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Fish oil
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oil derived from the tissues of oily fish
Fish oil capsules
Fish oil is oil derived from the tissues of oily fish. Fish oils contain the omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), precursors of certain eicosanoids that are known to reduce inflammation in the body,[1][2] and have other health benefits, such as treating hypertriglyceridemia, although claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes have not been supported.[3][4][5][6] Fish oil and omega-3 fatty acids have been studied in a wide variety of other conditions, such as clinical depression,[7][8] anxiety,[9][10][11] cancer, and macular degeneration, yet benefits in these conditions have not been verified.[12]
The fish used as sources do not actually produce omega-3 fatty acids, but instead accumulate them by consuming either microalgae or prey fish that have accumulated omega-3 fatty acids.
Fatty predatory fish like sharks, swordfish, tilefish, and albacore tuna may be high in omega-3 fatty acids, but due to their position at the top of the food chain, these species may also accumulate toxic substances through biomagnification. For this reason, the United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends limiting consumption (especially for women of childbearing age) of certain (predatory) fish species (e.g. albacore tuna, shark, king mackerel, tilefish and swordfish) due to high levels of the toxic contaminant mercury. Dioxin, PCBs and chlordane are also present.[13] Fish oil is used as a component in aquaculture feed. More than 50 percent of the world's fish oil used in aquaculture feed is fed to farmed salmon.[14]
Marine and freshwater fish oil vary in contents of arachidonic acid, EPA and DHA.[15] The various species range from lean to fatty and their oil content in the tissues has been shown to vary from 0.7% to 15.5%.[16] They also differ in their effects on organ lipids.[15] Studies have revealed that there is no relation between total fish intake or estimated omega−3 fatty acid intake from all fish, and serum omega−3 fatty acid concentrations.[17] Only fatty fish intake, particularly salmonid, and estimated EPA + DHA intake from fatty fish has been observed to be significantly associated with increase in serum EPA + DHA.[17]
Contents
1 Uses
2 Nutritional details
3 Health effects
3.1 Various recommendations
3.2 Prostate cancer
3.3 Cardiovascular
3.4 Hypertension
3.5 Mental health
3.6 Alzheimer's disease
3.7 Psoriasis
3.8 Pregnancy
3.9 Crohn's disease
4 Supplement quality and concerns
4.1 Contamination
4.2 Dioxins and PCBs
4.3 Spoilage
4.4 EPA and DHA content
4.5 Formulation
4.6 Prescription fish oil
5 Dangers
5.1 Maximum intake
5.2 Vitamins
5.3 Toxic pollutants
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Uses[edit]
Often marketed and sold for consumption as part of the diet or in dietary supplements in contemporary societies, fish oils also have found roles in external use, as emollients[18] or as general ointments[19] as well as in body art,[20] or for alleged insulation against cold.[21]
Fish oil rendering in Port Dover, Ontario, 1918
Nutritional details[edit]
The most widely available dietary source of EPA and DHA is cold-water oily fish, such as salmon, herring, mackerel, anchovies, and sardines. Oils from these fish have a profile of around seven times as much omega-3 oils as omega-6 oils. Other oily fish, such as tuna, also contain omega-3 in somewhat lesser amounts. Although fish is a dietary source of omega-3 oils, fish do not synthesize them; they obtain them from the algae (microalgae in particular) or plankton in their diets.[22]
Grams of omega-3 fatty acids per 3oz (85g) serving of popular fish.[23][24]
Common name
grams
Herring, sardines 1.3–2
Spanish mackerel, Atlantic, Pacific 1.1–1.7
Salmon 1.1–1.9
Halibut 0.60–1.12
Tuna 0.21–1.1
Swordfish 0.97
Greenshell/lipped mussels 0.95[25]
Tilefish 0.9
Tuna (canned, light) 0.17–0.24
Pollock 0.45
Cod 0.15–0.24
Catfish 0.22–0.3
Flounder 0.48
Grouper 0.23
Mahi mahi 0.13
Orange roughy 0.028
Red snapper 0.29
Shark 0.83
King mackerel 0.36
Hoki (blue grenadier) 0.41
Silver gemfish 0.40
Blue eye cod 0.31
Sydney rock oyster 0.30
Tuna, canned 0.23
Snapper 0.22
Barramundi, saltwater 0.100
Giant tiger prawn 0.100
For comparison, note the omega-3 levels in some common non-fish foods:
Grams of omega-3 fatty acids per 3oz (85g) serving of common non-fish foods.[23]
Name
grams
Flaxseeds 19.55
Chia seeds 14.8
Hemp seeds 7.4
Walnut 1.7
Soybean 1.1
Butter 0.27
Eggs, large regular 0.109[25]
Lean red meat 0.031
Turkey 0.030
Cereals, rice, pasta, etc. 0.00
Fruit 0.00
Milk, regular 0.00
Bread, regular 0.00
Vegetables 0.00
Health effects[edit]
Kepler Cod Liver Oil with Malt Extract
Various recommendations[edit]
