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Ethnocentrism
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Ethnocentrism is judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture.[1][2] Ethnocentric individuals judge other groups relative to their own ethnic group or culture, especially with concern for language, behavior, customs, and religion. These ethnic distinctions and subdivisions serve to define each ethnicity's unique cultural identity.[3] William G. Summer defined it as "the technical name for the view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it." He further characterized ethnocentrism as often leading to pride, vanity, beliefs of one's own group's superiority, and contempt of outsiders.[4] This may occur for the differentiation of people between in-groups and out-groups.[5] Two main view points of ethnocentrism are the social sciences and the genetics. In anthropology, cultural relativism is used as an antithesis and an antonym to ethnocentrism.[6] In biology, ethnocentrism is considered a natural condition of mankind.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins of the concept
2 Anthropology
2.1 Consumer ethnocentrism
2.2 Cultural relativism
3 Causes
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Origins of the concept[edit]
The term "ethnocentrism" was coined by Ludwig Gumplowicz[8][9] and subsequently employed by William G. Sumner. Gumplowicz defined ethnocentrism as the reasons by virtue of which each people believed it had always occupied the highest point not only among contemporaneous peoples and nations but also in relation to all peoples of the historical past[10] (Der Rassenkampf, 1883). Sumner relied on observing the tendency for people to differentiate between the in-group and others, disseminating it in his 1906 work Folkways.
In 1996, Robert K. Merton commented that "although the practice of seeing one's own group as the center of things is empirically correlated with a belief in superiority, centrality and superiority need to be kept analytically distinct in order to deal with patterns of alienation from one's membership group and contempt for it."[11]
People born into a particular culture that grow up absorbing the values and behaviors of the culture will develop a worldview that considers their culture to be the norm.[12][13] If people then experience other cultures that have different values and normal behaviors, they will find that the thought patterns appropriate to their birth culture and the meanings their birth culture attaches to behaviors are not appropriate for the new cultures. However, since people are accustomed to their birth culture, it can be difficult for them to see the behaviors of people from a different culture from the viewpoint of that culture rather than from their own.[12][14]
Explicit ethnocentrism and implicit ethnocentrism. Explicit ethnocentrism involves the ability to express the feelings about outsiders (people from other groups), and implicit ethnocentrism refers to the inhibition of the feelings for outsiders.[15]
Anthropology[edit]
Anthropologists such as Franz Boas and Bronislaw Malinowski argued that any human science had to transcend the ethnocentrism of the scientist. Both urged anthropologists to conduct ethnographic fieldwork in order to overcome their ethnocentrism. Boas developed the principle of cultural relativism where the "context" plays an important role to the understanding of other people's values,[16] and Malinowski developed the theory of functionalism as guides for producing non-ethnocentric studies of different cultures. Classic examples of anti-ethnocentric anthropology include Margaret Mead's Coming of Age in Samoa (1928), Malinowski's The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia (1929), and Ruth Benedict's Patterns of Culture (1934). (Mead and Benedict were two of Boas's students.)
Examples of ethnocentrism include religiocentric constructs claiming a divine association like "divine nation", "God's Own Country", "God's Chosen People", and "God's Promised Land".[6] Although this may be seen as classic examples, a study published by Brill showed that religious attitudes do not effect on negative out-group attitudes.[17]
In Precarious Life, Judith Butler discusses recognizing the Other in order to sustain the Self and the problems of not being able to identify the Other. Butler writes:
Identification always relies upon a difference that it seeks to overcome, and that its aim is accomplished only by reintroducing the difference it claims to have vanquished. The one with whom I identify is not me, and that "not being me" is the condition of the identification. Otherwise, as Jacqueline Rose reminds us, identification collapses into identity, which spells the death of identification itself.[18]
