text:
Mica
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the mineral or gem. For other uses, see Mica (disambiguation).
Mica
General
Category
Phyllosilicates
Formula
(repeating unit)
AB2–3(X, Si)4O10(O, F, OH)2
Identification
Color
purple, rosy, silver, gray (lepidolite); dark green, brown, black (biotite); yellowish-brown, green-white (phlogopite); colorless, transparent (muscovite)
Cleavage
perfect
Fracture
flaky
Mohs scale hardness
2.5–4 (lepidolite); 2.5–3 biotite; 2.5–3 phlogopite; 2–2.5 muscovite
Luster
pearly, vitreous
Streak
White, colorless
Specific gravity
2.8–3.1
Melting point
700–1000 °C
Diagnostic features
cleavage
References
[1][2][3][4]
Sheet mica
Mica flakes
Dark mica from Eastern Ontario
The mica group of sheet silicate (phyllosilicate) minerals includes several closely related materials having nearly perfect basal cleavage. All are monoclinic, with a tendency towards pseudohexagonal crystals, and are similar in chemical composition. The nearly perfect cleavage, which is the most prominent characteristic of mica, is explained by the hexagonal sheet-like arrangement of its atoms.
The word mica is derived from the Latin word mica, meaning a crumb, and probably influenced by micare, to glitter.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Classification
1.1 Dioctahedral micas
1.2 Trioctahedral micas
1.3 Interlayer-deficient micas
2 Occurrence and production
3 Properties and uses
3.1 Ground mica
3.2 Built-up mica
3.3 Sheet mica
3.3.1 Electrical and electronic
3.3.2 Peepholes
3.3.3 Atomic force microscopy
3.4 Early history
3.5 Mica powder
3.6 Medicine
4 Health impact
5 Substitutes
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Classification[edit]
Chemically, micas can be given the general formula[6]
X2Y4–6Z8O20(OH, F)4,
in which
X is K, Na, or Ca or less commonly Ba, Rb, or Cs;
Y is Al, Mg, or Fe or less commonly Mn, Cr, Ti, Li, etc.;
Z is chiefly Si or Al, but also may include Fe3+ or Ti.
Structurally, micas can be classed as dioctahedral (Y = 4) and trioctahedral (Y = 6). If the X ion is K or Na, the mica is a common mica, whereas if the X ion is Ca, the mica is classed as a brittle mica.
Dioctahedral micas[edit]
Muscovite[7]
Trioctahedral micas[edit]
Common micas:
Biotite[7]
Lepidolite
Phlogopite
Zinnwaldite
Brittle micas:
Clintonite
Interlayer-deficient micas[edit]
Very fine-grained micas, which typically show more variation in ion and water content, are informally termed "clay micas". They include:
Hydro-muscovite with H3O+ along with K in the X site;
Illite with a K deficiency in the X site and correspondingly more Si in the Z site;
Phengite with Mg or Fe2+ substituting for Al in the Y site and a corresponding increase in Si in the Z site.
Occurrence and production[edit]
Play media
Mica embedded in metamorphic rock
Mica is widely distributed and occurs in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary regimes. Large crystals of mica used for various applications are typically mined from granitic pegmatites.
Until the 19th century, large crystals of mica were quite rare and expensive as a result of the limited supply in Europe. However, their price dramatically dropped when large reserves were found and mined in Africa and South America during the early 19th century. The largest documented single crystal of mica (phlogopite) was found in Lacey Mine, Ontario, Canada; it measured 10 m × 4.3 m × 4.3 m (33 ft × 14 ft × 14 ft) and weighed about 330 tonnes (320 long tons; 360 short tons).[8] Similar-sized crystals were also found in Karelia, Russia.[9]
The British Geological Survey reported that as of 2005, Koderma district in Jharkhand state in India had the largest deposits of mica in the world. China was the top producer of mica with almost a third of the global share, closely followed by the US, South Korea and Canada. Large deposits of sheet mica were mined in New England from the 19th century to the 1970s. Large mines existed in Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Maine.
Scrap and flake mica is produced all over the world. In 2010, the major producers were Russia (100,000 tonnes), Finland (68,000 t), United States (53,000 t), South Korea (50,000 t), France (20,000 t) and Canada (15,000 t). The total global production was 350,000 t, although no reliable data were available for China. Most sheet mica was produced in India (3,500 t) and Russia (1,500 t).[10] Flake mica comes from several sources: the metamorphic rock called schist as a byproduct of processing feldspar and kaolin resources, from placer deposits, and from pegmatites. Sheet mica is considerably less abundant than flake and scrap mica, and is occasionally recovered from mining scrap and flake mica. The most important sources of sheet mica are pegmatite deposits. Sheet mica prices vary with grade and can range from less than $1 per kilogram for low-quality mica to more than $2,000 per kilogram for the highest quality.[11]
Properties and uses[edit]
The mica group represents 37 phyllosilicate minerals that have a layered or platy texture. The commercially important micas are muscovite and phlogopite, which are used in a variety of applications. Mica’s value is based on several of its unique physical properties. The crystalline structure of mica forms layers that can be split or delaminated into thin sheets usually causing foliation in rocks. These sheets are chemically inert, dielectric, elastic, flexible, hydrophilic, insulating, lightweight, platy, reflective, refractive, resilient, and range in opacity from transparent to opaque. Mica is stable when exposed to electricity, light, moisture, and extreme temperatures. It has superior electrical properties as an insulator and as a dielectric, and can support an electrostatic field while dissipating minimal energy in the form of heat; it can be split very thin (0.025 to 0.125 millimeters or thinner) while maintaining its electrical properties, has a high dielectric breakdown, is thermally stable to 500 °C (932 °F), and is resistant to corona discharge. Muscovite, the principal mica used by the electrical industry, is used in capacitors that are ideal for high frequency and radio frequency. Phlogopite mica remains stable at higher temperatures (to 900 °C (1,650 °F)) and is used in applications in which a combination of high-heat stability and electrical properties is required. Muscovite and phlogopite are used in sheet and ground forms.[11]
Ground mica[edit]
The leading use of dry-ground mica in the US is in the joint compound for filling and finishing seams and blemishes in gypsum wallboard (drywall). The mica acts as a filler and extender, provides a smooth consistency, improves the workability of the compound, and provides resistance to cracking. In 2008, joint compound accounted for 54% of dry-ground mica consumption. In the paint industry, ground mica is used as a pigment extender that also facilitates suspension, reduces chalking, prevents shrinking and shearing of the paint film increases the resistance of the paint film to water penetration and weathering and brightens the tone of colored pigments. Mica also promotes paint adhesion in aqueous and oleoresinous formulations. Consumption of dry-ground mica in paint, the second-ranked use, accounted for 22% of the dry-ground mica used in 2008.[11]
Ground mica is used in the well-drilling industry as an additive to drilling fluids. The coarsely ground mica flakes help prevent the loss of circulation by sealing porous sections of the drill hole. Well drilling muds accounted for 15% of dry-ground mica use in 2008. The plastics industry used dry-ground mica as an extender and filler, especially in parts for automobiles as lightweight insulation to suppress sound and vibration. Mica is used in plastic automobile fascia and fenders as a reinforcing material, providing improved mechanical properties and increased dimensional stability, stiffness, and strength. Mica-reinforced plastics also have high-heat dimensional stability, reduced warpage, and the best surface properties of any filled plastic composite. In 2008, consumption of dry-ground mica in plastic applications accounted for 2% of the market. The rubber industry used ground mica as an inert filler and mold release compound in the manufacture of molded rubber products such as tires and roofing. The platy texture acts as an anti-blocking, anti-sticking agent. Rubber mold lubricant accounted for 1.5% of the dry-ground mica used in 2008. As a rubber additive, mica reduces gas permeation and improves resiliency.[11]
