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Christianity in the 1st century
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See also: Ministry of Jesus, Apostolic Age, and Christianity in the 2nd century
Christians believe that Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant.[1] Depicted by 19th century Danish painter Carl Heinrich Bloch is his Sermon on the Mount (c. 30) in which he expounds on the Law. Some scholars consider this to be an antitype of the proclamation of the Ten Commandments or Mosaic Covenant by Moses from the Biblical Mount Sinai.[2]
Main articles: History of early Christianity and Early Christianity
Christianity in the 1st century deals with the formative years of the Early Christian community. The earliest followers of Jesus composed an apocalyptic Jewish sect, which historians refer to as Jewish Christianity.[3] The Apostles dispersed from Jerusalem, founding the Apostolic Sees, presumably following the Great Commission's decree to spread the teachings of Jesus to "all nations". Peter, Paul, and James the Just were the most influential early Christian leaders,[4] though Paul's influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than any other New Testament authors,[5] but the relationship of Paul of Tarsus and Judaism is still disputed today. The split of early Christianity from Judaism was gradual, as Christianity became a predominantly Gentile religion.
Christian restorationists propose that the 1st century Apostolic Age represents a purer form of Christianity that should be adopted in the church as it exists today.
Contents
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1 Life and ministry of Jesus
2 Apostolic Age
2.1 Acts of the Apostles
2.2 Christian creeds
2.3 Persecutions
2.4 Jerusalem in Christianity
2.5 Peter and the Twelve
2.6 Worship liturgy
3 Defining scripture
3.1 Old Testament
3.2 New Testament
4 Early Christianity and Judaism
4.1 Jewish continuity
4.2 Jewish Christians
4.3 Split with Judaism
5 Spread of Christianity
6 Apostolic Fathers
6.1 Clement of Rome
6.2 Didache
7 Timeline
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Life and ministry of Jesus[edit]
Events in the
Life of Jesus
according to the Gospels
Early life[show]
Annunciation
Visitation
Nativity
Virgin birth
Adoration of the Shepherds
Circumcision
Presentation
Adoration of the Magi
Flight into Egypt
Massacre of the Innocents
Return to Nazareth
Finding in the Temple
Ministry[show]
Baptism
Temptation
Commissioning the Twelve
Sermon on the Mount / Plain
Miracles
Parables
Rejection
Transfiguration
Passion[show]
Triumphal entry into Jerusalem
Temple cleansing
Second coming prophecy
Anointing
Last Supper
Farewell Discourse
Paraclete promised
Agony in the Garden
Kiss of Judas
Arrest
Sanhedrin trial
Mocking
Herod's court
Pilate's court
Flagellation
Crown of Thorns
Via Dolorosa
Crucifixion
Descent from the Cross
Entombment
Harrowing of Hell
Resurrection[show]
Empty tomb
Appearances
Noli me tangere
Road to Emmaus
Great Commission
Ascension
In rest of the NT[show]
Road to Damascus
John's vision
Portals: Christianity Bible
Book:Life of Jesus
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See also: Gospel harmony, New Testament view on Jesus' life, and Chronology of Jesus
18th-century painting, The Crucifixion, by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.
The ministry of Jesus, according to the account of the Gospels, falls into a pattern of sectarian preachers with devoted disciples. After being baptized by John the Baptist, Jesus preached for a period of one to three years in the early 1st century AD. Jesus' method of teaching involved parables, metaphor, allegory, sayings, proverbs, and a small number of direct sermons such as the Sermon on the Mount. His ministry was ended by his execution, by crucifixion at the hands of the Roman authorities by demand of the Jews in Jerusalem. His surviving disciples then followed the Great Commission to spread the teachings of Jesus to "all nations".
Christians believe that three days after his death, Jesus rose bodily from the dead.[6][7][8][9] Early works by Jesus' followers document a number of resurrection appearances[10][11][12][13][14] and the resurrection of Jesus formed the basis and impetus of the Christian faith.[15][16][17] His followers wrote that he appeared to the disciples in Galilee and Jerusalem and that Jesus was on the earth for 40 days before his Ascension to heaven[18] and that he will return to earth to fulfil aspects of Messianic prophecy, such as the resurrection of the dead, the last judgment and the full establishment of the Kingdom of God, though Preterists believe these events have already happened.
The main sources of information regarding Jesus' life and teachings are the four canonical gospels, and to a lesser extent the Acts of the Apostles and writings of Paul. Christianity's theology is largely founded and based on one central point found in these Gospels: that Jesus died and rose from death as God's sacrifice for human sins.[19]
Apostolic Age[edit]
Main article: Apostolic Age
Early Christianity may be divided in two distinct phases: the apostolic period, when the apostles were leading the congregations, and the post-apostolic Ante-Nicene Period, when imperial persecution of Christians continued until the rise of Constantine the Great.
The years following Jesus until the death of the last of the Twelve Apostles is called the Apostolic Age.[20] The Christian Church came fully into being on Pentecost when, according to scriptural accounts, the apostles received the Holy Spirit and emerged from hiding following the death and resurrection of Jesus to preach and spread his message.[21][22] The apostolic period produced writings attributed to the direct followers of Jesus Christ and is traditionally associated with the apostles and apostolic times. This age is the foundation upon which the entire church's history is founded.[23] Though congregations met in the houses of these followers of Jesus Christ, this Apostolic Congregation, also called the "Primitive Church", was the community led by Jesus' apostles and, it would seem, his relatives.[24]
Acts of the Apostles[edit]
The Cenacle on Mount Zion, claimed to be the location of the Last Supper and Pentecost. Bargil Pixner[25] claims the original Church of the Apostles is located under the current structure.
