand, since these gatherings are normally hosted during the long summer months. The cooking of the meat is not the prerogative of all the men attending, as one person is normally in charge. He will attend to the fire, check that the coals are ready, and cook the meat. Etiquette holds that others are not permitted to interfere with the braai operator's duties, except if expressly asked to help. Other men may assist in the cooking, but generally only partake in fireside conversations while having a drink in hand.[5] What often makes a braai different from barbecue in that it is the 'go-to' social event for many South Africans, from Christmas Day, to graduation parties, to birthdays and every day get togethers, used as a means to celebrate. Other cultures may reserve a barbecue as a special event in its own right.
General Motors South Africa used the term braai in the 1970s in its localized jingle "Braaivleis, rugby, sunny skies, and Chevrolet" to advertise their cars in South Africa — equivalent to the slogan "baseball, hot dogs, apple pie, and Chevrolet" in the US and, to a lesser extent, "football, meat pies, kangaroos & Holden Cars" used in Australia.
Braai Day is a celebration of South Africa's rich cultural heritage and its unique national pastime, the braai. It aims to unite all South Africans by encouraging them to partake in a fun and tangible activity shared by all demographic groups, religious denominations, and body types.[6] It is celebrated annually by South Africans across the world on 24 September (South Africa's Heritage Day).[7] The event was initiated by the Mzansi Braai Institute in South Africa in 2005 and, since 2008, has been promoted under the Braai4Heritage banner, a non-profit initiative.[8] On 5 September 2007, Emeritus Archbishop Desmond Tutu was appointed patron of National Braai Day (Now Braai4Heritage).[9] The initiative received the endorsement of South Africa's National Heritage Council (NHC) in 2008.[10]
In 2009, the initiative launched an official song, "Our Heritage", recorded by the multiple Grammy Award winners The Soweto Gospel Choir, JR, Die Heuwels Fantasties and the 2008 South African Music Awards male solo artist of the year, Hip Hop Pantsula. The song was launched exactly a month ahead of the 2009 Braai Day.[11]
Caribbean[edit]
Jerk chicken being cooked
Barbecue is popular in all of the Caribbean islands, with each having its own local variations and traditions.
Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico[edit]
The indigenous Native Taíno peoples method has involved slowly cooking meat over a wooden mesh of sticks. In Spanish-speaking islands of the Caribbean, such as Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and especially Puerto Rico, lechon is a common delicacy. Lechon consists of taking a whole pig, slicing it from the head to tail along the chest and stomach, and slow-grilling the hog as it is turned on a rod.
Jamaica[edit]
Jamaican jerk chicken is an example of barbecue in Jamaica.
East Asia[edit]
China[edit]
Chuanr are small pieces of meat on skewers roasted over charcoal or, sometimes, electric heat. Chuanr originated in the Xinjiang province of China and in recent years has spread throughout the rest of the country as a popular street food, most notably in northern China. Chuanr was traditionally made from lamb (yáng ròu chuàn, 羊肉串), which is still the most common, but now, chicken, pork, beef, and various types of seafood can also be used. In busy tourist areas, chuanr can also be made with various insects, bugs, birds, and other exotic animals.
Hong Kong[edit]
Hong Kong style Barbecue
In Hong Kong, pork barbecue is made with a marinade of honey and soy sauce, and cooked in long, narrow strips. This form of barbecue is known as char siu.
Outdoor barbecues (usually known simply as BBQ) are popular among local residents on short trips to regional parks in the countryside.[12] These are invariably charcoal-fired, with marinated pieces of meat, usually beef, pork, sausage, or chicken wings, cooked using long, hand-held forks. Honey is brushed on near the end of cooking. At the same time, foil-wrapped pieces of corn and sweet potato are placed on the hot coals; these take a long time to cook so they are usually eaten at the end of the barbecue. Unlike Western barbecues, everyone gathers around the fire and cooks their own food, so the atmosphere is closer to that of a fondue or a hot pot.
Barbecue can also be found in night markets and in some restaurants, often sold on skewers. Some restaurants allow customers to barbecue at their own table; many of these are all-you-can-eat chain restaurants.
Japan[edit]
Barbecuing is very popular in Japan as part of an outdoor activity. Normally, more vegetables and seafood are incorporated than in the United States, and soy sauce or soy based sauces are commonly used. Occasionally, the Japanese-style fried noodle Yakisoba can be cooked as well. In addition, Jingisukan (mutton), Yakiniku (grilled meat), and Horumonyaki (beef or pork offal) are also used.
Yakitori is the Japanese equivalent of shish kebab. Spare ribs, chicken, and steak are also grilled and glazed with teriyaki sauce.
Korea[edit]
Bulgogi (불고기) is thinly sliced beef (and sometimes pork or chicken) marinated in soy sauce, sesame oil, garlic and chili pepper, and cooked on a grill at the table. It is a main course, and is therefore served with rice and side dishes such as Kimchi. Bulgogi literally means fire meat. The more common Korean BBQ is called galbi, which are marinated ribs.
Taiwan[edit]
Barbecuing is a popular outdoor activity in Taiwan. Most are fired by charcoal, or sometimes compressed logs, and the food is placed on grills. The most popular item is slices of meat marinated in soy sauce, which is often sandwiched in a piece of toast before being eaten. Seafood and vegetables are also common, sometimes seasoned and wrapped in tinfoil packages before grilling. Outdoor barbecuing is a common way to celebrate the Mid-Autumn Festival (harvest festival) in Taiwan.
Southeast Asia[edit]
Satay is popular in several Southeast Asian countries including: Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the Philippines. It consists of pieces of meat skewered on bamboo sticks marinated in a mixture of spices similar to a curry mix and pulverised peanut. Most common meats are chicken, lamb, and beef, and, in non-Muslim enclaves, one will also find satay made from pork and animal offal. Satay is a mainstay of most Malaysian, Indonesian, and Singaporean barbecues. Traditional satay uses only chicken thigh meat cut into strips before they are skewered. Other types of satay include pork, mutton, and beef.
