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List of governors-general of India
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The Regulating Act of 1773 created the office with the title of Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William, or Governor-General of Bengal to be appointed by the Court of Directors of the East India Company (EIC). The Court of Directors assigned a Council of Four (based in India) to assist the Governor General, and decision of council was binding on the Governor General during 1773-1784.
The Saint Helena Act 1833 (or Government of India Act 1833) re-designated the office with the title of Governor-General of India.
After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the company rule was brought to an end, and the British India along with princely states came under the direct rule of the British Crown. The Government of India Act 1858 created the office of Secretary of State for India in 1858 to oversee the affairs of India, which was advised by a new Council of India with 15 members (based in London). The existing Council of Four was formally renamed as the Council of Governor General of India or Executive Council of India. The Council of India was later abolished by Government of India Act 1935.
Following the adoption of the Government of India Act of 1858, the Governor-General as representing the Crown became known as the Viceroy. The designation 'Viceroy', although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament. Although the Proclamation of 1858 announcing the assumption of the government of India by the Crown referred to Lord Canning as "first Viceroy and Governor-General", none of the Warrants appointing his successors referred to them as 'Viceroys', and the title, which was frequently used in Warrants dealing with precedence and in public notifications, was basically one of ceremony used in connection with the state and social functions of the Sovereign's representative. The Governor-General continued to be the sole representative of the Crown, and the Government of India continued to be vested in the Governor-General-in-Council.[1]
From the year 1858 onwards, the appointments of Governor-General of India were made by the British Crown upon the advice of Secretary of State for India. The office of Governor-General continued to exist as a ceremonial post in each of the new dominions until they adopted republican constitutions in 1950 and 1956 Respectively.
List of Governor-Generals[edit]
Portrait
Name
(Birth–Death)
Term of office
Notable events
Appointer
Governors Generals of the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal), 1773–1833
Warren Hastings
(1732-1818) 20 October
1773
[nb 1] 1 February
1785
Regulating Act of 1773
Supreme Council Of Bengal
Asiatic Society of Bengal
Stopped Mughal pension to Shah Alam II
Stopped Diarchy in Bengal
New Sanskrit School by Jonathan Deccan
Moved Treasury from Murshidabad to Calcutta
Bengal Gazette- First Indian newspaper published
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82)
Second Anglo-Mysore war (1780–84)
First Rohilla W of 1773–1774
"Ring fence policy"
Second Rohilla War 1779
Experimentation on land settlements. (1772-five years settlement, changed to 1 year in 1776)
English Translation of Bhagwat Gita[2]
East India
Company

(1773–1858)
John Macpherson
(acting)
(1745–1821) 1 February
1785 12 September
1786
Charles Cornwallis
The Marquess Cornwallis [nb 2]
(1738–1805) 12 September
1786 28 October
1793
Established lower courts and appellate courts
Permanent Settlement in Bihar and Bengal in 1793
3rd Mysore war
Introduction of Cornwallis Code
Introduction of Civil Services in India
John Shore
(1751–1834) 28 October
1793 18 March
1798
Policy of Non-intervention
Charter Act of 1793
Battle of Kharda between Nizam and Marathas (1795)
Alured Clarke
(acting)
(1744–1832) 18 March
1798 18 May
1798
Richard Wellesley, Earl of Mornington [nb 3]
(1760–1842) 18 May
1798 30 July
1805
Introduction of Subsidiary Alliance
Fourth Anglo Mysore War 1799
Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05)
Fort William College at Calcutta
Formation of Madras Presidency in 1801
The Marquess Cornwallis
(1738–1805) 30 July
1805 5 October
1805
Sir George Barlow, Bt
(acting)
(1762–1847) 10 October
1805 31 July
1807
Sepoy mutiny at Vellore
The Lord Minto
(1751–1814) 31 July
1807 4 October
1813
Charter Act of 1813
Treaty of Amritsar, 1809 with Ranjit Singh
Francis Rawdon-Hastings, The Earl of Moira [nb 4]
(1754–1826) 4 October
1813 9 January
1823
Ended the policy of Non-intervention
Third Anglo-Maratha War (1816-1818)
Treaty of Sugauli
Creation of Bombay Presidency in 1818
Establishment of Ryotwari System in Madras and
Mahalwari System in Central India,Punjab And Western UP.
John Adam
(acting)
(1779–1825) 9 January
1823 1 August
1823
Licensing Regulations
The Lord Amherst[nb 5]
(1773–1857) 1 August
1823 13 March
1828
First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26)
Treaty of Yandabo, 1826
William Butterworth Bayley
(acting)
(1782–1860) 13 March
1828 4 July
1828
Governors-General of India, 1833–1858
Lord William Bentinck
(1774–1839) 4 July
1828 20 March
1835
First Governor General of India
Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829
Charter Act, 1833
Saint Helena Act 1833
English Education Act 1835
Medical College and Hospital, Kolkata
East India
Company

(1773–1858)
Charles Metcalfe, Bt
(acting)
(1785–1846) 20 March
1835 4 March
1836
Repealed 1823 Licensing Regulations
Known as Liberator of India Press
The Lord Auckland[nb 6]
(1784–1849) 4 March
1836 28 February
1842
The Lord Ellenborough
(1790–1871) 28 February
1842 June
1844
William Wilberforce Bird
(acting)
(1784–1857) June
1844 23 July
1844
Henry Hardinge[nb 7]
(1785–1856) 23 July
1844 12 January
1848
The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46)
The Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49)
Treaty of Lahore
The Earl of Dalhousie[nb 8]
(1812–1860) 12 January
1848 28 February
1856
Doctrine of Lapse
Charles Wood Despatch
Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852)
First Railway line connecting Bombay and Thane
First telegraph Line was laid between Diamond Harbour to Calcutta.
