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E & J Gallo Winery
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E & J Gallo Winery
Location
Modesto, California, United States
Other labels
Don Miguel Gascon, Louis Martini, Ecco Domani, Mirassou Winery, New Amsterdam, J Vineyards, Barefoot, Apothic, Shellback rum among others
Founded
1933
Key people
Ernest Gallo (founder)
Julio Gallo (founder)
Gina Gallo (winemaker)
Stephanie Gallo
Varietals
Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Merlot, Pinot noir, Sauvignon blanc, Syrah
Distribution
International
Website
gallo.com, gallofamily.co.uk
E & J Gallo Winery is a winery and distributor headquartered in Modesto, California. It was founded in 1933 by Ernest Gallo and Julio Gallo, and is the largest exporter of California wines.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Business
2.1 Trademark disputes
2.2 Distribution
2.3 Labor relations
2.4 Ecological impact
2.5 Marketing
3 Wine brands
3.1 Barefoot Wine
3.2 Additional brands
4 Vineyard trials
5 Awards
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
The two brothers started the winery in 1933,[3] following the repeal of Prohibition after years of growing and selling grapes.[1] Ernest and Julio were competing against larger, more established, and better financed companies, including more than 800 wine companies established in California in the first few years after the repeal of Prohibition. Their starting capital was less than $6,000 (~$110,000 inflation-adjusted to 2017), with $5,000 of that borrowed by Ernest from his mother-in-law. The brothers learned the craft of commercial winemaking by reading old, pre-Prohibition pamphlets published by the University of California which they retrieved from the basement of the Modesto Public Library.[4]
By 1993, E. & J. Gallo was the country's largest winery, with a 25% share of the American wine market.[3]
Business[edit]
Trademark disputes[edit]
In 1986, the Gallo brothers sued their younger brother Joseph for selling cheese branded with the Joseph Gallo Farms name. Joseph then counterclaimed, alleging that Ernest and Julio conspired to steal his share of the inheritance from their father. This claim included the winery, where the evidence submitted by Joseph's attorney suggested that it was actually started by their father. Joseph Gallo lost both suits and was forced to change the name of his business to Joseph Farms.[5]
In the 1990s, Gallo Winery made an agreement with Gallo Pasta (a Spanish company) that the latter would not sell their pasta in the United States.[6] Gallo filed a cease-and-desist order[7][8] in April 2009 against "The Spanish Table", a Seattle-based specialty food retailer, for carrying the pasta despite the previous agreement with the maker.[6]
Gallo Family Ruby Cabernet
E & J Gallo Winery is the largest family-owned winery in the United States.[9]
In February 2010, twelve French winemakers and traders who had supplied wine to Gallo for its Red Bicyclette brand were found guilty in a French court of fraud, as they had claimed an inferior wine sold to Gallo was Pinot noir.[10]
Distribution[edit]
In addition to the Gallo Family Vineyards brand, the company makes, markets, and distributes wine under more than 60 other labels.[11] (See below for a list of other labels/brands.) The company also makes the low-end fortified wines Thunderbird and Night Train Express.
On September 14, 2007, Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia announced a partnership with E & J Gallo Winery to produce a brand of wine labelled "Martha Stewart Vintage." The initial release was to be 15,000 cases, consisting of 2006 Sonoma County Chardonnay, 2005 Sonoma County Cabernet Sauvignon and 2006 Sonoma County Merlot (for Atlanta, Boston, Charlotte, North Carolina, Denver, Phoenix, and Portland, Oregon).[12]
Labor relations[edit]
In October 2009, the California Agricultural Labor Relations Board (CALRB) revoked a 2007 election to eject the United Farm Workers from Gallo Winery,[13] citing interference from Gallo.
This was the second time in a decade a vote to remove the union was overturned due to allegations of Gallo illegally trying to influence proceedings; the other was a 2003 ruling in which the CALRB threw out an election citing a foreman improperly requesting signatures for the petition for the vote.[14] Gallo appealed that decision.
Ecological impact[edit]
Gallo helped develop and implement the Code of Sustainable Wine Growing Practices,[15] in collaboration with the Wine Institute and the California Association of Winegrape Growers.
The Code promotes sustainable practices which are environmentally sound, economically feasible and socially equitable. It covers virtually every aspect of the wine business including viticulture and grape growing, wine making, purchasing and building and maintaining productive relationships with neighbors and the local communities.[16]
Gallo received ISO 14001 certification from the International Organization for Standardization.[9] The certification was created to globally assist and guide companies to reduce their environmental impact.
