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Soledad, California
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City of Soledad
City
City limit sign seen as entering into Soledad

Location in Monterey County and the state of California
City of Soledad
Location in the United States
Coordinates: 36°25′29″N 121°19′35″W / 36.42472°N 121.32639°W / 36.42472; -121.32639Coordinates: 36°25′29″N 121°19′35″W / 36.42472°N 121.32639°W / 36.42472; -121.32639
Country
United States
State
California
County
Monterey
Incorporated
March 9, 1921[1]
Government
• Mayor
Fred J. Ledesma[2]
• State senator
Anthony Cannella (R)[3]
• Assemblymember
Anna Caballero (D)[3]
• U. S. rep.
Jimmy Panetta (D)[4]
Area[5]
• Total
4.57 sq mi (11.82 km2)
• Land
4.41 sq mi (11.43 km2)
• Water
0.15 sq mi (0.39 km2) 3.32%
Elevation[6]
190 ft (58 m)
Population (2010)[7]
• Total
25,738
• Estimate (2016)[8]
25,622
• Density
5,804.71/sq mi (2,241.27/km2)
Time zone
Pacific (UTC-8)
• Summer (DST)
PDT (UTC-7)
ZIP code
93960
Area code
831
FIPS code
06-72520
Website
www.ci.soledad.ca.us
Soledad is a city in Monterey County, California, United States.[6] Soledad is located 25 miles (40 km) southeast of Salinas,[9] at an elevation of 190 feet (58 m).[6] The population was 25,738 at the 2010 census.
Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad, the state's 13th Franciscan Spanish mission, is located just south of the town
The town is located near the Spanish mission, Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad (the mission of Our Lady of Solitude), founded October 9, 1791 by Fermín Francisco de Lasuén, the 13th of 21 missions in California. The town's name comes from the mission.
Soledad is seated at the heart of one of the most economically productive and technologically advanced agricultural regions in the world; hence, the Salinas Valley name, "Salad Bowl of the World". Agricultural companies working out of this region include: Dole Fresh Vegetables, Tanimura & Antle Fresh Foods, Taylor Farms, D'Arrigo Brothers Inc and Mann Packing Inc.
Soledad is located in one of the primary wine grape growing regions of California with over twenty vineyards and wineries within a thirty-mile radius, several of which have tasting rooms and offer a wide selection of wines for sale. Some of the vineyards and wineries located nearby are Chalone, Scheid, Paraiso Vineyards, Pisoni Vineyards, Hahn Estate, San Saba, J.Lohr, Kendall-Jackson, Ventana, Hess Select, Estancia, The Michaud Vineyard, and Graff Family Vineyards.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Geography
2.1 Climate
3 Demographics
3.1 2000
3.2 2010
4 Economy
4.1 Agriculture
4.2 Energy
5 Transportation
6 Education
7 Media
8 Prisons
9 Recreation
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
History[edit]
The original community of Soledad was founded as a Spanish mission October 9, 1791 by Fermín Lasuén, and founded under the rule of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (Virreinato de Nueva España) 1535 to 1821.
The Soledad post office opened in 1869.[9] The current community of Soledad in 1874 had a few buildings and shops. The two main streets were named Front and Main. In 1886, land was subdivided into lots and sold by its owners, the Munras family. In the late 1880s the Southern Pacific Railroad laid rails and began serving the area.
In 1898 Fort Romie was founded a few miles north of the mission and west of the city. San Vicente School was built in 1913 forming the Soledad School District. The City, a general law city, incorporated in March 1921[9] with a City Council/City Manager form of government. The city's name comes from the mission Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad.[9]
Soledad is used as a backdrop in John Steinbeck's 1937 novel Of Mice and Men, an emotional story about two close friends of opposite personalities who must farm others' land to make meager living, and who dream desperately of buying a patch of land to have a farm of their own. One of the most important themes of the novel is tragic loneliness, which is likely one of the reason why Soledad was chosen as the setting, as soledad is Spanish for 'solitude'.
Soledad has been rocked by the great 1906 San Francisco earthquake and the Loma Prieta earthquake in 1989.
The Soledad Prison was three miles (5 km) north of the city until annexed in 1992. It was built in 1946 and currently has an operating budget of $245 million.
The infamous "Nortenos" gang was founded in 1968 along with Nuestra Familia crime syndicate in the Soledad Prison. Most of the members became FBI informants to bring the Nuestra Familia crime syndicate apart. Due to this the "Norteno" association has been dealt a severe blow to their structure, resulting in the weakening of their units.
In May 1996 the Salinas Valley State Prison was opened at a cost of $236 million, with an annual operating budget of $60 million. Currently as of 2007 the annual operating budget has risen to $177 million yearly.
On April 28, 2009, a tour bus transporting 34 French tourists flipped over at an overpass on Soledad's north entrance. At least five passengers were killed, one of whom fell over the bridge onto the railroad tracks beneath it.[10]
Soledad's slogan was "It's happening in Soledad" was used until 2013 when "Gateway to the Pinnacles" was introduced.
In July 2015, Ghost Adventures filmed an episode for three days at the infamously haunted Los Coches adobe. The city is hoping it will create national attention and could be made into a tourist destination. The episode aired September 26, 2015. [11]
Geography[edit]
Soledad is located at 36°25′29″N 121°19′35″W / 36.42472°N 121.32639°W / 36.42472; -121.32639.[6]
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 4.6 square miles (12 km2), 96.68% of it land and 3.32% of it water.
Soledad is about six miles (10 km) southwest of Pinnacles National Park, nestled among the nearby Gabilan Mountains.
Climate[edit]
This region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Soledad has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps.[12]
Demographics[edit]
Historical population
Census
Pop.
%±
1880 136 —
1890 217 59.6%
1930 594 —
1940 861 44.9%
1950 2,441 183.5%
1960 2,837 16.2%
1970 4,222 48.8%
1980 5,928 40.4%
1990 7,146 20.5%
2000 11,263 57.6%
2010 25,738 128.5%
Est. 2016 25,622 [8] −0.5%
U.S. Decennial Census[13]
2000[edit]
As of the census[14] of 2000, there were 11,263 people, 2,472 households, and 2,242 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,680.0 inhabitants per square mile (1,035.4/km²). There were 2,534 housing units at an average density of 603.0/mi² (232.9/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 31.90% White, 1.15% African American, 1.73% Native American, 2.35% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 58.56% from other races, and 4.23% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 86.82% of the population.
There were 2,472 households out of which 60.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 69.9% were married couples living together, 13.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 9.3% were non-families. 7.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 3.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 4.54 and the average family size was 4.58.
In the city, the population was spread out with 36.7% under the age of 18, 12.9% from 18 to 24, 31.4% from 25 to 44, 13.1% from 45 to 64, and 5.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 25 years. For every 100 females there were 108.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 106.6 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $42,602, and the median income for a family was $41,188. Males had a median income of $31,566 versus $23,964 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,442. About 16.3% of families and 18.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.1% of those under age 18 and 9.2% of those age 65 or over.
2010[edit]
The 2010 United States Census[15] reported that Soledad had a population of 25,738. The population density was 5,637.5 people per square mile (2,176.7/km²). The racial makeup of Soledad was 12,625 (49.1%) White, 2,945 (11.4%) African American, 367 (1.4%) Native American, 757 (2.9%) Asian, 103 (0.4%) Pacific Islander, 8,189 (31.8%) from other races, and 752 (2.9%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 18,308 persons (71.1%).