Post Office Act, 1854
Hindu widow remarriage act 1856
Established Public Works Department
The Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849)
Engineering College was established at Roorkee.[3]
Governors-General and Viceroys of India, 1858–1947
The Viscount Canning[nb 9]
(1812–1862) 28 February
1856 21 March
1862
University of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras were set up in 1858
The revolt of 1857
The Government of India Act, 1858
Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856
System of Budget introduced
Victoria

(1837–1901)
The Earl of Elgin
(1811–1863) 21 March
1862 20 November
1863
Robert Napier
(acting)
(1810–1890) 21 November
1863 2 December
1863
William Denison
(acting)
(1804–1871) 2 December
1863 12 January
1864
Sir John Lawrence, Bt
(1811–1879) 12 January
1864 12 January
1869
Bhutan War
Establishment of Shimla as India's summer capital in 1863
The Earl of Mayo
(1822–1872) 12 January
1869 8 February
1872
Assassinated by a Pathan Sher Ali Afridi
Started the Census.
Opening of Rajkot college in Kathiawar and Mayo College at Ajmer for political training of Indian Princes
Started Financial Decentralisation
Sir John Strachey
(acting)
(1823–1907) 9 February
1872 23 February
1872
The Lord Napier
(acting)
(1819–1898) 24 February
1872 3 May
1872
The Lord Northbrook
(1826–1904) 3 May
1872 12 April
1876
The Lord Lytton
(1831–1891) 12 April
1876 8 June
1880
Vernacular Press Act, 1878
Second Anglo-Afghan War
The Indians Arms Act (1878)[4]
1st Delhi Durbar out of 3
Queen Victoria assuming the title of 'Kaiser-i-Hind'
The Marquess of Ripon
(1827–1909) 8 June
1880 13 December
1884
First Factory Act (1881)
Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act (1882)
Ilbert Bill
Government resolution on local self-government (1882)
Appointment of Education Commission under Sir William Hunter
The Earl of Dufferin
(1826–1902) 13 December
1884 10 December
1888
Formation of Indian National Congress
Third Anglo-Burmese War
The Marquess of Lansdowne
(1845–1927) 10 December
1888 11 October
1894
Indian Council Act 1892
Factory Act 1891
Setting up of Durand Commission (India-Afghanistan)
The Earl of Elgin
(1849–1917) 11 October
1894 6 January
1899
The Lord Curzon of Kedleston[nb 10]
(1859–1925) 6 January
1899 18 November
1905
Partition of Bengal (1905)
2st Delhi Durbar out of 3 (1903)
Appointment of Police Commission under Sir Andrew Frazer
Appointment of Raleigh University Commission (1902)
Passing of Indian Universities Act 1904
The Earl of Minto
(1845–1914) 18 November
1905 23 November
1910
Morley-Minto Reforms 1909 or The Indian Councils Act 1909
Split in Congress in 1907
Establishment of Muslim League by Aga Khan (1906)
Edward VII

(1901–1910)
The Lord Hardinge of Penshurst
(1858–1944) 23 November
1910 4 April
1916
Third Delhi Durbar (1911)
Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi (1911)
Ghadar Mutiny (1915)
George V

(1910–1936)
The Lord Chelmsford
(1868–1933) 4 April
1916 2 April
1921
Formation of Indian Home Rule Movement (1916)
Lucknow Pact (1916)
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919)
Government of India Act 1919
Rowlatt Act (1919)
Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre (1919)
The Earl of Reading
(1860–1935) 2 April
1921 3 April
1926
Malabar rebellion (1921)
Non-cooperation movement (1921-22)
Chauri Chaura incident (1922)
The Lord Irwin
(1881–1959) 3 April
1926 18 April
1931
Simon Commission (1928)
Nehru Report (1928)
Death of Lala Lajpat Rai (1928)
Fourteen Points of Jinnah (1929)
Purna Swaraj declaration (1930)
Salt March (1930)
Dharasana Satyagraha (1930)
First and Second Round Table Conferences (1930-31)
Allahabad Address (1930)
Gandhi–Irwin Pact (1931)
Execution of Bhagat Singh, Shivaram Rajguru, and Sukhdev Thapar (1931)
The Earl of Willingdon
(1866–1941) 18 April
1931 18 April
1936
Pakistan Declaration (1933)
Government of India Act 1935
The Marquess of Linlithgow
(1887–1952) 18 April
1936 1 October
1943
Indian provincial elections (1937)
Indian entry into World War II (1939)
Day of Deliverance (1939)
Lahore Resolution (1940)
Cripps Mission (1942)
Formation of Indian Legion (1942)
Quit India movement (1942)
Formation of Indian National Army (1942)
Bengal famine (1943)
Edward VIII

(1936)
The Viscount Wavell
(1883–1950) 1 October
1943 21 February
1947
C. R. formula (1944)
Simla Conference (1945)
Cabinet Mission (1946)
Direct Action Day (1946)
George VI

(1936–1952)
The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma
(1900–1979) 21 February
1947 15 August
1947
Governors-General of the Dominion of India, 1947–1950
The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma[nb 11]
(1900–1979) 15 August
1947 21 June
1948 George VI

(1936–1952)
C. Rajagopalachari
(1878–1972) 21 June
1948 26 January
1950
Notes
Jump up ^ Originally joined on 28 April 1772
Jump up ^ Earl Cornwallis from 1762; created Marquess Cornwallis in 1792.
