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Electrical conduction system of the heart
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Electrical conduction system of the heart
Heart; conduction system. 1. SA node. 2. AV node. 3. Bundle of His. 8. Septum
Details
Identifiers
Latin
systema conducens cordis
MeSH
D006329
TA
A12.1.06.002
FMA
9476
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The electrical conduction system of the heart transmits signals generated usually by the sinoatrial node to cause contraction of the heart muscle. The pacemaking signal generated in the sinoatrial node travels through the right atrium to the atrioventricular node, along the Bundle of His and through bundle branches to cause contraction of the heart muscle. This signal stimulates contraction first of the right and left atrium, and then the right and left ventricles. This process allows blood to be pumped throughout the body.
The conduction system consists of specialised heart muscle cells, and is situated within the myocardium. There is a skeleton of fibrous tissue that surrounds the conduction system which can be seen on an ECG. Dysfunction of the conduction system can cause irregular, fast, or slow heart rhythms.
Contents
1 Structure
1.1 Development
2 Function
2.1 Action potential generation
2.2 Requirements for effective pumping
3 ECG
3.1 SA node: P wave
3.2 AV node and bundles: PR interval
3.3 Purkinje fibers/ventricular myocardium: QRS complex
3.4 Ventricular repolarization
4 Clinical significance
4.1 Arrhythmia
4.1.1 Speed
4.1.2 Physiological
4.2 Pacemakers
5 See also
6 References
Structure[edit]
Overview of the system of electrical conduction which maintains the rhythmical contraction of the heart
Electrical signals arising in the SA node (located in the right atrium) stimulate the atria to contract. Then the signals travel to the atrioventricular node (AV node), which is located in the interatrial septum. After a delay, the electrical signal diverges and is conducted through the left and right bundle of His to the respective Purkinje fibers for each side of the heart, as well as to the endocardium at the apex of the heart, then finally to the ventricular epicardium; causing its contraction.[1] These signals are generated rhytmically, which in turn results in the coordinated rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart.
On the microscopic level, the wave of depolarization propagates to adjacent cells via gap junctions located on the intercalated disc. The heart is a functional syncytium (not to be confused with a true "syncytium" in which all the cells are fused together, sharing the same plasma membrane as in skeletal muscle). In a functional syncytium, electrical impulses propagate freely between cells in every direction, so that the myocardium functions as a single contractile unit. This property allows rapid, synchronous depolarization of the myocardium. While advantageous under normal circumstances, this property can be detrimental, as it has potential to allow the propagation of incorrect electrical signals. These gap junctions can close to isolate damaged or dying tissue, as in a myocardial infarction (heart attack).
Development[edit]
Embryologic evidence of generation of the cardiac conduction system illuminates the respective roles of this specialized set of cells. Innervation of the heart begins with a brain only centered parasympathetic cholinergic first order. It is then followed by rapid growth of a second order sympathetic adrenergic system arising from the formation of the thoracic spinal ganglia. The third order of electrical influence of the heart is derived from the vagus nerve as the other peripheral organs form.[2]
Function[edit]
Action potential generation[edit]
Main article: Cardiac action potential
Cardiac muscle has some similarities to neurons and skeletal muscle, as well as important unique properties. Like a neuron, a given myocardial cell has a negative membrane potential when at rest. Stimulation above a threshold value induces the opening of voltage-gated ion channels and a flood of cations into the cell. The positively charged ions entering the cell cause the depolarization characteristic of an action potential. Like skeletal muscle, depolarization causes the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels and release of Ca2+ from the t-tubules. This influx of calcium causes calcium-induced calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and free Ca2+ causes muscle contraction. After a delay, potassium channels reopen, and the resulting flow of K+ out of the cell causes repolarization to the resting state.[3][4]
There are important physiological differences between nodal cells and ventricular cells; the specific differences in ion channels and mechanisms of polarization give rise to unique properties of SA node cells, most important, the spontaneous depolarizations necessary for the SA node's pacemaker activity.
Requirements for effective pumping[edit]
In order to maximize efficiency of contractions and cardiac output, the conduction system of the heart has:
Substantial atrial to ventricular delay. This will allow the atria to completely empty their contents into the ventricles; simultaneous contraction would cause inefficient filling and backflow. The atria are electrically isolated from the ventricles, connected only via the AV node which briefly delays the signal.
Coordinated contraction of ventricular cells. The ventricles must maximize systolic pressure to force blood through the circulation, so all the ventricular cells must work together.
Ventricular contraction begins at the apex of the heart, progressing upwards to eject blood into the great arteries. Contraction that squeezes blood towards the exit is more efficient than a simple squeeze from all directions. Although the ventricular stimulus originates from the AV node in the wall separating the atria and ventricles, the Bundle of His conducts the signal to the apex.
Depolarization propagates through cardiac muscle very rapidly. Cells of the ventricles contract nearly simultaneously.
The action potentials of cardiac muscle are unusually sustained. This prevents premature relaxation, maintaining initial contraction until the entire myocardium has had time to depolarize and contract.
Absence of tetany. After contracting, the heart must relax to fill up again. Sustained contraction of the heart without relaxation would be fatal, and this is prevented by a temporary inactivation of certain ion channels.
ECG[edit]
See also: Electrocardiogram
The ECG complex. P=P wave, PR=PR interval, QRS=QRS complex, QT=QT interval, ST=ST segment, T=T wave
Principle of ECG formation. Note that the red lines represent the depolarization wave, not bloodflow.
