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Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
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Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
Long title
To prohibit the movement in interstate commerce of adulterated and misbranded food, drugs, devices, and cosmetics, and for other purposes.
Acronyms (colloquial)
FFDCA, "FD&C Act"
Enacted by
the 75th United States Congress
Citations
Public law
75-717
Statutes at Large
52 Stat. 1040
Codification
Acts repealed
Pure Food and Drug Act
Titles amended
21 U.S.C.: Food and Drugs
U.S.C. sections created
21 U.S.C. ch. 9 § 301 et seq.
Legislative history
Introduced in the Senate as S. 5 by Royal Copeland (D–NY) on January 6, 1937
Passed the Senate on March 9, 1937 (voice)
Passed the House with amendment on June 1, 1938 (voice)
Reported by the joint conference committee on June 10, 1938; agreed to by the Senate on June 10, 1938 (voice) and by the House on June 13, 1938 (voice)
Signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on June 25, 1938
Major amendments
1951 Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act Amendments, PL 82–215, 65 Stat 648
1962 Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act Amendments, PL 87–781, 76 Stat 780
Fair Packaging and Labeling Act, PL 89–755, 80 Stat 1296
Medical Device Regulation Act, PL 94–295, 90 Stat 539
Radiation Control for Safety and Health Act, PL 90-602, 82 Stat 1173
Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, PL 98-471, 98 Stat 1585
Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (1990), PL 101-535, 104 Stat 2353
Safe Medical Device Amendments of 1990, PL 101-629, 104 Stat 4511
Food and Drug Administration Revitalization Act (1990), PL 101-635, 104 Stat 4583
Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (1994), PL 103-417, 108 Stat 4332
Food Quality Protection Act of 1996
Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act of 1997, PL 105-115, 111 Stat 2296
Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act of 2007, PL 110-85, 121 Stat 823[1]
The United States Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (abbreviated as FFDCA, FDCA, or FD&C), is a set of laws passed by Congress in 1938 giving authority to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to oversee the safety of food, drugs, and cosmetics. A principal author of this law was Royal S. Copeland, a three-term U.S. Senator from New York.[2] In 1968, the Electronic Product Radiation Control provisions were added to the FD&C. Also in that year the FDA formed the Drug Efficacy Study Implementation (DESI) to incorporate into FD&C regulations the recommendations from a National Academy of Sciences investigation of effectiveness of previously marketed drugs.[3] The act has been amended many times, most recently to add requirements about bioterrorism preparations.
The introduction of this act was influenced by the death of more than 100 patients due to a sulfanilamide medication where diethylene glycol was used to dissolve the drug and make a liquid form[4](see elixir sulfanilamide disaster). It replaced the earlier Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906.
Contents
[hide]
1 Contents
2 Food coloring
2.1 Certifiable colors
3 Food additives
3.1 Definition of food additive
4 Homeopathic medications
5 Bottled water
6 Cosmetics
7 Medical devices
7.1 Premarket notification (510(k), PMN)
7.2 Premarket approval (PMA)
8 Related legislation
9 Significant amendments and related laws
10 Comparison to state laws
11 See also
12 References
13 External links
Contents[edit]
The FDC Act has ten chapters:[5]
I. Short Title
II. Definitions
201(f) is the definition for a food, which explicitly includes chewing gum
201(g) is the definition for a drug
201(h) is the definition for a medical device
201(s) is the definition of a food additive
201(ff) is the definition of a dietary supplement
III. Prohibited Acts and Penalties
This section contains both civil law and criminal law clauses. Most violations under the act are civil, though repeated, intentional, and fraudulent violations are covered as criminal law. All violations of the FD&C Act require interstate commerce because of the commerce clause, but this is often interpreted broadly and few products other than raw produce are considered outside of the scope of the act.
Notably, the FD&C Act uses strict liability due to the Dotterweich[6] and Park[7] Supreme Court cases. It is one of a very small number of criminal statutes that does.
IV. Food
There is a distinction in food adulteration between those that are added and those that are naturally present. Substances that are added are held to a stricter "may render (it) injurious to health" standard, whereas substances that are naturally present need only be at a level that "does not ordinarily render it injurious to health"[8]
V. Drugs and Devices
505 is the description of the drug approval process
510(k) is the section that allows for clearance of class II medical devices
515 is the description of the (class III) device approval process
VI. Cosmetics
VII. General Authority
704 allows inspections of regulated entities. Inspection results are reported on Form 483.
