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The Secret Life of the American Teenager (season 1)
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See also: Secret Life (disambiguation)
The Secret Life of the American Teenager (season 1)
Season 1 Volume 1 DVD Cover
Country of origin
United States
No. of episodes
23
Release
Original network
ABC Family
Original release
July 1, 2008 – March 23, 2009[1]
Season chronology
Next →
Season 2
List of The Secret Life of the American Teenager episodes
The first season of The Secret Life of the American Teenager, an American television series created by Brenda Hampton, debuted on the ABC Family television network on July 1, 2008.[2] The first season comprises 23 episodes, the first eleven of which ended on September 9, 2008. Despite marketing issues, the remaining twelve ended up as part of the first season, which concluded its initial airing on March 23, 2009.[1] Season one regular cast members include Shailene Woodley, Molly Ringwald, Daren Kagasoff, Kenny Baumann, Francia Raisa, Megan Park, India Eisley, Greg Finley II, Jorge Pallo, Mark Derwin, and Luke Zimmerman.
Kyle XY was ABC Family's highest rated original series from June 2006 - July 2008, but lost its reign when the series premiere of The Secret Life of the American Teenager brought in 2.8 million viewers.[3] The season finale brought in 4.50 million viewers, 2.4 million of whom were females. The show was the number one scripted telecast on March 23, 2009 in viewers 12-34 and the number one telecast that night in viewers.[4]
The season focuses on the relationships between families and friends dealing with the unexpected teen pregnancy of character Amy Juergens, portrayed by Shailene Woodley. Probably the last girl anyone would expect to suffer such a scandalous event, Amy's world begins to expand as she discovers that virtually every student at her high school deals with some secret or unexpected problems, from the religious good-girl Grace to the tough-kid Ricky and to clingy loving Ben.
Contents
[hide]
1 Main cast
2 Episodes
3 Reception
4 References
5 External links
Main cast[edit]
Shailene Woodley as Amy Juergens
Kenny Baumann as Ben Boykewich
Mark Derwin as George Juergens
India Eisley as Ashley Juergens
Greg Finley as Jack Pappas
Daren Kagasoff as Ricky Underwood
Jorge-Luis Pallo as Marc Molina
Megan Park as Grace Bowman
Francia Raisa as Adrian Lee
Molly Ringwald as Anne Juergens
Episodes[edit]
No. in
series
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)
1
1 "Falling In Love" Ron Underwood Brenda Hampton July 1, 2008 (2008-07-01) 2.82[5]
After losing her virginity to 16-year-old Ricky Underwood at band camp, 15-year-old Amy Juergens discovers that she is pregnant. Scared to tell her parents and unsure what to do, she turns to her two best friends, Lauren and Madison, for help. To confirm the pregnancy they run out and buy her three different pregnancy tests, all of which turn up positive. They encourage her to go to her doctor but not to tell until she is absolutely certain. Meanwhile, in a quest to lose his virginity, Ben Boykewich, sees Amy across the crowded hallway and is encouraged by his best friends, Henry and Alice, to ask her out. He joins the band to meet her and one day asks her to the homecoming dance after the school's big football game. There he becomes completely enamored by her, as does she, however Amy struggles with having to tell him that she's pregnant. Lauren and Madison attempt to convince Amy to have sex with Ben and tell him the baby is his, but she refuses. Ricky comes up to Amy telling her she shouldn't be with Ben. Meanwhile, Jack Pappas, longtime boyfriend to the adherently Christian Grace Bowman, struggles with the idea of having to wait at least ten more years to have sex with Grace. Under pressure he secretly spends the night with Adrian Lee, the school majorette and Ricky's girlfriend. At the dance he begs her not to tell anyone about their night spent together. They kiss and are caught by Tom Bowman, Grace's brother, who alerts Grace (as well as the entire school) to Jack's infidelity.
2
2 "You Are My Everything" Keith Truesdell Brenda Hampton July 8, 2008 (2008-07-08) 2.81[6]
Despite Madison and Lauren's insistence that Amy tell her parents about their pregnancy, Amy insists on convincing herself that Ricky and her pregnancy never happened and tries to go about her life as normal. As they discuss Amy's situation, they are overheard by Henry and Alice in the hallway and the rumor spreads throughout the school that Ricky and Amy had sex. Meanwhile, Ricky attempts to pursue Amy, despite her insistence that she is seeing someone else and is not interested. Despite the new rumor about Ricky and Amy and despite Adrian's kiss with Jack, Adrian and Ricky continue to see each other, however their relationship is wrought with constant bickering. Ben continues to be completely enamored by Amy, even going to far as admitting to Henry and Alice that he can see himself marrying her. They warn him about the rumor they overheard and he begins to fear that he is in competition with Ricky. He tells Amy he heard the rumors but that they mean nothing to him, telling Amy he loves her. During this time, Jack is also pleading with Grace for forgiveness but she refuses to speak to him. At school, she calls her mother and asks to take her home. Her mother encourages her not to blame herself (or Jack and Adrian) and to just let things go. When Jack comes by Grace's house her father shoos him off the porch, however, hearing that Jack came to see her makes her begin to want Jack back again, despite her father's warnings to stay away from him from now on. She tells Jack the next day at school that she is willing to forgive Jack and go back out with him as long as she gets her parent's permission and as long as he doesn't try to pressure her into having sex until she's ready and Jack agrees.
3
3 "I Feel Sick" Ron Underwood Brenda Hampton July 15, 2008 (2008-07-15) 2.48[7]
Ben continues to fall hard for Amy, and the two share their first kiss. Elsewhere, Amy tells her sister about her pregnancy before she tells her parents , Grace uses Ricky as a cover to sneak around with Jack, and a jealous Adrian feels like Ricky is just using her for sex.
4
4 "Caught" Keith Truesdell Brenda Hampton July 22, 2008 (2008-07-22) 3.09[8]
Amy can't stand Ben's clingy behavior, especially in the face of her parents' increasingly strained relations with one another. Elsewhere, Ricky continues to play a part in Grace and Jack's plot to see each other, but as things backfire, Jack seeks comfort from Adrian.
