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Bhakti movement
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The Child Saint Sambandar, Chola dynasty, Tamil Nadu. from Freer Gallery of Art, Washington DC, He is one of the most prominent of the sixty-three Nayanars of the Saiva bhakti movement.
The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism[1] and later revolutionised in Sikhism.[2] It originated in the eighth-century Tamil south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.[1] It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.[3]
The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism.[4][5][6] The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.[7][8]
The movement has traditionally been considered as an influential social reformation in Hinduism, and provided an individual-focussed alternative path to spirituality regardless of one's caste of birth or gender.[3] Postmodern scholars question this traditional view and whether the Bhakti movement ever was a reform or rebellion of any kind.[9] They suggest Bhakti movement was a revival, reworking and recontextualisation of ancient Vedic traditions.[10]
Scriptures of the Bhakti movement include the Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana.[11][12]
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology
2 Textual roots
2.1 Shvetashvatara Upanishad
2.2 Bhagavad Gita
2.3 Sutras
3 History
3.1 Poets, writers and musicians
4 Philosophy: Nirguna and Saguna Brahman
5 Social impact
5.1 Seva, daana and community kitchens
6 Sikhism, Shakti and the Bhakti movement
7 Buddhism, Jainism and Bhakti movement
8 Christianity
9 Controversy and doubts in postmodern scholarship
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
Terminology[edit]
The Sanskrit word bhakti is derived from the root bhaj, which means "divide, share, partake, participate, to belong to".[13][14] The word also means "attachment, devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to something as a spiritual, religious principle or means of salvation".[15][16]
The meaning of the term Bhakti is analogous but different than Kama. Kama connotes emotional connection, sometimes with sensual devotion and erotic love. Bhakti, in contrast, is spiritual, a love and devotion to religious concepts or principles, that engages both emotion and intellection.[17] Karen Pechelis states that the word Bhakti should not be understood as uncritical emotion, but as committed engagement.[17] Bhakti movement in Hinduism refers to ideas and engagement that emerged in the medieval era on love and devotion to religious concepts built around one or more gods and goddesses. One who practices bhakti is called a bhakta.[18]
Textual roots[edit]
Ancient Indian texts, dated to be from the 1st millennium BCE, such as the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad and the Bhagavad Gita mention Bhakti.[19]
Shvetashvatara Upanishad[edit]
A copper alloy sculpture of a Shiva Bhakti practitioner from Tamil Nadu (11th Century or later).
The last of three epilogue verses of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, 6.23, uses the word Bhakti as follows,
यस्य देवे परा भक्तिः यथा देवे तथा गुरौ ।
तस्यैते कथिता ह्यर्थाः प्रकाशन्ते महात्मनः ॥ २३ ॥[20]

He who has highest Bhakti (love, devotion)[21] of Deva (God),
just like his Deva, so for his Guru (teacher),
To him who is high-minded,
these teachings will be illuminating.
—  Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23[22][23]
This verse is notable for the use of the word Bhakti, and has been widely cited as among the earliest mentions of "the love of God".[21][24] Scholars[25][26] have debated whether this phrase is authentic or later insertion into the Upanishad, and whether the terms "Bhakti" and "God" meant the same in this ancient text as they do in the medieval and modern era Bhakti traditions found in India. Max Muller states that the word Bhakti appears only in one last verse of the epilogue, could have been a later insertion and may not be theistic as the word was later used in much later Sandilya Sutras.[27] Grierson as well as Carus note that the first epilogue verse 6.21 is also notable for its use of the word Deva Prasada (देवप्रसाद, grace or gift of God), but add that Deva in the epilogue of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad refers to "pantheistic Brahman" and the closing credit to sage Shvetashvatara in verse 6.21 can mean "gift or grace of his Soul".[21]
Doris Srinivasan[28] states that the Upanishad is a treatise on theism, but it creatively embeds a variety of divine images, an inclusive language that allows "three Vedic definitions for personal deity". The Upanishad includes verses wherein God can be identified with the Supreme (Brahman-Atman, Self, Soul) in Vedanta monistic theosophy, verses that support dualistic view of Samkhya doctrines, as well as the synthetic novelty of triple Brahman where a triune exists as the divine soul (Deva, theistic God), individual soul (self) and nature (Prakrti, matter).[28][29] Tsuchida writes that the Upanishad syncretically combines monistic ideas in Upanishad and self-development ideas in Yoga with personification of Shiva-Rudra deity.[30] Hiriyanna interprets the text to be introducing "personal theism" in the form of Shiva Bhakti, with a shift to monotheism but in henotheistic context where the individual is encouraged to discover his own definition and sense of God.[31]
Bhagavad Gita[edit]
The Bhagavad Gita, a post-Vedic scripture composed in 5th to 2nd century BCE,[32] introduces bhakti marga (the path of faith/devotion) as one of three ways to spiritual freedom and release, the other two being karma marga (the path of works) and jnana marga (the path of knowledge).[33][34] In verses 6.31 through 6.47 of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna as an avatar of deity Vishnu, describes bhakti yoga and loving devotion, as one of the several paths to the highest spiritual attainments.[35][36]
Sutras[edit]
Shandilya and Narada are credited with two Bhakti texts, the Shandilya Bhakti Sutra and Narada Bhakti Sutra.[37][38][39]
History[edit]
Meerabai is considered as one of the most significant sants in the Vaishnava bhakti movement. She was from a 16th-century aristocratic family in Rajasthan.[40]
The Bhakti movement originated in South India during the seventh century CE, spread northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra, and gained wide acceptance in fifteenth-century Bengal and northern India.[1]
The movement started with the Saiva Nayanars[41] and the Vaisnava Alvars. Their efforts ultimately helped spread bhakti poetry and ideas throughout India by the 12th–18th century CE.[41][42]
The Alvars, which literally means "those immersed in God", were Vaishnava poet-saints who sang praises of Vishnu as they travelled from one place to another.[43] They established temple sites such as Srirangam, and spread ideas about Vaishnavism. Their poems, compiled as Alwar Arulicheyalgal or Divya Prabhandham, developed into an influential scripture for the Vaishnavas. The Bhagavata Purana's references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on bhakti, have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that bhakti movement had parallel developments in other parts of India.[44][45]
