text:
Timeline of Gulf War (1990–1991)
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This is a time line of the Gulf War (1990–1991), starting from the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and ending in the Liberation of Kuwait.[1][2][3][4] [5].
Contents
[hide]
1 1990
2 1991
3 Aftermath
3.1 1992
3.2 1993
3.3 1994
3.4 1995
3.5 1996
3.6 1998
4 References
1990[edit]
28–30 May: Iraqi president Saddam Hussein says that oil overproduction by Kuwait and United Arab Emirates was an "economic warfare" against Iraq.
28 May: President of Iraq Saddam Hussein and Emir of Kuwait Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah meet at the Arab League Summit in Baghdad.
15 July: Iraq accuses Kuwait of stealing oil from the Rumaila oil field, Iraq's oil field near the Iraqi-Kuwaiti border and warns of military action.
22 July: Iraq begins deploying troops to the Iraqi-Kuwaiti border and building a massive military buildup.
24 July: President of Egypt Hosni Mubarak travels to Baghdad to discuss with Saddam Hussein about the dispute between Kuwait and Iraq.
2 August: About 100,000 Iraqi troops Invades Kuwait
2 August: Battle of Dasman Palace. Emir Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah flees to Saudi Arabia with his family and ministers
2 August: United Nations Security Council (UNSC) Resolution 660 condemns the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Yemen is the only Arab country that does not take part in the vote in the UNSC.
3 August: President of the United States George H.W. Bush announces that U.S. Navy ships are deployed to the Persian Gulf
4 August: Alaa Hussein Ali is appointed as the Prime Minister of the Provisional Government of Free Kuwait and Ali Hassan al-Majid as Governor of the Kuwait Governorate which is declared as the 19th Governorate of Iraq
5 August: Emir Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah forms the Government in exile in Ta'if, Saudi Arabia
6 August: United Nations Security Council Resolution 661 implements international sanctions on Iraq.Yemen doesn't take part in the vote in the UNSC.
6 August: United States Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney meets King of Saudi Arabia Fahd in Riyadh to discuss sending U.S. military troops to defend Saudi Arabia in case of Iraqi invasion.
7 August: 15, 000 U.S. troops, 32 destroyers and 100 helicopters and fighter planes arrive in Saudi Arabia
8 August: Operation Desert Shield is launched by the United States
9 August: United Nations Security Council Resolution 662 condemns the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait
9 August: Iraq closes all its land borders
10 August: Arab League Emergency summit takes place in Cairo. Majority Arab countries condemn the invasion and call Iraq to withdraw its troops from Kuwait and return Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah as Emir of Kuwait. Only Libya and the Palestine Liberation Organization supports the Iraqi invasion.
10 August: Arab League Cairo summit votes, by very small margin, to send Egyptian, Syrian and Moroccan military troops to the Gulf region to support Kuwait.
12 August: Naval blockade of Iraq begins.
13 August: Indian Government starts to airlift Indian nationals from Kuwait via Amman to Mumbai. About 175,000 Indian nationals are evacuated from Kuwait through 20 October.
15 August: Iran and Iraq re-establish diplomatic relations first time after the end of the Iran-Iraq War.
16 August: Secretary Dick Cheney orders U.S. naval ships to stop all cargo and tankers leaving and entering Iraq and Kuwait.
18 August: United Nations Security Council Resolution 664 condemns Iraq and demands it leaves Kuwait
19 August: United Arab Emirates allows foreign troops to enter its territory
20 August: Hundred of thousands of Pakistani, Egyptian, Palestinian, and Filipino guest workers flee Kuwait to Jordan
20 August: 82 British nationals are take hostages in Kuwait
25 August: United Nations Security Council Resolution 661 implements international sanctions on Iraq
26 August: Iraq sieges foreign embassies in Kuwait City.
29 August: United Nations Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar travels to Baghdad to meet Foreign Minister of Iraq Tariq Aziz
1 September: Iraq allows 700 westerners to leave Iraq. They had been hostage since the invasion.
2 September: Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar returns from Baghdad without any agreement with the Government of Iraq.
9 September: President of the United States George H.W. Bush and President of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev meet in Helsinki Summit to discuss the Iraqi invasion. In a press conference, the presidents demand Iraq leave Kuwait under the UNSC Resolutions of 660, 661, 662, 664 and 665.
14 September: United Kingdom and France announce the deployment of troops to Saudi Arabia.
25 September: United Nations Security Council Resolution 661 implements civil aviation sanctions on Iraq.
17 October: 200,000 American, 15,000 British and 11,000 French troops are stationed in the Gulf region
8 November: U.S sends more troops to the Gulf region. About 100,000 troops arrive to support the existing 220 ,000 troops in the region.
19 November: Iraq sends about 200,000 more troops to Kuwait.
29 November: The U.N. Security Council passed Resolution 678 setting a deadline for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait before January 15, 1991, or face military action.
29 November: President George H.W. Bush offers dialogue to Foreign Minister of Iraq Tariq Aziz to meet in Washington D.C..
6 December: Iraq releases 3,000 foreign hostages from Kuwait and Iraq
10 December: Iraq releases British hostages
1991[edit]
9 January: United States Secretary of State James Baker meets Foreign Minister of Iraq Tariq Aziz at the Geneva Conference in Hotel InterContinental without any solution.
January 12 : U.S. Congress passed a joint resolution authorizing the use of military force in Iraq and Kuwait. The votes were '52 for and 47 against in the U.S. Senate and 250-183 in the House of Representatives. These was the closest margins in authorizing force by the Congress since the War of 1812.
12 January: United Nations Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar meets Saddam Hussein in Baghdad without any agreement with the Government of Iraq on withdrawing from Kuwait.
12 January: Soviet special envoy Yevgeny Primakov meets Saddam Hussein in Baghdad about the possible Coalition invasion of Kuwait
15 January: Saddam Hussein announces that Iraq will consider withdrawing its troops from Kuwait under some conditions
15 January: 580,000 Coalition troops are stationed in the Gulf region against 540,000 Iraqi troops.
15 January: First U.S. government statement of Operation Desert Storm made.
15 January: Iraq ignores all the UN resolutions
January 16: Coalition forces lead by the U.S. start deploying into Kuwait through the Persian Gulf and the Saudi Arabian border, starting the first official infantry combat
17 January: Foreign Minister of Iraq Tariq Aziz meets President of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev in Moscow where they discuss the Soviet peace plan
17 January: Operation Desert Storm is launched. First air attacks are launched on Iraq and Kuwait.
18 January: 01:00 GMT; Iraq fires 12 scud missiles at Israeli cities of Haifa and Tel Aviv, killing 12 people. United States tells Israel not to retaliate to the scud attack due to the risk of expanding the war and breaking up of the Arab Coalition. The U.S. deploys Patriot missiles to Israel and Saudi Arabia.