Dry-ground mica is used in the production of rolled roofing and asphalt shingles, where it serves as a surface coating to prevent sticking of adjacent surfaces. The coating is not absorbed by freshly manufactured roofing because mica’s platy structure is unaffected by the acid in asphalt or by weather conditions. Mica is used in decorative coatings on wallpaper, concrete, stucco, and tile surfaces. It also is used as an ingredient in flux coatings on welding rods, in some special greases, and as coatings for core and mold release compounds, facing agents, and mold washes in foundry applications. Dry-ground phlogopite mica is used in automotive brake linings and clutch plates to reduce noise and vibration (asbestos substitute); as sound-absorbing insulation for coatings and polymer systems; in reinforcing additives for polymers to increase strength and stiffness and to improve stability to heat, chemicals, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation; in heat shields and temperature insulation; in industrial coating additive to decrease the permeability of moisture and hydrocarbons; and in polar polymer formulations to increase the strength of epoxies, nylons, and polyesters.[11]
Mica flakes embedded in a fresco for glitter
Wet-ground mica, which retains the brilliance of its cleavage faces, is used primarily in pearlescent paints by the automotive industry. Many metallic-looking pigments are composed of a substrate of mica coated with another mineral, usually titanium dioxide (TiO2). The resultant pigment produces a reflective color depending on the thickness of the coating. These products are used to produce automobile paint, shimmery plastic containers, high-quality inks used in advertising and security applications. In the cosmetics industry, its reflective and refractive properties make mica an important ingredient in blushes, eye liner, eye shadow, foundation, hair and body glitter, lipstick, lip gloss, mascara, moisturizing lotions, and nail polish. Some brands of toothpaste include powdered white mica. This acts as a mild abrasive to aid polishing of the tooth surface, and also adds a cosmetically pleasing, glittery shimmer to the paste. Mica is added to latex balloons to provide a colored shiny surface.[11]
Mica is also used as an insulator in concrete block and home attics and can be poured into walls (usually in retrofitting uninsulated open top walls). Mica may also be used as a soil conditioner, especially in potting soil mixes and in gardening plots. Greases used for axles are composed of a compound of fatty oils to which mica, tar or graphite is added to increase the durability of the grease and give it a better surface.
Built-up mica[edit]
Muscovite and phlogopite splittings can be fabricated into various built-up mica products. Produced by mechanized or hand setting of overlapping splittings and alternate layers of binders and splittings, built-up mica is used primarily as an electrical insulation material. Mica insulation is used in high-temperature and fire-resistant power cables in aluminium plants, blast furnaces, critical wiring circuits (for example, defense systems, fire and security alarm systems, and surveillance systems), heaters and boilers, lumber kilns, metal smelters, and tanks and furnace wiring. Specific high-temperature mica-insulated wire and cable is rated to work for up to 15 minutes in molten aluminium, glass, and steel. Major products are bonding materials; flexible, heater, molding, and segment plates; mica paper; and tape.[11]
Flexible plate is used in electric motor and generator armatures, field coil insulation, and magnet and commutator core insulation. Mica consumption in flexible plate was about 21 tonnes in 2008 in the US. Heater plate is used where high-temperature insulation is required. Molding plate is sheet mica from which V-rings are cut and stamped for use in insulating the copper segments from the steel shaft ends of a commutator. Molding plate is also fabricated into tubes and rings for insulation in armatures, motor starters, and transformers. Segment plate acts as insulation between the copper commutator segments of direct-current universal motors and generators. Phlogopite built-up mica is preferred because it wears at the same rate as the copper segments. Although muscovite has a greater resistance to wear, it causes uneven ridges that may interfere with the operation of a motor or generator. Consumption of segment plate was about 149 t in 2008 in the US. Some types of built-up mica have the bonded splittings reinforced with cloth, glass, linen, muslin, plastic, silk, or special paper. These products are very flexible and are produced in wide, continuous sheets that are either shipped, rolled, or cut into ribbons or tapes, or trimmed to specified dimensions. Built-up mica products may also be corrugated or reinforced by multiple layering. In 2008, about 351 t of built-up mica was consumed in the US, mostly for molding plates (19%) and segment plates (42%).[11]
Sheet mica[edit]
Mica insulator items
Silver mica capacitors
Muscovite windows
Technical grade sheet mica is used in electrical components, electronics, in atomic force microscopy and as window sheets. Other uses include diaphragms for oxygen-breathing equipment, marker dials for navigation compasses, optical filters, pyrometers, thermal regulators, stove and kerosene heater windows, radiation aperture covers for microwave ovens, and micathermic heater elements. Mica is birefringent and is therefore commonly used to make quarter and half wave plates. Specialized applications for sheet mica are found in aerospace components in air-, ground-, and sea-launched missile systems, laser devices, medical electronics and radar systems. Mica is mechanically stable in micrometer-thin sheets which are relatively transparent to radiation (such as alpha particles) while being impervious to most gases. It is therefore used as a window on radiation detectors such as Geiger-Müller tubes.
In 2008, mica splittings represented the largest part of the sheet mica industry in the United States. Consumption of muscovite and phlogopite splittings was about 308 t in 2008. Muscovite splittings from India accounted for essentially all US consumption. The remainder was primarily imported from Madagascar.[11]
Small squared pieces of sheet mica are also used in the traditional Japanese Kodo ceremony to burn incense: A burning piece of coal is placed inside a cone made of white ash. The sheet of mica is placed on top, acting as a separator between the heat source and the incense, in order to spread the fragrance without burning it.
Electrical and electronic[edit]
Sheet mica is used principally in the electronic and electrical industries. Its usefulness in these applications is derived from its unique electrical and thermal properties and its mechanical properties, which allow it to be cut, punched, stamped, and machined to close tolerances. Specifically, mica is unusual in that it is a good electrical insulator at the same time as being a good thermal conductor. The leading use of block mica is as an electrical insulator in electronic equipment. High-quality block mica is processed to line the gauge glasses of high-pressure steam boilers because of its flexibility, transparency, and resistance to heat and chemical attack. Only high-quality muscovite film mica, which is variously called India ruby mica or ruby muscovite mica, is used as a dielectric in capacitors. The highest quality mica film is used to manufacture capacitors for calibration standards. The next lower grade is used in transmitting capacitors. Receiving capacitors use a slightly lower grade of high-quality muscovite.[11]
Mica sheets are used to provide structure for heating wire (such as in Kanthal or Nichrome) in heating elements and can withstand up to 900 °C (1,650 °F).
Peepholes[edit]
Thin transparent sheets of mica were used for peepholes in boilers, lanterns, stoves, and kerosene heaters because they were less likely to shatter than glass when exposed to extreme temperature gradients. Such peepholes were also used in "isinglass curtains" in horse-drawn carriages[12] and early 20th century cars.[13]
Atomic force microscopy[edit]
Another use of mica is as a substrate in the production of ultraflat, thin-film surfaces, e.g. gold surfaces. Although the deposited film surface is still rough due to deposition kinetics, the back side of the film at the mica-film interface is ultraflat once the film is removed from the substrate. Freshly-cleaved mica surfaces have been used as clean imaging substrates in atomic force microscopy,[14] enabling for example the imaging of bismuth films,[15] plasma glycoproteins,[16] membrane bilayers,[17] and DNA molecules.[18]
Early history[edit]
Human use of mica dates back to prehistoric times. Mica was known to ancient Indian, Egyptian, Greek and Roman and Chinese civilizations, as well as the Aztec civilization of the New World.[citation needed]
