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The Real Housewives of Orange County
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For the current season, see The Real Housewives of Orange County (season 12).
The Real Housewives of
Orange County
Genre
Reality television
Starring
Kimberly Bryant
Jo De La Rosa
Vicki Gunvalson
Jeana Keough
Lauri Peterson
Tammy Knickerbocker
Tamra Judge
Quinn Fry
Gretchen Rossi
Lynne Curtin
Alexis Bellino
Peggy Tanous
Heather Dubrow
Lydia McLaughlin
Shannon Beador
Lizzie Rovsek
Meghan King Edmonds
Kelly Dodd
Peggy Sulahian
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
12
No. of episodes
205 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Douglas Ross
Greg Stewart
Alex Baskin
Bill Langworthy
Bill Fritz
Scott Dunlop
Andy Cohen
Running time
42 minutes
Production company(s)
Evolution Media
Release
Original network
Bravo
Picture format
NTSC (480i)
HDTV 1080i
Original release
March 21, 2006 (2006-03-21) – present (present)
Chronology
Followed by
The Real Housewives of New York City
Related shows
Date My Ex: Jo & Slade
Tamra's OC Wedding
External links
Website
www.bravotv.com/the-real-housewives-of-orange-county
The Real Housewives of Orange County (abbreviated RHOC) is an American reality television series that premiered on March 21, 2006, on Bravo. It is currently in its twelfth season and focuses on the personal and professional lives of several women residing in Orange County, California.
The series originally focused on Kimberly Bryant, Jo De La Rosa, Vicki Gunvalson, Jeana Keough, and Lauri Waring (now Peterson). The current line-up consists of Gunvalson, Tamra Judge, Lydia McLaughlin, Shannon Beador, Meghan King Edmonds, Kelly Dodd and Peggy Sulahian. Of the original housewives, Bryant and De La Rosa left after the first and second seasons, respectively, while Peterson stopped filming during production of the fourth season and Keough left after the sixth season commenced. The remaining housewives joined in later seasons: Barney (now Judge) in the third, McLaughlin in the eighth before returning in the twelfth, Beador in the ninth, Edmonds in the tenth, Dodd in the eleventh, and Sulahian in the twelfth. Other housewives include Tammy Knickerbocker (season 2–3), Quinn Fry (season 3), Gretchen Rossi (season 4–8), Lynne Curtin (season 4–5), Alexis Bellino (season 5–8), Peggy Tanous (season 6), Heather Dubrow (season 7–11), and Lizzie Rovsek (season 9).
The show's success has allowed for the development of The Real Housewives franchise and similar spin-off series based in New York City, Atlanta, New Jersey, Washington, D.C., Beverly Hills, Miami, Potomac, and Dallas. The Real Housewives of Orange County has additionally resulted in the conceptions of the spin-offs Date My Ex: Jo & Slade and Tamra's OC Wedding.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview and casting
1.1 Timeline of housewives
2 Episodes
3 Spin-offs
4 References
5 External links
Overview and casting[edit]
In April 2005, The Real Housewives was announced as one of six reality television series ordered by the American television channel Bravo;[1] before its premiere, it was renamed The Real Housewives of Orange County in January 2006.[2] One of its producers, Scott Dunlop, commented that it was originally planned to be set in a single gated community in Coto de Caza, California.[3] A press release issued by the network noted that the series was inspired by the scripted soap operas Desperate Housewives and Peyton Place, and would document the lives of upper-class women who "lead glamorous lives in a picturesque Southern California gated community where the average home has a $1.6 million price tag and residents include CEOs and retired professional athletes."[2]
Its original main housewives were Kimberly Bryant, Jo De La Rosa, Vicki Gunvalson, Jeana Keough and Lauri Waring (now Peterson). Bryant left after the first season, and was replaced by Tammy Knickerbocker beginning with the second season. De La Rosa exited the series after the second season; Tamra Judge (then Barney) joined the series in the third-season premiere, while Quinn Fry was introduced in the sixth episode. Knickerbocker and Fry left after the third season, while Gretchen Rossi was introduced in the fourth-season premiere. Peterson made her final appearance on the third episode of the fourth season, and was replaced by Lynne Curtin beginning with the fourth episode. Keough left the show after the sixth season; however, Keough was featured as a friend of the housewives in the seventh season and has made several guest appearances in later seasons. Curtin left after the fifth season; beginning with the sixth season Peggy Tanous and friend of the housewives Fernanda Rocha were introduced and only featured in the sixth season. Heather Dubrow and Lydia McLaughlin were respectively introduced in the seventh and eighth seasons, while Peterson appeared as a friend of the housewives in the eighth season.[4] Bellino, McLaughlin, Rossi and Peterson departed after the eighth season, and were replaced by starring housewives Shannon Beador and Lizzie Rovsek and friend of the housewives Danielle Gregorio in the ninth.[5] The tenth season saw Rovsek become a friend of the housewives,[6][7] the departure of Gregorio,[8] and the introduction of Meghan King Edmonds, alongside former housewives Keough, Knickerbocker and Curtin making guest appearances.[9][10]
In April 2016, Bravo announced that the series is renewed for an eleventh season.[11] On May 23, 2016, the network announced that all housewives from the previous season would return, with Kelly Dodd joining the cast, with former housewife Keough making a guest appearance. The eleventh season premiered on June 20, 2016.[12]
In April 2017, the series was officially renewed for its twelfth season.[13] Prior to, Dubrow announced her departure from the franchise, after five seasons.[14][15] In May 2017, it was announced that Dodd and McLaughlin, the latter of whom only appeared during the eighth season, would appear in the series' twelfth season.[16][17] In June 2017, it was announced Gunvalson, Beador, King Edmonds, Judge, would all return, alongside new housewife Peggy Sulahian, with former housewives Keough, Rossi, and Rovsek making guest appearances. Former housewife Tanous also filmed for the season, but her scene was edited out. It premiered on July 10, 2017.[18][19][20]
