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List of Tour de France general classification winners
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Miguel Indurain, who won five consecutive Tours from 1991 to 1995.
Main article: General classification in the Tour de France
The Tour de France is an annual road bicycle race held over 23 days in July. Established in 1903 by newspaper L'Auto, the Tour is the most well-known and prestigious of cycling's three "Grand Tours"; the others are the Giro d'Italia and the Vuelta a España.[1] The race usually covers approximately 3,500 kilometres (2,200 mi), passing through France and neighbouring countries such as Belgium.[2] The race is broken into day-long stages. Individual finishing times for each stage are totalled to determine the overall winner at the end of the race. The course changes every year, but has always finished in Paris; since 1975 it has finished along the Champs-Élysées.
The rider with the lowest aggregate time at the end of each day wears the yellow jersey, representing the leader of the general classification. There are other jerseys as well: the green jersey, worn by the leader of the points classification; the polka dot jersey, worn by the leader of the mountains classification; and the white jersey, worn by the leader of the young rider classification.
Jacques Anquetil, Eddy Merckx, Bernard Hinault and Miguel Indurain, have won the most Tours with five each. Lance Armstrong was the winner of seven consecutive Tours between 1999 and 2005,[3] but he was stripped of these titles in October 2012 by the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) after it emerged that he had used performance-enhancing drugs.[4] Indurain is the only man to win five consecutive Tours. Henri Cornet is the youngest winner; he won in 1904, just short of his 20th birthday. Firmin Lambot is the oldest winner, having been 36 years, 4 months old when he won in 1922.[5] French cyclists have won the most Tours; 21 cyclists have won 36 Tours among them. Belgian cyclists are second with 18 victories, and Spanish riders are third with 12 wins.[6] The most recent winner is Chris Froome of Team Sky, who won the 2017 Tour, his third in succession, and fourth in total.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Winners
2.1 Multiple winners
2.2 By nationality
3 Footnotes
4 Notes and references
5 Bibliography
6 See also
History[edit]
The Tour de France was established in 1903 by newspaper L'Auto, in an attempt to increase its sales. The first race was won by Frenchman Maurice Garin. He won again the next year, but was disqualified after allegations that he had been transported by car or rail arose. Henri Cornet became the winner after the dispute was settled; he is the youngest to win the Tour. Following the scandals in 1904, the scoring system was changed from being time-based to a points-based system, in which the cyclist who has the fewest points at the end of the race is victorious. This system lasted until 1912, when the time-based system was re-introduced. French cyclists were successful in the early Tours; the first non-Frenchman to win the Tour was François Faber of Luxembourg, who won in 1909.[8]
Belgian riders were more successful before and after the First World War (which suspended the Tour from 1915 to 1918). In the 1920s, trade teams dominated the Tour; cyclists such as Nicolas Frantz won the Tour with the Alcyon team. However, when Alcyon cyclist Maurice De Waele won the Tour in 1929 while ill, the organisers decided to introduce national teams the following year, to stop team tactics from undermining the race. Because of the Second World War, the Tour de France was suspended from 1940 to 1946.[9]
The yellow jersey (French: Maillot jaune), worn by the leader of the general classification
After the Second World War, no one dominated the Tour until Louison Bobet, who won three consecutive Tours from 1953 to 1955—he was the first person to achieve this feat.[10] This was bettered by the French cyclist Jacques Anquetil, who won four successive Tours from 1961 to 1964. Anquetil, who also won in 1957, became the first to win five Tours.[11] Anquetil's five victories were matched when Belgian cyclist Eddy Merckx won four successive Tours from 1969 to 1972 and the 1974 Tour. Merckx is the only person to have won the general, points and king of the mountains classifications in the same Tour. He achieved this in 1969, when he won his first Tour.[12]
Merckx looked to be heading for a record sixth Tour victory in 1975, but Bernard Thévenet beat him, becoming the first French winner in seven years. Thévenet won again in 1977; however, he was eclipsed in following years by fellow Frenchman Bernard Hinault, who won consecutive Tours in 1978 and 1979. Hinault won the Tour at his first attempt in 1978; becoming one of 11 cyclists (including Anquetil, Merckx, Hugo Koblet and Fausto Coppi) managed to do so.[13] In 1980, Hinault was going for a third consecutive win, but had to pull out because of tendinitis, and the Tour was won by Joop Zoetemelk.[14] Hinault returned in 1981 and won that race as well as the one after that. Hinault sat out the Tour in 1983, and another Frenchman—Laurent Fignon—achieved victory. Fignon won again the following year, beating Hinault; Hinault recovered in 1985 to win his fifth Tour.
American Greg LeMond became the first non-European to win the Tour in 1986. LeMond missed out in 1987 and 1988, but returned in 1989 to win the Tour by finishing eight seconds ahead of Laurent Fignon, the smallest winning margin in the Tour's history. LeMond also won in 1990.[15] In 1991, Spaniard Miguel Indurain won his first Tour. Indurain came to dominate the Tour, winning four more Tours consecutively—making him the first person to win five consecutive Tours.[16] He tried to win a record-high sixth Tour in 1996, but was beaten by Bjarne Riis, who later admitted to using Erythropoietin.[17] Jan Ullrich and Marco Pantani won in 1997 and 1998, respectively; however, Pantani's victory was overshadowed by doping scandals.[18]
The 1999 Tour saw the first victory of Lance Armstrong,[19] which was followed by six more, for a total of seven consecutive victories.[20] He was stripped of his titles in October 2012, when it emerged he had used performance-enhancing drugs throughout much of his career, including the Tour de France victories.[4] Floyd Landis won the Tour in 2006, but was later stripped of his title, after a drug-control test demonstrated the presence of a skewed testosterone/epitestosterone ratio.[21] Óscar Pereiro was subsequently awarded the victory. Alberto Contador won the 2007 Tour with the Discovery Channel. The 2007 Tour was also marred by doping scandals, thus Contador was unable to defend his title in 2008, as his Astana team was banned for its part. Fellow Spaniard Carlos Sastre of Team CSC won.[22] Contador and Astana returned in 2009 to regain the title. He won the Tour again in 2010, but was later stripped of his title after he was found guilty of doping. Runner-up Andy Schleck was awarded the victory.
Cadel Evans became the first Australian to win the Tour in 2011.[23] The following year, Bradley Wiggins became the first British cyclist to win the Tour.[24] Chris Froome became the second successive British winner in 2013, which was the 100th edition of the race.[25] He could not defend his title the following year, as he crashed out in stage 5, with Vincenzo Nibali winning his first Tour.[26] Froome regained the title in 2015 and then successfully defended it in 2016, the first rider in over 20 years to do so.[7] He then backed it up with a third consecutive win in 2017.
Winners[edit]
Key
Winner won points classification in the same year
* Winner won mountains classification in the same year
# Winner won young rider classification in the same year
Winner won points and mountains classification in the same year
The "Year" column refers to the year the competition was held, and wikilinks to the article about that season.
The "Distance" column refers to the distance over which the race was held.
The "Margin" column refers to the margin of time or points by which the winner defeated the runner-up.