In a 2009 letter on a pending revision to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, the American Heart Association recommended 250–500 mg/day of EPA and DHA.[26] The Guidelines were revised again for 2015-2020; included is a recommendation that adults consume at least eight ounces of a variety of types of fish per week, equating to at least 250 mg/day of EPA + DHA.[citation needed] The Food and Drug Administration recommends not exceeding 3 grams per day of EPA + DHA from all sources, with no more than 2 grams per day from dietary supplements.[27]
Prostate cancer[edit]
The effect of fish oil consumption on prostate cancer is controversial,[28][29] as one study showed decreased risk with higher blood levels of DPA, whereas another reported increased risk of more aggressive prostate cancer with higher blood levels of combined EPA and DHA.[30] Some evidence indicated an association between high blood levels of omega-3 fatty acids and an increased prostate cancer risk.[31]
Cardiovascular[edit]
Fish oil supplement studies have failed to support claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes.[3][4][5][6] Earlier, in 2007, the American Heart Association had recommended the consumption of 1 gram of fish oil daily, preferably by eating fish, for patients with coronary artery disease, but cautioned pregnant and nursing women to avoid eating fish with high potential for mercury contaminants including mackerel, shark, and swordfish.[32] (Optimal dosage was related to body weight.)
The US National Institutes of Health lists three conditions for which fish oil and other omega-3 sources are most highly recommended: hypertriglyceridemia (high triglyceride level), preventing secondary cardiovascular disease, and hypertension (high blood pressure). It then lists 27 other conditions for which there is less evidence. It also lists possible safety concerns: "Intake of 3 grams per day or greater of omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding, although there is little evidence of significant bleeding risk at lower doses. Very large intakes of fish oil/omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of hemorrhagic (bleeding) stroke."[12]
There is also some evidence that fish oil may have a beneficial effect on certain abnormal heart rhythms.[33][34] However, a 2012 meta-analysis found no such significant benefit.[35]
A 2008 meta-study by the Canadian Medical Association Journal found fish oil supplementation did not demonstrate any preventative benefit to cardiac patients with ventricular arrhythmias.[36] A 2012 meta-analysis published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, covering 20 studies and 68,680 patients, found that Omega-3 Fatty Acid supplementation did not reduce the chance of death, cardiac death, heart attack or stroke.[37]
Hypertension[edit]
There have been some human trials that have concluded that consuming omega-3 fatty acids slightly reduces blood pressure (DHA could be more effective than EPA). It is important to note that because omega-3 fatty acids can increase the risk of bleeding, a qualified healthcare provider should be consulted before supplementing with fish oil.[38]
Mental health[edit]
A 2008 Cochrane systematic review found that limited data is available. In the one eligible study, omega-3s were an effective adjunctive therapy for depressed but not manic symptoms in bipolar disorder. The authors found an "acute need" for more randomised controlled trials.[39]
A 2009 metastudy found that patients taking omega-3 supplements with a higher EPA:DHA ratio experienced fewer depressive symptoms. The studies provided evidence that EPA may be more efficacious than DHA in treating depression. However, this metastudy concluded that due to the identified limitations of the included studies, larger, randomized trials are needed to confirm these findings.[40]
In a 2011 meta-analysis of PubMed articles about fish oil and depression from 1965 to 2010, researchers found that "nearly all of the treatment efficacy observed in the published literature may be attributable to publication bias."[41]
A 2014 meta-analysis of eleven trials conducted respectively on patients with a DSM-defined diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) and of eight trials with patients with depressive symptomatology but no diagnosis of MDD demonstrated significant clinical benefit of omega-3 PUFA treatment compared to placebo. The study concluded that: "The use of omega-3 PUFA is effective in patients with diagnosis of MDD and on depressive patients without diagnosis of MDD."[42]
Alzheimer's disease[edit]
A Cochrane meta-analysis published in June 2012 found no significant protective effect for cognitive decline for those aged 60 and over and who started taking fatty acids after this age. A co-author of the study said to Time, "Our analysis suggests that there is currently no evidence that omega-3 fatty acid supplements provide a benefit for memory or concentration in later life".[43]
Psoriasis[edit]