21 January: Foreign Minister of Iraq Tariq Aziz accepts the Soviet peace plan. President Bush refuses the peace plan as unrealistic for the coalition.
22 January: Iraq burns Kuwaiti oil fields. About 600 oil fields are on fire
24 January: Iraq continues to burn Kuwaiti oil fields and dumps the oil into the Persian Gulf
24 January: Coalition forces capture the small Kuwaiti island of Qaruh.
25 January : Iraqi troops dumped millions of gallons of crude oil into the Persian Gulf.
29 January: United States and the Soviet Union offer a ceasefire to Iraq if it withdraws all its troops from Kuwait.
29 January : Iraqi forces invaded the town of Khafji in Saudi Arabia. Iraqi forces were soon engaged by Saudi Arabian and Qatari troops with help from U.S. Marines.
30 January: Coalition starts its first land operations in Kuwait and Southern Iraq.
1 February : Iraqi forces are driven out of Saudi Arabia.
22 February : U.S. President George H. W. Bush issues a 24-hour ultimatum: Iraq must withdraw from Kuwait to avoid start of a ground war.
23 February: President of the United States George H.W. Bush calls on Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait before starting Operation Desert Storm
24 February : Ground war begins when U.S.-led Coalition forces invaded Iraq and Kuwait at around 4 a.m. Baghdad time. British Special Air Service was the first to enter Iraqi territory.
25 February: 20 000 Iraqi troops surrender to the coalition. By the end of February, about 100 000 Iraqi troops will have surrendered.
25 February: Iraq launches scud missile attacks to Dhahran in Saudi Arabia which kills 28 American troops and injures 98 civilians.
26 February: President of Iraq Saddam Hussein announces at Radio Baghdad report that Iraq will withdraw from Kuwait totally and excepts the UN resolution. Saddam still does not renounce Iraqi claims over Kuwait.
26 February: About 10,000 retreating Iraqi troops were killed when Coalition aircraft bombed their stolen civilian and military vehicles. This is called the Highway of Death.
26 February: Iraqi troops flees from Kuwait City
27 February: U.S. Marines and Saudi Arabian troops entered Kuwait City.
27 February: President Bush announced that the Liberation of Kuwait has started and the cessation of hostilities will end at 04:00 GMT the same day
27 February: Coalition announces that they have destroyed almost of the half of the all Iraqi divisions and 500,000 Iraqi troops has been taken as PWOs.
28 February: President of the United States George H.W. Bush announces ceasefire and that Kuwait is free and Iraqi Army is defeated.
28 February: Iraq announces that it will accept all UN resolutions.
March 1: A cease-fire plan is negotiated in Safwan, Iraq.
March 3: Iraq accepts the terms of a ceasefire from the U.N. Security Council.
6 March: Shiia rebellion starts in Basra
13 March: Secretary of State of the United States James Baker meets President of Syria Hafez Al-Assad in Damascus to discuss future Middle East issues
14 March: Anti-Saddam rebellion continues in Iraq
30 March: First Arab League summit starts in Cairo after the Kuwaiti invasion. Iraqi delegation also takes part in the summit
3 April: Iraqi army massacres Kurds in Northern Iraq
11 April: Armistice is signed between Coalition and Iraqi Army.
7 April: Kuwaiti Emir promises elections in Kuwait in 1992
14 April: Emir of Kuwait Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah returns to Kuwait
17 April: U.S. troops enter Northern Iraq from Turkey to protect Kurdish refugees
15 June: 29 people are accused of co-operating with the Iraqi forces, and are executed in Kuwait.
16 August: UN repeals some Iraqi sanctions; Iraq is allowed to produce oil, limited to about 1,6 billion USD per barrel.
30 August: Kuwaiti Air Force attacks Iraqi destroyer in the Gulf
7 November: Last Kuwaiti oil fire is put out
Aftermath[edit]
1992[edit]
26: August: No-fly zone is established in Southern Iraq
1993[edit]
13 January: United States bombs Iraq
1994[edit]
10 November: Iraq recognises Kuwaiti independence and the borders it shares with Iraq
1995[edit]
14 April: United Nations Security Council approves the oil for food program to Iraq
1996[edit]
3 September: United States bombs Iraq and extenders the No-fly zone in Southern Iraq
1998[edit]
31 October: Iraq end is co-operation with the United Nations Special Commission
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Leena Hybinette (toimittaja). VUOSI 91. KG Bertmark Kustannus Oy. (in Finnish)
Jump up ^ Leena Hybinette (toimittaja). VUOSI 90. KG Bertmark Kustannus Oy. (in Finnish)
Jump up ^ Leena Hybinette (toimittaja) (1990). Vuoden uutistapahtumat kuvina 1990. Saarijärvi: Gummerus Oy. (in Finnish)
Jump up ^ "Timeline: War in the Gulf". BBC News Middle East.
Jump up ^ "1991: Iraqi Scud missiles hit Israel". BBC On This Day 1950–2005.
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United States presidential election, 1824
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
United States presidential election, 1824
← 1820 October 26 – December 2, 1824 1828 →
All 261 electoral votes of the Electoral College
131 electoral votes needed to win
Nominee
John Q. Adams Andrew Jackson
Party
Democratic-Republican Democratic-Republican
Home state
Massachusetts Tennessee
Running mate
John C. Calhoun John C. Calhoun
Electoral vote
84 99
States carried
7 (in EC)
13 (in HR) 12 (in EC)
7 (in HR)
Popular vote
113,122[a] 151,271[a]
Percentage
30.9% 41.4%
Nominee
William H. Crawford Henry Clay
Party
Democratic-Republican Democratic-Republican
Home state
Georgia Kentucky
Running mate
Nathaniel Macon
(replacing Albert Gallatin) Nathan Sanford
Electoral vote
41 37
States carried
2 (in EC)
4 (in HR) 3 (in EC)
Popular vote
40,856[a] 47,531[a]
Percentage
11.2% 13.0%
Presidential election results map. Blue denotes states won by Jackson, orange denotes those won by Crawford, green denotes those won by Adams, light yellow denotes those won by Clay. Numbers indicate the number of electoral votes allotted to each state.