5
5 "What Have You Done to Me?" Ron Underwood Brenda Hampton July 29, 2008 (2008-07-29) 3.58[9]
Ben and Amy are at odds about what to do: he's thinking marriage and that the baby might be his, while she's thinking about having an abortion. Elsewhere, Ashley pleads with her dad not to leave home and Grace learns that Jack did more than kiss Adrian.
6
6 "Love for Sale" Keith Truesdell Brenda Hampton August 5, 2008 (2008-08-05) 4.10[10]
After much delay, Amy tells her mother that she's pregnant. Meanwhile, on a day Amy doesn't show up at school, rumors circulate that she took off in order to "take care" of her problem.
7
7 "Absent" Anson Williams Brenda Hampton & Jeffery Rodgers August 12, 2008 (2008-08-12) 3.70[11]
Amy weighs her options regarding her residency situation. Meanwhile, Ricky wrestles with taking responsibility for his actions.
8
8 "Your Cheatin' Heart" Keith Truesdell Brenda Hampton & Elaine Arata August 19, 2008 (2008-08-19) 3.91[12]
Amy's grandmother, "Mimsy" (Alice Hirson), visits the family and offers to help out with Amy's situation. Later on they, find out that she has Alzheimer's. Elsewhere, Adrian makes sure her budding friendship with Grace is on display for all to see.
9
9 "Slice of Life" Jason Priestley Brenda Hampton, Jeff Olsen, & Chris Olsen August 26, 2008 (2008-08-26) 3.65[13]
Amy and Ashley spend some time bonding with their dad, while Adrian locates her estranged father. Elsewhere, Tom has a little party for himself, complete with pizza and a prostitute (Jennifer Coolidge) he calls, and Jason and Madison see Lauren kissing Ricky. Amy finds out that her dad, George, is seeing Adrian's mom. Meanwhile, Adrian finds her dad as she waits out by his house. Near the end, Anne find out that George was sleeping with Adrian's mom and is now sleeping in the furniture store. Anne and Ashley now think that George is broke and they are now in poverty.
10
10 "Back to School Special" Keith Truesdell Caroline Kepnes September 2, 2008 (2008-09-02) 3.90[14]
Amy finally makes a decision regarding where she will go to school. Elsewhere, Adrian's mom suggests that Adrian develop a relationship with her dad; and Henry and Alice take a new step in their relationship. When Amy returns to school the next day, Ben, Grace, Jack, Henry, Alice, Lauren, Madison, Jason, and Ricky supports Amy's decision to come back to school.
11
11 "Just Say No" Jason Priestley Teleplay by: Jeff Olson & Caroline Kepnes
Story by: Elaine Arata & Brenda Hampton September 9, 2008 (2008-09-09) 4.54[15]
Adrian disappears from school, which sparks a salacious rumor and a call to the police from her dad. Meanwhile, Grace receives multiple warnings about Ricky, and Amy and Ben mull the next move in their relationship.
12
12 "The Secret Wedding of the American Teenager" Lindsley Parsons III Brenda Hampton January 5, 2009 (2009-01-05) 4.37[16]
After hearing that she will need to get a job and accept responsibility if she was to keep her baby, Amy plans to get married to Ben with fake IDs. Ricky finds out and goes to a boy at school to get one for himself--as do Henry, Alice, Ashley, Adrian, Grace, Lauren, Madison, Jason, and Jack. George moves into the Juergens' garage.
13
13 "Baked Nevada" Anson Williams Brenda Hampton January 12, 2009 (2009-01-12) 3.10[17]
Party's over when George and Leo catch Amy and Ben at their wedding reception. Back at the chapel, Tom wants to marry Tammy but Grace stops him. Elsewhere, Ricky starts visiting Adrian again and Amy and Ben learn that their marriage is not legally valid. Jack steps up and falsely confesses to creating the fake IDs, and is forced to do community service. Anne talks with Amy and Ben and gives them advice on what they should do with the baby, when Amy feels her baby kick for the first time.
14
14 "The Father and the Son" Keith Truesdell Brenda Hampton January 19, 2009 (2009-01-19) 3.91[18]
Ashley enlists the help of Reverend Stone (Tom Virtue) to ensure that her parents will stay together. Ricky's estranged father, Bob (MADtv's Bryan Callen), returns to town on parole in search of his son. He pays a visit to Amy and her family and later threatens Ricky with the possibility of giving the baby up for adoption. Amy reveals to her parents that Ricky has been sexually abused by his father and Anne suggests that they should seriously consider what's best for the baby-–adoption. Amy seriously considers this option and discusses it with Ben and Ricky, who both want her to keep the baby, but for very different reasons. Anne seeks out the advice of Reverend Stone to see if he knows any nice families who are looking to adopt.
15
15 "That's Enough of That" Anson Williams Brenda Hampton & Jeffrey Rodgers January 26, 2009 (2009-01-26) 3.10[19]
Ricky tells Adrian about his abusive father and reveals that as long as his father is around, he won't see Grace. Come time to find out the sex of the baby, Ben is disappointed when Amy tells him she doesn't want him to come with her to her appointment. Meanwhile, Bob (Bryan Callen) again approaches Ricky with the idea of giving up the baby for adoption, and Jack's community service starts out very unexpectedly. Anne begins to fully accept the consequences of Amy being pregnant and Ben records a video of Amy, revealing that she is having a boy. Ricky's father goes back to jail for possession of illegal drugs.
16
16 "Chocolate Cake" Keith Truesdell Brenda Hampton & Jeffrey Rodgers February 2, 2009 (2009-02-02) 3.05[20]
Ben is distraught over the fact that Ricky and Amy were planning to meet to talk about the baby without him. Frustrated, he decides to join them in their decision. Meanwhile, Anne goes to meet Reverend Stone and finds out about Ashley's plan to stop her parents' divorce. Jack finds out Shawna isn't interested in him and goes to see Grace to tell her that Ricky and Adrian are still having sex and Adrian's father catches her in a compromising position with her stepbrother, Max. Meanwhile, George finds out his two gay co-workers are interested in adopting Amy's baby and Ashley admits to Anne that she has been upset and promises not to act out anymore. Later, Ricky agrees to let Amy give the baby up for adoption.