Diets supplemented with cod liver oil have shown beneficial effects on psoriasis.[44]
Pregnancy[edit]
Some studies reported better psychomotor development at 30 months of age in infants whose mothers received fish oil supplements for the first four months of lactation.[45] In addition, five-year-old children whose mothers received modest algae based docosahexaenoic acid supplementation for the first 4 months of breastfeeding performed better on a test of sustained attention. This suggests that docosahexaenoic acid intake during early infancy confers long-term benefits on specific aspects of neurodevelopment.[45]
In addition, provision of fish oil during pregnancy may reduce an infant’s sensitization to common food allergens and reduce the prevalence and severity of certain skin diseases in the first year of life. This effect may persist until adolescence with a reduction in prevalence and/or severity of eczema, hay fever and asthma.[46]
Crohn's disease[edit]
A 2014 Cochrane review found that, based on two large studies, fish oil supplements did not appear to be effective for maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease.[47]
Supplement quality and concerns[edit]
Fish oil is a commonly used dietary supplement, with sales in the U.S. alone reaching $976 million in 2009.[48] Problems of quality have been identified in periodic tests by independent researchers of marketed supplements containing fish oil and other marine oils. These problems include contamination, inaccurate listing of EPA and DHA levels, spoilage and formulation issues.[49]
Contamination[edit]
Fish can accumulate toxins such as mercury, dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and spoiled fish oil may produce peroxides.[50] There appears to be little risk of contamination by microorganisms, proteins, lysophospholipids, cholesterol, and trans-fats.[51]
Dioxins and PCBs[edit]
Dioxins and PCBs may be carcinogenic at low levels of exposure over time. These substances are identified and measured in one of two categories, dioxin-like PCBs and total PCBs. While the U.S. FDA has not set a limit for PCBs in supplements, the Global Organization for EPA and DHA (GOED) has established a guideline allowing for no more than 3 picograms of dioxin-like PCBs per gram of fish oil. In 2012, samples from 35 fish oil supplements were tested for PCBs. Trace amounts of PCBs were found in all samples, and two samples exceeded the GOED‘s limit.[52] Although trace amounts of PCBs contribute to overall PCB exposure, Consumerlab.com claims the amounts reported by tests it ordered on fish oil supplements are far below those found in a single typical serving of fish.[52]
Spoilage[edit]
Peroxides can be produced when fish oil spoils. A study commissioned by the government of Norway concluded there would be some health concern related to the regular consumption of oxidized (rancid) fish/marine oils, particularly in regards to the gastrointestinal tract, but there is not enough data to determine the risk. The amount of spoilage and contamination in a supplement depends on the raw materials and processes of extraction, refining, concentration, encapsulation, storage and transportation.[51] ConsumerLab.com reports in its review that it found spoilage in test reports it ordered on some fish oil supplement products.[52]
EPA and DHA content[edit]
According to independent laboratory[which?] tests, the concentrations of EPA and DHA in supplements can vary from between 8 and 80% fish oil content. The concentration depends on the source of the omega-3s, how the oil is processed, and the amounts of other ingredients included in the supplement.[52] A 2012 report claims 4 of 35 fish oil supplements it covered contained less[quantify] EPA or DHA than was claimed on the label, and 3 of 35 contained more[quantify][52] A ConsumerLab.com publication in 2010 claims 3 of 24 fish oil supplements it covered contained less[quantify] EPA and/or DHA than was claimed on the label.[48] However, the bioavailability of EPA and DHA from both capsular and emulsified fish oils has been shown to be high.[53]
Formulation[edit]
Fish oil supplements are available as liquids or capsules. Some capsules are enteric-coated to pass through the stomach before dissolving in the small intestine, thus helping prevent indigestion and "fish burps". Poorly manufactured enteric-coated products have the potential to release ingredients too early. ConsumerLab.com, a for-profit supplement testing company, reported that 1 of the 24 enteric-coated fish oil supplements it evaluated released ingredients prematurely.[48]
Prescription fish oil[edit]
Fish oil preparations that are only available with a doctor's prescription undergo the same FDA regulatory requirements as other prescription pharmaceuticals, with regard to both efficacy and safety.[54]
Dangers[edit]
A 2013 review concluded that the potential for adverse events amongst older adults taking fish oil "appear mild–moderate at worst and are unlikely to be of clinical significance".[55]