Jump up ^ Created Marquess Wellesley in 1799.
Jump up ^ Created Marquess of Hastings in 1816
Jump up ^ Created Earl Amherst in 1826.
Jump up ^ Created Earl of Auckland in 1839.
Jump up ^ Created Viscount Hardinge in 1846.
Jump up ^ Created Marquess of Dalhousie in 1849.
Jump up ^ Created Earl Canning in 1859.
Jump up ^ The Lord Ampthill was acting Governor-General in 1904
Jump up ^ Created Earl Mountbatten of Burma on 28 October 1947.
See also[edit]
Council of India
Secretary of State for India
List of Presidents of India
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Imperial Gazetteer of India, Clarendon Press, Oxford, New Edition 1909, vol 4, p. 16.
Jump up ^ Clarke, John James (1 January 1997). Oriental Enlightenment: The Encounter Between Asian and Western Thought. Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415133753.
Jump up ^ Link text
Jump up ^ "What was the Arms Act 1878? - Quora". www.quora.com. Retrieved 2017-01-13.
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Circulatory system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Bloodstream" redirects here. For the song by Ed Sheeran, see Bloodstream (song).
This article is about the animal circulatory system. For plants, see Vascular tissue.
Circulatory system
The human circulatory system (simplified). Red indicates oxygenated blood carried in arteries, blue indicates deoxygenated blood carried in veins. Capillaries, which join the arteries and veins, and the lymphatic vessels are not shown.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
Systema gavar
MeSH
D002319
TA
A12.0.00.001
FMA
7161
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis. The study of the blood flow is called hemodynamics. The study of the properties of the blood flow is called hemorheology.
The circulatory system is often seen to comprise two separate systems: the cardiovascular system, which distributes blood, and the lymphatic system, which circulates lymph.[1] The passage of lymph for example takes much longer than that of blood.[2] Blood is a fluid consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets that is circulated by the heart through the vertebrate vascular system, carrying oxygen and nutrients to and waste materials away from all body tissues. Lymph is essentially recycled excess blood plasma after it has been filtered from the interstitial fluid (between cells) and returned to the lymphatic system. The cardiovascular (from Latin words meaning "heart" and "vessel") system comprises the blood, heart, and blood vessels.[3] The lymph, lymph nodes, and lymph vessels form the lymphatic system, which returns filtered blood plasma from the interstitial fluid (between cells) as lymph.
While humans, as well as other vertebrates, have a closed cardiovascular system (meaning that the blood never leaves the network of arteries, veins and capillaries), some invertebrate groups have an open cardiovascular system. The lymphatic system, on the other hand, is an open system providing an accessory route for excess interstitial fluid to be returned to the blood.[4] The more primitive, diploblastic animal phyla lack circulatory systems.
Play media
Video explanation
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Cardiovascular system
1.1.1 Arteries
1.1.2 Capillaries
1.1.3 Veins
1.1.4 Coronary vessels
1.1.5 Portal veins
1.1.6 Heart
1.1.7 Lungs
1.1.8 Systemic circulation
1.1.9 Brain
1.1.10 Kidneys
1.2 Lymphatic system
1.3 Physiology
2 Development
2.1 Arterial development
2.2 Venous development
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Cardiovascular disease
3.2 Measurement techniques
3.3 Surgery
4 Society and culture
5 Other animals
5.1 Absence of circulatory system
5.2 Open circulatory system
5.3 Closed circulatory system
6 History
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Structure
Cardiovascular system
Depiction of the heart, major veins and arteries constructed from body scans.
Cross section of a human artery
Relative percentages of cardiac output delivered to major organ systems
The essential components of the human cardiovascular system are the heart, blood and blood vessels.[5] It includes the pulmonary circulation, a "loop" through the lungs where blood is oxygenated; and the systemic circulation, a "loop" through the rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood. The systemic circulation can also be seen to function in two parts–a macrocirculation and a microcirculation. An average adult contains five to six quarts (roughly 4.7 to 5.7 liters) of blood, accounting for approximately 7% of their total body weight.[6] Blood consists of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Also, the digestive system works with the circulatory system to provide the nutrients the system needs to keep the heart pumping.[7]
The cardiovascular systems of humans are closed, meaning that the blood never leaves the network of blood vessels. In contrast, oxygen and nutrients diffuse across the blood vessel layers and enter interstitial fluid, which carries oxygen and nutrients to the target cells, and carbon dioxide and wastes in the opposite direction. The other component of the circulatory system, the lymphatic system, is open.