Like the Alvars, the Saiva Nayanar poets were influential. The Tirumurai, a compilation of hymns on Shiva by sixty-three Nayanar poet-saints, developed into an influential scripture in Shaivism. The poets' itinerant lifestyle helped create temple and pilgrimage sites and spread spiritual ideas built around Shiva.[43] Early Tamil-Siva bhakti poets influenced Hindu texts that came to be revered all over India.[46]
Some scholars state that the Bhakti movement's rapid spread in India in the 2nd millennium, was in part a response to the arrival of Islam[47] and subsequent Islamic rule in India and Hindu-Muslim conflicts.[48][49][50] This view is contested by some scholars,[50] with Rekha Pande stating that singing ecstatic bhakti hymns in local language was a tradition in south India before Muhammad was born.[51] According to Pande, the psychological impact of Muslim conquest may have initially contributed to community-style bhakti by Hindus.[51] Yet other scholars state that Muslim invasions, their conquering of Hindu Bhakti temples in south India and seizure/melting of musical instruments such as cymbals from local people, was in part responsible for the later relocation or demise of singing Bhakti traditions in the 18th century.[52]
According to Wendy Doniger, the nature of Bhakti movement may have been affected by the "surrender to God" daily practices of Islam when it arrived in India.[48] In turn it influenced devotional practices in Islam such as Sufism,[53] and other religions in India from 15th century onwards, such as Sikhism, Christianity,[54] and Jainism.[55]
Klaus Witz, in contrast, traces the history and nature of Bhakti movement to the Upanishadic and the Vedanta foundations of Hinduism. He writes, that in virtually every Bhakti movement poet, "the Upanishadic teachings form an all-pervasive substratum, if not a basis. We have here a state of affairs that has no parallel in the West. Supreme Wisdom, which can be taken as basically non-theistic and as an independent wisdom tradition (not dependent on the Vedas), appears fused with highest level of bhakti and with highest level of God realization."[56]
Poets, writers and musicians[edit]
An example of Hindu bhakti song
Devotional singing set to music (8 minutes 17 seconds)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
The Bhakti movement witnessed a surge in Hindu literature in regional languages, particularly in the form of devotional poems and music.[12][57][58] This literature includes the writings of the Alvars and Nayanars, poems of Andal,[59] Basava,[60] Bhagat Pipa,[61] Allama Prabhu, Akka Mahadevi, Kabir, Nanak (founder of Sikhism),[60] Tulsidas, Gusainji, Ghananand,[59] Ramananda (founder of Ramanandi Sampradaya), Sripadaraja, Vyasatirtha, Purandara Dasa, Kanakadasa, Vijaya Dasa, Six goswamis of Vrindavan ,[62]Raskhan,[63] Ravidas,[60] Jayadeva Goswami,[59] Namdev,[60] Eknath, Tukaram, Mirabai,[40] Ramprasad Sen,[64] Sankardev,[65] Vallabha Acharya,[60] Narsinh Mehta,[66] Gangasati[67] and the teachings of saints like Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.[68]
The earliest writers from the 7th to 10th century CE known to have influenced the poet-saints driven movements include, Sambandar, Tirunavukkarasar, Sundarar, Nammalvar, Adi Shankara, Manikkavacakar and Nathamuni.[69] Several 11th and 12th century writers developed different philosophies within the Vedanta school of Hinduism, which were influential to the Bhakti tradition in medieval India. These include Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha and Nimbarka.[59][69] These writers championed a spectrum of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism, qualified nondualism and absolute monism.[7][8]
Philosophy: Nirguna and Saguna Brahman[edit]
The Bhakti movement of Hinduism saw two ways of imaging the nature of the divine (Brahman) – Nirguna and Saguna.[70] Nirguna Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.[71] Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality.[71] The two had parallels in the ancient pantheistic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita.[70][72] It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives, one from Nirguni knowledge-focus and other from Saguni love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita.[72] Nirguna bhakta's poetry were Jnana-shrayi, or had roots in knowledge.[70] Saguna bhakta's poetry were Prema-shrayi, or with roots in love.[70] In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.[72]
Jeaneane Fowler states that the concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, at the root of Bhakti movement theosophy, underwent more profound development with the ideas of Vedanta school of Hinduism, particularly those of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.[71] Two 12th-century influential treatises on bhakti were Sandilya Bhakti Sutra – a treatise resonating with Nirguna-bhakti, and Narada Bhakti Sutra – a treatise that leans towards Saguna-bhakti.[73]
Nirguna and Saguna Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the Nirguni tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".[74] Yet given the "mountains of Nirguni bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for Nirguna Brahman has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for Saguna Brahman.[74] These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.[70]
Social impact[edit]
The Bhakti movement was a devotional transformation of medieval Hindu society, wherein Vedic rituals or alternatively ascetic monk-like lifestyle for moksha gave way to individualistic loving relationship with a personally defined god.[3] Salvation which was previously considered attainable only by men of Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya castes, became available to everyone.[3] Most scholars state that Bhakti movement provided women and members of the Shudra and untouchable communities an inclusive path to spiritual salvation.[75] Some scholars disagree that the Bhakti movement was premised on such social inequalities.[76][77]
Poet-saints grew in popularity, and literature on devotional songs in regional languages became profuse.[3] These poet-saints championed a wide range of philosophical positions within their society, ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.[7] Kabir, a poet-saint for example, wrote in Upanishadic style, the state of knowing truth:[78]
There's no creation or creator there,
no gross or fine, no wind or fire,
no sun, moon, earth or water,
no radiant form, no time there,
no word, no flesh, no faith,
no cause and effect, nor any thought of the Veda,
no Hari or Brahma, no Shiva or Shakti,
no pilgrimage and no rituals,
no mother, father or guru there...