Consumer ethnocentrism[edit]
Consumer ethnocentrism refers to the preference of buying products from one's own country with the purpose of protecting the economy and the jobs of people in the country. It involves the brand and quality of the products. In order to measure the levels of a consumer's ethnocentric tendencies, the CETSACALE was created and used for many countries and cultures.[19]
Cultural relativism[edit]
The idea of cultural relativism refers to the idea that what is considered true in one culture may not be in another one. This relates is the opposite of ethnocentrism; referring to the idea of being aware that different beliefs and cultures exist.[20] Classic examples of this are the use of certain words that may have a different meaning in another country. the term used to describe this examples is linguistic relativism. However, a person does not necessarily need to apply the concept of cultural relativism to not be ethnocentric.[21]
Causes[edit]
In a research published by PNAS (Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America) suggested that ethnocentrism may be mediated by the oxytocin hormone. It was found that in randomized controlled trials "oxytocin creates intergroup bias because oxytocin motivates in-group favoritism and, to a lesser extent, out-group derogation".[22]
In The Selfish Gene, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins writes that "Blood-feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretable in terms of Hamilton's genetic theory."[23] Simulation-based experiments in evolutionary game theory have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric-strategy phenotypes.[24][25]
There is not a single reason to determine the causes of ethnocentrism,[26] different areas of sciences tried to explain how ethnocentrism works. The Social identity approach suggests that a person is ethnocentric due to a strong identification with the inter- culture which may lead to negative feelings to the outsiders. Social scientists believe that the lack of contact with outsiders may be a cause stereotype towards other groups.[15]
Realistic conflict theory assumes that ethnocentrism happens due to "real or perceived conflict" in between groups. this happens also with new members of a group where the dominant group may perceive the new ones as treat.[15]
See also[edit]
Afrocentrism
Afrophobia
American exceptionalism
Americentrism
Asiocentrism
Barbarian
Chosen people
Chronocentrism
Collective narcissism
Consumer ethnocentrism
Cross-cultural communication
Cultural bias
Cultural competence
Cultural diversity
Cultural racism
Cultural relativism
Endogamy
Ethnic nationalism
Ethnic nepotism
Eurocentrism
Imperialism
Indocentrism
In-group–out-group bias
Intercultural communication principles
Intercultural competence
Nationalism
Pseudospeciation
Racism
Relativism
Religiocentrism
Sinocentrism
Sojunghwa (Korean ethnocentrism)
Stereotype
Supremacism
Tribalism
Universalism in geography
Xenocentrism
References[edit]
Notes
Jump up ^ John T. Omohundro (2008). Thinking like an Anthropologist: A practical introduction to Cultural Anthropology. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-319580-4.
Jump up ^ Colman, Andrew M. (2006). A dictionary of psychology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192806327.
Jump up ^ Margaret L. Andersen, Howard Francis Taylor (2006). Sociology: Understanding a Diverse Society. Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-61716-6.
Jump up ^ Sumner, W. G. Folkways. New York: Ginn, 1906.
Jump up ^ Hammond, Axelrod, Ross A., Robert (December 2006). "The Evolution of Ethnocentrism". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 50 (6): 926. doi:10.1177/0022002706293470 – via SAGE Journals.
^ Jump up to: a b William A. Haviland; Harald E. L. Prins; Dana Walrath; Bunny McBride (2009). The Essence of Anthropology. Cengage Learning. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-495-59981-4.
Jump up ^ Booth, Ken (2014). Strategy and Ethnocentrism (Routledge Revivals). Routledge. pp. 15, 16. ISBN 1317670302.
Jump up ^ Naturalism in Sociology of the Turn of the Century (by Alexander Hofman and Alexander Kovalev) // A History of Classical Sociology. Ed. by Igor Kon. Moscow, 1989, p. 84. ISBN 5-01-001102-6
Jump up ^ Boris Bizumic (Research School of Psychology, the Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia). Who Coined the Concept of Ethnocentrism? A Brief Report // Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 2014, Vol. 2(1), doi:10.5964/jspp.v2i1.264