President before election
James Monroe
Democratic-Republican
Elected President
John Quincy Adams
Democratic-Republican
The United States presidential election of 1824 was the tenth quadrennial presidential election, held from Tuesday, October 26, to Thursday, December 2, 1824. In an election contested by four members of the Democratic-Republican Party, no candidate won a majority of the electoral vote, necessitating a contingent election in the House of Representatives under the provisions of the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution. On February 9, 1825, the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams as president. The 1824 presidential election was the first election in which the winner of the election lost the popular vote, and it remains the only election in which the candidate with the most electoral votes was not elected president.
Prior to the election, the Democratic-Republican Party had won six consecutive presidential elections, and by 1824 the opposition Federalist Party had collapsed as a national party. Secretary of State Adams, General Andrew Jackson, Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford, and Speaker of the House Henry Clay all sought the presidency as members of the Democratic-Republican Party. A fifth candidate, John C. Calhoun, also sought the presidency before dropping out to successfully run for vice president. The 1824 Democratic-Republican congressional nominating caucus nominated Crawford for president, but the other candidates disregarded this nomination and continued to seek the presidency.
In the election, Adams won New England, Jackson and Adams split the mid-Atlantic states, Jackson and Clay split the Western states, and Jackson and Crawford split the Southern states. Jackson finished with a plurality of the electoral and popular vote, while the other three candidates each finished with a significant share of the electoral and popular vote. As no one had won a majority of the electoral vote, the 1824 election became the first (and, so far, only) election to be decided in the House of Representatives under the terms of the 12th Amendment. The 12th Amendment specified that only the three top finishers in the electoral vote were eligible to be selected by the House, thus eliminating Clay, who was influential within that chamber. In the contingent election, Clay threw his support behind Adams, who shared many of his positions on the major issues. With Clay's backing, Adams won the contingent election on the first ballot.
After Adams took office, he appointed Clay as Secretary of State, and supporters of Jackson accused Clay and Adams of having agreed to a "corrupt bargain" in which Clay supported Adams in return for his appointment to the most prestigious Cabinet position. Later, the faction led by Jackson would evolve into the modern Democratic Party, while supporters of Adams and Henry Clay would form the National Republican Party and then the Whig Party. Adams's 1824 election victory thus represents the last of seven straight wins by the Democratic-Republican Party.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 General election
2.1 Campaign
2.2 Candidates
2.3 Candidates who withdrew before election
3 Nomination process
3.1 Results
4 Results by state
4.1 Breakdown by ticket
5 1825 contingent election
5.1 Results by state in House of Representatives
6 Electoral College selection
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
9.1 Sources
10 Further reading
11 External links
Background[edit]
The Era of Good Feelings, closely associated with the administration of President James Monroe (1817–1825), was characterized by the dissolution of national political identities.[1] With the discredited Federalists in decline nationally, the "amalgamated" or hybridized Republicans adopted key Federalist economic programs and institutions, further erasing party identities and consolidating their victory.[2][3] The economic nationalism of the Era of Good Feelings that would authorize the Tariff of 1816 and incorporate the Second Bank of the United States portended an abandonment of the Jeffersonian political formula for strict construction of the constitution, limited central government and commitments to the primacy of Southern agrarian interests.[4][5][6]
The end of opposition parties also meant the end of party discipline and the means to suppress internecine factional animosities. Rather than produce political harmony, as President James Monroe had hoped, amalgamation had led to intense rivalries among Republicans.[7] Bereft of any party apparatus to contain these outbursts, Monroe attempted to enlist the leading statesmen of his day into his cabinet so as to commit them to advancing his policies. Of the five politicians who would run for president in 1824, three were in Monroe's cabinet: Secretary of State John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford of Georgia, and Secretary of War John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, a commander in the regular US Army, was tapped for high-profile military assignments. Only Speaker of the House of Representatives Henry Clay of Kentucky held political power independent of the Monroe administration. Monroe’s efforts to bring Clay into his cabinet failed, and the Speaker remained a persistent critic of the Monroe administration.
Amid these reconfigured political landscapes arose two pivotal events: the Panic of 1819 and the Missouri crisis of 1820.[8] Both the alarming economic disaster, which fell heavily upon both agrarian and industrial workers, and the distressing sectional disputes over slavery expansion, produced widespread social unrest and calls for increased democratic control over the future of the American republic.[9] From these disaffected social groups would be assembled the popular base on which political parties would be revived, though these were only beginning to take shape at the time of the 1824 presidential election.[10]
General election[edit]
Campaign[edit]
The previous competition between the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party collapsed after the War of 1812 due to the disintegration of the Federalists' popular appeal, and U.S. President James Monroe of the Democratic-Republican Party was able to run without opposition in the election of 1820. Like previous presidents who had been elected to two terms, James Monroe declined to seek re-nomination for a third term.[11]
Monroe's vice president, Daniel D. Tompkins, was considered unelectable due to his overwhelming unpopularity and major health problems (Tompkins died in June 1825, a little over three months after he left office). The presidential nomination was thus left wide open within the Democratic-Republican Party, the only major national political entity remaining in the United States.
Candidates[edit]
Secretary of State John Quincy Adams
House Speaker Henry Clay from Kentucky
Senator Andrew Jackson from Tennessee
Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford
Andrew Jackson was recruited to run for the office of the president by the state legislature of Tennessee. Jackson did not seek the task of running for president. Instead, he wished to retire to his estate on the outskirts of Nashville called the Hermitage. However, Andrew Jackson was not one to decline such request.[12]
Candidates who withdrew before election[edit]
Secretary of War John C. Calhoun
Secretary of the Navy Smith Thompson
Nomination process[edit]
Congressional caucus balloting
Presidential candidate
Ballot
Vice Presidential candidate
Ballot
William H. Crawford 64 Albert Gallatin 57
Henry Clay 2 Erastus Root 2
John Quincy Adams 2 John Quincy Adams 1
Andrew Jackson 1 William Eustis 1
William Rufus King 1
William Lowndes 1
Richard Rush 1
Samuel Smith 1
John Tod 1
The traditional Congressional caucus nominated Crawford for president and Albert Gallatin for vice-president, but it was sparsely attended and was widely attacked as undemocratic. With the breakdown of the congressional nominating caucus, legislatures convened state caucuses to nominate candidates.[13] Gallatin later withdrew from the contest for the vice presidency, after quickly becoming disillusioned by repeated attacks on his credibility made by the other candidates. He was replaced by North Carolina senator Nathaniel Macon. A serious impediment to Crawford's candidacy was created by the effects of a stroke he suffered in 1823. Among other candidates, John Quincy Adams had more support than Henry Clay because of his huge popularity among the old Federalist voters in New England. By this time, even the traditionally Federalist Adams family had come to terms with the Democratic-Republican Party.