—  Kabir, Shabda 43, Translated by K Schomer and WH McLeod[78]
The early 15th-century Bhakti poet-sant Pipa stated,[79]
Within the body is the god, within the body the temple,
within the body all the Jangamas[80]
within the body the incense, the lamps and the food-offerings,
within the body the puja-leaves.

After searching so many lands,
I found the nine treasures within my body,
Now there will be no further going and coming,
I swear by Rama.
—  Pīpā, Gu dhanasari, Translated by Vaudeville[81]
The impact of the Bhakti movement in India was similar to that of the Protestant Reformation of Christianity in Europe.[7] It evoked shared religiosity, direct emotional and intellection of the divine, and the pursuit of spiritual ideas without the overhead of institutional superstructures.[82] Practices emerged bringing new forms of spiritual leadership and social cohesion among the medieval Hindus, such as community singing, chanting together of deity names, festivals, pilgrimages, rituals relating to Saivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism.[41][83] Many of these regional practices have survived into the modern era.[3]
Seva, daana and community kitchens[edit]
The Bhakti movement introduced new forms of voluntary social giving such as Seva (service, for example to a temple or guru school or community construction), Dāna (charity), and community kitchens with free shared food.[84] Of community kitchen concepts, the vegetarian Guru ka Langar introduced by Nanak became a well established institution over time, starting with northwest India, and expanding to everywhere Sikh communities are found.[85] Other saints such as Dadu Dayal championed similar social movement, a community that believed in Ahimsa (non-violence) towards all living beings, social equality, and vegetarian kitchen, as well as mutual social service concepts.[86] Bhakti temples and matha (Hindu monasteries) of India adopted social functions such as relief to victims after natural disaster, helping the poor and marginal farmers, providing community labor, feeding houses for the poor, free hostels for poor children and promoting folk culture.[87]
Sikhism, Shakti and the Bhakti movement[edit]
Some scholars call Sikhism a Bhakti sect of Indian traditions.[88][89] In Sikhism, "nirguni Bhakti" is emphasised – devotion to a divine without Gunas (qualities or form),[89][90][91] but it accepts both nirguni and saguni forms of the divine.[92]
The Guru Granth Sahib, the scripture of the Sikhs, contains the hymns of the Sikh gurus, thirteen Hindu bhagats, and two Muslim bhagats.[93] Some of the Bhagats whose hymns were included in the Guru Granth Sahib, were bhakti poets who taught their ideas before the birth of Guru Nanak – the first of Sikh Guru. The thirteen Hindu bhagats whose hymns were entered into the text, were poet saints of the Bhakti movement, and included Ramananda, Namdev, Pipa, Ravidas, Beni, Bhikhan, Dhanna, Jayadeva, Parmanand, Sadhana, Sain, Surdas, Trilochan, while the two Muslim bhagats were Kabir and Sufi saint Farid.[94][95][96] Most of the 5,894 hymns in the Sikh scripture came from the Sikh gurus, and rest from the Bhagats. The three highest contributions in the Sikh scripture of non-Sikh bhagats were from Bhagat Kabir (292 hymns), Bhagat Farid (134 hymns), and Bhagat Namdev (60 hymns).[97]
While Sikhism was influenced by Bhakti movement,[98][99][100] and incorporated hymns from the Bhakti poet saints, it was not simply an extension of the Bhakti movement.[101] Sikhism, for instance, disagreed with some of the views of Bhakti saints Kabir and Ravidas.[note 1][101]
Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru and the founder of Sikhism, was a Bhakti saint.[102] He taught, states Jon Mayled, that the most important form of worship is Bhakti.[103] Nam-simran – the realisation of God – is an important Bhakti practice in Sikhism.[104][105][106] Guru Arjan, in his Sukhmani Sahib, recommended the true religion is one of loving devotion to God.[107][108] The Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib includes suggestions for a Sikh to perform constant Bhakti.[103][109][note 2] The Bhakti themes in Sikhism also incorporate Shakti (power) ideas.[111]
Some Sikh sects outside the Punjab-region of India, such as those found in Maharashtra and Bihar, practice Aarti with lamps in a Gurdwara.[112][113] Arti and devotional prayer ceremonies are also found in Ravidassia religion, previously part of Sikhism.[114][115]
Buddhism, Jainism and Bhakti movement[edit]
Bhakti has been a prevalent practice in various Jaina sects, wherein learned Tirthankara (Jina) and human gurus are considered superior beings and venerated with offerings, songs and Āratī prayers.[116] John Cort suggests that the bhakti movement in later Hinduism and Jainism may share roots in vandan and pujan concepts of the Jaina tradition.[116]
Medieval-era bhakti traditions among non-theistic Indian traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism have been reported by scholars, wherein the devotion and prayer ceremonies were dedicated to an enlightened guru, primarily Buddha and Jina Mahavira respectively, as well as others.[117] Karel Werner notes that Bhatti (Bhakti in Pali) has been a significant practice in Theravada Buddhism, and states, "there can be no doubt that deep devotion or bhakti / bhatti does exist in Buddhism and that it had its beginnings in the earliest days".[118]
Christianity[edit]
Bhakti, according to William Dyrness, has been a "point of convergence" between Christian gospel tradition and the Hindu devotional tradition. It has helped Indian Christians devote themselves to God as distinct from his creation, and as a personal being to love, to expect grace from, through self-giving devotion.[119][better source needed] Songs were composed by poets such as A.J. Appasamy, Sadhu Sundar Singh and other early converts in the early twentieth century that were rich in lyrics and brought out the mysticism, legends and meaning of Christianity.[119] According to Kugler, some of the pioneers of bhakti in Christian sects in India include Murari David.[120]
Controversy and doubts in postmodern scholarship[edit]
Postmodern scholars question whether the 19th- and early 20th-century theories about Bhakti movement in India, its origin, nature and history is accurate. Pechilis in her book on Bhakti movement, for example, states[121]
Scholars writing on bhakti in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were agreed that bhakti in India was preeminently a monotheistic reform movement. For these scholars, the inextricable connection between monotheism and reform has both theological and social significance in terms of the development of Indian culture. The orientalist images of bhakti were formulated in a context of discovery: a time of organised cultural contact, in which many agencies, including administrative, scholarly and missionary – sometimes embodied in a single person – sought knowledge of India. Through the Indo-European language connection, early orientalists believed that they were, in a sense, seeing their own ancestry in the antique texts and "antiquated" customs of Indian peoples. In this respect, certain scholars could identify with the monotheism of bhakti. Seen as a reform movement, bhakti presented a parallel to the orientalist agenda of intervention in the service of the empire.