In April 2009, the California State Water Resources Control Board served Gallo Glass Co. (a Gallo Winery subsidiary) with a cease and desist order and $73,000 fine[17] for allegedly channeling water from the Russian River into an unlicensed reservoir;[17] however, there are provisions for licensing the reservoir under proper monitoring of flow and capacity.[18]
Marketing[edit]
Ernest and Julio were among the pioneers of wine advertising on television and launched many wine advertising campaigns. (One of these helped to popularize "Hymne," composed and performed by Vangelis Papathanassiou, by featuring it as background music in some of its television commercials.) They were the first to introduce brand management and modern merchandising to the wine industry, and led the way in bringing new products to store shelves. They were first in breakthrough quality initiatives such as long-term grower contracts for varietal grapes and grape research programs.[4] They were also first to establish a truly significant foreign sales and marketing force to export California wines overseas.[1]
Wine brands[edit]
A bottle of André
André is the best-selling brand of sparkling wine in the United States.[19] It often sells for about $4 to $5 per bottle, depending on the store. It is available in varietals including Brut, Extra Dry, Cold Duck, Blush, Spumante, strawberry, and peach-flavored California Champagne, among others. André's California Champagne is bulk-fermented.[citation needed]
While the United States agreed in 2006 to not approve any new wine labels for US-produced products that include the term "Champagne," André is legally allowed to use the term as a grandfathered label. André's Brut California Champagne has been described as the sparkling wine that many people have noted was their first experience with this variety of wine. One champagne expert said it is "like ginger ale - pale yellow in color, lemony and on the sweet side, with maybe an apple flavor as well and low bubbles".[20]
Carlo Rossi is a brand of wine produced by the E & J Gallo Winery. The brand was named after Charles Rossi, at the time a salesman for Gallo and a relation of the Gallo family by marriage. Charlie Rossi starred in TV ads for the brand in the 1970s. Carlo Rossi wines were at one point the second best selling brand in the United States.[21] Carlo Rossi is reflected in popular culture in E-40's single, "Carlos Rossi."
Boone's Farm was formerly a brand of apple wine produced by the E & J Gallo Winery. Now, flavors are malt-based instead of wine-based due to changes in tax laws. The brand is popular on college campuses due to its low price.[22] Boone's farm beverages, served in 750 ml bottles are often located in the cold box area of convenience stores across the United States. In some U.S. states, such as Utah, some Boone's Farm products are labeled as malt beverages and not as flavored apple/citrus wine products, as state liquor laws prohibit the sale of wine in grocery and convenience stores.[22]
Barefoot Wine[edit]
Barefoot Wine is a brand of wine produced by Barefoot Cellars which is based in Modesto, California. The winery was bought by E & J Gallo Winery in 2005.[23]
Barefoot Wine was introduced in 1986 by Michael Houlihan & Bonnie Harvey.[24] Barefoot is a brand whose slogan is “Get Barefoot and Have a Great Time!” Barefoot’s winemaker Jennifer Wall produces 17 unique varietals and blends: Zinfandel, Shiraz, Merlot, Pinot noir, Cabernet Sauvignon, White Zinfandel, Moscato, Pinot grigio, Sauvignon blanc, Chardonnay, Riesling, Sweet Red, Brut Cuvee Chardonnay sparkling wine, Extra Dry sparkling wine, Pinot grigio sparkling wine, Moscato Spumante, and Pink Cuvee sparkling wine. In 2007, Barefoot launched 187-milliliter bottles. Barefoot wines are distributed throughout the United States and exported to Canada, Europe, and Asia. In May 2010 Barefoot Wine announced new UK national grocery listings and new strategic partnerships.[25]
Barefoot has received several awards and accolades including:
Fastest growing wine amongst the TOP 5 Popular brands[26]
Market Watch Magazine “Wine Brand of the Year” (2007)[27]
Barefoot Wine sponsors the Association of Volleyball Professionals. Since 2007, Barefoot Wine has partnered with the Surfrider Foundation to form the Barefoot Wine Beach Rescue Project.[28]
Additional brands[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Alamos - distributor [29]
Anapamu
Apothic
Ballatore
Barefoot Cellars
Bartles & Jaymes
Bella Sera
Black Swan
Bridlewood
Boone's Farm
Carlo Rossi
Camarena tequilas
Carnivor
Cask & Cream
ChocolatRouge
Clarendon Hills
Columbia Winery
Covey Run
Dancing Bull
Dark Horse
DaVinci
Delicia
Don Miguel Gascon
E. & J. VS Brandy
E. & J. VSOP Brandy
E. & J. XO Brandy
Ecco Domani
Edna Valley Vineyards
Frei Brothers
Frutézia
Fairbanks
Gallo Family Vineyards Estate
Gallo Family Vineyards Single Vineyard
Gallo Family Vineyards Sonoma
Ghost Pines
Indigo Hills
J Vineyards and Winery
La Marca
Laguna
Las Rocas
Liberty Creek
Livingston Cellars
Louis M. Martini
MacMurray Ranch
Martĩn Cõdax
Maso Canali
Matthew Fox Vineyards(since 2004)[30]
Mattie's Perch
McWilliam's
Mirassou Vineyards
New Amsterdam Gin
New Amsterdam Vodka
Night Train
Orin Swift Winery
Peter Vella
Pölka Dot
Rancho Zabaco
Red Bicyclette
Redwood Creek
Red Rock Winery
Sebeka
Shellback Rum
Talbott
Thunderbird
Tisdale Vineyards
Turning Leaf
Twin Valley
Vella Wines
Viniq
Whitehaven
William Hill Estate
Wild Vines
Winking Owl (for Aldi in the US)
Wycliff Sparkling[11]
[31]
Vineyard trials[edit]
Viticulturists at Gallo use their vineyard resources to trial new grape variety plantings in California wine regions in an effort to see which varieties grow best in various climates and soil types. One of the varieties that Gallo has been trialling in the San Joaquin Valley is the French wine grape Ederena.[32]
Awards[edit]
E & J Gallo Winery was named the "Bon Appetit Winery of the Year" in the 1996, 1998, and 2001 San Francisco International Wine Competitions.[33]
Intangible Business, a brand valuation firm,[34] rated Gallo as the world's "Most Powerful Wine Brand" in 2006,[35] 2007,[36] 2008,[37] and 2009.[38]
See also[edit]
Wine portal
Globalization of wine
Napa County wine
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Robinson, Jancis, ed. (2006). The Oxford Companion to Wine (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 296. ISBN 0-19-860990-6.