VIII. Imports and Exports
IX. Tobacco Products
X. Miscellaneous
Food coloring[edit]
The FD&C is perhaps best known by the consumer because of its use in the naming of food coloring additives, such as "FD&C Yellow No. 6." The Act made the certification of some food color additives mandatory. Some food colorings are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the FDA and do not require certification.[9]
The FDA lists nine FD&C (Food, Drugs & Cosmetics) certified color additives for use in foods in the United States, and numerous D&C (Drugs & Cosmetics) colorings allowed only in drugs for external application or cosmetics. Color additives derived from natural sources, such as vegetables, minerals or animals, and artificial counterparts of natural derivatives, are exempt from certification. Both artificial and naturally derived color additives are subject to rigorous standards of safety before their approval for use in foods.[10]
Certifiable colors[edit]
Name
Common name
Color
Comment
FD&C Blue No. 1 Brilliant Blue FCF bright blue
FD&C Blue No. 2 Indigotine royal blue
FD&C Green No. 3 Fast Green FCF sea green
FD&C Red No. 3 Erythrosine cherry red
FD&C Red No. 40 Allura Red AC orange-red
FD&C Yellow No. 5 Tartrazine lemon yellow
FD&C Yellow No. 6 Sunset Yellow FCF orange
Orange B Restricted to specific uses[11]
Citrus Red No. 2 Restricted to specific uses[12]
There are also "D&C" colors that are only approved for use in pharmaceuticals for external application and cosmetics.[13]
Food additives[edit]
The FFDCA requires producers of food additives to demonstrate to a reasonable certainty that no harm will result from the intended use of an additive. If the FDA finds an additive to be safe the agency issues a regulation specifying the conditions under which the additive may be safely used.
Definition of food additive[edit]
A shortened definition of "food additive" is defined by the FDA as "any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be expected to result, directly or indirectly, in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristic of any food (including any substance intended for use in producing, manufacturing, packing, processing, preparing, treating, packaging, transporting, or holding food; and including any source of radiation intended for any such use); if such substance is not GRAS or sanctioned prior to 1958 or otherwise excluded from the definition of food additives."[14] The full definition can be found in Section 201(s) of the FD&C Act, which provides for any additional exclusions.[15]
Homeopathic medications[edit]
Homeopathic preparations are regulated and protected under Sections 201(g) and 201(j), provided that such medications are formulated from substances listed in the Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia of the United States, which the Act recognizes as an official drug compendium.
However, under separate authority of FTC Act, the Federal Trade Commission declared in November 2016 that homeopathic products cannot include claims of effectiveness without "competent and reliable scientific evidence." If no such evidence exists, they must state this fact clearly on their labeling, and state that the product's claims are based only on 18th-century theories that have been discarded by modern science.[16]
Bottled water[edit]
Bottled water is regulated by the FDA as a food. The Agency has published identity standards for types of water (mineral water, spring water), and regulations covering water processing and bottling, water quality and product labeling.[17][18] [19]
Cosmetics[edit]
This Act defines cosmetics as "articles intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled, or sprayed on, introduced into, or otherwise applied to the human body...for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance." Under the Act, the FDA does not approve cosmetic products, but because the Act prohibits the marketing of adulterated or misbranded cosmetics in interstate commerce, it can remove cosmetics from the market that contain unsafe ingredients or that are mislabeled. The FDA can and does inspect cosmetics manufacturing facilities to ensure that cosmetics are not adulterated.[20]
Medical devices[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Medical_device § United_States.
On May 28, 1976, the FD&C Act was amended to include regulation for medical devices.[21] The amendment required that all medical devices be classified into one of three classes:
Class I: Devices that do not require premarket approval or clearance but must follow general controls. Dental floss is a class I device.
Class II: Devices that are cleared using the 510(k) process. Diagnostic tests, cardiac catheters, hearing aids, and dental amalgams are examples of class II devices.
Class III: Devices that are approved by the Premarket Approval (PMA) process, analogous to a New Drug Application. These tend to be devices that are permanently implanted into a human body or may be necessary to sustain life. An artificial heart meets both criteria. The most commonly recognized class III device is an Automated External Defibrillator. Devices that do not meet either criterion are generally cleared as class II devices.