—  Karen Pechilis, The Embodiment of Bhakti[121]
Madeleine Biardeau states, as does Jeanine Miller, that Bhakti movement was neither a reform nor a sudden innovation, but the continuation and expression of ideas to be found in Vedas, Bhakti marga teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, the Katha Upanishad and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.[19][122]
John Stratton Hawley describes recent scholarship which questions the old theory of Bhakti movement origin and "story of south-moves-north", then states that the movement had multiple origins, mentioning Brindavan in north India as another center.[123] Hawley describes the controversy and disagreements between Indian scholars, quotes Hegde's concern that "Bhakti movement was a reform" theory has been supported by "cherry-picking particular songs from a large corpus of Bhakti literature" and that if the entirety of the literature by any single author such as Basava is considered along with its historical context, there is neither reform nor a need for reform.[77]
Sheldon Pollock writes that the Bhakti movement was neither a rebellion against Brahmins and the upper castes nor a rebellion against the Sanskrit language, because many of the prominent thinkers and earliest champions of the Bhakti movement were Brahmins and from upper castes, and because much of the early and later Bhakti poetry and literature was in Sanskrit.[124] Further, states Pollock, evidence of Bhakti trends in ancient southeast Asian Hinduism in the 1st millennium CE, such as those in Cambodia and Indonesia where Vedic era is unknown, and where upper caste Tamil Hindu nobility and merchants introduced Bhakti ideas of Hinduism, suggest the roots and the nature of Bhakti movement to be primarily spiritual and political quest instead of rebellion of some form.[125][126]
John Guy states that the evidence of Hindu temples and Chinese inscriptions from 8th century CE about Tamil merchants, presents Bhakti motifs in Chinese trading towns, particularly the Kaiyuan Temple (Quanzhou).[127] These show Saivite, Vaishnavite and Hindu Brahmin monasteries revered Bhakti themes in China.[127]
Scholars increasingly are dropping, states Karen Pechilis, the old premises and the language of "radical otherness, monotheism and reform of orthodoxy" for Bhakti movement.[10] Many scholars are now characterising the emergence of Bhakti in medieval India as a revival, reworking and recontextualisation of the central themes of the Vedic traditions.[10]
See also[edit]
Achintya Bheda Abheda
Buddhist devotion
Bhatti Puja in Theravada Buddhism
Devotional movements
Ekasarana Dharma
Nama sankeerthanam
Puja (Buddhism)
Puja (Hinduism)
Shaiva Siddhanta
Virashaivism
Yidam
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ These views include Sikhs believing in achieving blissful mukhti while alive, Sikhs placing emphasis on the path of the householder, Sikhs disbelief in Ahinsa, and the Sikhs afterlife aspect of merging with God rather than a physical heaven.
Jump up ^ The Sikh scripture includes many verses on devotional worship. For example,[110]
They remain in ecstasy forever, day and night; O servant Nanak, they sing the Glorious Praises of the Lord, night and day. One who calls himself a Sikh of the Guru, the True Guru, shall rise in the early morning hours and meditate on the Lord's Name. Upon arising early in the morning, he is to bathe, and cleanse himself in the pool of nectar. Following the Instructions of the Guru, he is to chant the Name of the Lord, Har, Har. All sins, misdeeds and negativity shall be erased. (...)
– Sri Guru Granth Sahib, 305(16)-306(2)[110]
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ A term in Shaiva Hindu religiosity, referring to an individual who is always on the go, seeking, learning; See: Winnand Callewaert (2000), The Hagiographies of Anantadas: The Bhakti Poets of North India, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700713318, page 292
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Jump up ^ Sheldon Pollock (2009), The Language of the Gods in the World of Men, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520260030, pages 423-431
Jump up ^ Sheldon Pollock (2009), The Language of the Gods in the World of Men, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520260030, pages 529-534
Jump up ^ Keat Gin Ooi (2004), Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, ISBN 978-1576077702, page 587
^ Jump up to: a b John Guy (2001), The Emporium of the World: Maritime Quanzhou, 1000-1400 (Editor: Angela Schottenhammer), Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004117730, pages 283-299
Bibliography
Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903
David Lorenzen (1995), Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791420256
John Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674187467
Schomer, Karine; McLeod, W. H., eds. (1987), The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 9788120802773
Further reading[edit]
Madhu Kishwar, Women Bhakta Poets : Manushi (Manushi Publications, 1989). ASIN B001RPVZVU.′
External links[edit]
Bhakti bibliography, Harvard University Archive (2001)
Definition of Bhakti, Swami Vivekananda, Wikisource
The Sacred Geography of the Tamil Shaivite Hymns, George Spencer (1970), Numen, Vol. 17, Fasc. 3, pages 232-244
Shrines, Shamanism, and Love Poetry: Elements in the Emergence of Popular Tamil Bhakti, Glenn Yocum (1973), Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 41, No. 1, pages 3–17
Mīrābāī and Her Contributions to the Bhakti Movement, SM Pandey (1965), History of Religions, Vol. 5, No. 1, pages 54–73
Bhakti and the British Empire, Vijay Pinch (May 2003), Past & Present, No. 179, pages 159-196
The Music in Faith and Morality, John Hawley (1984), Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 52, No. 2, pages 243-262
Author and Authority in the Bhakti Poetry of North India, John Hawley (1988), The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 47, No. 2, pages 269-290
Female Gurus and Ascetics, Karen Pechilis (2015), Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Edited by: Knut Jacobsen et al., (Requires subscription)
Iwao, Shima (June–September 1988), "The Vithoba Faith of Maharashtra: The Vithoba Temple of Pandharpur and Its Mythological Structure" (PDF), Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture, 15 (2–3): 183–197, ISSN 0304-1042, archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-26
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Homologous chromosome
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with homoeologous chromosomes.