Jump up ^ "E&J Gallo Winery on the Forbes America's Largest Private Companies List". Forbes. Retrieved 2018-03-08.
^ Jump up to: a b "Amelia Franzia Gallo; Wine Maker's Wife, 83". Obituary. The New York Times. December 25, 1993. Retrieved 2012-11-02. She began working as secretary and janitor in the fledgling Gallo family business shortly after Ernest and Julio Gallo started the E. & J. Gallo Winery in Modesto in 1933. Today, the company is the nation's largest winery, with more than a quarter of the American wine market.
^ Jump up to: a b Zimmerman, Lisa (November–December 2004). "Reinventing Gallo". Market Watch. pp. 1–14. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Gallos Win Suit to Curb Use Of Name on Brother's Cheese". New York Times. June 21, 1989. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "Small store takes big poke at Gallo Wineries". KOMO-TV. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
Jump up ^ Leson, Nancy (April 20, 2009). "E. & J. Gallo crows "We'll sue!"". Seattle Times. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
Jump up ^ "E. & J. Gallo Winery v. The Spanish Table, Inc". Justia Dockets & Filings. justia.com. April 14, 2009. Retrieved 2012-11-02.
^ Jump up to: a b McCallion, Ruari. "Gallo Glass Company: Top of the glass". The Manufacturer. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
Jump up ^ "France wine producers guilty of US scandal". BBC News. February 17, 2010. Retrieved 2012-11-02.
^ Jump up to: a b "Browse by Brand Name". Retrieved 2011-11-26.
Jump up ^ "Stewart to market $15 wine / Gallo will make Sonoma County varietals for label". San Francisco Chronicle. September 15, 2007. Retrieved January 1, 2010.
Jump up ^ McCallum, Kevin (November 3, 2009). "Vote to oust UFW from Gallo overturned". The Press Democrat. Retrieved January 1, 2010.
Jump up ^ Pawel, Miriam (June 13, 2005). "UFW Plans Wine Boycott in Effort to Pressure Gallo". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 1, 2010.
Jump up ^ "California Sustainable Winegrowing Alliance". SustainableWineGrowing.org. Retrieved 2012-11-02.
Jump up ^ Grossman, Deborah (August 27, 2008). "Winemakers cultivate earth-friendly practices, from ground to glass". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2009-12-31.
^ Jump up to: a b Firstenfeld, Jane (May 6, 2009). "Wine Water Issues Simmer in California". Wines & Vines. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
Jump up ^ "State Water Resources Control Board Cease and Desist Order" (PDF). California State Water Resources Control Board. December 9, 2008. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Our Wines". Gallo.com. Retrieved 2012-11-02.
Jump up ^ "Champagne & Sparkling Wine Tasting Notes". WineIntro.com. Retrieved 2012-11-02.
Jump up ^ The Wine Enigma: Wine In A Box from supermarketguru.com Archived December 17, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Fuller, Robert C. (1996). Religion and Wine: A Cultural History of Wine Drinking in the United States. University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 978-0870499111. Retrieved 2014-05-22.
Jump up ^ San Francisco Business Times (January 17, 2005). "E&J Gallo buys Barefoot Cellars". San Francisco Business Times. Retrieved 2012-11-02.
Jump up ^ Hilton, M.L. (April 2002). "Barefoot Puts Their Right Foot Forward". Wine Business Monthly. WineBusiness.com. Retrieved 2012-11-02.
Jump up ^ "Barefoot Wine's new listings and strategic partnerships". May 19, 2010. Archived from the original on August 31, 2010. Retrieved January 22, 2011.
Jump up ^ Information Resources Incorporated, 52 week volume ending May 1, 2007, TTL US: Food/Drug, TTL Pop, Volume Sales, Volume Sales % Chg
Jump up ^ Lentini, Nina (October 9, 2007). "Barefoot Cellars Named 'Wine Brand Of The Year'". Marketing Daily. mediapost.com. Retrieved 2012-11-02.
Jump up ^ MakingWaves24-1 from surfrider.org Archived December 6, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Gallo Named U.S. Importer For Catena's Alamos Wines" (PDF) (Press release). 2008-11-04. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-03-28. Retrieved 2009-01-19.
Jump up ^ Whalen, Kristi W.(attorney of record) (August 5, 2004). "Matthew Fox". Trademark Electronic Search System. USPTO. Retrieved 2012-11-02. Word Mark: MATTHEW FOX—Goods and Services: IC 033. US 047 049. G & S: WINES. FIRST USE: 20041001. FIRST USE IN COMMERCE: 20041001— Owner (REGISTRANT) E. & J. GALLO WINERY CORPORATION CALIFORNIA 600 YOSEMITE BOULEVARD MODESTO CALIFORNIA 95354
Jump up ^ E.&J. Gallo Winery - Browse by Brand Name
Jump up ^ J. Robinson, J. Harding and J. Vouillamoz Wine Grapes - A complete guide to 1,368 vine varieties, including their origins and flavours pg 322, Allen Lane 2012 ISBN 978-1-846-14446-2
Jump up ^ "Gallo wins top winery award at S. F. competition". Lodi News-Sentinel. July 13, 2001. Retrieved 2010-01-01.