After the meat has been cooked over a charcoal flame, it is served with a thick, gooey, dipping sauce made from the same mixture as the marinade for the meat, a peanut-tasting, curry-like mixture.
In the mountainous regions of North Borneo, the local Kadazan people's specialities are chicken satay and snake meat satay; the latter, as of 2007, is only available under exceptional circumstances. Before 1990, it was possible to get satay of animals like tapir, elephants, flying fox, goannas and wild boar. Unfortunately, these animals are now rare or endangered and their use in this manner is prohibited.
Philippines[edit]
Lechón being roasted
Sinugba (inihaw or grilled) Bangus
In the Philippines, Lechon is a centrepiece of the main cultural diet. It is extremely rare for any celebratory occasion not to include it. Philippine lechon is prepared similarly to that of the Spanish-speaking islands of the Caribbean. The hog is opened from head to tail along the belly, and is slow-grilled, turned on a rod over a fire. Even though the Spanish-speaking islands of the Caribbean and the Philippines do not share a common everyday spoken language, it is still referred to with the same pronunciation. This may be due to the fact that both regions were ruled by Spain for several centuries; (linguists estimate that some forty percent of the various Philippine languages contain Spanish loanwords).
Barbecue is also the term for skewered pork or chicken, marinated in, and basted with, a sweetish sauce made from ketchup, pineapple juice or 7-Up. Chicken barbecue is often served with what is popularly known as Java sauce. Bananacue, a dish consisting of plantains, skewered on a stick similar in style to shish kebab, is also commonly cooked.
Singapore[edit]
In the city state of Singapore, barbecue or BBQ, as it is commonly known, is a common feature at social gatherings, but a less common feature of a typical Singaporean’s daily lifestyle and diet. A majority of Singaporeans live in government subsidised apartments or HDB flats. A lack of open space in homes results in BBQ gatherings in parks or chalets. The Singapore National Parks rents out barbecue pits that are placed in popular parks such as: the East Coast Park, Punggol Park, Pasir Ris Park, West Coast Park, Changi Beach Park, Sembawang Park, and Pulau Ubin.
Singapore-styled BBQ is mostly charcoal fired and Singaporeans roast a variety of Southeast Asian and Western food. Besides satay, other BBQ food includes sambal stingray or cuttlefish wrapped in aluminium foil, grilled meat (chicken, pork, beef) marinated in BBQ sauce commonly made from soya sauce, pepper, salt, sugar, and oyster sauce. Taiwanese sausages, chicken franks, and sausages are also grilled. Marshmallows skewered using satay sticks is another highlight of a Singaporean barbecue.[13]
The fire starter used is not the typical lighter fluid or charcoal chimney starter used in western grills. Instead, the fire starter comes in a box of small rolled up briquettes made of sawdust and wax which is lit and placed under a stack of charcoal briquettes.
Central and Southern Asia[edit]
India and Pakistan[edit]
Chicken tikka with a variety of other dishes cooked and served under the BBQ method
The tandoor is a form of barbecue, particularly focused on baking, that is common in Northern India, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. Grilling is also popular, and uses native, local spices, especially the many Curry blend variations. In addition, there is also the grilling of different types of meat covered in a spicy cream based batter called tikka masala. This dish has become one of the most symbolic dishes of Indian cuisine, next to indian curry.
Mongolia[edit]
Main article: Mongolian cuisine
Nomadic Mongolians have several barbecue methods, one of which is Khorkhog. They first heat palm-sized stones to a high temperature over a fire and alternate layers of lamb and stone in a pot. The cooking time depends on the amount of lamb used. It is believed that it is good for one's health to hold the stone used for cooking.
Another way of cooking is a boodog ("boo" means wrap in Mongolian). Usually marmot or goats are cooked in this way. There is no pot needed for cooking boodog, after slaughter and dressing; the innards are put back inside the carcass through a small hole, and the whole carcass is cooked over the fire.
The Mongolian barbecue often found in restaurants is a style of cooking falsely attributed to the mobile lifestyle of nomadic Mongolians. Originating in Taiwan in the mid to late 20th century, the so-called "Mongolian barbecue", a popular dish in American and Canadian Chinese restaurants, consists of thinly sliced lamb, beef, chicken, pork, or other meat, seasonings, vegetables, and noodles, or a combination thereof, which is quickly cooked over a flat circular metal surface that has been heated.
Europe[edit]
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The Alps[edit]
A traditional cooking method used in, but not exclusive to, the French and Swiss Alps, pierrade involves the usually communal, cooking of meats on a hot stone, situated on the serving table.
Germany[edit]
Thuringian sausages on the "Rost"
Germans are enthusiastic about their version of barbecue, grilling (Grillen), especially in the summertime. It is the one area of traditional home cooking that is a predominantly male activity. Germans grill over charcoal or, increasingly, gas, and grilled meats include variations of the Bratwurst such as Thuringian sausage for example, as well as steaks (especially marinated pork steaks from the shoulder), Frikadellen (minced meat dumplings), and poultry. Regional festivals feature grilled items ranging from eel to trout, whole sides of pork or beef, chicken, and duck. Smoking is common practice in German butchering, but pure smoke-based techniques have not yet become popular. Barbecue variations from the United States, Turkey, Greece, other Balkan States, the German-speaking emigrants from the statlar, and the immigrant communities in Germany, with notable traditions of outdoor grilling in Germany developed by immigrants and visitors from the former Soviet Union.
