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On the Run Tour (Beyoncé and Jay-Z)
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This article is about the concert tour. For the television specials, see On the Run Tour: Beyoncé and Jay-Z (TV program).
On the Run Tour
Tour by Beyoncé and Jay-Z
Associated albums
Beyoncé
Magna Carta Holy Grail
Start date
June 25, 2014 (2014-06-25)
End date
September 13, 2014 (2014-09-13)
Legs
2
No. of shows
19 in North America
2 in Europe
21 total
Attendance
979,781
Box office
$109 million
Beyoncé tour chronology
The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour
(2013–14) On the Run Tour
(2014) The Formation World Tour
(2016)
Jay-Z tour chronology
Magna Carter World Tour
(2013–14) On the Run Tour
(2014) 4:44 Tour
(2017)
The On the Run Tour was a co-headlining stadium tour by American performer Beyoncé and rapper Jay-Z. The joint tour came shortly after the two had finished their own solo tours — Beyoncé's The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour and Jay-Z's Magna Carter World Tour (both 2013–2014). The tour's name spins off from the 2013 song "Part II (On the Run)", included on Jay-Z's album Magna Carta Holy Grail, on which Beyoncé features. An official poster for the tour was released along with the announcement of the venture, showing Beyoncé and Jay-Z embracing whilst dressed in black ski masks, following the criminal "on the lam" narrative found in the couples' 2002 first single together, "'03 Bonnie & Clyde" and "Part II (On the Run)".
To promote the tour, a faux movie trailer video was premiered in May 2014 entitled "Run" (stylized as "RUN"). The video, which features eight celebrity cameo appearances, showcases the couple in a variety of Bonnie and Clyde style, action and gun packed situations. The tour itself was noted to follow this same theme throughout, with similar video interludes incorporated into the production of the show. Critics generally lauded the tour, praising the extravagant set list, dynamic and detailed theme and story of the show and both artists' performance abilities, however some felt the on stage chemistry between the couple was not what it could have been.
Due to the large demand and tickets selling out in minutes in multiple locations, extra tour dates were added to the itinerary. The tour became a commercial success, grossing $96 million in the first 19 North American shows and $109.7 million in total as well as attendance totalling at 979,781. It was the fifth highest-grossing tour of 2014, according to Pollstar's annual year end tour chart. The show was broadcast in its entirety on September 20, 2014, airing on the US television network HBO, following the taping of the two concerts in Saint-Denis, France, where the tour concluded.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Development
3 Fashion
4 Promotion
5 Concert synopsis
6 Critical reception
7 Commercial performance
7.1 Records
8 Broadcasts and recordings
9 Set list
9.1 Notes
10 Shows
11 Personnel
12 References
13 External links
Background[edit]
Beyoncé and Jay-Z have performed multiple times together throughout their careers, including on the I Am... World Tour (left) and The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour (right).
Beyoncé and Jay-Z first collaborated in 2002 on "'03 Bonnie & Clyde", a song from Jay-Z's seventh studio album, The Blueprint 2: The Gift & The Curse.[1] Since then, other notable collaborations between the pair include Beyoncé's 2003 number-one song, "Crazy in Love" featuring Jay-Z,[2] 2013's "Part II (On the Run)" which is widely regarded as the follow up to "'03 Bonnie & Clyde"[3] and "Drunk in Love", the couple's collaboration from Beyoncé's self-titled fifth album, which was unexpectedly released in December 2013.[4]
In July 2013, Jay-Z stated that a joint tour with Beyoncé was "slowly making sense, more sense every day".[5] Throughout 2013 and 2014, during Beyoncé's The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour, Jay-Z made multiple guest appearances, starting in July at The Sound of Change Live charity concert where the couple performed "Crazy in Love" together,[6] shortly followed by another guest appearance at Brooklyn's Barclays Center in August, where Jay-Z performed "Tom Ford" accompanied by Beyoncé's backing vocals as found in the song.[7] During Beyoncé's final leg of the tour in 2014, Jay-Z appeared a total of seven times to perform their most recent collaboration, "Drunk in Love", together. Jay-Z accompanied Beyoncé on all six nights of her O2 Arena stint in London and finally, at the last night of the tour in Lisbon.[8][9]
Rumours of a co-headlining stadium tour from Beyoncé and Jay-Z first circulated on April 15, 2014, when Page Six reported that a source had revealed the "power couple" would be partaking in a 20 stadium US tour starting in late June and that a performance in New York could take place on July 4.[10] Confirmation of the rumours started to arise when it was reported that the Pasadena City Council were holding a meeting to decide whether to approve the couples' proposed concert on August 2, 2014 at the Rose Bowl. The vote on the matter took place because the Rose Bowl – nestled within an affluent, residential neighbourhood – has a limited number of events permitted per year of twelve, which can only be extended if approved by the city council. The concert was ultimately reported to be the eighteenth approved event of 2014 for the Rose Bowl.[11]
Development[edit]
Beyoncé and Jay-Z performing "Drunk in Love" together, the duo's most recent collaboration.
The tour was "conceived and launched fast compared to most stadium tours" according to Live Nation, who noted that most tours of this nature take more than a year of planning, compared to the On the Run Tour that took around one month. "It came together quite quickly, around mid-March", Omar Al-Joulani of Live Nation North America commented. "By April, we had everything together, and once the routing was in place we had about three weeks until the tour was announced."[12] Following the general sale of tour dates, fans were left concerned as the July 11, 2014 show in East Rutherford, New Jersey remained pending to go on sale for many weeks, despite all other dates already being available to the public. Some reports stated that the reason for this was that the state of New Jersey had implemented a legislation resulting in 95% of tickets for an event having to be available to the public.[13] The show was eventually put on sale to the public on June 4, 2014.[14] The On the Run Tour was the first tour to be a part of "Official Events" – the collaboration of Facebook and Live Nation in which the size and scale of Ticketmaster's database is leveraged as events promoted by Live Nation are imported to Artists' Facebook Pages as "Official Events", providing fans with direct links to Ticketmaster to purchase verified tickets.[15]
The tour was stated to have a running theme throughout the performances of being "on the run" by the Miami New Times, whether it is from "the media, their place in pop music, the haters, the bullshit and sometimes even each other". When explaining the concept of the tour and its accompanying videos in a telephone conversation to New York-based director Dikayal Rimmasch, Jay-Z stated "We're not trying to do this literally, it's not that we're Bonnie and Clyde. We're on the run from everything. On the run from becoming a cliché. On the run from doing the same thing again."[16] During their individual performances, Beyoncé was often backed by both male and female dancers and Jay-Z was noted to hold the stage for multiple songs without assistance. Beyoncé was backed by an all female band during her solo songs, whilst Jay-Z was accompanied by other male instrumentalists; however both artist's musicians collaborated for the majority of the performance. Video interludes filled with "cop chases and other violent outbursts" carried the storytelling between songs. The performances of the joint tour was said to be split up similarly to Jay-Z's previous joint venture with Kanye West, the Watch the Throne Tour. Beyoncé and Jay-Z would take turn holding down the stage, beginning with several songs by Beyoncé first, followed by duets and afterwards Jay-Z rapping his songs.[17] Both artists sported multiple outfits from a variety of fashion designers throughout the performances of the tour. In Beyoncé's case, makeup artist Sir John Barnette commented on her quick changes backstage between performances, comparing them to "Daytona 500" with every member of her team working on a separate part of her look.[18]
Fashion[edit]
During the tour, both headliners sported multiple outfits. Beyoncé is seen wearing a black and white American flag dress, with a 16.4 feet long train.