Arteries
See also: Arterial tree
Oxygenated blood enters the systemic circulation when leaving the left ventricle, through the aortic semilunar valve. The first part of the systemic circulation is the aorta, a massive and thick-walled artery. The aorta arches and gives branches supplying the upper part of the body. after passing through the aortic opening of the diaphragm at the level of thoracic ten vertebra, it enters the abdomen. Later it descends down and supplies branches to abdomen, pelvis, perineum and the lower limbs. According to Difore's Atlas of Histology the walls of aorta are elastic. This elasticity helps to maintain the blood pressure throughout the body. When the aorta receives almost 5 L of blood from the heart, it recoils and is responsible for pulsating B.P. Moreover, as aorta branches into smaller arteries, their elasticity goes on decreasing and their compliance goes on increasing.
Capillaries
Arteries branch into small passages called arterioles and then into the capillaries.[8] The capillaries merge to bring blood into the venous system.[9]
Veins
After their passage through body tissues, capillaries merge once again into venules, which continue to merge into veins. The venous system finally coalesces into two major veins: the superior vena cava (roughly speaking draining the areas above the heart) and the inferior vena cava (roughly speaking from areas below the heart). These two great vessels empty into the right atrium of the heart.
Coronary vessels
Main article: Coronary circulation
The heart itself is supplied with oxygen and nutrients through a small "loop" of the systemic circulation and derives very little from the blood contained within the four chambers.
Portal veins
The general rule is that arteries from the heart branch out into capillaries, which collect into veins leading back to the heart. Portal veins are a slight exception to this. In humans the only significant example is the hepatic portal vein which combines from capillaries around the gut where the blood absorbs the various products of digestion; rather than leading directly back to the heart, the hepatic portal vein branches into a second capillary system in the liver.
Heart
Main article: Heart
View from the front
The heart pumps oxygenated blood to the body and deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In the human heart there is one atrium and one ventricle for each circulation, and with both a systemic and a pulmonary circulation there are four chambers in total: left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium and right ventricle. The right atrium is the upper chamber of the right side of the heart. The blood that is returned to the right atrium is deoxygenated (poor in oxygen) and passed into the right ventricle to be pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs for re-oxygenation and removal of carbon dioxide. The left atrium receives newly oxygenated blood from the lungs as well as the pulmonary vein which is passed into the strong left ventricle to be pumped through the aorta to the different organs of the body.
The coronary circulation system provides a blood supply to the heart muscle itself. The coronary circulation begins near the origin of the aorta by two coronary arteries: the right coronary artery and the left coronary artery. After nourishing the heart muscle, blood returns through the coronary veins into the coronary sinus and from this one into the right atrium. Back flow of blood through its opening during atrial systole is prevented by the Thebesian valve. The smallest cardiac veins drain directly into the heart chambers.[7]
Lungs
The pulmonary circulation as it passes from the heart. Showing both the pulmonary and bronchial arteries.
Main article: Pulmonary circulation
The circulatory system of the lungs is the portion of the cardiovascular system in which oxygen-depleted blood is pumped away from the heart, via the pulmonary artery, to the lungs and returned, oxygenated, to the heart via the pulmonary vein.
Oxygen deprived blood from the superior and inferior vena cava enters the right atrium of the heart and flows through the tricuspid valve (right atrioventricular valve) into the right ventricle, from which it is then pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Gas exchange occurs in the lungs, whereby CO2 is released from the blood, and oxygen is absorbed. The pulmonary vein returns the now oxygen-rich blood to the left atrium.[7]
A separate system known as the bronchial circulation supplies blood to the tissue of the larger airways of the lung.
Systemic circulation
The systemic circulation and capillary networks shown and also as separate from the pulmonary circulation
Systemic circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which transports oxygenated blood away from the heart through the aorta from the left ventricle where the blood has been previously deposited from pulmonary circulation, to the rest of the body, and returns oxygen-depleted blood back to the heart.[7]
Brain
Main article: Cerebral circulation
The brain has a dual blood supply that comes from arteries at its front and back. These are called the "anterior" and "posterior" circulation respectively. The anterior circulation arises from the internal carotid arteries and supplies the front of the brain. The posterior circulation arises from the vertebral arteries, and supplies the back of the brain and brainstem. The circulation from the front and the back join together (anastomise) at the Circle of Willis.
Kidneys
The renal circulation receives around 20% of the cardiac output. It branches from the abdominal aorta and returns blood to the ascending vena cava. It is the blood supply to the kidneys, and contains many specialized blood vessels.
Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system. It is a network of lymphatic vessels and lymph capillaries, lymph nodes and organs, and lymphatic tissues and circulating lymph. One of its major functions is to carry the lymph, draining and returning interstitial fluid back towards the heart for return to the cardiovascular system, by emptying into the lymphatic ducts. Its other main function is in the adaptive immune system.[10]
Physiology
Animation of a typical human red blood cell cycle in the circulatory system. This animation occurs at a faster rate (~20 seconds of the average 60-second cycle) and shows the red blood cell deforming as it enters capillaries, as well as the bars changing color as the cell alternates in states of oxygenation along the circulatory system.