The principal source of information for this earliest period is the Acts of the Apostles. However, there are scholars who dispute the Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles. Soon after the earthly ministry of Jesus, the Jerusalem church began at Pentecost with apostles and others totalling some 120 Jews and Jewish proselytes,[26] in an "upper room," believed by some to be the Cenacle, and thus "the first Christian church."[27] The Acts of the Apostles goes on to record the stoning of Stephen and the subsequent dispersal of the church,[28] which led to the baptism of Simon Magus in Samaria;[29] and also an Ethiopian eunuch.[30] Paul's "Road to Damascus" conversion to the "Apostle to the Gentiles" is first recorded in Acts 9:13-16. Peter baptized the Roman Centurion Cornelius, traditionally considered the first Gentile convert to Christianity, in Acts 10. Based on this, the Antioch church was founded. It is also believed that it was there that the term Christian was coined.[31]
Disputes over the Mosaic law generated intense controversy in early Christianity.[32][33] This is particularly notable in the mid-1st century, when the circumcision controversy came to the forefront. The issue was addressed at the Council of Jerusalem where Paul made an argument that circumcision was not a necessary practice for Gentile believers, vocally supported by Peter, as documented in Acts 15. This position received widespread support and was summarized in a letter circulated in Antioch. Four years after the Council of Jerusalem, Paul wrote to the Galatians about the issue, which had become a serious controversy in their region. Paul considered it a great threat to his doctrine of salvation through faith and addressed the issue with great detail in Galatians 3[34]
Although competing forms of Christianity emerged early and persisted into the 5th century, there was broad doctrinal unity within the mainstream churches.[35][36] Bishops like Ignatius of Antioch (c.35-c.108) and later Irenaeus (d. c.202) defined proto-orthodox teaching in stark opposition to heresies such as Gnosticism.[37]
In spite of intermittent intense persecutions, the Christian religion continued its spread throughout the Mediterranean Basin.
Christian creeds[edit]
The sources for the beliefs of the apostolic community include the Gospels and New Testament Epistles. The very earliest accounts are contained in these texts, such as early Christian creeds and hymns, as well as accounts of the Passion, the empty tomb, and Resurrection appearances; often these are dated to within a decade or so of the crucifixion of Jesus, originating within the Jerusalem Church.[38]
The earliest Christian creeds and hymns express belief in the risen Jesus, e.g., that preserved in 1 Corinthians 15:3–41[39] The antiquity of the creed has been located by many scholars to less than a decade after Jesus' death, originating from the Jerusalem apostolic community,[40][41] and no scholar dates it later than the 40s.[42][43] Other relevant and very early creeds include 1 John 4:2, 2 Timothy 2:8[44] Romans 1:3–4[45] and 1 Timothy 3:16
Persecutions[edit]
See also: Persecution of Christians in the New Testament and Persecution of early Christians by the Romans
From the beginning, Christians were subject to various persecutions. According to the Book of Acts in the New Testament, this involved even death for Christians such as Stephen (Acts 7:59) and James, son of Zebedee (12:2). Larger-scale persecutions followed at the hands of the authorities of the Roman Empire, beginning in 64 AD, when Emperor Nero blamed them for the Great Fire of Rome.
Several of the New Testament writings mention persecutions and stress endurance through them. Christians suffered persecutions for their refusal to give any worship to the Roman emperor, considered treasonous and punishable by execution.
Systematic persecution of the early Christian church caused it to be an underground movement. Of the underground churches that existed before the Edict of Milan legalized Christianity, some churches are recorded to have existed as the catacombs in Europe, Catacombs of Rome, Greece, and also in the underground cities of Anatolia such as Derinkuyu Underground City.
Jerusalem in Christianity[edit]
Main article: Jerusalem in Christianity
The Christian community in Jerusalem, where Jesus, many of the twelve Apostles and many eyewitnesses originally lived (St Marks monastery or House Of Mary), had a special position among Christian communities. The Desposyni (relatives of Jesus) lived in Nazareth during the 1st century.[citation needed] The relatives of Jesus were accorded a special position within the early church, as displayed by the leadership of James the Just in Jerusalem.[46]
The destruction of Jerusalem, seen as symbolic by supersessionism, and the consequent dispersion of Jews and Jewish Christians from the city (after the Bar Kokhba revolt) ended any pre-eminence of the Jewish-Christian leadership in Jerusalem. Although Epiphanius of Salamis reported that the Cenacle survived at least to Hadrian's visit in 130,[27] some today think it was rebuilt shortly after this first Jewish war.[25] Early Christianity grew further apart from Judaism to establish itself as a predominantly Gentile religion, and Antioch became the first Gentile Christian community with stature.[47]
Peter and the Twelve[edit]
The Catholic Church position is that Jesus had essentially appointed Peter as the first Pope, with authority over the entire Church.[48] This is derived from his seeming primacy among the Twelve in New Testament texts on Peter, namely Matthew 16:17-19, Luke 22:32, and John 21:15-17.
Irenaeus of Lyons believed in the 2nd century that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed Linus as succeeding bishop.[49] There is no conclusive evidence, scripturally, historically or chronologically, that Peter was in fact the Bishop of Rome. While the church in Rome was already flourishing when Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans about AD 57,[50] he greets some fifty people in Rome by name,[51] but not Peter whom he knew. There is also no mention of Peter in Rome later during Paul's two-year stay there in Acts 28, about AD 60-62. Church historians consistently consider Peter and Paul to have been martyred under the reign of Nero,[52][53][54] around AD 65 such as after the Great Fire of Rome.[55][56][57]
Worship liturgy[edit]
See also: Eastern Orthodox Worship
Liturgical services are based on repeating the actions of Jesus ("do this in remembrance of me"), using the bread and wine, and saying his words (known as the words of the institution). The church has the rest of the liturgical ritual being rooted in the Jewish Passover, Siddur, Seder, and synagogue services, including the singing of hymns (especially the Psalms) and reading from the Scriptures.[58] Clement writes that liturgies are "to be celebrated, and not carelessly nor in disorder" but the final uniformity of liturgical services only came later, though the Liturgy of St James is traditionally associated with James the Just.[59]
Earliest Christianity took the form of a Jewish eschatological faith. The book of Acts reports that the early followers continued daily Temple attendance and traditional Jewish home prayer. Other passages in the New Testament gospels reflect a similar observance of traditional Jewish piety such as fasting, reverence for the Torah and observance of Jewish holy days[60][61] At first, Christians continued to worship alongside Jewish believers, but within twenty years of Jesus' death, Sunday (the Lord's Day) was being regarded as the primary day of worship.[62]
Defining scripture[edit]
Main article: Development of the Christian Biblical canon
The early Christians likely did not have their own copy of Scriptural and other church works. Much of the original church liturgical services functioned as a means of learning Christian theology later expressed in these works.