Timeline of housewives[edit]
Housewives
Seasons
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Kimberly Bryant Main Guest
Jo De La Rosa Main Guest
Vicki Gunvalson Main
Jeana Keough Main Friend Guest Guest
Lauri Peterson Main Guest Friend
Tammy Knickerbocker Main Guest Guest
Tamra Judge Main
Quinn Fry Main Guest
Gretchen Rossi Main Guest
Lynne Curtin Main Guest Guest
Alexis Bellino Main
Peggy Tanous Main Guest
Heather Dubrow Main
Lydia McLaughlin Main Main
Shannon Beador Main
Lizzie Rovsek Main Friend Guest
Meghan King Edmonds Guest Main
Kelly Dodd Main
Peggy Sulahian Main
Friends of the housewives
Fernanda Rocha Guest Friend
Sarah Winchester Guest Friend
Danielle Gregorio Friend
Episodes[edit]
Main article: List of The Real Housewives of Orange County episodes
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
First aired
Last aired
1 8 March 21, 2006 (2006-03-21) May 9, 2006 (2006-05-09)
2 10 January 16, 2007 (2007-01-16) March 20, 2007 (2007-03-20)
3 12 November 6, 2007 (2007-11-06) January 29, 2008 (2008-01-29)
4 15 November 25, 2008 (2008-11-25) June 11, 2009 (2009-06-11)
5 17 November 5, 2009 (2009-11-05) March 11, 2010 (2010-03-11)
6 16 March 6, 2011 (2011-03-06) June 20, 2011 (2011-06-20)
7 23 February 7, 2012 (2012-02-07) July 24, 2012 (2012-07-24)
8 22 April 1, 2013 (2013-04-01) September 1, 2013 (2013-09-01)
9 21 April 14, 2014 (2014-04-14) September 8, 2014 (2014-09-08)
10 24 June 8, 2015 (2015-06-08) November 12, 2015 (2015-11-12)
11 21 June 20, 2016 (2016-06-20) November 21, 2016 (2016-11-21)
12 TBA July 10, 2017 (2017-07-10) TBA (TBA)
Spin-offs[edit]
Date My Ex: Jo & Slade became the first spin-off from The Real Housewives of Orange County; the dating game show documented De La Rosa as she began dating after moving to Los Angeles, where potential suitors were regularly surveyed by Smiley. It premiered on June 30, 2008 and ended on September 8, 2008 after broadcasting nine episodes during its first and only season.[21]
After becoming engaged to Judge in February 2013,[22] Barney was commissioned to star in the three-part spin-off special Tamra's OC Wedding.[23] It highlighted the preparations for their nuptials and was broadcast from September 2, 2013 until September 16, 2013.[23]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Bravo Launches Most Aggressive Slate of Original Programming for 2005-06 Season". The Futon Critic. Futon Media. April 26, 2005. Retrieved September 5, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Bravo's 'The Real Housewives of Orange County' to premiere March 21". Reality TV World. January 6, 2006. Retrieved April 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ Eades, Mark (January 10, 2007). "Producer gets real about the real housewives.". Orange County Register. Freedom Communications. Retrieved May 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ "'Real Housewives' Turns 100: All The Ladies Who Were On 'Orange County'". The Huffington Post. AOL. June 24, 2013. Retrieved May 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Danielle Gregorio – Bio". Bravo. NBCUniversal. Retrieved May 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ Harnick, Chris. "The Real Housewives of Orange County Season 10, Now With Sharks, Death Threats, Mock Funerals and Breakdowns". E Online. E News. Retrieved April 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Lizzie Rovsek". Bravo. Retrieved April 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Cronin, Lindsay. "'RHOC' Season 10: Watch The Dramatic, Just-Released Bravo Trailer". En Starz. Retrieved April 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Ep 5: Game Changer". Bravo. NBCUniversal. July 6, 2015. Retrieved April 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Harnick, Chris (June 1, 2015). "The Real Housewives of Orange County Season 10 Will Have a Birth, Death and Everything in Between". E! News. Retrieved April 12, 2017.
Jump up ^ Ge, Linda (April 27, 2016). "‘Real Housewives of Beverly Hills,’ ‘Vanderpump Rules’ Among Bravo Renewals". The Wrap. Retrieved April 28, 2016.
Jump up ^ Gajewski, Ryan (May 23, 2016). "'The Real Housewives of Orange County' Season 11 Trailer Reveals Fights, a Newcomer and a Dune Buggy Accident: Watch!". Us Weekly. Retrieved May 23, 2016.
Jump up ^ Otterson, Joe (April 27, 2017). "Bravo Renews Five ‘Real Housewives’ Series, ‘Vanderpump Rules,’ 12 More Shows". Variety. Retrieved April 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ Vena, Jocelyn (January 27, 2017). "One of the Real Housewives of Orange County Confirms She Won't Return". Bravo. Retrieved January 28, 2017.
Jump up ^ Corinthios, Aurele (January 27, 2017). "Heather Dubrow Leaving The Real Housewives of Orange County After 5 Seasons". People. United States: Time Inc. Archived from the original on January 27, 2017. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Find Out Who’s Returning to The Real Housewives of Orange County This Summer". Bravo. NBC Universal. May 23, 2017. Retrieved May 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Rosenfeld, Laura (May 25, 2017). "A Real Housewives of Orange County Alum Is Returning for Season 12". Bravo. United States: NBCUniversal. Retrieved May 25, 2017.
Jump up ^ Quinn, Dave (June 5, 2017). "Bravo's 100th Housewife Makes Her Debut in Real Housewives of Orange County Season 12 Trailer". People. Retrieved June 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ Sander, Brice (June 5, 2017). "‘The Real Housewives of Orange County’ Season 12 Trailer: New and Old Faces Bring the Fun and Fights -- Watch!". Entertainment Tonight. Retrieved June 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ Moylan, Brian (September 11, 2017). "The Real Housewives of Orange County Recap: Son of a Gun". Vulture.com. Retrieved September 26, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Shows A-Z – Date My Ex: Jo & Slade on Bravo". The Futon Critic. Retrieved May 23, 2014.
Jump up ^ Rivera, Zayda (June 16, 2013). "'Real Housewives of OC' star Tamra Barney marries Eddie Judge with castmates in attendance". Daily News. Mortimer Zuckerman. Retrieved May 23, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Shows A-Z – Tamra's OC Wedding on Bravo". The Futon Critic. Retrieved May 23, 2014.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Real Housewives of Orange County.