Both Beyoncé and Jay-Z sported multiple outfits throughout the different performances of the tour. One of the more prominent designers for the tour was Versace, in which Beyoncé wore both a fishnet and leather Atelier black bodysuit (complete with a plunging neckline, a fishnet head mask and high heel combat boots), as well as a colourful Atelier bodysuit from the designer. The leather Atelier black bodysuit took approximately 200 hours to craft and was used for the opening number of the tour, "'03 Bonnie & Clyde".[19] The colourful bodysuit was commented on by Versace who stated that the team had their inspiration from the street for the colour and added various crystals and stripes to show a "baseball vibe" while also trying to capture Beyoncé's energy.[20] Beyoncé's tour shoes were designed by Stuart Weitzman and Joker's Closet.[21] Other outfits included a denim jumpsuit and a bedazzled leotard bodysuit that "showed off her derrière".[22] Beyoncé also sported more thematic and dramatic pieces of clothing, including a full bridal veil and a sweeping train made of a black-and-white American flag.[17] The American flag outfit was designed by Riccardo Tisci of Givenchy and took over 500 hours to create. The American flag train was 16.4 feet long but weighed around 500 grams allowing it to fly in the wind. The individual stars on the outfit were hand-embroidered and its inspiration was said to be "American Danger: Bonnie & Clyde with a modern twist."[23] For the performance of "Ring the Alarm", Beyoncé returned to designer Vrettos Vrettakos (with whom she collaborated with notably on her previous solo tour).[24] Designed by Dennis Kolpodinos, Vrettakos produced a red, "couture 'crystal spirit' bodysuit" complete with fringe details on the limbs and "embellished with Swarovski crystals for stage-ready shine".[25]
Alexander Wang designed a "bondage body suit" worn by Beyoncé during the show, as well as multiple pieces by Nicola Formichetti for Diesel. One of these included the previously mentioned denim outfit, which was "made from the company's patented Jogg Jean material, accented with hand-applied hardware and studwork, Swarovski crystal elements and black leather accessories", worn for the performance of "Run the World (Girls)". Formichetti commented on the outfit, saying "Every classic cops and robbers story blurs the lines between the good and bad, we wanted Beyoncé's to be both. Her look is one part police officer and two parts jailbait."[26] Another piece designed by Diesel was an outfit consisting of jean-shorts and a leather jacket embroiled with the word "Texas". Biker gangs that developed in the United States after World War II served as an inspiration for the outfit; Beyoncé's was meant as a tribute to her hometown and a reminder of her roots. It took 4–5 hours to add the word Texas to the leather jacket.[27] The bondage bodysuit was described as "a riff off of an urban bomber hoodie jacket that was cropped to expose a bondage bodysuit underneath that has graphic cutouts. When worn up, the oversized hood covers the face, adding an incognito element reminiscent of the On The Run theme." It also contained snakeskin seamed into the sleeves of the outfit.[28] One of the more controversial pieces worn by Beyoncé during the On the Run Tour was a black, thong leotard that "put her bare rear end on display in a kind of cage-like cutout". Erica Schwiegershausen of The Cut blog wrote that the number was a "somewhat disorienting look".[29] During the performance of "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)", Beyoncé revisited a leotard from the song's music video in a black and gold lace bodysuit designed by Michael Costello who wanted "Beyoncé to feel beautiful, strong, super sexy and ventilated" with the outfit.[30] Lebanese designer Elie Saab created a bridal-themed, white long-sleeve lace-embellished jumpsuit for Beyoncé for the performances of "Resentment" and "Love On Top" which was part of his Pre-Fall 2014 collection.[31]
Jay-Z's fashion was noted to be Kanye-esque, with pieces worn by him including rotating ensembles of black leather as well as "giant, billowing pant scarves".[17] For the opening performance, Jay-Z appeared on stage in black sunglasses, gold chains, a black and white star speckled shirt and a black jacket.[32] During the performance of "Big Pimpin'" Jay-Z wore a fedora.[33]
Promotion[edit]
Beyoncé and Jay-Z are seen touching whilst dressed in Western-style clothing in one of the many scenes of the "Run" video, released in May 2014 to promote the tour.
The tour was officially announced on April 28, 2014, via Jay-Z's Facebook page. Announcements shortly followed through Beyoncé's website and an official press release.[34][35] Pre-sale tickets for fans to secure their seats first before the general sale were sold through Beyoncé's website and Chase credit and debit card users exclusively. A writer for Billboard noted that Chase was a surprising candidate for the official tour sponsor due to their lack of experience in the concert industry when compared to the live music sponsorship giants such as Citi and American Express. Chase allegedly scored the "11th-hour" deal due to previous connections with Roc Nation Sports (owned by Jay-Z) and a $4 million bid on the position.[36] A promotional poster for the tour was revealed showing Jay-Z and Beyoncé embracing and wearing ski masks, following the criminals-on-the-lam narrative of the couple's two singles ("'03 Bonnie & Clyde" and "Part II (On the Run)"). Beyoncé also wore a similar ski mask in her 2013 video "Superpower" featuring Frank Ocean from her self-titled album.[37] A second promotional poster was released on May 30, 2014, in an email to fans announcing the on sale times for certain tour dates. The poster features Beyoncé dressed in a white, short-cut wedding dress whilst sitting behind and hugging Jay-Z on a motorcycle.[38]
Following the tour's announcement, it was revealed that $1 from each ticket sold and a portion of certain VIP ticket proceeds would go to the Shawn Carter Foundation (named based on Jay-Z's birth name), which would help and support existing students of the foundation that represent diverse backgrounds, and face significant barriers to success such as teen pregnancy, homelessness, poverty, former incarceration, sexual and domestic abuse, and gang membership.[39] Fans in Houston, Texas were requested to bring preservable goods to a selected location by Beyoncé as part of her "#BeyGood" campaign, in association with the Houston Food Bank, Miss-A-Meal, The Bread of Life and Majic 102.1, to help work towards eradicating the nearly 870,000 Houston families suffering from hunger. Fans who donated to the campaign resulted in a chance of winning some of the best tickets in the house for the On the Run Tour in Houston, at Minute Maid Park.[40] The campaign "exceeded expectations", with 2,500 people donating over 10 tonnes of food.[41]
On May 17, 2014, an official video in a faux movie trailer style starring Beyoncé and Jay-Z was released entitled "Run", featuring "Part II (On the Run)" serving as background music.[42] The video, which features multiple celebrity cameos including Don Cheadle, Guillermo Díaz, Jake Gyllenhaal, Kidada Jones, Rashida Jones, Blake Lively, Emmy Rossum and Sean Penn, shows Beyoncé and Jay-Z out on a Bonnie and Clyde expedition, filled with action, crime, love and guns. Multiple other snippets of tracks from Magna Carta Holy Grail carry the video, alongside "Part II (On the Run)".[43] The video notably ended stating "coming never", indicating that the trailer was in fact never going to be a full feature film. The video was directed by Melina Matsoukas.[44] One of the many outfits worn by Beyoncé in the video was a Givenchy lace pant suit, and was commented to add an angelic feel to the contrasting, violent run of the narrative.[45]
Concert synopsis[edit]
Beyoncé performing in denim shorts, a white T-shirt and a studded leather jacket. The stage production for the performance consisted of heavy smoke and coloured lighting.