An electrocardiogram is a recording of the electrical activity of the heart.
SA node: P wave[edit]
Under normal conditions, electrical activity is spontaneously generated by the SA node, the cardiac pacemaker. This electrical impulse is propagated throughout the right atrium, and through Bachmann's bundle to the left atrium, stimulating the myocardium of the atria to contract. The conduction of the electrical impulses throughout the atria is seen on the ECG as the P wave.[3][5]
As the electrical activity is spreading throughout the atria, it travels via specialized pathways, known as internodal tracts, from the SA node to the AV node.
AV node and bundles: PR interval[edit]
The AV node functions as a critical delay in the conduction system. Without this delay, the atria and ventricles would contract at the same time, and blood wouldn't flow effectively from the atria to the ventricles. The delay in the AV node forms much of the PR segment on the ECG, and part of atrial repolarization can be represented by the PR segment.
The distal portion of the AV node is known as the bundle of His.[6] The bundle of His splits into two branches in the interventricular septum: the left bundle branch and the right bundle branch. The left bundle branch activates the left ventricle, while the right bundle branch activates the right ventricle.
The left bundle branch is short, splitting into the left anterior fascicle and the left posterior fascicle. The left posterior fascicle is relatively short and broad, with dual blood supply, making it particularly resistant to ischemic damage. The left posterior fascicle transmits impulses to the papillary muscles, leading to mitral valve closure. As the left posterior fascicle is shorter and broader than the right, impulses reach the papillary muscles just prior to depolarization, and therefore contraction, of the left ventricle myocardium. This allows pre-tensioning of the chordae tendinae, increasing the resistance to flow through the mitral valve during left ventricular contraction.[3] This mechanism works in the same manner as pre-tensioning of car seatbelts.
Purkinje fibers/ventricular myocardium: QRS complex[edit]
The two bundle branches taper out to produce numerous Purkinje fibers, which stimulate individual groups of myocardial cells to contract.[3]
The spread of electrical activity through the ventricular myocardium produces the QRS complex on the ECG.
Atrial repolarization occurs and is masked during the QRS complex by ventricular depolarization on the ECG.
Ventricular repolarization[edit]
The last event of the cycle is the repolarization of the ventricles. It is the restoring of the resting state. In the ECG, repolarization includes the J point, ST segment, and T and U waves.[7]
The transthoracically measured PQRS portion of an electrocardiogram is chiefly influenced by the sympathetic nervous system. The T (and occasionally U) waves are chiefly influenced by the parasympathetic nervous system guided by integrated brainstem control from the vagus nerve and the thoracic spinal accessory ganglia.
An impulse (action potential) that originates from the SA node at a relative rate of 60-100bpm is known as normal sinus rhythm. If SA nodal impulses occur at a rate less than 60bpm, the heart rhythm is known as sinus bradycardia. If SA nodal impulses occur at a rate exceeding 100bpm, the consequent rapid heart rate is sinus tachycardia. These conditions are not necessarily bad symptoms, however. Trained athletes, for example, usually show heart rates slower than 60bpm when not exercising. If the SA node fails to initialize, the AV junction can take over as the main pacemaker of the heart. The AV junction consists of the AV node, the bundle of His, and the surrounding area; it has a regular rate of 40 to 60bpm. These "junctional" rhythms are characterized by a missing or inverted P wave. If both the SA node and the AV junction fail to initialize the electrical impulse, the ventricles can fire the electrical impulses themselves at a rate of 20 to 40bpm and will have a QRS complex of greater than 120 ms. This is necessary for the heart to be in good function.
Clinical significance[edit]
Arrhythmia[edit]
Main article: Cardiac arrhythmia
An 'arrhythmia' refers to an abnormal rhythm or speed of rhythm of the heartbeat. An abnormal rhythm or speed is defined as one which is not physiological.
Speed[edit]
Main articles: Bradycardia and Tachycardia
A resting heart that beats slower than 60 beats per minute, or faster than 100 beats per minute, is regarded as having an arrhythmia. A heartbeat slower than 60 beats per minute is known as bradycardia, and a heartbeat faster than 100 is known as a tachycardia.
Physiological[edit]
Some individuals, for example trained athletes, may have heart beats slower than 60 beats per minute when not exercising. If the SA node fails to initialize, the AV junction can take over as the main pacemaker of the heart. The AV junction "surrounds" the AV node (the AV node is not able to initialize its own impulses) and has a regular rate of 40 to 60 bpm. These "junctional" rhythms are characterized by a missing or inverted P-Wave. If both the SA node and the AV junction fail to initialize the electrical impulse, the ventricles can fire the electrical impulses themselves at a rate of 20 to 40 bpm and will have a QRS complex of greater than 120 ms.
Pacemakers[edit]
Main article: Artificial cardiac pacemaker
In the event of arrhythmia, a pacemaker may be surgically inserted into the conduction system.
See also[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Your Heart's Electrical System". National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. National Institutes of Health. November 17, 2011. Retrieved January 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Innervation of the heart". Human Embryology: Organogenesis: Functional development of the heart.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Cardiac Muscle and Electrical Activity". OpenStax CNX: Anatomy & Physiology. OpenStax CNX. November 7, 2014. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Cardiac Muscle Fibers". ZY 560 Mammalian Physiology. Auburn University. Archived from the original on June 1, 2005. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Cardiac Cycle". ECG Tutorial. University of Michigan Health System. Retrieved January 2, 2015.