17
17 "Unforgiven" Jason Priestley Brenda Hampton & Elaine Arata February 9, 2009 (2009-02-09) 3.50[21]
Ben tells Amy that he needs some space and starts to doubt about his relationship with Amy who becomes aggravated. Jack and Shawna agree to see each other. Adrian and Grace argue over Ricky, but become closer to each other as a result. Elsewhere, Grace's parents apologize to each other and George interviews people who are interested in adopting Amy's baby. Meanwhile, Ricky and Amy get into a heated discussion about her breakup with Ben and putting the baby up for adoption. Making her hurt and upset by his objections, Ricky then tries to console her. George's gay co-workers come by and talk to George and Anne about them wanting to adopt Amy's baby, and Amy agrees. Ricky tells Jack that he is through with both of Adrian and Grace for good and wants to be with Amy.
18
18 "Making Up Is Hard to Do" Keith Truesdell Brenda Hampton, Chris Olsen, & Jeff Olsen February 16, 2009 (2009-02-16) 3.51[22]
Ricky sees Dr. Fields and tells him that he has his mind set on Amy. He also tells him that he's going to try and sabotage the adoption. Ashley skips school, and runs into a schoolmate, Thomas. Then, Ashley tries to talk Ben into pursuing Amy. Elsewhere, Max comes over to Adrian's condo and go on their first date. Duncan tells Jack that if he hurts Shawna, he will pay the consequences. Later on, Amy and Ricky meet with Donovan and Leon. After the interview, Donovan and Leon decide that they want to try to adopt their foster kids instead.
19
19 "Money for Nothing, Chicks for Free" Jason Priestley Brenda Hampton & Caroline Kepnes February 23, 2009 (2009-02-23) 3.27[23]
Anne receives a potential job offer, Adrian tries to change her style by "becoming a virgin again", and Jack raises money for underprivileged children. Elsewhere, Amy and Ben get back together, Donovan and Leon tell the Juergens they don't want to adopt Amy's baby, and Amy decides not to go through with adoption. Ashley sneaks around with Thomas and gets to know him better. Because of Amy's decision, Anne and Ben pressure her into getting a job.
20
20 "Maybe Baby" Keith Truesdell Brenda Hampton March 2, 2009 (2009-03-02) 3.32[24]
Ben and Ricky both get a job together at Ben's dad's sausage shop. Meanwhile, George gets a loan on a foreclosed house, and Amy begins to worry about her diet. Ashley is clearly upset over Amy wanting to get rid of the baby and expresses her anger when she finds the tape that Amy and Ben made for the baby. Amy fights with Ashley and George, admitting she really does care about her son and Ashley tells Amy that she is a smart girl and that she can handle the baby. However, both envious Grace and Adrian want to make sure she does NOT keep the baby because it gives her a tie to Ricky. Amy's friends mysteriously all show up at her house and Grace tells Amy she found her a job at the Church where she could get day care and insurance. With the support of her friends and her father and sister, Amy changes her mind about keeping the baby. She asks her mother if she can keep the baby and her mother agrees.
21
21 "Whoomp! (There It Is)" Jason Priestley Brenda Hampton March 9, 2009 (2009-03-09) 3.35[25]
A baby shower is planned for Amy. In the mean time, Grace and Jack reconnect and Ricky practices how to change a diaper. George tells Anne and Ashley that he is moving out, however, on her way to her baby shower, Amy goes into labor and George gets a call so he can meet Amy, Anne, and Ashley at the hospital. Ben suggests to Amy to call Ricky and tell him that she is in labor.
22
22 "One Night at Band Camp" John Schneider Brenda Hampton & Jeffrey Rodgers March 16, 2009 (2009-03-16) 3.11[26]
As Amy goes into labor, she becomes cranky and flashes back to the first time she met Ricky at band camp and how he charmed her. Tom tries to get Grace and Jack back together and Grace asks her parents for their permission. Amy realizes the sex between her and Ricky wasn't entirely his fault and feels bad for blaming it all on him. Elsewhere, Ricky tells Ashley that he wants to care for the baby and help Amy by being a good friend and Adrian realizes she still cares for Ricky.
23
23 "And Unto Us, A Child Is Born" Keith Truesdell Brenda Hampton March 23, 2009 (2009-03-23) 4.49[4]
Friends and family gather at the hospital to give their support to the Juergens family, who eagerly await the arrival of Amy's baby. At the same time, Ben and Ricky agree to forge a friendship as they discuss their future relationship. When Adrian arrives at the hospital to support Ricky, Grace tells Ricky that she's getting back together with Jack. Several hours later, Amy's baby is finally born, Amy's classmates all get to see the baby, and Amy and Ashley decide to name him John. Upon returning home, however, Amy struggles with adjusting to being a new mom. Later, Ricky visits his newborn son and realizes he might like fatherhood, while Ashley and George surprise Anne by moving out of the family home.
Reception[edit]
The series received a mixed reception when it began broadcasting. Many mainstream critics praised the messages presented in the series, although it was also criticized for its direction and writing. New York Post praised the series for having a set of characters that are "...real and come from families of all stripes — from intact to single-parent households to one boy in foster care..."[27] The pilot episode broke the record for highest rated debut for ABC Family, beating Kyle XY, with 2.82 million viewers. The season one finale brought in 4.50 million viewers, beating the night's 90210 which had almost half its usual number of viewers.[4]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "ABC Family's The Secret Life of the American Teenager picked up for second season - TV Ratings, Nielsen Ratings, Television Show Ratings". TVbytheNumbers.com. 2009-02-09. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Show listings: The Secret Life of the American Teenager". TheFutonCritic.com. Retrieved January 11, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Millions of viewers tune-in to discover who is 'Kyle XY'" (PDF). ABC FamilyNet. 2006-06-27. Retrieved 2006-07-02. [dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b c Seidman, Robert (March 31, 2009). "Kids' Choice Awards, Penguins of Madagascar and WWE RAW lead cable". TV by the Numbers. Retrieved October 15, 2015.
Jump up ^ Jul 2, 2008 03:19 PM (2008-07-02). "'American Teenager' sets ABC Family record - The Live Feed | THR". Thrfeed.com. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ Kissell, Rick. (July 15 208) TV originals drive small ratings gain Variety. Retrieved August 24, 2008.
Jump up ^ Kissell, Rick. (July 23, 2008) Secret a teen dream Variety. Retrieved August 24, 2008.