The concert opened with a black-and-white video on the screen accompanied by sirens as Beyoncé and Jay-Z appeared onstage surrounded by smoke. The duo started performing the song "'03 Bonnie & Clyde" with Beyoncé wearing a fishnet see-through mask and Jay-Z wearing black sunglasses, a star-speckled shirt, black jacket and gold chains.[32] The pair went on to perform "Upgrade U" as the second song during the set.[46] The opening run from "'03 Bonnie & Clyde to "Upgrade U" set the tone."Crazy in Love" was performed by the duo among purple lights, smoke, and strobe lights with funky horns in the background. After the performance of the song, "Diamonds from Sierra Leone" began and Beyoncé left the stage as Jay-Z continued singing. He performed "Niggas in Paris" alone on stage before being quickly joined by Beyoncé again for the performance of "Tom Ford". She returned to the stage with a military cap and sang the background vocals for the song.[33] A performance of "Run the World (Girls)" followed with Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's words from "Flawless" appearing on the screen and the latter song was sung by the singer while dancing with her background dancers. A short snippet of "Yoncé" was performed afterwards. An a cappella performance of "Big Pimpin'" followed accompanied by vintage videos and party scenes on the screen with Jay-Z wearing a fedora. Beyoncé performed "Naughty Girl" dressed in a bodysuit as she was immediately joined by Jay-Z for "Big Pimpin'".[33]
Beyoncé appeared on stage seated in a glass chair, wearing a full-length sequined bodysuit and performed dancehall choreography to "Ring the Alarm" before continuing with "On to the Next One" along with Jay-Z.[33] "Clique" followed with Beyoncé dressed in hooded leather as montage of war images and fireballs were shown on the screen. During the song, Beyonce shortly sang a remixed version of her "Diva" and went on singing "Baby Boy". She reappeared on stage dressed in a black drop-sleeve lace for the performance of "Haunted". "Drunk in Love" was performed with Beyoncé doing a chair dance and Jay-Z appeared during the end to rap his verse. "Public Service Announcement" and "Why Don't You Love Me" followed with the latter performance being accompanied by the French dancing duo Les Twins.[33] For "Holy Grail", Justin Timberlake's vocals in the studio version were replaced with Beyoncé's. "Partition" featured a new rap verse sung by Jay-Z and Beyoncé performed it with a pole choreography along with other female dancers.[47] A video with allusions from "Part II (On the Run)" showing Beyoncé covered in blood in a lineup and glass shattering preceded "99 Problems". "If I Were a Boy" followed with a cover of Lauryn Hill's "Ex-Factor" afterwards. Beyoncé moved to a stage in the middle of the stadium dressed as a bride in white with a floor-length bridal veil and continued with a performance of "Resentment" seated. She continued with "Love on Top" which was performed as a tribute to Michael Jackson.[47]
"Hard Knock Life (Ghetto Anthem)" was performed by Jay-Z with black and white shots of Brooklyn. Beyoncé appeared on stage again to perform "Pretty Hurts" in a leather-studded jacket with the word "Texas" emblazoned across the back. The pair moved to the mini-stage for the performances of "Part II (On the Run)" and "Young Forever". Home videos of the couples' daughter Blue Ivy appeared on the screen and an image of "The Carters" written in the sand followed.[32] One of the short projections on the screen showed footage of the pair's wedding ceremony in April 2008 along with their "IV" tattoos, as well as a pregnant Beyoncé showing her bare stomach, with Jay-Z behind, putting the surrogacy and fake pregnancy rumors that have appeared since 2011 to rest.[48][49] "Lift Off" was performed as the last song on the set, serving as an outro.[47] During the performance, Beyoncé changed her costumes numerous times.[49]
Critical reception[edit]
The tour was generally well received by critics. Beyoncé was praised for her performance abilities and choreographed routines with her background dancers, and can be seen performing "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)".