The election was as much a contest of favorite sons as it was a conflict over policy, although positions on tariffs and internal improvements did create some significant disagreements. In general, the candidates were favored by different sections of the country: Adams was strong in the Northeast; Jackson in the South, West and mid-Atlantic; Clay in parts of the West; and Crawford in parts of the South.
Secretary of War John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, who was a fifth candidate in the early stages of consideration, declined to run for president, but did decide to seek the vice presidency. For president, he backed Jackson, whose political beliefs he considered more compatible with those of most voters in the southern states. Both Adams and Jackson supporters backed Calhoun's candidacy as vice president; thus, he easily secured the majority of electoral votes he needed to secure that office. In reality, Calhoun was vehemently opposed to nearly all of Adams's policies, but he did nothing to dissuade Adams supporters from voting for him for vice president.
Results by county explicitly indicating the percentage of the winning candidate in each county. Shades of blue are for Jackson (Democratic-Republican), shades of red are for Adams (Democratic-Republican), shades of yellow are for Clay (Democratic-Republican), and shades of green are for Crawford (Democratic-Republican).
The campaigning for presidential election of 1824 took many forms. Contrafacta, or well known songs and tunes whose lyrics have been altered, were used to promote political agendas and presidential candidates. Below can be found a sound clip featuring "Hunters of Kentucky", a tune written by Samuel Woodsworth in 1815 under the title "The Unfortunate Miss Bailey". Contrafacta such as this one, which promoted Andrew Jackson as a national hero, have been a long-standing tradition in presidential elections. Another form of campaigning during this election was through newsprint. Political cartoons and partisan writings were best circulated among the voting public through newspapers. Presidential candidate John C. Calhoun was one of the candidates most directly involved through his participation in the publishing of the newspaper The Patriot as a member of the editorial staff. This was a sure way to promote his own political agendas and campaign. In contrast, most candidates involved in early 19th century elections did not run their own political campaigns. Instead it was left to volunteer citizens and partisans to speak on their behalf.[14][15][16][17]
Hunters of Kentucky
Jackson supporters used this Battle of New Orleans anthem as their campaign song.
Problems playing this file? See media help.
Results[edit]
The 1824 presidential election marked the final collapse of the Republican-Federalist political framework. Considering the large numbers of candidates and strong regional preferences, it is not surprising that the results of the election of 1824 were inconclusive. The electoral map confirmed the candidates' sectional support, with Adams winning outright in the New England states, Jackson gleaning success in states throughout the nation, Clay attracting votes from the West, and Crawford attracting votes from the eastern South. Andrew Jackson received more electoral and popular votes than any other candidate, but not the majority of 131 electoral votes needed to win the election. Since no candidate received the required majority of electoral votes, the presidential election was decided by the House of Representatives (see "Contingent election" below). Meanwhile, John C. Calhoun easily defeated his rivals in the race for the vice presidency, as the support of both the Adams and Jackson camps quickly gave him an unassailable lead over the other candidates. This means that 1824 marks the only election in U.S. history where only the vice presidential candidate had been successfully elected to an executive office by Electoral College. Despite Clay himself finishing last in the electoral college, his running-mate, Nathan Sanford actually finished second behind Calhoun in the vice presidential vote, mostly because nearly half of the electors pledged to Crawford voted for candidates other than his designated running-mate, Nathaniel Macon, with New York senator Martin Van Buren being the main beneficiary.
Presidential candidate
Party
Home state
Popular vote[a]
Electoral vote
Count
Percentage
Andrew Jackson[b] Democratic-Republican Tennessee 151,271 41.4% 99
John Quincy Adams[c] Democratic-Republican Massachusetts 113,122 30.9% 84
William Harris Crawford[d] Democratic-Republican Georgia 40,856 11.2% 41
Henry Clay[e] Democratic-Republican Kentucky 47,531 13.0% 37
(Massachusetts unpledged electors) None Massachusetts 6,616 1.8% 0
Other 6,437 1.8% 0
Total 365,833 100.0% 261
Needed to win 131
Vice Presidential candidate
Party
State
Electoral vote[19]
John C. Calhoun Democratic-Republican South Carolina 182
Nathan Sanford Democratic-Republican New York 30
Nathaniel Macon Democratic-Republican North Carolina 24
Andrew Jackson Democratic-Republican Tennessee 13
Martin Van Buren Democratic-Republican New York 9
Henry Clay Democratic-Republican Kentucky 2
Total 260
Needed to win 131
Results by state[edit]
Andrew Jackson
Democratic-Republican
John Quincy Adams
Democratic-Republican
Henry Clay
Democratic-Republican
William Crawford
Democratic-Republican
State total
State
electoral
votes
#
%
electoral
votes
#
%
electoral
votes
#
%
electoral
votes
#
%
electoral
votes
#
Alabama
5
000136189,429 69.32 5 000136182,422 17.80 - 0004866996 0.71 - 000486691,656 12.17 - 13,603
AL
Connecticut
8
no ballots 7,494 70.39 8 no ballots 1,965 18.46 - 10,647
CT
Delaware
3
no popular vote no popular vote 1 no popular vote no popular vote 2 -
DE
Georgia
9
no popular vote no popular vote no popular vote no popular vote 9 -
GA
Illinois
3
1,272 27.23 2 1,516 32.46 1 1,036 22.18 - 847 18.13 - 4,671
IL
Indiana
5
7,343 46.61 5 3,095 19.65 - 5,315 33.74 - no ballots 15,753
IN
Kentucky
14
6,356 27.23 - no ballots 16,982 72.77 14 no ballots 23,338
KY
Louisiana
5
no popular vote 3 no popular vote 2 no popular vote no popular vote -
LA
Maine
9
no ballots 10,289 81.50 9 no ballots 2,336 18.50 - 12,625