Official website
The Real Housewives of Orange County on IMDb
The Real Housewives of Orange County at TV Guide
[show]
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Bravo original programming
Former
2000s debuts
30 Even Scarier Movie Moments (2006)
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Boys to Manzo (2011)
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Courtney Loves Dallas (2013–14)
Double Exposure (2010)
Dukes of Melrose (2013)
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Euros of Hollywood (2014)
Extreme Guide to Parenting (2014)
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The Kandi Factory (2013)
Kandi's Ski Trip (2015)
Kandi's Wedding (2014)
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Life After Top Chef (2012)
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Mad Fashion (2011)
Manzo'd with Children (2014–16)
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Rocco's Dinner Party (2011)
Secrets and Wives (2015)
The Singles Project (2014)
Start-Ups: Silicon Valley (2012)
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Teresa Checks In (2015)
Thintervention with Jackie Warner (2010)
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Current
Below Deck (since 2013)
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Cyrus vs. Cyrus: Design and Conquer (since 2017)
Don't Be Tardy (since 2012)
First Family of Hip Hop (since 2017)
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Girlfriends' Guide to Divorce (since 2014)
Going Off the Menu (2016)
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Newlyweds: The First Year (since 2013)
A Night with My Ex (since 2017)
Odd Mom Out (since 2015)
The People's Couch (since 2013)
The Real Housewives of Atlanta (since 2008)
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The Real Housewives of Dallas (since 2016)
The Real Housewives of New Jersey (since 2009)
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The Real Housewives of Orange County (since 2006)
The Real Housewives of Potomac (since 2016)
Recipe for Deception (since 2016)
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Southern Charm (since 2014)
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Then and Now with Andy Cohen (since 2015)
There Goes the Motherhood (since 2016)
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Timber Creek Lodge (since 2016)
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Upcoming
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[show]
v
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The Real Housewives franchise
United States installments
Orange County
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
New York City
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Atlanta
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
New Jersey
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Beverly Hills
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Miami
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
Potomac
Episodes
Season 1
2
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Episodes
Season 1
2
Others
D.C.
International installments
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Episodes
Season 1
2
Melbourne
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
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Episodes
Season 1
2
3
4
Others
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Les Vraies Housewives
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Related programming
Bethenny Ever After
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
Don't Be Tardy
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
4
5
Vanderpump Rules
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
4
Manzo'd with Children
Episodes
Season 1
2
3
Others
Date My Ex: Jo & Slade
Boys to Manzo
Havana Elsa
The Kandi Factory
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I Dream of NeNe: The Wedding
Kandi's Wedding
Kandi's Ski Trip
Teresa Checks In
Vanderpump Rules After Show
Other
Cast members
Real Housewives: The Game
"Tardy for the Party"
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Gastrointestinal tract
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Guts" redirects here. For other uses, see Guts (disambiguation).
Human gastrointestinal tract
Diagram of stomach, intestines and rectum
Details
System
Digestive system
Identifiers
Latin
Tractus digestorius (mouth to anus),
canalis alimentarius (esophagus to large intestine),
canalis gastrointestinales (stomach to large intestine)
MeSH
D041981
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The gastrointestinal tract (digestive tract, digestional tract, GI tract, GIT, gut, or alimentary canal) is an organ system within humans and other animals which takes in food, digests it to extract and absorb energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste as feces. The mouth, esophagus, stomach and intestines are part of the gastrointestinal tract. Gastrointestinal is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs.
All bilaterians have a gastrointestinal tract, also called a gut or an alimentary canal. This is a tube that transfers food to the organs of digestion.[1] In large bilaterians, the gastrointestinal tract generally also has an exit, the anus, by which the animal disposes of feces (solid wastes). Some small bilaterians have no anus and dispose of solid wastes by other means (for example, through the mouth).[2] The human gastrointestinal tract consists of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines, and is divided into the upper and lower gastrointestinal tracts.[3] The GI tract includes all structures between the mouth and the anus,[4] forming a continuous passageway that includes the main organs of digestion, namely, the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. However, the complete human digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gallbladder).[5] The tract may also be divided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut, reflecting the embryological origin of each segment. The whole human GI tract is about nine metres (30 feet) long at autopsy. It is considerably shorter in the living body because the intestines, which are tubes of smooth muscle tissue, maintain constant muscle tone in a halfway-tense state but can relax in spots to allow for local distention and peristalsis.[6][7]
The gastrointestinal tract contains trillions of microbes, with some 4,000 different strains of bacteria having diverse roles in maintenance of immune health and metabolism.[8][9][10] Cells of the GI tract release hormones to help regulate the digestive process. These digestive hormones, including gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin, and ghrelin, are mediated through either intracrine or autocrine mechanisms, indicating that the cells releasing these hormones are conserved structures throughout evolution.[11]
Contents
1 Human gastrointestinal tract
1.1 Structure
1.1.1 Upper gastrointestinal tract
1.1.2 Lower gastrointestinal tract
1.1.2.1 Small intestine
1.1.2.2 Large intestine
1.1.3 Development
1.1.4 Histology
1.1.4.1 Mucosa
1.1.4.2 Submucosa
1.1.4.3 Muscular layer
1.1.4.4 Adventitia and serosa
1.1.5 Gene and protein expression
1.2 Function
1.2.1 Immune function
1.2.1.1 Immune barrier
1.2.1.2 Immune system homeostasis
1.2.2 Intestinal microbiota
1.2.3 Detoxification and drug metabolism
2 Clinical significance
2.1 Diseases
2.2 Symptoms
2.3 Treatment
2.4 Imaging
2.5 Other related diseases
3 Uses of animal guts
4 Other animals
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Human gastrointestinal tract[edit]
Structure[edit]
Upper and lower human gastrointestinal tract
Illustration of human gastrointestinal tract
The structure and function can be described both as gross anatomy and as microscopic anatomy or histology. The tract itself is divided into upper and lower tracts, and the intestines small and large parts.[12]
Upper gastrointestinal tract[edit]
Main articles: Esophagus, Stomach, and duodenum
The upper gastrointestinal tract consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and duodenum.[13] The exact demarcation between the upper and lower tracts is the suspensory muscle of the duodenum. This differentiates the embryonic borders between the foregut and midgut, and is also the division commonly used by clinicians to describe gastrointestinal bleeding as being of either "upper" or "lower" origin. Upon dissection, the duodenum may appear to be a unified organ, but it is divided into four segments based upon function, location, and internal anatomy. The four segments of the duodenum are as follows (starting at the stomach, and moving toward the jejunum): bulb, descending, horizontal, and ascending. The suspensory muscle attaches the superior border of the ascending duodenum to the diaphragm.
The suspensory muscle is an important anatomical landmark which shows the formal division between the duodenum and the jejunum, the first and second parts of the small intestine, respectively.[14] This is a thin muscle which is derived from the embryonic mesoderm.