The "Stage wins" column refers to the number of stage wins the winner had during the race.
Tour de France general classification winners
Year
Country
Cyclist
Sponsor/Team
Distance
Time/Points
Margin
Stage wins
Stages in lead
1903 France
Garin, MauriceMaurice Garin
La Française 2,428 km (1,509 mi) 094 !94h 33' 14" 24921 !+ 2h 59' 21" 3 6
1904 France
Garin, MauriceMaurice Garin Cornet, HenriHenri Cornet[E]
Conte 2,428 km (1,509 mi) 096 !96h 05' 55" 21614 !+ 2h 16' 14" 1 3
1905 France
Trousselier, LouisLouis Trousselier
Peugeot–Wolber 2,994 km (1,860 mi) 35 26 5 10
1906 France
Pottier, RenéRené Pottier
Peugeot–Wolber 4,637 km (2,881 mi) 31 8 5 12
1907 France
Petit-Breton, LucienLucien Petit-Breton
Peugeot–Wolber 4,488 km (2,789 mi) 47 19 2 5
1908 France
Petit-Breton, LucienLucien Petit-Breton
Peugeot–Wolber 4,497 km (2,794 mi) 36 32 5 13
1909 Luxembourg
Faber, FrançoisFrançois Faber
Alcyon–Dunlop 4,498 km (2,795 mi) 37 20 6 13
1910 France
Lapize, OctaveOctave Lapize
Alcyon–Dunlop 4,734 km (2,942 mi) 63 4 4 3
1911 France
Garrigou, GustaveGustave Garrigou
Alcyon–Dunlop 5,343 km (3,320 mi) 43 18 2 13
1912 Belgium
Defraye, OdileOdile Defraye
Alcyon–Dunlop 5,289 km (3,286 mi) 49 59 3 13
1913 Belgium
Thys, PhilippePhilippe Thys
Peugeot–Wolber 5,287 km (3,285 mi) 197 !197h 54' 00" 00837 !+ 8' 37" 1 8
1914 Belgium
Thys, PhilippePhilippe Thys
Peugeot–Wolber 5,380 km (3,340 mi) 200 !200h 28' 48" 00150 !+ 1' 50" 1 15
1915
World War I
1916
1917
1918
1919 Belgium
Lambot, FirminFirmin Lambot
La Sportive 5,560 km (3,450 mi) 231 !231h 07' 15" 14254 !+ 1h 42' 54" 1 2
1920 Belgium
Thys, PhilippePhilippe Thys
La Sportive 5,503 km (3,419 mi) 228 !228h 36' 13" 05721 !+ 57' 21" 4 14
1921 Belgium
Scieur, LéonLéon Scieur
La Sportive 5,485 km (3,408 mi) 221 !221h 50' 26" 01836 !+ 18' 36" 2 14
1922 Belgium
Lambot, FirminFirmin Lambot
Peugeot–Wolber 5,375 km (3,340 mi) 222 !222h 08' 06" 04115 !+ 41' 15" 0 3
1923 France
Pélissier, HenriHenri Pélissier
Automoto–Hutchinson 5,386 km (3,347 mi) 222 !222h 15' 30" 03041 !+ 30 '41" 3 6
1924 Italy
Bottecchia, OttavioOttavio Bottecchia
Automoto 5,425 km (3,371 mi) 226 !226h 18' 21" 03536 !+ 35' 36" 4 15
1925 Italy
Bottecchia, OttavioOttavio Bottecchia
Automoto–Hutchinson 5,440 km (3,380 mi) 219 !219h 10' 18" 05420 !+ 54' 20" 4 13
1926 Belgium
Buysse, LucienLucien Buysse
Automoto–Hutchinson 5,745 km (3,570 mi) 238 !238h 44' 25" 12225 !+ 1h 22' 25" 2 8
1927 Luxembourg
Frantz, NicolasNicolas Frantz
Alcyon–Dunlop 5,398 km (3,354 mi) 198 !198h 16' 42" 14841 !+ 1h 48' 41" 3 14
1928 Luxembourg
Frantz, NicolasNicolas Frantz
Alcyon–Dunlop 5,476 km (3,403 mi) 192 !192h 48' 58" 05007 !+ 50' 07" 5 22
1929 Belgium
De Waele, MauriceMaurice De Waele
Alcyon–Dunlop 5,286 km (3,285 mi) 186 !186h 39' 15" 04423 !+44' 23" 1 16
1930 France
Leducq, AndréAndré Leducq
Alcyon–Dunlop 4,822 km (2,996 mi) 172 !172h 12' 16" 01413 !+ 14' 13" 2 13
1931 France
Magne, AntoninAntonin Magne
France 5,091 km (3,163 mi) 177 !177h 10' 03" 01256 !+ 12' 56" 1 16
1932 France
Leducq, AndréAndré Leducq
France 4,479 km (2,783 mi) 154 !154h 11' 49" 02403 !+ 24' 03" 6 19
1933 France
Speicher, GeorgesGeorges Speicher
France 4,395 km (2,731 mi) 147 !147h 51' 37" 00401 !+ 4' 01" 3 12
1934 France
Magne, AntoninAntonin Magne
France 4,470 km (2,780 mi) 147 !147h 13' 58" 02731 !+ 27' 31" 3 22
1935 Belgium
Maes, RomainRomain Maes
Belgium 4,338 km (2,696 mi) 141 !141h 23' 00" 01752 !+ 17' 52" 3 21
1936 Belgium
Maes, SylvèreSylvère Maes
Belgium 4,442 km (2,760 mi) 142 !142h 47' 32" 02655 !+ 26' 55" 4 14
1937 France
Lapébie, RogerRoger Lapébie
France 4,415 km (2,743 mi) 138 !138h 58' 31" 00717 !+ 7' 17" 3 4
1938 Italy
Bartali, GinoGino Bartali*
Italy 4,694 km (2,917 mi) 148 !148h 29' 12" 01827 !+ 18' 27" 2 8
1939 Belgium
Maes, SylvèreSylvère Maes*
Belgium 4,224 km (2,625 mi) 132 !132h 03' 17" 03038 !+ 30' 38" 2 4
1940
World War II
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947 France
Robic, JeanJean Robic
France 4,642 km (2,884 mi) 148 !148h 11' 25" 00358 !+ 3' 58" 3 1
1948 Italy
Bartali, GinoGino Bartali*
Italy 4,922 km (3,058 mi) 147 !147h 10' 36" 02616 !+ 26' 16" 7 9
1949 Italy
Coppi, FaustoFausto Coppi*
Italy 4,808 km (2,988 mi) 149 !149h 40' 49" 01055 !+ 10' 55" 3 5
1950 Switzerland
Kübler, FerdinandFerdinand Kübler
Switzerland 4,773 km (2,966 mi) 145 !145h 36' 56" 00930 !+ 9' 30" 3 11
1951 Switzerland
Koblet, HugoHugo Koblet