The opening night of the tour received generally positive reviews: USA Today's Erica K. Landau praised the Miami concert, summarizing it as "[a] tantalizing spectacle, [with] triumphant vocals, palpable sensuality and booty-shaking anthems".[32] She further described the performance as integrated adding that, "the coordination is not just remarkable, it's the absolute best way that two of the world's best performers can deliver a show that proves why they're on top together".[32] MTV News editor Rebecca Thomas praised the duo's united performance, adding that they demonstrated how to share a stage, "egos aside: They toggled, repeatedly, and mostly seamlessly from one megastar catalog to the other and took fan-favorites in surprising new directions — ones that imbued them with pathos that hadn't been there before."[33] Miami New Times Kat Bein felt that the chemistry between the couple was not what it could have been, with Beyoncé reportedly shaking off Jay-Z's kisses or turning away during his "doting playfulness", however Bein added that this could have been merely a playful act for the stage. She felt that potential "witty banter" between the couple was lost with the use of the video pieces between the songs.[17] Jon Caramanica in a review for The New York Times opined that each entertainer gave the other the opportunity to be the center of attention, while acknowledging their different types of success. He concluded "Jay-Z allowed for breezy enjoyment; Beyoncé demanded full and reverent attention".[50]
The following concerts for the duration of the tour were also met with high praise from critics: Merecedes J. Howze of New Pittsburgh Courier praised the "consistent" show in Cincinnati, stating "The duo has proven numerous times that their union, professionally and personally, is unstoppable." Howze concluded that the show was definitely a "couples concert" meant to be "enjoy[ed]" with a love partner.[51] CityBeat's Jac Kern, who attended the same show praised the duo for performing hard while fully using both of the two stages and interacting with the crowd. However he also felt that intimate moments between the couple on stage were "possibly staged".[52] The production of the tour was stated to be both large and minimal by The Boston Globe writer James Read who commented that only a few performers could manage to pull off a production of On The Run's scale. He continued his review, "Nor is there much to behold beyond its stars: no long catwalks, elaborate sets, or even a visible band. With Beyoncé and Jay-Z, two natural-born entertainers, you do not need much more."[53] Mesfin Fekadu of the Associated Press reported that the set list of the show emulated a conversation told through songs; he noted that despite the concert being a collaborative tour, "it was the performers' emotional solo material that made their presence as a collaborative duo strong and resilient".[54] The first Canadian show of the tour was again well received by critics. Graham Slaughter of the Toronto Star concluded in his review, "If there's anything to be learned from the On the Run tour, it's that tight timing, a dynamic storyline and legendary talent make a 42-song concert not just enjoyable, but rather unforgettable. Performers be warned: the bar on dual concerts has forever been raised."[55] Lorraine Ali of the Los Angeles Times who attended the first of two shows in Pasadena, California, also gave a positive review noting that the concert showcased how a marriage should work with the spouses "balancing out each other's weaknesses with individual strengths" on stage. Ali went on praising the stage interactions between the pair such as kissing and toggling and concluded, "Whether it was a carefully orchestrated act or not, they are a great team."[56]
Jay-Z was commended for holding down the stage and working the crowd alone for most of his solo performances.
The only European shows in Paris, France, were also lauded by critics. Lewis Corner of Digital Spy gave the second Parisian show a five star review. He praised the performance abilities of both artists, explaining "When left to [Jay-Z's] own devices on stage, the rapper is forceful and beguiling. It takes little for him to have thousands waving their hands to 'Tom Ford', as he looks dapper in honour of the designer. But when Beyoncé rises up out of the stage in a denim military outfit to the question 'bad bitch?' and then storms into 'Run The World (Girls)', the track's sentiment couldn't resound more. Without doubt, she lives up to her hype as one of the world's best performers. Slick movement, tight choreography, innocent attitude and effortless vocals instantly escalate the atmosphere of the show."[57] Simon Harper of Clash felt that both performers had immediately apparent different performance approaches and both commanded an "incredible presence and deafening screams from the French crowd", however concluded that Beyoncé just finished on top as the better of the two, finalising his all positive review with "The music world's most powerful and influential partnership couldn't fail to demonstrate the reasons for their rise to dominance... As the On The Run tour comes to its conclusion, it's clear to see that Mrs. Carter emerges on top. But damn, it was a good race to watch."[58]
Commercial performance[edit]
The tour was a commercial success, playing for over 980,000 fans. A lit up and crowded Safeco Field is seen from the couples concert there on July 30, 2014.
Tickets for the tour were priced at $40 to $275, so that wherever fans were on the "ticket chain", they had an opportunity to attend the show. "We made sure we had affordable tickets as well as the higher-priced tickets that we know the market can bear. Pricing went right across the spectrum", promoters explained.[12] Jesse Lawrence of Forbes stated that demand for the tour was "through the roof" and that the On the Run Tour was "guaranteed to be one of the biggest tours in recent years." Shortly after pre-sales for the tour began, tickets had already started to appear on the secondary ticketing market. In the same article, Lawrence explained how with an average ticket price of $342.67 on the secondary market, the On the Run Tour was "head and shoulders above the rest", having a higher average ticket price than both Beyoncé and Jay-Z's previous aforementioned solo tours, Jay-Z's previous co-headlining tours with Justin Timberlake and Eminem, as well as The Monster Tour; the then upcoming co-headlining tour from Rihanna and Eminem.[59]
Billboard reported that the On the Run Tour was "already one of the summer concert season's hottest engagements" and noted that tickets had sold out in minutes for multiple dates.[36] Due to the large demand, extra dates were added in East Rutherford, San Francisco and Pasadena following the first shows in each city selling out.[60] The second Rose Bowl stadium date in Pasadena, California, again had to await approval from the Pasadena City Council for the aforementioned reason that the Rose Bowl has a cap of twelve events per year and all other events exceeding this limit require approval from the city council.[61] On June 13, 2014, two Paris dates of the tour were announced, set to be performed at the Stade de France. The dates were labelled as the exclusive, only European shows of the On the Run Tour.[62] Within two hours of going on general sale, 90,000 tickets were sold between the two Paris shows.[63] Stephanie Smith of Page Six reported that Beyoncé and Jay-Z were paid $4 million per show of the tour, "guaranteed and independent of ticket sales". This totalled to a $84 million total payout to the couple throughout the duration of the tour.[64]