The Census reported that 15,635 people (60.7% of the population) lived in households, 0 (0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 10,103 (39.3%) were institutionalized.
There were 3,664 households, out of which 2,471 (67.4%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 2,387 (65.1%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 586 (16.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 291 (7.9%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 224 (6.1%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 30 (0.8%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 301 households (8.2%) were made up of individuals and 123 (3.4%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 4.27. There were 3,264 families (89.1% of all households); the average family size was 4.41.
The population was spread out with 5,674 people (22.0%) under the age of 18, 2,455 people (9.5%) aged 18 to 24, 10,126 people (39.3%) aged 25 to 44, 6,296 people (24.5%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,187 people (4.6%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34.9 years. For every 100 females there were 235.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 301.8 males.
There were 3,876 housing units at an average density of 849.0 per square mile (327.8/km²), of which 2,092 (57.1%) were owner-occupied, and 1,572 (42.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.4%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.1%. 8,642 people (33.6% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 6,993 people (27.2%) lived in rental housing units.
The mean household income within the Soledad city limits was $58,841, and the median household income was $44,343. Roughly 7.8% of households were below the poverty line.
Socioeconomically, 31.8% of Soledad's households were considered upper middle income to upper income while 45.8% were considered lower middle income to upper middle income. Roughly 22.4% of households were considered lower income.
Economy[edit]
Although Soledad is known for its agriculture, it was once the home of timber production. Soledad was home to the Sequoia Forest Industries sawmill. It was closed in 1991 and approximately 91 jobs were lost due to the closure of the mill. The warehouse is still in the city as a reminder of past industrial opportunities the small town had to offer.
Agriculture[edit]
Many agriculture fields surround the City, such as this organic farmland.
Land for agriculture is Soledad's most abundant natural resource. Soledad's farmland is considered "Prime Farmland", meaning the soils around and near the city have some of the best physical and chemical characteristics for farming. Due to this fact great efforts in conserving farmland are a very high priority for the city. Prime farmland is the backbone of the Soledad economy. Future planning will consider the effect of urban sprawl amongst the farmlands. Class I, II, and III soils are the most valuable to farming. The climate also allows for year-round crops.
Although Soledad has great soil for salad green crops, it also has a large presence of vineyards and wineries in the valley and foothills. Some famous wineries include Chalone Vineyard, Paraiso Springs Vineyards, Hahn Estate Winery, Zabala Vineyards, Richard Boyer Wines, and Ventana Vineyards. It was once the home of the Paul Masson Winery which is now closed.
Dole Food Company maintains a plant in Soledad. Opened in 1994, it is touted as being the "world's largest pre-cut salad plant."[16]
As of 2007, Soledad features a weekly certified Farmers' Market on Soledad St.[17]
Energy[edit]
Soledad is home to the Soledad Energy Partnership, operators of a wood-waste burning electric power plant. This 13.5 megawatt facility was restarted in July 2001 after a six-year shut-down due to termination of a PG&E purchase agreement. The plant was recommissioned during the California electricity crisis.
As of mid-2006, the plant was again closed.
Several violations at the plant have been issued by the California Integrated Water Quality System Project. The plant was issued violations from 2002 to 2006 for various reporting and pollution allegations.
Soledad power plant.
Soledad power plant.
Transportation[edit]
The iconic "It's Happening In Soledad" billboard greets southbound travelers on U.S. Route 101.
Soledad is located on U.S. Route 101 and is accessible via northbound and southbound exit ramps on Front Street, at the north and south ends of town. It is the western terminus of California State Route 146, which connects the city to nearby Pinnacles National Park.
Soledad is serviced by the Monterey-Salinas Transit line 23 (Salinas - King City). As of September 5, 2009, the bus stops in Soledad are located at the correctional facility, Front & San Vicente and Monterey & East.[18]
Soledad Rotary Club
Boy Scouts of America
Soledad FFA Chapter
Soledad Lions Club
4-H
The Freemasons
Girl Scouts of the USA
The Association
Education[edit]
There are two school districts in the Soledad area: Soledad Unified School District & Mission Union School District
SUSD
San Vicente Elementary, Established 1913
Frank Ledesma Elementary, Established 2004
Jack Franscioni Elementary,Established 2006
Gabilan Elementary, Established 1980
Rose Ferrero Elementary, Established 2001 - with 24 classes.
Main St. Middle school, Home of the Trojans, Established 1908
Soledad High School, Home of the Aztecs, Established 1999
Chalone Alternative School
Pinnacles Continuation High School
Soledad Adult School
Mission Trails Regional Occupation Program
MUSD
Mission Union School, Home of the Padres, Established 1905
San Vicente School
Gabilan School
Media[edit]
See also: Media in Monterey County
Television service for the community comes from the Monterey-Salinas-Santa Cruz designated market area (DMA). Radio stations Monterey-Salinas-Santa Cruz area of dominant influence (ADI) or continuous measurement market (CMM). Local newspapers include the Monterey County Herald, Salinas Californian and Soledad Bee.
Soledad is also the setting of the story in John Steinbeck's novel, Of Mice and Men.
In a 2013 Safe Cities report, Soledad was rated California's eleventh safest city. Soledad was highly regarded for its sense of community and high amount of volunteerism. The 50 Safest Cities in California
Soledad was also rated the ninety-fourth safest city out of one hundred cities nationwide in a 2014 Neighborhood Scout Report.[19]
Prisons[edit]
The city has two separate correctional facilities in the northernmost part of the city. The first and oldest prison is Soledad CTF (Correctional Training Facility) built in 1946. It was also one of the first 12 prisons of the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation. The other one is Salinas Valley State Prison, which opened in 1996.
Recreation[edit]
See also: Monterey county attractions
Pinnacles National Park. Hiking and rock climbing
The Pinnacles Wine Festival
Arroyo Seco (Monterey) County
The Salinas River
Soledad YMCA
Soledad Mission. Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad
Vosti Park
Soledad Swimming Pool. Home of the Soledad Sharks swimming team.
Little League Field
Front Street Park
Peverini Park
Gene Martin Stadium, Home of Soledad Football and Aztec Soccer
Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad is one of the town's famous attractions
See also[edit]
California portal
Coastal California
List of school districts in Monterey County, California
Monterey county attractions
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "California Cities by Incorporation Date" (Word). California Association of Local Agency Formation Commissions. Retrieved August 25, 2014.
Jump up ^ "City Council". City of Soledad. Retrieved March 15, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Statewide Database". UC Regents. Retrieved December 8, 2014.
Jump up ^ "California's 20th Congressional District - Representatives & District Map". Civic Impulse, LLC. Retrieved September 24, 2014.
Jump up ^ "2016 U.S. Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved Jun 28, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Soledad". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved March 15, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Soledad (city) QuickFacts". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved March 24, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "Population and Housing Unit Estimates". Retrieved June 9, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Durham, David L. (1998). California's Geographic Names: A Gazetteer of Historic and Modern Names of the State. Clovis, Calif.: Word Dancer Press. p. 961. ISBN 1-884995-14-4.
Jump up ^ http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/30464222/
Jump up ^ http://m.ksbw.com/news/tv-ghosthunters-film-episode-at-soledad-adobe/34173056
Jump up ^ Climate Summary for Soledad, California
Jump up ^ "Census of Population and Housing". Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
Jump up ^ "2010 Census Interactive Population Search: CA - Soledad city". U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved July 12, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Dole Company History".