Jump up ^ Anderson, Robert H.; Mori, Shumpei (2016). "Wilhelm His Junior and his bundle". Journal of Electrocardiology. doi:10.1016/j.jelectrocard.2016.06.003. ISSN 0022-0736.
Jump up ^ Kowey, P., Yan, Gan-Xin. "Ventricular repolarization components on the electrocardiogram". Retrieved 2013-03-08.
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text:
Chip Away the Stone
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
"Chip Away the Stone"
Single by Aerosmith
from the album Live! Bootleg
B-side
1. "S.O.S. (Too Bad)" (Live version)
2. "Chip Away The Stone" (Live version)
Released
1978
1989 (re-issue)
Format
[]7" single]]
Recorded
April 8, 1978 at Santa Monica
June 4, 1978 at Long View Farms
Length
4:12
Label
Columbia
Songwriter(s)
Richard Supa
Producer(s)
Jack Douglas
Aerosmith singles chronology
"Come Together"
(1978) "Chip Away the Stone"
(1978) "Remember (Walking in the Sand)"
(1980)
"Come Together"
(1978) "Chip Away the Stone"
(1978) "Remember (Walking in the Sand)"
(1980)
"Chip Away the Stone" is a song performed by American hard rock band Aerosmith. Written by Richie Supa, a friend and sometime collaborator with the band, it was released in 1978 as the only single to support the band's live album Live! Bootleg. It also appeared on the Cal Jam II live album, despite being the same recording from Live! Bootleg at Santa Monica.[1]
The live version that appears on Live! Bootleg was recorded in Santa Monica on April 8, 1978. The single also featured a studio version of the track, which was recorded at Long View Farm studio in Massachusetts on June 4, 1978, with the single's B-side being live versions of both "Chip Away the Stone" and "S.O.S. (Too Bad)" from their 1974 album Get Your Wings. The front and back cover of Night in the Ruts come from a photoshoot originally intended for the cover of this single.[2] "Chip Away the Stone" peaked at #77 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1978, breaking the band's run of Top-40 charting singles in the United States at the time.
The song was also included on the albums Gems in 1988 (studio version - its first appearance on an Aerosmith album), Pandora's Box in 1991 (alternate studio version), and Greatest Hits 1973–1988 in 2004. Live video is also featured on Aerosmith Video Scrapbook. The song re-charted in 1988 at #13 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, when it was included on the collection Gems, 10 years after its initial release. The 1989 single contains the original studio version of "S.O.S (Too Bad)" as the B side.
The song was a regular part of the setlist in Aerosmith concerts in 1978, but only occasionally played live after that year.
Although rumored not to be played at Cal Jam II, listening to their entire set from that night reveals that they did in fact play "Chip Away the Stone".
35 years after its release, Steven Tyler and Joe Perry performed this song with Randy Jackson and members of the house band on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on January 20, 2012.
Music video[edit]
A music video was produced to promote the single. The video was directed by Arnold Levine.
Cover versions[edit]
Humble Pie covered the song on their 1981 album Go for the Throat.
New Bomb Turks covered the song on their 2003 album Switchblade Tongues, Butterknife Brains.
Vince Neil, Blues Saraceno, Ricky Phillips, Pat Torpey and Paul Taylor covered the song for the Aerosmith tribute album Not the Same Old Song and Dance (Eagle Records, 1999). Backing vocals were by David Glen Eisley.
The Hot Club of Cowtown did a tongue-in-cheek country-style version on their 2002 album Ghost Train.
Guns N' Roses covered part of the song during their Up Close and Personal Tour.[3]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Davis, p. 328
Jump up ^ Davis, p. 320
Jump up ^ "Guns N' Roses Concert Setlist at The O2 Arena, London on June 1, 2012". Setlist.fm. Retrieved 2016-10-13.
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text:
Saturday in the Park (song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Saturday in the Park"
Single by Chicago
from the album Chicago V
B-side
"Alma Mater"
Released
July 1972
Format
7"
Recorded
September 1971
Length
3:56
Label
Columbia
Songwriter(s)
Robert William Lamm
Producer(s)
James William Guercio
Chicago singles chronology
"Questions 67 and 68" / "I'm A Man"
(1971) "Saturday in the Park"
(1972) "String Module Error: Match not found"
(1972)
"Questions 67 and 68" /
"I'm A Man"
(1971) "Saturday in the Park"
(1972) "Dialogue
(Part I & II)"
(1972)
"Saturday in the Park" is a song written by Robert Lamm and recorded by the group Chicago for their 1972 album Chicago V.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Chart performance
2.1 Weekly charts
2.2 Year-end charts
3 Uses in media
4 Personnel
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Background[edit]
"Saturday in the Park" was very successful upon release, reaching #3 on the Billboard Hot 100,[1] becoming the band's highest-charting single to date, helping lift the album to #1.[2] Billboard ranked it as the No. 76 song for 1972. The single was certified Gold by the RIAA, selling over 1,000,000 units in the US alone.[3]
According to fellow Chicago member Walter Parazaider, Lamm was inspired to write the song during the recording of V in New York City on July 4, 1971 (actually a Sunday):
Robert came back to the hotel from Central Park very excited after seeing the steel drum players, singers, dancers, and jugglers. I said, 'Man, it's time to put music to this![4]
The line "singing Italian songs" is followed by "Eh Cumpari" and then Italian-sounding nonsense words, in the studio version of the song, rendered in the printed lyrics as "?". Piano, guitar, and vocal sheet music arrangements have often read "improvised Italian lyrics" in parentheses after this line. However, in a film of Chicago performing "Saturday in the Park", at the Arie Crown Theater in Chicago, in 1972, Robert Lamm clearly sings, "Eh Cumpari, ci vo sunari," the first line of a song known as "Eh, Cumpari!", which was made famous by Julius La Rosa in 1953.