Switzerland 4,690 km (2,910 mi) 142 !142h 20' 14" 02200 !+ 22' 00" 5 11
1952 Italy
Coppi, FaustoFausto Coppi*
Italy 4,898 km (3,043 mi) 151 !151h 57' 20" 02817 !+ 28' 17" 5 14
1953 France
Bobet, LouisonLouison Bobet
France 4,476 km (2,781 mi) 129 !129h 23' 25" 01418 !+ 14' 18" 2 5
1954 France
Bobet, LouisonLouison Bobet
France 4,656 km (2,893 mi) 140 !140h 06' 05" 01549 !+ 15' 49" 3 14
1955 France
Bobet, LouisonLouison Bobet
France 4,495 km (2,793 mi) 130 !130h 29' 26" 00453 !+ 4' 53" 2 6
1956 France
Walkowiak, RogerRoger Walkowiak
France 4,498 km (2,795 mi) 124 !124h 01' 16" 00125 !+ 1' 25" 0 8
1957 France
Anquetil, JacquesJacques Anquetil
France 4,669 km (2,901 mi) 135 !135h 44' 42" 01456 !+ 14' 56" 4 15
1958 Luxembourg
Gaul, CharlyCharly Gaul
Luxembourg 4,319 km (2,684 mi) 116 !116h 59' 05" 00310 !+ 3' 10" 4 2
1959 Spain
Bahamontes, FedericoFederico Bahamontes*
Spain 4,358 km (2,708 mi) 123 !123h 46' 45" 00401 !+ 4' 01" 1 6
1960 Italy
Nencini, GastoneGastone Nencini
Italy 4,173 km (2,593 mi) 112 !112h 08' 42" 00502 !+ 5' 02" 0 14
1961 France
Anquetil, JacquesJacques Anquetil
France 4,397 km (2,732 mi) 122 !122h 01' 33" 01214 !+ 12' 14" 2 21
1962 France
Anquetil, JacquesJacques Anquetil
Saint-Raphaël–Helyett–Hutchinson 4,274 km (2,656 mi) 114 !114h 31' 54" 00459 !+ 4' 59" 2 3
1963 France
Anquetil, JacquesJacques Anquetil
Saint-Raphaël–Gitane–R. Geminiani 4,138 km (2,571 mi) 113 !113h 30' 05" 00335 !+ 3' 35" 4 5
1964 France
Anquetil, JacquesJacques Anquetil
Saint-Raphaël–Gitane–Dunlop 4,504 km (2,799 mi) 127 !127h 09' 44" 00055 !+ 55" 4 6
1965 Italy
Gimondi, FeliceFelice Gimondi
Salvarani 4,188 km (2,602 mi) 116 !116h 42' 06" 00240 !+ 2' 40" 3 18
1966 France
Aimar, LucienLucien Aimar
Ford France–Hutchinson 4,329 km (2,690 mi) 117 !117h 34' 21" 00107 !+ 1' 07" 0 6
1967 France
Pingeon, RogerRoger Pingeon
Peugeot–BP–Michelin 4,779 km (2,970 mi) 136 !136h 53' 50" 00340 !+ 3' 40" 1 17
1968 Netherlands
Janssen, JanJan Janssen
Pelforth–Sauvage–Lejeune 4,492 km (2,791 mi) 133 !133h 49' 42" 00038 !+ 38" 2 1
1969 Belgium
Merckx, EddyEddy Merckx
Faema 4,117 km (2,558 mi) 116 !116h 16' 02" 01754 !+ 17' 54" 6 18
1970 Belgium
Merckx, EddyEddy Merckx*
Faemino–Faema 4,254 km (2,643 mi) 119 !119h 31' 49" 01241 !+ 12' 41" 8 20
1971 Belgium
Merckx, EddyEddy Merckx
Molteni 3,608 km (2,242 mi) 096 !96h 45' 14" 00951 !+ 9' 51" 4 17
1972 Belgium
Merckx, EddyEddy Merckx
Molteni 3,846 km (2,390 mi) 108 !108h 17' 18" 01041 !+ 10' 41" 6 15
1973 Spain
Ocaña, LuisLuis Ocaña
Bic 4,090 km (2,540 mi) 122 !122h 25' 34" 01551 !+ 15' 51" 6 14
1974 Belgium
Merckx, EddyEddy Merckx
Molteni 4,098 km (2,546 mi) 116 !116h 16' 58" 00804 !+ 8' 04" 8 18
1975 France
ThevenetBernard Thévenet
Peugeot–BP–Michelin 4,000 km (2,500 mi) 114 !114h 35' 31" 00247 !+ 2' 47" 2 8
1976 Belgium
Van Impe, LucienLucien Van Impe
Gitane–Campagnolo 4,017 km (2,496 mi) 116 !116h 22' 23" 00414 !+ 4' 14" 1 12
1977 France
ThevenetBernard Thévenet
Peugeot–Esso–Michelin 4,096 km (2,545 mi) 115 !115h 38' 30" 00048 !+ 48" 1 8
1978 France
Hinault, BernardBernard Hinault
Renault–Gitane–Campagnolo 3,908 km (2,428 mi) 108 !108h 18' 00" 00356 !+ 3' 56" 3 3
1979 France
Hinault, BernardBernard Hinault
Renault–Gitane 3,765 km (2,339 mi) 103 !103h 06' 50" 01307 !+ 13' 07" 7 17
1980 Netherlands
Zoetemelk, JoopJoop Zoetemelk
TI–Raleigh–Creda 3,842 km (2,387 mi) 109 !109h 19' 14" 00655 !+ 6' 55" 2 10
1981 France
Hinault, BernardBernard Hinault
Renault–Elf–Gitane 3,753 km (2,332 mi) 096 !96h 19' 38" 01434 !+ 14' 34" 5 18
1982 France
Hinault, BernardBernard Hinault
Renault–Elf–Gitane 3,507 km (2,179 mi) 092 !92h 08' 46" 00621 !+ 6' 21" 4 12
1983 France
Fignon, LaurentLaurent Fignon#
Renault–Elf 3,809 km (2,367 mi) 105 !105h 07' 52" 00404 !+ 4' 04" 1 6
1984 France
Fignon, LaurentLaurent Fignon
Renault–Elf 4,021 km (2,499 mi) 112 !112h 03' 40" 01032 !+ 10' 32" 5 7
1985 France
Hinault, BernardBernard Hinault
La Vie Claire 4,109 km (2,553 mi) 113 !113h 24' 23" 00142 !+ 1' 42" 2 16
1986 United States
LeMond, GregGreg LeMond
La Vie Claire 4,094 km (2,544 mi) 110 !110h 35' 19" 00310 !+ 3' 10" 1 7
1987 Ireland
Roche, StephenStephen Roche
Carrera Jeans–Vagabond 4,231 km (2,629 mi) 115 !115h 27' 42" 00040 !+ 40" 1 3
1988 Spain
Delgado, PedroPedro Delgado
Reynolds 3,286 km (2,042 mi) 084 !84h 27' 53" 00713 !+ 7' 13" 1 11
1989 United States
LeMond, GregGreg LeMond
AD Renting–W-Cup–Bottecchia 3,285 km (2,041 mi) 087 !87h 38' 35" 00008 !+ 8" 3 8