Live Nation reported to Billboard that the tour had already sold 750,000 tickets and was on pace to reach 850,000 total tickets sold in North America. It was also noted that the tour was averaging close to $5.2 million per show in current sales and that the On the Run Tour would finish as "one of the most successful tours of the year".[65] On the same day, Forbes reported that the summer tour would most likely finish as the second most successful tour of all time by one measure when looking at the average gross per show, which then stood at a predicted $5 million.[66] In August 2014, Omar Al-Joulani of North American touring for Live Nation confirmed that the On the Run Tour had officially passed $100 million in ticket sales in the 19 North American shows alone, with attendance topping out at more than the previously predicted 850,000. Al-Joulani also noted the triumph of the tour outside of the "must play" markets such as New York City or Los Angeles, stating the tour routed into some secondary touring markets like Cincinnati, New Orleans and Seattle "that turned out to be wildly successful". "We had the greatest time in those markets" said Al-Joulani.[12]
In September 2014, the North American leg of the tour was individually reported to Billboard Boxscore. Beyoncé and Jay-Z landed atop of the Hot Tours chart with 19 sold out shows. The most commercially successful performances of the tour were venues with double bookings, found in East Rutherford, grossing $11.5 million, Pasadena grossing $10.9 million and San Francisco, generating $8.8 million.[67] The tour was announced as the 5th highest grossing tour of 2014 in Pollstar's annual highest grossing tours chart, with a total revenue of $109.7 million. The tour also had a total attendance of 979,781 and an average attendance of 57,634 per city.[68]
Records[edit]
At the July 1, 2014 concert in Foxborough, Jay-Z became the first rapper to headline Gillette Stadium.[53] Baltimore Ravens senior manager for ticket sales Mike Burke reported that the On the Run Tour was the fastest selling concert ever at the M&T Bank Stadium, stating that unlike other shows there, "this sold out every seat almost instantly. I guess that's the power of Beyoncé."[69]
Broadcasts and recordings[edit]
Main article: On the Run Tour: Beyoncé and Jay-Z (TV program)
In July 2014, it was announced that HBO would exclusively air the On the Run Tour in full at some point in September, following the upcoming filming of the concerts in Paris, France at the scheduled September 12 and 13, 2014 shows in the city. The shows were shot by music video director Jonas Åkerlund and aired on the channel on September 20, 2014.[70] HBO used 20 different cameras to record the two shows.[71] The concert special received a 0.5 rating of adults aged 18–49, and aired to 888,000 viewers.[72] Following the airing of the special, videos of the performances of "Young Forever" / "Halo" and "Flawless (remix)" featuring Nicki Minaj, were uploaded to Beyoncé's official YouTube and Vevo account.[73]
In September 2014, it was announced that a trilogy of videos entitled "Bang Bang" were to be released as a short film leading up to the broadcast of the tour special. The short film (in which multiple scenes are found in video interludes and backdrops throughout the tour) was directed by New York-based filmmaker and photographer Dikayl Rimmasch. Together with war photographer William Kaner, Rimmasch put together the filmmaking approach and aesthetic of the series.[74] Inspired by French New Wave cinema, the short film was created using custom camera rigs that Rimmasch had designed, 50-year-old Russian lenses and lighting effects by Archie Ciotti and Scott Spencer and followed an incredibly fast, shoot-from-the-hip recording style.[75] However, following the release of part one of the trilogy, the remaining two videos never came to surface on their scheduled release dates. When asked about this (and the deletion of part one from its original upload source), Rimmasch simply stated "no comment".[76] In February 2015, all 3 videos resurfaced online, debuting on creativeexchangeagency.com.[77]
Set list[edit]
This set list is representative of the first performance in East Rutherford, New Jersey. It does not represent all concerts for the duration of the tour.[78]
"'03 Bonnie & Clyde"
"Upgrade U"
"Crazy in Love" (contains elements of "Back That Azz Up")
"Show Me What You Got"
"Diamonds From Sierra Leone (Remix)"
"I Just Wanna Love U (Give It 2 Me)"
"Tom Ford"
"Run the World (Girls)"
"Flawless"
"Yoncé"
"Jigga My Nigga"
"Dirt Off Your Shoulder"
"Naughty Girl"
"Big Pimpin'"
"Ring the Alarm"
"On to the Next One"
"Clique"
"Diva"
"Baby Boy"
"U Don't Know"
"Ghost" / "Haunted"
"No Church in the Wild"
"Drunk In Love"
"Public Service Announcement"
"Why Don't You Love Me"
"Holy Grail"
"FuckWithMeYouKnowIGotIt"
"Beach Is Better"
"Partition"
"99 Problems"
"If I Were A Boy"
"Ex-Factor"
"Song Cry"
"Resentment"
"Love On Top"
"Izzo (H.O.V.A.)"
"Niggas In Paris"
"Single Ladies (Put A Ring On It)"
"Hard Knock Life (Ghetto Anthem)"
"Pretty Hurts"
"Part II (On the Run)"
"Young Forever"
"Halo"
"Lift Off"
Notes[edit]
During the performances in Paris, Nicki Minaj joined Beyoncé on stage to perform the remix of "Flawless", on which she features.[57]
Shows[edit]
Date
City
Country
Venue
Attendance
Revenue
North America[35][47][79]
June 25, 2014 Miami Gardens United States Sun Life Stadium 49,980 / 49,980 $5,450,026
June 28, 2014 Cincinnati Great American Ball Park 37,863 / 37,863 $4,250,931
July 1, 2014 Foxborough Gillette Stadium 52,802 / 52,802 $5,738,114
July 5, 2014 Philadelphia Citizens Bank Park 40,634 / 40,634 $5,141,381
July 7, 2014 Baltimore M&T Bank Stadium 51,212 / 51,212 $5,016,036
July 9, 2014 Toronto Canada Rogers Centre 48,029 / 48,029 $4,943,390
July 11, 2014 East Rutherford United States MetLife Stadium 89,165 / 89,165 $11,544,187
July 12, 2014
July 15, 2014 Atlanta Georgia Dome 48,938 / 48,938 $5,210,602
July 18, 2014 Houston Minute Maid Park 40,103 / 40,103 $5,235,438
July 20, 2014 New Orleans Mercedes-Benz Superdome 42,374 / 42,374 $5,206,490
July 22, 2014 Arlington AT&T Stadium 41,463 / 41,463 $5,050,479
July 24, 2014 Chicago Soldier Field 50,035 / 50,035 $5,783,396
July 27, 2014 Winnipeg Canada Investors Group Field 29,542 / 29,542 $3,187,580
July 30, 2014 Seattle United States Safeco Field 40,615 / 40,615 $4,339,642
August 2, 2014 Pasadena Rose Bowl 96,994 / 96,994 $10,993,245
August 3, 2014
August 5, 2014 San Francisco AT&T Park 73,020 / 73,020 $8,887,539
August 6, 2014
France [35][47][80]
September 12, 2014 Paris France Stade de France 147,012 / 147,012 $13,631,722
September 13, 2014
Total
979,781 / 979,781 (100%) $109,610,198
Personnel[edit]
Credits and personnel are taken from the Official On the Run Tour Program.[21]
Creative stage direction/staging
Beyoncé
Jay-Z
Performance environment designed and illuminated by
Beyoncé
Jay-Z
LeRoy Bennett
Creative directors
Todd Tourso
Ed Burke
Music directors
Derek Dixie
Omar Edwards
Band
Omar Edwards – Keyboards
Tony Royster Jr. – Drums
Rie Tsuji – Keyboards/assistant arranger
BiBi McGill – Guitar
Kat Rodriguez – Tenor/bari saxophone
Crystal "Rovél" Torres – Trumpet
Addison Evans – Alto saxophone
Lauren "LT" Taneil – Bass
Venezella Joy – Drums
Background vocalists – The Mamas
Crissy Collins (tenor)
Montina Cooper (alto)
Tiffany Monique Riddick (soprano)
Dancers
Ashley Everett – Dance captain
Kimberly Gipson – Dance captain
Les Twins
Denee "Dnay B." Baptiste
Sarah Burns
Tanesha "Ksyn" Cason
Hannah Douglass
Hajiba Fahmy
Amandy Fernandez
Kim Gingras
Choreography
Chris Grant
Dana Foglia
Swetlana Kostantinova
Philipe Decouflé
Additional choreography
Frank Gatson
JaQuel Knight
Denee Baptiste
The Crazy Horse dancers
Sheryl Murakami
Christian Owens
Jeffrey Page
Mishay Petronelli
Danielle Polanco
Les Twins
Jose "Hollywood" Ramos
Tanisha Scott
LaVelle Smith Jr.