Main article: Blood § Oxygen transport
About 98.5% of the oxygen in a sample of arterial blood in a healthy human, breathing air at sea-level pressure, is chemically combined with hemoglobin molecules. About 1.5% is physically dissolved in the other blood liquids and not connected to hemoglobin. The hemoglobin molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species.
Development
Main article: Fetal circulation
The development of the circulatory system starts with vasculogenesis in the embryo. The human arterial and venous systems develop from different areas in the embryo. The arterial system develops mainly from the aortic arches, six pairs of arches which develop on the upper part of the embryo. The venous system arises from three bilateral veins during weeks 4 – 8 of embryogenesis. Fetal circulation begins within the 8th week of development. Fetal circulation does not include the lungs, which are bypassed via the truncus arteriosus. Before birth the fetus obtains oxygen (and nutrients) from the mother through the placenta and the umbilical cord.[11]
Arterial development
Main article: Aortic arches
The human arterial system originates from the aortic arches and from the dorsal aortae starting from week 4 of embryonic life. The first and second aortic arches regress and forms only the maxillary arteries and stapedial arteries respectively. The arterial system itself arises from aortic arches 3, 4 and 6 (aortic arch 5 completely regresses).
The dorsal aortae, present on the dorsal side of the embryo, are initially present on both sides of the embryo. They later fuse to form the basis for the aorta itself. Approximately thirty smaller arteries branch from this at the back and sides. These branches form the intercostal arteries, arteries of the arms and legs, lumbar arteries and the lateral sacral arteries. Branches to the sides of the aorta will form the definitive renal, suprarenal and gonadal arteries. Finally, branches at the front of the aorta consist of the vitelline arteries and umbilical arteries. The vitelline arteries form the celiac, superior and inferior mesenteric arteries of the gastrointestinal tract. After birth, the umbilical arteries will form the internal iliac arteries.
Venous development
The human venous system develops mainly from the vitelline veins, the umbilical veins and the cardinal veins, all of which empty into the sinus venosus.
Clinical significance
Many diseases affect the circulatory system. This includes cardiovascular disease, affecting the cardiovascular system, and lymphatic disease affecting the lymphatic system. Cardiologists are medical professionals which specialise in the heart, and cardiothoracic surgeons specialise in operating on the heart and its surrounding areas. Vascular surgeons focus on other parts of the circulatory system.
Cardiovascular disease
Main article: Cardiovascular disease
Diseases affecting the cardiovascular system are called cardiovascular disease.
Many of these diseases are called "lifestyle diseases" because they develop over time and are related to a person's exercise habits, diet, whether they smoke, and other lifestyle choices a person makes. Atherosclerosis is the precursor to many of these diseases. It is where small atheromatous plaques build up in the walls of medium and large arteries. This may eventually grow or rupture to occlude the arteries. It is also a risk factor for acute coronary syndromes, which are diseases which are characterised by a sudden deficit of oxygenated blood to the heart tissue. Atherosclerosis is also associated with problems such as aneurysm formation or splitting ("dissection") of arteries.
Another major cardiovascular disease involves the creation of a clot, called a "thrombus". These can originate in veins or arteries. Deep venous thrombosis, which mostly occurs in the legs, is one cause of clots in the veins of the legs, particularly when a person has been stationary for a long time. These clots may embolise, meaning travel to another location in the body. The results of this may include pulmonary embolus, transient ischaemic attacks, or stroke.
Cardiovascular diseases may also be congenital in nature, such as heart defects or persistent fetal circulation, where the circulatory changes that are supposed to happen after birth do not. Not all congenital changes to the circulatory system are associated with diseases, a large number are anatomical variations.
Measurement techniques
Magnetic resonance angiography of aberrant subclavian artery
The function and health of the circulatory system and its parts are measured in a variety of manual and automated ways. These include simple methods such as those that are part of the cardiovascular examination, including the taking of a person's pulse as an indicator of a person's heart rate, the taking of blood pressure through a sphygmomanometer or the use of a stethoscope to listen to the heart for murmurs which may indicate problems with the heart's valves. An electrocardiogram can also be used to evaluate the way in which electricity is conducted through the heart.
Other more invasive means can also be used. A cannula or catheter inserted into an artery may be used to measure pulse pressure or pulmonary wedge pressures. Angiography, which involves injecting a dye into an artery to visualise an arterial tree, can be used in the heart (coronary angiography) or brain. At the same time as the arteries are visualised, blockages or narrowings may be fixed through the insertion of stents, and active bleeds may be managed by the insertion of coils. An MRI may be used to image arteries, called an MRI angiogram. For evaluation of the blood supply to the lungs a CT pulmonary angiogram may be used.
Ultrasound can also be used, particularly to identify the health of blood vessels, and a Doppler ultrasound of the carotid arteries or Doppler ultrasound of the lower limbs can be used to evaluate for narrowing of the carotid arteries or thrombus formation in the legs, respectively.