As this karyotype displays, a diploid human cell contains 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes and 2 sex chromosomes. The cell has two sets of each chromosome; one of the pair is derived from the mother and the other from the father. The maternal and paternal chromosomes in a homologous pair have the same genes at the same loci, but possibly different alleles.
A couple of homologous chromosomes, or homologs, are a set of one maternal and one paternal chromosome that pair up with each other inside a cell during meiosis. Homologs have the same genes in the same loci where they provide points along each chromosome which enable a pair of chromosomes to align correctly with each other before separating during meiosis.[1] This is the basis for Mendelian inheritance which characterizes inheritance patterns of genetic material from an organism to its offspring parent developmental cell at the given time and area.[2]
Contents
1 Overview
2 History
3 Structure
3.1 In humans
4 Functions
4.1 In meiosis
4.1.1 Prophase I
4.1.2 Metaphase I
4.1.3 Anaphase I
4.1.4 Meiosis II
4.2 In mitosis
4.3 In somatic cells
5 Problems
5.1 Nondisjunction
6 Other uses
7 Relevant research
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
Overview[edit]
Chromosomes are linear arrangements of condensed deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and histone proteins, which form a complex called chromatin.[2] Homologous chromosomes are made up of chromosome pairs of approximately the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern, for genes with the same corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism's mother; the other is inherited from the organism's father. After mitosis occurs within the daughter cells, they have the correct number of genes which are a mix of the two parents' genes. In diploid (2n) organisms, the genome is composed of one set of each homologous chromosome pair, as compared to tetraploid organisms which may have two sets of each homologous chromosome pair. The alleles on the homologous chromosomes may be different, resulting in different phenotypes of the same genes. This mixing of maternal and paternal traits is enhanced by crossing over during meiosis, wherein lengths of chromosomal arms and the DNA they contain within a homologous chromosome pair are exchanged with one another.[3]
History[edit]
Early in the 1900s William Bateson and Reginald Punnett were studying genetic inheritance and they noted that some combinations of alleles appeared more frequently than others. That data and information was further explored by Thomas Morgan. Using test cross experiments, he revealed that, for a single parent, the alleles of genes near to one another along the length of the chromosome move together. Using this logic he concluded that the two genes he was studying were located on homologous chromosomes. Later on during the 1930s Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock were studying meiosis in corn cells and examining gene loci on corn chromosomes.[2] Creighton and McClintock discovered that the new allele combinations present in the offspring and the event of crossing over were directly related.[2] This proved interchromosomal genetic recombination.[2]
Structure[edit]
Homologous chromosomes are chromosomes which contain the same genes in the same order along their chromosomal arms. There are two main properties of homologous chromosomes: the length of chromosomal arms and the placement of the centromere [4]
The actual length of the arm, in accordance with the gene locations, is critically important for proper alignment. Centromere placement can be characterized by four main arrangements, consisting of being either metacentric, submetacentric, telocentric, or acrocentric. Both of these properties are the main factors for creating structural homology between chromosomes. Therefore, when two chromosomes of the exact structure exist, they are able to pair together to form homologous chromosomes.[5]
Since homologous chromosomes are not identical and do not originate from the same organism, they are different from sister chromatids. Sister chromatids result after DNA replication has occurred, and thus are identical, side-by-side duplicates of each other.[6]
In humans[edit]
Humans have a total of 46 chromosomes, but there are only 22 pairs of homologous autosomal chromosomes. The additional 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes, X and Y. If this pair is made up of an X and Y chromosome, then the pair of chromosomes is not homologous because their size and gene content differ greatly. The 22 pairs of homologous chromosomes contain the same genes but code for different traits in their allelic forms since one was inherited from the mother and one from the father.[7] So humans have two homologous chromosome sets in each cell, meaning humans are diploid organisms.[2]
Functions[edit]
Homologous chromosomes are important in the processes of meiosis and mitosis. They allow for the recombination and random segregation of genetic material from the mother and father into new cells.[8]
In meiosis[edit]
During the process of meiosis, homologous chromosomes can recombine and produce new combinations of genes in the daughter cells.
Sorting of homologous chromosomes during meiosis.