Beyoncé wardrobe
Ty Hunter – Head stylist
Raquel Smith – Stylist
Jay-Z wardrobe
June Ambrose – Head stylist
Tuki Babumba – Assistant to June Ambrose
Eli Wasserman – Assistant to June Ambrose
Rebecca Pietri – Wardrobe/ambiance co-ordinator
Band/dancer wardrobe
Su Flesland-Carter
Hannah Kinkead
Tim White
Marni Senofonte – Additional styling
Eric Archibald – Additional styling
Tour hospitality
Christine Dallas – Backstage co-ordinator
Kavi Agrawal – Backstage co-ordinator
Christopher Genovese – Dressing room/ambiance co-ordinator
Alli Harvey – Dressing room assistant
Eddie Uvaydov – Assistant backstage co-ordinator
Personal services
Natalie Kinghorn – Physiotherapist
Neil Farinah – Hair stylist
Sir John Barnette – Make-up artist
Brandon Crowe – Personal chef
Tour management
Desiree Perez – Executive Producer
Alan Floyd – Tour manager
Marlon Bowers – Assistant tour manager
Larry Beyince – Assistant tour manager
Tour promotion
Live Nation
Tour business administration
Mark Aurelio – Tour accountant
Andrew Solomon – Parkwood accountant
Danielle Triebner – Travel agent
Publicity
Yvette Noel-Schure – Schure Media Group
Jana Fleishman – Roc Nation
Carl Fysh – Purple Pitt, United Kingdom
Ticket services
Jessica Vaccino – VIP Nation manager
Jeff Staadt – Parkwood VIP ticketing
Elizabeth Pickrel – Live Nation ticketing
Ian Opitz – VIP Nation
Merchandising
Nick Jones – Global Merchandising Services Ltd.
Kyle Compton – Global Merchandising Services Ltd.
Jim Levin – Live Nation
Security
Julius De Boer – Personal security
Tom Langwiesner – Personal security
Mark Williams – Personal security
Scott Nichols – Venue security
Bob Fontenot – Venue security
Sarah O'Herlihy – Venue security
A creation of
Parkwood Entertainment
Roc Nation
Columbia Records
Life+Times
Sponsor[81]
Chase
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
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Mid-ocean ridge
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For a broader coverage related to this topic, see Undersea mountain range.
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Mid-oceanic ridge, including a black smoker
A mid-ocean ridge (MOR) is an underwater mountain system formed by plate tectonics.[1] It consists of various mountains linked in chains, typically having a valley known as a rift running along its spine. This type of oceanic mountain ridge is characteristic of what is known as an 'oceanic spreading center', which is responsible for seafloor spreading.[2] The production of new seafloor results from mantle upwelling in response to plate spreading; this isentropic upwelling solid mantle material eventually exceeds the solidus and melts. The buoyant melt rises as magma at a linear weakness in the oceanic crust, and emerges as lava, creating new crust upon cooling. A mid-ocean ridge demarcates the boundary between two tectonic plates, and consequently is termed a divergent plate boundary.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
1.1 Volcanism
1.2 Morphology
2 Formation processes
3 Global system
4 Seawater Chemistry
5 History
5.1 Discovery
5.2 Impact
6 List of oceanic ridges
6.1 List of ancient oceanic ridges
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Description[edit]
Graphic shows a mid-ocean ridge, with magma rising from a chamber below, forming new ocean plate that spreads away from the ridge.
Mid-ocean ridge in Þingvellir National Park, Iceland.
Volcanism[edit]
Mid-ocean ridges are geologically active, with continuing volcanism and seismicity. New magma steadily emerges onto the ocean floor and intrudes into the ocean crust at and near rifts along the ridge axes. The crystallized magma forms new crust of basalt (known as MORB for mid-ocean ridge basalt) and below it (in the lower oceanic crust), gabbro.[3] MORs are formed by two oceanic plates moving away from each other. Hydrothermal vents are a common feature at oceanic spreading centers.[4]
The rocks making up the crust below the seafloor are youngest along the axis of the ridge and age with increasing distance from that axis. New magma of basalt composition emerges at and near the axis because of decompression melting in the underlying Earth's mantle.[5]
The oceanic crust is made up of rocks much younger than the Earth itself. Most oceanic crust in the ocean basins is less than 200 million years old. The crust is in a constant state of "renewal" at the ocean ridges. Moving away from the mid-ocean ridge, ocean depth progressively increases; the greatest depths are in ocean trenches. As the oceanic crust moves away from the ridge axis, the peridotite in the underlying mantle cools and becomes more rigid. The crust and the relatively rigid peridotite below it make up the oceanic lithosphere.
Morphology[edit]
See also: Seafloor spreading § Sea floor global topography: half-space model
The bathymetry, or profile of a MOR is largely determined by the seafloor spreading rate at the ridge.[6] Slow spreading ridges (< 5 cm/yr) like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) generally have large, wide rift valleys, sometimes as wide as 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi), and very rugged terrain at the ridge crest that can have relief of up to a 1,000 m (3,300 ft). By contrast, fast spreading ridges (>8 cm/yr) like the East Pacific Rise (EPR) are narrow, sharp incisions surrounded by generally flat topography that slopes away from the ridge over many hundreds of miles.[6] Ultra-slow spreading ridges (< 2 cm/yr), like the Southwest India and the Arctic Ridges form both magmatic and amagmatic ridge segments without transform faults.[7]
The spreading center or axis, commonly connects to a transform fault oriented at right angles to the axis. The flanks of Mid-coean ridges are in many places marked by the inactive scars of transform faults called fracture zones. At faster spreading rates the axes often display Overlapping Spreading Centers that lack connecting transform faults.[8]
The depth of the seafloor (or the height of a location on a mid-ocean ridge above a baselevel) is closely correlated with its age (age of the lithosphere where depth is measured). The age-depth relation can be modeled by the cooling of a lithosphere plate[9][10] or mantle half-space[11] in areas without significant subduction. The overall shape of ridges results from Pratt isostacy: close to the ridge axis there is hot, low-density mantle supporting the oceanic crust. As the oceanic plates cool, away from the ridge axes, the oceanic mantle lithosphere (the colder, denser part of the mantle that, together with the crust, comprises the oceanic plates) thickens and the density increases. Thus older seafloor is underlain by denser material and is deeper. The width of the ridge is hence a function of spreading rate – slow ridges like the MAR have spread much less far (shower a narrower profile) than faster ridges like the EPR (wider profile) for the same amount of cooling and consequent bathymetric deepening.