Maximum intake[edit]
The FDA recommends that consumers do not exceed more than three grams per day of EPA and DHA combined, with no more than 2 grams from a dietary supplement.[56] This is not the same as 3000 mg of fish oil. A 1000 mg pill typically has only 300 mg of omega-3; 10 such pills would equal 3000 mg of omega-3. According to the European Food Safety Authority's (EFSA) Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies, supplementation of 5 grams of EPA and DHA combined does not pose a safety concern for adults.[57] Dyerberg studied healthy Greenland Inuit and found an average intake of 5.7 grams of omega-3 EPA per day; among other effects these people had prolonged bleeding times, i.e., slower blood clotting.[58]
Vitamins[edit]
The liver and liver products (such as cod liver oil) of fish and many animals (such as seals and whales) contain omega-3, but also the active form of vitamin A. At high levels, this form of the vitamin can be dangerous (Hypervitaminosis A).[59]
Toxic pollutants[edit]
Consumers of oily fish should be aware of the potential presence of heavy metals and fat-soluble pollutants like PCBs and dioxins, which are known to accumulate up the food chain. After extensive review, researchers from Harvard's School of Public Health in the Journal of the American Medical Association (2006) reported that the benefits of fish intake generally far outweigh the potential risks.
Fish oil supplements came under scrutiny in 2006, when the Food Standards Agency in the UK and the Food Safety Authority of Ireland reported PCB levels that exceeded the European maximum limits in several fish oil brands,[60][61] which required temporary withdrawal of these brands. To address the concern over contaminated fish oil supplements, the International Fish Oil Standards (IFOS) Program, a third-party testing and accreditation program for fish oil products, was created by Nutrasource Diagnostics Inc. in Guelph, Ontario, Canada.[62]
A March 2010 lawsuit filed by a California environmental group claimed that eight brands of fish oil supplements contained excessive levels of PCB's, including CVS/pharmacy, Nature Made, Rite Aid, GNC, Solgar, Twinlab, Now Health, Omega Protein and Pharmavite. The majority of these products were either cod liver or shark liver oils. Those participating in the lawsuit claim that because the liver is the major filtering and detoxifying organ, PCB content may be higher in liver-based oils than in fish oil produced from the processing of whole fish.[63][64]
An analysis based on data from the Norwegian Women and Cancer Study (NOWAC) with regards to the dangers of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in cod liver came to the conclusion that "in Norwegian women, fish liver consumption was not associated with an increased cancer risk in breast, uterus, or colon. In contrast, a decreased risk for total cancer was found."[65]
A report by the Harvard Medical School studied five popular brands of fish oil, including Nordic Ultimate, Kirkland and CVS. They found that the brands had "negligible amounts of mercury, suggesting either that mercury is removed during the manufacturing of purified fish oil or that the fish sources used in these commercial preparations are relatively mercury-free".[66]
Microalgae oil is a vegetarian alternative to fish oil. Supplements produced from microalgae oil provide a balance of omega-3 fatty acids similar to fish oil, with a lower risk of pollutant exposure.[67]
See also[edit]
Algae
Docosahexaenoic acid
Eicosapentaenoic acid
Krill oil
Lovaza
Shark liver oil
Notes[edit]
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^ Jump up to: a b Grey, Andrew; Bolland, Mark (March 2014). "Clinical Trial Evidence and Use of Fish Oil Supplements". JAMA Internal Medicine. 174 (3): 460–62. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.12765. PMID 24352849. Retrieved 11 October 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Xin, Wei; Wei, Wei; Li, Xiaoying (2012-01-01). "Effect of fish oil supplementation on fasting vascular endothelial function in humans: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". PLOS ONE. 7 (9): e46028. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0046028. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3448723. PMID 23029372.
Jump up ^ Su, Kuan-Pin; Huang, Shih-Yi; Chiu, Chih-Chiang; Shen, Winston W. (2003). "Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder". European Neuropsychopharmacology. 13 (4): 267–71. doi:10.1016/S0924-977X(03)00032-4. PMID 12888186.
Jump up ^ Naliwaiko, K.; Araújo, R.L.F.; Da Fonseca, R.V.; Castilho, J.C.; Andreatini, R.; Bellissimo, M.I.; Oliveira, B.H.; Martins, E.F.; Curi, R.; Fernandes, L.C.; Ferraz, A.C. (2004). "Effects of Fish Oil on the Central Nervous System: A New Potential Antidepressant?". Nutritional Neuroscience. 7 (2): 91–99. doi:10.1080/10284150410001704525. PMID 15279495.