Mediterranean[edit]
Barbecuing is popular in Mediterranean countries. It is influenced by traditional Mediterranean cuisine. Olive oil is a key part of the Mediterranean barbecue style, as it is in the region's cuisine. The most common items cooked are chicken, beef steaks, souvlakis/brochettes, halloumi cheese, and pita bread, and may be grilled, baked, or both. In addition, some dishes combine grilling with braising for more variety. Often, barbecue meat items are marinated with olive oil and citrus juice mixtures, and then garnished with various herbs and spices; basic persillade and several variations are often put on top of the meat.
Russia[edit]
Shashlik is the Russian version of shish kebab, and like all other international variants, is cooked on a grill. It is traditionally made of lamb, but there can also be pork, beef, ground seasoned beef, chicken, or sturgeon shashliks.
Scandinavia[edit]
Barbecue in Scandinavia is very similar, if not identical, to barbecue in Germany, even having the same name. It also uses traits of traditional Scandinavian gourmet cuisines. In addition to more traditional meats such as chicken, beef, lamb, and pork, wild game, especially venison, is common. A sauce made from Juniper berries is often put on top of the meats when served.
United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland[edit]
Barbecuing is a popular al fresco cooking and eating style, common in both the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland. Many homes in both countries have a barbecue, usually located in the home's back garden. Most popular are steel-built kettle and range-style barbecues with wheels to facilitate moving the equipment, but permanent brick barbecues are also common.
In recent times, barbecue cook-off competitions have started to take place in the British Isles, similar to those held in the United States, Canada, continental Europe, and Australia. Some competitions allow teams, as well as individuals from various countries to compete against each other.
The most common foods cooked on British and Irish barbecues are: chicken, hamburgers, sausages, beef steaks, corn-on-the-cob, shish kebabs, and vegetarian soya or Quorn-based products, cooked by grilling, baking or a combination of both methods. Vegetarian products often require extra attention due to their lower fat content, weaker structure, and tendency to stick to grill plates and griddles. Less common food items include: fish, prawns, lobster, halloumi (cheese), squashes, potatoes, plantains, asparagus, beetroots, pork fillets, pork patties, and pork or beef ribs. Similar to the United States, barbecue sauce is sometimes spread on the meat before or during its cooking. All of the major supermarket chains now offer a range of barbecue products, although availability is usually limited to the barbecue season (late spring to early autumn).
Modern British cuisine, including barbecuing, is often cosmopolitan in nature, drawing on traditions and influences from the nation's multi-ethnic minority communities and around the globe. Generally the British barbecuing style tends to most closely resemble that of North America and Australia, however.
Middle East and Eastern Mediterranean[edit]
Iran[edit]
There are various types of Persian-style kabob, the main one being kubideh kabob, which is seasoned ground beef that is skewered and barbecued outside on a charcoal flame. There is also a marinated chicken kabob called jujeh kabob, and a filet mignon steak kabob called kabob barg. Both are skewered as well. All three main types of Persian kabob are usually served with Iranian style saffron rice and salad Shirazi, but can also be eaten with Middle Eastern lavash bread.
Lebanon and Israel[edit]
The Lebanese specialty shish taouk, the Middle Eastern kebab, made from beef and lamb, beef steaks, chicken, or non-pork sausages, are popular barbecue dishes in the region. Mangal, Arabic for a grill, is the act of grilling meat on coals outdoors and also known as "On the fire" (Hebrew: Al Ha'esh - על האש). Barbecue is very popular in Israel, especially on Yom Ha'atzmaut (Israel Independence Day), celebrated with picnics and mangal. The meat is eaten with pita bread, tahini, hummus, Arabi salad, tabouli, and other salads. (See also: Al Tazaj Shish Taoouq chain.)
Turkey[edit]
Turkish mangal
Like other mediterranean cuisines, barbecuing is popular in Turkey. Kebabs like şiş kebap, Adana kebap, köfte, fishes, chicken, some offals like heart, kidney, liver, testicle, sucuk, and some vegetables are usually cooked on a mangal.
North America[edit]
Canada[edit]
Meats have been cooked over open flames by the Aboriginal peoples of Canada since the beginning of the human habitation of North America.[14] US-style barbecue culture is a recent import to Canada, having been introduced following the Second World War.[15] Its arrival coincided with the commercially driven popularization of a type of "domestic masculinity" for middle-class suburban fathers in the 1950s. This was a sharp break with the Canadian tradition, however, and as late as 1955, an article in Maclean's magazine called the practice "weird".[16] Therefore, barbecue, in one sense, cannot be said to be a deeply held Canadian tradition. Yet by the late 1950s, the barbecue, once a fad, had become a permanent part of Canadian summers.
Canadian barbecue takes many influences from its American neighbour, as well as from British, Central European, and Euro-Mediterranean barbecue styles. The most common items cooked on a Canadian barbecue are: chicken, burgers, ribs, steaks, sausages, and shish kebabs. Barbecue sauce is either brushed on when the meats are cooking, or before the meats are served. As in the United States, barbecue cook-off competitions are quite common. Barbecue cookouts, either pit-smoking, baking, grilling (charbroiling, grid ironing, or griddling), or braising (by putting a broth-filled pot on top of a charbroil-grill or gridiron-grill), can also be combined with picnics, as is done in the United States.
Regional varieties are present between provinces, as well as regionally within provinces. Since mass consumer society allows once traditional local products to be sold in all regions, these are to be considered stereotypical examples only. British Columbian barbecues might feature salmon and chicken cooked indirectly on a cedar plank, a method indigenous to the Pacific coast. Those of the Prairie Provinces would likely feature beef steaks and sausage. Ontario barbecues are more likely to contain bbq ribs and burgers. Quebec-style barbecue draws closer and greater influences in style from European and Mediterranean grilling, baking, and braising traditions, and Louisiana barbecue, which likewise is also distinct from the barbecue styles of the rest of the American Deep South due to the influences of the unique regional cuisines of the state: Cajun cuisine and Louisiana Creole cuisine, which both descend from French and other Central European and Euro-Mediterranean cuisines. In addition to rubs and sauces, meats are marinated in various mixtures containing olive oil, and citrus juices; persillade is often added as a garnish, and meat skewers, called brochettes (French) or souvlakis (Greek), are also very common.