Jump up ^ "CDFA Certified Farmers' Markets".
Jump up ^ Monterey-Salinas Transit
Jump up ^ "2014 Top 100 Safest Cities". 2014-01-05. Retrieved 2014-03-017. Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Soledad, California.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Soledad.
Official website
California Integrated Water Quality System Project (CIWQS) Enforcement Report
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‡This populated place also has portions in an adjacent county
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Orcein
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Orcein, also archil, orchil, lacmus and C.I. Natural Red 28, are names for dyes extracted from several species of lichen, commonly known as "orchella weeds", found in various parts of the world. A major source is the archil lichen, Roccella tinctoria. Orcinol is extracted from such lichens. It is then converted to orcein by ammonia and air. In traditional dye-making methods, urine was used as the ammonia source. If the conversion is carried out in the presence of potassium carbonate, calcium hydroxide, and calcium sulfate (in the form of potash, lime, and gypsum in traditional dye-making methods), the result is litmus, a more complex molecule.[1] The manufacture was described by Cocq in 1812 [2] and in the UK in 1874.[3] Roberts noted orchilla as a principal export of the Cape Verde islands, superior to the same kind of moss found in Italy or the Canaries, that in 1832 was yielding an annual revenue of $200,000.[4]:pp.14,15 Commercial archil is either a powder (called cudbear) or a paste. It is red in acidic pH and blue in alkaline pH.
Orcein is not approved as a food dye (banned in Europe since January 1977), with E number E121 before 1977 and E182 after.[5],[6] Its CAS number is 1400-62-0. Its chemical formula is C28H24N2O7. It forms dark brown crystals. It is a mixture of phenoxazone derivates - hydroxyorceins, aminoorceins, and aminoorceinimines.
The chemical components of orcein were elucidated only in the 1950s by Hans Musso.[7] The structures are shown below. A paper originally published in 1961, embodying most of Musso's work on components of orcein and litmus, was translated into English and published in 2003[8] in a special issue of the journal Biotechnic & Histochemistry (Vol 78, No. 6) devoted to the dye. A single alternative structural formula for orcein, possibly incorrect, is given by the National Library of Medicine [1] and Emolecules [2].
Orcein is a reddish-brown dye, orchil is a purple-blue dye. Orcein is also used as a stain in microscopy to visualize chromosomes,[9] elastic fibers,[10] Hepatitis B surface antigens,[11] and copper-associated proteins.[12]
Contents
[hide]
1 Cudbear
2 Gallery
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Cudbear[edit]
Cudbear is a dye extracted from orchil lichens that produces colours in the purple range. It can be used to dye wool and silk, without the use of mordant.
Cudbear was developed by Dr Cuthbert Gordon of Scotland: production began in 1758, and it was patented in 1758, British patent 727 [3]. The lichen is first boiled in a solution of ammonium carbonate. The mixture is then cooled and ammonia is added and the mixture is kept damp for 3–4 weeks. Then the lichen is dried and ground to powder. The manufacture details were carefully protected, with a ten-feet high wall being built around the manufacturing facility, and staff consisting of Highlanders sworn to secrecy. The lichen consumption soon reached 250 tons per year and import from Norway and Sweden had to be arranged.[4]
Cudbear was the first dye to be invented in modern times, and one of the few dyes to be credited to a named individual.
A similar process was developed in France. The lichen is extracted by urine or ammonia, then the extract is acidified, the dissolved dye precipitates out and is washed. Then it is dissolved in ammonia again, the solution is heated in air until it becomes purple, then it is precipitated out with calcium chloride. The resulting insoluble purple solid is known as French purple, a fast lichen dye that was much more stable than other lichen dyes.
Gallery[edit]
α-amino orcein
α-hydroxy orcein
β-amino orcein
β-hydroxy orcein
β-amino orceinimine
γ-amino orcein
γ-hydroxy orcein
γ-amino orceinimine
See also[edit]
Litmus test
Ethnolichenology
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Beecken, H; E-M Gottschalk; U v Gizycki; et al. (2003). "Orcein and litmus". Biotechnic & Histochemistry. 78 (6): 289–302. doi:10.1080/10520290410001671362.
Jump up ^ Cocq M. (1812). Mémoire sur la fabrication et l'emploi de l'orseille. Annales de Chimie 81:258–278. Cited in: Chevreul ME. (1830). Leçons de chimie appliquée à la teinture. Paris: Pichon et Didier. p 114–116.
Jump up ^ Workman, A Leeds (1874). "Manufacture of Archil and Cudbear". Chemical News. 30 (173): 143.
Jump up ^ Roberts, Edmund (Digitized 12 October 2007) [First published in 1837]. Embassy to the Eastern courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat : in the U. S. sloop-of-war Peacock ... during the years 1832-3-4. Harper & brothers. OCLC 12212199. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Jump up ^ http://www.additifs-alimentaires.net/E121.php?src_reg
Jump up ^ http://www.fda.gov/ForIndustry/ColorAdditives/ColorAdditiveInventories/ucm106626.htm
Jump up ^ Musso, H (1960). "Orcein- und Lackmusfarbstoffe: Konstitutionsermittlung und Konstitutionsbeweis durch die Synthese. (Orcein and litmus pigments: constitutional elucidation and constitutional proof by synthesis.)". Planta Medica. 8 (4): 431–446. doi:10.1055/s-0028-1101580.
Jump up ^ Beecken, H; Gottschalk, EM; von Gizycki, U; Kramer, H; Maassen, D; Matthies, HG; Musso, H; Rathjen, C; Zdhorsky, UI (2003). "Orcein and litmus". Biotechnic & Histochemistry. 78 (6): 289–302. doi:10.1080/10520290410001671362.
Jump up ^ La Cour, L (1941). "Acetic-orcein: a new stain-fixative for chromosomes". Stain Technology. 16 (4): 169–174. doi:10.3109/10520294109107302.
Jump up ^ Friedberg, SH; Goldstein, DJ (1969). "Thermodynamics of orcein staining of elastic fibres". Histochemical Journal. 1: 261–376.
Jump up ^ Fredenburgh, JL; Edgerton, SM; Parker, AE (1978). "A modification of the aldehyde fuchsin and orcein stains for hepatitis B surface antigen in tissue and a proposed chemical mechanism". Journal of Histotechnology. 1 (6): 223–228. doi:10.1179/his.1978.1.6.223.
Jump up ^ Henwood, A (2003). "Current applications of orcein in histochemistry. A brief review with some new observations concerning influence of dye batch variation and aging of dye solutions on staining". Biotechnic & Histochemistry. 78 (6): 303–308. doi:10.1080/10520290410001671335.