Jump up ^ Kissell, Rick. (6 August 2008) 'American Teenager' stays hot Variety. Retrieved 24 August 2008.
Jump up ^ Kissell, Rick. (August 6, 2008) American Teenager stays hot Variety. Retrieved August 24, 2008.
Jump up ^ "ABC Family scores with 'Teenager' - Entertainment News, Weekly TV, Media". Variety. 2008-08-15. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ Kissell, Rick. (August 19, 2008) Olympic Games wins ratings gold Variety. Retrieved August 24, 2008.
Jump up ^ "Cable TV Top 20: The Closer, Cheetah Girls and Law & Order: CI". TV by the Numbers. August 27, 2008. Retrieved November 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Obama and CNN Best 'The Closer' and NASCAR on Cable". TV by the Numbers. September 3, 2008. Retrieved November 23, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Breaking News - ABC Family's "The Secret Life of the American Teenager" Defeats the First Hour of CW's Highly-Promoted "90210" Debut in Viewers 12-34 and Females 12-34". TheFutonCritic.com. 2008-09-02. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ Kissell, Rick (September 10, 2008). "Fringe underwhelms but wins night". Variety.com. Retrieved January 11, 2009.
Jump up ^ Seidman, Robert (January 7, 2009). "Secret Life handily defeats CW's Gossip Girl". TVbytheNumbers.com. Retrieved January 11, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Kyle XY debut disappoints; Real Chance soars". THRfeed.com. January 13, 2009. Retrieved January 14, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Nielsen Ratings: Top cable shows for the week ending January 25, 2009 including Obama inauguration coverage, WWE RAW, Burn Notice, Psych, SpongeBob, Back at the Barnyard, Battlestar Galactica, Kyle XY and Damages - TV Ratings, Nielsen Ratings, Television Show Ratings". TVbytheNumbers.com. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ "The Closer, Monk and Burn Notice lead weekly Nielsen Ratings for cable viewing for the week ending February 1, 2009 - TV Ratings, Nielsen Ratings, Television Show Ratings". TVbytheNumbers.com. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Monk , WWE RAW , The Closer and Burn Notice lead cable viewing - TV Ratings, Nielsen Ratings, Television Show Ratings". TVbytheNumbers.com. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ "Updated: NBA All-Star festivities, The Closer, WWE RAW, and Monk lead week, Damages to return despite ratings - TV Ratings, Nielsen Ratings, Television Show Ratings". TVbytheNumbers.com. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ "WWE RAW, The Closer and Monk lead weekly cable viewing - TV Ratings, Nielsen Ratings, Television Show Ratings". TVbytheNumbers.com. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ "WWE RAW, The Closer and President Obama lead cable viewing - TV Ratings, Nielsen Ratings, Television Show Ratings". TVbytheNumbers.com. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ "iCarly, Burn Notice and WWE RAW top cable charts - TV Ratings, Nielsen Ratings, Television Show Ratings". TVbytheNumbers.com. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ "WWE RAW, Cars, Hannah Montana and SpongeBob Lead Weekly Cable Viewing - TV Ratings, Nielsen Ratings, Television Show Ratings". TVbytheNumbers.com. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ "WWE RAW, Hannah Montana and Northern Lights lead cable show rankings - TV Ratings, Nielsen Ratings, Television Show Ratings". TVbytheNumbers.com. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ Stasi, Linda (June 30, 2008). "Good Daughter Comes Home with Bad News in Secret Life". New York Post. NYPost.com. Retrieved January 11, 2009.
External links[edit]
Official website
The Secret Life of the American Teenager on IMDb
The Secret Life of the American Teenager at TV.com
Villarreal, Yvonne (January 3, 2009). "Secret Life of the American Teenager explores teen pregnancy". The Los Angeles Times. LATimes.com. Retrieved January 11, 2009.
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Committee of Public Safety
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses, see Committee of Public Safety (disambiguation).
The Committee of Public Safety (French: Comité de salut public)—created in April 1793 by the National Convention and then restructured in July 1793—formed the de facto executive government in France during the Reign of Terror (1793–94), a stage of the French Revolution. The Committee of Public Safety succeeded the previous Committee of General Defence (established in January 1793) and assumed its role of protecting the newly established republic against foreign attacks and internal rebellion. As a wartime measure, the Committee—composed at first of nine, and later of twelve, members—was given broad supervisory powers over military, judicial, and legislative efforts. It was formed as an administrative body to supervise and expedite the work of the executive bodies of the Convention and of the government ministers appointed by the Convention. As the Committee tried to meet the dangers of a coalition of European nations and counter-revolutionary forces within the country, it became more and more powerful.
In July 1793, following the defeat at the Convention of the Girondins, the prominent leader of the radical Jacobin, Maximilien Robespierre, was added to the Committee. The power of the Committee peaked between August 1793 and July 1794. In December 1793, the Convention formally conferred executive power upon the Committee.
The execution of Robespierre in July 1794 represented a reactionary period against the Committee of Public Safety. This is known as the Thermidorian Reaction, as Robespierre's fall from power occurred during the Revolutionary month of Thermidor. The Committee's influence diminished,[1] and it was disestablished in 1795.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins and evolution
1.1 Committee of discussion
1.1.1 Execution of the Hébertists and Dantonists
1.2 Committee of rule
1.3 Fall of the Committee, and aftermath
2 Composition
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
Origins and evolution[edit]
Committee of discussion[edit]
Lettre anglaise (English Letter) dated 29 June 1793 as published by the French National convention during the Revolution (1793). This document was used to prove English spying and conspiracy.