Christianity first spread in the predominantly Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire, and then extensively throughout the empire by Paul and others. Ecclesiastical historian Henry Hart Milman writes that in much of the first three centuries, even in the Latin-dominated western empire: "the Church of Rome, and most, if not all the Churches of the West, were, if we may so speak, Greek religious colonies [see Greek colonies for the background]. Their language was Greek, their organization Greek, their writers Greek, their scriptures Greek; and many vestiges and traditions show that their ritual, their Liturgy, was Greek."[63]
Old Testament[edit]
Main article: Development of the Old Testament canon
The Biblical canon began with the Jewish Scriptures, first available in Koine Greek translation, then as Aramaic Targums. In the 2nd century, Melito of Sardis called these Scriptures the "Old Testament"[64] and specified an early canon. The Greek translation, later known as the Septuagint[65] and often written as "LXX," arose from Hellenistic Judaism which predates Christianity. Perhaps the earliest Christian canon is the Bryennios List which was found by Philotheos Bryennios in the Codex Hierosolymitanus. The list is written in Koine Greek, Aramaic and Hebrew and dated to around 100[66]
New Testament[edit]
Books of the
New Testament
Gospels
Matthew
Mark
Luke
John
Acts
Acts of the Apostles
Epistles
Romans
1 Corinthians · 2 Corinthians
Galatians · Ephesians
Philippians · Colossians
1 Thessalonians · 2 Thessalonians
1 Timothy · 2 Timothy
Titus · Philemon
Hebrews · James
1 Peter · 2 Peter
1 John · 2 John · 3 John
Jude
Apocalypse
Revelation
New Testament manuscripts
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Main article: Development of the New Testament canon
The "New Testament" (often compared to the New Covenant) is the name given to the second major division of the Christian Bible, either by Tertullian or Marcion in the 2nd century.[67] The original texts were written by various authors, most likely sometime after c. AD 45 in Koine Greek, the lingua franca of the eastern part of the Roman Empire, though there is also a minority argument for Aramaic primacy.
Early Christianity and Judaism[edit]
Painting by Rembrandt of Paul, one of the most notable of early Christian missionaries, who called himself the "Apostle to the Gentiles." Paul, a Hellenistic Jew, was very influential on the shift of Christianity to Gentile dominated movement.
Jewish messianism has its roots in the apocalyptic literature of the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, promising a future "anointed" leader or Messiah to resurrect the Israelite "Kingdom of God", in place of the foreign rulers of the time. This corresponded with the Maccabean Revolt directed against the Seleucids. Following the fall of the Hasmonean kingdom, it was directed against the Roman administration of Iudaea Province, which, according to Josephus, began with the formation of the Zealots during the Census of Quirinius of 6 AD.
Jewish continuity[edit]
See also: Rejection of Jesus, Biblical law in Christianity, Sabbath in Christianity, and Paul of Tarsus and Judaism
The early Christians in the 1st century AD believed Yahweh to be the only true God,[68] the god of Israel, and considered Jesus to be the messiah (Christ) prophesied in the Jewish scriptures. The first Christians were essentially all ethnically Jewish or Jewish proselytes. In other words, Jesus preached to the Jewish people and called from them his first disciples, known as the Limited Commission of Matthew 10:5-42, while the Great Commission issued after the Resurrection is specifically directed at "all nations".
Alister McGrath, a proponent of palaeo-orthodoxy, claimed that many of the Jewish Christians were fully faithful religious Jews, only differing in their acceptance of Jesus as the messiah.[3] The book of Acts records the martyrdom of Stephen and James. Thus, Christianity acquired an identity distinct from Rabbinic Judaism. The name "Christian" (Greek Χριστιανός) was first applied to the disciples in Antioch, as recorded in Acts 11:26.[69]
Early Christianity retained some of the doctrines and practices of 1st-century Judaism while rejecting others. They held the Jewish scriptures to be authoritative and sacred, employing mostly the Septuagint or Targum translations, later called the Old Testament, a term associated with Supersessionism, and added other texts as the New Testament canon developed. Christianity also continued other Judaic practices: baptism,[70] liturgical worship, including the use of incense[citation needed], an altar[citation needed], a set of scriptural readings adapted from synagogue practice, use of sacred music in hymns and prayer, a religious calendar[citation needed], and ascetic practices. Circumcision was rejected as a requirement at the Council of Jerusalem, c. 50, though the decree of the council parallels Jewish Noahide Law. Sabbath observance was modified, perhaps as early as Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians 16.1.
An early difficulty arose concerning the matter of Gentile (non-Jewish) converts as to whether they had to "become Jewish," in following circumcision and dietary laws, as part of becoming Christian. Circumcision was considered repulsive during the period of Hellenization of the Eastern Mediterranean.[71][72] The decision of Peter, as evidenced by conversion of the Centurion Cornelius,[73] was that it was not required, and the matter was further addressed with the Council of Jerusalem. Around this same time period, Rabbinic Judaism made their circumcision requirement even stricter.[74]
The doctrines of the apostles brought the early Church into conflict with some Jewish religious authorities. Late 1st century developments attributed to the Council of Jamnia eventually led to Christians' expulsion from synagogues.