Chart performance[edit]
Weekly charts[edit]
Chart (1972)
Peak
position
Australia KMR 43
Canada RPM[5] 2
US Billboard Hot 100 3
US Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks 8
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (1972)
Rank
Australia 103
US Billboard Hot 100[6] 76
Uses in media[edit]
"Saturday in the Park" has been used in a popular commercial in Japan, advertising a marketing campaign known as "Parkhouse".
The song is played at Saturday afternoon baseball games at Wrigley Field in Chicago (as Terry Kath grew up on the North Side of Chicago), Nationals Park in Washington, Oriole Park at Camden Yards in Baltimore, Yankee Stadium and Citi Field in New York, and Coors Field in Denver.
The opening piano riff was sampled by Jill Sobule for her song "Cinnamon Park" on the 2004 release, Underdog Victorious.
Personnel[edit]
Robert Lamm – lead vocals, piano
Peter Cetera – lead vocals (chorus), backing vocals, bass
Terry Kath – guitar
Lee Loughnane – trumpet
James Pankow – trombone
Walter Parazaider – alto saxophone
Danny Seraphine – drums
See also[edit]
A Roller Skating Jam Named "Saturdays"
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Billboard Singles". All Media Guide / Billboard. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
Jump up ^ "Billboard Albums". All Media Guide / Billboard. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
Jump up ^ "RIAA searchable certification database". Recording Industry Association of America. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
Jump up ^ "A Chicago Story". Chicago Records II. Retrieved January 31, 2015.
Jump up ^ http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/films-videos-sound-recordings/rpm/Pages/image.aspx?Image=nlc008388.4208&URLjpg=http%3a%2f%2fwww.collectionscanada.gc.ca%2fobj%2f028020%2ff4%2fnlc008388.4208.gif&Ecopy=nlc008388.4208
Jump up ^ "Top 100 Hits of 1972/Top 100 Songs of 1972". Musicoutfitters.com. Retrieved 2016-10-07.
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
[show]
v
t
e
Chicago
Robert Lamm
Lee Loughnane
James Pankow
Walter Parazaider
Tris Imboden
Keith Howland
Lou Pardini
Walfredo Reyes Jr.
Jeff Coffey
Danny Seraphine
Peter Cetera
Terry Kath
Laudir de Oliveira
Donnie Dacus
Chris Pinnick
Bill Champlin
Jason Scheff
Dawayne Bailey
Drew Hester
Daniel de los Reyes
Touring musicians
Studio albums
Chicago Transit Authority
Chicago
Chicago III
Chicago V
Chicago VI
Chicago VII
Chicago VIII
Chicago X
Chicago XI
Hot Streets
Chicago 13
Chicago XIV
Chicago 16
Chicago 17
Chicago 18
Chicago 19
Twenty 1
Night & Day: Big Band
Chicago XXV: The Christmas Album
Chicago XXX
Chicago XXXII: Stone of Sisyphus
Chicago XXXIII: O Christmas Three
Chicago XXXV: The Nashville Sessions
Chicago XXXVI: Now
Live albums
Chicago at Carnegie Hall
Live in Japan
Chicago Transit Authority Live In Toronto
Chicago XXVI: Live in Concert
Chicago XXXIV: Live in '75
Chicago at Symphony Hall
Compilations
Chicago IX: Chicago's Greatest Hits
Greatest Hits, Volume II
If You Leave Me Now
Take Me Back to Chicago
Greatest Hits 1982–1989
Group Portrait
The Heart of Chicago 1967–1997
The Heart of Chicago 1967–1998 Volume II
The Very Best of Chicago: Only the Beginning
The Box
Love Songs
The Best of Chicago: 40th Anniversary Edition
Related articles
Discography
Peter Cetera
Tom Dowd
Tim Feehan
David Foster
James William Guercio
Electra Glide in Blue
Phil Ramone
[show]
v
t
e
Chicago singles discography
singles 1960s
and 1970s
1969
"Questions 67 and 68"
"Beginnings"
1970
"Make Me Smile"
"25 or 6 to 4"
"Does Anybody Really Know What Time It Is?"
1971
"Free"
"Lowdown"
1972
"Saturday in the Park"
"Dialogue (Part I & II)"
1973
"Feelin' Stronger Every Day"
"Just You 'N' Me"
1974
"(I've Been) Searchin' So Long"
"Call on Me"
"Wishing You Were Here"
1975
"Harry Truman"
"Old Days"
"Brand New Love Affair"
1976
"Another Rainy Day in New York City"
"If You Leave Me Now"
1977
"You Are on My Mind"
"Baby, What a Big Surprise"
1978
"Little One"
"Take Me Back to Chicago"
"Alive Again"
"No Tell Lover"
1979
"Gone Long Gone"
"Must Have Been Crazy"
"Street Player"
singles 1980s
1980
"Thunder and Lightning"
"Song for You"
1982
"Hard to Say I'm Sorry"
"Love Me Tomorrow"
1983
"What You're Missing"
1984
"Stay the Night"
"Hard Habit to Break"
"You're the Inspiration"
1985
"Along Comes a Woman"
1986
"25 or 6 to 4" (re-recorded)
"Will You Still Love Me?"