Jump up ^ Bevens, Nick (May 9, 2007). "Scotch whisky tops world spirits brands". Scotsman.com. Retrieved December 31, 2009.
Jump up ^ "The world's most powerful spirits & wine brands: 2006, p. 8" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-11-02.
Jump up ^ "The world's most powerful spirits & wine brands: p. 16" (PDF). 2007. Retrieved 2012-11-02.
Jump up ^ "The Power 100" (PDF). 2008. Retrieved 2012-11-02.
Jump up ^ "The Power 100" (PDF). 2009. Retrieved 2012-11-02.
External links[edit]
Official website
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Solipsism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Not to be confused with Solecism.
Part of a series on
Certainty
Approximation
Belief
Certainty
Doubt
Determinism
Fallibilism
Fatalism
Hypothesis
Justification
Nihilism
Proof
Scientific theory
Skepticism
Solipsism
Theory
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Related concepts and fundamentals:
Agnosticism
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Solipsism (/ˈsɒlɪpsɪzəm/ ( listen); from Latin solus, meaning 'alone', and ipse, meaning 'self')[1] is the philosophical idea that only one's own mind is sure to exist. As an epistemological position, solipsism holds that knowledge of anything outside one's own mind is unsure; the external world and other minds cannot be known and might not exist outside the mind. As a metaphysical position, solipsism goes further to the conclusion that the world and other minds do not exist.
Contents
1 Varieties
1.1 Metaphysical solipsism
1.2 Epistemological solipsism
1.3 Methodological solipsism
2 Main points
3 History
3.1 Gorgias
3.2 Descartes
3.3 Berkeley
4 Relation to other ideas
4.1 Idealism and materialism
4.2 Cartesian dualism
4.3 Philosophy of Schopenhauer
4.4 Idealism
4.5 Rationalism
4.6 Philosophical zombie
4.7 Falsifiability and testability
4.8 Minimalism
4.9 Solipsism in infants
4.10 Hinduism
4.10.1 Advaita Vedanta
4.10.2 Samkhya and Yoga
4.11 Buddhism
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Varieties[edit]
There are varying degrees of solipsism that parallel the varying degrees of skepticism:
Metaphysical solipsism[edit]
Main article: Metaphysical solipsism
Metaphysical solipsism is a variety of solipsism. Based on a philosophy of subjective idealism, metaphysical solipsists maintain that the self is the only existing reality and that all other realities, including the external world and other persons, are representations of that self, and have no independent existence.[citation needed] There are several versions of metaphysical solipsism, such as Caspar Hare's egocentric presentism (or perspectival realism), in which other people are conscious, but their experiences are simply not present.[citation needed]
Epistemological solipsism[edit]
Further information: Epistemological solipsism
Epistemological solipsism is the variety of idealism according to which only the directly accessible mental contents of the solipsistic philosopher can be known. The existence of an external world is regarded as an unresolvable question rather than actually false.[2] Further, one cannot also be certain as to what extent the external world exists independently of one's mind. For instance, it may be that a God-like being controls the sensations received by one's brain, making it appear as if there is an external world when most of it (excluding the God-like being and oneself) is false. However, the point remains that epistemological solipsists consider this an "unresolvable" question.[2]
Methodological solipsism[edit]
Main article: Methodological solipsism
Methodological solipsism is an agnostic variant of solipsism.[citation needed] It exists in opposition to the strict epistemological requirements for "knowledge" (e.g. the requirement that knowledge must be certain). It still entertains the points that any induction is fallible. Methodological solipsism sometimes goes even further to say that even what we perceive as the brain is actually part of the external world, for it is only through our senses that we can see or feel the mind. Only the existence of thoughts is known for certain.
Importantly, methodological solipsists do not intend to conclude that the stronger forms of solipsism are actually true. They simply emphasize that justifications of an external world must be founded on indisputable facts about their own consciousness. The methodological solipsist believes that subjective impressions (empiricism) or innate knowledge (rationalism) are the sole possible or proper starting point for philosophical construction.[3] Often methodological solipsism is not held as a belief system, but rather used as a thought experiment to assist skepticism (e.g. Descartes' cartesian skepticism).[citation needed]
Main points[edit]
Denial of material existence, in itself, does not constitute solipsism.
A feature of the metaphysical solipsistic worldview is the denial of the existence of other minds. Since personal experiences are private and ineffable, another being's experience can be known only by analogy.
Philosophers try to build knowledge on more than an inference or analogy. The failure of Descartes' epistemological enterprise brought to popularity the idea that all certain knowledge may go no further than "I think; therefore I exist"[4] without providing any real details about the nature of the "I" that has been proven to exist.[citation needed]
The theory of solipsism also merits close examination because it relates to three widely held philosophical presuppositions, each itself fundamental and wide-ranging in importance:[4]
My most certain knowledge is the content of my own mind—my thoughts, experiences, affects, etc.
There is no conceptual or logically necessary link between mental and physical—between, say, the occurrence of certain conscious experience or mental states and the 'possession' and behavioral dispositions of a 'body' of a particular kind (see the brain in a vat).