Jewish Christians[edit]
James the Just, whose judgment was adopted in the Apostolic Decree of Acts 15:19-29, "...we should write to them [Gentiles] to abstain only from things polluted by idols and from fornication and from whatever has been strangled and from blood..." (NRSV)
Jewish Christians were among the earliest followers of Jesus and an important part of Judean society during the mid to late 1st century. This movement was centered around Jerusalem and led by James the Just. They held faithfully to the Torah (perhaps also Jewish law which was being formalized at the same time), including acceptance of Gentile converts based on a version of the Noachide laws (Acts 15 and Acts 21). In Christian circles, "Nazarene" later came to be used as a label for those faithful to Jewish law, in particular for a certain sect. These Jewish Christians, originally the central group in Christianity, were not at first declared to be unorthodox but were later excluded and denounced. Some Jewish Christian groups, such as the Ebionites, were considered to have unorthodox beliefs, particularly in relation to their views of Christ and Gentile converts. The Nazarenes, holding to orthodoxy except in their adherence to Jewish law, were not deemed heretical until the dominance of orthodoxy in the 4th century. The Ebionites may have been a splinter group of Nazarenes, with disagreements over Christology and leadership. After the condemnation of the Nazarenes, "Ebionite" was often used as a general pejorative for all related "heresies".[75][76]
Jewish Christians constituted a separate community from the Pauline Christians but maintained a similar faith, differing only in practice. There was a post-Nicene "double rejection" of the Jewish Christians by both Gentile Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism. It is believed that there was no direct confrontation or persecution between Gentile and Judaic Christianity. However, by this time the practice of Judeo-Christianity was diluted both by internal schisms and external pressures. Gentile Christianity remained the sole strand of orthodoxy and imposed itself on the previously Jewish Christian sanctuaries, taking full control of those houses of worship by the end of the 5th century.[77]
The St. Thomas Christians or Syrian Malabar Nasrani community in Kerala, India, claim Jewish origins. However, if so then they have lost many of their Jewish traditions because of western influences. These churches are also known as Syrian Christians as they follow the traditions of Syriac Christianity and claim to be descendants of the early converts by Thomas the Apostle. Today, they belong to various denominations of Christianity, but they have kept their unique identity within each of these denominations.[78]
Split with Judaism[edit]
See also: Schisms among the Jews and List of events in early Christianity
In or around the year 50, the apostles convened the first church council, known as the Council of Jerusalem, to reconcile practical (and by implication doctrinal) differences concerning the Gentile mission.[79] While not numbered among them, this council has often been looked to as ecumenical and the model for later ecumenical councils.
At the Council of Jerusalem it was agreed that Gentiles could be accepted as Christians without full adherence to the Mosaic Laws, possibly a major break between Christianity and Judaism (the first being the Rejection of Jesus[3]), though the decree of the council (Acts 15:19-29) seems to parallel the Noahide laws of Judaism. The Council, according to Acts 15, determined that circumcision was not required for new gentile converts, only to abstain from "food polluted by idols, from sexual immorality, from the meat of strangled animals and from blood." (NIV, Acts 15:20).
There was a slowly growing chasm between Christians and Jews, rather than a sudden split. Even though it is commonly thought that Paul established a Gentile church, it took centuries for a complete break to manifest. However, certain events are perceived as pivotal in the growing rift between Judaism and Christianity. The Council of Jamnia c. 85 is often stated to have condemned all who claimed the Messiah had already come, and Christianity in particular. However, the formulated prayer in question (birkat ha-minim) is considered by other scholars to be unremarkable in the history of Jewish and Christian relations. There is a paucity of evidence for Jewish persecution of "heretics" in general, or Christians in particular, in the period between 70 and 135. It is probable that the condemnation of Jamnia included many groups, of which the Christians were but one, and did not necessarily mean excommunication. That some of the later church fathers only recommended against synagogue attendance makes it improbable that an anti-Christian prayer was a common part of the synagogue liturgy. Jewish Christians continued to worship in synagogues for centuries.[80][81]
A coin issued by Nerva reads
fisci Judaici calumnia sublata,
"abolition of malicious prosecution in connection with the Jewish tax"[82]
During the late 1st century, Judaism was a legal religion with the protection of Roman law, worked out in compromise with the Roman state over two centuries. Observant Jews had special rights, including the privilege of abstaining from civic pagan rites. Christians were initially identified with the Jewish religion by the Romans, but as they became more distinct, Christianity became a problem for Roman rulers. Emperor Nerva decreed that Christians did not have to pay the annual tax upon the Jews, effectively recognizing them as distinct from Rabbinic Judaism. This opened the way to Christians being persecuted for disobedience to the emperor as they continued to refuse to worship the state pantheon. It is notable that from c. 98 onwards a distinction between Christians and Jews in Roman literature becomes apparent. For example, Pliny the Younger postulates that Christians are not Jews since they do not pay the tax, in his letters to Trajan.[83][84]
Spread of Christianity[edit]
Mediterranean Basin geography relevant to Paul's life, stretching from Jerusalem in the lower right to Rome in the upper left.
See also: Early centers of Christianity and Timeline of Orthodoxy in Greece (33-717)
Paul and the Twelve Apostles traveled extensively establishing communities in major cities and regions throughout the Empire. The first Christian communities outside of Jerusalem appeared in Antioch, Ephesus, Corinth, and the political center of Rome. The original church communities were founded by apostles and numerous other Christians, soldiers, merchants, and preachers[85] in northern Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia, Greece, and other places.[86][87][88] Over 40 churches were established by 100,[87][88] many in Asia Minor.
Paul was responsible for bringing the Christianity to new parts of the world such as Ephesus, Corinth, Philippi, and Thessalonica.[89][90] By the end of the 1st century, Christianity had already spread to Rome and to various cities in Greece, Asia Minor and Syria. Major cities such as Rome, Ephesus, Antioch and Corinth served as foundations for the expansive spread of Christianity in the post-apostolic period. Christianity spread very quickly throughout Asia Minor.
Apostolic Fathers[edit]
The Church Fathers are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church, particularly those of the first five centuries of Christian history. The earliest Church Fathers, within two generations of the Twelve apostles of Christ, are usually called Apostolic Fathers for reportedly knowing and studying under the apostles personally. Important Apostolic Fathers include Clement of Rome,[91] Ignatius of Antioch and Polycarp of Smyrna. In addition, the Didache and Shepherd of Hermas are usually placed among the writings of the Apostolic Fathers although their authors are unknown.
Clement of Rome[edit]
Clement of Rome was best known for his letter 1 Clement.[91] which was held in high regard by later Christian writers and even cited as Scripture by Clement of Alexandria. In it, Clement calls on the Christians of Corinth to maintain harmony and order.[91] It is the earliest Christian epistle outside the New Testament; indeed it is even included in the Codex Alexandrinus and in the Canons of the Apostles and today is part of the Apostolic Fathers collection. Tertullian identifies him as the fourth Bishop of Rome, later called Pope. Some see his epistle as an assertion of Rome's authority over the church in Corinth and, by implication, the beginnings of papal supremacy.[92]
Clement wrote about the order with which Jesus commanded the affairs of the Church be conducted, and the selection of persons was also "by His supreme will determined."[93] Clement also refers the way "rivalry ... concerning the priesthood" was resolved by or through Moses and that likewise, the apostles "gave instructions, that when these should fall asleep, other approved men should succeed them in their ministry."