1987
"If She Would Have Been Faithful..."
"Niagara Falls"
1988
"I Don't Wanna Live Without Your Love"
"Look Away"
1989
"You're Not Alone"
"We Can Last Forever"
"What Kind of Man Would I Be?"
singles 1990s
and 2000s
1990
"Hearts in Trouble"
1991
"Chasin' the Wind"
"Explain It to My Heart"
"You Come to My Senses"
2008
"Let's Take a Lifetime"
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saturday_in_the_Park_(song)&oldid=805167015"
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Chicago (band) songs
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Song recordings produced by James William Guercio
Columbia Records singles
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text:
Kauri gum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
A 19th-century carving of a tattooed Maori from kauri gum. The carving is owned and displayed by the Dargaville Museum, New Zealand.
See also: Kauri Museum
Kauri gum is a fossilised resin detracted from kauri trees (Agathis australis), which is made into crafts such as jewellery. Kauri forests once covered much of the North Island of New Zealand, before Māori and European settlers caused deforestation, causing several areas to revert to sand dunes, scrubs, and swamps. Even afterward, ancient kauri fields continued to provide a source for the gum and the remaining forests.[1][2]
Kauri gum formed when resin from kauri trees leaked out through fractures or cracks in the bark, hardening with the exposure to air. Lumps commonly fell to the ground and became covered with soil and forest litter, eventually fossilising. Other lumps formed as branches forked or trees were damaged, which released the resin.[3]
Contents
1 Uses
2 Appearance
3 Gumfields
4 Gum-diggers
4.1 Methods
5 Gum merchants
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
Uses[edit]
Kauri gum, polished
Kauri gum, unpolished
The Māori had many uses for the gum, which they called kapia. Fresh gum was used as a type of chewing gum (older gum was softened by soaking and mixing with juice of the puha thistle). Highly flammable, the gum was also used as a fire-starter, or bound in flax to act as a torch. Burnt and mixed with animal fat, it made a dark pigment for moko tattooing.[4] Kauri gum was also crafted into jewellery, keepsakes, and small decorative items. Like amber, kauri gum sometimes includes insects and plant material.[5]
Kauri gum was used commercially in varnish, and can be considered a type of copal (the name given to resin used in such a way). Kauri gum was found to be particularly good for this, and from the mid-1840s was exported to London and America. Tentative exports had begun a few years earlier, however, for use in marine glue and as fire-kindlers;[6] gum had even made up part of an export cargo to Australia in 1814.[7]
Since the kauri gum was found to mix more easily with linseed oil, at lower temperatures, than other resins, by the 1890s, 70 percent of all oil varnishes made in England used kauri gum.[8] It was used to a limited extent in paints during the late 19th century, and from 1910 was used extensively in the manufacture of linoleum. From the 1930s, the market for gum dropped as synthetic alternatives were found, but there remained niche uses for the gum in jewellery and specialist high-grade varnish for violins.[8]
Kauri gum was Auckland's main export in the second half of the 19th century, sustaining much of the early growth of the city. Between 1850 and 1950, 450,000 tons of gum were exported.[9] The peak in the gum market was 1899, with 11,116 tons exported that year, with a value of £600,000 ($989,700).[7][10] The average annual export was over 5,000 tons, with the average price gained £63 ($103.91) per ton.[11]
Appearance[edit]
The gum varied in color depending on the condition of the original tree. It also depended on where the gum had formed and how long it had been buried. Colors ranged from chalky-white, through red-brown to black; the most prized was a pale gold, as it was hard and translucent.[3][12] The size of each lump also varied greatly. Swamps tended to yield the small nuggets known as "chips", whereas the hillsides tended to produce larger lumps. The majority were the size of acorns, although some were found which weighed a few pounds; the largest (and rarest) were reported to weigh half a hundredweight.[13] Kauri gum shares a few characteristics with amber, another fossilised resin found in the Northern Hemisphere, but where amber can be dated as millions of years old, carbon-dating suggests the age of most kauri gum is a few thousand years.[6]
Gumfields[edit]
Kauri tree in Waipoua Forest
Most of the gumfields were in Northland, Coromandel and Auckland, the site of the original kauri forests. Initially, the gum was readily accessible, commonly found lying on the ground. Captain Cook reported the presence of resinous lumps on the beach at Mercury Bay, Coromandel, in 1769, although he suspected it came from the mangroves, and missionary Samuel Marsden spoke of their presence in Northland in 1819.[12]
By 1850, most of the surface-lying gum had been picked up, and people began digging for it. The hillsides yielded shallow-buried gum (about 1 m), but in the swamps and beaches, it was buried much further down (4 m or below).[1]
Gum-diggers[edit]
Gum-digger statue at Dargaville
Gum-diggers were men and women who dug for kauri gum, a fossilised resin, in the old kauri fields of New Zealand at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The gum was used mainly for varnish. The term may be a source for the nickname "Digger" given to New Zealand soldiers in World War I.[14] In 1898, a gum-digger described "the life of a gum-digger" as "wretched, and one of the last [occupations] a man would take to."[15]