1990 United States
LeMond, GregGreg LeMond
Z–Tomasso 3,504 km (2,177 mi) 090 !90h 43' 20" 00216 !+ 2' 16" 0 2
1991 Spain
Indurain, MiguelMiguel Indurain
Banesto 3,914 km (2,432 mi) 101 !101h 01' 20" 00336 !+ 3' 36" 2 10
1992 Spain
Indurain, MiguelMiguel Indurain
Banesto 3,983 km (2,475 mi) 100 !100h 49' 30" 00435 !+ 4' 35" 3 10
1993 Spain
Indurain, MiguelMiguel Indurain
Banesto 3,714 km (2,308 mi) 095 !95h 57' 09" 00459 !+ 4' 59" 2 14
1994 Spain
Indurain, MiguelMiguel Indurain
Banesto 3,978 km (2,472 mi) 103 !103h 38' 38" 00539 !+ 5' 39" 1 13
1995 Spain
Indurain, MiguelMiguel Indurain
Banesto 3,635 km (2,259 mi) 092 !92h 44' 59" 00435 !+ 4' 35" 2 13
1996 Denmark
Riis, BjarneBjarne Riis[A]
Team Telekom 3,765 km (2,339 mi) 095 !95h 57' 16" 00141 !+ 1' 41" 2 13
1997 Germany
Ullrich, JanJan Ullrich#
Team Telekom 3,950 km (2,450 mi) 100 !100h 30' 35" 00909 !+ 9' 09" 2 12
1998 Italy
Pantani, MarcoMarco Pantani
Mercatone Uno–Bianchi 3,875 km (2,408 mi) 092 !92h 49' 46" 00321 !+ 3' 21" 2 7
1999[B] United States
Armstrong, LanceLance Armstrong
U.S. Postal Service 3,687 km (2,291 mi) 091 !91h 32' 16" 00737 !+ 7' 37" 4 15
2000[B] United States
Armstrong, LanceLance Armstrong
U.S. Postal Service 3,662 km (2,275 mi) 092 !92h 33' 08" 00602 !+ 6' 02" 1 12
2001[B] United States
Armstrong, LanceLance Armstrong
U.S. Postal Service 3,458 km (2,149 mi) 086 !86h 17' 28" 00644 !+ 6' 44" 4 8
2002[B] United States
Armstrong, LanceLance Armstrong
U.S. Postal Service 3,272 km (2,033 mi) 082 !82h 05' 12" 00717 !+ 7' 17" 4 11
2003[B] United States
Armstrong, LanceLance Armstrong
U.S. Postal Service 3,427 km (2,129 mi) 083 !83h 41' 12" 00101 !+ 1' 01" 1 13
2004[B] United States
Armstrong, LanceLance Armstrong
U.S. Postal Service 3,391 km (2,107 mi) 083 !83h 36' 02" 00619 !+ 6' 19" 5 7
2005[B] United States
Armstrong, LanceLance Armstrong
Discovery Channel 3,593 km (2,233 mi) 086 !86h 15' 02" 00440 !+ 4' 40" 1 17
2006 Spain
Landis, FloydFloyd Landis Pereiro, ÓscarÓscar Pereiro[C]
Caisse d'Epargne–Illes Balears 3,657 km (2,272 mi) 089 !89h 40' 27" 00032 !+ 32" 0 8
2007 Spain
Contador, AlbertoAlberto Contador#
Discovery Channel 3,570 km (2,220 mi) 091 !91h 00' 26" 00023 !+ 23" 1 4
2008 Spain
Sastre, CarlosCarlos Sastre*
Team CSC 3,559 km (2,211 mi) 087 !87h 52' 52" 00058 !+ 58" 1 5
2009 Spain
Contador, AlbertoAlberto Contador
Astana 3,459 km (2,149 mi) 085 !85h 48' 35" 00411 !+ 4' 11" 2 7
2010 Luxembourg
Contador, AlbertoAlberto Contador Schleck, AndyAndy Schleck#[D]
Team Saxo Bank 3,642 km (2,263 mi) 091 !91h 59' 27" 00122 !+ 1' 22" 2 12
2011 Australia
Evans, CadelCadel Evans
BMC Racing Team 3,430 km (2,130 mi) 086 !86h 12' 22" 00134 !+ 1' 34" 1 2
2012 Great Britain
Wiggins, BradleyBradley Wiggins
Team Sky 3,496 km (2,172 mi) 087 !87h 34' 47" 00321 !+ 3' 21" 2 14
2013 Great Britain
Froome, ChrisChris Froome
Team Sky 3,404 km (2,115 mi) 083 !83h 56' 20" 00420 !+ 4' 20" 3 14
2014 Italy
Nibali, VincenzoVincenzo Nibali
Astana 3,660.5 km (2,274.5 mi) 089 !89h 59' 06" 00737 !+ 7' 37" 4 19
2015 Great Britain
Froome, ChrisChris Froome*
Team Sky 3,360.3 km (2,088.0 mi) 084 !84h 46' 14" 00112 !+ 1' 12" 1 16
2016 Great Britain
Froome, ChrisChris Froome
Team Sky 3,529 km (2,193 mi) 089 !89h 04' 48" 00405 !+ 4' 05" 2 14
2017 Great Britain
Froome, ChrisChris Froome
Team Sky 3,540 km (2,200 mi) 086 !86h 20' 55" 00054 !+ 54" 0 15
Multiple winners[edit]
The following riders have won the Tour de France on 2 or more occasions. Since the retirement of twice winner Alberto Contador in 2017, the only active rider on the list as of that year is Chris Froome, currently with 4 wins. Contador had originally won three Tours, but was stripped of one following an anti-doping violation[D].
Lance Armstrong was removed from the head of the list after having all seven of his Tour victories stripped when he was found guilty of repeated doping offences. Had his tainted Tour victories been reallocated (as were the victories of Floyd Landis and Contador) to the second placed rider in each race, Jan Ullrich would have joined the list with 4 Tour wins. However, the race organisers ASO have decided not to reallocate the titles won in those years, in recognition of the historic doping problem in the sport at that time - Ullrich himself having been banned for a doping violation. Ullrich, therefore, has a single Tour victory to his name.