Jump up ^ Green, Pnina; Hermesh, Haggai; Monselise, Assaf; Marom, Sofi; Presburger, Gadi; Weizman, Abraham (2006). "Red cell membrane omega-3 fatty acids are decreased in nondepressed patients with social anxiety disorder". European Neuropsychopharmacology. 16 (2): 107–13. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2005.07.005. PMID 16243493.
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^ Jump up to: a b Innis, Sheila M.; Rioux, France M.; Auestad, Nancy; Ackman, Robert G. (1995). "Marine and freshwater fish oil varying in arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids differ in their effects on organ lipids and fatty acids in growing rats". The Journal of Nutrition. 125 (9): 2286–93. PMID 7666244.
Jump up ^ Gruger, E. H.; Nelson, R. W.; Stansby, M. E. (1 October 1964). "Fatty acid composition of oils from 21 species of marine fish, freshwater fish and shellfish". Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society. 41 (10): 662–67. doi:10.1007/BF02661403. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
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Jump up ^ Burch, Ernest S. (2006). Social Life in Northwest Alaska: The Structure of Iñupiaq Eskimo Nations. University of Alaska Press. p. 278. ISBN 9781889963921. Retrieved 2014-10-23. Oil was also used externally as an ointment to heal cold sores, cuts, insect bites, frostbite, rashes - in short, skin problems of all kinds. Duck or goose body-cavity fat was apparently as useful as seal or fish oil in dealing with skin problems.
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^ Jump up to: a b Jensen, Craig L.; Voigt, Robert G.; Llorente, Antolin M.; Peters, Sarika U.; Prager, Thomas C.; Zou, Yali L.; Rozelle, Judith C.; Turcich, Marie R.; Fraley, J. Kennard; Anderson, Robert E.; Heird, William C. (2010). "Effects of Early Maternal Docosahexaenoic Acid Intake on Neuropsychological Status and Visual Acuity at Five Years of Age of Breast-Fed Term Infants". The Journal of Pediatrics. 157 (6): 900–05. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.06.006. PMID 20655543.
Jump up ^ Calder, Philip C.; Kremmyda, Lefkothea-Stella; Vlachava, Maria; Noakes, Paul S.; Miles, Elizabeth A. (2010). "Is there a role for fatty acids in early life programming of the immune system?". Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 69 (3): 373–80. doi:10.1017/S0029665110001552. PMID 20462467.
Jump up ^ Lev-Tzion, R; Griffiths, AM; Leder, O; Turner, D (28 February 2014). "Omega 3 fatty acids (fish oil) for maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2: CD006320. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006320.pub4. PMID 24585498.
^ Jump up to: a b c "ConsumerLab.com Finds Quality Problems with Nearly Thirty Percent of Fish Oil Supplements Reviewed; "Fishy" Claims Identified: Softgels and Liquids for Adults, Children and Pets Tested, Including Krill Oil and Algal Oil Supplements". ConsumerLab.com. 28 September 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2012. [dubious – discuss]
Jump up ^ Reviews of Supplements and Health Products ConsumerLab.
Jump up ^ Schecter, A.; Cramer, P.; Boggess, K.; Stanley, J.; Olson, J. R. (1997-04-01). "Levels of dioxins, dibenzofurans, PCB and DDE congeners in pooled food samples collected in 1995 at supermarkets across the United States". Chemosphere. 34 (5–7): 1437–47. doi:10.1016/s0045-6535(97)00440-2. ISSN 0045-6535. PMID 9134677.
^ Jump up to: a b Aursand, Marit; Mozuraityte, Revilija; Hamre, Kristin; Knutsen, Helle; Maage, Amund; Arukwe, Augustine (2011). Description of the processes in the value chain and risk assessment of decomposition substances and oxidation products in fish oils (PDF). Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety. ISBN 978-82-8259-035-8. Retrieved 19 October 2012. [page needed]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "ConsumerLab.com Review: Fish Oil and Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplements Review (Including Krill, Algae, and Calamari Oil)". ConsumerLab.com. 13 August 2012. Retrieved 19 October 2012. (registration required)
Jump up ^ Raatz, SK; Redmon, JB; Wimmergren, N; Donadio, JV; Bibus, DM (2009). "Enhanced absorption of omega-3 fatty acids after emulsified compared with encapsulated fish oil". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 109: 1076–81. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2009.03.006. PMC 2701654.
Jump up ^ Bays H E (19 March 2007). "Safety Considerations with Omega-3 Fatty Acid Therapy". The American Journal of Cardiology. 99 (6 (Supplement 1)): S35–S43. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.11.020. PMID 17368277.
Jump up ^ Villani, Anthony M; Crotty, Maria; Cleland, Leslie G; James, Michael J; Fraser, Robert J; Cobiac, Lynne; Miller, Michelle D (2013). "Fish oil administration in older adults: Is there potential for adverse events? A systematic review of the literature". BMC Geriatrics. 13 (1): 41. doi:10.1186/1471-2318-13-41. PMC 3664575. PMID 23634646.