The New Testament writers use the terms "overseer" and "elders" interchangeably. Clement also refers to the leaders of the Corinthian church in his letter as bishops and presbyters interchangeably, and likewise states that the bishops are to lead God's flock by virtue of the chief shepherd (presbyter), Jesus Christ. Bishops eventually emerged as overseers of urban Christian populations in the early church, and a hierarchical clergy gradually took the form of epískopos (overseers, bishops), then elders and presbyters (shepherds), and third were deacons (servants).
Didache[edit]
The Didache is the common name of a brief early Christian treatise dated by most scholars to the late 1st century.[94] It is an anonymous work not belonging to any single individual and a pastoral manual "that reveals more about how Jewish-Christians saw themselves and how they adapted their Judaism for Gentiles than any other book in the Christian Scriptures."[95] The text, parts of which may have constituted the first written catechism, has three main sections dealing with Christian lessons, rituals, and Church organization. It was considered by some of the Church Fathers as part of the New Testament[96][97] (Deuterocanonical) c. 380[98] but rejected as spurious or non-canonical by others,[99] and eventually not accepted into the New Testament canon. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church does include the later Didascalia within its "broader canon" (though only the "narrower canon" has printed since 20th century), and the Didascalia was influenced by the Didache.[100]
Timeline[edit]
1st century Timeline [show]
Earliest dates must all be considered approximate
7–2 BC Jesus is born in Bethlehem
6 BC Herod Archelaus deposed by Augustus; Samaria, Judea and Idumea annexed as Iudaea Province under direct Roman administration,[101] capital at Caesarea, Quirinius became Legate (Governor) of Syria, conducted Census of Quirinius, opposed by Zealots (JA18, Luke 2:1–3, Acts 5:37)
7–26 AD Brief period of peace, relatively free of revolt and bloodshed in Iudaea & Galilee[102][103]
9 Pharisee leader Hillel the Elder dies, temporary rise of Shammai
14–37 Tiberius, Roman Emperor
18–36 Caiaphas, appointed High Priest of Herod's Temple by Prefect Valerius Gratus, deposed by Syrian Legate Lucius Vitellius
19 Jews, Jewish Proselytes, Astrologers, expelled from Rome[104][105]
26–36 Pontius Pilate, Prefect (governor) of Iudaea, recalled to Rome by Syrian Legate Vitellius on complaints of excess violence (JA18.4.2)
28 or 29 John the Baptist began his ministry in the "15th year of Tiberius" (Luke 3:1–2)(Matt 3:1–2)
30 – Great Commission of Jesus to go and make disciples of all nations;[106] Pentecost, a day in which 3000 Jews from a variety of Mediterranean-basin nations are converted to faith in Jesus Christ.
30–36 Jesus is crucified on order of Pontius Pilate. Christians believe he rose from the dead 3 days later.
34 – In Gaza, Philip baptizes a convert, an Ethiopian who was already a Jewish proselyte.
39 – Peter preaches to a Gentile audience in the house of Cornelius
37–41 Crisis under Caligula[107]
42 – Mark goes to Egypt[108]
44? Saint James the Great: According to ancient local tradition, on 2 January of the year AD 40, the Virgin Mary appeared to James on a Pilar on the bank of the Ebro River at Caesaraugusta, while he was preaching the Gospel in Spain. Following that apparition, St James returned to Judea, where he was beheaded by King Herod Agrippa I in the year 44 during a Passover (Nisan 15) (Acts 12:1–3).
44 Death of Herod Agrippa I (JA19.8.2, Acts 12:20–23)
44–46? Theudas beheaded by Procurator Cuspius Fadus for saying he would part the Jordan river (like Moses and the Red Sea or Joshua and the Jordan) (JA20.5.1, Acts 5:36-37 places it before the Census of Quirinius)
45–49? Mission of Barnabas and Paul, (Acts 13:1–14:28), to Cyprus, Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe (there they were called "gods ... in human form"), then return to Syrian Antioch. Map1
47? St. Thomas Christianity, now in several forms, is begun in India by Thomas.
47 – Paul (formerly known as Saul of Tarsus) begins his first missionary journey to modern-day Turkey.[109]
48–100 Herod Agrippa II appointed King of the Jews by Claudius, seventh and last of the Herodians
50 Passover riot in Jerusalem, 20–30,000 killed (JA20.5.3,JW2.12.1)
50 – Council of Jerusalem on admitting Gentiles into the Church[109]
50? Council of Jerusalem and the "Apostolic Decree", Acts 15:1–35, same as Galatians 2:1–10?, which is followed by the "Incident at Antioch"[110] at which Paul publicly accused Peter of "Judaizing" (2:11–21)
51 – Paul begins his second missionary journey, a trip that takes him through modern-day Turkey and on into Greece[111]
50–53? Paul's 2nd mission, (Acts 15:36–18:22), split with Barnabas, to Phrygia, Galatia, Macedonia, Philippi, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, Corinth, "he had his hair cut off at Cenchrea because of a vow he had taken", then return to Antioch; 1 Thessalonians, Galatians written? Map2
51–52 or 52–53 proconsulship of Gallio according to an inscription, only fixed date in chronology of Paul[112]
52 Saint Thomas Christians of India
52 – Thomas arrives in India and founds church that subsequently becomes Indian Orthodox Church (and its various descendants)[113]
54 – Paul begins his third missionary journey[114]
53–57? Paul's 3rd mission, (Acts 18:23–22:30), to Galatia, Phrygia, Corinth, Ephesus, Macedonia, Greece, and Jerusalem where James the Just challenged him about rumor of teaching antinomianism (21:21), he addressed a crowd in their language (most likely Aramaic), Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Philippians written? Map3
55? "Egyptian prophet" (allusion to Moses) and 30,000 unarmed Jews doing The Exodus reenactment massacred by Procurator Antonius Felix (JW2.13.5, JA20.8.6, Acts 21:38)
58? Paul arrested, accused of being a revolutionary, "ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes", teaching resurrection of the dead, imprisoned in Caesarea (Acts 23–26)
59? Paul shipwrecked on Malta, there he was called a god (Acts 28:6)
60 – Paul sent to Rome under Roman guard, evangelizes on Malta after shipwreck[111]
60? Paul in Rome: greeted by many "brothers" (NRSV: "believers"), three days later called together the Jewish leaders, who hadn't received any word from Judea about him, but were curious about "this sect", which everywhere is spoken against; he tried to convince them from the "Law and Prophets", with partial success, said the Gentiles would listen and spent two years proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching the "Lord Jesus Christ" (Acts 28:15–31); Epistle to Philemon written?