Meiosis is a round of two cell divisions that results in four haploid daughter cells that each contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.[9] It reduces the chromosome number in a germ cell by half by first separating the homologous chromosomes in meiosis I and then the sister chromatids in meiosis II. The process of meiosis I is generally longer than meiosis II because it takes more time for the chromatin to replicate and for the homologous chromosomes to be properly oriented and segregated by the processes of pairing and synapsis in meiosis I.[6] During meiosis, genetic recombination (by random segregation) and crossing over produces daughter cells that each contain different combinations of maternally and paternally coded genes.[9] This recombination of genes allows for the introduction of new allele pairings and genetic variation.[2] Genetic variation among organisms helps make a population more stable by providing a wider range of genetic traits for natural selection to act on.[2]
Prophase I[edit]
In prophase I of meiosis I, each chromosome is aligned with its homologous partner and pairs completely. In prophase I, the DNA has already undergone replication so each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids connected by a common centromere.[9] During the zygotene stage of prophase I, the homologous chromosomes pair up with each other.[9] This pairing occurs by a synapsis process where the synaptonemal complex - a protein scaffold - is assembled and joins the homologous chromosomes along their lengths.[6] Cohesin crosslinking occurs between the homologous chromosomes and helps them resist being pulled apart until anaphase.[7] Genetic crossing-over, a type of recombination, occurs during the pachytene stage of prophase I.[9] In addition, another type of recombination referred to as synthesis-dependent strand annealing (SDSA) frequently occurs. SDSA recombination involves information exchange between paired homologous chromatids, but not physical exchange. SDSA recombination does not cause crossing-over.
In the process of crossing-over, genes are exchanged by the breaking and union of homologous portions of the chromosomes’ lengths.[6] Structures called chiasmata are the site of the exchange. Chiasmata physically link the homologous chromosomes once crossing over occurs and throughout the process of chromosomal segregation during meiosis.[6] Both the non-crossover and crossover types of recombination function as processes for repairing DNA damage, particularly double-strand breaks. At the diplotene stage of prophase I the synaptonemal complex disassembles before which will allow the homologous chromosomes to separate, while the sister chromatids stay associated by their centromeres.[6]
Metaphase I[edit]
In metaphase I of meiosis I, the pairs of homologous chromosomes, also known as bivalents or tetrads, line up in a random order along the metaphase plate.[9] The random orientation is another way for cells to introduce genetic variation. Meiotic spindles emanating from opposite spindle poles attach to each of the homologs (each pair of sister chromatids) at the kinetochore.[7]
Anaphase I[edit]
In anaphase I of meiosis I the homologous chromosomes are pulled apart from each other. The homologs are cleaved by the enzyme separase to release the cohesin that held the homologous chromosome arms together.[7] This allows the chiasmata to release and the homologs to move to opposite poles of the cell.[7] The homologous chromosomes are now randomly segregated into two daughter cells that will undergo meiosis II to produce four haploid daughter germ cells.[2]
Meiosis II[edit]
After the tetrads of homologous chromosomes are separated in meiosis I, the sister chromatids from each pair are separated. The two haploid(because the chromosome no. has reduced to half. Earlier two sets of chromosomes were present, but now each set exists in two different daughter cells that have arisen from the single diploid parent cell by meiosis I) daughter cells resulting from meiosis I undergo another cell division in meiosis II but without another round of chromosomal replication. The sister chromatids in the two daughter cells are pulled apart during anaphase II by nuclear spindle fibers, resulting in four haploid daughter cells.[2]
In mitosis[edit]
Homologous chromosomes do not function the same in mitosis as they do in meiosis. Prior to every single mitotic division a cell undergoes, the chromosomes in the parent cell replicate themselves. The homologous chromosomes within the cell will ordinarily not pair up and undergo genetic recombination with each other.[9] Instead, the replicants, or sister chromatids, will line up along the metaphase plate and then separate in the same way as meiosis II - by being pulled apart at their centromeres by nuclear mitotic spindles.[10] If any crossing over does occur between sister chromatids during mitosis, it does not produce any new recombinant genotypes.[2]
In somatic cells[edit]
Main article: Homologous somatic pairing
Homologous pairing in most contexts will refer to germline cells, however also takes place in somatic cells. For example, in humans, somatic cells have very tightly regulated homologous pairing (separated into chromosomal territories, and pairing at specific loci under control of developmental signalling). Other species however (notably Drosophila) exhibit homologous pairing much more frequently. Various functions of homologous pairing in somatic cells have been elucidated through high-throughput screens in the early 21st century.
Problems[edit]
1. Meiosis I 2. Meiosis II 3. Fertilization 4. Zygote Nondisjunction is when chromosomes fail to separate normally resulting in a gain or loss of chromosomes. In the left image the blue arrow indicates nondisjunction taking place during meiosis II. In the right image the green arrow is indicating nondisjunction taking place during meiosis I.
There are severe repercussions when chromosomes do not segregate properly. Faulty segregation can lead to fertility problems, embryo death, birth defects, and cancer.[11] Though the mechanisms for pairing and adhering homologous chromosomes vary among organisms, proper functioning of those mechanisms is imperative in order for the final genetic material to be sorted correctly.[11]
Nondisjunction[edit]
Proper homologous chromosome separation in meiosis I is crucial for sister chromatid separation in meiosis II.[11] A failure to separate properly is known as nondisjunction. There are two main types of nondisjunction that occur: trisomy and monosomy. Trisomy is caused by the presence of one additional chromosomes in the zygote as compared to the normal number, and monosomy is characterized by the presence of one fewer chromosome in the zygote as compared to the normal number. If this uneven division occurs in meiosis I, then none of the daughter cells will have proper chromosomal distribution and severe effects can ensue, including Down’s syndrome.[12] Unequal division can also occur during the second meiotic division. Nondisjunction which occurs at this stage can result in normal daughter cells and deformed cells.[4]
Other uses[edit]
Diagram of the general process for double-stranded break repair as well as synthesis-dependent strand annealing.