Surgery
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2015)
There are a number of surgical procedures performed on the circulatory system:
Coronary artery bypass surgery
Coronary stent used in angioplasty
Vascular surgery
Vein stripping
Cosmetic procedures
Cardiovascular procedures are more likely to be performed in an inpatient setting than in an ambulatory care setting; in the United States, only 28% of cardiovascular surgeries were performed in the ambulatory care setting.[12]
Society and culture
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2015)
A number of alternative medical systems such as Chinese medicine view the circulatory system in different ways.[clarification needed][citation needed]
Other animals
The blood vascular system first appeared probably in an ancestor of the triploblasts over 600 million years ago, overcoming the time-distance constraints of diffusion, while endothelium evolved in an ancestral vertebrate some 540–510 million years ago.[13]
Absence of circulatory system
Circulatory systems are absent in some animals, including flatworms. Their body cavity has no lining or enclosed fluid. Instead a muscular pharynx leads to an extensively branched digestive system that facilitates direct diffusion of nutrients to all cells. The flatworm's dorso-ventrally flattened body shape also restricts the distance of any cell from the digestive system or the exterior of the organism. Oxygen can diffuse from the surrounding water into the cells, and carbon dioxide can diffuse out. Consequently, every cell is able to obtain nutrients, water and oxygen without the need of a transport system.
Some animals, such as jellyfish, have more extensive branching from their gastrovascular cavity (which functions as both a place of digestion and a form of circulation), this branching allows for bodily fluids to reach the outer layers, since the digestion begins in the inner layers.
Open circulatory system
See also: Hemolymph
The open circulatory system of the grasshopper – made up of a heart, vessels and hemolymph. The hemolymph is pumped through the heart, into the aorta, dispersed into the head and throughout the hemocoel, then back through the ostia in the heart and the process repeated.
In arthropods, the open circulatory system is a system in which a fluid in a cavity called the hemocoel bathes the organs directly with oxygen and nutrients and there is no distinction between blood and interstitial fluid; this combined fluid is called hemolymph or haemolymph.[14] Muscular movements by the animal during locomotion can facilitate hemolymph movement, but diverting flow from one area to another is limited. When the heart relaxes, blood is drawn back toward the heart through open-ended pores (ostia).
Hemolymph fills all of the interior hemocoel of the body and surrounds all cells. Hemolymph is composed of water, inorganic salts (mostly sodium, chlorine, potassium, magnesium, and calcium), and organic compounds (mostly carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids). The primary oxygen transporter molecule is hemocyanin.
There are free-floating cells, the hemocytes, within the hemolymph. They play a role in the arthropod immune system.
Flatworms, such as this Pseudoceros bifurcus, lack specialized circulatory organs
Closed circulatory system
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2015)
Two-chambered heart of a fish
The circulatory systems of all vertebrates, as well as of annelids (for example, earthworms) and cephalopods (squids, octopuses and relatives) are closed, just as in humans. Still, the systems of fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds show various stages of the evolution of the circulatory system.[15]
In fish, the system has only one circuit, with the blood being pumped through the capillaries of the gills and on to the capillaries of the body tissues. This is known as single cycle circulation. The heart of fish is, therefore, only a single pump (consisting of two chambers).
In amphibians and most reptiles, a double circulatory system is used, but the heart is not always completely separated into two pumps. Amphibians have a three-chambered heart.
In reptiles, the ventricular septum of the heart is incomplete and the pulmonary artery is equipped with a sphincter muscle. This allows a second possible route of blood flow. Instead of blood flowing through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, the sphincter may be contracted to divert this blood flow through the incomplete ventricular septum into the left ventricle and out through the aorta. This means the blood flows from the capillaries to the heart and back to the capillaries instead of to the lungs. This process is useful to ectothermic (cold-blooded) animals in the regulation of their body temperature.
Birds, mammals, and crocodilians show complete separation of the heart into two pumps, for a total of four heart chambers; it is thought that the four-chambered heart of birds and crocodilians evolved independently from that of mammals.[16]
History
Human anatomical chart of blood vessels, with heart, lungs, liver and kidneys included. Other organs are numbered and arranged around it. Before cutting out the figures on this page, Vesalius suggests that readers glue the page onto parchment and gives instructions on how to assemble the pieces and paste the multilayered figure onto a base "muscle man" illustration. "Epitome", fol.14a. HMD Collection, WZ 240 V575dhZ 1543.
The earliest known writings on the circulatory system are found in the Ebers Papyrus (16th century BCE), an ancient Egyptian medical papyrus containing over 700 prescriptions and remedies, both physical and spiritual. In the papyrus, it acknowledges the connection of the heart to the arteries. The Egyptians thought air came in through the mouth and into the lungs and heart. From the heart, the air travelled to every member through the arteries. Although this concept of the circulatory system is only partially correct, it represents one of the earliest accounts of scientific thought.
In the 6th century BCE, the knowledge of circulation of vital fluids through the body was known to the Ayurvedic physician Sushruta in ancient India.[17] He also seems to have possessed knowledge of the arteries, described as 'channels' by Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007).[17] The valves of the heart were discovered by a physician of the Hippocratean school around the 4th century BCE. However their function was not properly understood then. Because blood pools in the veins after death, arteries look empty. Ancient anatomists assumed they were filled with air and that they were for transport of air.