For devices that were marketed prior to the amendment (Preamendment devices) and were classified as Class III, the amendment obligated the FDA to review the device to either reclassify it as a Class II device subject to premarket notification, or to require the device manufacturer to undergo the premarket authorization process and prove the safety and efficacy of the device in order to continue marketing it. Notable examples of such preamendment devices are those used for electroconvulsive therapy, which the FDA started reviewing in 2011.[22][23]
Premarket notification (510(k), PMN)[edit]
Section 510(k)[24] of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act requires those device manufacturers who must register to notify FDA, at least 90 days in advance, of their intent to market a medical device.
This is known as Premarket Notification, PMN, or 510(k). It allows FDA to determine whether the device is equivalent to a device already placed into one of the three classification categories. Thus, "new" devices (not in commercial distribution prior to May 28, 1976) that have not been classified can be properly identified.
Any device that reaches market via a 510(k) notification must be "substantially equivalent" to a device on the market prior to May 28, 1976 (a "predicate device"). If a device being submitted is significantly different, relative to a pre-1976 device, in terms of design, material, chemical composition, energy source, manufacturing process, or intended use, the device nominally must go through a premarket approval, or PMA. This does not always happen.
A device that reaches market via the 510(k) process is not considered to be "approved" by the FDA. Nevertheless, it can be marketed and sold in the United States. They are generally referred to as "cleared" or "510(k) cleared" devices.
A 2011 study by Dr. Diana Zuckerman and Paul Brown of the National Research Center for Women and Families, and Dr. Steven Nissen of the Cleveland Clinic, published in the Archives of Internal Medicine, showed that most medical devices recalled in the last five years for “serious health problems or death” had been previously cleared by the FDA using the less stringent, and cheaper, 510(k) process. In a few cases the devices had been deemed so low-risk that they did not need FDA regulation. Of the 113 devices recalled, 35 were for cardiovascular issues.[25] This may lead to a reevaluation of FDA procedures and better oversight.
Premarket approval (PMA)[edit]
Premarket approval (PMA) is the most stringent type of device marketing application required by FDA. Unlike the 510(k) pathway, the maker of the medical device must submit an application to the FDA and must receive approval prior to marketing the device.[26]
The PMA application contains information about how the medical device was designed and how it is manufactured, as well as preclinical and clinical studies of the device, demonstrating that it is safe and effective for its intended use.[27] Because the PMA requires a clinical trial it is significantly more expensive than a 510(k).[28]:7
Related legislation[edit]
The Wheeler-Lea Act, passed in 1938, granted the Federal Trade Commission the authority to oversee advertising of all products regulated by FDA, other than prescription drugs.
Significant amendments and related laws[edit]
Descriptions of these can be found at the FDA's web site.[29]
Amendments:
Durham-Humphrey Amendment, Public Law 82-215 (October 26, 1951) created prescription-only status for some drugs
Drug Efficacy Amendment ("Kefauver Harris Amendment") PL 87-781 (October 10, 1962)
Vitamin-Mineral Amendment ("Proxmire Amendment") (April 22, 1976) prohibited the FDA from establishing standards to limit the potency of vitamins and minerals in food supplements or regulating them as drugs based solely on their potency.[30]
Medical Device Amendments of 1976 PL 94-295 (May 28, 1976)
Infant Formula Act of 1980, PL 96-359 (October 26, 1980)
Orphan Drug Act, PL 97-414 (January 4, 1983)
Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984, PL 98-417 (aka Hatch-Waxman) (September 24, 1984)
Prescription Drug Marketing Act of 1987, PL 100-293 (August 18, 1988)
Generic Animal Drug and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1988, PL 100-670 (November 16, 1988)
Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990, PL 101-535 (November 8, 1990)
Safe Medical Device Amendments of 1990, PL 101-629 (November 28, 1990)
Medical Device Amendments of 1992, PL 102-300 (June 16, 1992)
Prescription Drug User Fee Act (PDUFA) of 1992, PL 102-571 (October 29, 1992)
Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act (AMDUCA) of 1994, PL 103-396 (October 22, 1994)
Dietary Supplement Health And Education Act of 1994, PL 103-417 (October 25, 1994)
Food Quality Protection Act of 1996, PL 104-170 (August 3, 1996)