Lower gastrointestinal tract[edit]
The lower gastrointestinal tract includes most of the small intestine and all of the large intestine.[15] In human anatomy, the intestine (bowel, or gut. Greek: éntera) is the segment of the gastrointestinal tract extending from the pyloric sphincter of the stomach to the anus and, as in other mammals, consists of two segments, the small intestine and the large intestine. In humans, the small intestine is further subdivided into the duodenum, jejunum and ileum while the large intestine is subdivided into the, cecum, ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal.[16][17]
Small intestine[edit]
Main article: Small intestine
The small intestine begins at the duodenum and is a tubular structure, usually between 6 and 7 m long.[18] Its mucosal area in an adult human is about 30 m2.[19] Its main function is to absorb the products of digestion (including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and vitamins) into the bloodstream. There are three major divisions:
Duodenum: A short structure (about 20–25 cm long[18]) which receives chyme from the stomach, together with pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes and bile from the gall bladder. The digestive enzymes break down proteins, and bile emulsifies fats into micelles. The duodenum contains Brunner's glands which produce a mucus-rich alkaline secretion containing bicarbonate. These secretions, in combination with bicarbonate from the pancreas, neutralize the stomach acids contained in the chyme.
Jejunum: This is the midsection of the small intestine, connecting the duodenum to the ileum. It is about 2.5 m long, and contains the circular folds also known as plicae circulares, and villi that increase its surface area. Products of digestion (sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids) are absorbed into the bloodstream here.
Ileum: The final section of the small intestine. It is about 3 m long, and contains villi similar to the jejunum. It absorbs mainly vitamin B12 and bile acids, as well as any other remaining nutrients.
Large intestine[edit]
Main article: Large intestine
The large intestine also called the colon, consists of the cecum, rectum, and anal canal. It also includes the appendix, which is attached to the cecum. The colon is further divided into:
Cecum (first portion of the colon) and appendix
Ascending colon (ascending in the back wall of the abdomen)
Right colic flexure (flexed portion of the ascending and transverse colon apparent to the liver)
Transverse colon (passing below the diaphragm)
Left colic flexure (flexed portion of the transverse and descending colon apparent to the spleen)
Descending colon (descending down the left side of the abdomen)
Sigmoid colon (a loop of the colon closest to the rectum)
Rectum
Anus
The main function of the large intestine is to absorb water. The area of the large intestinal mucosa of an adult human is about 2 m2.[19]
Development[edit]
Main article: Development of the digestive system
The gut is an endoderm-derived structure. At approximately the sixteenth day of human development, the embryo begins to fold ventrally (with the embryo's ventral surface becoming concave) in two directions: the sides of the embryo fold in on each other and the head and tail fold toward one another. The result is that a piece of the yolk sac, an endoderm-lined structure in contact with the ventral aspect of the embryo, begins to be pinched off to become the primitive gut. The yolk sac remains connected to the gut tube via the vitelline duct. Usually this structure regresses during development; in cases where it does not, it is known as Meckel's diverticulum.
During fetal life, the primitive gut is gradually patterned into three segments: foregut, midgut, and hindgut. Although these terms are often used in reference to segments of the primitive gut, they are also used regularly to describe regions of the definitive gut as well.
Each segment of the gut is further specified and gives rise to specific gut and gut-related structures in later development. Components derived from the gut proper, including the stomach and colon, develop as swellings or dilatations in the cells of the primitive gut. In contrast, gut-related derivatives — that is, those structures that derive from the primitive gut but are not part of the gut proper, in general develop as out-pouchings of the primitive gut. The blood vessels supplying these structures remain constant throughout development.[20]
Part
Part in adult
Gives rise to
Arterial supply
Foregut Esophagus to first 2 sections of the duodenum Esophagus, Stomach, Duodenum (1st and 2nd parts), Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas, Superior portion of pancreas
(Note that though the Spleen is supplied by the celiac trunk, it is derived from dorsal mesentery and therefore not a foregut derivative) celiac trunk
Midgut lower duodenum, to the first two-thirds of the transverse colon lower duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, and first two-third of the transverse colon branches of the superior mesenteric artery
Hindgut last third of the transverse colon, to the upper part of the anal canal last third of the transverse colon, descending colon, rectum, and upper part of the anal canal branches of the inferior mesenteric artery
Histology[edit]
Main article: Gastrointestinal wall
General structure of the gut wall
1: Mucosa: Epithelium
2: Mucosa: Lamina propria
3: Mucosa: Muscularis mucosae
4: Lumen
5: Lymphatic tissue
6: Duct of gland outside tract
7: Gland in mucosa
8: Submucosa
9: Glands in submucosa
10: Meissner's submucosal plexus
11: Vein
12: Muscularis: Circular muscle
13: Muscularis: Longitudinal muscle
14: Serosa: Areolar connective tissue
15: Serosa: Epithelium
16: Auerbach's myenteric plexus
17: Nerve
18: Artery
19: Mesentery
The gastrointestinal tract has a form of general histology with some differences that reflect the specialization in functional anatomy.[21] The GI tract can be divided into four concentric layers in the following order:
Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscular layer
Adventitia or serosa
Mucosa[edit]
See also: Oral mucosa and Gastric mucosa
The mucosa is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract. The mucosa surrounds the lumen, or open space within the tube. This layer comes in direct contact with digested food (chyme). The mucosa is made up of:
Epithelium – innermost layer. Responsible for most digestive, absorptive and secretory processes.
Lamina propria – a layer of connective tissue. Unusually cellular compared to most connective tissue
Muscularis mucosae – a thin layer of smooth muscle that aids the passing of material and enhances the interaction between the epithelial layer and the contents of the lumen by agitation and peristalsis.
The mucosae are highly specialized in each organ of the gastrointestinal tract to deal with the different conditions. The most variation is seen in the epithelium.
Submucosa[edit]
Main article: Submucosa
The submucosa consists of a dense irregular layer of connective tissue with large blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves branching into the mucosa and muscularis externa. It contains the submucosal plexus, an enteric nervous plexus, situated on the inner surface of the muscularis externa.
Muscular layer[edit]
The muscular layer consists of an inner circular layer and a longitudinal outer layer. The circular layer prevents food from traveling backward and the longitudinal layer shortens the tract. The layers are not truly longitudinal or circular, rather the layers of muscle are helical with different pitches. The inner circular is helical with a steep pitch and the outer longitudinal is helical with a much shallower pitch.[22] Whilst the muscularis externa is similar throughout the entire gastrointestinal tract, an exception is the stomach which has an additional inner oblique muscular layer to aid with grinding and mixing of food. The muscularis externa of the stomach is composed of the inner oblique layer, middle circular layer and outer longitudinal layer .