While the main function of homologous chromosomes is their use in nuclear division, they are also used in repairing double-strand breaks of DNA.[13] These double-stranded breaks may occur in replicating DNA and are most often the result of interaction of DNA with naturally occurring damaging molecules such as reactive oxygen species. Homologous chromosomes can repair this damage by aligning themselves with chromosomes of the same genetic sequence.[13] Once the base pairs have been matched and oriented correctly between the two strands, the homologous chromosomes perform a process that is very similar to recombination, or crossing over as seen in meiosis. Part of the intact DNA sequence overlaps with that of the damaged chromosome's sequence. Replication proteins and complexes are then recruited to the site of damage, allowing for repair and proper replication to occur. Through this functioning, double-strand breaks can be repaired and DNA can function normally.[13]
Relevant research[edit]
Current and future research on the subject of homologous chromosome is heavily focused on the roles of various proteins during recombination or during DNA repair. In a recently published article by Pezza et al. the protein known as HOP2 is responsible for both homologous chromosome synapsis as well as double-strand break repair via homologous recombination. The deletion of HOP2 in mice has large repercussions in meiosis.[14] Other current studies focus on specific proteins involved in homologous recombination as well.
There is ongoing research concerning the ability of homologous chromosomes to repair double-strand DNA breaks. Researchers are investigating the possibility of exploiting this capability for regenerative medicine.[15] This medicine could be very prevalent in relation to cancer, as DNA damage is thought to be contributor to carcinogenesis. Manipulating the repair function of homologous chromosomes might allow for bettering a cell’s damage response system. While research has not yet confirmed the effectiveness of such treatment, it may become a useful therapy for cancer.[16]
See also[edit]
Homologous recombination
Mendelian inheritance
Developmental biology
Synapsis
Non-disjunction
Heredity
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Homologous chromosomes". 2. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. 2008. pp. 815, 821–822. ISBN 1-4160-2255-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Griffiths JF, Gelbart WM, Lewontin RC, Wessler SR, Suzuki DT, Miller JH (2005). Introduction to Genetic Analysis. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co. pp. 34–40, 473–476, 626–629. ISBN 0-7167-4939-4.
Jump up ^ Campbell NA, Reece JB (2002). Biology. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-6624-5.
^ Jump up to: a b Klug, William S. (2012). Concepts of Genetics. Boston: Pearson. pp. 21–22.
Jump up ^ Klug, William; Michael Cummings; Charlotte Spencer; Michael Pallodino (2009). "Chromosome Mutations: Variation in chromosome number and arrangement". In Beth Wilbur. Concepts of Genetics (9 ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson Benjamin Cumming. pp. 213–214. ISBN 9780321540980.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Pollard TD, Earnshaw WC, Lippincott-Schwartz J (2008). Cell Biology (2 ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier. pp. 815, 821–822. ISBN 1-4160-2255-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Lodish HF (2013). Molecular cell biolog. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co. pp. 355, 891. ISBN 1-4292-3413-X.
Jump up ^ Gregory MJ. "The Biology Web". Clinton Community College – State University of New York. Archived from the original on 2001-11-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Gilbert SF (2014). Developmental Biology. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. pp. 606–610. ISBN 978-0-87893-978-7.
Jump up ^ "The Cell Cycle & Mitosis Tutorial". The Biology Project. University of Arizona. Oct 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gerton JL, Hawley RS (June 2005). "Homologous chromosome interactions in meiosis: diversity amidst conservation". Nat. Rev. Genet. 6 (6): 477–87. doi:10.1038/nrg1614. PMID 15931171.
Jump up ^ Tissot, Robert; Kaufman, Elliot. "Chromosomal Inheritance". Human Genetics. University of Illinois at Chicago. Archived from the original on 1999-10-10.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sargent RG, Brenneman MA, Wilson JH (January 1997). "Repair of site-specific double-strand breaks in a mammalian chromosome by homologous and illegitimate recombination" (PDF). Mol. Cell. Biol. 17 (1): 267–77. PMC 231751. PMID 8972207.
Jump up ^ Petukhova GV, Romanienko PJ, Camerini-Otero RD (Dec 2003). "The Hop2 protein has a direct role in promoting interhomolog interactions during mouse meiosis". Dev Cell. 5 (6): 927–36. doi:10.1016/s1534-5807(03)00369-1. PMID 14667414.
Jump up ^ González F, Georgieva D, Vanoli F, Shi ZD, Stadtfeld M, Ludwig T, Jasin M, Huangfu D (2013). "Homologous Recombination DNA Repair Genes Play a Critical Role in Reprogramming to a Pluripotent State". Cell Reports. 3 (3): 651–660. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2013.02.005. PMC 4315363. PMID 23478019.
Jump up ^ Khanna KK, Jackson SP (2001). "DNA double-strand breaks: Signaling, repair and the cancer connection". Nature Genetics. 27 (3): 247–254. doi:10.1038/85798. PMID 11242102.
Further reading[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to homologous chromosomes.
Gilbert SF (2003). Developmental biolog. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-258-5.
OpenStaxCollege (25 Apr 2013). "Meiosis". Rice University.
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Escape to the Country
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Escape to the Country
Escape to the Country opening title card
Also known as
Escape to the Continent (series 15)
Created by
Talkback Thames
Country of origin
United Kingdom
No. of series
15
No. of episodes
655
Production
Executive producer(s)
John Comerford
Producer(s)

Karen Richardson
(Series producer)
Editor(s)
Adrian Padmore
(Series editor)
Running time
45–60 minutes
Production company(s)
Thames (2002-2006)
Talkback Thames (2006-2012)
Boundless (2012-Present)
Distributor
Fremantle
Release
Original network
BBC One
BBC Two
Picture format
PAL (576i, 16:9)
Original release
14 October 2002 (2002-10-14) – present
External links
Website
Escape to the Country is a British daytime television reality property-buying/real estate programme, created by Talkback Thames, which premieres on network BBC One, produced by John Comerford and is repeated on BBC Two. It also airs internationally in broadcast syndication. The program helps potential buyers find their dream home in the rural UK by showcasing three properties (including a mystery property) for inspection, then asking that week's guests to guess the market price. Episodes also feature information regarding the suburb presented, for example local industry and history. It first aired in October 2002.