Jump up ^ Louis Gumplowicz. La lutte des races. Recherches sociologiques (Guillaumin et Cie., Paris, 1893), p 349. (Cited from: Naturalism in Sociology of the Turn of the Century (by Alexander Hofman and Alexander Kovalev) // A History of Classical Sociology. Ed. by Igor Kon. Moscow, 1989, p. 84. ISBN 5-01-001102-6)
Jump up ^ Robert King Merton (1996). Piotr Sztompka, ed. On social structure and science. University of Chicago Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-226-52070-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Seidner, Stanley S. (1982). Ethnicity, Language, and Power from a Psycholinguistic Perspective. Bruxelles: Centre de Recherche sur le Plurilinguisme. OCLC 51685367.
Jump up ^ Gelfand, Michele (2015). "The Inevitability of Ethnocentrism Revisited: Ethnocentrism Diminishes As Mobility Increases". Scientific Reports. 5: 17963. doi:10.1038/srep17963. PMC 4672305  . PMID 26644192 – via PMC.
Jump up ^ Barger, Ken (February 14, 2018). "Ethnocentrism". Indiana University Indianapolis.
^ Jump up to: a b c Darity, William A. (2008). Ethnocentrism." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 0028661176.
Jump up ^ Howson, Alexandra (2009). "Cultural Relativism" (PDF): 1, 2 – via EBSCO.
Jump up ^ Capucao, Dave (2010). Religion and Ethnocentrism: An Empirical-theological Study. Brill. p. 247. ISBN 9789004184701.
Jump up ^ Butler, Judith (2004). Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence. New York: Verso. pp. 145–146. ISBN 9781844675449. Retrieved 12 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Shimp, Terence; Sharma, Shubhash (1987). "Consumer Ethnocentrism: Construction and Validation of the CETSCALE" (PDF). Journal of Marketing Research. 24 (3): 280–289. doi:10.2307/3151638.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Allan G. (2000). "In The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology. "cultural relativism"". CREDO.
Jump up ^ Nolan, Cathal J. (2002). "Greenwood encyclopedia of international relations. "ethnocentrism"". CREDO.
Jump up ^ De Dreu, C. K. W.; Greer, L. L.; Van Kleef, G. A.; Shalvi, S.; Handgraaf, M. J. J. (2011). "Oxytocin promotes human ethnocentrism". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (4): 1262–1266. doi:10.1073/pnas.1015316108. PMC 3029708  . PMID 21220339.
Jump up ^ Dawkins, Richard (2006). The selfish gene. Oxford University Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-19-929115-1.
Jump up ^ Hammond, R. A.; Axelrod, R. (2006). "The Evolution of Ethnocentrism". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 50 (6): 926–936. doi:10.1177/0022002706293470.
Jump up ^ Max Hartshorn, Artem Kaznatcheev and Thomas Shultz, "The Evolutionary Dominance of Ethnocentric Cooperation" Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, 30 June 2013
Jump up ^ Forbes, H.D. (2013). ""Prejudice." Encyclopedia of Race and Racism". CREDO.
Further reading
Ankerl, G. Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU PRESS, 2000, ISBN 2-88155-004-5
Kinder, Donald R.; Kam, Cindy D. (2009): US against THEM. Ethnocentric foundations of American opinion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226435717.
Martineau, H. (1838). "How to Observe Morals and manners". Charles Knight and Co., London.
Reynolds, V., Falger, V., & Vine, I. (Eds.) (1987). The Sociobiology of Ethnocentrism. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press.
Salter, F. K., ed. 2002. Risky Transactions. Trust, Kinship, and Ethnicity. Oxford and New York: Berghahn.
van den Berghe, P. L. (1981). The ethnic phenomenon. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Wade, Nicholas, "Depth of the Kindness Hormone Appears to Know Some Bounds," New York Times, 10 January 2011.
External links[edit]
Group Processes and Intergroup Relations
For more related maps, select "Ethnocentrism" subject at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library
[show]
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Ethnocentrism
Regional variants
Afrocentrism
Americentrism
Eurocentrism
Asiacentrism
Indocentrism
Sinocentrism
Sojunghwa
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Anthropocentrism
Chronocentrism
Geocentrism
Religiocentrism
Sentiocentrism
Xenocentrism
Exceptionalism
Collective narcissism
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values: ජාතිකේන්ද්‍රතාය – Sinhala

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-si
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sl
display: none;

values: Етноцентризам – Serbian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

values: Етноцентризм – Ukrainian

values:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

values: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Ethnocentrism rootpage-Ethnocentrism skin-vector action-view