Multiple winners of the Tour de France general classification
Cyclist
Total
Years
Anquetil, JacquesJacques Anquetil (FRA)
5 1957, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964
Merckx, EddyEddy Merckx (BEL)
5 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1974
Hinault, BernardBernard Hinault (FRA)
5 1978, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1985
Indurain, MiguelMiguel Indurain (ESP)
5 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995
Froome, ChrisChris Froome (GBR)
4 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017
Thys, PhilippePhilippe Thys (BEL)
3 1913, 1914, 1920
Bobet, LouisonLouison Bobet (FRA)
3 1953, 1954, 1955
LeMond, GregGreg LeMond (USA)
3 1986, 1989, 1990
Petit-Breton, LucienLucien Petit-Breton (FRA)
2 1907, 1908
Lambot, FirminFirmin Lambot (BEL)
2 1919, 1922
Bottecchia, OttavioOttavio Bottecchia (ITA)
2 1924, 1925
Frantz, NicolasNicolas Frantz (LUX)
2 1927, 1928
Leducq, AndréAndré Leducq (FRA)
2 1930, 1932
Magne, AntoninAntonin Magne (FRA)
2 1931, 1934
Maes, SylvèreSylvère Maes (BEL)
2 1936, 1939
Bartali, GinoGino Bartali (ITA)
2 1938, 1948
Coppi, FaustoFausto Coppi (ITA)
2 1949, 1952
Thévenet, BernardBernard Thévenet (FRA)
2 1975, 1977
Fignon, LaurentLaurent Fignon (FRA)
2 1983, 1984
Contador, AlbertoAlberto Contador (ESP)[D]
2 2007, 2009
By nationality[edit]
Tour de France general classification winners by nationality
Country
No. of winning cyclists
No. of wins
France
23 36
Belgium
10 18
Spain[D]
7 12
Italy
7 10
Luxembourg
4 5
Great Britain
2 5
United States[B][C]
1 3
Netherlands
2 2
Switzerland
2 2
Denmark
1 1
Germany
1 1
Ireland
1 1
Australia
1 1
Footnotes[edit]
A. ^ Bjarne Riis has admitted to doping during the 1996 Tour de France. The organizers of the Tour de France have stated that they no longer consider him to be the winner, although Union Cycliste Internationale has so far refused to change the official status due to the amount of time passed since his win. Jan Ullrich was placed second on the podium in Paris.[27]
B. a b c d e f g h Lance Armstrong was declared winner of seven consecutive Tours from 1999 to 2005. However, in October 2012 he was stripped of all titles by the UCI due to the use of performance-enhancing drugs. The Tour director Christian Prudhomme had previously declared that if this happened, there would be no alternate winners for those years, but this has not yet been made official.[28]
C. a b Floyd Landis was the winner at the podium ceremony in Paris on the last day of the 2006 Tour, but subsequently was found to have tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs during stage 17 of the race. The United States Anti-Doping Agency found him guilty of using synthetic testosterone during the race and stripped him of his title on 20 September 2007.[29]
D. a b c Alberto Contador was the winner at the podium ceremony in Paris on the last day of the 2010 Tour, but subsequently was found to have tested positive for the prohibited substance Clenbuterol on a rest day. The Court of Arbitration for Sport found him guilty of using clenbuterol during the race and stripped him of his title on 6 February 2012.[30]
E. ^ Henri Cornet was declared the winner after the disqualification of Maurice Garin for cheating.
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ FAQ. Union Cycliste Internationale. Retrieved 17 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Dauncey, Hugh; Hare, Geoff (2003). Tour de France: 1903-2003. Routledge. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-7146-5362-4.
Jump up ^ "Armstrong seals seventh Tour win". BBC Sport. 24 July 2005. Retrieved 17 August 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Armstrong stripped of all seven Tour de France wins by UCI". BBC Sport. 22 October 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
Jump up ^ Scholiansky, Christopher (6 July 2009). "Will He? Won't He? Can Armstrong Win Tour de France?". American Broadcasting Company. Retrieved 14 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "Stats". Tour de France. Retrieved 15 August 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Tour de France 2016: Chris Froome completes third race victory". BBC Sport. 24 July 2016. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
Jump up ^ "1903–1914: Pioneers and 'assassins'". BBC Sport. 5 June 2001. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "1930–1939: Adapt to survive". BBC Sport. 5 June 2001. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "1947–1956: Post-war rivalries". BBC Sport. 5 June 2001. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "1957–1966: Anquetil 5–0 Poulidor". BBC Sport. 5 June 2001. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "1967–1977: Tragedy before a Cannibal's feast". BBC Sport. 5 June 2001. Retrieved 18 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "1978–1984: The Badger's golden era". BBC Sport. 5 June 2001. Retrieved 19 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Armijo, Vic (1999). The complete idiot's guide to cycling. Alpha Books. p. 28. ISBN 0-02-862929-9.
Jump up ^ "1985–1990: American, Irishman and Spaniard". BBC Sport. 5 June 2001. Retrieved 22 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "1991–1995: Big Mig's masterclass". BBC Sport. 5 June 2001. Retrieved 22 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Duff, Alex (25 May 2007). "Riis, Tour de France Champ, Says He Took Banned Drugs". Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 31 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "1996–2000: Doping and the great recovery". BBC Sport. 5 June 2001. Retrieved 22 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "Overall standings 2002". BBC Sport. 28 July 2002. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "Armstrong seals seventh Tour win". BBC Sport. 24 July 2005. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
Jump up ^ Macur, Juliet (5 August 2006). "Backup Sample on Landis is positive". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 August 2009.
Jump up ^ "Sastre wins Tour de France crown". BBC Sport. 27 July 2008. Retrieved 8 September 2009.
Jump up ^ "Tour de France: Cavendish wins historic green jersey". BBC Sport. 24 July 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
Jump up ^ "Bradley Wiggins wins Tour de France for Team Sky". BBC Sport. 22 July 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
Jump up ^ Thompson, Anna (22 July 2013). "Tour de France:Chris Froome wins 100th edition of race". BBC Sport. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Tour de France: Vincenzo Nibali completes race victory". BBC Sport. 27 July 2014. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Tour takes Riis off winners list". BBC Sport. 7 June 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "The UCI recognises USADA decision in Armstrong case". Union Cycliste Internationale. 22 October 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Oscar Pereiro winner of the 2006 Tour de France". Union Cycliste Internationale. 21 September 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2008.
Jump up ^ "CAS sanctions Contador with two year ban in clenbutorol case". Cyclingnews.com. Future plc. 6 February 2012. Retrieved 6 February 2012.