Mexico[edit]
Main article: Mexican cuisine
Parrillada carne asada
In Mexico the Horno is a traditional earthen barbecue tradition. Carne asada (literally meaning "roasted meat") consists of marinated cuts of beef rubbed with salt and pepper, and then grilled. Normally, it is accompanied with tortillas and grilled onions and bell peppers as well. This dish is now extremely popular in the entire country; although it is widely believed to have originated in the northern part of Mexico, it is now found almost everywhere in Mexico and the southwestern United States. Additionally, there are several other types of meats that are barbecued in Mexico, depending on the geographic region. In the northern part of the country, Cabrito is a popular barbecue dish, which consists of an entire kid goat, minus head, hooves and entrails (except the kidneys), slowly grilled/smoked on an open charcoal grill. The kidneys release a strong desired flavor as the carcass is slowly cooking over the fire. A somewhat similar dish, popular all over the country, is barbacoa, which is sheep meat slowly cooked over an open flame, or more traditionally in a fire pit. Also, as in many other places in Latin America, there is a strong tradition in Mexico of preparing pollo asado (roasted halved chicken) on mesquite charcoal-fired grills after the chicken meat has been marinated overnight in an often secretly guarded recipe adobo sauce.
In addition to carne asada, there are several types of beef, chicken and pork, as well as sausages (such as (chorizo, moronga, etc.) that are grilled during back yard or picnic-style events, commonly referred to as parrilladas. Some types of vegetables may be grilled alongside the meat, most commonly green onions, bell peppers and chile peppers, commonly referred to in Mexico as chiles toreados, or "bull-fought chiles". Ofte Quesadillas and tortillas accompany the consumption of grilled meat at these events, as well as soft drinks for children and alcoholic beverages for adults.
United States[edit]
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Main article: Barbecue in the United States
There is a wide variety of barbecue styles in the United States, but four major styles commonly referenced, North Carolina and Memphis, which rely on pork and represent the oldest styles, and Kansas City and Texas, which use beef as well as pork.
Although regional differences in barbecue are influencing one another more, as are many other aspects of regional culture, some traditions remain. The U.S. has a range of contemporary suburban barbecue equipment and styles, which often consist of baking, grilling (charbroiling, grid ironing, or griddling), braising (by putting a broth-filled pot on top of a charbroil-grill or gridiron-grill), or smoking various meats (depending on the various cuts).
Many Americans in cooler regions have barbecues only during the warm seasons, or all year in the South and California, with barbecue cookouts part of a picnic or the family meal at home. The big holidays for barbecuing and picnicking are the Memorial Day weekend, the traditional start of the summer vacation season, and the Fourth of July Independence Day celebration. Americans barbecue meats such as: chicken, beef, lamb, pork, and also fish and vegetables. In addition, during the fall and winter holidays, people in the southern regions of the country also tend to barbecue whole turkeys. Barbecue cook-off competitions are very common throughout the southern half of the country, and more recently have become more common in the northern part of the mainland and Hawaii.
South America[edit]
Asado de tira (Flanken-cut Short ribs)
Asado with achuras (offal) and sausages
Former President of Uruguay Tabaré Vázquez receives former U.S. President George W. Bush with asado a la parrilla
An asado on an open pit, an alternative desirable in good weather and with a large crowd of guests
Main article: Asado
Asado is a technique for cooking cuts of meat, usually beef, alongside various other meats, which are cooked on a grill (parrilla) or open fire. It is considered the traditional dish of Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Chile, southern Brazil, and the Bolivian Chaco.
Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay[edit]
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Also generally called Parrilla or Parrillada in Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay, some alternatives are the asado al disco and asado al horno de barro, especially in the countryside. The recipe does not change, only the method of cooking the meat and offal. In the more conventional style asado a la parrilla, different cuts of meat, sausages and offal are placed on top of a metallic mesh with legs (parrilla) such that the meat stands some 15 cm above the ground, below the parrilla is placed charcoal, and the cooking takes some 60 to 90 minutes depending on the thickness of the meat cut.
In the asado al disco the worn out disc of a plough is used. Being metallic and concave, three or four metallic legs are welded and with hot coal or lumber below it is easily transformed into a very effective grill. Meat and offal are put in spiral, in such a way that the fat naturally slips to the centre, preserving the meat from being fried. Chili peppers and onions are usually put next to the edge, so that they gradually release their juices onto the meat.
The asado al horno de barro differs from traditional asado, as an horno (adobe oven) is used. These primitive ovens are a common view in Argentine estancias, and their primary function is to bake bread, but they are well suited for roasting meat. Pork suckling and, less commonly, lamb are served, as they are less likely to dry out. Though not technically a grill, it is a very traditional way of cooking that still requires the great skills of an asador and the gathering of family and friends, which are the essence of asado. Moreover, this cooking method yields a tender dish with a smoky flavour.
Brazil[edit]
Main article: Brazilian cuisine
The barbecue-style meat known as Churrasco, is the cooking style which translates roughly from the Portuguese for barbecue. Many Brazilian restaurants called Churrascarias in Brazil and abroad serve churrasco.
Chile[edit]
In Chile, the local version of the asado is usually accompanied with pebre, a local condiment made from pureed herbs, garlic and mildly hot peppers that is similar to chimichurri in many ways.