To expand on this a little further, the conceptual problem here is that the previous assumes mind or consciousness (which are attributes) can exist independent of some entity having this capability, i.e., that an attribute of an existent can exist apart from the existent itself. If one admits to the existence of an independent entity (e.g., your brain) having that attribute, the door is open.
3. The experience of a given person is necessarily private to that person.
Some people hold that, while it cannot be proven that anything independent of one's mind exists, the point that solipsism makes is irrelevant. This is because, whether the world as we perceive it exists independently or not, we cannot escape this perception (except via death), hence it is best to act assuming that the world is independent of our minds.[5] For example, if one committed a crime, one is likely to be punished, causing potential distress to oneself even if the world was not independent of one's mind; therefore, it is in one's best interests and is most convenient to assume the world exists independently of one's mind.
There is also the issue of plausibility to consider. If one is the only mind in existence, then one is maintaining that one's mind alone created all of which one is apparently aware. This includes the symphonies of Beethoven, the works of Shakespeare, all of mathematics and science (which one can access via one's phantom libraries), etc. Critics of solipsism find this somewhat implausible. However, since, for example, people are able to construct entire worlds inside their minds while having dreams when asleep, and people have had dreams which included things such as music of Beethoven or the works of Shakespeare or math or science in them, solipsists do have counter-arguments to justify their views being plausible.
History[edit]
Gorgias[edit]
Solipsism was first recorded by the Greek presocratic sophist, Gorgias (c. 483–375 BC) who is quoted by the Roman sceptic Sextus Empiricus as having stated:[6]
Nothing exists.
Even if something exists, nothing can be known about it.
Even if something could be known about it, knowledge about it can't be communicated to others.
Much of the point of the Sophists was to show that "objective" knowledge was a literal impossibility. (See also comments credited to Protagoras of Abdera).
Descartes[edit]
The foundations of solipsism are in turn the foundations of the view that the individual's understanding of any and all psychological concepts (thinking, willing, perceiving, etc.) is accomplished by making an analogy with his or her own mental states; i.e., by abstraction from inner experience. And this view, or some variant of it, has been influential in philosophy since Descartes elevated the search for incontrovertible certainty to the status of the primary goal of epistemology, whilst also elevating epistemology to "first philosophy".[citation needed]
Berkeley[edit]
Portrait of George Berkeley by John Smybert, 1727
George Berkeley's arguments against materialism in favour of idealism provide the solipsist with a number of arguments not found in Descartes. While Descartes defends ontological dualism, thus accepting the existence of a material world (res extensa) as well as immaterial minds (res cogitans) and God, Berkeley denies the existence of matter but not minds, of which God is one.[7]
Relation to other ideas[edit]
Idealism and materialism[edit]
One of the most fundamental debates in philosophy concerns the "true" nature of the world—whether it is some ethereal plane of ideas or a reality of atomic particles and energy. Materialism[8] posits a real 'world out there,' as well as in and through us, that can be sensed—seen, heard, tasted, touched and felt, sometimes with prosthetic technologies corresponding to human sensing organs. (Materialists do not claim that human senses or even their prosthetics can, even when collected, sense the totality of the 'universe'; simply that what they collectively cannot sense cannot in any way be known to us.)
Materialists do not find this a useful way of thinking about the ontology and ontogeny of ideas, but we might say that from a materialist perspective pushed to a logical extreme communicable to an idealist (an "Away Team" perspective), ideas are ultimately reducible to a physically communicated, organically, socially and environmentally embedded 'brain state'. While reflexive existence is not considered by materialists to be experienced on the atomic level, the individual's physical and mental experiences are ultimately reducible to the unique tripartite combination of environmentally determined, genetically determined, and randomly determined interactions of firing neurons and atomic collisions.
As a correlative, the only thing that dreams and hallucinations prove are that some neurons can reorganize and 'clean house' 'on break' (often reforming according to emergent, prominent, or uncanny cultural themes), misfire, and malfunction. But for materialists, ideas have no primary reality as essences separate from our physical existence. From a materialist "Home Team" perspective, ideas are also social (rather than purely biological), and formed and transmitted and modified through the interactions between social organisms and their social and physical environments. This materialist perspective informs scientific methodology, insofar as that methodology assumes that humans have no access to omniscience and that therefore human knowledge is an ongoing, collective enterprise that is best produced via scientific and logical conventions adjusted specifically for material human capacities and limitations.[citation needed]
Modern Idealists, on the other hand, believe that the mind and its thoughts are the only true things that exist. This is the reverse of what is sometimes called classical idealism or, somewhat confusingly, Platonic idealism due to the influence of Plato's Theory of Forms (εἶδος eidos or ἰδέα idea) which were not products of our thinking.[9] The material world is ephemeral, but a perfect triangle or "beauty" is eternal. Religious thinking tends to be some form of idealism, as God usually becomes the highest ideal (such as Neoplatonism).[8][10][11] On this scale, solipsism can be classed as idealism. Thoughts and concepts are all that exist, and furthermore, only the solipsist's own thoughts and consciousness exist. The so-called "reality" is nothing more than an idea that the solipsist has (perhaps unconsciously) created.