Bibliography[edit]
Augendre, Jacques (2016). Guide historique [Historical guide] (PDF). Tour de France (in French). Amaury Sport Organisation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
"Tour de France" (in French). Mèmoire du Cyclisme. Archived from the original on 29 January 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
See also[edit]
List of Tour de France secondary classification winners
Yellow jersey statistics
List of Grand Tour general classification winners
[show]
v
t
e
Tour de France general classification winners
1903–1919
1903: Maurice Garin
1904: Henri Cornet
1905: Louis Trousselier
1906: René Pottier
1907–08: Lucien Petit-Breton
1909: François Faber
1910: Octave Lapize
1911: Gustave Garrigou
1912: Odile Defraye
1913–14: Philippe Thys
1915–18: World War I
1919: Firmin Lambot
1920–1939
1920: Philippe Thys
1921: Léon Scieur
1922: Firmin Lambot
1923: Henri Pélissier
1924–25: Ottavio Bottecchia
1926: Lucien Buysse
1927–28: Nicolas Frantz
1929: Maurice De Waele
1930: André Leducq
1931: Antonin Magne
1932: André Leducq
1933: Georges Speicher
1934: Antonin Magne
1935: Romain Maes
1936: Sylvère Maes
1937: Roger Lapébie
1938: Gino Bartali
1939: Sylvère Maes
1940–1959
1940–46: World War II
1947: Jean Robic
1948: Gino Bartali
1949: Fausto Coppi
1950: Ferdinand Kübler
1951: Hugo Koblet
1952: Fausto Coppi
1953–55: Louison Bobet
1956: Roger Walkowiak
1957: Jacques Anquetil
1958: Charly Gaul
1959: Federico Bahamontes
1960–1979
1960: Gastone Nencini
1961–64: Jacques Anquetil
1965: Felice Gimondi
1966: Lucien Aimar
1967: Roger Pingeon
1968: Jan Janssen
1969–72: Eddy Merckx
1973: Luis Ocaña
1974: Eddy Merckx
1975: Bernard Thévenet
1976: Lucien Van Impe
1977: Bernard Thévenet
1978–79: Bernard Hinault
1980–1998
1980: Joop Zoetemelk
1981–82: Bernard Hinault
1983–84: Laurent Fignon
1985: Bernard Hinault
1986: Greg LeMond
1987: Stephen Roche
1988: Pedro Delgado
1989–90: Greg LeMond
1991–95: Miguel Indurain
1996: Bjarne Riis
1997: Jan Ullrich
1998: Marco Pantani
2006–present
1999–2005: results voided because of doping
2006: Óscar Pereiro
2007: Alberto Contador
2008: Carlos Sastre
2009: Alberto Contador
2010: Andy Schleck
2011: Cadel Evans
2012: Bradley Wiggins
2013: Chris Froome
2014: Vincenzo Nibali
2015–2017: Chris Froome
[show]
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e
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1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
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2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
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Classifications
("jerseys")
Current
General
(maillot jaune)
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(maillot vert)
Mountains
(maillot à pois)
Young rider
(maillot blanc)
Team
(classement d'équipes)
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(prix de combativité)
Former
Combination (maillot du combiné)
Intermediate sprints (maillot rouge)
Directors
1903–1935: Henri Desgrange
1936–1961: Jacques Goddet
1962–1986: Jacques Goddet and Félix Lévitan
1987: Jean-François Naquet-Radiguet
1988: Xavier Louy
1989–2006: Jean-Marie Leblanc
2007–present: Christian Prudhomme
Finish locations
1903–1967: Parc des Princes
1968–1974: Vélodrome de Vincennes
1975–present: Champs-Élysées
stage
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Articles and topics
During World War II
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Related articles
Didi Senft
Géo Lefèvre
La Course by Le Tour de France
Tour de France Soundtracks
Tour de l'Avenir
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Vuelta a España
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GT winners
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Stage winners at all three tours
See also
General classification
Mountains classification
Points classification
Young rider classification
Team classification
Triple Crown of Cycling
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Tour_de_France_general_classification_winners&oldid=800241485"
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Universal indicator
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the chemical pH indicator. For the musical artists, see Universal Indicator (collective).
A roll of universal indicator paper
Colours of universal indicator
A universal indicator is a pH indicator composed of a solution of several compounds that exhibits several smooth colour changes over a pH value range from 0 to 14 to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of solutions, where 7 indicates neutral. Although there are several commercially available universal pH indicators, most are a variation of a formula patented by Yamada in 1933.[1] Details of this patent can be found in Chemical Abstracts.[2] Experiments with Yamada's universal indicator are also described in the Journal of Chemical Education.[3]
A universal indicator is typically composed of water, propan-1-ol, phenolphthalein sodium salt, sodium hydroxide, methyl red, bromothymol blue monosodium salt, and thymol blue monosodium salt.[4] The colours that indicate the pH of a solution, after adding a universal indicator, are:
pH range
Description
Colour
< 3 Strong acid Red
3–6 Weak acid Orange or yellow
7 Neutral Green
8–11 Weak base Blue
> 11 Strong base Violet or Indigo
The colours from yellow to red indicate an acidic solution, colours blue to violet indicate bases and green colour indicates that a solution is neutral.
Universal indicator components
Indicator
Low pH colour
Transition pH range
High pH colour
Thymol blue (first transition) Red 1.2 – 2.8 Yellow
Methyl red Red 4.4 – 6.2 Yellow
Bromothymol blue Yellow 6.0 – 7.6 Blue
Thymol blue (second transition) Yellow 8.0 – 9.6 Blue
Phenolphthalein Colourless 08.3 – 10.0 Fuchsia
Wide-range pH test papers with distinct colours for each pH from 1 to 14 are also available. Colour matching charts are supplied with the specific test strips purchased.
Types of Universal Indicator[edit]
Colour Change of Universal Indicator after immersing into Basic NaOH solution.
Universal Indicator Test Kit
Colour Change of Universal Indicator after immersing into a Neutral solution
A universal indicator is collectively a mixture of indicators which show a colour change in a solution,which interprets how acidic or basic a solution is. A universal indicator can be in paper form or present in a form of a solution.[5]
Paper form: Is a strip of coloured paper which changes colour to red if the solution is acidic and to blue if the solution is basic. The strip can be placed directly onto a surface of a wet substance or few drops of the solution can be dropped onto the universal indicator using dropping equipment. If the test solution is of a dark colour, it is preferable to use a paper universal indicator.
Solution: The main components of a Universal indicator, in the form of a solution, are thymol blue, methyl red, bromothymol blue, and phenolphthalein. This mixture is important because each component loses or gains protons depending upon the acidity or basicity of the solution being tested. It is beneficial to use this type of a universal indicator in a colourless solution. This will increase the accuracy of indication.
See also[edit]
Litmus
pH indicator
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jap. Pat. 99,664, Feb 21, 1933
Jump up ^ Chem Abstr, 28, 2258 (1934)
Jump up ^ For a discussion of these experiments, as well as recipes for Yamada's and other universal indicators, see Foster, L. S.; Gruntfest, I. J. (1937). "Demonstration experiments using universal indicators". Journal of Chemical Education. 14 (6): 274. Bibcode:1937JChEd..14..274F. doi:10.1021/ed014p274.
Jump up ^ "Universal Indicator Archived September 25, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.". ISCID Encyclopedia of Science and Philosophy.
Jump up ^ Walker, Denise (2007). Acids and alkalis (1 ed.). London: Evans. p. 13. ISBN 0-237-53002-3. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
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Agenda 21
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Agenda 21
Cover of the first edition (paperback)
Author
United Nations
Cover artist
United Nations (1992)
Country
United States
Language
English, Chinese, Japanese, Russian, French, Spanish, Portuguese
Genre
Non-fiction
Publisher
United Nations
Publication date
April 23, 1993
Media type
Print (Paperback) & HTML
Pages
300 pp
ISBN
978-92-1-100509-7
Agenda 21 is a non-binding, action plan of the United Nations with regard to sustainable development.[1] It is a product of the Earth Summit (UN Conference on Environment and Development) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. It is an action agenda for the UN, other multilateral organizations, and individual governments around the world that can be executed at local, national, and global levels.
The "21" in Agenda 21 refers to the 21st Century. Although it is also the area code for Greater Rio de Janeiro, plus Teresópolis and Mangaratiba in the countryside. It has been affirmed and had a few modifications at subsequent UN conferences.