62 James the Just stoned to death for law transgression by High Priest Ananus ben Artanus, popular opinion against act results in Ananus being deposed by new procurator Lucceius Albinus (JA20.9.1)
63–107? Simeon, 2nd Bishop of Jerusalem, crucified under Trajan
64–68 after July 18 Great Fire of Rome, Nero blamed and persecuted the Christians
64/67(?)–76/79(?) Pope Linus succeeds Peter as Episcopus Romanus (Bishop of Rome)
65? Q document, a hypothetical Greek text thought by many critical scholars to have been used in writing of Matthew and Luke
66 – Thaddeus establishes the Christian church of Armenia[115]
66–73 Great Jewish Revolt: destruction of Herod's Temple, Qumran community destroyed, site of Dead Sea Scrolls found in 1947
68–107? Ignatius, third Bishop of Antioch, fed to the lions in the Roman Colosseum, advocated the Bishop (Eph 6:1, Mag 2:1,6:1,7:1,13:2, Tr 3:1, Smy 8:1,9:1), rejected Sabbath on Saturday in favor of The Lord's Day (Sunday). (Mag 9.1), rejected Judaizing (Mag 10.3), first recorded use of the term catholic (Smy 8:2).
69 – Andrew is crucified in Patras on the Peloponnese peninsula of Greece[116]
70(+/−10)? Gospel of Mark, written in Rome, by Peter's interpreter (1 Peter 5:13), original ending apparently lost, endings added c.400, see Mark 16
70? Signs Gospel written, hypothetical Greek text used in Gospel of John to prove Jesus is the Messiah
70–100? additional Pauline Epistles
70–200? Didache; Other Gospels: Unknown Berlin Gospel, Gospel of Peter, Gospel of Thomas, Oxyrhynchus Gospels, Egerton Gospel, Fayyum Fragment, Dialogue of the Saviour; Jewish Christian Gospels: Gospel of the Ebionites, Gospel of the Hebrews, Gospel of the Nazarenes
76/79(?)–88 Pope Anacletus first Greek Pope, who succeeds Linus as Episcopus Romanus (Bishop of Rome)
80 – First Christians reported in Tunisia and France[106]
80(+/−20)? Gospel of Matthew, theoretically based on Mark and Q, most popular in Early Christianity
80(+/−20)? Gospel of Luke, theoretically based on Mark and Q, also Acts of the Apostles by same author
88–101? Clement, fourth Bishop of Rome, wrote Letter of the Romans to the Corinthians (Apostolic Fathers)
90? Council of Jamnia of Judaism (disputed), Domitian applied the Fiscus Iudaicus tax even to those who merely "lived like Jews"[117]
90(+/−10)? 1 Peter
94 Testimonium Flavianum, disputed section of Jewish Antiquities by Josephus in Aramaic, translated to Koine Greek
95(+/−30)? Gospel of John and Epistles of John
95(+/−10)? Book of Revelation written, by John (son of Zebedee) and/or a disciple of his
100(+/−30)? Epistle of Barnabas (Apostolic Fathers)
100(+/−25)? Epistle of James
100(+/−10)? Epistle of Jude written, probably by doubting relative of Jesus (Mark 6,3), rejected by some early Christians due to its reference to apocryphal Book of Enoch (v14), Epistle to the Hebrews written
100 – First Christians are reported in Monaco, Algeria and Sri Lanka;[106] a missionary goes to Arbela, old sacred city of the Assyrians[118]
See also[edit]
Christianity portal
History portal
Classical Civilisation portal
Ancient Rome portal
Bible portal
Ante-Nicene Period
Apostolic Age
Christian martyrs
Christian monasticism
Christianity in the 2nd century
Christianization
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Church Fathers
Development of the New Testament canon
Early history of Christianity
East–West Schism
Gospel harmony
Great Church
History of Calvinist-Arminian debate
History of Christian theology
History of Christianity
History of early Christianity
History of the Eastern Orthodox Church
History of the Roman Catholic Church
Jesuism
Hellenistic Judaism
List of events in early Christianity
New Testament view on Jesus' life
Persecution of Christians in the New Testament
Timeline of Christian missions
Timeline of Christianity
Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Hebrews 8:6
Jump up ^ "Sermon on the Mount." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
^ Jump up to: a b c McGrath, p. 174
Jump up ^ Dunn, p. 577
Jump up ^ Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church ed. F. L. Cross (Oxford) entry on Paul
Jump up ^ Grant, p.176
Jump up ^ Maier, p.5
Jump up ^ Van Daalen, p.41
Jump up ^ Kremer, pp.49–50
Jump up ^ Gundry
Jump up ^ Weiss, p.345
Jump up ^ Davies, pp.305–308
Jump up ^ Wilckens, pp.128–131
Jump up ^ Smith, p.406
Jump up ^ Johnson, p.136
Jump up ^ Ludemann, p.8
Jump up ^ Wright, p.26
Jump up ^ "Christ's Life: Key Events". Retrieved 2007-10-22.
Jump up ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, Loyola University Press, #651-655, pp. 170-171.
Jump up ^ August Franzen, Kirchengeschichte, Freiburg, 1988: 20
Jump up ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 19–20
Jump up ^ Schreck, The Essential Catholic Catechism (1999), p.130
Jump up ^ Brown, Schuyler, p.10
Jump up ^ R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, Medieval Worlds (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 51
^ Jump up to: a b Bargil Pixner, The Church of the Apostles found on Mount Zion, Biblical Archaeology Review 16.3 May/June 1990, centuryone.org
Jump up ^ Acts 1:13-15
^ Jump up to: a b "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Jerusalem (A.D. 71-1099)". newadvent.org.