Cartesian dualism[edit]
There is another option: the belief that both ideals and "reality" exist. Dualists commonly argue that the distinction between the mind (or 'ideas') and matter can be proven by employing Leibniz' principle of the identity of indiscernibles which states that if two things share exactly the same qualities, then they must be identical, as in indistinguishable from each other and therefore one and the same thing. Dualists then attempt to identify attributes of mind that are lacked by matter (such as privacy or intentionality) or vice versa (such as having a certain temperature or electrical charge).[12][13] One notable application of the identity of indiscernibles was by René Descartes in his Meditations on First Philosophy. Descartes concluded that he could not doubt the existence of himself (the famous cogito ergo sum argument), but that he could doubt the (separate) existence of his body. From this, he inferred that the person Descartes must not be identical to the Descartes body since one possessed a characteristic that the other did not: namely, it could be known to exist. Solipsism agrees with Descartes in this aspect, and goes further: only things that can be known to exist for sure should be considered to exist. The Descartes body could only exist as an idea in the mind of the person Descartes.[14][15] Descartes and dualism aim to prove the actual existence of reality as opposed to a phantom existence (as well as the existence of God in Descartes' case), using the realm of ideas merely as a starting point, but solipsism usually finds those further arguments unconvincing. The solipsist instead proposes that his/her own unconscious is the author of all seemingly "external" events from "reality".
Philosophy of Schopenhauer[edit]
The World as Will and Representation is the central work of Arthur Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer saw the human will as our one window to the world behind the representation, the Kantian thing-in-itself. He believed, therefore, that we could gain knowledge about the thing-in-itself, something Kant said was impossible, since the rest of the relationship between representation and thing-in-itself could be understood by analogy as the relationship between human will and human body.
Idealism[edit]
The idealist philosopher George Berkeley argued that physical objects do not exist independently of the mind that perceives them. An item truly exists only as long as it is observed; otherwise, it is not only meaningless but simply nonexistent. The observer and the observed are one. Berkeley does attempt to show things can and do exist apart from the human mind and our perception, but only because there is an all-encompassing Mind in which all "ideas" are perceived – in other words, God, who observes all. Solipsism agrees that nothing exists outside of perception, but would argue that Berkeley falls prey to the egocentric predicament – he can only make his own observations, and thus cannot be truly sure that this God or other people exist to observe "reality". The solipsist would say it is better to disregard the unreliable observations of alleged other people and rely upon the immediate certainty of one's own perceptions.[16]
Rationalism[edit]
Rationalism is the philosophical position that truth is best discovered by the use of reasoning and logic rather than by the use of the senses (see Plato's theory of Forms). Solipsism is also skeptical of sense-data.
Philosophical zombie[edit]
The theory of solipsism crosses over with the theory of the philosophical zombie in that all other seemingly conscious beings actually lack true consciousness, instead they only display traits of consciousness to the observer, who is the only conscious being there is.
Falsifiability and testability[edit]
Solipsism is not a falsifiable hypothesis as described by Karl Popper or Imre Lakatos: there does not seem to be an imaginable disproof.[17]
One critical test is nevertheless to consider the induction from experience that the externally observable world does not seem, at first approach, to be directly manipulable purely by mental energies alone. One can indirectly manipulate the world through the medium of the physical body, but it seems impossible to do so through pure thought (e.g. via psychokinesis). It might be argued that if the external world were merely a construct of a single consciousness, i.e. the self, it could then follow that the external world should be somehow directly manipulable by that consciousness, and if it is not, then solipsism is false. An argument against this states the notion that such manipulation may be possible but barred from the conscious self via the subconscious self, a 'locked' portion of the mind that is still nevertheless the same mind. Lucid dreaming might be considered an example of when these locked portions of the subconscious become accessible. An argument against this might be brought up in asking why the subconscious mind would be locked. Also, the access to the autonomous ('locked') portions of the mind during the lucid dreaming is obviously much different (for instance: is relatively more transient) than the access to autonomous regions of the perceived nature.
The method of the typical scientist is materialist: they first assume that the external world exists and can be known. But the scientific method, in the sense of a predict-observe-modify loop, does not require the assumption of an external world. A solipsist may perform a psychological test on themselves, to discern the nature of the reality in their mind - however David Deutsch uses this fact to counter-argue: "outer parts" of solipsist, behave independently so they are independent for "narrowly" defined (conscious) self.[18] A solipsist's investigations may not be proper science, however, since it would not include the co-operative and communitarian aspects of scientific inquiry that normally serve to diminish bias.
Minimalism[edit]
Solipsism is a form of logical minimalism. Many people are intuitively unconvinced of the nonexistence of the external world from the basic arguments of solipsism, but a solid proof of its existence is not available at present. The central assertion of solipsism rests on the nonexistence of such a proof, and strong solipsism (as opposed to weak solipsism) asserts that no such proof can be made. In this sense, solipsism is logically related to agnosticism in religion: the distinction between believing you do not know, and believing you could not have known.
However, minimality (or parsimony) is not the only logical virtue. A common misapprehension of Occam's Razor has it that the simpler theory is always the best. In fact, the principle is that the simpler of two theories of equal explanatory power is to be preferred. In other words: additional "entities" can pay their way with enhanced explanatory power. So the realist can claim that, while his world view is more complex, it is more satisfying as an explanation.