Between the circular and longitudinal muscle layers is the myenteric plexus. This controls peristalsis. Activity is initiated by the pacemaker cells, (myenteric interstitial cells of Cajal). The gut has intrinsic peristaltic activity (basal electrical rhythm) due to its self-contained enteric nervous system. The rate can be modulated by the rest of the autonomic nervous system.[22]
The coordinated contractions of these layers is called peristalsis and propels the food through the tract. Food in the GI tract is called a bolus (ball of food) from the mouth down to the stomach. After the stomach, the food is partially digested and semi-liquid, and is referred to as chyme. In the large intestine the remaining semi-solid substance is referred to as faeces.[22]
Adventitia and serosa[edit]
Main articles: Serous membrane and Adventitia
The outermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract consists of several layers of connective tissue.
Intraperitoneal parts of the GI tract are covered with serosa. These include most of the stomach, first part of the duodenum, all of the small intestine, caecum and appendix, transverse colon, sigmoid colon and rectum. In these sections of the gut there is clear boundary between the gut and the surrounding tissue. These parts of the tract have a mesentery.
Retroperitoneal parts are covered with adventitia. They blend into the surrounding tissue and are fixed in position. For example, the retroperitoneal section of the duodenum usually passes through the transpyloric plane. These include the esophagus, pylorus of the stomach, distal duodenum, ascending colon, descending colon and anal canal. In addition, the oral cavity has adventitia.
Gene and protein expression[edit]
Approximately 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 75% of these genes are expressed in at least one of the different parts of the digestive organ system.[23][24] Over 600 of these genes are more specifically expressed in one or more parts of the GI tract and the corresponding proteins have functions related to digestion of food and uptake of nutrients. Examples of specific proteins with such functions are pepsinogen PGC and the lipase LIPF, expressed in chief cells, and gastric ATPase ATP4A and gastric intrinsic factor GIF, expressed in parietal cells of the stomach mucosa. Specific proteins expressed in the stomach and duodenum involved in defence include mucin proteins, such as mucin 6 and intelectin-1.[25]
Function[edit]
The time taken for food or other ingested objects to transit through the gastrointestinal tract varies depending on many factors, but roughly, it takes less than an hour after a meal for 50% of stomach contents to empty into the intestines while total emptying takes around 2 hours. Subsequently, 50% emptying of the small intestine takes between 1 and 2 hours. Finally, transit through the colon takes 12 to 50 hours with wide variation between individuals.[26][27]
Immune function[edit]
Immune barrier[edit]
The gastrointestinal tract forms an important part of the immune system.[28] The surface area of the digestive tract is estimated to be about 32 square meters, or about half a badminton court.[29] With such a large exposure (more than three times larger than the exposed surface of the skin), these immune components function to prevent pathogens from entering the blood and lymph circulatory systems.[30] Fundamental components of this protection are provided by the intestinal mucosal barrier which is composed of physical, biochemical, and immune elements elaborated by the intestinal mucosa.[31] Microorganisms also are kept at bay by an extensive immune system comprising the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)
There are additional factors contributing to protection from pathogen invasion. For example, low pH (ranging from 1 to 4) of the stomach is fatal for many microorganisms that enter it.[32] Similarly, mucus (containing IgA antibodies) neutralizes many pathogenic microorganisms.[33] Other factors in the GI tract contribution to immune function include enzymes secreted in the saliva and bile.
Immune system homeostasis[edit]
Beneficial bacteria also can contribute to the homeostasis of the gastrointestinal immune system. For example, Clostridia, one of the most predominant bacterial groups in the GI tract, play an important role in influencing the dynamics of the gut's immune system.[34] It has been demonstrated that the intake of a high fiber diet could be the responsible for the induction of T-regulatory cells (Tregs). This is due to the production of short-chain fatty acids during the fermentation of plant-derived nutrients such as butyrate and propionate. Basically, the butyrate induces the differentiation of Treg cells by enhancing histone H3 acetylation in the promoter and conserved non-coding sequence regions of the FOXP3 locus, thus regulating the T cells, resulting in the reduction of the inflammatory response and allergies.
Intestinal microbiota[edit]
The large intestine hosts several kinds of bacteria that can deal with molecules that the human body cannot otherwise break down.[35] This is an example of symbiosis. These bacteria also account for the production of gases at host-pathogen interface, inside our intestine(this gas is released as flatulence when eliminated through the anus). However the large intestine is mainly concerned with the absorption of water from digested material (which is regulated by the hypothalamus) and the re absorption of sodium, as well as any nutrients that may have escaped primary digestion in the ileum.[citation needed]
Health-enhancing intestinal bacteria of the gut flora serve to prevent the overgrowth of potentially harmful bacteria in the gut. These two types of bacteria compete for space and "food," as there are limited resources within the intestinal tract. A ratio of 80-85% beneficial to 15–20% potentially harmful bacteria generally is considered normal within the intestines.[citation needed]
Detoxification and drug metabolism[edit]
Enzymes such as CYP3A4, along with the antiporter activities, are also instrumental in the intestine's role of drug metabolism in the detoxification of antigens and xenobiotics.[36]
Clinical significance[edit]
This section discusses related diseases, medical associations with the gastrointestinal tract, and use in surgery.
Main articles: Gastrointestinal disease and Gastroenterology
Further information: Clinical significance
Diseases[edit]
There are many diseases and conditions that can affect the gastrointestinal system, including infections, inflammation and cancer.
Various pathogens can cause gastroenteritis an inflammation of the stomach and small intestine. These can include those organisms that cause foodborne illnesses. Gastroenteritis is the most common disease of the GI tract.
Gastrointestinal cancer may occur at any point in the gastrointestinal tract, and includes mouth cancer, tongue cancer, oesophageal cancer, stomach cancer, and colorectal cancer.
Inflammatory conditions. Ileitis is an inflammation of the ileum, colitis is an inflammation of the large intestine.
Appendicitis is inflammation of the appendix located at the caecum. This is a potentially fatal condition if left untreated; most cases of appendicitis require surgical intervention.
Diverticular disease is a condition that is very common in older people in industrialized countries. It usually affects the large intestine but has been known to affect the small intestine as well. Diverticulosis occurs when pouches form on the intestinal wall. Once the pouches become inflamed it is known as diverticulitis.
Inflammatory bowel disease is an inflammatory condition affecting the bowel walls, and includes the subtypes Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. While Crohn's can affect the entire gastrointestinal tract, ulcerative colitis is limited to the large intestine. Crohn's disease is widely regarded as an autoimmune disease. Although ulcerative colitis is often treated as though it were an autoimmune disease, there is no consensus that it actually is such.