The earliest use of mica has been found in cave paintings created during the Upper Paleolithic period (40,000 BC to 10,000 BC). The first hues were red (iron oxide, hematite, or red ochre) and black (manganese dioxide, pyrolusite), though black from juniper or pine carbons has also been discovered. White from kaolin or mica was used occasionally.
A few kilometers northeast of Mexico City stands the ancient site of Teotihuacan. The most striking structure of Teotihuacan is the towering Pyramid of the Sun. The pyramid contained considerable amounts of mica in layers up to 30 cm (12 in) thick.[19]
Natural mica was and still is used by the Taos and Picuris Pueblos Indians in north-central New Mexico to make pottery. The pottery is made from weathered Precambrian mica schist, and has flecks of mica throughout the vessels. Tewa Pueblo pottery is made by coating the clay with mica to provide a dense, glittery micaceous finish over the entire object.[11]
Mica flakes (called abrak in Urdu and written as ابرک) are also used in Pakistan to embellish women's summer clothes, especially dupattas (long light-weight scarves, often colorful and matching the dress).[20][21] Thin mica flakes are added to a hot starch water solution, and the dupatta is dipped in this water mixture for 3–5 minutes. Then it is hung to air dry.
Mica powder[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Throughout the ages, fine powders of mica have been used for various purposes, including decorations. Powdered mica glitter is used to decorate traditional water clay pots in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh; it is also used on traditional Pueblo pottery, though not restricted to use on water pots in this case. The gulal and abir (colored powders) used by North Indian Hindus during the festive season of Holi contain fine crystals of mica to create a sparkling effect. The majestic Padmanabhapuram Palace, 65 km (40 mi) from Trivandrum in India, has colored mica windows.
Medicine[edit]
Ayurveda, the Hindu system of ancient medicine prevalent in India, includes the purification and processing of mica in preparing Abhraka bhasma, which is employed in treating diseases of the respiratory and digestive tracts.[22][23]
Health impact[edit]
Mica dust in the workplace is regarded as a hazardous substance for respiratory exposure above certain concentrations.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for mica exposure in the workplace as 20 mppcf over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 3 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 1,500 mg/m3, mica is immediately dangerous to life and health.[24]
Substitutes[edit]
Some lightweight aggregates, such as diatomite, perlite, and vermiculite, may be substituted for ground mica when used as filler. Ground synthetic fluorophlogopite, a fluorine-rich mica, may replace natural ground mica for uses that require thermal and electrical properties of mica. Many materials can be substituted for mica in numerous electrical, electronic, and insulation uses. Substitutes include acrylate polymers, cellulose acetate, fiberglass, fishpaper, nylon, phenolics, polycarbonate, polyester, styrene, vinyl-PVC, and vulcanized fiber. Mica paper made from scrap mica can be substituted for sheet mica in electrical and insulation applications.[10]
Hand carved from mica from the Hopewell tradition
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Mica". Minerals Education Coalition.
Jump up ^ "The Mica Group". Rocks And Minerals 4 U.
Jump up ^ "Mica". mineralszone.com.
Jump up ^ "Amethyst Galleries – THE MICA GROUP". galleries.com.
Jump up ^ Kirkpatrick, E. M., ed. (1983). Chambers 20th Century Dictionary. Schwarz, Davidson, Seaton, Simpson, Sherrard (New ed.). Edinburgh: W & R Chambers Ltd. p. 793. ISBN 0550102345.
Jump up ^ W. A. Deer, R. A. Howie and J. Zussman (1966) An Introduction to the Rock Forming Minerals, Longman, ISBN 0-582-44210-9.
^ Jump up to: a b "Mineralogy: Phyllosilicates". Colgate University. 1997. Retrieved 18 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Rickwood, P. C. (1981). "The largest crystals" (PDF). American Mineralogist. 66: 885–907.
Jump up ^ "The giant crystal project site". Retrieved 2009-06-06.
^ Jump up to: a b Mica, USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries 2011
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Dolley, Thomas P. (2008) "Mica" in USGS 2008 Minerals Yearbook.
Jump up ^ Isinglass curtains are referred to in the 1943 musical Oklahoma's song The Surrey with the Fringe on Top.
Jump up ^ Wilke, Joanne (2007). Eight Women, Two Model Ts and the American West. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0803260199.
Jump up ^ Eaton, P. and West, W. (2010) "Substrates for AFM", pp. 87–89 in Atomic Force Microscopy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957045-4.
Jump up ^ Weisenhorn, A. L. (1991). "Atomically resolved images of bismuth films on mica with an atomic force microscope". Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B: Microelectronics and Nanometer Structures. 9 (2): 1333. doi:10.1116/1.585190.
Jump up ^ Marchant, R. E.; Lea, A. S.; Andrade, J. D.; Bockenstedt, P. (1992). "Interactions of von Willebrand factor on mica studied by atomic force microscopy". Journal of Colloid and Interface Science. 148: 261. doi:10.1016/0021-9797(92)90135-9.
Jump up ^ Singh, S; Keller, D. J. (1991). "Atomic force microscopy of supported planar membrane bilayers". Biophysical Journal. 60 (6): 1401–10. doi:10.1016/S0006-3495(91)82177-4. PMC 1260200  . PMID 1777565.
Jump up ^ Thundat, T; Allison, D. P.; Warmack, R. J.; Brown, G. M.; Jacobson, K. B.; Schrick, J. J.; Ferrell, T. L. (1992). "Atomic force microscopy of DNA on mica and chemically modified mica". Scanning microscopy. 6 (4): 911–8. PMID 1295085.
Jump up ^ Fagan, Garrett G. (2006). Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads the Public. New York: Routledge. p. 102. ISBN 0415305934.
Jump up ^ Dehlvi, Sadia (October 14, 2007). "Tradition and modernity". Dawn.com. Archived from the original on October 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ Ramzi, Shanaz (March 31, 2005). "Fashion through the ages". Dawn.com. Archived from the original on October 20, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Abhraka Bhasma Preparation, Indications and Properties" "Ayurmedinfo.com".
Jump up ^ "Abhraka Bhasma Properties and uses" "ayurtimes.com"
Jump up ^ "CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Mica (containing less than 1% quartz)". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-27.
References[edit]
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Geological Survey document: "Mica".
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mica.
Mineral Galleries data
Mindat
CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
[hide]
v
t
e
Phyllosilicates
Serpentine group
Antigorite
Chrysotile
Lizardite
Népouite
Clay mineral group
Allophane
Chlorite1
Dickite
Halloysite
Illite
Kaolinite
Montmorillonite
Nacrite
Nontronite
Palygorskite
Saponite
Sepiolite
Serpentine1
Talc
Mica group
Biotite
Glauconite
Lepidolite
Margarite
Muscovite
Phlogopite
Chlorite group
Chlorite
1. Serpentine and chlorite are sometimes considered clay minerals
Authority control
GND: 4113762-0
NDL: 00574017
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mica&oldid=807747461"
Categories:
Phyllosilicates
Dielectrics
Mica group
Industrial minerals
Hidden categories:
Articles containing Latin-language text
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2014
Articles needing additional references from May 2012
All articles needing additional references
Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the United States Geological Survey
Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers
Articles containing video clips
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
العربية
Asturianu
বাংলা
Беларуская
Български
Català
Čeština
Dansk
Deutsch
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
Euskara
فارسی
Français
Gaeilge
Galego
한국어
हिन्दी
Ido
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
ಕನ್ನಡ
Қазақша
Latviešu
Lietuvių
Македонски
മലയാളം
मराठी
Bahasa Melayu
Nāhuatl
Nederlands
नेपाल भाषा
日本語
Norsk
Norsk nynorsk
Occitan
Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Саха тыла
Scots
Simple English
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
తెలుగు
ไทย
Тоҷикӣ
Tsetsêhestâhese
Türkçe
Українська
اردو
Tiếng Việt
文言
粵語
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 29 October 2017, at 22:38.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attrs: href class title