On 5 April 1793, the French military commander and former minister of war General Charles François Dumouriez defected to Austria, following the publication of an incendiary letter in which he threatened to march his army on the city of Paris if the National Convention did not accede to his leadership. News of his defection caused alarm in Paris, where imminent defeat by the Austrians and their allies was feared. A widespread belief held that revolutionary France was in immediate peril, threatened not only by foreign armies and by recent anti-revolutionary revolts in the Vendée, but also by foreign agents who plotted the destruction of the nation from within.[2]
The betrayal of the revolutionary government by Dumouriez lent greater credence to this belief. In light of this threat, the Girondin leader Maximin Isnard proposed the creation of a nine-member Committee of Public Safety. Isnard was supported in this effort by Georges Danton, who declared, "This Committee is precisely what we want, a hand to grasp the weapon of the Revolutionary Tribunal."[2]
The Committee was formally created on 6 April 1793. Closely associated with the leadership of Danton, it was initially known as "the Danton Committee".[3] Danton steered the Committee through the 31 May and 2 June 1793 journées that resulted in the fall of the Girondins, and through the intensifying war in the Vendée. However, when the Committee was recomposed on 10 July, Danton was not included. Nevertheless, he continued to support the centralization of power by the Committee.[4]
On 27 July 1793, Maximilien Robespierre was elected to the Committee. At this time, the Committee was entering a more powerful and active phase, which would see it become a de facto dictatorship alongside its powerful partner, the Committee of General Security. The role of the Committee of Public Safety included the governance of the war (including the appointment of generals), the appointing of judges and juries for the Revolutionary Tribunal,[5] the provisioning of the armies and the public, the maintenance of public order, and oversight of the state bureaucracy.[6]
The Committee was also responsible for interpreting and applying the decrees of the National Convention, and thus for implementing some of the most stringent policies of the Terror—for instance, the levée en masse, passed on 23 August 1793, the Law of Suspects, passed on 17 September 1793, and the Law of the Maximum, passed on 29 September 1793. The broad and centralized powers of the Committee were codified by the Law of 14 Frimaire (also known as the Law of Revolutionary Government) on 4 December 1793.[citation needed]
Execution of the Hébertists and Dantonists[edit]
On 5 December 1793, journalist Camille Desmoulins began publishing Le Vieux Cordelier, a newspaper initially aimed—with the approval of Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety[7]—at the ultra-revolutionary Hébertist faction, whose extremist demands, anti-religious fervor, and propensity for sudden insurrections were problematic for the Committee. However, Desmoulins quickly turned his pen against the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of General Security, comparing their reign to that of the Roman tyrants chronicled by Tacitus, and expounding the "indulgent" views of the Dantonist faction.[citation needed]
Consequently, though the Hébertists were arrested and executed in March 1794, the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of General Security ensured that Desmoulins and Danton were also arrested. Hérault de Séchelles—a friend and ally of Danton—was expelled from the Committee of Public Safety, arrested, and tried alongside them. On 5 April 1794, the Dantonists went to the guillotine.[8]
Committee of rule[edit]
Maximilien Robespierre, member of the Committee of Public Safety
The elimination of the Hébertists and the Dantonists made evident the strength of the committees, as had their ability to control and silence opposition. The creation, in March 1794, of a "General Police Bureau"—reporting nominally to the Committee of Public Safety, but more often directly to Robespierre and his closest ally, Louis Antoine de Saint-Just—served to increase the power of the Committee of Public Safety, and of Robespierre himself.
The Law of 22 Prairial, proposed by the Committee of Public Safety and enacted on 10 June 1794, went further in establishing the iron control of the Revolutionary Tribunal and, above it, the Committees of Public Safety and General Security. The law enumerated various forms of public enemies, made mandatory their denunciation, and severely limited the legal recourse available to those accused. The punishment for all crimes under the Law of 22 Prairal was death. From the initiation of this law to the fall of Robespierre on 27 July, more people were condemned to death than in the entire previous history of the Revolutionary Tribunal.[9]
However, even as the Terror reached its height, and with it the Committee's political power, discord was growing within the revolutionary government. Members of the Committee of General Security resented the autocratic behavior of the Committee of Public Safety, and particularly the encroachment of the General Police Bureau upon their own brief.[10] Arguments within the Committee of Public Safety itself had grown so violent that it relocated its meetings to a more private room to preserve the illusion of agreement.[11] Robespierre, a fervent supporter of the theistic Cult of the Supreme Being, found himself frequently in conflict with anti-religious Committee members Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne. Moreover, Robespierre's increasingly extensive absences from the Committee due to illness (he all but ceased to attend meetings in June 1794) created the impression that he was isolated and out of touch.
Fall of the Committee, and aftermath[edit]
When it became evident, in mid-July 1794, that Robespierre and Saint-Just were planning to strike against their political opponents Joseph Fouché, Jean-Lambert Tallien, and Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier (the latter two of whom were members of the Committee of General Security), the fragile truce within the government was dissolved. Saint-Just and his fellow Committee of Public Safety member Barère attempted to keep the peace between the Committees of Public Safety and General Security; however, on 26 July, Robespierre delivered a speech to the National Convention in which he emphasized the need to "purify" the Committees and "crush all factions."[12] In a speech to the Jacobin Club that night, he attacked Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, who had refused to allow the printing and distribution of his speech to the Convention.
On the following day, 27 July 1794 (or 9 Thermidor according to the Revolutionary calendar), Saint-Just began to deliver a speech to the Convention in which he had planned to denounce Collot d'Herbois, Billaud-Varenne, and other members of the Committee of Public Safety. However, he was almost immediately interrupted by Tallien and by Billaud-Varenne, who accused Saint-Just of intending to "murder the Convention."[13] Barère, Vadier, and Stanislas Fréron joined the accusations against Saint-Just and Robespierre. The arrest of Robespierre, his brother Augustin, and Saint-Just was ordered, along with that of their supporters, Philippe Le Bas and Georges Couthon.
A period of intense civil unrest ensued, during which the members of the Committees of Public Safety and General Security were forced to seek refuge in the Convention. The Robespierre brothers, Saint-Just, Le Bas, and Couthon ensconced themselves in the Hôtel de Ville, attempting to incite an insurrection. Ultimately, faced with defeat and arrest, Le Bas committed suicide. Saint-Just, Couthon, and Maximilien and Augustin Robespierre were arrested and guillotined on 28 July.[14]
The ensuing period of upheaval, dubbed the Thermidorian Reaction, saw the repeal of many of the Terror's most unpopular laws and the reduction in power of the Committees of General Security and Public Safety. The Committees ceased to exist under the Constitution of the Year III (1795), which marked the beginning of the Directory.[citation needed]
Composition[edit]
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The Committee was initially composed of nine members, all selected by the National Convention for one month at a time, without term limits. Its first members, instated on 6 April 1793, were as follows, in order of election.
After Robespierre's election to the Committee on 27 July 1793, the Committee increased its membership to twelve. The list below represents the Committee's membership.