Oceania[edit]
Australia[edit]
In Australia, barbecues are a popular summer pastime. Sometimes known colloquially as a "barbie" or sometimes "barby" (plural "barbies"), and often written as BBQ, the traditional meat used historically was lamb chops and beef steak for adults, and sausages (colloquially known as "snags") for both children and adults. Coin-operated or free public gas or electric barbecues are common in city parks. While Australian barbecue uses similar seasonings to its American counterpart, smoking or sugary sauces are used less often. Beer is often drizzled over cooking chops and steak during cooking, the theory being that it adds flavour while making the meat more tender. Meat is sometimes marinated for flavour and is then cooked on a hot plate or grill. Australian barbecues tend to be either all hot-plate or half and half hot-plate/grill. The barbecuing of prawns has become increasingly popular in Australia. US-style barbecuing, as opposed to the traditional grilling techniques, is becoming more popular.
Barbecues are also common for fundraising for schools and local communities, where sausages and plate-barbecued chopped onions are served on white bread with tomato sauce or unheated barbecue sauce. These are most often referred to as sausage sizzles. This is also a popular method for feeding emergency services volunteers, and occasionally evacuees or stranded travellers; often with a range of commercially made salads. Eggs and bacon can also be cooked on the hot-plate, generally at breakfast time.
Hawaii[edit]
The cooking customs of the indigenous peoples of Polynesia became the traditional Hawaiian barbecue of Kalua in an underground oven called an Imu, and the Luau, of the Native Hawaiians. It was brought to international attention by 20th century tourism to the Hawaiian islands.
New Zealand[edit]
Barbecues are a very popular activity in New Zealand. As well as being a common feature in New Zealanders' gardens, barbecues are also found at most campsites and many beaches throughout the country. Foods cooked include: beef, lamb, pork, fresh fish, crayfish, shellfish, and vegetables. Sausages are a popular and demanded element of barbecues and, as in Australia, sausage sizzles are one of the most common forms of fundraiser. New Zealand barbecue is similar to a mix of American, British, Australian, South African and Pacific Island styles.
New Zealand’s Maori have the hangi, a type of earth oven, used for cooking on special occasions. Multi-cultural society in New Zealand has also led to Pakistani/Indian, East Asian, South American, and Middle Eastern cuisines all influencing the flavours and types of food found at a barbecue.
South Pacific islands[edit]
Barbecuing is popular in the Australasian, Melanesian, Micronesian, and Polynesian islands, and every country and culture has its own version of earth oven barbecue cuisine. Some of the most legendary and continuously practiced examples can be found in South Pacific Oceania.
Tahitians call their earth oven barbecue a Hima’a. A thousand miles away in the Marquesas Islands, it is known as the Umu. With many tropical islands' styles of barbecue, the meat is marinated, glazed with a savoury sauce, and adorned with local tropical fruits. While pork predominates, horse is also popular in countries such as Tonga and Samoa.
See also[edit]
Food portal
Barbecue
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List of smoked foods
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Fran Osseo-Asare (2005). Food Culture in Sub-Saharan Africa. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 81. ISBN 0-313-32488-3.
Jump up ^ Mulrooney, Thomas. "Barbecues Around The World: South African Barbecue Braai". News.BBQBarbecues. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "MANAGEMENT OF INVASIVE ALIEN PLANTS". Department of Water Affairs. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Barbecue advice – South African style". healthlisted.com. Retrieved 15 February 2015.
Jump up ^ "South African Braai Etiquette". YouTube. 2006-08-05. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
Jump up ^ "National Braai Day". Sa-venues.com. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
Jump up ^ Hendricks, Erin. "National Braai Day in Cape Town". capetownmagazine.com. capetownmagazine.com. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Braai". Braaiday.co.za. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
Jump up ^ "Tutu: One nation, one braai". Mg.co.za. 2008-09-02. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
Jump up ^ Independent Newspapers Online (23 September 2009). "SA unites on Heritage Day – South Africa | IOL News". IOL.co.za. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Braai". Braai4heritage.co.za. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
Jump up ^ "Hong Kong's best public barbecue sites". CNN. travel.cnn.com. 17 August 2010. Retrieved 14 March 2013.
Jump up ^ "National Parks Board". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on 30 March 2012. Retrieved 2016-01-13.
Jump up ^ "The Origin of Barbacoa". Barbacoa Classico. Retrieved 24 September 2013.
Jump up ^ "Finding a Place for Father: Selling the Barbecue in Postwar Canada | Érudit | Journal of the Canadian Historical Association v9 n1 1998, p. 209-223 |". Erudit.org. Retrieved 2015-08-03.
Jump up ^ Dummitt, Chris (1998). "Finding a Place for Father: Selling the Barbecue in Post-war Canada" (PDF). Vol. 9, No. 1. Journal of the Canadian Historical Association. pp. 209–223. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
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Declaration of war by the United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Franklin D. Roosevelt signs the declaration of war against Japan on December 8, 1941
A declaration of war is a formal declaration issued by a national government indicating that a state of war exists between that nation and another. The document Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force: Historical Background and Legal Implications gives an extensive listing and summary of statutes which are automatically engaged upon the US declaring war.
For the United States, Article One, Section Eight of the Constitution says "Congress shall have power to ... declare War". However, that passage provides no specific format for what form legislation must have in order to be considered a "declaration of war" nor does the Constitution itself use this term. In the courts, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, in Doe v. Bush, said: "[T]he text of the October Resolution itself spells out justifications for a war and frames itself as an 'authorization' of such a war."[1] in effect saying an authorization suffices for declaration and what some may view as a formal Congressional "Declaration of War" was not required by the Constitution.