Jump up ^ Acts 7:54-8:8
Jump up ^ Acts 8:9-24
Jump up ^ Acts 8:26-40
Jump up ^ Acts 11:26
Jump up ^ Acts 10
Jump up ^ The Catholic Encyclopedia says of Cornelius: "The baptism of Cornelius is an important event in the history of the Early Church. The gates of the Church, within which thus far only those who were circumcised and observed the Law of Moses had been admitted, were now thrown open to the uncircumcised Gentiles without the obligation of submitting to the Jewish ceremonial laws."
Jump up ^ McGrath, pp.174-175
Jump up ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (2002), pp.37-38
Jump up ^ Davidson, p.155
Jump up ^ Davidson, pp.169, 181
Jump up ^ On the Creeds, see Oscar Cullmann, The Earliest Christian Confessions, trans. J. K. S. Reid (London: Lutterworth, 1949); on the Passion, see Rudolf Pesch, Das Markusevangelium, 2 vols., Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament 2 (Freiburg: Herder, 1976–77), 2: 519–20
Jump up ^ Neufeld, p.47
Jump up ^ Pannenberg, p.90
Jump up ^ Cullmann, p.66
Jump up ^ O' Collins, p.112
Jump up ^ Hunter, p.100
Jump up ^ Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament vol 1, pp. 49, 81
Jump up ^ Pannenberg, pp.118, 283, 367
Jump up ^ Taylor (1993). Pg 224.
Jump up ^ Franzen, p.25
Jump up ^ Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes Eamon Duffy, ch. 1
Jump up ^ "ANF01. The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus". ccel.org.
Jump up ^ Franzen, p.26
Jump up ^ 16
Jump up ^ "Paul, St" Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
Jump up ^ Pennington, p. 2
Jump up ^ St-Paul-Outside-the-Walls homepage
Jump up ^ Historians debate whether the Roman government distinguished between Christians and Jews prior to Nerva's modification of the Fiscus Judaicus in 96. From then on, practising Jews paid the tax, Christians did not.
Jump up ^ Wylen, pp.190-192
Jump up ^ Dunn, pp. 33-34
Jump up ^ "LITURGY - JewishEncyclopedia.com". jewishencyclopedia.com.
Jump up ^ The traditional title is: The Divine Liturgy of James the Holy Apostle and Brother of the Lord; Ante-Nicene Fathers by Philip Schaff in the public domain
Jump up ^ White (2004), p.127
Jump up ^ Ehrman (2005), p.187.
Jump up ^ Davidson, p.115
Jump up ^ "Greek Orthodoxy - From Apostolic Times to the Present Day". ellopos.net.
Jump up ^ A dictionary of Jewish-Christian relations, Dr. Edward Kessler, Neil Wenborn, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-521-82692-6, p.316
Jump up ^ McDonald & Sanders, p.72
Jump up ^ published by J. P. Audet in JTS 1950, v1, pp. 135–154, cited in The Council of Jamnia and the Old Testament Canon Archived February 10, 2007, at the Wayback Machine., Robert C. Newman, 1983.
Jump up ^ McDonald & Sanders p.310
Jump up ^ G. Bromiley, ed. (1982). The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, "God". Fully Revised. Two: E-J. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 497–499. ISBN 0-8028-3782-4.
Jump up ^ E. Peterson, "Christianus" pp. 353–72
Jump up ^ "BAPTISM - JewishEncyclopedia.com". jewishencyclopedia.com.
Jump up ^ "CIRCUMCISION - JewishEncyclopedia.com". jewishencyclopedia.com.
Jump up ^ Hodges, Frederick, M. (2001). "The Ideal Prepuce in Ancient Greece and Rome: Male Genital Aesthetics and Their Relation to Lipodermos, Circumcision, Foreskin Restoration, and the Kynodesme" (PDF). The Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 75 (Fall 2001): 375–405. doi:10.1353/bhm.2001.0119. PMID 11568485. Retrieved 2007-07-24.
Jump up ^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Cornelius". newadvent.org.
Jump up ^ "peri'ah", (Shab. xxx. 6)
Jump up ^ Tabor (1998).
Jump up ^ Esler (2004), pp.157-159.
Jump up ^ Dauphin (1993), pp.235, 240-242.
Jump up ^ "stthoma.com". stthoma.com. Archived from the original on 2011-02-08.
Jump up ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity (2002), p.37
Jump up ^ Wylen (1995), p.190.
Jump up ^ Wright, pp.164-165.
Jump up ^ As translated by Molly Whittaker, Jews and Christians: Graeco-Roman Views, (Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 105.
Jump up ^ Wylen, pp.190-192.
Jump up ^ Dunn, pp.33-34.
Jump up ^ Franzen 29
Jump up ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp.19–20
^ Jump up to: a b Hitchcock, Geography of Religion (2004), p.281
^ Jump up to: a b Bokenkotter, A Concise History of the Catholic Church (2004), p. 18
Jump up ^ "Paul, St" Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005.
Jump up ^ Acts 19, 18:1-18a, 16:12-15, 17:1-9
^ Jump up to: a b c Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972
Jump up ^ "CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Pope St. Clement I". newadvent.org.
Jump up ^ "CHURCH FATHERS: Letter to the Corinthians (Clement)". newadvent.org.
Jump up ^ Draper, JA (2006), The Apostolic Fathers: the Didache, Expository Times, Vol.117, No.5, p.178
Jump up ^ Aaron Milavec, p. vii
Jump up ^ Apostolic Constitutions "Canon 85" (approved at the Orthodox Synod of Trullo in 692)
Jump up ^ Rufinus, Commentary on Apostles' Creed 37
Jump up ^ John of Damascus Exact Exposition of Orthodox Faith 4.17
Jump up ^ Athanasius, Festal Letter 39 (excludes them from the canon, but recommends them for reading) in 367
Jump up ^ The earlier Didache seems to have been an influence upon it too. Johannes Quasten, Patrology, Vol. I (Christian Classics, Allan, Texas, 1996, ISBN 0-87061-084-8), p. 37.
Jump up ^ H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 0-674-39731-2, p.246
Jump up ^ John P. Meier's A Marginal Jew, v. 1, ch. 11
Jump up ^ H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 0-674-39731-2, p.251
Jump up ^ Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Tiberius 36
Jump up ^ "ROME - JewishEncyclopedia.com". jewishencyclopedia.com.