Gum-diggers worked in the old kauri fields, most of which were then covered by swamp or scrub, digging for the gum. Much of the population was transient, moving from field to field, and they lived in rough huts or tents (which were called "whares", after the Maori for 'house'). It was extremely hard work and not very well paid, but it attracted many Maori and European settlers, including women and children.[16] There were many Dalmatians, who had first come to work the South Island goldfields in the 1860s.[17] They were transient workers, rather than settlers, and much of their income was sent out of the country, resulting in much resentment from the local workforce. In 1898, the "Kauri Gum Industry Act" was passed, which reserved gum-grounds for British subjects, and requiring all other diggers to be licensed. By 1910, only British subjects could hold gum-digging licences.[18]
Gum-digging was the major source of income for settlers in Northland, and farmers often worked the gumfields in the winter months to subsidise the poor income from their unbroken land. By the 1890s, 20,000 people were engaged in gum-digging, of which 7000 worked full-time.[19] Gum-digging was not restricted to settlers or workers in the rural areas; Auckland families would cross the Waitematā Harbour by ferry at weekends to dig in the fields around Birkenhead, causing damage to public roads and private farms, and leading to local council management of the problem.[20]
Methods[edit]
Group of gum-diggers in gumfield (1908)
Most gum was dug from the ground using gum-spears (pointed rods to probe for gum) and "skeltons", defined as blade-edged spades for cutting through old wood and roots as well as soil. Once the gum was retrieved it would need to be scraped and cleaned.[21]
Digging in swamps was more complicated; a longer spear (up to 8m) was often used, often fitted with a hooked end to scoop out the lumps. Scrub was often cleared first with fire; some got out of control and swamp fires could burn for weeks.[22] Holes were often dug by teams in both hills and swamps—often up to 12m deep—and some wetlands were drained to aid in the excavation of gum.[23] As field gum became scarce, "bush gum" was obtained by purposely cutting the bark of kauri trees and returning months later to retrieve the hardened resin. Due to the damage caused to the trees by the cutting the practice was banned in state forests in 1905.[21] Gum chips, small lumps useful for the manufacture of linoleum, were difficult to find, and by 1910, the process of washing and sieving to retrieve the chips became common. The process was later mechanised.[24]
Gum merchants[edit]
Gumdiggers generally sold their gum to local gumbuyers, who transported it to Auckland (generally by sea) for sale to merchants and exporters.[25] There were six major export firms in Auckland who dealt in gum, employing several hundred workers who graded and rescraped the gum for export, packing them in cases made from kauri timber.[26]
As early as the 1830s and 1840s, merchants, including Gilbert Mair and Logan Campbell, were buying gum from local Māori for £5 ($8.25) a ton, or trading it for goods.[7] The majority of the gum was exported to America and London (from whence it was distributed throughout Europe), although smaller amounts were sent to Australia, Hong Kong, Japan and Russia.[27]
See also[edit]
Kauri Museum
Dammar gum
Northland temperate kauri forest
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Hayward, pp 4–5
Jump up ^ "Te Ara Encyclopedia of NZ: Kauri Forest". Teara.govt.nz. 1 March 2009. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Hayward, p 2
Jump up ^ Hayward, p 3
Jump up ^ "Category: kauri". Collections Online. Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Gilbert Mair, 1843–1923 (1 March 2009). "Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand: Origins and uses". Teara.govt.nz. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hayward, p 46
^ Jump up to: a b Hayward, p 45
Jump up ^ "Te Ara Encyclopedia of NZ: The Industry". Teara.govt.nz. 2 March 2009. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Dunmore, p 21
Jump up ^ Reed, p 114
^ Jump up to: a b "Encyclopedia of NZ, 1966: Kauri Gum". Teara.govt.nz. 22 April 2009. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
Jump up ^ Reed, p 20
Jump up ^ Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand: The New Zealanders
Jump up ^ recorded in Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1898, H–12, p. 31, and quoted in Te Ara Encyclopedia of NZ
Jump up ^ Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand: Gumdigging
Jump up ^ Te Ara Encyclopedia of NZ: Damaltians
Jump up ^ Te Ara Encyclopedia of NZ: Dalmatians: Gumdiggers
Jump up ^ Hayward, p 47
Jump up ^ McClure, p 55-6
^ Jump up to: a b Te Are Encyclopedia of New Zealand: Gumdigging methods
Jump up ^ Hayward, pp 10–11
Jump up ^ Hayward, pp 12–13
Jump up ^ Hayward, p 27
Jump up ^ Hayward, p 19
Jump up ^ Hayward, pp 42–43
Jump up ^ Hayward, p 44
References[edit]
Hayward, Bruce W (1982). Kauri Gum and the Gumdiggers: A Pictorial History of the Kauri Gum Industry in New Zealand. Auckland: Lodestar Press. ISBN 0-86465-014-0
McClure, Margaret (1987). The Story of Birkenhead. Auckland: Birkenhead City Council. ISBN 0-908704-04-6
Reed, Alfred (1972). The Gumdiggers: The Story of Kauri Gum. Auckland: A.H. & A.W. Reed. ISBN 0-589-00732-7
Dunmore, Patricia (ed.) (1977). The Dunmore Book of New Zealand Records. Wellington: Dunmore Press. ISBN 0-908564-08-2
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kauri gum.
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Last Night (Diddy song)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Last Night"
Single by Diddy featuring Keyshia Cole
from the album Press Play and Just like You
Released
February 27, 2007
Format
CD single
digital download
Recorded
2006
Genre
Hip hop
R&B
Length
6:26 (album version)
4:18 (radio edit/Just like You version)
Label
Bad Boy
Atlantic
Songwriter(s)
Sean Combs
Keyshia Cole
Jack Knight
Mario Winans
Shannon "Slam" Lawrence
Producer(s)
Mario Winans
Diddy (co.)