External links[edit]
Orchil, the poor person's purple
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List of roller coaster rankings
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Formula Rossa, the fastest roller coaster in the world
Roller coasters are amusement rides developed for amusement parks and modern theme parks. During the 16th and 17th centuries, rides consisting of wooden sleds that took riders down large slides made from ice were popular in Russia. The first roller coasters, where the train was attached to a wooden track, first appeared in France in the early 1800s.[1] Although wooden roller coasters are still being produced, steel roller coasters are more common and can be found on every continent except Antarctica.[2]
Ranked by height, speed, length, inversions, and steepness, roller coasters are also rated through public opinion polls. Amusement parks often compete to build the tallest, fastest, and longest rides to attract thrill seekers and boost overall park attendance.[3] However, many records do not usually last long. When Magnum XL-200 opened in 1989, it began a new era of roller coasters and increased competition among parks to set new world records. The Magnum XL–200 was the first complete-circuit roller coaster built over 200 feet (61 m).[4][5] Other notable roller coasters include Formula Rossa which reaches a top speed of 149 miles per hour (240 km/h),[6] Kingda Ka which stands at 456 feet (139 m) tall,[7] and Steel Dragon 2000 which measures 8,133 feet (2,479 m) in length.[8]
Contents
[hide]
1 Key
2 Height rankings
2.1 Tallest steel roller coasters
2.2 Longest steel roller coaster drops
2.3 Tallest wooden roller coasters
2.4 Longest wooden roller coaster drops
3 Speed rankings
3.1 Fastest steel roller coasters
3.2 Fastest wooden roller coasters
4 Length rankings
4.1 Longest steel roller coasters
4.2 Longest wooden roller coasters
5 Inversion rankings
5.1 Steel roller coasters
5.2 Wooden roller coasters
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Key[edit]
Key
Key
Meaning
1
Record holder
**
Under construction
*
Still exists but not operating
Height rankings[edit]
Tallest steel roller coasters[edit]
Kingda Ka, the tallest roller coaster in the world
Tallest steel roller coasters
Rank
Name
Park
Country
Height
Manufacturer
Record held
1 Kingda Ka Six Flags Great Adventure United States 456 ft (139 m) Intamin May 2005 – Present
2 Top Thrill Dragster Cedar Point United States 420 ft (130 m) Intamin May 2003 – May 2005
3 Superman: Escape from Krypton[note 1] Six Flags Magic Mountain United States 415 ft (126 m) Intamin March 1997 – May 2003
4 Tower of Terror II[note 1] Dreamworld Australia 377 ft (115 m) Intamin January 1997 – March 1997
5 Red Force Ferrari Land Spain 367.4 ft (112.0 m) Intamin N/A
6 Fury 325 Carowinds United States 325 ft (99 m) Bolliger & Mabillard N/A
7 Steel Dragon 2000 Nagashima Spa Land Japan 318.3 ft (97.0 m) D. H. Morgan Manufacturing N/A
8 Millennium Force Cedar Point United States 310 ft (94 m) Intamin N/A
9 Leviathan Canada's Wonderland Canada 306 ft (93 m) Bolliger & Mabillard N/A
10 Intimidator 305 Kings Dominion United States 305 ft (93 m) Intamin N/A
Source:[9]
Longest steel roller coaster drops[edit]
Longest steel roller coaster drops
Rank
Name
Park
Country
Drop length
Manufacturer
Record held
1 Kingda Ka Six Flags Great Adventure United States 418 ft (127 m) Intamin May 2005 – present
2 Top Thrill Dragster Cedar Point United States 400 ft (120 m) Intamin May 2003 – May 2005
3 Superman: Escape from Krypton[note 1] Six Flags Magic Mountain United States 328.1 ft (100.0 m) Intamin March 1997 – May 2003
Tower of Terror II[note 1] Dreamworld Australia 328.1 ft (100.0 m) Intamin January 1997 – May 2003
5 Fury 325 Carowinds United States 320 ft (98 m) Bolliger & Mabillard N/A
6 Steel Dragon 2000 Nagashima Spa Land Japan 306.8 ft (93.5 m) D. H. Morgan Manufacturing N/A
7 Leviathan Canada's Wonderland Canada 306 ft (93 m) Bolliger & Mabillard N/A
8 Intimidator 305 Kings Dominion United States 300 ft (91 m) Intamin N/A
Millennium Force Cedar Point United States 300 ft (91 m) Intamin N/A
** Unknown Energylandia Poland 265.8 ft (81.0 m) Intamin
10 Coaster Through the Clouds Nanchang Wanda Park China 255.9 ft (78.0 m) Intamin N/A
Shambhala: Expedición al Himalaya PortAventura Spain 255.9 ft (78.0 m) Bolliger & Mabillard N/A
Sources:[10]
Tallest wooden roller coasters[edit]
Colossos, the tallest wooden roller coaster in the world
Mean Streak opened as the tallest wooden roller coaster in the world in 1991.
Tallest wooden roller coasters[note 2][note 3]
Rank
Name
Park
Country
Height
Manufacturer
Record held
* Colossos Heide Park Germany 196.8 ft (60.0 m) Intamin June 2009 – July 2016
1 Wildfire Kolmården Wildlife Park Sweden 183.8 ft (56.0 m) Rocky Mountain Construction July 2016 – present
T Express Everland South Korea 183.8 ft (56.0 m) Intamin July 2016 – present
3 El Toro Six Flags Great Adventure United States 181 ft (55 m) Intamin N/A
4 Goliath Six Flags Great America United States 165 ft (50 m) Rocky Mountain Construction N/A
* Mean Streak Cedar Point United States 161 ft (49 m) Dinn Corporation May 1991 – March 1992
5 The Voyage Holiday World & Splashin' Safari United States 159 ft (48 m) The Gravity Group N/A
6 White Cyclone Nagashima Spa Land Japan 139 ft (42 m) Intamin N/A
7 Hades 360 Mt. Olympus Water & Theme Park United States 136 ft (41 m) The Gravity Group N/A
8 Wodan Timbur Coaster Europa-Park Germany 131.3 ft (40.0 m) Great Coasters International N/A
9 Le Monstre La Ronde Canada 130.9 ft (39.9 m) William Cobb & Associates N/A
10 American Eagle Six Flags Great America United States 127 ft (39 m) Intamin N/A
Source:[13]
Longest wooden roller coaster drops[edit]
Longest wooden roller coaster drops[note 3]
Rank
Name
Park
Country
Drop length
Manufacturer
Record held
1 Goliath Six Flags Great America United States 180 ft (55 m) Rocky Mountain Construction June 2014 – Present
2 El Toro Six Flags Great Adventure United States 176 ft (54 m) Intamin June 2009 – June 2014
3 Lightning Rod Dollywood United States 165 ft (50 m) Rocky Mountain Construction N/A
4 Outlaw Run Silver Dollar City United States 162 ft (49 m) Rocky Mountain Construction N/A
5 Wildfire Kolmården Wildlife Park Sweden 160.8 ft (49.0 m) Rocky Mountain Construction N/A
* Colossos Heide Park Germany 159.1 ft (48.5 m) Intamin N/A
* Mean Streak Cedar Point United States 155 ft (47 m) Dinn Corporation May 1991 – May 2000
6 The Voyage Holiday World & Splashin' Safari United States 154 ft (47 m) The Gravity Group N/A
7 T Express Everland South Korea 150.9 ft (46.0 m) Intamin N/A
8 The Boss Six Flags St. Louis United States 150 ft (46 m) Custom Coasters International N/A
9 American Eagle Six Flags Great America United States 147 ft (45 m) Intamin May 1981 – May 1991
10 The Beast Kings Island United States 141 ft (43 m) Charles Dinn / Al Collins April 1979 – May 1981
Source:[14]
Speed rankings[edit]
Fastest steel roller coasters[edit]
In 1997, Tower of Terror became the fastest roller coaster in the world and the first to reach 100 mph (160 km/h).