values:
/wiki/Mica_(disambiguation)
mw-disambig
Mica (disambiguation)

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: th

attrs: colspan style

value: tr

value: img

attrs: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attrs: href class

value: td

attrs: href title

value: span

values:
/wiki/Basal_cleavage
mw-redirect
Basal cleavage

values: Edit section: Interlayer-deficient micas

values: <video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Mica.webm/854px--Mica.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" autoplay="" style="width:854px;height:480px" class="kskin" data-durationhint="9.843" data-startoffset="0" data-mwtitle="Mica.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d4/Mica.webm/Mica.webm.480p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="SD WebM (480P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 480P" data-transcodekey="480p.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" data-bandwidth="1096416" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d4/Mica.webm/Mica.webm.720p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="HD WebM (720P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 720P" data-transcodekey="720p.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" data-bandwidth="7088928" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d4/Mica.webm/Mica.webm.1080p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Full HD WebM (1080P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 1080P" data-transcodekey="1080p.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" data-bandwidth="10420352" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Mica.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Original WebM file, 1,920 × 1,080 (11 Mbps)" data-shorttitle="WebM source" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" data-bandwidth="11001039" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d4/Mica.webm/Mica.webm.160p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Low bandwidth WebM (160P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 160P" data-transcodekey="160p.webm" data-width="284" data-height="160" data-bandwidth="212512" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d4/Mica.webm/Mica.webm.240p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="Small WebM (240P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 240P" data-transcodekey="240p.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" data-bandwidth="318624" data-framerate="29.97"/><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d4/Mica.webm/Mica.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-title="WebM (360P)" data-shorttitle="WebM 360P" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" data-bandwidth="577040" data-framerate="29.97"/></video>

values:
/wiki/Metamorphic_rocks
mw-redirect
Metamorphic rocks

values:
/wiki/Filter_(optics)
mw-redirect
Filter (optics)

values:
/wiki/Geiger-M%C3%BCller_tube
mw-redirect
Geiger-Müller tube

values: Calibration standard (page does not exist)

values: Transmitting capacitor (page does not exist)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2014)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Tewa_people
mw-redirect
Tewa people

values: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

values: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced

values: Occupational Safety and Health Administration

values: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

values:
/wiki/Phenolic_resin
mw-redirect
Phenolic resin

values:
/wiki/Vulcanized_fiber
mw-redirect
Vulcanized fiber

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.galleries.com/Mica_Group

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1116%2F1.585190

attrs: alt src title width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1777565