Diddy singles chronology
"We Fly High (Remix)"
(2006) "Last Night"
(2007) "Through the Pain (She Told Me)"
(2007)
"We Fly High (Remix)"
(2006) "Last Night"
(2007) "Through the Pain (She Told Me)"
(2007)
Keyshia Cole singles chronology
"(When You Gonna) Give It Up to Me"
(2006) (When You Gonna) Give It Up to Me2006 "Last Night"
(2007) Last Night2007 "Dreamin'"
(2007) Dreamin'2007
"Last Night" is a song by American rapper Diddy that is a single featured on his fourth studio album, Press Play. The song features American R&B singer-songwriter Keyshia Cole. The radio edit version of the song is featured on Cole's second studio album, Just like You.
Part of the recording session was shown on Cole's reality show, Keyshia Cole: The Way It Is, on BET in July 2006. The making of the video was shown on BET's "Access Granted" on January 31, 2007.
Contents
1 Background
2 Composition
3 Music video
4 Chart performance
5 Live performance
6 Formats and track listings
7 Remixes
8 Charts
8.1 Year-end charts
9 References
10 External links
Background[edit]
The song has an '80s-styled beat. The song samples the drumbeat of Prince's "Erotic City", but slightly modified to increase the bass. During BET's Access Granted, Diddy brought up the fact that Keyshia re-recorded her parts multiple times, and the two had many artistic differences on the song. The recording of the song was featured on Keyshia Cole's reality show The Way It Is. On the album version of the song, Diddy is heard talking on the phone using a lot of explicit words at the end. The radio version of the song fades out before the phone dials, while the clean album version of the song still has this part only with the explicit words censored out.
Composition[edit]
"Last Night" is written in the key of E minor (recorded a half-step lower in E♭ minor). The song moves at a tempo of 121 beats per minute, and the vocals in the song span from B3 to D5.[1]
Music video[edit]
On January 31, Diddy premiered the official music video for "Last Night" on BET's Access Granted. Cole's second verse was cut from the video. The video (directed by Marc Webb) starts out with Diddy sitting at his home alone. As he finishes the chorus, he tries to call his ex-girlfriend (played by Dena Cali) but she refuses to answer. We then see the ex-girlfriend in her own home, as Keyshia Cole begins to climb a set of stairs back at Diddy's place. We then see Cole leaning against a brick wall in the house, as Diddy stands beside his pool, thinking about his past relationship with the ex-girlfriend. Apparently, the two of them had a baby together. We then see Diddy driving down the highway in his Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren, along with more shots Keyshia singing and walking up the stairs. We then see shots of Diddy spying on his ex-girlfriend and her new boyfriend (who is playing with their baby) as the chorus happens. The new boyfriend is played by Sinqua Walls Jr. Next, we see Diddy in an empty club with his band and they rehearse together. This happens until the end of Cole's final verse, and then we see Diddy and his ex-girlfriend meeting up and they talk. As this occurs, we see quick shots of Diddy destroying his living room, and standing in front of a large photo of a woman. As the song ends, we see the ex-girlfriend gives Diddy a good-bye kiss on the cheek. Just before the camera fades to black, we see Diddy sitting alone in his house again.
Chart performance[edit]
After the disappointment of "Tell Me" in the US, "Last Night" was expected to be a huge hit.[citation needed] It in fact was hitting #10 on the Hot 100 becoming his second top 10 hit off "Press Play". The track however was a moderate hit worldwide. "Last Night" managed to go top 20 in ten different countries. In the UK "Last Night" only reached #14, becoming his first single from Press Play not to hit the top 10. This also hit #1 in France, after "Tell Me" never being released.
Live performance[edit]
On June 26, 2007, Diddy performed "Last Night" at the 2007 BET Awards which featured Keyshia Cole and Lil' Kim
Formats and track listings[edit]
US 12" promotional single
Side A
"Last Night" [radio edit]
"Last Night" [mix show amended version]
Side B
"Last Night" [explicit version]
"Last Night" [instrumental]
UK Single
"Last Night" [radio edit]
"Tell Me" [DFA remix – radio edit]
Remixes[edit]
The official remix has 2 versions and has R&B singer Keyshia Cole on both of them, the 1st remix, the Dirty South Remix, features The Game, Big Boi, Yung Joc, & Rich Boy, and the 2nd remix, the NYC Remix, features Lil' Kim & Busta Rhymes. There is also a DJ Noodles remix that features Keyshia Cole, T.I., & Pharrell Williams. A sequel of the song called "Last Night Pt. 2" can be found on the deluxe edition of Diddy's latest album, Last Train to Paris, with his group Dirty Money.
Charts[edit]
Chart (2007–08)
Peak
position
Austria (Ö3 Austria Top 40)[2] 54
Canada (Canadian Hot 100)[3] 23
Denmark (Tracklisten)[4] 15
Europe (European Hot 100 Singles)[5] 31
Finland (Suomen virallinen lista)[6] 4
France (SNEP)[7] 99
Germany (Official German Charts)[8] 25
Hungary (Rádiós Top 40)[9] 24
Hungary (Dance Top 40)[10] 19
Ireland (IRMA)[11] 9
Netherlands (Single Top 100)[12] 37
Slovakia (Rádio Top 100)[13] 29
Switzerland (Schweizer Hitparade)[14] 33
UK Singles (Official Charts Company)[15] 14
US Billboard Hot 100[16] 10
US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs (Billboard)[17] 7
US Mainstream Top 40 (Billboard)[18] 7
Year-end charts[edit]
Chart (2007)
Rank
German Singles Chart[19] 90
US Billboard Hot 100[20] 42
US R&B/Hip-Hop Songs (Billboard)[21] 41
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Last Night". www.musicnotes.com. Retrieved 2016-01-15.