ME
Maryland
11
14,523 43.73 7 14,632 44.05 3 695 2.09 - 3,364 10.13 1 33,214
MD
Massachusetts
15
no ballots 30,687 72.97 15 no ballots no ballots 42,056
MA
Mississippi
3
3,121 63.77 3 1,654 33.80 - no ballots 119 2.43 - 4,894
MS
Missouri
3
1,166 33.97 - 159 4.63 - 2,042 59.50 3 32 0.93 - 3,432
MO
New Hampshire
8
no ballots 9,389 93.59 8 no ballots 643 6.41 - 10,032
NH
New Jersey
8
10,332 52.08 8 8,309 41.89 - no ballots 1,196 6.03 - 19,837
NJ
New York
36
no popular vote 1 no popular vote 26 no popular vote 4 no popular vote 5 -
NY
North Carolina
15
20,231 56.03 15 no ballots no ballots 15,622 43.26 - 36,109
NC
Ohio
16
18,489 36.96 - 12,280 24.55 - 19,255 38.49 16 no ballots 50,024
OH
Pennsylvania
28
35,929 76.04 28 5,436 11.50 - 1,705 3.61 - 4,182 8.85 - 47,252
PA
Rhode Island
4
no ballots 2,145 91.47 4 no ballots 200 8.53 - 2,345
RI
South Carolina
11
no popular vote 11 no popular vote no popular vote no popular vote -
SC
Tennessee
11
20,197 97.45 11 216 1.04 - no ballots 312 1.51 - 20,725
TN
Vermont
7
no popular vote no popular vote 7 no popular vote no popular vote 35,031
VT
Virginia
24
2,975 19.35 - 3,419 22.24 - 419 2.73 - 8,558 55.68 24 15,371
VA
TOTALS:
261
151,363
41.36
99
113,142
30.92
84
47,545
12.99
37
41,032
11.21
41
365,928
US
TO WIN:
131
Breakdown by ticket[edit]
Total
Andrew
Jackson
John Q.
Adams
William H.
Crawford
Henry
Clay
Electoral votes for President: 261 99 84 40 38
For Vice President, John C. Calhoun 182 99 74 2 7
For Vice President, Nathan Sanford 30 2 28
For Vice President, Nathaniel Macon 24 24
For Vice President, Andrew Jackson 13 9 1 3
For Vice President, Martin Van Buren 9 9
For Vice President, Henry Clay 2 2
(No vote for Vice President) 1 1
1825 contingent election[edit]
The voting by state in the House of Representatives. States in orange voted for Adams, states in green for Crawford, and states in blue for Jackson.
Since no candidate received a majority of the electoral votes, the presidential election was thrown into a contingent election in the U.S. House of Representatives. Following the provisions of the Twelfth Amendment, only the top three candidates in the electoral vote were admitted as candidates in the House: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and William Harris Crawford. Henry Clay, who happened to be Speaker of the House at the time, was left out. Clay detested Jackson and had said of him, "I cannot believe that killing 2,500 Englishmen at New Orleans qualifies for the various, difficult, and complicated duties of the Chief Magistracy."[20] Moreover, Clay's American System was far closer to Adams' position on tariffs and internal improvements than Jackson's or Crawford's, so Clay threw his support to Adams. Thus Adams was elected President on February 9, 1825, on the first ballot,[21][22] with 13 states, followed by Jackson with 7, and Crawford with 4.
Adams' victory shocked Jackson, who, as the winner of a plurality of both the popular and electoral votes, expected to be elected president. Not long before the results of the House election, an anonymous statement appeared in a Philadelphia paper, called the Columbian Observer. The statement, said to be from a member of Congress, essentially accused Clay of selling Adams his support for the office of Secretary of State. No formal investigation was conducted, so the matter was neither confirmed nor denied. When Clay was indeed offered the position after Adams was victorious, he opted to accept and continue to support the administration he voted for, knowing that declining the position would not have helped to dispel the rumors brought against him.[23] By appointing Clay his Secretary of State, President Adams essentially declared him heir to the Presidency, as Adams and his three predecessors had all served as Secretary of State. Jackson and his followers accused Adams and Clay of striking a "corrupt bargain". The Jacksonians would campaign on this claim for the next four years, ultimately attaining Jackson's victory in the Adams-Jackson rematch in 1828.
Results by state in House of Representatives[edit]
Delegation winner
Adams vote
Jackson vote
Crawford vote
Maine Adams 7 0 0
New Hampshire Adams 6 0 0
Vermont Adams 5 0 0
Massachusetts Adams 12 1 0
Rhode Island Adams 2 0 0
Connecticut Adams 6 0 0
New York Adams 18 2 14
New Jersey Jackson 1 5 0
Pennsylvania Jackson 1 25 0
Delaware Crawford 0 0 1
Maryland Adams 5 3 1
Virginia Crawford 1 1 19
North Carolina Crawford 1 2 10
South Carolina Jackson 0 9 0
Georgia Crawford 0 0 7
Alabama Jackson 0 3 0
Mississippi Jackson 0 1 0
Louisiana Adams 2 1 0
Kentucky Adams 8 4 0
Tennessee Jackson 0 9 0
Missouri Adams 1 0 0
Ohio Adams 10 2 2
Indiana Jackson 0 3 0
Illinois Adams 1 0 0
Total votes[24] Adams 87 (41%) 71 (33%) 54 (25%)
Votes by state Adams 13 (54%) 7 (29%) 4 (17%)
Electoral College selection[edit]
Caucus curs in full yell, by James Akin, 1824 (critique of "the press's treatment of Andrew Jackson, and on the practice of nominating candidates by caucus").[25]
Method of choosing electors
State(s)
Each Elector chosen by voters statewide
Alabama
Connecticut
Indiana
Massachusetts
Mississippi
New Hampshire
New Jersey
North Carolina
Ohio
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
Virginia
Each Elector appointed by state legislature
Delaware
Georgia
Louisiana
New York
South Carolina
Vermont
State is divided into electoral districts, with one Elector chosen per district by the voters of that district
Illinois
Kentucky
Maryland
Missouri
Tennessee
Two Electors chosen by voters statewide
One Elector chosen per Congressional district by the voters of that district
Maine
See also[edit]
Corrupt bargain
Electoral college
History of the United States (1789–1849)
Inauguration of John Quincy Adams
Realigning election
Second Party System
Smoke-filled room
United States House elections, 1824
United States Senate elections, 1824
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e The popular vote figures exclude Delaware, Georgia, Louisiana, New York, South Carolina, and Vermont. In all of these states, the Electors were chosen by the state legislatures rather than by popular vote.[18]
Jump up ^ Jackson was nominated by the Tennessee state legislature and by the Democratic Party of Pennsylvania.