Animal Drug Availability Act of 1996, PL 104-250 (October 9, 1996)
Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act, PL 107-109 (January 4, 2002)
Medical Device User Fee and Modernization Act (MDUFMA) of 2002, PL 107-250 (October 26, 2002)
Animal Drug User Fee Act of 2003, PL 108-130 (February 20, 2003)
Pediatric Research Equity Act of 2003, PL 108-155 (December 3, 2003)
Minor Use and Minor Species Animal Health Act of 2004
Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act of 2004, PL 108-282 (August 2, 2004)
FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (January 4, 2011)
Generic Drug User Fee Amendment of 2012[31]
Other laws:[32]
Biologics Control Act of 1902 (repealed; for historical reference)
Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906 (repealed; for historical reference)
Federal Meat Inspection Act (March 4, 1907)
Federal Trade Commission Act (September 26, 1914)
Filled Milk Act (March 4, 1923)
Import Milk Act (February 15, 1927)
Public Health Service Act (July 1, 1944)
Trademark Act of 1946 (July 5, 1946)
Reorganization Plan 1 of 1953 (March 12, 1953)
Poultry Products Inspection Act (August 28, 1957)
Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (November 3, 1966)
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (January 1, 1970)
Controlled Substances Act (October 27, 1970)
Controlled Substances Import and Export Act (October 27, 1970)
Egg Products Inspection Act (December 29, 1970)
Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act (January 13, 1971)
Federal Advisory Committee Act (October 6, 1972)
Government in the Sunshine Act (September 13, 1976)
Government Patent Policy Act of 1980 (December 12, 1980)
Federal Anti-Tampering Act (October 13, 1983)
Sanitary Food Transportation Act (November 3, 1990)
Food and Drug Administration Revitalization Act (November 28, 1990)
Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA) (October 27, 1992)
Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act (November 21, 1997)
Bioterrorism Act of 2002 (June 12, 2002)
Project BioShield Act of 2004 (July 21, 2004)
Food and Drug Administration Amendments Act of 2007 (September 27, 2007)
Pandemic and All-Hazards Preparedness Reauthorization Act of 2013 (H.R. 307; 113th Congress)Pub.L. 113–5 (March 13, 2013)
Comparison to state laws[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2007)
Some US states have adopted the FD&C Act as an equivalent state law and will by default adopt any changes to the Federal law as changes to the state law as well.[citation needed]
See also[edit]
Drugs in the United States
Food Administration
Food Quality Protection Act
Kefauver Harris Amendment
List of food additives
Office of Criminal Investigations
Pure Food and Drug Act
Regulation of therapeutic goods
100,000,000 Guinea Pigs (c. 1933 book which influenced passage of this Act)
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Law Research Guide," Georgetown Law Library
Jump up ^ Homeopathic Drugs, Royal Copeland, and Federal Drug Regulation
Jump up ^ CDER – Time Line
Jump up ^ ASHP Website : News Article Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act Table of Contents
Jump up ^ United States v. Dotterweich, 320 U.S. 277 (1943)
Jump up ^ UNITED STATES V. PARK, 421 U. S. 658 (1975) – US Supreme Court Cases from Justia & Oyez
Jump up ^ FD&C Act Chapter IV
Jump up ^ US FDA/CFSAN: Color Additive Status List
Jump up ^ "Guidance for Industry: Color Additive Petitions – FDA Recommendations for Submission of Chemical and Technological Data on Color Additives for Food, Drugs, Cosmetics, or Medical Devices". Laws, Regulations, and Guidance. Food and Drug Administration. July 2009 [January 1997]. Retrieved 22 Apr 2014.
Jump up ^ "Code of Federal Regulations: Title 21, Section 74.250". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Code of Federal Regulations: Title 21, Section 74.302". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "Summary of Color Additives for Use in the United States in Foods, Drugs, Cosmetics, and Medical Devices". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
Jump up ^ [1] F.D.A. webpage "Food Ingredients and Packaging Terms" Page Last Updated: 02/28/2013
Jump up ^ [2] F.D.A. Regulatory Information webpage "FD&C Act Table of Contents and Chapters I and II: Short Title and Definitions" Page Last Updated: 01/19/2012
Jump up ^ Press Release (15 November 2016). "FTC Issues Enforcement Policy Statement Regarding Marketing Claims for Over-the-Counter Homeopathic Drugs: Efficacy and Safety Claims Are Held to Same Standard as Other OTC Drug Claims". FTC. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
Jump up ^ Posnick, Lauren M. and Kim, Henry (2002). "Bottled Water Regulation and the FDA." Food Safety. August/September 2002. ISSN 1084-5984.