The Greek physician, Herophilus, distinguished veins from arteries but thought that the pulse was a property of arteries themselves. Greek anatomist Erasistratus observed that arteries that were cut during life bleed. He ascribed the fact to the phenomenon that air escaping from an artery is replaced with blood that entered by very small vessels between veins and arteries. Thus he apparently postulated capillaries but with reversed flow of blood.[18]
In 2nd century AD Rome, the Greek physician Galen knew that blood vessels carried blood and identified venous (dark red) and arterial (brighter and thinner) blood, each with distinct and separate functions. Growth and energy were derived from venous blood created in the liver from chyle, while arterial blood gave vitality by containing pneuma (air) and originated in the heart. Blood flowed from both creating organs to all parts of the body where it was consumed and there was no return of blood to the heart or liver. The heart did not pump blood around, the heart's motion sucked blood in during diastole and the blood moved by the pulsation of the arteries themselves.
Galen believed that the arterial blood was created by venous blood passing from the left ventricle to the right by passing through 'pores' in the interventricular septum, air passed from the lungs via the pulmonary artery to the left side of the heart. As the arterial blood was created 'sooty' vapors were created and passed to the lungs also via the pulmonary artery to be exhaled.
In 1025, The Canon of Medicine by the Persian physician, Avicenna, "erroneously accepted the Greek notion regarding the existence of a hole in the ventricular septum by which the blood traveled between the ventricles." Despite this, Avicenna "correctly wrote on the cardiac cycles and valvular function", and "had a vision of blood circulation" in his Treatise on Pulse.[19][verification needed] While also refining Galen's erroneous theory of the pulse, Avicenna provided the first correct explanation of pulsation: "Every beat of the pulse comprises two movements and two pauses. Thus, expansion : pause : contraction : pause. [...] The pulse is a movement in the heart and arteries ... which takes the form of alternate expansion and contraction."[20]
In 1242, the Arabian physician, Ibn al-Nafis, became the first person to accurately describe the process of pulmonary circulation, for which he is sometimes considered the father of circulatory physiology.[21][not in citation given] Ibn al-Nafis stated in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon:
"...the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct pathway between them. The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there with air, pass through the arteria venosa (pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there form the vital spirit..."
In addition, Ibn al-Nafis had an insight into what would become a larger theory of the capillary circulation. He stated that "there must be small communications or pores (manafidh in Arabic) between the pulmonary artery and vein," a prediction that preceded the discovery of the capillary system by more than 400 years.[22] Ibn al-Nafis' theory, however, was confined to blood transit in the lungs and did not extend to the entire body.
Michael Servetus was the first European to describe the function of pulmonary circulation, although his achievement was not widely recognized at the time, for a few reasons. He firstly described it in the "Manuscript of Paris"[23][24] (near 1546), but this work was never published. And later he published this description, but in a theological treatise, Christianismi Restitutio, not in a book on medicine. Only three copies of the book survived but these remained hidden for decades, the rest were burned shortly after its publication in 1553 because of persecution of Servetus by religious authorities.
Better known discovery of pulmonary circulation was by Vesalius's successor at Padua, Realdo Colombo, in 1559.
Image of veins from William Harvey's Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus
Finally, William Harvey, a pupil of Hieronymus Fabricius (who had earlier described the valves of the veins without recognizing their function), performed a sequence of experiments, and published Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus in 1628, which "demonstrated that there had to be a direct connection between the venous and arterial systems throughout the body, and not just the lungs. Most importantly, he argued that the beat of the heart produced a continuous circulation of blood through minute connections at the extremities of the body. This is a conceptual leap that was quite different from Ibn al-Nafis' refinement of the anatomy and bloodflow in the heart and lungs."[25] This work, with its essentially correct exposition, slowly convinced the medical world. However, Harvey was not able to identify the capillary system connecting arteries and veins; these were later discovered by Marcello Malpighi in 1661.
In 1956, André Frédéric Cournand, Werner Forssmann and Dickinson W. Richards were awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine "for their discoveries concerning heart catheterization and pathological changes in the circulatory system."[26]
In the 1970s, Diana McSherry developed computer-based systems to create images of the circulatory system and heart without the need for surgery.[27]
See also
Cardiology
Vital heat
Cardiac muscle
Major systems of the human body
Amato Lusitano
Vascular resistance
References
Jump up ^ "circulatory system" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
Jump up ^ "Let's beat cancer sooner". Cancer Research UK. Retrieved April 13, 2017.
Jump up ^ "cardiovascular system" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
Jump up ^ Sherwood, Lauralee (2011). Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems. Cengage Learning. pp. 401–. ISBN 978-1-133-10893-1.
Jump up ^ Cardiovascular System at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
Jump up ^ Pratt, Rebecca. "Cardiovascular System: Blood". AnatomyOne. Amirsys, Inc. Archived from the original on 2017-02-24.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Guyton, Arthur; Hall, John (2000). Guyton Textbook of Medical Physiology (10 ed.). ISBN 072168677X.
Jump up ^ National Institutes of Health. "What Are the Lungs?". nih.gov.
Jump up ^ State University of New York (February 3, 2014). "The Circulatory System". suny.edu. Archived from the original on February 3, 2014.
Jump up ^ Alberts, B.; Johnson, A.; Lewis, J.; Raff, M.; Roberts, K.; Walters, P. (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). New York and London: Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1.
Jump up ^ Whitaker, Kent (2001). "Fetal Circulation". Comprehensive Perinatal and Pediatric Respiratory Care. Delmar Thomson Learning. pp. 18–20. ISBN 978-0-7668-1373-1.