Fastest steel roller coasters
Rank
Name
Park
Country
Speed
Manufacturer
Record held
1 Formula Rossa Ferrari World United Arab Emirates 149 mph (240 km/h) Intamin November 2010 – present
2 Kingda Ka Six Flags Great Adventure United States 128 mph (206 km/h) Intamin May 2005 – November 2010
3 Top Thrill Dragster Cedar Point United States 120 mph (190 km/h) Intamin May 2003 – May 2005
4 Do-Dodonpa Fuji-Q Highland Japan 112 mph (180 km/h) S&S Worldwide December 2001 – May 2003
Red Force Ferrari Land Spain 112 mph (180 km/h) Intamin N/A
6 Superman: Escape from Krypton[note 1] Six Flags Magic Mountain United States 100 mph (160 km/h) Intamin March 1997 – December 2001
Tower of Terror II[note 1] Dreamworld Australia 100 mph (160 km/h) Intamin January 1997 – December 2001
* ring°racer Nürburgring Germany 99.4 mph (160.0 km/h) S&S Worldwide N/A
8 Steel Dragon 2000 Nagashima Spa Land Japan 95 mph (153 km/h) D. H. Morgan Manufacturing N/A
Fury 325 Carowinds United States 95 mph (153 km/h) Bolliger & Mabillard N/A
10 Millennium Force Cedar Point United States 93 mph (150 km/h) Intamin N/A
Source:[15]
Fastest wooden roller coasters[edit]
El Toro, formerly the fastest wooden roller coaster in the world
American Eagle opened as the fastest wooden roller coaster in the world in 1981.
Fastest wooden roller coasters[note 3]
Rank
Name
Park
Country
Speed
Manufacturer
Record held
1 Lightning Rod Dollywood United States 73 mph (117 km/h) Rocky Mountain Construction June 2016 – present
2 Goliath Six Flags Great America United States 72 mph (116 km/h) Rocky Mountain Construction June 2014 – June 2016
3 Wildfire Kolmården Wildlife Park Sweden 70.2 mph (113.0 km/h) Rocky Mountain Construction N/A
4 El Toro Six Flags Great Adventure United States 70 mph (110 km/h) Intamin June 2009 – June 2014
* Colossos Heide Park Germany 68.4 mph (110.1 km/h) Intamin N/A
5 Outlaw Run Silver Dollar City United States 68 mph (109 km/h) Rocky Mountain Construction N/A
6 The Voyage Holiday World & Splashin' Safari United States 67.4 mph (108.5 km/h) The Gravity Group N/A
7 The Boss Six Flags St. Louis United States 66.3 mph (106.7 km/h) Custom Coasters International April 2000 – May 2000
8 American Eagle Six Flags Great America United States 66 mph (106 km/h) Intamin May 1981 – April 2000
* Mean Streak Cedar Point United States 65 mph (105 km/h) Dinn Corporation N/A
9 The Beast Kings Island United States 64.8 mph (104.3 km/h) Charles Dinn / Al Collins April 1979 – May 1981
10 T Express Everland South Korea 64.6 mph (104.0 km/h) Intamin N/A
Source:[16]
Length rankings[edit]
Longest steel roller coasters[edit]
Steel Dragon 2000, the longest roller coaster in the world
California Screamin', the seventh-longest steel roller coaster in the world
Longest steel roller coasters
Rank
Name
Park
Country
Length
Manufacturer
Record held
1 Steel Dragon 2000 Nagashima Spa Land Japan 8,133 ft (2,479 m) D. H. Morgan Manufacturing August 2000 – present
2 The Ultimate Lightwater Valley United Kingdom 7,442 ft (2,268 m) British Rail July 1991 – August 2000
3 Fujiyama Fuji-Q Highland Japan 6,709 ft (2,045 m) TOGO N/A
4 Fury 325 Carowinds United States 6,602 ft (2,012 m) Bolliger & Mabillard N/A
5 Millennium Force Cedar Point United States 6,595 ft (2,010 m) Intamin N/A
6 Formula Rossa Ferrari World United Arab Emirates 6,562 ft (2,000 m) Intamin N/A
7 California Screamin' Disney California Adventure United States 6,072 ft (1,851 m) Intamin N/A
* Vertigorama Parque de la Ciudad Argentina 5,958 ft (1,816 m) Intamin
8 Desperado Buffalo Bill's United States 5,843 ft (1,781 m) Arrow Dynamics N/A
** Steel Vengeance Cedar Point United States 5,740 ft (1,750 m) Rocky Mountain Construction N/A
9 Mamba Worlds of Fun United States 5,600 ft (1,700 m) D. H. Morgan Manufacturing N/A
Steel Force Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom United States 5,600 ft (1,700 m) D. H. Morgan Manufacturing N/A
Source:[17]
Longest wooden roller coasters[edit]
Longest wooden roller coasters
Rank
Name
Park
Country
Length
Manufacturer
Record held
1 The Beast Kings Island United States 7,359 ft (2,243 m) Charles Dinn / Al Collins April 1979 – present
2 The Voyage Holiday World & Splashin' Safari United States 6,442 ft (1,964 m) The Gravity Group N/A
3 White Cyclone Nagashima Spa Land Japan 5,577 ft (1,700 m) Intamin N/A
4 T Express Everland South Korea 5,383.8 ft (1,641.0 m) Intamin N/A
5 Shivering Timbers Michigan's Adventure United States 5,383 ft (1,641 m) Custom Coasters International N/A
6 Jupiter Kijima Amusement Park Japan 5,249 ft (1,600 m) Intamin N/A
7 Python in Bamboo Forest Nanchang Wanda Park China 5,111 ft (1,558 m) Great Coasters International N/A
8 The Boss Six Flags St. Louis United States 5,051 ft (1,540 m) Custom Coasters International N/A
9 Wood Coaster Knight Valley China 4,817 ft (1,468 m) Great Coasters International N/A
10 Hades 360 Mt. Olympus Water & Theme Park United States 4,746 ft (1,447 m) The Gravity Group N/A
Source:[18]
Inversion rankings[edit]
This listing contains all types of roller coaster inversions.
Steel roller coasters[edit]
Most inversions on a steel roller coaster
Rank
Name
Park
Country
Inversions
Manufacturer
Record held
1 The Smiler Alton Towers United Kingdom 14 Gerstlauer May 2013 – Present
2 10 Inversion Roller Coaster Chime-Long Paradise China 10 Intamin February 2006 – May 2013
Altair Cinecittà World Italy 10 Intamin N/A
Colossus Thorpe Park United Kingdom 10 Intamin March 2002 – May 2013
Crazy Coaster Locajoy Holiday China 10 Intamin N/A
** unknown Hopi Hari Brazil 10 Intamin
** unknown Movie Animation Park Studios Malaysia 10 Intamin
** unknown Wonder Island Russia 10 Intamin
** unknown Ankapark Turkey 10 Intamin
6 Avalancha Xetulul Guatemala 8 Intamin N/A
Dragon Khan PortAventura Park Spain 8 Bolliger & Mabillard May 1995 – March 2002
Flight of the Phoenix Harborland China 8 Intamin N/A
** unknown Mirabilandia Brazil 8 Intamin
Sources:[19]
Wooden roller coasters[edit]
Most inversions on a wooden roller coaster[note 3]
Rank
Name
Park
Country
Inversions
Manufacturer
Record held
1 Outlaw Run Silver Dollar City United States 3 Rocky Mountain Construction March 2013 – present
Wildfire Kolmården Sweden 3 Rocky Mountain Construction
2 Goliath Six Flags Great America United States 2 Rocky Mountain Construction N/A
3 Hades 360 Mt. Olympus Water & Theme Park United States 1 The Gravity Group N/A
Jungle Trailblazer Oriental Heritage, Ningbo China 1 The Gravity Group N/A
Jungle Trailblazer Oriental Heritage, Wuhu China 1 The Gravity Group N/A
Jungle Trailblazer Oriental Heritage, Jinan China 1 The Gravity Group N/A
Mine Blower Fun Spot America: Kissimmee United States 1 The Gravity Group N/A
Source:[20]
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f A shuttle roller coaster, not complete-circuit
Jump up ^ Record was held by The Rattler from March 1992 – May 2000. Its height was 179 feet (55 m).[11]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Record was held by Son of Beast from May 2000 – June 2009. Its height was 218 feet (66 m), its drop distance was 214 feet (65 m) and its speed was 78 miles per hour (126 km/h).[12]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Harris, Tom. "How Roller Coasters Work". Discovery Communications. Retrieved December 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Roller Coaster Census Report". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved November 9, 2012.