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure and contents
2 Development and evolution
2.1 Rio+5 (1997)
2.2 Rio+10 (2002)
2.3 Agenda 21 for culture (2002)
2.4 Rio+20 (2012)
2.5 Sustainable Development Summit (2015)
3 Implementation
3.1 Local level
4 Regional levels
4.1 Australia
4.2 Africa
4.3 North America
4.3.1 United States
4.3.1.1 Support
4.3.1.2 Opposition
4.4 Europe and Russia
4.4.1 France
4.4.1.1 Opposition
4.4.2 Baltic nations
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Structure and contents[edit]
Agenda 21 is a 350-page document divided into 40 chapters that have been grouped into 4 sections:
Section I: Social and Economic Dimensions is directed toward combating poverty, especially in developing countries, changing consumption patterns, promoting health, achieving a more sustainable population, and sustainable settlement in decision making.
Section II: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development includes atmospheric protection, combating deforestation, protecting fragile environments, conservation of biological diversity (biodiversity), control of pollution and the management of biotechnology, and radioactive wastes.
Section III: Strengthening the Role of Major Groups includes the roles of children and youth, women, NGOs, local authorities, business and industry, and workers; and strengthening the role of indigenous peoples, their communities, and farmers.
Section IV: Means of Implementation includes science, technology transfer, education, international institutions and financial mechanisms.
Development and evolution[edit]
The full text of Agenda 21 was made public at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit), held in Rio de Janeiro on June 13, 1992, where 178 governments voted to adopt the program. The final text was the result of drafting, consultation, and negotiation, beginning in 1989 and culminating at the two-week conference.
Rio+5 (1997)[edit]
In 1997, the UN General Assembly held a special session to appraise the status of Agenda 21 (Rio +5). The Assembly recognized progress as "uneven" and identified key trends, including increasing globalization, widening inequalities in income, and continued deterioration of the global environment. A new General Assembly Resolution (S-19/2) promised further action.
Rio+10 (2002)[edit]
Main article: World Summit on Sustainable Development
The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, agreed to at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Earth Summit 2002), affirmed UN commitment to "full implementation" of Agenda 21, alongside achievement of the Millennium Development Goals and other international agreements.
Agenda 21 for culture (2002)[edit]
Main article: Agenda 21 for culture
The first World Public Meeting on Culture, held in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2002, came up with the idea to establish guidelines for local cultural policies, something comparable to what Agenda 21 was for the environment.[2] They are to be included in various subsections of Agenda 21 and will be carried out through a wide range of sub-programs beginning with G8 countries.[citation needed]
Rio+20 (2012)[edit]
Main article: United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
In 2012, at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development the attending members reaffirmed their commitment to Agenda 21 in their outcome document called "The Future We Want". 180 leaders from nations participated.
Sustainable Development Summit (2015)[edit]
Main article: Sustainable Development Goals
Agenda 2030, also known as the Sustainable Development Goals, was a set of goals decided upon at the UN Sustainable Development Summit in 2015.[3] It takes all of the goals set by Agenda 21 and re-asserts them as the basis for sustainable development, saying, “We reaffirm all the principles of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development…”[4] Adding onto those goals from the original Rio document, a total of 17 goals have been agreed on, revolving around the same concepts of Agenda 21; people, planet, prosperity, peace, and partnership.[5]
Implementation[edit]
The Commission on Sustainable Development acts as a high-level forum on sustainable development and has acted as preparatory committee for summits and sessions on the implementation of Agenda 21. The UN Division for Sustainable Development acts as the secretariat to the Commission and works "within the context of" Agenda 21.
Implementation by member states remains voluntary, and its adoption has varied.
Local level[edit]
See also: International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives
The implementation of Agenda 21 was intended to involve action at international, national, regional and local levels. Some national and state governments have legislated or advised that local authorities take steps to implement the plan locally, as recommended in Chapter 28 of the document. These programs are often known as "Local Agenda 21" or "LA21".[6] For example, in the Philippines, the plan is "Philippines Agenda 21" (PA21). The group, ICLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability, formed in 1990; today its members come from over 1,000 cities, towns, and counties in 88 countries and is widely regarded as a paragon of Agenda 21 implementation.[7] In many North American cases, an un-elected Regional Mayor will sign on with ICLEI, thereby agreeing to the terms of Agenda 21.
Europe turned out to be the continent where LA21 was best accepted and most implemented.[8] In Sweden, for example, all local governments have implemented a Local Agenda 21 initiative.[9]
Regional levels[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2012)
The UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs' Division for Sustainable Development monitors and evaluates progress, nation by nation, towards the adoption of Agenda 21, and makes these reports available to the public on its website.[10]
Australia[edit]
Australia is a signatory to Agenda 21 and 88 of its municipalities subscribe to ICLEI, an organization that promotes Agenda 21 globally. Australia's membership is second only to that of the United States.[11]
Africa[edit]
In Africa, national support for Agenda 21 is strong and most countries are signatories. But support is often closely tied to environmental challenges specific to each country; for example, in 2002 Sam Nujoma, who was then President of Namibia, spoke about the importance of adhering to Agenda 21 at the 2002 Earth Summit, noting that as a semi-arid country, Namibia sets a lot of store in the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).[12] Furthermore, there is little mention of Agenda 21 at the local level in indigenous media. Only major municipalities in sub-Saharan African countries are members of ICLEI. Agenda 21 participation in North African countries mirrors that of Middle Eastern countries, with most countries being signatories but little to no adoption on the local-government level. Countries in sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa generally have poorly documented Agenda 21 status reports.[citation needed] By contrast, South Africa's participation in Agenda 21 mirrors that of modern Europe, with 21 city members of ICLEI and support of Agenda 21 by national-level government.[citation needed]
North America[edit]
United States[edit]
The national focal point in the United States is the Division Chief for Sustainable Development and Multilateral Affairs, Office of Environmental Policy, Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs, U.S. Department of State.[13] A June 2012 poll of 1,300 United States voters by the American Planning Association found that 9% supported Agenda 21, 6% opposed it, and 85% thought they didn't have enough information to form an opinion.[14]
Support[edit]
The United States is a signatory country to Agenda 21, but because Agenda 21 is a legally non-binding statement of intent and not a treaty, the United States Senate did not hold a formal debate or vote on it. It is therefore not considered to be law under Article Six of the United States Constitution. President George H. W. Bush was one of the 178 heads of government who signed the final text of the agreement at the Earth Summit in 1992,[15][16] and in the same year Representatives Nancy Pelosi, Eliot Engel and William Broomfield spoke in support of United States House of Representatives Concurrent Resolution 353, supporting implementation of Agenda 21 in the United States.[14][17] Created by a 1993 Executive Order, the President's Council on Sustainable Development (PCSD) is explicitly charged with recommending a national action plan for sustainable development to the President. The PCSD is composed of leaders from government and industry, as well as from environmental, labor and civil rights organizations. The PCSD submitted its report, "Sustainable America: A New Consensus", to the President in early 1996. In the absence of a multi-sectoral consensus on how to achieve sustainable development in the United States, the PCSD was conceived to formulate recommendations for the implementation of Agenda 21.