Jump up ^ Wier LM, Steiner CA, Owens PL (April 17, 2015). "Surgeries in Hospital-Owned Outpatient Facilities, 2012". HCUP Statistical Brief #188. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.
Jump up ^ Monahan‐Earley, R., Dvorak, A. M., & Aird, W. C. (2013). Evolutionary origins of the blood vascular system and endothelium. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis 11 (s1): 46-66.
Jump up ^ Bailey, Regina. "Circulatory System". biology.about.com.
Jump up ^ Simões-Costa MS, et al. 2005. The evolutionary origin of cardiac chambers. Dev. Biol. 277: 1–15.
Jump up ^ "Crocodilian Hearts". National Center for Science Education. October 24, 2008. Retrieved October 3, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Dwivedi, Girish & Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). "History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence" Archived October 10, 2008, at the Wayback Machine., Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci Vol.49 pp.243-4, National Informatics Centre (Government of India).
Jump up ^ Anatomy – History of anatomy. Scienceclarified.com. Retrieved 2013-09-15.
Jump up ^ Shoja, M. M.; Tubbs, R. S.; Loukas, M.; Khalili, M.; Alakbarli, F.; Cohen-Gadol, A. A. (2009). "Vasovagal syncope in the Canon of Avicenna: The first mention of carotid artery hypersensitivity". International Journal of Cardiology. 134 (3): 297–301. PMID 19332359. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2009.02.035.
Jump up ^ Hajar, Rachel (1999). "The Greco-Islamic Pulse". Heart Views. 1 (4): 136–140 [138]. Archived from the original on 2014-01-09.
Jump up ^ Reflections, Chairman's (2004). "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting". Heart Views. 5 (2): 74–85 [80]. Archived from the original on 2007-09-11.
Jump up ^ West, J. B. (2008). "Ibn al-Nafis, the pulmonary circulation, and the Islamic Golden Age". Journal of Applied Physiology. 105 (6): 1877–1880. PMC 2612469  . PMID 18845773. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.91171.2008.
Jump up ^ Gonzalez Etxeberria, Patxi (2011) Amor a la verdad, el – vida y obra de Miguel servet [The love for truth. Life and work of Michael Servetus]. Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarra. ISBN 8423532666 pp. 215–228 & 62nd illustration (XLVII)
Jump up ^ Michael Servetus Research Study with graphical proof on the Manuscript of Paris and many other manuscripts and new works by Servetus
Jump up ^ Pormann, Peter E. and Smith, E. Savage (2007) Medieval Islamic medicine Georgetown University, Washington DC, p. 48, ISBN 1589011619.
Jump up ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1956". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
Jump up ^ Wayne, Tiffany K. (2011). American women of science since 1900. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp. 677–678. ISBN 9781598841589.
External links
Find more aboutCirculatory systemat Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
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Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Learning resources from Wikiversity
Library resources about
Circulatory system
Resources in your library
http://cnx.org/content/m46646/latest/
The Circulatory System
Reiber C. L. & McGaw I. J. (2009). "A Review of the "Open" and "Closed" Circulatory Systems: New Terminology for Complex Invertebrate Circulatory Systems in Light of Current Findings". International Journal of Zoology 2009: 8 pages. doi:10.1155/2009/301284.
Patwardhan K. The history of the discovery of blood circulation: unrecognized contributions of Ayurveda masters. Adv Physiol Educ. 2012 Jun;36(2):77–82.
Michael Servetus Research Study on the Manuscript of Paris by Servetus (1546 description of the Pulmonary Circulation)
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Anatomy of the heart
General
Surface
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apex
sulci
coronary
interatrial
anterior interventricular
posterior interventricular
borders
right
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Internal
atria
interatrial septum
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Right heart
(venae cavae, coronary sinus) → right atrium (atrial appendage, fossa ovalis, limbus of fossa ovalis, crista terminalis, valve of inferior vena cava, valve of coronary sinus) → tricuspid valve → right ventricle (infundibulum, moderator band/septomarginal trabecula) → pulmonary valve → (pulmonary artery and pulmonary circulation)
Left heart
(pulmonary veins) → left atrium (atrial appendage) → mitral valve → left ventricle → aortic valve (aortic sinus) → (aorta and systemic circulation)
Layers
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epicardium/visceral layer
fold of left vena cava
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[show]
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Arteries and veins
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Left heart → Aorta → Arteries → Arterioles → Capillaries → Venules → Veins → Vena cava → (Right heart)
Pulmonary
Right heart → Pulmonary arteries → Lungs → Pulmonary vein → Left heart
Microanatomy
Tunica intima
Endothelium
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[show]
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Physiology of the cardiovascular system
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Fractional shortening = (End-diastolic dimension
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Aortic valve area calculation
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Development of the circulatory system
Heart
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Fetal circulation
umbilical cord: Umbilical vein → Ductus venosus → Inferior vena cava → Heart → Pulmonary artery → Ductus arteriosus → Aorta → Umbilical artery
yolk sac: Vitelline veins
Vitelline arteries
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Cardiovascular disease (heart) (I00–I52, 390–429)
Ischaemic
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Sequelae
hours
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GND: 4134345-1
NDL: 00575112
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