Contents
1 Broadcast
1.1 Series 1 to 5
1.2 Series 6 to 9
1.3 Series 10 to 12
1.4 Series 13 to present
2 Presenters
3 International broadcasts
4 International Versions
5 DVD releases
6 References
7 External links
Broadcast[edit]
There are two versions of each episode produced - a shorter 45-minute version with only 3 houses shown and a longer 60-minute version. The short version usually airs on BBC One weekday afternoons (usually in the 15:00 slot) and the longer on BBC One weekdays at 10:00 or BBC Two evenings at 19:00. Escape to the Country is often credited as being the forerunner of other property/lifestyle shows such as A Place in the Sun. Repeat episodes are shown on Home. Another version of the series "Escape to the Continent", is based on exotic international locations, like Portugal and Malta.
Series 1 to 5[edit]
Produced by Boundless, part of Fremantle UK and shown to air from 2002, the basic premise of the show is that a person/family wishes to relocate from their current city home to a more peaceful and rural retreat. It is then the job of the show's presenter to find four houses for the family to view via laptop computer in their own homes. The family must then choose two out of the four houses to go and view for themselves. In addition, there is also the option of choosing the presenter's 'mystery house'.
Nicki Chapman one of the hosts of Escape to the Country
Series 6 to 9[edit]
The format of the show changed in series 6 to accommodate viewer demand to see more houses and more local information[citation needed]. Contributors now view all four houses, of which the fourth is the mystery house. The mystery house usually has something unique about it that will either make the contributors fall in love with or hate it. Added to the show is a taster day in which the contributors sample local delights, gain historical knowledge and visit local attractions to get a feel for the area they are planning to move to. Series 6 aired in August 2007 on BBC One, while series 7 and 8 aired back-to-back in autumn 2008. Series 9 began on 23 February in a new slot of 15:45 on BBC Two.
Series 10 to 12[edit]
The format was modified yet again. The number of properties the couples viewed was reduced to three, with the third being the mystery house. Series 12 consisted of 75 shows and was broadcast from November 2011 on BBC Two with the addition of new title and credit sequences.
Series 13 to present[edit]
Series 13 premiered on 3 September 2012 on BBC One. In subsequent years, subsequent series were aired.
In September 2018, Series 19 was underway. BBC One was re-running episodes of Series 18 on a daily basis.[1][2]
Presenters[edit]
Presenters include:[3]
Catherine Gee (2002–2007)[4]
Nick Page (2002)[5]. ( Page recently appeared in the latest series of the ITV1 talent competition "Britain's Got Talent" as a stand - up comedian )
Jules Hudson (2007–)
Alistair Appleton (2007–)
Denise Nurse (2008–)
Jonnie Irwin (2008–)
Nicki Chapman (2008–)
Melissa Porter (2008)
Aled Jones (2010–)
Nicki Shields (2013–)
Tim Vincent (2018-)
Anita Rani (2014–)
Sonali Shah (2014–)
Ginny Buckley (2016-)
Margherita Taylor (2017-)
International broadcasts[edit]
In Australia, Escape to the Country airs on Seven Network's free-to-air digital channel 7TWO Friday, Saturday and Sunday nights, and the Lifestyle Channel on Foxtel Subscription TV every week night.
In Canada, Escape to the Country is seen on Gusto TV Monday nights, 6:00 pm to 9:00 pm. "Escape to the Country" can also be seen on CBC weekdays at 1:00pm.
In Sweden, Escape to the Country airs on TV8, Monday to Thursday nights at 8:00pm (7:00pm local time).
In the Netherlands, Escape to the Country airs since April 2011 on SBS 6, Saturday nights at 5.00 pm (6.00 pm local time). Additionally, most viewers in the Netherlands can watch the show on the BBC channels that are distributed by cable operators. As a result of its availability in the Netherlands it features in the novel The Detour.[6]
In the United States, "Escape to the Country" is viewable on Netflix online streaming as of March 2017.
International Versions[edit]
In late 2017, Australian Publicly owned Television Network, the ABC, announced it was going to air a local version of the show, to be titled 'Escape from the City' and produced by Fremantle Media Australia. The official Facebook page says: "Follow everyday Australians as they leave the big smoke behind for a life in rural, coastal or regional Australia. With our team of experts, house-hunters will be taken on a tour of properties in their dream country location, and given the chance to sample a slice of life in their ideal town."
The Show is scheduled to air in 2018 on the ABC.
DVD releases[edit]
On 5 March 2014, two DVDs were released in Australia by Shock Entertainment. Titled Series 20 Parts 1 & 2, the two DVDs box sets had a total of 19 discs.[7][8]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b09ysj5z Series 19 Episodes BBC One October 2018]
Jump up ^ [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b097l6v3/episodes/guide Series 18 Episodes BBC One October 2018]
Jump up ^ "Escape to the Country". aboutproperty.co.uk. 1 January 2006. Retrieved 24 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Escape to the Country". 10 October 2002. p. 93 – via BBC Genome.
Jump up ^ "Escape to the Country". 10 October 2002. p. 101 – via BBC Genome.
Jump up ^ Tonkin, Boyd (24 May 2013). "Gerbrand Bakker interview: Escape to the strangest country with newly crowned winner of The Independent Foreign Fiction". The Independent. Retrieved 24 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "Escape to the Country Series 20 - Part 1 by Shock - Shop Online for Movies, DVDs in Australia". www.fishpond.com.au.
Jump up ^ "Escape to the Country Series 20 - Part 2 by Shock - Shop Online for Movies, DVDs in Australia". www.fishpond.com.au.
External links[edit]
Escape to the Country at BBC Programmes
Escape to the Country on IMDb
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Escape_to_the_Country&oldid=862984800"
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