Solipsism in infants[edit]
Main article: Infant cognitive development
Some developmental psychologists believe that infants are solipsistic, and that eventually children infer that others have experiences much like theirs and reject solipsism.[19]
Hinduism[edit]
The earliest reference to Solipsism in Hindu philosophy is found in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, dated to early 1st millennium BCE.[20] The Upanishad holds the mind to be the only god and all actions in the universe are thought to be a result of the mind assuming infinite forms.[21] After the development of distinct schools of Indian philosophy, Advaita Vedanta and Samkhya schools are thought to have originated concepts similar to solipsism.[citation needed]
Advaita Vedanta[edit]
Advaita is one of the six most known Hindu philosophical systems and literally means "non-duality". Its first great consolidator was Adi Shankaracharya, who continued the work of some of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada. By using various arguments, such as the analysis of the three states of experience—wakefulness, dream, and deep sleep, he established the singular reality of Brahman, in which Brahman, the universe and the Atman or the Self, were one and the same.
One who sees everything as nothing but the Self, and the Self in everything one sees, such a seer withdraws from nothing. For the enlightened, all that exists is nothing but the Self, so how could any suffering or delusion continue for those who know this oneness?
—  Ishopanishad: sloka 6, 7
The concept of the Self in the philosophy of Advaita could be interpreted as solipsism. However, the transhuman, theological implications of the Self in Advaita protect it from true solipsism as found in the west. Similarly, the Vedantic text Yogavasistha, escapes charge of solipsism because the real "I" is thought to be nothing but the absolute whole looked at through a particular unique point of interest.[22]
Advaita is also thought to strongly diverge from solipsism in that, the former is a system of exploration of one's mind in order to finally understand the nature of the self and attain complete knowledge. The unity of existence is said to be directly experienced and understood at the end as a part of complete knowledge. On the other hand, solipsism posits the non-existence of the external void right at the beginning, and says that no further inquiry is possible.[citation needed]
Samkhya and Yoga[edit]
Samkhya philosophy, which is sometimes seen as the basis of Yogic thought,[23] adopts a view that matter exists independently of individual minds. Representation of an object in an individual mind is held to be a mental approximation of the object in the external world.[24] Therefore, Samkhya chooses representational realism over epistemological solipsism. Having established this distinction between the external world and the mind, Samkhya posits the existence of two metaphysical realities Prakriti (matter) and Purusha (consciousness).
Buddhism[edit]
Some misinterpretations of Buddhism assert that external reality is an illusion, and sometimes this position is [mis]understood as metaphysical solipsism. Buddhist philosophy, though, generally holds that the mind and external phenomena are both equally transient, and that they arise from each other. The mind cannot exist without external phenomena, nor can external phenomena exist without the mind. This relation is known as "dependent arising" (pratityasamutpada).
The Buddha stated, "Within this fathom long body is the world, the origin of the world, the cessation of the world and the path leading to the cessation of the world".[25] Whilst not rejecting the occurrence of external phenomena, the Buddha focused on the illusion created within the mind of the perceiver by the process of ascribing permanence to impermanent phenomena, satisfaction to unsatisfying experiences, and a sense of reality to things that were effectively insubstantial.
Mahayana Buddhism also challenges as illusion the idea that one can experience an 'objective' reality independent of individual perceiving minds.
From the standpoint of Prasangika (a branch of Madhyamaka thought), external objects do exist, but are devoid of any type of inherent identity: "Just as objects of mind do not exist [inherently], mind also does not exist [inherently]".[26] In other words, even though a chair may physically exist, individuals can only experience it through the medium of their own mind, each with their own literal point of view. Therefore, an independent, purely 'objective' reality could never be experienced.
The Yogacara (sometimes translated as "Mind only") school of Buddhist philosophy contends that all human experience is constructed by mind. Some later representatives of one Yogacara subschool (Prajnakaragupta, Ratnakīrti) propounded a form of idealism that has been interpreted as solipsism. A view of this sort is contained in the 11th-century treatise of Ratnakirti, "Refutation of the existence of other minds" (Santanantara dusana), which provides a philosophical refutation of external mind-streams from the Buddhist standpoint of ultimate truth (as distinct from the perspective of everyday reality).[27]
In addition to this, the Bardo Thodol, Tibet's famous book of the dead, repeatedly states that all of reality is a figment of one's perception, although this occurs within the "Bardo" realm (post-mortem). For instance, within the sixth part of the section titled "The Root Verses of the Six Bardos", there appears the following line: "May I recognize whatever appeareth as being mine own thought-forms";[28] there are many lines in similar ideal.
See also[edit]
Anathema
Alfred Binet – The mind and the brain
Antiscience
Aseity
Brain in a vat
Cartesian skepticism
Centered world
Consensus reality
Dream argument
Empiricism
Existential nihilism
Egoism
Externism
Falsifiability
Heinlein's World as Myth
Idealism
Immaterialism
Metaphysical nihilism
Metaphysical solipsism
Methodological solipsism
Mind over matter
Model-dependent realism
Nihilism
Objective idealism
Open individualism
Panpsychism
Personal horizon
Phaneron
Phenomenalism
Philosophical realism
Postmodernism
Post-structuralism
Primary/secondary quality distinction – John Locke's response to solipsism
Problem of other minds
Henry Rollins's Solipsist
Relativism
Stream of consciousness
Solipsism syndrome
Subjective idealism
Theory of mind
Vertiginous question
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "solipsism". Online Etymology Dictionary. Missing or empty |url= (help)
^ Jump up to: a b "Philosophical Dictionary:Solipsism". Archived from the original on 3 January 2017. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Wood, Ledger (1962). Dictionary of Philosophy. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams, and Company. p. 295.