^ Jump up to: a b c Barrett, p.23
Jump up ^ H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 0-674-39731-2, The Crisis Under Gaius Caligula, pp.254-256
Jump up ^ Kane, 10
^ Jump up to: a b Williston Walker, A History of the Christian Church 1959, p. 26
Jump up ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers see section titled: "THE INCIDENT AT ANTIOCH"
^ Jump up to: a b Walker, 27
Jump up ^ Pauline Chronology: His Life and Missionary Work, from Catholic Resources by Felix Just, S.J.
Jump up ^ Neill, 44–45
Jump up ^ "Apostle Paul's Third Missionary Journey Map". biblestudy.org.
Jump up ^ Wood, Roger, Jan Morris and Denis Wright. Persia. Universe Books, 1970, p. 35.
Jump up ^ Herbermann, p. 737
Jump up ^ "FISCUS JUDAICUS - JewishEncyclopedia.com". jewishencyclopedia.com.
Jump up ^ Latourette, 1941, vol. I, p. 103
References[edit]
Brown, Schuyler. The Origins of Christianity: A Historical Introduction to the New Testament. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0-19-826207-8.
Cullmann, Oscar, The Early Church: Studies in Early Christian History and Theology, ed. A. J. B. Higgins, Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966
Davidson, The Birth of the Church (2005)
W. D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism 2d ed., London, 1965
Dunn, James D.G., "The Canon Debate," McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002
Dunn, James D.G. Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, AD 70 to 135. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999). ISBN 0-8028-4498-7.
Grant, M., Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels New York: Scribner's, 1977
Gundry, R.H., Soma in Biblical Theology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976
Hunter, Archibald, Works and Words of Jesus (1973)
Johnson, L.T., The Real Jesus, San Francisco, Harper San Francisco, 1996
Kremer, Jakob, Die Osterevangelien — Geschichten um Geschichte, Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1977
Ludemann, Gerd, What Really Happened to Jesus? trans. J. Bowden, Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1995
Maier, P. L., "The Empty Tomb as History" in Christianity Today, March 1975
McGrath, Alister E., Christianity: An Introduction, Blackwell Publishing (2006), ISBN 1-4051-0899-1
Neufeld, The Earliest Christian Confessions, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964
O' Collins, Gerald, What are They Saying About the Resurrection?, New York: Paulist Press, 1978
Pannenberg, Wolfhart, Jesus–God and Man translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe, Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968
Smith, J. L., "Resurrection Faith Today", in TS 30 (1969)
Van Daalen, D. H., The Real Resurrection, London: Collins, 1972
Weiss, Johannes, Der erste Korintherbrief 9th ed., Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1910
Wilckens, Ulrich, Auferstehung, Stuttgart and Berlin: Kreuz Verlag, 1970
Wright, N.T., "The New Unimproved Jesus", in Christianity Today, 1993-09-13
Wylen, Stephen M., The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction, Paulist Press (1995), ISBN 0-8091-3610-4
Further reading[edit]
Bockmuehl, Markus N.A. (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Jesus. Cambridge University Press (2001). ISBN 0-521-79678-4.
Bourgel, Jonathan, From One Identity to Another: The Mother Church of Jerusalem Between the Two Jewish Revolts Against Rome (66-135/6 EC). Paris: Éditions du Cerf, collection Judaïsme ancien et Christianisme primitive, (French). ISBN 978-2-204-10068-7
Brown, Raymond E.: An Introduction to the New Testament (ISBN 0-385-24767-2)
Conzelmann, H. and Lindemann A.,Interpreting the New Testament. An Introduction to the Principles and Methods of N.T. Exegesis, translated by S.S. Schatzmann, Hendrickson Publishers. Peabody 1988.
Dormeyer, Detlev: The New Testament among the Writings of Antiquity (English translation), Sheffield 1998
Dunn, James D.G. (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to St. Paul. Cambridge University Press (2003). ISBN 0-521-78694-0.
Dunn, James D.G. Unity and Diversity in the New Testament: An Inquiry into the Character of Earliest Christianity. SCM Press (2006). ISBN 0-334-02998-8.
Edwards, Mark (2009). Catholicity and Heresy in the Early Church. Ashgate.
Freedman, David Noel (Ed). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (2000). ISBN 0-8028-2400-5.
Esler, Philip F. The Early Christian World. Routledge (2004). ISBN 0-415-33312-1.
Mack, Burton L.: Who Wrote the New Testament?, Harper, 1996
Keck, Leander E. Paul and His Letters. Fortress Press (1988). ISBN 0-8006-2340-1.
Mills, Watson E. Acts and Pauline Writings. Mercer University Press (1997). ISBN 0-86554-512-X.
Malina, Bruce J.: Windows on the World of Jesus: Time Travel to Ancient Judea. Westminster John Knox Press: Louisville (Kentucky) 1993
Malina, Bruce J.: The New Testament World: Insights from Cultural Anthropology. 3rd edition, Westminster John Knox Press Louisville (Kentucky) 2001
Malina, Bruce J.: Social Science Commentary on the Gospel of John Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 1998
Malina, Bruce J.: Social-Science Commentary on the Synoptic Gospels Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 2003
McKechnie, Paul. The First Christian Centuries: Perspectives on the Early Church. Apollos (2001). ISBN 0-85111-479-2
Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan. The Christian Tradition: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600). University of Chicago Press (1975). ISBN 0-226-65371-4.
Stegemann, Ekkehard and Stegemann, Wolfgang: The Jesus Movement: A Social History of Its First Century. Augsburg Fortress Publishers: Minneapolis 1999
Stegemann, Wolfgang, The Gospel and the Poor. Fortress Press. Minneapolis 1984 ISBN 0-8006-1783-5
Tabor, James D. "Ancient Judaism: Nazarenes and Ebionites", The Jewish Roman World of Jesus. Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte (1998).
Thiessen, Henry C. Introduction to the New Testament, Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids 1976
White, L. Michael. From Jesus to Christianity. HarperCollins (2004). ISBN 0-06-052655-6.
Wilson, Barrie A. "How Jesus Became Christian". St. Martin's Press (2008). ISBN 978-0-679-31493-6.
Wright, N.T. The New Testament and the People of God. Fortress Press (1992). ISBN 0-8006-2681-8.
Zahn, Theodor, Introduction to the New Testament, English translation, Edinburgh, 1910.
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