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1295085

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.mindat.org/min-6728.html

values:
/wiki/Serpentine_group
mw-redirect
Serpentine group

values:
/wiki/Clay_mineral
mw-redirect
Clay mineral

values: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

values: navigation navbox Phyllosilicates padding:3px

values:
nofollow
external text
https://d-nb.info/gnd/4113762-0

values: Category:Articles containing Latin-language text

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2014

values: Category:Articles needing additional references from May 2012

values: Category:All articles needing additional references

values: Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the United States Geological Survey

values: Category:Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers

values: Category:Articles containing video clips

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Mica
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values:
/w/index.php?title=Mica&action=edit
Edit this page [ctrl-alt-e]
e

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: ميكا (معدن) – Arabic

values:
https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica
Mica – Asturian
ast
ast
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica
Mica – Catalan
ca
ca
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glimmer
Glimmer – Danish
da
da
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilgud
Vilgud – Estonian
et
et
interlanguage-link-target

values: Μαρμαρυγίες – Greek

values:
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica
Mica – Spanish
es
es
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glimo
Glimo – Esperanto
eo
eo
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica
Mica – French
fr
fr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica
Mica – Galician
gl
gl
interlanguage-link-target

values: अभ्रक – Hindi

values:
https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikao
Mikao – Ido
io
io
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mika
Mika – Indonesian
id
id
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glimmer
Glimmer – Icelandic
is
is
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica
Mica – Italian
it
it
interlanguage-link-target

values: קבוצת הנציצים – Hebrew

values: Слюдалар – Kazakh

values:
https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vizla
Vizla – Latvian
lv
lv
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mika
Mika – Malay
ms
ms
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica
Mica – Dutch
nl
nl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glimmer
Glimmer – Norwegian
no
no
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glimmer
Glimmer – Norwegian Nynorsk
nn
nn
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica
Mica – Occitan
oc
oc
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slyudalar
Slyudalar – Uzbek
uz
uz
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miki
Miki – Polish
pl
pl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica
Mica – Portuguese
pt
pt
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mic%C4%83
Mică – Romanian
ro
ro
interlanguage-link-target

values: Сүлүүдэ – Sakha

values:
https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica
Mica – Scots
sco
sco
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica
Mica – Simple English
simple
simple
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sljuda
Sljuda – Slovenian
sl
sl
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinjci
Tinjci – Serbo-Croatian
sh
sh
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiille
Kiille – Finnish
fi
fi
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glimmer
Glimmer – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

values: అభ్రకం – Telugu

values: Абрақ – Tajik

values:
https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mika
Mika – Turkish
tr
tr
interlanguage-link-target

values:
https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mica
Mica – Vietnamese
vi
vi
interlanguage-link-target

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Mica rootpage-Mica skin-vector action-view