This article will use the term "formal declaration of war" to mean Congressional legislation that uses the phrase "declaration of war" in the title. Elsewhere, this article will use the terms "authorized by Congress", "funded by Congress" or "undeclared war" to describe other such conflicts.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Declarations of war
2.1 Formal
3 Undeclared wars
3.1 Military engagements authorized by Congress
3.2 Military engagements authorized by United Nations Security Council Resolutions and funded by Congress
3.3 Other undeclared wars
4 The War Powers Resolution
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
History[edit]
The United States has formally declared war against foreign nations five separate times, each upon prior request by the President of the United States. Four of those five declarations came after hostilities had begun.[2] James Madison reported that in the Federal Convention of 1787, the phrase "make war" was changed to "declare war" in order to leave to the Executive the power to repel sudden attacks but not to commence war without the explicit approval of Congress.[3] Debate continues as to the legal extent of the President's authority in this regard. Public opposition to American involvement in foreign wars, particularly during the 1930s, was expressed as support for a Constitutional Amendment that would require a national referendum on a declaration of war.[4] Several Constitutional Amendments, such as the Ludlow Amendment, have been proposed that would require a national referendum on a declaration of war.
After Congress repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in January 1971 and President Richard Nixon continued to wage war in Vietnam, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution (Pub.L. 93–148) over the veto of Nixon in an attempt to rein in some of the president's claimed powers. The War Powers Resolution proscribes the only power of the president to wage war which is recognized by Congress.
Declarations of war[edit]
Formal[edit]
The table below lists the five wars in which the United States has formally declared war against eleven foreign nations.[5] The only country against which the United States has declared war more than once is Germany, against which the United States has declared war twice (though a case could be made for Hungary as a successor state to Austria-Hungary).
In World War II, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Germany and Italy, led respectively by Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, declared war on the United States, and the U.S. Congress responded in kind.[6][7]
War
Declaration
Opponent(s)
Date of declaration
Votes
President
Result
Senate
House
War of 1812 Declaration of War upon the U.K. United Kingdom June 18, 1812 19–13 79–49 James Madison Treaty of Ghent (December 24, 1814)
Mexican–American War "An Act providing for the Prosecution of the existing War between the United States and the Republic of Mexico."[8] Mexico May 13, 1846 40–2 173–14 James K. Polk Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (February 2, 1848)
Spanish–American War Declaration of War upon Spain Spain April 25, 1898 42–35 310–6 William McKinley Treaty of Paris (December 10, 1898)
World War I Declaration of War upon Germany Germany April 6, 1917 82–6 373–50 Woodrow Wilson Treaty of Berlin (August 25, 1921)
Declaration of War upon Austria-Hungary[9][10] Austria-Hungary December 7, 1917 74–0 365–1 1921 U.S.–Austrian Peace Treaty (August 24, 1921), 1921 U.S.-Hungarian Peace Treaty (August 29, 1921)
World War II Declaration of War upon Japan Japan December 8, 1941 82–0 388–1 Franklin D. Roosevelt V-J Day, Japanese Instrument of Surrender (September 2, 1945), Treaty of San Francisco (September 8, 1951)
Declaration of War upon Germany Germany December 11, 1941 88–0 393–0 V-E Day, German Instrument of Surrender (May 8, 1945), Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany (September 12, 1990), Treaty of Vienna with Austria (May 15, 1955)
Declaration of War upon Italy Italy 90–0 399–0 Paris Peace Treaty (February 10, 1947)
Declaration of War upon Bulgaria Bulgaria June 5, 1942 73–0 357–0
Declaration of War upon Hungary[9] Hungary 360–0
Declaration of War upon Romania[9] Romania 361–0
Undeclared wars[edit]
Military engagements authorized by Congress[edit]
In other instances, the United States has engaged in extended military combat that was authorized by Congress.
War or conflict
Opponent(s)
Initial authorization
Votes
President
Result
Senate
House
Quasi-War France An Act further to protect the commerce of the United States
July 9, 1798 18–4 John Adams Treaty of Mortefontaine
First Barbary War Morocco
Tripolitania
February 6, 1802[11] Thomas Jefferson War ended 1805
Second Barbary War Algiers May 10, 1815[12] James Madison War ended 1816
Enforcing 1808 slave trade ban; naval squadron sent to African waters to apprehend illegal slave traders Slave traders and pirates "Act in addition to the acts prohibiting the Slave Trade" 1819 James Monroe 1822 first African-American settlement founded in Liberia, 1823 U.S. Navy stops anti-trafficking patrols
Redress for attack on U.S. Navy's USS Water Witch Paraguay 1858.[13] James Buchanan
Mexican Revolution
United States occupation of Veracruz
Mexico H.J.R. 251, 38 Stat. 770
April 22, 1914 337–37 Woodrow Wilson Force withdrawn after six months. However, the Joint Resolution was likely used to authorize the Pancho Villa Expedition. In the Senate, "when word reached the Senate that the invasion had gone forward before the use-of-force resolution had been approved, Republicans reacted angrily" saying it was a violation of the Constitution, but eventually after the action had already started, a resolution was passed after the action to "justify" it since Senators did not think it was a declaration of war.[14][15]
Russian Civil War
Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War
Commune of Estonia
Far Eastern Republic
Latvia
Mongolian People's Party
Russia
Ukraine
1918[16] Woodrow Wilson
Lebanon crisis of 1958 Lebanese Opposition
Al-Mourabitoun
Lebanese Communist Party
Progressive Socialist Party
H.J. Res. 117, Public Law 85-7, Joint Resolution "To promote peace and stability in the Middle East", March 9, 1957[17] 72–19 355–61 Dwight D. Eisenhower U.S. forces withdrawn, October 25, 1958
Vietnam War
Laotian Civil War
Cambodian Civil War
China
National United Front of Kampuchea
Khmer Rouge
Khmer Rumdo