Jump up ^ FDA. "21 CFR Part 129 – Processing and Bottling of Bottled Drinking Water." Code of Federal Regulations.
Jump up ^ FDA. "21 CFR 165.110 – Requirements for Specific Standardized Beverages: Bottled Water." Code of Federal Regulations.
Jump up ^ FDA March 3, 2005; updated August 3, 2013 FDA Authority Over Cosmetics
Jump up ^ Staff, FDA. PMA Historical Background Last updated April 26, 2009
Jump up ^ Duff Wilson for the New York Times. January 28, 2011 F.D.A. Panel Is Split on Electroshock Risks
Jump up ^ "FDA Executive Summary Prepared for the January 27-28, 2011 meeting of the Neurological Devices Panel Meeting to Discuss the Classification of Electroconvulsive Therapy Devices (ECT)" (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-10-25. Retrieved 2012-10-25.
Jump up ^ US FDA/CDRH: Information on Releasable 510(k)s
Jump up ^ Zuckerman, Diana (2011). "Medical Device Recalls and the FDA Approval Process". Archives of Internal Medicine. 171: 1006–11. doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2011.30. PMID 21321283.
Jump up ^ Staff, FDA Premarket Approval (PMA), last updated January 24, 2012
Jump up ^ 21 U.S.C. § 360e. Premarket approval
Jump up ^ Josh Makower, Aabed Meer, lyn Denend. November 2010 FDA Impact on US Medical Device Innovation – A Survey of Over 200 Medical Technology Companies
Jump up ^ Laws Enforced by the FDA and Related Statutes
Jump up ^ http://www.fda.gov/AboutFDA/WhatWeDo/History/ThisWeek/ucm117726.htm
Jump up ^ Staff, FDA. Updated April 18, 2013 Generic Drug User Fee Amendments of 2012
Jump up ^ Food and Drug Administration Amendment Act of 2007
External links[edit]
"Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act)" (pdf). United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works. United States Senate. December 19, 2002.
Color Additive Status List
Food Ingredients and Colors
Information on Releasable 510(k)s at the FDA
[show]
v
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Food and Drug Administration of the United States
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Major Acts
Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act
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Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
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Society and Culture
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The Bletchley Circle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Bletchley Circle
Written by
Guy Burt
Directed by
Andy De Emmony
Jamie Payne
Sarah Harding
Starring
Anna Maxwell Martin
Rachael Stirling
Sophie Rundle
Julie Graham
Hattie Morahan
Composer(s)
Nick Green
Country of origin
United Kingdom
Original language(s)
English
No. of series
2
No. of episodes
7 (list of episodes)
Production
Executive producer(s)
Simon Heath
Producer(s)
Jake Lushington
Cinematography
John Pardue
Running time
45 minutes
Production company(s)
World Productions
Release
Original network
ITV
Original release
6 September 2012 (2012-09-06) – 27 January 2014 (2014-01-27)
The Bletchley Circle is a television mystery drama miniseries, set in 1952–53, about four women who used to work as codebreakers at Bletchley Park. Dissatisfied with the officials' failure to investigate complex crimes, the women join to investigate for themselves.[1]
The first series of the miniseries, produced for ITV,[1] was originally shown in the UK in 2012 and premiered in the U.S. in April 2013, on PBS.[2] A second series was broadcast on ITV in January 2014 and on PBS in April 2014.[3] Both series were later aired by Australia's ABC TV.[4]
The programme was not renewed for a third series.[5] In 2018 a spinoff series was announced by BritBox. The series is to be titled The Bletchley Circle: San Francisco.[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast and characters
3 Episode list
3.1 Series 1
3.2 Series 2
4 Allusions to real events
5 Reception
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Plot[edit]
Susan Gray, Millie, Lucy, and Jean work together at a secret facility at Bletchley to decipher German military codes for the British military, during World War II. After a brief introduction of the four women at Bletchley during the war, the series begins in 1952, seven years after the war's end, when Susan, Millie, Lucy, and Jean have returned to their ordinary lives. As the story begins, Susan learns about a series of murders that has occurred in the London area and begins to recognize patterns connecting the killings. This inspires her to return to her codebreaking past, and she reaches out first to Millie, and then to Lucy and Jean, after unsuccessfully trying to convince the police to follow up her theory about the crimes.