text:
Survival of the fittest
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This is the latest accepted revision, reviewed on 23 February 2018.
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Survival of the fittest (disambiguation).
Herbert Spencer coined the phrase "survival of the fittest".
"Survival of the fittest" is a phrase that originated from Darwinian evolutionary theory as a way of describing the mechanism of natural selection. The biological concept of fitness is defined as reproductive success. In Darwinian terms the phrase is best understood as "Survival of the form that will leave the most copies of itself in successive generations."
Herbert Spencer first used the phrase, after reading Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, in his Principles of Biology (1864), in which he drew parallels between his own economic theories and Darwin's biological ones: "This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called 'natural selection', or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life."[1]
Darwin responded positively to Alfred Russel Wallace's suggestion of using Spencer's new phrase "survival of the fittest" as an alternative to "natural selection", and adopted the phrase in The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication published in 1868.[1][2] In On the Origin of Species, he introduced the phrase in the fifth edition published in 1869,[3][4] intending it to mean "better designed for an immediate, local environment".[5][6]
Contents
[hide]
1 History of the phrase
2 Critiquing the phrase “survival of the fittest”
3 Interpreted as expressing a biological theory
4 Interpreted as expressing a moral theory
4.1 Social Darwinists
4.2 Creationists
4.3 Anarchists
5 Tautology
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
9.1 Origins of the phrase
9.2 Tautology links
9.3 Morality link
9.4 Kropotkin: Mutual Aid
History of the phrase[edit]
Herbert Spencer first used the phrase – after reading Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species – in his Principles of Biology of 1864[7] in which he drew parallels between his economic theories and Darwin's biological, evolutionary ones, writing, "This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called 'natural selection', or the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life."[1]
In July 1866 Alfred Russel Wallace wrote to Darwin about readers thinking that the phrase "natural selection" personified nature as "selecting", and said this misconception could be avoided "by adopting Spencer's term" Survival of the fittest. Darwin promptly replied that Wallace's letter was "as clear as daylight. I fully agree with all that you say on the advantages of H. Spencer's excellent expression of 'the survival of the fittest'. This however had not occurred to me till reading your letter. It is, however, a great objection to this term that it cannot be used as a substantive governing a verb". Had he received the letter two months earlier, he would have worked the phrase into the fourth edition of the Origin which was then being printed, and he would use it in his "next book on Domestic Animals etc.".[1]
Darwin wrote on page 6 of The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication published in 1868, "This preservation, during the battle for life, of varieties which possess any advantage in structure, constitution, or instinct, I have called Natural Selection; and Mr. Herbert Spencer has well expressed the same idea by the Survival of the Fittest. The term "natural selection" is in some respects a bad one, as it seems to imply conscious choice; but this will be disregarded after a little familiarity". He defended his analogy as similar to language used in chemistry, and to astronomers depicting the "attraction of gravity as ruling the movements of the planets", or the way in which "agriculturists speak of man making domestic races by his power of selection". He had "often personified the word Nature; for I have found it difficult to avoid this ambiguity; but I mean by nature only the aggregate action and product of many natural laws,—and by laws only the ascertained sequence of events."[2]
In the first four editions of On the Origin of Species, Darwin had used the phrase "natural selection".[8] In Chapter 4 of the 5th edition of The Origin published in 1869,[3] Darwin implies again the synonym: "Natural Selection, or the Survival of the Fittest".[4] By the word "fittest" Darwin meant "better adapted for immediate, local environment", not the common modern meaning of "in the best physical shape" (think of a puzzle piece, not an athlete).[5] In the introduction he gave full credit to Spencer, writing "I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term Natural Selection, in order to mark its relation to man's power of selection. But the expression often used by Mr. Herbert Spencer of the Survival of the Fittest is more accurate, and is sometimes equally convenient."[9]
In The Man Versus The State, Spencer used the phrase in a postscript to justify a plausible explanation of how his theories would not be adopted by "societies of militant type". He uses the term in the context of societies at war, and the form of his reference suggests that he is applying a general principle.[10]
"Thus by survival of the fittest, the militant type of society becomes characterized by profound confidence in the governing power, joined with a loyalty causing submission to it in all matters whatever".[11]
Though Spencer’s conception of organic evolution is commonly interpreted as a form of Lamarckism,[a] Herbert Spencer is sometimes credited with inaugurating Social Darwinism. The phrase "survival of the fittest" has become widely used in popular literature as a catchphrase for any topic related or analogous to evolution and natural selection. It has thus been applied to principles of unrestrained competition, and it has been used extensively by both proponents and opponents of Social Darwinism.[citation needed]
Evolutionary biologists criticise the manner in which the term is used by non-scientists and the connotations that have grown around the term in popular culture. The phrase also does not help in conveying the complex nature of natural selection, so modern biologists prefer and almost exclusively use the term natural selection. The biological concept of fitness refers to reproductive success, as opposed to survival, and is not explicit in the specific ways in which organisms can be more "fit" (increase reproductive success) as having phenotypic characteristics that enhance survival and reproduction (which was the meaning that Spencer had in mind).[citation needed]
Critiquing the phrase “survival of the fittest”[edit]
While the phrase "survival of the fittest” is often used to refer to “natural selection”, it is avoided by modern biologists, because the phrase can be misleading. For example, “survival” is only one aspect of selection, and not always the most important. Another problem is that the word “fit” is frequently confused with a state of physical fitness. In the evolutionary meaning “fitness” is the rate of reproductive output among a class of genetic variants.[13]
Interpreted as expressing a biological theory[edit]
The phrase can also be interpreted to express a theory or hypothesis: that "fit" as opposed to "unfit" individuals or species, in some sense of "fit", will survive some test.
Interpretations of the phrase as expressing a theory are in danger of being tautological, meaning roughly "those with a propensity to survive have a propensity to survive"; to have content the theory must use a concept of fitness that is independent of that of survival.[5][14]
Interpreted as a theory of species survival, the theory that the fittest species survive is undermined by evidence that while direct competition is observed between individuals, populations and species, there is little evidence that competition has been the driving force in the evolution of large groups such as, for example, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. Instead, these groups have evolved by expanding into empty ecological niches.[15] In the punctuated equilibrium model of environmental and biological change, the factor determining survival is often not superiority over another in competition but ability to survive dramatic changes in environmental conditions, such as after a meteor impact energetic enough to greatly change the environment globally. The main land dwelling animals to survive the K-Pg impact 66 million years ago had the ability to live in underground tunnels, for example.
In 2010 Sahney et al. argued that there is little evidence that intrinsic, biological factors such as competition have been the driving force in the evolution of large groups. Instead, they cited extrinsic, abiotic factors such as expansion as the driving factor on a large evolutionary scale. The rise of dominant groups such as amphibians, reptiles, mammals and birds occurred by opportunistic expansion into empty ecological niches and the extinction of groups happened due to large shifts in the abiotic environment.[15]
Interpreted as expressing a moral theory[edit]
Social Darwinists[edit]
It has been claimed that "the survival of the fittest" theory in biology was interpreted by late 19th century capitalists as "an ethical precept that sanctioned cut-throat economic competition" and led to the advent of the theory of "social Darwinism" which was used to justify laissez-faire economics, war and racism. However, these ideas predate and commonly contradict Darwin's ideas, and indeed their proponents rarely invoked Darwin in support.[citation needed] The term "social Darwinism" referring to capitalist ideologies was introduced as a term of abuse by Richard Hofstadter's Social Darwinism in American Thought published in 1944.[16][17]
Creationists[edit]
Critics of theories of evolution have argued that "survival of the fittest" provides a justification for behaviour that undermines moral standards by letting the strong set standards of justice to the detriment of the weak.[18] However, any use of evolutionary descriptions to set moral standards would be a naturalistic fallacy (or more specifically the is–ought problem), as prescriptive moral statements cannot be derived from purely descriptive premises. Describing how things are does not imply that things ought to be that way. It is also suggested that "survival of the fittest" implies treating the weak badly, even though in some cases of good social behaviour – co-operating with others and treating them well – might improve evolutionary fitness.[16][19]
Anarchists[edit]
Russian anarchist Peter Kropotkin viewed the concept of "survival of the fittest" as supporting co-operation rather than competition. In his book Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution he set out his analysis leading to the conclusion that the fittest was not necessarily the best at competing individually, but often the community made up of those best at working together. He concluded that
In the animal world we have seen that the vast majority of species live in societies, and that they find in association the best arms for the struggle for life: understood, of course, in its wide Darwinian sense — not as a struggle for the sheer means of existence, but as a struggle against all natural conditions unfavourable to the species. The animal species, in which individual struggle has been reduced to its narrowest limits, and the practice of mutual aid has attained the greatest development, are invariably the most numerous, the most prosperous, and the most open to further progress.
Applying this concept to human society, Kropotkin presented mutual aid as one of the dominant factors of evolution, the other being self-assertion, and concluded that