April 1793 – July 1793:
Name (Birth-Death)
Department
Party
Bertrand Barère (1755–1841) Hautes-Pyrénées Maraisard
Jean-François Delmas (1751–1798) Haute-Garonne Montagnard
Jean-Jacques Bréard (1751–1840) Charente-Inférieure Montagnard
Pierre-Joseph Cambon (1756–1820) Hérault Montagnard
Georges Danton (1759–1794) Seine Montagnard
Jean Debry (1760–1834) Aisne Montagnard
Jean-François Delacroix (1753–1794) Eure-et-Loir Maraisard
Louis-Bernard Guyton-Morveau (1737–1816) Côte-d'Or Girondin
Jean Baptiste Treilhard (1742–1810) Seine-et-Oise Girondin
July 1793 – July 1794:
Name (Birth-Death)
Department
Party
Bertrand Barère (1755–1841) Hautes-Pyrénées Maraisard
Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne (1756–1819) Seine Montagnard
Lazare Carnot (1753–1823) Pas-de-Calais Maraisard
Georges Couthon (1755–1794) Puy-de-Dôme Montagnard
Claude-Antoine Prieur-Duvernois (1763–1832) Côte-d'Or Montagnard
Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois (1749–1796) Seine Montagnard
Robert Lindet (1746–1825) Eure Montagnard
Pierre Louis Prieur (1756–1827) Marne Montagnard
Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794) Seine Montagnard
Jeanbon Saint-André (1749–1813) Lot Montagnard
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just (1767–1794) Aisne Montagnard
Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles (1759–1794) Seine-et-Oise Montagnard
See also[edit]
Commissioners of the Committee of Public Safety
Committee of General Security
National Convention
Historiography of the French Revolution
Revolutionary Tribunal
Reflections on the Revolution in France
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "Committee of Public Safety". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
^ Jump up to: a b Belloc (1899), p. 210.
Jump up ^ Mantel (2009).
Jump up ^ Belloc (1899), p. 235.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 284.
Jump up ^ Furet (1992), p. 134.
Jump up ^ Furet (1992), p. 141.
Jump up ^ "Danton Versus Robespierre: The Quest for Revolutionary Power". www.ucumberlands.edu. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 328.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 331.
Jump up ^ Scurr (2006), p. 340.
Jump up ^ Madelin (1916), p. 418.
Jump up ^ Madelin (1916), p. 422.
Jump up ^ "Maximilien Robespierre, Master of the Terror". www.loyno.edu. Retrieved 2017-09-20.
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Committee of Public Safety.
Belloc, Hillaire (1899). Danton: A Study. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Furet, François (1992). Revolutionary France, 1770–1880. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Linton, Marisa, Choosing Terror: Virtue, Friendship and Authenticity in the French Revolution (Oxford University Press, 2013).
Madelin, Louis (1916). The French Revolution. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
Mantel, Hilary (6 August 2009). "He Roared". London Review of Books. 3 (15): 3–6. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
Palmer, R.R. (September 1941). "Fifty Years of the Committee of Public Safety". Journal of Modern History. 13 (3): 375–397. JSTOR 1871581.
——— (1970). Twelve Who Ruled: The Year of the Terror in the French Revolution. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05119-4.
Schama, Simon (1989). Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Scurr, Ruth (2006). Fatal Purity: Robespierre and the French Revolution. New York: Owl Books.
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Refrigerant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A refrigerant is a substance or mixture, usually a fluid, used in a heat pump and refrigeration cycle. In most cycles it undergoes phase transitions from a liquid to a gas and back again. Many working fluids have been used for such purposes. Fluorocarbons, especially chlorofluorocarbons, became commonplace in the 20th century, but they are being phased out because of their ozone depletion effects. Other common refrigerants used in various applications are ammonia, sulfur dioxide, and non-halogenated hydrocarbons such as propane.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Desirable properties
2 Environmental issues
3 History
4 Uses
5 Disposal
6 Refrigerants by class and R-number
6.1 Notable blends
7 Air as a refrigerant
8 Water as a refrigerant
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Desirable properties[edit]
The ideal refrigerant would have favorable thermodynamic properties, be noncorrosive to mechanical components, and be safe, including freedom from toxicity and flammability. It would not cause ozone depletion or climate change. Since different fluids have the desired traits in different degree, choice is a matter of trade-offs.
The desired thermodynamic properties are a boiling point somewhat below the target temperature, a high heat of vaporization, a moderate density in liquid form, a relatively high density in gaseous form, and a high critical temperature. Since boiling point and gas density are affected by pressure, refrigerants may be made more suitable for a particular application by appropriate choice of operating pressures.
Environmental issues[edit]
The inert nature of many halons, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC), particularly CFC-11 and CFC-12, made them preferred choices among refrigerants for many years because of their nonflammability and nontoxicity. However, their stability in the atmosphere and their corresponding global warming potential and ozone depletion potential raised concerns about their usage. This led to their replacement with HFCs and PFCs, especially HFC-134a, which are not-ozone depleting, and have lesser global warming potentials. However, these refrigerants still have global warming potentials thousands of times greater than CO2. Therefore, they are now being replaced in markets where leaks are likely, by using a third generation of refrigerants, most prominently HFO-1234yf, which have global warming potentials much closer to that of CO2.
Some other refrigerants such as propane and ammonia are not inert, and are flammable or toxic if released.
In order from the highest to the lowest potential of ozone depletion are: Bromochlorofluorocarbon, CFC then HCFC.
New refrigerants were developed in the early 21st century that are safer for the environment, but their application has been held up due to concerns over toxicity and flammability.[2]
History[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Early mechanical refrigeration systems employed sulfur dioxide, methyl chloride and ammonia. Being toxic, sulfur dioxide and methyl chloride rapidly disappeared from the market with the introduction of CFCs. Occasionally, one may encounter older machines with methyl formate, chloromethane, or dichloromethane (called carrene in the trade).
Chlorofluorocarbons were little used for refrigeration until better synthesis methods, developed in the 1950s, reduced their cost. Their domination of the market was called into question in the 1980s by concerns about depletion of the ozone layer.