Jump up ^ Adams was nominated by the Massachusetts state legislature.
Jump up ^ Crawford was nominated by a caucus of 66 congressmen that called itself the "Democratic members of Congress".
Jump up ^ Clay was nominated by the Kentucky state legislature.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Ammon, 1958, p. 4: "The phrase 'Era of Good Feelings", so inextricably associated with the administration of James Monroe ..."
Jump up ^ Ammon, 1958, p. 5: "Most Republicans like former President [James] Madison readily acknowledged the shift that had taken place within the Republican party towards Federalist principles and viewed the process without qualms." And p. 4: "The Republicans had taken over (as they saw it) that which was of permanent value in the Federal program." And p. 10: "Federalists had vanished" from national politics.
Jump up ^ Brown, 1966, p. 23: "a new theory of party amalgamation preached the doctrine that party division was bad and that a one-party system best served the national interest" and "After 1815, stirred by the nationalism of the post-war era, and with the Federalists in decline, the Republicans took up the Federalist positions on a number of the great public issues of the day, sweeping all before them as they did. The Federalists gave up the ghost."
Jump up ^ Brown, 1966, p. 23: The amalgamated Republicans, "as a party of the whole nation ... ceased to be responsive to any particular elements in its constituency. It ceased to be responsive to the South." And "The insistence that slavery was uniquely a Southern concern, not to be touched by outsiders, had been from the outset a sine qua non for Southern participation in national politics. It underlay the Constitution and its creation of a government of limited powers ..."
Jump up ^ Brown, 1966, p. 24: "Not only did the Missouri crisis make these matters clear [the need to revive strict constructionist principles and quiet anti-slavery agitation], but 'it gave marked impetus to a reaction against nationalism and amalgamation of postwar Republicanism'" and the rise of the Old Republicans.
Jump up ^ Ammon, 1971 (James Monroe bio) p. 463: "The problems presented by the [consequences of promoting Federalist economic nationalism] gave an opportunity to the older, more conservative [Old] Republicans to reassert themselves by attributing the economic dislocation to a departure from the principles of the Jeffersonian era."
Jump up ^ Parsons, 2009, p. 56: "Animosity between Federalists and Republicans had been replaced by animosity between Republicans themselves, often over the same issues that had once separated them from the Federalists."
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, p. 251–252: "The panic ... was pivotal ... the hard times of 1819 and early 1820s revive[d] ... fundamental questions about the nationalist economic policies of the new-style Republicans under Madison and Monroe, and focused inchoate popular resentments on the banks, especially the Second BUS." p. 252: "The Missouri controversy ... proved for more important than the [incidental] outbursts."
Jump up ^ Wilentz, 2008, p. 252: "Both the panic and the Missouri debates underscored in different ways the overriding question of democracy as Americans perceived it. In economic matters, the questions arose primarily as a matter of privilege. Should unelected private interests, well connected to government, be permitted to control, to their own benefit, the economic destiny of the entire nation?"
Jump up ^ Hofstadter, 1947, p. 51: The "general mass of the disaffection to the Government was not sufficiently concentrated to prevent re-election, unopposed, of President Monroe in 1820 in the absence of a national opposition party; but it soon transformed politics in many states. Debtors rushed into politics to defend themselves, and secured moratoriums and relief laws from the legislatures of several Western states ... A popular demand arose for laws to prevent imprisonment for debt, for a national bankruptcy law, and for a new tariff and public land policies. For the first time Americans thought of politics as having an intimate relation to their welfare."
Jump up ^ Ratcliffe, Donald (2015). The One-Party Presidential Contest: Adams, Jackson, and 1824's Five-Horse Race. [full citation needed]
Jump up ^ Bradley, Harold. "Andrew Jackson". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica, inc. Retrieved September 15, 2017.
Jump up ^ Patrick, John J.; Pious, Richard M.; Ritchie, Donald A. (2001). The Oxford Guide to the United States Government. Oxford University Press. p. 93.
Jump up ^ Hansen, Liane (October 5, 2008). "Songs Along The Campaign Trail". Election 2008: On The Campaign Trail (Radio series episode). National Public Radio.
Jump up ^ Hay, Thomas R. (October 1934). "John C. Calhoun and the Presidential Campaign of 1824, Some Unpublished Calhoun Letters". The American Historical Review. 40 (1). doi:10.1086/ahr/40.1.82. JSTOR 1838676.
Jump up ^ McNamara, R. (September 2007). "The Election of 1824 Was Decided in the House of Representatives". About.com. Retrieved October 27, 2008.
Jump up ^ Schimler, Stuart (February 12, 2002). "Singing to the Oval Office: A Written History of the Political Campaign Song". President Elect Articles. Retrieved October 28, 2008.
Jump up ^ Leip, David. "1824 Presidential Election Results". Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Retrieved July 26, 2005.
Jump up ^ "Electoral College Box Scores 1789–1996". National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved July 30, 2005.
Jump up ^ Henry Clay to Francis Preston Blair, January 29, 1825.[full citation needed]
Jump up ^ Adams, John Quincy; Adams, Charles Francis (1874). Memoirs of John Quincy Adams: Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848. J.B. Lippincott & Co. pp. 501–505. ISBN 0-8369-5021-6. Retrieved August 2, 2006 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ United States Congress (1825). House Journal. 18th Congress, 2nd Session, February 9. pp. 219–222. Retrieved August 2, 2006.
Jump up ^ Schlesinger, Arthur Meier; Israel, Fred L. (1971). History of American Presidential Elections, 1789–1968, Volume I, 1789–1844. New York: Chelsea House. pp. 379–381. ISBN 0070797862. Retrieved November 19, 2008 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ McMaster, J. B. (1900). History of the People of the United States.. vol. V. New York: D. Appleton and Company. p. 81. Reprinted in Bemis, Samuel Flagg (1965). John Quincy Adams and the Union. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 54.