In the practice of mutual aid, which we can retrace to the earliest beginnings of evolution, we thus find the positive and undoubted origin of our ethical conceptions; and we can affirm that in the ethical progress of man, mutual support not mutual struggle – has had the leading part. In its wide extension, even at the present time, we also see the best guarantee of a still loftier evolution of our race.
Tautology[edit]
"Survival of the fittest" is sometimes claimed to be a tautology.[20] The reasoning is that if one takes the term "fit" to mean "endowed with phenotypic characteristics which improve chances of survival and reproduction" (which is roughly how Spencer understood it), then "survival of the fittest" can simply be rewritten as "survival of those who are better equipped for surviving". Furthermore, the expression does become a tautology if one uses the most widely accepted definition of "fitness" in modern biology, namely reproductive success itself (rather than any set of characters conducive to this reproductive success). This reasoning is sometimes used to claim that Darwin's entire theory of evolution by natural selection is fundamentally tautological, and therefore devoid of any explanatory power.[20]
However, the expression "survival of the fittest" (taken on its own and out of context) gives a very incomplete account of the mechanism of natural selection. The reason is that it does not mention a key requirement for natural selection, namely the requirement of heritability. It is true that the phrase "survival of the fittest", in and by itself, is a tautology if fitness is defined by survival and reproduction. Natural selection is the portion of variation in reproductive success that is caused by heritable characters (see the article on natural selection).[20]
If certain heritable characters increase or decrease the chances of survival and reproduction of their bearers, then it follows mechanically (by definition of "heritable") that those characters that improve survival and reproduction will increase in frequency over generations. This is precisely what is called "evolution by natural selection." On the other hand, if the characters which lead to differential reproductive success are not heritable, then no meaningful evolution will occur, "survival of the fittest" or not: if improvement in reproductive success is caused by traits that are not heritable, then there is no reason why these traits should increase in frequency over generations. In other words, natural selection does not simply state that "survivors survive" or "reproducers reproduce"; rather, it states that "survivors survive, reproduce and therefore propagate any heritable characters which have affected their survival and reproductive success". This statement is not tautological: it hinges on the testable hypothesis that such fitness-impacting heritable variations actually exist (a hypothesis that has been amply confirmed.)[20]
Momme von Sydow suggested further definitions of 'survival of the fittest' that may yield a testable meaning in biology and also in other areas where Darwinian processes have been influential. However, much care would be needed to disentangle tautological from testable aspects. Moreover, an "implicit shifting between a testable and an untestable interpretation can be an illicit tactic to immunize natural selection [...] while conveying the impression that one is concerned with testable hypotheses."[14][21]
Skeptic Society founder and Skeptic magazine publisher Michael Shermer addresses the tautology problem in his 1997 book, Why People Believe Weird Things, in which he points out that although tautologies are sometimes the beginning of science, they are never the end, and that scientific principles like natural selection are testable and falsifiable by virtue of their predictive power. Shermer points out, as an example, that population genetics accurately demonstrate when natural selection will and will not effect change on a population. Shermer hypothesizes that if hominid fossils were found in the same geological strata as trilobites, it would be evidence against natural selection.[22]
See also[edit]
Age of the Earth
Anarchism
Altruism
Robert Boyle
Capitalism
Darwinian puzzle
Ethical relativism
Eugenics
Evolution of societies
Freedom of thought
Freethought
Garden of Eden
Mutation
Natural philosophy
Neo-Creationism
Peter Kropotkin
John Ruskin
Scientific scepticism
Social Darwinism
Social ecology
Social evolutionism
Social implications of the theory of evolution
Universal Darwinism
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Though Spencer was an advocate of the inheritance of acquired characters, he considered Lamarck’s failure to explain organic evolution in physical terms as a serious weakness of his theory.[12]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Letter 5140 – Wallace, A. R. to Darwin, C. R., 2 July 1866". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 12 January 2010.
"Letter 5145 – Darwin, C. R. to Wallace, A. R., 5 July (1866)". Darwin Correspondence Project. Retrieved 12 January 2010.
^ "Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology of 1864, vol. 1, p. 444, wrote: 'This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called "natural selection", or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life.'" Maurice E. Stucke, Better Competition Advocacy, retrieved 29 August 2007 , citing HERBERT SPENCER, THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGY 444 (Univ. Press of the Pac. 2002.)
^ Jump up to: a b "This preservation, during the battle for life, of varieties which possess any advantage in structure, constitution, or instinct, I have called Natural Selection; and Mr. Herbert Spencer has well expressed the same idea by the Survival of the Fittest. The term "natural selection" is in some respects a bad one, as it seems to imply conscious choice; but this will be disregarded after a little familiarity." Darwin, Charles (1868), The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, 1 (1st ed.), London: John Murray, p. 6, retrieved 10 August 2015
^ Jump up to: a b Freeman, R. B. (1977), "On the Origin of Species", The Works of Charles Darwin: An Annotated Bibliographical Handlist (2nd ed.), Cannon House, Folkestone, Kent, England: Wm Dawson & Sons Ltd
^ Jump up to: a b "This preservation of favourable variations, and the destruction of injurious variations, I call Natural Selection, or the Survival of the Fittest." – Darwin, Charles (1869), On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (5th ed.), London: John Murray, pp. 91–92, retrieved 22 February 2009
^ Jump up to: a b c "Stephen Jay Gould, Darwin's Untimely Burial", 1976; from Philosophy of Biology:An Anthology, Alex Rosenberg, Robert Arp ed., John Wiley & Sons, May 2009, pp. 99–102.
Jump up ^ "Evolutionary biologists customarily employ the metaphor 'survival of the fittest,' which has a precise meaning in the context of mathematical population genetics, as a shorthand expression when describing evolutionary processes." Chew, Matthew K.; Laubichler, Manfred D. (4 July 2003), "PERCEPTIONS OF SCIENCE: Natural Enemies — Metaphor or Misconception?", Science, 301 (5629): 52–53, doi:10.1126/science.1085274, PMID 12846231, retrieved 20 March 2008
Jump up ^ Vol. 1, p. 444
Jump up ^ U. Kutschera (14 March 2003), A Comparative Analysis of the Darwin-Wallace Papers and the Development of the Concept of Natural Selection (PDF), Institut für Biologie, Universität Kassel, Germany, archived from the original (PDF) on 14 April 2008, retrieved 20 March 2008
Jump up ^ Darwin, Charles (1869), On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (5th ed.), London: John Murray, p. 72
Jump up ^ The principle of natural selection applied to groups of individual is known as Group selection.
Jump up ^ Herbert Spencer; Truxton Beale (1916), The Man Versus the State: A Collection of Essays, M. Kennerley (snippet)
Jump up ^ Federico Morganti (May 26, 2013). "Adaptation and Progress: Spencer's Criticism of Lamarck". Evolution & Cognition. External link in |publisher= (help)
Jump up ^ Colby, Chris (1996–1997), Introduction to Evolutionary Biology, TalkOrigins Archive, retrieved 22 February 2009
^ Jump up to: a b von Sydow, M. (2014). ‘Survival of the Fittest’ in Darwinian Metaphysics – Tautology or Testable Theory? (pp. 199–222) In E. Voigts, B. Schaff & M. Pietrzak-Franger (Eds.). Reflecting on Darwin. Farnham, London: Ashgate.
^ Jump up to: a b Sahney, S., Benton, M.J. and Ferry, P.A. (2010), "Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land" (PDF), Biology Letters, 6 (4): 544–547, doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024, PMC 2936204  , PMID 20106856. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jump up to: a b John S. Wilkins (1997), Evolution and Philosophy: Social Darwinism – Does evolution make might right?, TalkOrigins Archive, retrieved 21 November 2007
Jump up ^ Leonard, Thomas C. (2005), "Mistaking Eugenics for Social Darwinism: Why Eugenics is Missing from the History of American Economics" (PDF), History of Political Economy, 37 (supplement:): 200–233, doi:10.1215/00182702-37-Suppl_1-200
Jump up ^ Alan Keyes (7 July 2001), WorldNetDaily: Survival of the fittest?, WorldNetDaily, retrieved 19 November 2007
Jump up ^ Mark Isaak (2004), CA002: Survival of the fittest implies might makes right, TalkOrigins Archive, retrieved 19 November 2007
^ Jump up to: a b c d Corey, Michael Anthony (1994), "Chapter 5. Natural Selection", Back to Darwin: the scientific case for Deistic evolution, Rowman and Littlefield, p. 147, ISBN 978-0-8191-9307-0
Jump up ^ Cf. von Sydow, M. (2012). From Darwinian Metaphysics towards Understanding the Evolution of Evolutionary Mechanisms. A Historical and Philosophical Analysis of Gene-Darwinism and Universal Darwinism. Universitätsverlag Göttingen.
Jump up ^ Shermer, Michael; Why People Believe Weird Things; 1997; Pages 143–144
External links[edit]
Origins of the phrase[edit]
AboutDarwin.com — Darwin's Timeline
Pioneers of Psychology
Evolution Quotations compiled by GIGA
Tautology links[edit]
Darwin's Untimely Burial by Stephen Jay Gould
Evolution and Philosophy: A Good Tautology is Hard to Find by John Wilkins, part of the talk.origins archive.
CA500: "Survival of the fittest is a tautology" from the talk.origins index to creationist claims by Mark Ridley.
Is "survival of the fittest" a tautology by Don Lindsay.
Darwin's Great Tautology by the Doubting Thomas
Morality link[edit]
CA002: Survival of the fittest implies that "might makes right"
David Hume — Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
Evolution and philosophy — Does evolution make might right? by John S. Wilkins.
"Survival of the fittest" by Alan Keyes.
Darwinism and Laissez-Faire Capitalism from the Institute for Creation Research
Kropotkin: Mutual Aid[edit]
Mutual Aid; a factor of evolution at Project Gutenberg
Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution – HTML version at the Anarchy Archives
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Survival_of_the_fittest&oldid=827194772"
Categories:
Charles Darwin
Herbert Spencer
Biological evolution
English phrases
Metaphors
Hidden categories:
CS1 errors: external links
CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list
Wikipedia pending changes protected pages
EngvarB from August 2014
Use dmy dates from August 2014
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2015
Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters
Articles with Project Gutenberg links
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Български
Català
Dansk
Deutsch
Español
Esperanto
Français
Gaeilge
한국어
हिन्दी
Bahasa Indonesia
Қазақша
Nederlands
日本語
Norsk
Português
Русский
Simple English
Slovenščina
Suomi
தமிழ்
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 23 February 2018, at 08:30.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