Functional gastrointestinal disorders the most common of which is irritable bowel syndrome. Functional constipation and chronic functional abdominal pain are other functional disorders of the intestine that have physiological causes, but do not have identifiable structural, chemical, or infectious pathologies.
Symptoms[edit]
Several symptoms are used to indicate problems with the gastrointestinal tract:
Vomiting, which may include regurgitation of food or the vomiting of blood
Diarrhea, or the passage of liquid or more frequent stools
Constipation, which refers to the passage of fewer and hardened stools
Blood in stool, which includes fresh red blood, maroon-coloured blood, and tarry-coloured blood
Treatment[edit]
Gastrointestinal surgery can often be performed in the outpatient setting. In the United States in 2012, operations on the digestive system accounted for 3 of the 25 most common ambulatory surgery procedures and constituted 9.1 percent of all outpatient ambulatory surgeries.[37]
Imaging[edit]
Various methods of imaging the gastrointestinal tract include the upper and lower gastrointestinal series:
Radioopaque dyes may be swallowed to produce a barium swallow
Parts of the tract may be visualised by camera. This is known as endoscopy if examining the upper gastrointestinal tract, and colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy if examining the lower gastrointestinal tract. Capsule endoscopy is where a capsule containing a camera is swallowed in order to examine the tract. Biopsies may also be taken when examined.
An abdominal x-ray may be used to examine the lower gastrointestinal tract.
Other related diseases[edit]
Cholera
Enteric duplication cyst
Giardiasis
Pancreatitis
Peptic ulcer disease
Yellow fever
Helicobacter pylori is a gram-negative spiral bacterium. Over half the world's population is infected with it, mainly during childhood; it is not certain how the disease is transmitted. It colonizes the gastrointestinal system, predominantly the stomach. The bacterium has specific survival conditions that our gastric microenvironment: it is both capnophilic and microaerophilic. Helicobacter also exhibits a tropism for gastric epithelial lining and the gastric mucosal layer about it. Gastric colonization of this bacterium triggers a robust immune response leading to moderate to severe inflammation. Signs and symptoms of infection are gastritis, burning abdominal pain, weight loss, loss of appetite, bloating, burping, nausea, bloody vomit, and black tarry stools. Infection can be detected in a number of ways: GI X-rays, endoscopy, blood tests for anti-Helicobacter antibodies, a stool test, and a urease breath test (which is a by-product of the bacteria). If caught soon enough, it can be treated with three doses of different proton pump inhibitors as well as two antibiotics, taking about a week to cure. If not caught soon enough, surgery may be required.[38][39][40][41]
Intestinal pseudo-obstruction is a syndrome caused by a malformation of the digestive system, characterized by a severe impairment in the ability of the intestines to push and assimilate. Symptoms include daily abdominal and stomach pain, nausea, severe distension, vomiting, heartburn, dysphagia, diarrhea, constipation, dehydration and malnutrition. There is no cure for intestinal pseudo-obstruction. Different types of surgery and treatment managing life-threatening complications such as ileus and volvulus, intestinal stasis which lead to bacterial overgrowth, and resection of affected or dead parts of the gut may be needed. Many patients require parenteral nutrition.
Ileus is a blockage of the intestines.
Coeliac disease is a common form of malabsorption, affecting up to 1% of people of northern European descent. An autoimmune response is triggered in intestinal cells by digestion of gluten proteins. Ingestion of proteins found in wheat, barley and rye, causes villous atrophy in the small intestine. Lifelong dietary avoidance of these foodstuffs in a gluten-free diet is the only treatment.
Enteroviruses are named by their transmission-route through the intestine (enteric meaning intestinal), but their symptoms aren't mainly associated with the intestine.
Endometriosis can affect the intestines, with similar symptoms to IBS.
Bowel twist (or similarly, bowel strangulation) is a comparatively rare event (usually developing sometime after major bowel surgery). It is, however, hard to diagnose correctly, and if left uncorrected can lead to bowel infarction and death. (The singer Maurice Gibb is understood to have died from this.)
Angiodysplasia of the colon
Constipation
Diarrhea
Hirschsprung's disease (aganglionosis)
Intussusception
Polyp (medicine) (see also colorectal polyp)
Pseudomembranous colitis
Toxic megacolon usually a complication of ulcerative colitis
Uses of animal guts[edit]
Intestines from animals other than humans are used in a number of ways. From each species of livestock that is a source of milk, a corresponding rennet is obtained from the intestines of milk-fed calves. Pig and calf intestines are eaten, and pig intestines are used as sausage casings. Calf intestines supply calf-intestinal alkaline phosphatase (CIP), and are used to make goldbeater's skin. Other uses are:
The use of animal gut strings by musicians can be traced back to the third dynasty of Egypt. In the recent past, strings were made out of lamb gut. With the advent of the modern era, musicians have tended to use strings made of silk, or synthetic materials such as nylon or steel. Some instrumentalists, however, still use gut strings in order to evoke the older tone quality. Although such strings were commonly referred to as "catgut" strings, cats were never used as a source for gut strings.[42]
Sheep gut was the original source for natural gut string used in racquets, such as for tennis. Today, synthetic strings are much more common, but the best gut strings are now made out of cow gut.
Gut cord has also been used to produce strings for the snares that provide a snare drum's characteristic buzzing timbre. While the modern snare drum almost always uses metal wire rather than gut cord, the North African bendir frame drum still uses gut for this purpose.
"Natural" sausage hulls, or casings, are made of animal gut, especially hog, beef, and lamb.
The wrapping of kokoretsi, gardoubakia, and torcinello is made of lamb (or goat) gut.
Haggis is traditionally boiled in, and served in, a sheep stomach.
Chitterlings, a kind of food, consist of thoroughly washed pig's gut.
Animal gut was used to make the cord lines in longcase clocks and for fusee movements in bracket clocks, but may be replaced by metal wire.
The oldest known condoms, from 1640 AD, were made from animal intestine.[43]
Other animals[edit]
Further information: Ruminant and Methanogens in digestive tract of ruminants
Many birds and other animals have a specialised stomach in the digestive tract called a gizzard used for grinding up food.
Another feature not found in the human but found in a range of other animals is the crop. In birds this is found as a pouch alongside the esophagus.
Other animals including amphibians, birds, reptiles, and egg-laying mammals have a major difference in their GI tract in that it ends in a cloaca and not an anus.