Jump up ^ Martín, Hugo (March 13, 2012). "Thrill ride designers compete to push the limits". Los Angeles Times. Tribune Company. Retrieved November 11, 2012.
Jump up ^ "It’s opening weekend for Cedar Point". Associated Press. May 15, 2009. Archived from the original on May 18, 2009. Retrieved December 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Magnum XL–200 20th anniversary ceremony". PointBuzz. Retrieved September 8, 2012.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Formula Rossa (Ferrari World Abu Dhabi)". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved November 9, 2012.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Kingda Ka (Six Flags Great Adventure)". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved November 9, 2012.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Steel Dragon 2000 (Nagashima Spa Land)". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved November 9, 2012.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Steel Record Holders – Height". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved September 20, 2010.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Steel Record Holders – Drop". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved May 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Iron Rattler (Six Flags Fiesta Texas)". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved December 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Son of Beast (Kings Island)". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved December 26, 2012.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Wood Record Holders – Height". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved May 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Wood Record Holders – Drop". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved May 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Record Holders – Steel – Speed". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved November 4, 2010.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Wood Record Holders – Speed". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved May 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Record Holders – Steel – Length". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved November 6, 2010.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Wood Record Holders – Length". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved May 2, 2012.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Steel Record Holders – Most Inversions". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved November 11, 2012.
Jump up ^ Marden, Duane. "Wood Record Holders – Most Inversions". Roller Coaster DataBase. Retrieved November 11, 2012.
External links[edit]
Amusement parks portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Roller coasters.
Roller coaster census at the Roller Coaster DataBase
Top 100 roller coasters on CoasterBuzz
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Wright Brothers Band
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Wright Brothers Band
Also known as
The Wright Brothers
Origin
French Lick, Indiana, USA
Genres
Country
Years active
1972–present
Labels
Wright & Perry, Warner Bros., Mercury Nashville, Airborne
Members
Tom Wright
Tim Wright
John McDowell
Past members
Karl Hinkle
The Wright Brothers Band, formerly known as the Wright Brothers Overland Stage Company, formed in 1972, is an Indiana based music group. They perform songs from the 1920s to the present day, and can cover bluegrass, pop standards, country, gospel, and even Aerosmith rock standards. The band briefly gained national attention with their patriotic song "Made in the U.S.A." which celebrated companies that continued to manufacture their products in the United States. They performed on the Grand Ole Opry, The Today Show and appeared 12 times on Nashville Now. Signed with Warner Bros. and Mercury records in the eighties, the Wright Brothers had nine singles reach Billboard's Hot Country Singles chart. The band also recorded Shot Down in Hot Blood and a cover of "Jim Dandy" for the soundtrack of the 1987 Goldie Hawn movie Overboard, in which they also made a live appearance.[1]
The band's first three albums, "Cornfield Cowboys", "Memorablia Box", and "Third Phonograph Album" were collected into a box set called "Anthology" first on vinyl and then on CD. "Memorabilia Box" featured live medleys of Harry Nillson's "The Rainmaker" with their own "Dawson", Mickey Newbury's "An American Trilogy" (Battle Hymn of the Republic/Dixie/All My Trials), and Neil Diamond's "Solaimon/Brother Love".
Contents
1 Discography
1.1 Albums
1.2 Singles
2 References
3 External links
Discography[edit]
Albums[edit]
Year
Album
US Country
Label
1984 Easy Street 55 Mercury
Singles[edit]
Year
Single
US Country
Album
12-12-1981 "Family Man" 35 singles only
1982 "When You Find Her, Keep Her" 42
"Made in the U.S.A." 40
1983 "So Easy to Love" 68
05-26-1984 "Southern Women" 33 Easy Street
1984 "So Close" 46
"Eight Days a Week" 57
05-18-1985 "Fire in the Sky" 48 singles only
1988 "Come On Rain" 85
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Soundtracks for Overboard (1987), Internet Movie Database, retrieved 2010-09-09
External links[edit]
The Wright Brothers Band
A Stagecoach Catastrophe of Splendifferous Phenomena
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History of the potato
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This article's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (July 2017)
Potato ceramic from the Moche culture (Larco Museum Collection).
The potato was first domesticated in the region of modern-day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia[1] between 8000 and 5000 BC.[2] It has since spread around the world and become a staple crop in many countries.
Contents
[hide]
1 History by region
1.1 South America
1.2 Europe
1.3 Africa
1.4 Asia
1.5 North America
2 See also
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links
History by region[edit]
South America[edit]
Cultivation of potatoes in South America may go back 10,000 years,[3] yet the tubers do not preserve well in archaeological record, and there are problems with exact identification of those that are found.