values: Page protected with pending changes level 1

values: All edits by unregistered and new users are subject to review prior to becoming visible to unregistered users

attrs: class id

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

attrs: class src alt title

values: Changes must be reviewed before being displayed on this page.

attrs: id class src style alt

attrs: class href

value: i

attrs: id style class

values: flaggedrevs_short flaggedrevs_stable_synced plainlinks noprint nomobile

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values: Survival of the fittest (disambiguation)

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Evolutionary_theory
mw-redirect
Evolutionary theory

values:
/wiki/The_Origin_of_Species
mw-redirect
The Origin of Species

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2015)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values:
/wiki/Pop_culture
mw-redirect
Pop culture

values: Edit section: Critiquing the phrase “survival of the fittest”

values: Edit section: Interpreted as expressing a biological theory

values:
/wiki/Ecological_niches
mw-redirect
Ecological niches

values:
/wiki/K-Pg_boundary
mw-redirect
K-Pg boundary

values: Edit section: Interpreted as expressing a moral theory

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2015)

values:
/wiki/Skeptic_(U.S._magazine)
mw-redirect
Skeptic (U.S. magazine)

values:
/wiki/Ethical_relativism
mw-redirect
Ethical relativism

values:
/wiki/Evolution_of_societies
mw-redirect
Evolution of societies

values:
/wiki/Scientific_scepticism
mw-redirect
Scientific scepticism

values:
/wiki/Social_evolutionism
mw-redirect
Social evolutionism

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-2

values: -moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;

values:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: lower-alpha;

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1085274

values:
/wiki/PubMed_Identifier
mw-redirect
PubMed Identifier

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12846231

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbl.2009.1024

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20106856

values: Category:CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list

values: -moz-column-width: 28em; -webkit-column-width: 28em; column-width: 28em; list-style-type: decimal;

values: Category:Wikipedia pending changes protected pages

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2015

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2015

values: Category:Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters

values: Category:Articles with Project Gutenberg links

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Survival_of_the_fittest
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: Оцеляване на най-приспособения – Bulgarian

values: स्वस्थतम की उत्तरजीविता – Hindi

values: Мықтылардың тіршілік етуі – Kazakh

values: Выживание наиболее приспособленных – Russian

values: Survival of the fittest – Simple English

values: தக்கன பிழைக்கும் – Tamil

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Survival_of_the_fittest rootpage-Survival_of_the_fittest skin-vector action-view