See also[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Gastrointestinal physiology
All pages beginning with Gastrointestinal
All pages with a title containing Gastrointestinal
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ "gastrointestinal tract" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
Jump up ^ Gastrointestinal+tract at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Jump up ^ "digestive system" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
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Jump up ^ Raines, Daniel; Arbour, Adrienne; Thompson, Hilary W.; Figueroa-Bodine, Jazmin; Joseph, Saju (2014-05-26). "Variation in small bowel length: Factor in achieving total enteroscopy?". Digestive Endoscopy. 27 (1): 67–72. doi:10.1111/den.12309. ISSN 0915-5635. PMID 24861190.
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Jump up ^ Marchesi, J. R; Adams, D. H; Fava, F; Hermes, G. D; Hirschfield, G. M; Hold, G; Quraishi, M. N; Kinross, J; Smidt, H; Tuohy, K. M; Thomas, L. V; Zoetendal, E. G; Hart, A (2015). "The gut microbiota and host health: A new clinical frontier". Gut. 65 (2): 330–339. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2015-309990. PMC 4752653. PMID 26338727.
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Jump up ^ Lower+Gastrointestinal+Tract at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Jump up ^ Kapoor, Vinay Kumar (13 Jul 2011). Gest, Thomas R., ed. "Large Intestine Anatomy". Medscape. WebMD LLC. Retrieved 2013-08-20.
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^ Jump up to: a b Helander HF, Fändriks L., "Surface area of the digestive tract – revisited", Scand J Gastroenterol 49: 681-9, 2014
Jump up ^ Bruce M. Carlson (2004). Human Embryology and Developmental Biology (3rd ed.). Saint Louis: Mosby. ISBN 978-0-323-03649-8.
Jump up ^ Abraham L. Kierszenbaum (2002). Histology and cell biology: an introduction to pathology. St. Louis: Mosby. ISBN 978-0-323-01639-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sarna, S.K. (2010). "Introduction". Colonic Motility: From Bench Side to Bedside. San Rafael, California: Morgan & Claypool Life Sciences. ISBN 9781615041503.
Jump up ^ "The human proteome in gastrointestinal tract - The Human Protein Atlas". www.proteinatlas.org. Retrieved 2017-09-21.
Jump up ^ Uhlén, Mathias; Fagerberg, Linn; Hallström, Björn M.; Lindskog, Cecilia; Oksvold, Per; Mardinoglu, Adil; Sivertsson, Åsa; Kampf, Caroline; Sjöstedt, Evelina (2015-01-23). "Tissue-based map of the human proteome". Science. 347 (6220): 1260419. doi:10.1126/science.1260419. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 25613900.
Jump up ^ Gremel, Gabriela; Wanders, Alkwin; Cedernaes, Jonathan; Fagerberg, Linn; Hallström, Björn; Edlund, Karolina; Sjöstedt, Evelina; Uhlén, Mathias; Pontén, Fredrik (2015-01-01). "The human gastrointestinal tract-specific transcriptome and proteome as defined by RNA sequencing and antibody-based profiling". Journal of Gastroenterology. 50 (1): 46–57. doi:10.1007/s00535-014-0958-7. ISSN 0944-1174. PMID 24789573.
Jump up ^ Kim SK. Small intestine transit time in the normal small bowel study. American Journal of Roentgenology 1968; 104(3):522-524.
Jump up ^ Ghoshal, U. C.; Sengar, V.; Srivastava, D. (2012). "Colonic Transit Study Technique and Interpretation: Can These be Uniform Globally in Different Populations with Non-uniform Colon Transit Time?". Journal of Neurogastroenterology and Motility. 18 (2): 227–228. doi:10.5056/jnm.2012.18.2.227. PMC 3325313. PMID 22523737.
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Jump up ^ Helander, Herbert F.; Fändriks, Lars (2014-06-01). "Surface area of the digestive tract - revisited". Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology. 49 (6): 681–689. doi:10.3109/00365521.2014.898326. ISSN 1502-7708. PMID 24694282.
Jump up ^ Flannigan, Kyle L.; Geem, Duke; Harusato, Akihito; Denning, Timothy L. (2015-07-01). "Intestinal Antigen-Presenting Cells: Key Regulators of Immune Homeostasis and Inflammation". The American Journal of Pathology. 185 (7): 1809–1819. doi:10.1016/j.ajpath.2015.02.024. ISSN 1525-2191. PMC 4483458. PMID 25976247.
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Jump up ^ Márquez, Mercedes; Fernández Gutiérrez Del Álamo, Clotilde; Girón-González, José Antonio (2016-01-28). "Gut epithelial barrier dysfunction in human immunodeficiency virus-hepatitis C virus coinfected patients: Influence on innate and acquired immunity". World Journal of Gastroenterology. 22 (4): 1433–1448. doi:10.3748/wjg.v22.i4.1433. ISSN 2219-2840. PMC 4721978. PMID 26819512.
Jump up ^ Furusawa, Yukihiro; Obata, Yuuki; Fukuda, Shinji; Endo, Takaho A.; Nakato, Gaku; Takahashi, Daisuke; Nakanishi, Yumiko; Uetake, Chikako; Kato, Keiko; Kato, Tamotsu; Takahashi, Masumi; Fukuda, Noriko N.; Murakami, Shinnosuke; Miyauchi, Eiji; Hino, Shingo; Atarashi, Koji; Onawa, Satoshi; Fujimura, Yumiko; Lockett, Trevor; Clarke, Julie M.; Topping, David L.; Tomita, Masaru; Hori, Shohei; Ohara, Osamu; Morita, Tatsuya; Koseki, Haruhiko; Kikuchi, Jun; Honda, Kenya; Hase, Koji; Ohno, Hiroshi (2013). "Commensal microbe-derived butyrate induces the differentiation of colonic regulatory T cells". Nature. 504 (7480): 446–450. doi:10.1038/nature12721. PMID 24226770.
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Jump up ^ "World's oldest condom". Ananova. 2008. Retrieved 2008-04-11.
External links[edit]
Look up gastrointestinal tract, gastrointestinal, or tract in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gastrointestinal tract and Digestive system.