The earliest archaeologically verified potato tuber remains have been found at the coastal site of Ancón (central Peru), dating to 2500 BC.[4] Potatoes dating to about 2000 BC have been found at Huaynuma, in the Casma Valley of Peru,[5] and early potatoes dating to 800-500 BC were also uncovered at the Altiplano site of Chiripa on the east side of Lake Titicaca.[6][7]
In the Altiplano, potatoes provided the principal energy source for the Inca Empire, its predecessors, and its Spanish successor. In Bolivia and Peru above 10,000 feet altitude, tubers exposed to the cold night air turned into chuño;[8] when kept in permanently frozen underground storehouses, chuño can be stored for years with no loss of nutritional value. The Spanish fed chuño to the silver miners who produced vast wealth in the 16th century for the Spanish government.[2]
Potato was the staple food of most Pre‑Columbian Mapuches, "specially in the southern and coastal [Mapuche] territories where maize did not reach maturity".[9]
Europe[edit]
Further information: Columbian exchange
Sailors returning from the Andes to Spain with silver presumably brought maize and potatoes for their own food on the trip.[10] Historians speculate that leftover tubers (and maize) were carried ashore and planted: "We think that the potato arrived some years before the end of the 16th century, by two different ports of entry: the first, logically, in Spain around 1570, and the second via the British Isles between 1588 and 1593 ... we find traces of the transport of potatoes travelling from the Canaries to Antwerp in 1567 ... we can say that the potato was introduced there [the Canary islands] from South America around 1562 ... the first written mention of the potato [is] ... a receipt for delivery dated 28 November 1567 between Las Palmas in the Grand Canaries and Antwerp."[11] In 1553, in the book Crónica del Peru, Pedro Cieza de León mentions he saw it in Quito, Popayán and Pasto in 1538. Basque fishermen from Spain used potatoes as ships' stores for their voyages across the Atlantic in the 16th century, and introduced the tuber to western Ireland, where they landed to dry their cod. The English privateer Sir Francis Drake, returning from his circumnavigation, or Sir Walter Raleigh's employee Thomas Harriot[12] are commonly credited with introducing potatoes into England. In 1588, botanist Carolus Clusius made a painting of what he called "Papas Peruanorum" from a specimen in the Low Countries; in 1601 he reported that potatoes were in common use in northern Italy for animal fodder and for human consumption.[13]
Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, inspecting the potato harvest. Robert Warthmüller, 1886
The Spanish had an empire across Europe, and brought potatoes for their armies. Peasants along the way adopted the crop, which was less often pillaged by marauding armies than above-ground stores of grain. Across most of Northern Europe, where open fields prevailed, potatoes were strictly confined to small garden plots because field agriculture was strictly governed by custom that prescribed seasonal rhythms for plowing, sowing, harvesting and grazing animals on fallow and stubble. This meant that potatoes were barred from large-scale cultivation because the rules allowed only grain to be planted in the open fields.[14] In France and Germany government officials and noble landowners promoted the rapid conversion of fallow land into potato fields after 1750. The potato thus became an important staple crop in northern Europe. Famines in the early 1770s contributed to its acceptance, as did government policies in several European countries and climate change during the Little Ice Age, when traditional crops in this region did not produce as reliably as before.[15][16] At times and places when and where most other crops failed, potatoes could still typically be relied upon to contribute adequately to food supplies during colder years.[17]
In France, at the end of the 16th century, the potato had been introduced to the Franche-Comté, the Vosges of Lorraine and Alsace. By the end of the 18th century it was written in the 1785 edition of Bon Jardinier: "There is no vegetable about which so much has been written and so much enthusiasm has been shown ... The poor should be quite content with this foodstuff."[18] It had widely replaced the turnip and rutabaga by the 19th century.[19]
Russian Orthodox monks planting potatoes, 1910
French physician Antoine Parmentier studied the potato intensely and in Examen chymique des pommes de terres ("Chemical examination of potatoes") (Paris, 1774) showed their enormous nutritional value. King Louis XVI and his court eagerly promoted the new crop, with Queen Marie Antoinette even wearing a headdress of potato flowers at a fancy dress ball. The annual potato crop of France soared to 21 million hectoliters[clarification needed] in 1815 and 117 million in 1840, allowing a concomitant growth in population while avoiding the Malthusian trap. Although potatoes had become widely familiar in Russia by 1800, they were confined to garden plots until the grain failure in 1838–39 persuaded peasants and landlords in central and northern Russia to devote their fallow fields to raising potatoes. Potatoes yielded from two to four times more calories per acre than grain did, and eventually came to dominate the food supply in Eastern Europe. Boiled or baked potatoes were cheaper than rye bread, just as nutritious, and did not require a gristmill for grinding. On the other hand, cash-oriented landlords realised that grain was much easier to ship, store and sell, so both grain and potatoes coexisted.[20]
Antoine Parmentier holding New World plants, François Dumont 1812
Throughout Europe, the most important new food in the 19th century was the potato, which had three major advantages over other foods for the consumer: its lower rate of spoilage, its bulk (which easily satisfied hunger) and its cheapness. The crop slowly spread across Europe, such that, for example, by 1845 it occupied one-third of Irish arable land.[citation needed] Potatoes comprised about 10% of the caloric intake of Europeans.[citation needed] Along with several other foods that either originated in the Americas or were successfully grown or harvested there, potatoes sustained European populations.[21]
In Britain, the potato promoted economic development by underpinning the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. It served as a cheap source of calories and nutrients that was easy for urban workers to cultivate on small backyard plots. Potatoes became popular in the north of England, where coal was readily available, so a potato-driven population boom provided ample workers for the new factories. Marxist Friedrich Engels even declared that the potato was the equal of iron for its "historically revolutionary role".[13] The Dutch potato-starch industry grew rapidly in the 19th century, especially under the leadership of entrepreneur Willem Albert Scholten (1819–92).[22]
In Ireland, the expansion of potato cultivation was due entirely to the landless labourers, renting tiny plots from landowners who were interested only in raising cattle or in producing grain for market. A single acre of potatoes and the milk of a single cow was enough to feed a whole Irish family a monotonous but nutritionally adequate diet for a healthy, vigorous (and desperately poor) rural population. Often even poor families grew enough extra potatoes to feed a pig that they could sell for cash.[23]
A lack of genetic diversity from the low number of varieties left the crop vulnerable to disease. In the early 1800s, a strain of potato blight (Phytophthora infestans) known as HERB-1 began to spread in the Americas, especially Central and North America destroying many crops. The blight spread to Europe in the 1840s where, because of an extreme lack of genetic diversity, the potato crops were even more susceptible. In Northern Europe there were major crop losses lasting throughout the rest of the 19th century. Ireland in particular, because of the extreme dependence of the poor, especially western Ireland, on this single staple crop, was devastated by the blight's arrival in 1845.[24][25]
The Lumper potato, widely cultivated in western and southern Ireland before and during the Great Famine, was bland, wet and poorly resistant to the potato blight, but yielded large crops and usually provided adequate calories for peasants and labourers. Heavy dependence on this potato led to disaster when the blight quickly turned harvest-ready and newly harvested potatoes into a putrid mush. The Irish Famine in the western and southern parts of Ireland between 1845–49 was a catastrophic failure in the food supply that led to approximately a million deaths from famine and (especially) diseases that attacked weakened bodies, and to massive emigration to Britain, the U.S., Canada and elsewhere.[26] During the famine years roughly one million Irish emigrated; this tide was not turned until the 20th century, when Ireland's population stood at less than half of the pre-famine level of 8 million.
Africa[edit]
It is generally believed that potatoes entered Africa with colonists, who consumed them as a vegetable rather than as a staple starch.[27] Shipping records from 1567 show that the first place outside of Central and South America where potatoes were grown were the Canary Islands.[28] As in other continents, despite its advantages as an anti-famine, high-elevation alternative to grain, potatoes were first resisted by local farmers who believed they were poisonous. Colonialists also promoted them as a low cost food and so it was a symbol of domination. In former European colonies of Africa, potatoes were initially consumed only occasionally, but increased production made them a staple in certain areas. Potatoes tended to become more popular in wartime due to their being able to be stored in the ground. It was well established as a crop by the mid-20th century [16] and in present-day Africa they have become a vegetable or co-staple crop.[27]
In higher regions of Rwanda, potatoes have become a new staple food crop. Prior to the 1994 Rwandan genocide, consumption was as high as 153 to 200 kg per year – higher than in any Western European country. Recently farmers have developed the potato as a cash crop after introducing several new varieties brought back by migrant laborers from Uganda and other varieties from Kenya.[27]
Asia[edit]
The potato diffused widely after 1600, becoming a major food resource in Europe and East Asia. Following its introduction into China toward the end of the Ming dynasty, the potato immediately became a delicacy of the imperial family. After the middle period of the Qianlong era (1735–96) in the Qing dynasty, population increases and a subsequent need to increase grain yields coupled with greater peasant geographic mobility led to the rapid spread of potato cultivation throughout China, and it was acclimated to local natural conditions.