Jump up ^ Akin (1824). "Caucus curs in full yell, or a war whoop, to saddle on the people, a pappoose president / J[ames] Akin, Aquafortis". Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
Sources[edit]
Ammons, Harry. 1959. "James Monroe and the Era of Good Feelings". Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, LXVI, No. 4 (October 1958), pp. 387–398, in Essays on Jacksonian America, Ed. Frank Otto Gatell. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970.
Brown, Richard H. 1966. "The Missouri Crisis, Slavery, and the Politics of Jacksonianism". South Atlantic Quarterly, pp. 55–72, in Essays on Jacksonian America, Ed. Frank Otto Gatell. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970.
Dangerfield, George. 1965. The Awakening of American Nationalism: 1815-1828. New York: Harper & Row.
Wilentz, Sean. 2008. The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln. New York: Horton.
Further reading[edit]
Brown, Everett S. (1925). "The Presidential Election of 1824–1825". Political Science Quarterly: 384–403. JSTOR 2142211.
Kolodny, Robin (1996). "The Several Elections of 1824". Congress & the Presidency: A Journal of Capital Studies. 23 (2).
Nagel, Paul C. (1960). "The Election of 1824: A Reconsideration Based on Newspaper Opinion". Journal of Southern History: 315–329. JSTOR 2204522.
Ratcliffe, Donald J. The One-Party Presidential Contest: Adams, Jackson, and 1824's Five-Horse Race (University Press of Kansas, 2015) xiv, 354 pp.
Murphy, Sharon Ann. "A Not-So-Corrupt Bargain". Review of The One-Party Presidential Contest: Adams, Jackson and 1824's Five-Horse Race by Donald Ratcliffe. Common-place, Vol. 16, No. 4.
External links[edit]
"A Historical Analysis of the Electoral College". The Green Papers. Retrieved March 20, 2005.
Presidential Election of 1824: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
Election of 1824 in Counting the Votes
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English Renaissance
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Renaissance
"The School of Athens", Raphael, 1509–1511
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The English Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement in England dating from the late 15th century to the early 17th century. It is associated with the pan-European Renaissance that is usually regarded as beginning in Italy in the late 14th century. As in most of the rest of northern Europe, England saw little of these developments until more than a century later. The beginning of the English Renaissance is often taken, as a convenience, to be 1485, when the Battle of Bosworth Field ended the Wars of the Roses and inaugurated the Tudor Dynasty. Renaissance style and ideas, however, were slow to penetrate England, and the Elizabethan era in the second half of the 16th century is usually regarded as the height of the English Renaissance.
The English Renaissance is different from the Italian Renaissance in several ways. The dominant art forms of the English Renaissance were literature and music. Visual arts in the English Renaissance were much less significant than in the Italian Renaissance. The English period began far later than the Italian, which was moving into Mannerism and the Baroque by the 1550s or earlier. In contrast, the English Renaissance can only truly be said to begin, shakily, in the 1520s, and it continued until perhaps 1620.
Contents
[hide]
1 Literature
2 Visual arts
3 Music
4 Architecture
5 Criticism of the idea of the English Renaissance
6 Major English Renaissance authors
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
Literature[edit]
William Shakespeare, chief figure of the English Renaissance, as portrayed in the Chandos portrait (artist and authenticity not confirmed).
England had a strong tradition of literature in the English vernacular, which gradually increased as English use of the printing press became common by the mid 16th century.[1] By the time of Elizabethan literature a vigorous literary culture in both drama and poetry included poets such as Edmund Spenser, whose verse epic The Faerie Queene had a strong influence on English literature but was eventually overshadowed by the lyrics of William Shakespeare, Thomas Wyatt and others. Typically, the works of these playwrights and poets circulated in manuscript form for some time before they were published, and above all the plays of English Renaissance theatre were the outstanding legacy of the period. The works of this period are also affected by Henry VIII's declaration of independence from the Catholic Church and technological advances in sailing and cartography, which are reflected in the generally nonreligious themes and various shipwreck adventures of Shakespeare.[2]
The English theatre scene, which performed both for the court and nobility in private performances, and a very wide public in the theatres, was the most crowded in Europe, with a host of other playwrights as well as the giant figures of Christopher Marlowe, Shakespeare and Ben Jonson. Elizabeth herself was a product of Renaissance humanism trained by Roger Ascham, and wrote occasional poems such as On Monsieur's Departure at critical moments of her life. Philosophers and intellectuals included Thomas More and Francis Bacon. All the 16th century Tudor monarchs were highly educated, as was much of the nobility, and Italian literature had a considerable following, providing the sources for many of Shakespeare's plays. English thought advanced towards modern science with the Baconian Method, a forerunner of the Scientific Method. The language of the Book of Common Prayer, first published in 1549, and at the end of the period the Authorised Version ("King James Version" to Americans) of the Bible (1611) had enduring impacts on the English consciousness.
Visual arts[edit]
The Ditchley Portrait of Elizabeth I by the foreign Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, c.1592
England was very slow to produce visual arts in Renaissance styles, and the artists of the Tudor court were mainly imported foreigners until after the end of the Renaissance; Hans Holbein was the outstanding figure. The English Reformation produced a huge programme of iconoclasm that destroyed almost all medieval religious art, and all but ended the skill of painting in England; English art was to be dominated by portraiture, and then later landscape art, for centuries to come. The significant English invention was the portrait miniature, which essentially took the techniques of the dying art of the illuminated manuscript and transferred them to small portraits worn in lockets. Though the form was developed in England by foreign artists, mostly Flemish like Lucas Horenbout, the somewhat undistinguished founder of the tradition, by the late 16th century natives such as Nicolas Hilliard and Isaac Oliver produced the finest work, even as the best producers of larger portraits in oil were still foreigners. The portrait miniature had spread all over Europe by the 18th century. The portraiture of Elizabeth I was carefully controlled, and developed into an elaborate and wholly un-realist iconic style, that has succeeded in creating enduring images.
Music[edit]
English Renaissance music kept in touch with continental developments far more than visual art, and managed to survive the Reformation relatively successfully, though William Byrd and other major figures were Catholic. The Elizabethan madrigal was distinct from, but related to the Italian tradition. Thomas Tallis, Thomas Morley, and John Dowland were other leading English composers.