Formation processes[edit]
Further information: Plate tectonics
Oceanic crust is formed at an oceanic ridge, while the lithosphere is subducted back into the asthenosphere at trenches.
Two processes, ridge-push and slab pull, are thought to be responsible for the spreading seen at mid-ocean ridges, and there is some uncertainty as to which is dominant. Ridge-push occurs when the growing bulk of the ridge pushes the rest of the tectonic plate away from the ridge, often towards a subduction zone. At the subduction zone, "slab-pull" comes into effect. This is simply the weight of the tectonic plate being subducted (pulled) below the overlying plate dragging the rest of the plate along behind it. The slab pull mechanism is considered to be contributing more than the ridge push.[12]
The other process proposed to contribute to the formation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges is the "mantle conveyor" (see image). However, there have been some studies which have shown that the upper mantle (asthenosphere) is too plastic (flexible) to generate enough friction to pull the tectonic plate along. Moreover, unlike in the image above, mantle upwelling that causes magma to form beneath the ocean ridges appears to involve only its upper 400 km (250 mi), as deduced from seismic tomography and from studies of the seismic discontinuity at about 400 km (250 mi). The relatively shallow depths from which the upwelling mantle rises below ridges are more consistent with the "slab-pull" process. On the other hand, some of the world's largest tectonic plates such as the North American Plate are in motion, yet are nowhere being subducted.
The rate at which the mid-ocean ridge creates new material is known as the spreading rate, and is typically measured in mm/yr. As a general rule, fast ridges have spreading (opening) rates of more than 90 mm/year. Intermediate ridges have a spreading rate of 50–90 mm/year while slow spreading ridges have a rate less than 50 mm/year.[6][13]:2 The spreading rate of the North Atlantic Ocean is ~ 25 mm/yr, while in the Pacific region, it is 80–120 mm/yr. Ridges that spread at rates <20 mm/yr are referred to as ultraslow spreading ridges[13]:2 (e.g., the Gakkel Ridge in the Arctic Ocean and the Southwest Indian Ridge) and they provide a much different perspective on crustal formation than their faster spreading brethren.
The mid-ocean ridge systems form new oceanic crust. As crystallized basalt extruded at a ridge axis cools below Curie points of appropriate iron-titanium oxides, magnetic field directions parallel to the Earth's magnetic field are recorded in those oxides. The orientations of the field in the oceanic crust preserve a record of directions of the Earth's magnetic field with time. Because the field has reversed directions at irregular intervals throughout its history, the pattern of geomagnetic reversals in the ocean crust can be used as an indicator of age.[14] Likewise, the pattern of reversals together with age measurements of the crust is used to help establish the history of the Earth's magnetic field.
Global system[edit]
World distribution of mid-oceanic ridges; USGS
The mid-ocean ridges of the world are connected and form the Ocean Ridge, a single global mid-oceanic ridge system that is part of every ocean, making it the longest mountain range in the world. The continuous mountain range is 65,000 km (40,400 mi) long (several times longer than the Andes, the longest continental mountain range), and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km (49,700 mi) long.[15]
Increased rates of sea-floor spreading (i.e. the expansion of the mid-ocean ridge) has caused global (eustatic) sea-level to rise over very long timescales (millions of years).[16]
The high sea levels that occurred during the Cretaceous period (144–65 Ma) can only be attributed to plate tectonics since thermal expansion and the absence of ice sheets by themselves cannot account for the fact that sea levels were 100–170 meters higher than today.[17]
Increased sea-floor spreading means that the hot young crust at the mid-ocean ridge will form at a faster rate than it can be destroyed at subduction zones. The mid-ocean ridge will then expand and form a broader ridge, taking up more space in the ocean basin and causing sea levels to rise.[17]
Sea-level change can be attributed to other factors (thermal expansion, ice melting). Over very long timescales, however, it is the result of changes in the volume of the ocean basins which are, in turn, affected by rates of sea-floor spreading along the mid-ocean ridges.[18]
Seawater Chemistry[edit]
Mg/Ca Ratio Changes at Mid-Ocean Ridges
Mid-ocean ridges are global scale ion-exchange systems.[19]
Rapid spreading rates will expand the mid-ocean ridge causing basalt reactions with seawater to happen faster. The Magnesium/Calcium ratio will be lower because more magnesium ions are being removed from seawater and consumed by the rock, and more calcium ions are being removed from the rock and released to seawater. A lower Mg/Ca ratio favors the precipitation of Low-Mg calcite polymorphs of calcium carbonate (calcite seas).[19]
Slow spreading at mid-ocean ridges has the opposite effect and will result in a higher Mg/Ca ratio favoring the precipitation of aragonite and High-Mg calcite polymorphs of calcium carbonate (aragonite seas).[19]
Experiments show that most modern High-Mg calcite organisms would have been Low-Mg calcite in past calcite seas,[20] meaning that the Mg/Ca ratio in an organism's skeleton varies with the Mg/Ca ratio of the seawater in which it was grown.
The mineralogy of reef-building and sediment-producing organisms is thus regulated by chemical reactions occurring along the mid-ocean ridge, the rate of which is controlled by sea-floor spreading.[20]
History[edit]
Discovery[edit]
Main article: Plate tectonics § Historical context
Mid-ocean ridges are generally submerged deep in the ocean. It was not until the 1950s, when the ocean floor was surveyed in detail, that their full extent became known.
The Vema, a ship of the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, traversed the Atlantic Ocean, recording data about the ocean floor from the ocean surface. A team led by Marie Tharp and Bruce Heezen analyzed the data and concluded that there was an enormous mountain chain running up the middle. Scientists named it the "Mid-Atlantic Ridge".
At first, the ridge was thought to be a phenomenon specific to the Atlantic Ocean. However, as surveys of the ocean floor continued around the world, it was discovered that every ocean contains parts of the mid-ocean ridge system. Although the ridge system runs down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, the ridge is located away from the center of other oceans.
Impact[edit]
Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift in 1912. He stated: "the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the floor of the Atlantic, as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open and making space for fresh, relatively fluid and hot sima [rising] from depth".[21] However, Wegener did not pursue this observation in his later works and his theory was dismissed by geologists because there was no mechanism to explain how continents could plow through ocean crust, and the theory became largely forgotten.