Following legislative regulations on ozone depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), substances used as substitute refrigerants such as perfluorocarbons (FCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) have also come under criticism. They are currently subject to prohibition discussions on account of their harmful effect on the climate. In 1997, FCs and HFCs were included in the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change. In 2006, the EU adopted a Regulation on fluorinated greenhouse gases, which makes stipulations regarding the use of FCs and HFCs with the intention of reducing their emissions. The provisions do not affect climate-neutral refrigerants.
Uses[edit]
Refrigerants such as ammonia (R717), carbon dioxide and non-halogenated hydrocarbons do not deplete the ozone layer and have no (ammonia) or only a low (carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons) global warming potential.[citation needed] They are used in air-conditioning systems for buildings, in sport and leisure facilities, in the chemical/pharmaceutical industry, in the automotive industry and above all in the food industry (production, storage, marine shipping, retailing). In these settings their toxicity is less a concern than in home equipment.
Emissions from automobile air conditioning are a growing concern because of their impact on climate change.[citation needed] From 2011 on, the European Union will phase out refrigerants with a global warming potential (GWP) of more than 150 in automotive air conditioning (GWP = 100 year warming potential of one kilogram of a gas relative to one kilogram of CO2).[citation needed] This will ban potent greenhouse gases such as the refrigerant HFC-134a (also known as R-134a in North America) —which has a GWP of 1410—to promote safe and energy-efficient refrigerants.
One of the most promising alternatives is CO2 (R-744). Carbon dioxide is non-flammable, non-ozone depleting, has a global warming potential of 1. R-744 can be used as a working fluid in climate control systems for cars, residential air conditioning, hot water pumps, commercial refrigeration, and vending machines.[citation needed] R12 is compatible with mineral oil, while R134a is compatible with synthetic oil that contains esters.[citation needed] GM announced that it would start using "hydrofluoroolefin", HFO-1234yf, in all of its brands by 2013.[3] Dimethyl ether (DME) is also gaining popularity as a refrigerant,[4] but like propane, it is also dangerously flammable.
Some refrigerants are seeing rising use as recreational drugs, leading to an extremely dangerous phenomenon known as inhalant abuse.[5]
Disposal[edit]
Main article: Refrigerant reclamation
Under Section 608 of the United States' Clean Air Act it is illegal to knowingly release refrigerants into the atmosphere.[EPA 1]
When refrigerants are removed they should be recycled to clean out any contaminants and return them to a usable condition. Refrigerants should never be mixed together outside of facilities licensed to do so for the purpose of producing blends. Some refrigerants must be managed as hazardous waste even if recycled, and special precautions are required for their transport, depending on the legislation of the country's government.
Various refrigerant reclamation methods are in use to recover refrigerants for reuse.[6]
Refrigerants by class and R-number[edit]
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk:Refrigerant. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (May 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main article: List of refrigerants
Refrigerants may be divided into three classes according to their manner of absorption or extraction of heat from the substances to be refrigerated:[citation needed]
Class 1: This class includes refrigerants that cool by phase change (typically boiling), using the refrigerant's latent heat.
Class 2: These refrigerants cool by temperature change or 'sensible heat', the quantity of heat being the specific heat capacity x the temperature change. They are air, calcium chloride brine, sodium chloride brine, alcohol, and similar nonfreezing solutions. The purpose of Class 2 refrigerants is to receive a reduction of temperature from Class 1 refrigerants and convey this lower temperature to the area to be air-conditioned.
Class 3: This group consists of solutions that contain absorbed vapors of liquefiable agents or refrigerating media. These solutions function by nature of their ability to carry liquefiable vapors, which produce a cooling effect by the absorption of their heat of solution. They can also be classified into many categories.
The R-# numbering system was developed by DuPont corporation (which owns the Freon trademark), and systematically identifies the molecular structure of refrigerants made with a single halogenated hydrocarbon. The meaning of the codes is as follows:[citation needed]
For saturated hydrocarbons, subtracting 90 from the concatenated numbers of carbon, hydrogen and fluorine atoms, respectively gives the assigned R#.[7]
If bromine is present, the number is followed by a capital B and then the number of bromine atoms.
Remaining bonds not accounted for are occupied by chlorine atoms.
A suffix of a lower-case letter a, b, or c indicates increasingly unsymmetrical isomers.
For example, R-134a has 2 carbon atoms, 2 hydrogen atoms, and 4 fluorine atoms, an empirical formula of tetrafluoroethane. The "a" suffix indicates that the isomer is unbalanced by one atom, giving 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane. R-134 (without the "a" suffix) would have a molecular structure of 1,1,2,2-Tetrafluoroethane—a compound not especially effective as a refrigerant.[citation needed]
The R-400 series is made up of zeotropic blends (those where the boiling point of constituent compounds differs enough to lead to changes in relative concentration because of fractional distillation) and the R-500 series is made up of so-called azeotropic blends. The rightmost digit is assigned arbitrarily by ASHRAE, an industry standards organization.
The R-700 series is made up of non-organic refrigerants, also designated by ASHRAE.
The same numbers are used with an R- prefix for generic refrigerants, with a "Propellant" prefix (e.g., "Propellant 12") for the same chemical used as a propellant for an aerosol spray, and with trade names for the compounds, such as "Freon 12". Recently, a practice of using abbreviations HFC- for hydrofluorocarbons, CFC- for chlorofluorocarbons, and HCFC- for hydrochlorofluorocarbons has arisen, because of the regulatory differences among these groups.[citation needed]
Notable blends[edit]
R407C pressure-enthalpy diagram, isotherms between the two saturation lines
Below are some notable blended HFC mixtures. There exist many more (see list of refrigerants). All R-400 (R-4xx) and R-500 (R-5xx) hydroflurocarbons are blends, as noted above.
R-401A is a HCFC zeotropic blend of R-22, R-152a, and R-124. It is designed as a replacement for R-12.[8]
R-404A is a HFC "nearly azeotropic" blend of 52 wt.% R-143a, 44 wt.% R-125, and 4 wt.% R-134a. It is designed as a replacement of R-22 and R-502 CFC. Its boiling point at normal pressure is -46.5 °C, its liquid density is 0.485 g/cm3.[9]
R-406A is a zeotropic blend of 55 wt.% R-22, 4 wt.% R-600a, and 41 wt.% R-142b.