In the United States, over 528 cities are members of ICLEI, an international sustainability organization that helps to implement the Agenda 21 and Local Agenda 21 concepts across the world. The United States has nearly half of the ICLEI's global membership of 1,200 cities promoting sustainable development at a local level.[11] The United States also has one of the most comprehensively documented Agenda 21 status reports.[18] In response to the opposition, Don Knapp, U.S. spokesman for the ICLEI, has said "Sustainable development is not a top-down conspiracy from the U.N., but a bottom-up push from local governments".[14]
The Arizona Chamber of Commerce and Industry successfully lobbied against an anti-sustainable development bill in 2012, arguing "It would be bad for business" as it could drive away corporations that have embraced sustainable development.[14]
Opposition[edit]
Anti-Agenda 21 conspiracy theories have circulated in the U.S. Some Tea Party movement activists and others promoted the notion that Agenda 21 was part of a UN plot to deny property rights, undermine U.S. sovereignty, or force citizens to move to cities.[19][20][7][14][21] Activists believed that the non-binding UN resolution was "the linchpin in a plot to subjugate humanity under an eco-totalitarian regime."[20] The conspiracy theory had its roots in anti-environmentalist ideology and opposition to land-use regulation.[21]
Agenda 21 fears have played a role in opposition to local government's efforts to promote resource and land conservation, build bike lanes, and construct hubs for public transportation.[19] The non-profit group ICLEI — Local Governments for Sustainability USA - was targeted by anti-Agenda 21 activists.[19] In 2012 Glenn Beck co-wrote a dystopian novel titled Agenda 21 based in part on concepts discussed in the UN plan.[22][23][24] In the same year, fears of Agenda 21 "went mainstream" when the Republican National Committee adopted a platform resolution stated that "We strongly reject the U.N. Agenda 21 as erosive of American sovereignty."[25][20]
Several state and local governments have considered or passed motions and legislation opposing Agenda 21.[7][14][20] Most such bills failed, "either dying in committee, getting defeated on the statehouse floor or – in the case of Missouri's 2013 bill – getting vetoed by the governor."[20] In Texas, for example, broadly worded legislation that would prohibit any governmental entity from accepting from or granting money to any "nongovernmental or intergovernmental organization accredited by the United Nations to implement a policy that originated in the Agenda 21 plan" was defeated because it could have cut off funding for groups such as 4-H, the Boy Scouts of America, and the Texas Wildlife Association.[20] In Arizona, a similarly sweeping bill was introduced in the Arizona State Legislature seeking to mandate that the state could not "adopt or implement the creed, doctrine, or principles or any tenet" of Agenda 21 and to prohibit the state "implementing programs of, expending any sum of money for, being a member of, receiving funding from, contracting services from, or giving financial or other forms of aid to" an array of sustainability organizations.[20] The bill, which was opposed by the state chamber of commerce and the mayor of Phoenix, was defeated in 2012.[20] Alabama was one state that did adopt an anti-Agenda 21 resolution, unanimously passing in 2012 a measure to block "any future effort to 'deliberately or inadvertently infringe or restrict private property rights without due process, as may be required by policy recommendations originating in, or traceable to 'Agenda 21.'"[20]
Europe and Russia[edit]
European countries generally possess well documented Agenda 21 statuses.[citation needed]
France[edit]
France, whose national government, along with 14 cities, is a signatory, boasts nationwide programs supporting Agenda 21.
Opposition[edit]
The French activist group Nouvelle Force announced in March 2012 that they viewed Agenda 21 as a "sham".[26]
Baltic nations[edit]
Baltic nations formed the Baltic 21 coalition as a regional expression of Agenda 21.[27]
See also[edit]
Agenda 2030
Ecologically sustainable development
EarthCheck
Education for sustainable development
Global Map
Glocalization
ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability USA
International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives
Man and the Biosphere Programme
National Strategy for a Sustainable America
Think globally, act locally
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "What is Agenda 21?". ICLEIUSA. Retrieved 8 Dec 2012.
Jump up ^ Agenda 21 for culture
Jump up ^ "United Nations Sustainable Development Summit 2015 .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform". sustainabledevelopment.un.org. Retrieved 2017-12-06.
Jump up ^ "Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform". sustainabledevelopment.un.org. Retrieved 2017-12-06.
Jump up ^ "Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015". www.un.org. Retrieved 2017-12-06.
Jump up ^ Manchester Metropolitan University Archived July 22, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kaufman, Leslie; Kate Zernike (3 February 2012). "Activists Fight Green Projects, Seeing U.N. Plot". New York Times. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Smardon, Richard (2008). "A comparison of Local Agenda 21 implementation in North American, European and Indian cities". Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal. 19 (1): 118–137. doi:10.1108/14777830810840408. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
Jump up ^ Jörby, Sofie (2002). "Local Agenda 21 in four Swedish Municipalities: a tool towards sustainability". Journal of Environmental Planning and Management. 45 (2): 219–244. doi:10.1080/09640560220116314.
Jump up ^ UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. "Areas of Work - National Information by Country or Organization". United Nations. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b ICLEI. "ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability: Global Members". Archived from the original on 25 July 2012. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "Namibian president calls for implementation of Agenda 21". Xinhua News Agency. 2 September 2002. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "United States of America". Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform. United Nations.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Tea Party Activists Fight Agenda 21, Seeing Threatening U.N. Plot". Huffington Post. 15 October 2012. Retrieved 16 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Senators attack sustainable development, Agenda 21". The Courier-Journal. 20 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "Secret agenda at city hall?". Wyoming Tribune Eagle. 4 November 2012.
Jump up ^ Nancy Pelosi Support for Agenda 21
Jump up ^ Agenda 21 - United States
^ Jump up to: a b c Kaufman, Leslie; Kate Zernike (February 4, 2012). "Activists Fight Green Projects, Seeing U.N. Plot". The New York Times.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Greg Harman, Agenda 21: a conspiracy theory puts sustainability in the crosshairs, The Guardian (June 24, 2015).
^ Jump up to: a b Hinkes-Jones, Llewellyn (29 August 2012). "The Anti-Environmentalist Roots of the Agenda 21 Conspiracy Theory". Retrieved 16 October 2012.
Jump up ^ "Agenda 21 By Glenn Beck, Harriet Parke". USA Today. 2012.
Jump up ^ Cypher, Sarah (November 19, 2012). "I got duped by Glenn Beck!". Salon.com.
Jump up ^ "Best Sellers". The New York Times. December 9, 2012.
Jump up ^ Jamison, Peter (August 30, 2012). "Fears of Agenda 21 go mainstream in the Republican Party platform". Tampa Bay Times. Retrieved October 23, 2012.
Jump up ^ Laporte, Sébastien (12 March 2012). "Agenda 21 : l'opposition n'y voit qu'une " imposture "". l'Union: Champagne, Ardenne, Picardie (in French). Retrieved 15 August 2012.
Jump up ^ http://www.cbss.org/sustainable-prosperous-region/egsd-baltic-2030-2/
Further reading[edit]
Lenz, Ryan (Spring 2012). "Antigovernment Conspiracy Theorists Rail Against UN's Agenda 21 Program". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center (145).
Earth Summit 2012
External links[edit]
"Agenda 21 text (pdf)" (PDF). unep.org.
United Nations Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform
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