Khmer Việt Minh
North Korea
North Vietnam
Pathet Lao
South Vietnam
Việt Cộng
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, August 7, 1964 88–2 416–0 Lyndon B. Johnson U.S. forces withdrawn under terms of the Paris Peace Accords signed January 27, 1973
Multinational Force in Lebanon Shia and Druze militias; Syria S.J.Res. 159
Pub.L. 98–119
September 29, 1983 54–46 253–156 Ronald W. Reagan Forces withdrawn in 1984
Persian Gulf War Iraq H.J.Res. 77
January 12, 1991. 52–47 250–183 George H.W. Bush The United Nations Security Council drew up terms for the cease-fire, April 3, 1991
War in Afghanistan
Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan
Operation Freedom's Sentinel
al-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen
Yemeni Civil War
Somali Civil War
Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa
War in North-West Pakistan
Moro conflict
Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines
Iraqi Civil War
Operation Inherent Resolve
Syrian Civil War
Operation Inherent Resolve
Second Libyan Civil War
Afghanistan
Quetta Shura
Taliban
Haqqani network
Mullah Dadullah Front
al-Qaeda
055 Brigade
Al-Nusra Front
Khorasan group
al-Qaeda Emirate in Yemen
Aden-Abyan Islamic Army
Islamic Jihad of Yemen
al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula
Ansar al-Sharia
al-Qaeda in the Indian Subcontinent
Lashkar al-Zil
Harakat Ahrar al-Sham al-Islamiyya
Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin
Islamic Jihad Union
Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan
Jamaat-ul-Ahrar
Jundallah
Lashkar-e-Islam
Lashkar-e-Jhangvi
Tehreek-e-Nafaz-e-Shariat-e-Mohammadi
Turkistan Islamic Party
Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan
High Council of the Islamic Emirate
Fidai Mahaz
al-Itihaad al-Islamiya
Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia
Harakat al-Shabaab Mujahedeen
Hizbul Islam
Islamic Courts Union
Jabhatul Islamiya
Mu'askar Anole
Ras Kamboni Brigades
Abu Sayyaf
Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters
Islamic State
Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan
Maute group
Khalifa Islamiyah Mindanao
S.J. Res. 23
September 14, 2001 98–0 420–1 George W. Bush
Iraq War[18] Iraq H.J. Res. 114,
March 3, 2003 77–23 296–132 George W. Bush Ba'athist Iraqi government deposed April 2003. U.S. combat operations ended August 31, 2010. War ended December 15, 2011. Destabilization of Iraq and emergence of ISIL in the region 2011–present.[19]
Military engagements authorized by United Nations Security Council Resolutions and funded by Congress[edit]
In many instances, the United States has engaged in extended military engagements that were authorized by United Nations Security Council Resolutions and funded by appropriations from Congress.
Military engagement
Opponent(s)
Initial authorization
President
Result
Korean War China
North Korea
Soviet Union
UNSCR 84, 1950 Harry S. Truman Korean Armistice Agreement,[20] 1953
Multinational Force in Lebanon Shia militias, Druze militias, Syria UNSCR 425, 1978
UNSCR 426, 1978
Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan U.S. forces withdrew in 1984
Persian Gulf War Iraq UNSCR 678, 1990 George H. W. Bush UNSCR 689, 1991
Bosnian War Republika Srpska UNSCR 770, 1992
UNSCR 776, 1992
UNSCR 836, 1993 Bill Clinton Reflagged as IFOR in 1995, Reflagged as SFOR in 1996, Completed in 2004
Second Liberian Civil War Peacekeeping UNSCR 1497, 2003 George W. Bush U.S. forces are withdrawn in 2003 after the UNMIL is established.
Haitian coup d'état UNSCR 1529, 2004
UNSCR 1542, 2004
2004
First Libyan Civil War
2011 military intervention in Libya
Operation Odyssey Dawn
Operation Unified Protector
Libya UNSCR 1973, 2011 Barack Obama Debellation of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, October 31, 2011
Other undeclared wars[edit]
Military engagement
Opponent(s)
President
Result
American Revolutionary War Great Britain
Quebec
Loyalists
German auxiliaries
Hesse-Kassel
Hesse-Hanau
Hanover
Waldeck
Brunswick
Ansbach
Anhalt-Zerbst
Native Americans[21]
Iroquois Confederacy
None Peace of Paris
On at least 125 occasions, the President has acted without prior express military authorization from Congress.[22] These include instances in which the United States fought in the Philippine–American War from 1898–1903, in Nicaragua in 1927, as well as the NATO bombing campaign of Yugoslavia in 1999, and the 2017 missile strikes on Syria.
The United States' longest war was fought between approximately 1840 and 1886 against the Apache Nation. During that entire 46-year period, there was never more than 90 days of peace.[citation needed]
The Indian Wars comprise at least 28 conflicts and engagements. These localized conflicts, with Native Americans, began with European colonists coming to North America, long before the establishment of the United States. For the purpose of this discussion, the Indian Wars are defined as conflicts with the United States of America. They begin as one front in the American Revolutionary War in 1775 and had concluded by 1918. The United States Army still maintains a campaign streamer for Pine Ridge 1890–1891 despite opposition from certain Native American groups.[23]
The American Civil War was not an international conflict under the laws of war, because the Confederate States of America was not a government that had been granted full diplomatic recognition as a sovereign nation by other sovereign states.[24][25] The CSA was recognized by the United States government as a belligerent power, a different status of recognition that authorized Confederate warships to visit non-U.S. ports. This recognition of the CSA's status as a belligerent power did not impose any duty upon the United States to recognize the sovereignty of the Confederacy, and the United States never did so.
The War Powers Resolution[edit]
Main article: War Powers Resolution
In 1973, following the withdrawal of most American troops from the Vietnam War, a debate emerged about the extent of presidential power in deploying troops without a declaration of war. A compromise in the debate was reached with the War Powers Resolution. This act clearly defined how many soldiers could be deployed by the President of the United States and for how long. It also required formal reports by the President to Congress regarding the status of such deployments, and limited the total amount of time that American forces could be deployed without a formal declaration of war.