R-407A is a HFC zeotropic blend of 20 wt.% R-32, 40 wt.% R-125, and 40 wt.% R-134a.[10]
R-407C is a zeotropic hydrofluorocarbon blend of R-32, R-125, and R-134a. The R-32 serves to provide the heat capacity, R-125 decreases flammability, R-134a reduces pressure.[11]
R-408A is a zeotropic HCFC blend of R-22, R-125, and R-143a. It is a substitute for R-502. Its boiling point is -44.4 °C.[12]
R-409A is a zeotropic HCFC blend of R-22, R-124, and R-142b. Its boiling point is -35.3 °C. Its critical temperature is 109.4 °C.[13]
R-410A is a near-azeotropic blend of R-32 and R-125. The US Environmental Protection Agency recognizes it as an acceptable substitute for R-22 in household and light commercial air conditioning systems.[14] It appears to have gained widespread market acceptance under several trade names.[15]
R-438A another HFC blended replacement for R-22, with five components: R-32, R-125/R-134a, R-600, and R-601a, blended in respective ratios 8.5+.5,-1.5%; 45±1.5%; 44.2±1.5%; 1.7+.1,-.2%; 0.6+.1,-.2%. The mean molecular weight of this mix is 99, resulting in the tradename ISCEON MO99 from manufacturer DuPont (a line of blended HFC products developed initially by Rhodia, and sold to DuPont).[16][17]
R-500 is an azeotropic blend of 73.8 wt.% R-12 and 26.2 wt.% of R-152a.
R-502 is an azeotropic blend of R-22 and R-115.
Air as a refrigerant[edit]
Air is so frequently used as a coolant that air cooling is seldom mentioned in a refrigeration context. Due to the low boiling point of its constituents and low heat-carrying capacity, air is infrequently used as a refrigerant.
Air has been used for residential,[18] automobile, and turbine-powered aircraft[19][20] air-conditioning and/or cooling. The reason why air is not more widely used as a general-purpose refrigerant is because there is no change of phase, and is therefore too inefficient to be practical in most applications.[18] It has been suggested that with suitable compression and expansion technology, air can be a practical (albeit not the most efficient) refrigerant, free of the possibility of environmental contamination or damage,[18] and almost completely[21] harmless to plants and animals.
However, an explosion could result from vapors or atomized refrigerant-type compressor lubricating oils being compressed together with air, in a process similar to a diesel engine.
Water as a refrigerant[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Further information: Evaporative cooler, HVAC, and Thermal comfort
Water—natural, non toxic, low cost, environmentally friendly, and widely available—is widely used in water cooling, and if evaporated in the process may be called a "refrigerant". Water also commonly serves as a heat transfer and storage material ,and in large systems it may actually fill all of these roles.
The simplest and lowest cost open-cycle cooling systems, known as swamp coolers in the south-west United States, do not even need power for a compressor, merely a blower fan, so humidified cooled air is simply vented into the living space. Portable free-standing units can be obtained at discount stores for less than $200. However, if these systems are improperly implemented the drawbacks are multiple and severe.
The total cooling power of the unit is limited by the fact that neither coolant nor air can be recirculated. If the cooling unit does not have a supply of fresh dry air and the waste air is not effectively vented, stagnant humid air will make the space more uncomfortable than if it were merely ventilated.
An additional limitation of such systems would be that if the air outside is already humid, cooling power is severely limited. This is why such units are not found in areas of frequent and high humidity, such as the south-east United States.
If the temperature outside is severely hot, above 110 °F (43 °C), the simple unit will not cool the air sufficiently for comfort even if the dew point outside is very low. In these instances more-complex systems such as two stage, indirect-direct or hybrid will be needed.
While all the drawbacks can be addressed in various ways, the complexity and initial cost of these systems increases to the point that the installation cost comes into competition with common refrigerant based direct cooling systems. At this price point, direct cooling systems are often chosen even though the long term energy cost of evaporative systems may be lower.
See also[edit]
Brine (refrigerant)
Eurammon - initiative for natural refrigerants
Industrial gas
List of refrigerants
Refrigerant reclamation
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Siegfried Haaf, Helmut Henrici "Refrigeration Technology" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2002, Wiley-VCH, doi:10.1002/14356007.b03 19
Jump up ^ Rosenthal, Elisabeth; Lehren, Andrew (June 20, 2011). "Relief in Every Window, but Global Worry Too". New York Times. Retrieved June 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ GM First to Market Greenhouse Gas-Friendly Air Conditioning Refrigerant in U.S.
Jump up ^ [1] 101110
Jump up ^ Harris, Catharine. "Anti-inhalant Abuse Campaign Targets Building Codes: ‘Huffing’ of Air Conditioning Refrigerant a Dangerous Risk." The Nation's Health. American Public Health Association, 2010. Web. 05 Dec. 2010. <http://thenationshealth.aphapublications.org/content/39/4/20.extract>.
Jump up ^ Guide to Effective Refrigerant Recovery Ritchie Engineering Company
Jump up ^ "Numbering Scheme for Ozone-Depleting Substances and their Substitutes". Retrieved 25 December 2015.
Jump up ^ HCFC - R401A
Jump up ^ Cameo Chemicals Refrigerant gas R-404A
Jump up ^ Cameo Chemicals Refrigerant gas R-407A
Jump up ^ "Comparison of R407C and R417A heat transfer coefficients and pressure drops during flow boiling in a horizontal smooth tube". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2015-09-09.
Jump up ^ Mixed refrigerants, R-408A page
Jump up ^ Mixed refrigerants, R-409A page
Jump up ^ "Significant New Alternatives Policy (SNAP) Program". Archived from the original on 1 June 2002. Retrieved 25 December 2015.
Jump up ^ Web search
Jump up ^ [2][dead link]
Jump up ^ "This page has moved". Retrieved 25 December 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c Air as a refrigerant in air conditioning systems in buildings.
Jump up ^ Air cycle machine.
Jump up ^ Turboexpander.
Jump up ^ Current air cooling methods release a trivial amount of oil or other lubricant into the atmosphere.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions on Section 608". Environment Protection Agency. Retrieved 20 December 2013.
External links[edit]
US Environmental Protection Agency page on the GWPs of various substances
Green Cooling Initiative on alternative natural refrigerants cooling technologies
International Institute of Refrigeration
Authority control
NDL: 00569343
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