Jump up ^ "FDA Announces Qualified Health Claims for Omega-3 Fatty Acids". 2004-09-08. Archived from the original on 2009-07-22. Retrieved 2017-08-21.
Jump up ^ "Scientific Opinion on the Tolerable Upper Intake Level of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA)". EFSA Journal. EFSA. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2815. Retrieved 14 September 2014.
Jump up ^ Kantha, SS (1987). "Dietary effects of fish oils on human health: A review of recent studies". The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 60 (1): 37–44. PMC 2590235. PMID 3551346.
Jump up ^ Lips, Paul (2003). "Hypervitaminosis a and Fractures". New England Journal of Medicine. 348 (4): 347–49. doi:10.1056/NEJMe020167. PMID 12540650.
Jump up ^ Jess Halliday (2006-04-13). "Dioxins prompt second UK fish oil withdrawal". Retrieved 8 February 2007.
Jump up ^ "Pollutants found in fish oil capsules". BBC News. 2002-04-06. Retrieved 8 February 2007.
Jump up ^ International Fish Oil Standards.
Jump up ^ Elisabeth Leamy (2010-03-03). "Lawsuit Raises Fish Oil Supplement Concerns". Retrieved 5 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "Lawsuit says fish oil supplements contain PCB", San Francisco Chronicle, 3 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Brustad, Magritt; Sandanger, Torkjel Manning; Andersen, Vegard; Lund, Eiliv (2007). "POP exposure from fish liver consumption and risk of cancer?the Norwegian Women and Cancer Study". Journal of Environmental Monitoring. 9 (7): 682–6. doi:10.1039/B706302B. PMID 17607388.
Jump up ^ Foran, Stacy E.; Flood, James G.; Lewandrowski, Kent B. (2003). "Measurement of Mercury Levels in Concentrated Over-the-Counter Fish Oil Preparations: Is Fish Oil Healthier Than Fish?". Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine. 127 (12): 1603–05. doi:10.1043/1543-2165(2003)127<1603:MOMLIC>2.0.CO;2. PMID 14632570.
Jump up ^ Doughman, Scott D.; Krupanidhi, Srirama; Sanjeevi, Carani B. (2007). "Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Nutrition and Medicine: Considering Microalgae Oil as a Vegetarian Source of EPA and DHA". Current Diabetes Reviews. 3 (3): 198–203. doi:10.2174/157339907781368968. PMID 18220672.
References[edit]
FAO (1986) The production of fish meal and oil FAO Fishery Technical Paper 142. ISBN 92-5-102464-2.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fish oil.
International Fish Oil Standards — An organization concerned with the quality of omega-3 products as it relates to the international standards established by the World Health Organization and the Council For Responsible Nutrition for purity and concentration.
Joyce A. Nettleton, ed. "PUFA Newsletter". Retrieved 20 February 2006. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link) Two newsletters, both quarterly, reviewing recent publications in essential fatty acids. One is written for researchers, the second is for consumers. Industry sponsored, academic contributors.
Omega-3 Fatty Acids American Cancer Society. Updated 11 January 2008.
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values: زيت السمك – Arabic

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-az
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-cs
display: none;

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiskeolie
Fiskeolie – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

values: روغن ماهی – Persian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

values: Ձկան յուղ – Armenian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

values: मछली का तेल – Hindi

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hr
display: none;

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BDsi
Lýsi – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

values: שמן דגים – Hebrew

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

values: Балық майы – Kazakh

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-kk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

values: Рибино масло – Macedonian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-mk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ml
display: none;

values: ငါးကြီးဆီ – Burmese

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-my
display: none;

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visolie
Visolie – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiskeolje
Fiskeolje – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tran
Tran – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sq
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiskolja
Fiskolja – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
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values: Риб'ячий жир – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
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values:
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