^ Jump up to: a b Thornton, Stephen P. (24 October 2004). "Solipsism and the Problem of Other Minds". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Jump up ^ "Is there a convincing philosophical rebuttal to solipsism - See comment by Seth, Edinburgh Scotland". Archived from the original on 5 June 2016. Retrieved 8 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Edward Craig; Routledge (Firm) (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Genealogy to Iqbal. Taylor & Francis US. pp. 146–. ISBN 978-0-415-18709-1. Retrieved 16 October 2010.
Jump up ^ Jones, N.; Berkeley, G. (2009). Starting with Berkeley. Starting with. Continuum. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-84706-186-7. LCCN 2008053026.
^ Jump up to: a b Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Materialism". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Jump up ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Idealism". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Jump up ^ Loflin, Lewis. "Notes on Neoplatonism and the relation to Christianity and Gnosticism".
Jump up ^ "German Idealism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 16 April 2001.
Jump up ^ DePoe, John M. "A Defense of Dualism". New Dualism Archive.
Jump up ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Dualism". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Jump up ^ Calef, Scott (9 June 2005). "Dualism and Mind". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Jump up ^ Thornton, Stephen P. (24 October 2004). "Solipsism and the Problem of Other Minds". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Jump up ^ Khashaba, D.R. (28 July 2002). "Subjectivism and Solipsism". Philosophy Pathways (37).
Jump up ^ Popper, Karl (2000). Knowledge and the body-mind problem: in defence of interaction (Repr. ed.). London: Routledge. p. 106. ISBN 0-415-13556-7.
Jump up ^ Deutsch, David. (1997) Fabric of Reality
Jump up ^ Flanagan, Owen J. (1991). The Science of the Mind. MIT Press. p. 144. ISBN 9780262560566. Retrieved 2008-10-22.
Jump up ^ King, Richard; Ācārya, Gauḍapāda (1995), Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: the Mahāyāna context of the Gauḍapādīya-kārikā, SUNY Press, p. 52, ISBN 978-0-7914-2513-8
Jump up ^ Krishnananda, (Swami). The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Divine Life Society, Rishikesh. P. 248.
Jump up ^ O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities. Universoty of Chicago, 1984. pp. 120–1. ISBN 0-226-61855-2.
Jump up ^ Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 342.
Jump up ^ Isaac, J. R.; Dangwal, Ritu; Chakraborty, C. Proceedings. International conference on cognitive systems (1997). Allied Publishers Ltd. pp. 341–2. ISBN 81-7023-746-7.
Jump up ^ "Rohitassa Sutta: To Rohitassa". www.accesstoinsight.org. Retrieved 14 April 2018.
Jump up ^ Chandrakirti, Guide to the Middle Way 6:71cd, translation in Ocean of Nectar: Wisdom and Compassion in Mahayana Buddhism, London: Tharpa Publications, p. 253.
Jump up ^ Senape McDermott, ACS (2013). An Eleventh-Century Buddhist Logic of 'Exists': Ratnakīrti’s Kṣaṇabhaṅgasiddhiḥ Vyatirekātmikā. Springer. p. 1. ISBN 978-94-017-6322-6.
Jump up ^ http://holybooks.lichtenbergpress.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Tibetan-Book-of-the-Dead.pdf?810c00
References[edit]
Carus, Titus Lucretius (c. 50 BC). De Rerum Natura [On the Nature of Things]. ISBN 84-85708-46-6. Check date values in: |date= (help)
Khashaba, D.R. (28 July 2002). "Subjectivism and Solipsism". Philosophy Pathways (37).
Peake, Anthony (2006). Is There Life After Death?. Arcturus–Foulsham (Europe), Chartwell Books (US). ISBN 0-7858-2162-7. This book presents an intriguing and scientifically based updating of solipsism involving the latest findings in quantum physics, neurology and consciousness studies.
Popper, K.R.; Eccles, J.C. (1977). The Self and Its Brain. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-08307-3.
Russell, Bertrand (1988) [1912]. The Problems of Philosophy. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-7546-1210-4.
Russell, Bertrand (1995) [1921]. The Analysis of Mind. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-09097-0.
von Schubert Soldern, Richard (1982). Über Transcendenz des Objects und Subjects. Leipzig.
Thornton, Stephen P. (24 October 2004). "Solipsism and the Problem of Other Minds". In Fieser, James; Dowden, Bradley. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1974). Philosophical Investigations. Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19064-3.
Wood, Ledger (1962). "Solipsism". In Runes. Dictionary of Philosophy. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams, and Company. p. 295.
Nagai, Hitoshi (1996). Philosophy for Kids!,『〈子ども〉のための哲学』. Tokyo, Japan: Kodansha.
Further reading[edit]
Runes, Dagobert D., ed. (1962). Dictionary of Philosophy. Totowa, NJ: Littlefield, Adams, and Company.
Neilson, W.A.; Knott, T.A.; Carhart, P.W., eds. (1950). Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language (Second, Unabridged ed.). Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam Company.
Mish, Frederick C., ed. (1983). Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam–Webster.
External links[edit]
Look up solipsism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Solipsism
Solipsism and the Problem of Other Minds
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solipsism&oldid=855641575"
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