The Wikibook Human Physiology has a page on the topic of: The gastrointestinal system
The gastro intestinal tract in the Human Protein Atlas
Your Digestive System and How It Works at National Institutes of Health
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MAC spoofing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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MAC spoofing is a technique for changing a factory-assigned Media Access Control (MAC) address of a network interface on a networked device. The MAC address that is hard-coded on a network interface controller (NIC) cannot be changed. However, many drivers allow the MAC address to be changed. Additionally, there are tools which can make an operating system believe that the NIC has the MAC address of a user's choosing. The process of masking a MAC address is known as MAC spoofing. Essentially, MAC spoofing entails changing a computer's identity, for any reason, and it is relatively easy.[1]
Contents
1 Motivation
1.1 New hardware for existing Internet Service Providers (ISP)
1.2 Fulfilling software requirements
1.3 Identity masking
1.4 MAC Address Randomization in WiFi
2 Controversy
3 Limitations
4 See also
5 References
Motivation[edit]
The changing of the assigned MAC address may allow the bypassing of access control lists on servers or routers, either hiding a computer on a network or allowing it to impersonate another network device. MAC spoofing is done for legitimate and illicit purposes alike.
New hardware for existing Internet Service Providers (ISP)[edit]
Many ISPs register the client's MAC address for service and billing services.[2] Since MAC addresses are unique and hard-coded on network interface controller (NIC) cards,[1] when the client wants to connect a new gadget or change his/her existing gadget, the ISP will detect different MAC addresses and the ISP might not grant Internet access to those new devices. This can be circumvented easily by MAC spoofing. The client only needs to spoof the new device's MAC address to the MAC address that was registered by the ISP.[2] In this case, the client spoofs his or her MAC address to gain Internet access from multiple devices. While this seems like a legitimate case, MAC spoofing new gadgets can be considered illegal if the ISP's user-agreement prevents the user from connecting more than one device to their service. Moreover, the client is not the only person who can spoof his or her MAC address to gain access to the ISP. Hackers can gain unauthorized access to the ISP via the same technique. This allows hackers to gain access to unauthorized services, and the hacker will be hard to identify because the hacker uses the client's identity. This action is considered an illegitimate use of MAC spoofing and illegal as well. However, it is very hard to track hackers utilizing MAC spoofing.[3]
This also applies to customer-premises equipment, such as cable and DSL modems. In cases where the provider leases the equipment to the customer on a monthly basis, the CPE has a hard-coded MAC address which is on a list known to the provider's distribution networks, allowing service to be established as long as the customer is not in billing arrears. In cases where the provider allows customers to provide their own equipment (and thus avoid the monthly leasing fee on their bill,) the provider requires that the customer give them the MAC address of their equipment before service will be established.
Fulfilling software requirements[edit]
Some software can only be installed and run on systems with pre-defined MAC addresses as stated in the software end-user license agreement, and users have to comply with this requirement in order to gain access to the software. If the user has to install different hardware due to malfunction of the original device or if there is a problem with the user's NIC card, then the software will not recognize the new hardware. However, this problem can be solved using MAC spoofing. The user just has to spoof the new MAC address as to mimic the MAC address that was registered by the software.[4] This activity is very hard to define as either legitimate or illegitimate reason for MAC spoofing. Legal issues might arise if the user grants access to the software on multiple devices simultaneously. At the same time, the user can obtain access to software for which he or she has not secured a license. Contacting the software vendor might be the safest route to take if there is a hardware problem preventing access to the software. Software may also perform MAC filtering because the software does not want unauthorized users to gain access to certain networks to which the software grants access. In such cases MAC spoofing can be considered a serious illegal activity and can be legally punished.[5]
Identity masking[edit]
If a user chooses to spoof his or her MAC address in order to protect the user's privacy,[4] this is called identity masking. One might wish to do this because, as an example, on a Wi-Fi network connection a MAC address is not encrypted. Even the secure IEEE 802.11i-2004 (WPA) encryption method does not prevent Wi-Fi networks from sending out MAC addresses.[4] Hence, in order to avoid being tracked, the user might choose to spoof the device's MAC address. However, hackers use the same technique to maneuver around network permissions without revealing their identity. Some networks use MAC filtering in order to prevent unwanted access. Hackers can use MAC spoofing to get access to a particular network and do some damage. Hackers' MAC spoofing pushes the responsibility for any illegal activity onto authentic users. As a result, the real offender may go undetected by law enforcement.[4]
MAC Address Randomization in WiFi[edit]
To prevent third parties from using the MAC address to track devices, Android, Linux, iOS, and Windows[6] have implemented MAC address randomization. In June 2014, Apple announced that future versions of their iOS platform would randomize MAC addresses for all WiFi connections. The Linux kernel has supported MAC address randomization during network scans since March 2015,[7] but drivers need to be updated to use this feature.[8] Windows has supported it since the release of Windows 10[6] in July 2015.
Controversy[edit]
Although MAC address spoofing is not illegal, its practice has caused controversy in some cases. In the 2012 indictment against Aaron Swartz Internet hacktivist, who was accused of illegally accessing files from JSTOR digital library, prosecutors claimed that because he had spoofed his MAC address it showed purposeful intent to commit criminal acts.[5] In June 2014, Apple announced that future versions of their iOS platform would randomize MAC addresses for all WiFi connections, making it more difficult for internet service providers to track user activities and identities, which resurrected moral and legal arguments surrounding the practice of MAC spoofing among several blogs and newspapers.[9]
Limitations[edit]
MAC address spoofing is limited to the local broadcast domain. Unlike IP address spoofing, where senders spoof their IP address in order to cause the receiver to send the response elsewhere, in MAC address spoofing the response is usually received by the spoofing party if switch is not configured to prevent MAC spoofing.
See also[edit]
MAC address
Promiscuous mode
IP spoofing
ifconfig, linux utility capable of changing MAC address
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Cardenas, Edgar D. "MAC Spoofing--An Introduction". GIAC Security Essentials Certification. SANS Institute. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "MAC Spoofing". Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Research and Development Section in Collaboration with the NCECC’s Technology Unit. Archived from the original on 23 June 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Gupta, Deepak; Gaurav Tiwari (4 November 2009). "MAC SPOOFING AND ITS COUNTERMEASURES" (PDF). International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering. 2 (4): 21. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Pahwa, Payal; Gaurav Tiwari; Rashmi Chhabra (January 2010). "Spoofing Media Access Control (MAC) and its Counter Measures". International Journal of Advanced Engineering & Application. India: 186–192.
^ Jump up to: a b Indictment against Aaron Swartz
^ Jump up to: a b http://papers.mathyvanhoef.com/asiaccs2016.pdf
Jump up ^ https://w1.fi/cgit/hostap/plain/wpa_supplicant/ChangeLog
Jump up ^ https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/commit/?id=ad2b26abc157460ca6fac1a53a2bfeade283adfa
Jump up ^ Change MAC Address: Use Public WiFi Signals Without Any Limits, Not To Mention Serious Privacy Benefits
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MAC_spoofing&oldid=852035185"
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