Following the discovery of the worldwide extent of the mid-ocean ridge in the 1950s, geologists faced a new task: explaining how such an enormous geological structure could have formed. In the 1960s, geologists discovered and began to propose mechanisms for seafloor spreading. The discovery of mid-ocean ridges and the process of seafloor spreading allowed for Wegner's theory to be expanded so that it included the movement of oceanic crust as well as the continents.[22] Plate tectonics was a suitable explanation for seafloor spreading, and the acceptance of plate tectonics by the majority of geologists resulted in a major paradigm shift in geological thinking.
It is estimated that 20 volcanic eruptions occur each year along earth's mid-ocean ridges and that every year 2.5 km2 (0.97 sq mi) of new seafloor is formed by this process. With a crustal thickness of 1 to 2 km (0.62 to 1.24 mi), this amounts to about 4 km3 (0.96 cu mi) of new ocean crust formed every year.[citation needed]
Oceanic ridge and deep sea vent chemistry
Age of oceanic crust. The red is most recent, and blue is the oldest.
Plates in the crust of the earth, according to the plate tectonics theory
Seafloor magnetic striping
A demonstration of magnetic striping
List of oceanic ridges[edit]
Main category: Oceanic ridges
Aden Ridge
Cocos Ridge
Explorer Ridge
Gorda Ridge
Juan de Fuca Ridge
American-Antarctic Ridge
Chile Rise
East Pacific Rise
East Scotia Ridge
Gakkel Ridge (Mid-Arctic Ridge)
Nazca Ridge
Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
Central Indian Ridge
Carlsberg Ridge
Southeast Indian Ridge
Southwest Indian Ridge
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Kolbeinsey Ridge (North of Iceland)
Mohns Ridge
Knipovich Ridge (between Greenland and Spitsbergen)
Reykjanes Ridge (South of Iceland)
List of ancient oceanic ridges[edit]
Aegir Ridge
Alpha Ridge
Kula-Farallon Ridge
Pacific-Farallon Ridge
Pacific-Kula Ridge
Phoenix Ridge
See also[edit]
Afar Triangle
Geography of Iceland
List of oceanic landforms
Petrological Database of the Ocean Floor
Slab window
Submarine volcano
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Searle,, Roger (2013). Mid-ocean ridges. New York: Cambridge. ISBN 9781107017528. OCLC 842323181.
Jump up ^ Faulting and Magmatism at Mid‐Ocean Ridges | Geophysical Monograph Series. doi:10.1029/gm106.
Jump up ^ Michael, Peter; Cheadle, Michael (February 20, 2009). "Making a Crust". Science. 323: 1017–18. doi:10.1126/science.1169556.
Jump up ^ Martin, William; Baross, John; Kelley, Deborah; Russell, Michael J. (2008-11-01). "Hydrothermal vents and the origin of life". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 6 (11): 805–814. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1991. ISSN 1740-1526.
Jump up ^ Marjorie Wilson (1993). Igneous petrogenesis. London: Chapman & Hall. ISBN 978-0-412-53310-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c Macdonald, K. C. (1982). "Mid-Ocean Ridges: Fine Scale Tectonic, Volcanic and Hydrothermal Processes Within the Plate Boundary Zone". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 10 (1): 155–190. doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.10.050182.001103.
Jump up ^ Dick, Henry J. B.; Lin, Jian; Schouten, Hans (November 2003). "An ultraslow-spreading class of ocean ridge". Nature. 426 (6965): 405–412. doi:10.1038/nature02128. ISSN 1476-4687.
Jump up ^ Macdonald, Ken C.; Fox, P. J. (1983). "Overlapping spreading centres: new accretion geometry on the East Pacific Rise". Nature. 302 (5903): 55–58. doi:10.1038/302055a0. ISSN 1476-4687.
Jump up ^ Sclater, John G.; Anderson, Roger N.; Bell, M. Lee (1971-11-10). "Elevation of ridges and evolution of the central eastern Pacific". Journal of Geophysical Research. 76 (32): 7888–7915. doi:10.1029/jb076i032p07888. ISSN 2156-2202.
Jump up ^ Parsons, Barry; Sclater, John G. (1977-02-10). "An analysis of the variation of ocean floor bathymetry and heat flow with age". Journal of Geophysical Research. 82 (5): 803–827. doi:10.1029/jb082i005p00803. ISSN 2156-2202.
Jump up ^ Davis, E.E; Lister, C. R. B. (1974). "Fundamentals of Ridge Crest Topography". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. North-Holland Publishing Company. 21: 405–413. Bibcode:1974E&PSL..21..405D. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(74)90180-0.
Jump up ^ Harff, Jan; Meschede, Martin; Petersen, Sven; Thiede, Jörn. Driving Forces: Slab Pull, Ridge Push (2014 ed.). Springer Netherlands. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0_105-1. ISBN 978-94-007-6644-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Searle, Roger (2013). Mid-ocean ridges. New York: Cambridge. p. 2. ISBN 9781107017528. OCLC 842323181.
Jump up ^ Puetz, Stephen; et al. (January 2017). "Quantifying the evolution of the continental and oceanic crust". Earth-Science Reviews. 164: 63–83. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.10.011.
Jump up ^ "What is the longest mountain range on earth?". Ocean Facts. NOAA. Retrieved 17 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Church, J.A.; Gregory, J.M. Sea Level Change. pp. 2599–2604. doi:10.1006/rwos.2001.0268.
^ Jump up to: a b Miller, Kenneth G. (2009). Encyclopedia of Paleoclimatology and Ancient Environments. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 879–887. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4411-3_206.
Jump up ^ Kominz, M.A. Sea Level Variations Over Geologic Time. pp. 2605–2613. doi:10.1006/rwos.2001.0255.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hardie, Lawrence; Stanley, Steven (February 1999). "Hypercalcification: Paleontology Links Plate Tectonics and Geochemistry to Sedimentology" (PDF). GSA TODAY. 9 (2): 1–7.
^ Jump up to: a b Ries, Justin B. (2004-11-01). "Effect of ambient Mg/Ca ratio on Mg fractionation in calcareous marine invertebrates: A record of the oceanic Mg/Ca ratio over the Phanerozoic". Geology. 32 (11). doi:10.1130/g20851.1. ISSN 0091-7613.
Jump up ^ Jacoby, W. R. (January 1981). "Modern concepts of earth dynamics anticipated by Alfred Wegener in 1912". Geology. 9: 25–27. Bibcode:1981Geo.....9...25J. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1981)9<25:MCOEDA>2.0.CO;2.
Jump up ^ Society, National Geographic (2015-06-08). "seafloor spreading". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 2017-04-14.
External links[edit]
An explanation of relevant tectonic forces
Mid-Oceanic ridge, like baseball seam (The Dynamic Earth, USGS)
Ridge2000, Studying Mid-Ocean Ridges from Mantle to Microbe
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