Boomgaard (2003) looks at the adoption of various root and tuber crops in Indonesia throughout the colonial period and examines the chronology and reasons for progressive adoption of foreign crops: sweet potato, Irish potato, bengkuang (yam beans), and cassava.
Edward Terry mentioned the potato in his travel accounts of the banquet at Ajmer by Asaph Khan to Sir Thomas Roe, the British Ambassador in 1675. It is the earliest mention in history of India[clarification needed]. The vegetables gardens of Surat and Karnataka had potatoes as mentioned in Fyer's travel record of 1675. The Portuguese introduced potatoes, which they called 'Batata', to India in the early seventeenth century when they cultivated it along the western coast. British traders introduced potatoes to Bengal as a root crop, 'Alu'. By the end of the 18th century, it was cultivated across northern hill areas of India.[16] Potatoes were introduced to Tibet by the 19th century through trade route from India.[29]
The potato was introduced to the Philippines during the late 16th century, and to Java and China during the 17th century.[citation needed]
North America[edit]
Potato harvest in Idaho, circa 1920
Potatoes were planted in Idaho as early as 1838; by 1900 the state's production exceeded a million bushels (about 27,000 tonnes[31]). Prior to 1910, the crops were stored in barns or root cellars, but, by the 1920s, potato cellars or barns came into use. U.S. potato production has increased steadily; two-thirds of the crop comes from Idaho, Washington, Oregon, Colorado, and Maine, and potato growers have strengthened their position in both domestic and foreign markets.
By the 1960s, the Canadian Potato Research Centre in Fredericton, New Brunswick, was one of the top six potato research institutes in the world. Established in 1912 as a Dominion Experimental Station, the station began in the 1930s to concentrate on breeding new varieties of disease-resistant potatoes. In the 1950s–1960s, the growth of the French fry industry in New Brunswick led to a focus on developing varieties for the industry. By the 1970s, the station's potato research was broader than ever before, but the station and its research programs had changed, as emphasis was placed on serving industry rather than potato farmers in general. Scientists at the station even began describing their work using engineering language rather than scientific prose.[32] Potatoes are Canada's most important vegetable crop; they are grown commercially in all its provinces, led by Prince Edward Island.[33] In modern days potatoes have grown in popularity due to their versatility and ability to be used for many different dishes of food.
The first potatoes to arrive in North America from Europe were sent to Gov. Francis Wyatt of Virginia at Jamestown by Nathaniel Butler. There were two large cedar boxes that were filled with different vegetables, among them were potatoes. The very first potatoes grown in North America were planted in Derry New Hampshire in the year 1719. Idaho didn't begin growing potatoes until 1836.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Food portal
History portal
Food history
Highland Potato Famine
European Potato Failure
History of agriculture
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Spooner, DM; et al. (2005). "A single domestication for potato based on multilocus amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping". PNAS. 102 (41): 14694–99. PMC 1253605  . PMID 16203994. doi:10.1073/pnas.0507400102.
^ Jump up to: a b Office of International Affairs, Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation (1989) online
Jump up ^ David R. Harris, Gordon C. Hillman, Foraging and Farming: The Evolution of Plant Exploitation. Routledge, 2014 ISBN 1317598296 p496
Jump up ^ Martins-Farias 1976; Moseley 1975
Jump up ^ Ugent D., S. Pozorski and T. Pozorski. 1982. Archaeological potato tuber remains from the Casma Valley of Peru. Econ. Bot. 36:182-192
Jump up ^ Erickson 1977: 6
Jump up ^ David R. Harris, Gordon C. Hillman, Foraging and Farming: The Evolution of Plant Exploitation. Routledge, 2014 ISBN 1317598296 p495
Jump up ^ Global Facilitation Unit for Underutilized Species. Andean Native Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum subsp. andigena) (PDF). p. 5. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Bengoa, José (2003). Historia de los antiguos mapuches del sur (in Spanish). Santiago: Catalonia. pp. 199–200. ISBN 956-8303-02-2.
Jump up ^ Ames, Mercedes; Spooner, David (2008). "DNA from herbarium specimens settles a controversy about origins of the European potato". American Journal of Botany. 95 (2): 252–257. PMID 21632349. doi:10.3732/ajb.95.2.252. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Histoires de légumes by M. Pitrat and C. Foury, Institut National de la recherche agronomique, 2003, p164
Jump up ^ "Sir Walter Raleigh – American colonies". Archived from the original on 26 May 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b John Reader, John. Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History (2008)
Jump up ^ McNeill William H (1999). "How the Potato Changed the World's History". Social Research. 66 (1): 67–83.
Jump up ^ Wilhelm Abel (1986). Agricultural Fluctuations in Europe: From the Thirteenth to the Twentieth Centuries. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 0-312-01465-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Columbus's Contribution to World Population and Urbanization: A Natural Experiment Examining the Introduction of Potatoes" (PDF). Harvard University. Retrieved 8 January 2009.
Jump up ^ John Reader, Propitious Esculent: The Potato in World History (2008)
Jump up ^ "Histoires de légumes" by M. Pitrat and C. Foury, Institut National de la recherche agronomoique, 2003, p167
Jump up ^ von Bremzen, p. 322
Jump up ^ William L. Langer, "American Foods and Europe's Population Growth 1750–1850", Journal of Social History, 8#2 (1975), pp. 51–66
Jump up ^ John Komlos, "The New World's Contribution to Food Consumption During the Industrial Revolution." Journal of European Economic History 1998 27(1): 67–82. ISSN 0391-5115
Jump up ^ Dorien Knaap, The W.A. Scholtencompany: the first Dutch industrial multinational, Summary of dissertation, University of Groningen, 2004 [1]
Jump up ^ McNeill William H (1948). "The Introduction of the Potato into Ireland". Journal of Modern History. 21 (3): 218–21. JSTOR 1876068. doi:10.1086/237272.
Jump up ^ Maranzani, Barbara (21 May 2013). "After 168 Years, Potato Famine Mystery Solved". History.com.
Jump up ^ Cormac Ó Gráda, Black '47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, and Memory. (1999).
Jump up ^ Cormac Ó Gráda, et al. When the Potato Failed: Causes and Effects of the Last European Subsistence Crisis, 1845–1850. (2007)
^ Jump up to: a b c "The Cambridge World History of Food- Potatoes (White)". Cambridge.org. 10 June 1994. Archived from the original on 26 December 2005. Retrieved 19 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Sarah C. P. Williams (15 May 2007). "The Secret History of the Potato – ScienceNOW". sciencemag.org. Retrieved 19 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Vinod Chandra Srivastava (2008). History of Agriculture in India, Up to C. 1200 A.D. Concept Publishing Company. p. 150. ISBN 978-81-8069-521-6.
Jump up ^ Kemble, Joseph (February 1997). "Containers and Weights of Commercial Fruits, Nuts, and Vegetables". The Alabama Cooperative Extension System. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
Jump up ^ Using 60 pounds per bushel, as given by the Alabama Cooperative Extension System[30]
Jump up ^ Steven Turner, and Heather Molyneaux, "Agricultural Science, Potato Breeding and the Fredericton Experimental Station, 1912–66." Acadiensis 2004 33(2): 44–67. ISSN 0044-5851
Jump up ^ "Potatoes in Canada". Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
Further reading[edit]
Salaman, Redcliffe N; W. G Burton; J. G Hawkes (1985). The history and social influence of the potato. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521077835.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Potato.
How the Potato Changed the World
The Secret History of the Potato
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