Although the constitutionality of the act has never been tested, it is usually followed, most notably during the Grenada Conflict, the Panamanian Conflict, the Somalia Conflict, the Persian Gulf War, and the Iraq War[clarification needed]. The only exception was President Clinton's use of U.S. troops in the 78-day NATO air campaign against Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War.[citation needed] In all other cases, the President asserted the constitutional authority to commit troops without the necessity of Congressional approval, but in each case the President received Congressional authorization that satisfied the provisions of the War Powers Act.
On March 21, 2011, a number of lawmakers expressed concern that the decision of President Barack Obama to order the U.S. military to join in attacks of Libyan air defenses and government forces exceeded his constitutional authority because the decision to authorize the attack was made without Congressional permission.[26] Obama explained his rationale in a two-page letter, stating that as commander in chief, he had constitutional authority to authorize the strikes, which would be limited in scope and duration, and necessary to prevent a humanitarian disaster in Libya.
See also[edit]
United States portal
War portal
Cold War
Declaration of war by Canada
Declaration of war by the United Kingdom
Just War Theory
Police action
Timeline of United States military operations
War on Terror
War on Drugs
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Doe v. Bush, 03-1266, (March 13, 2003)". FindLaw. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
Jump up ^ Henderson, Phillip G. (2000). The presidency then and now. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-8476-9739-7.
Jump up ^ The Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 reported by James Madison : August 17,The Avalon Project, Yale Law School, retrieved Feb 13, 2008
Jump up ^ "Petition for a Constitutional Amendment to Hold National Referendums on Declarations of War from Danville, Ohio". The National Archives of the United States. 1938. Retrieved July 29, 2016.
Jump up ^ Official Declarations of War by Congress
Jump up ^ BBC News, On This Day
Jump up ^ Whereas the Government of Germany has formally declared war against the government and the people of the United States of America... the state of war between the United States and the Government of Germany which has thus been thrust upon the United States is hereby formally declared. The War Resolution
Jump up ^ United States Congress (May 13, 1846). "An Act providing for the Prosecution of the existing War between the United States and the Republic of Mexico" (PDF). Government of the United States of America. Government of the United States of America. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 10, 2006. Retrieved August 10, 2006.
^ Jump up to: a b c Declarations of War and Authorizations for the Use of Military Force: Historical Background and Legal Implications
Jump up ^ H.J.Res.169: Declaration of War with Austria-Hungary, WWI, United States Senate
Jump up ^ Key Events in the Presidency of Thomas Jefferson, Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia, (retrieved on August 10, 2010).
Jump up ^ Key Events in the Presidency of James Madison, Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia, (retrieved on August 10, 2010).
Jump up ^ Expenses - Paraguay Expedition, House of Representatives, 36th Congress, 1st Session, Mis. Doc. No. 86 (May 11, 1860), p. 142
Jump up ^ Cyrulik, John M., A Strategic Examination of the Punitive Expedition into Mexico, 1916-1917. Fort Leavenworth, KS, 2003. (Master's thesis)
Jump up ^ Wolfensberger, Don. Congress and Woodrow Wilson's Introductory Forays into Mexico, an Introductory Essay. Congress Project Seminar On Congress and U.S. Military Interventions Abroad. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Monday, May 17, 2004
Jump up ^ A History of Russia, 7th Edition, Nichlas V. Riasanovsky & Mark D. Steinberg, Oxford University Press, 2005.
Jump up ^ http://www.shafr.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/U.S.-Congress-Approval-of-the-Eisenhower-Doctrine-1957.pdf
Jump up ^ Obama's full speech: Operation Iraqi Freedom is Over, MSNBC
Jump up ^ Londoño, Ernesto (August 19, 2010). "Operation Iraqi Freedom ends as last combat soldiers leave Baghdad". The Washington Post.
Jump up ^ s:Korean Armistice Agreement
Jump up ^ Onondaga, Mohawk, Cayuga, Seneca, Mi'kmaq (from 1779), Cherokee, Odawa, Muscogee, Susquehannock, Shawnee
Jump up ^ The President's Constitutional Authority To Conduct Military Operations Against Terrorists and Nations Supporting Them
Jump up ^ Army Continues to Parade Wounded Knee Battle Streamer, National Congress of American Indians.
Jump up ^ "Preventing Diplomatic Recognition of the Confederacy, 1861–1865". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on August 28, 2013.
Jump up ^ McPherson, James M. (2007). This Mighty Scourge: Perspectives on the Civil War. Oxford University Press US. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-19-531366-6.
Jump up ^ Obama Attacked for No Congressional Consent on Libya, New York Times.
Further reading[edit]
Grotius, Hugo (2004). On The Law Of War And Peace. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4191-3875-1.
Edwin Meese; Matthew Spalding; David F. Forte (2005). The Heritage guide to the Constitution. Regnery Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59698-001-3.
Kenneth A. Schultz, Tying Hands and Washing Hands: The U.S. Congress and Multilateral Humanitarian Intervention, Ch. 4, pp 105–142, in Daniel Drezner, Ed. Locating the Proper Authorities: The Interaction of Domestic and International Institutions, University of Michigan Press, 2003.
External links[edit]
The House of Rep, Republican Study Committee of War and Military Authorized Conflicts. 2003.
Declarations of war and votes
Text of Declaration of War on Japan
Text of Declaration of War on Germany
Text of Declaration of War on Bulgaria
Authorization for Use of Military Force — signed September 18, 2001
House Joint Resolution Authorizing Use of Force Against Iraq — signed October 16, 2002
Instances of Use of United States Forces Abroad, 1798–1993
A partial list of U.S. military interventions from 1890 to 2006
U.S.-Africa Chronology
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Declaration_of_war_by_the_United_States&oldid=825903319"
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