Jump up ^ "Austriancharts.at – P. Diddy feat. Keyshia Cole – Last Night" (in German). Ö3 Austria Top 40.
Jump up ^ "Diddy Chart History (Canadian Hot 100)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Danishcharts.com – P. Diddy feat. Keyshia Cole – Last Night". Tracklisten.
Jump up ^ "Diddy – Chart history" European Hot 100 for Diddy.
Jump up ^ "P. Diddy feat. Keyshia Cole: Last Night" (in Finnish). Musiikkituottajat – IFPI Finland.
Jump up ^ "Lescharts.com – P. Diddy feat. Keyshia Cole – Last Night" (in French). Les classement single.
Jump up ^ "Musicline.de – P.Diddy Feat.Cole,Keyshia Single-Chartverfolgung" (in German). Media Control Charts. PhonoNet GmbH.
Jump up ^ "Archívum – Slágerlisták – MAHASZ" (in Hungarian). Rádiós Top 40 játszási lista. Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége.
Jump up ^ "Archívum – Slágerlisták – MAHASZ" (in Hungarian). Dance Top 40 lista. Magyar Hanglemezkiadók Szövetsége.
Jump up ^ "Chart Track: Week 16, 2007". Irish Singles Chart.
Jump up ^ "Dutchcharts.nl – P. Diddy feat. Keyshia Cole – Last Night" (in Dutch). Single Top 100.
Jump up ^ "SNS IFPI" (in Slovak). Hitparáda – Radio Top 100 Oficiálna. IFPI Czech Republic. Note: insert 200730 into search.
Jump up ^ "Swisscharts.com – P. Diddy feat. Keyshia Cole – Last Night". Swiss Singles Chart.
Jump up ^ "P Diddy: Artist Chart History". Official Charts Company.
Jump up ^ "Diddy Chart History (Hot 100)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Diddy Chart History (Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Diddy Chart History (Pop Songs)". Billboard.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2010-01-24. Retrieved 2010-09-11.
Jump up ^ http://www.billboard.com/charts/year-end/2007/hot-100-songs
Jump up ^ http://www.billboard.com/charts/year-end/2007/hot-r-b-hip-hop-songs
External links[edit]
Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
show
v
t
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Keyshia Cole
Discography
Studio albums
The Way It Is
Just like You
A Different Me
Calling All Hearts
Woman to Woman
Point of No Return
11:11 Reset
Mixtapes
Team Invasion Presents Keyshia Cole
Singles
"Never"
"I Changed My Mind"
"(I Just Want It) To Be Over"
"I Should Have Cheated"
"Love"
"Let It Go"
"Shoulda Let You Go"
"I Remember"
"Heaven Sent"
"Playa Cardz Right"
"You Complete Me"
"Trust"
"I Ain't Thru"
"Take Me Away"
"Enough of No Love"
"Trust and Believe"
"I Choose You"
"Next Time (Won't Give My Heart Away)"
"She"
"You"
Featured singles
"Let's Get Blown"
"(When You Gonna) Give It Up to Me"
"Last Night"
"Dreamin'"
"I Got a Thang for You"
"Boyfriend/Girlfriend"
"Just Stand Up!"
"Game's Pain"
Promotional songs
"Long Way Down"
Concert tours
I Am Music Tour
A Different Me Tour
Love Letter Tour
Woman to Woman Tour
Related articles
Keyshia Cole: The Way It Is
Keyshia & Daniel: Family First
Daniel Gibson
Book
Category
show
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Sean Combs
Discography
Production discography
Accolades
Studio albums
No Way Out
Forever
The Saga Continues...
Press Play
Last Train to Paris
No Way Out 2
Mixtapes
MMM (Money Making Mitch)
Remix albums
We Invented the Remix
Singles
"Can't Nobody Hold Me Down"
"I'll Be Missing You"
"It's All About the Benjamins"
"Been Around the World"
"Victory"
"Come with Me"
"Satisfy You"
"Bad Boy for Life"
"I Need a Girl (Part 1)"
"I Need a Girl (Part 2)"
"Come to Me"
"Tell Me"
"Last Night"
"Through the Pain (She Told Me)"
"Angels"
"Love Come Down"
"Hello Good Morning"
"Loving You No More"
"Coming Home"
"Ass on the Floor"
"Finna Get Loose"
"Workin (Remix)"
Featured singles
"No Time"
"Mo Money Mo Problems"
"Honey"
"Lookin' at Me"
"Hate Me Now"
"All Night Long"
"Notorious B.I.G."
"Son of a Gun"
"Show Stopper"
"Pass the Courvoisier, Part II"
"Bump, Bump, Bump"
"I Do (Wanna Get Close to You)"
"Shake Ya Tailfeather"
"I Don't Wanna Know"
"Nasty Girl"
"Take You There"
"Imma Put It on Her"
"Must Be Love"
"Better on the Other Side
"All I Do Is Win (Remix)"
"Someone to Love Me (Naked)"
"Scream & Shout (Remix)"
Related articles
Bad Boy Records
Sean John
P. Diddy's Starmaker
The Notorious B.I.G.
I Want to Work for Diddy
A Raisin in the Sun
Diddy – Dirty Money
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Last_Night_(Diddy_song)&oldid=848518180"
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