The colossal polychoral productions of the Venetian School had been anticipated in the works of Thomas Tallis, and the Palestrina style from the Roman School had already been absorbed prior to the publication of Musica transalpina, in the music of masters such as William Byrd.
The Italian and English Renaissances were similar in sharing a specific musical aesthetic. In the late 16th century Italy was the musical center of Europe, and one of the principal forms which emerged from that singular explosion of musical creativity was the madrigal. In 1588, Nicholas Yonge published in England the Musica transalpina—a collection of Italian madrigals that had been Anglicized—an event which began a vogue of madrigal in England which was almost unmatched in the Renaissance in being an instantaneous adoption of an idea, from another country, adapted to local aesthetics. English poetry was exactly at the right stage of development for this transplantation to occur, since forms such as the sonnet were uniquely adapted to setting as madrigals: indeed, the sonnet was already well developed in Italy. Composers such as Thomas Morley, the only contemporary composer to set Shakespeare, and whose work survives, published collections of their own, roughly in the Italian manner but yet with a unique Englishness; interest in the compositions of the English Madrigal School have enjoyed a considerable revival in recent decades.
Architecture[edit]
Despite some buildings in a partly Renaissance style from the reign of Henry VIII, notably Hampton Court Palace, the vanished Nonsuch Palace, Sutton Place and Layer Marney Tower, it was not until the Elizabethan architecture of the end of the century that a true Renaissance style emerged, influenced far more by northern Europe than Italy. The most famous buildings are large show houses constructed for courtiers, and characterised by lavish use of glass, as at "Hardwick Hall, more glass than wall", Wollaton Hall and Hatfield House and Burghley House, the style continuing into the early 17th century before developing into Jacobean architecture. Lesser, but still large, houses like Little Moreton Hall continued to be constructed and expanded in essentially medieval half-timbered styles until the late 16th century. Church architecture essentially continued in a late Gothic style until the Reformation, and then stopped almost completely, although church monuments, screens and other fittings often had classical styles from about the mid-century. The few new church buildings were usually still Gothic in style, as in Langley Chapel of 1601.[3]
Criticism of the idea of the English Renaissance[edit]
Young Man Among Roses, portrait miniature by Nicholas Hilliard, 1588, V&A. Believed to be the Earl of Essex
The notion of calling this period "The Renaissance" is a modern invention, having been popularized by the historian Jacob Burckhardt in the 19th century. The idea of the Renaissance has come under increased criticism by many cultural historians, and some have contended that the "English Renaissance" has no real tie with the artistic achievements and aims of the Italian artists (Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Donatello) who are closely identified with Renaissance visual art. Whereas from the perspective of literary history, England had already experienced a flourishing of literature over 200 years before the time of Shakespeare, during the last decades of the fourteenth century. Geoffrey Chaucer's popularizing of English as a medium of literary composition rather than Latin occurred only 50 years after Dante had started using Italian for serious poetry, and Chaucer translated works by both Boccaccio and Petrarch into Middle English. At the same time William Langland, author of Piers Plowman, and John Gower were also writing in English. In the fifteenth century, Thomas Malory (author of Le Morte D'Arthur), John Lydgate, and Thomas Hoccleve were notable figures. For this reason, scholars find the singularity of the period called the English Renaissance questionable; C. S. Lewis, a professor of Medieval and Renaissance literature at Oxford and Cambridge, famously remarked to a colleague that he had "discovered" that there was no English Renaissance, and that if there had been one, it had "no effect whatsoever".
Historians have also begun to consider the word "Renaissance" as an unnecessarily loaded word that implies an unambiguously positive "rebirth" from the supposedly more primitive Middle Ages. Some historians have asked the question "a renaissance for whom?," pointing out, for example, that the status of women in society arguably declined during the Renaissance. Many historians and cultural historians now prefer to use the term "early modern" for this period, a term that highlights the period as a transitional one that led to the modern world, but attempts to avoid positive or negative connotations.
Other cultural historians have countered that, regardless of whether the name "renaissance" is apt, there was undeniably an artistic flowering in England under the Tudor monarchs, culminating in Shakespeare and his contemporaries.
Major English Renaissance authors[edit]
Major literary figures in the English Renaissance include:
Francis Bacon
Francis Beaumont
George Chapman
Francis Hubert
Thomas Dekker
John Donne
John Fletcher
John Ford
Ben Jonson
Thomas Kyd
Christopher Marlowe
Philip Massinger
Thomas Middleton
Thomas More
Thomas Nashe
William Rowley
William Shakespeare
James Shirley
Philip Sidney
Edmund Spenser
William Tyndale
John Webster
Thomas Wyatt
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Renaissance in the United Kingdom.
Tudor period
Canons of Renaissance poetry
Jacobean era
Early modern Britain
Walter Raleigh
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Renaissance Period". people.umass.edu. Retrieved 2015-12-05.
Jump up ^ "Life in Renaissance England". www.uh.edu. Retrieved 2015-12-05.
Jump up ^ Airs, Malcolm, The Buildings of Britain, A Guide and Gazetteer, Tudor and Jacobean, especially chapters 1, 3 and 8, 1982, Barrie & Jenkins (London), ISBN 0-09-147831-6
Further reading[edit]
Cheney, Patrick. "Recent Studies in the English Renaissance," SEL: Studies In English Literature (2007) 47(1): 199-275
Hadfield, Andrew. The English Renaissance, 1500-1620 (2001)
Hattaway, Michael, ed. A Companion to English Renaissance Literature and Culture. (2000). 747 pp.
Keenan, Siobhan. Renaissance Literature (Edinburgh Critical Guides to Literature) (2008)
Lamb, Mary Ellen. "Recent Studies In The English Renaissance," SEL: Studies in English Literature (Johns Hopkins); 2006 46(1): 195-252
Loewenstein, David. "Recent Studies in the English Renaissance," SEL: Studies in English Literature Spring 2011, Vol. 51 Issue 2, pp 199–278
Robin, Diana; Larsen, Anne R.; and Levin, Carole, eds. Encyclopedia of Women in the Renaissance: Italy, France, and England (2007) 459p.
Rowse, A. L. The Elizabethan Renaissance: The Life of the Society (2000) excerpt and text search
Sheen, Erica, and Lorna Hutson, eds. Literature, Politics and Law in Renaissance England (2005)
Smith, Emma and Garrett A. Sullivan Jr., eds. The Cambridge Companion to English Renaissance Tragedy (2010)
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