As they all signed orders of secrecy about their work during the war, the two married women (Susan and Lucy), disguise their activities from their husbands as a book club. Failing to secure police involvement, they move from codebreaking and investigation into the realm of field work, with dangerous consequences on several occasions. Scenes of domestic tranquility are contrasted with scenes of the killer stalking and torturing his victims. While initially skeptical about becoming involved, Millie, Jean, and Lucy are convinced to help Susan once they realize the lives of many women are on the line.
The series contrasts the conventional but very different lives of the four women and the sense of usefulness they felt while codebreaking during the war. In the Series 1 finale, the women are forced to confront the man they suspect to be the killer.
Cast and characters[edit]
Anna Maxwell Martin as Susan Gray
After her service during the war, Susan Gray begins life as a homemaker and the mother of two young children after marrying Timothy Gray and becoming pregnant. Others in the circle are drawn into the investigation when Susan contacts Millie, after her suspicions first emerge and she is unable to convince the police to investigate the patterns she identifies in a spate of serial killings. Susan's character is troubled by the mundanity of her current life, especially as she remembers the satisfaction she felt doing codebreaking work during the war and her intention to travel the world.
Rachael Stirling as Millie
Millie is an independent-minded single woman who vows never to be ordinary. She and Susan lose touch after the war, when Susan decides to pursue a more conventional lifestyle. Millie travels the world and seeks adventure after the war, but eventually returns to London when she runs out of money. Millie makes the decision to bring Lucy and Jean into the investigation in order to help, and quits her job at a diner when she is sexually harassed.
Sophie Rundle as Lucy
Lucy is the youngest character in the circle and the most troubled by events surrounding the investigation. Her cousin served in North Africa during the war, and she is married to a violent, indolent man named Harry, who beats her. Lucy has an eidetic memory and specializes in recalling and processing data.
Julie Graham as Jean McBrian
Jean, the oldest character in the circle, worked as the supervisor of the younger women at Bletchley. Jean is working as a librarian after the war, and Susan seeks her out to help the team uncover secret information due to her many connections and her knowledge about how to get the right information.
Mark Dexter as Timothy Gray
Timothy Gray is a war veteran and the husband of Susan Gray, who is now employed at the Ministry of Transport. He is unaware of Susan's service as a codebreaker during the war; additionally, her character conceals the investigative activities of the circle from him, although this causes some strain on the relationship. He believes his talented wife is simply "very good at crossword puzzles" and did clerical work at the foreign office during the war. Timothy is growing ambitious and pursuing a promotion at the office, and fears that Susan's talking about her theories with the deputy commissioner will jeopardise his advancement, although he is promoted to Supervisor of Vehicle Licensing.
Ed Birch as Harry
Harry is Lucy's controlling husband, who beats her harshly on several occasions and constantly tracks her whereabouts. Harry beats Lucy severely when he suspects her of infidelity after she is attacked. Harry's character is suspicious and easily provoked to violence.
Michael Gould as Deputy Commissioner Wainwright
Also a war veteran, Commissioner Wainwright served with Timothy Gray during the war and now heads the local Metropolitan Police division. Commissioner Wainwright deduces Susan's secret role during the war and investigates some of her early theories, but he begins to politely resent Susan's interventions when he feels her theories are leading him in the wrong direction. He is eventually convinced of Susan's usefulness and apologises to her.
Simon Sherlock as DCI Compton
Inspector Compton is an incompetent police officer who fails to understand the significance of patterns in complex crimes and is dismissive of Susan's theories when assigned to speak with her, after Deputy Commissioner Wainwright becomes sceptical.
Simon Williams as Cavendish
Cavendish is a high-ranking operative who helps Susan by providing information from Malcolm Crowley's personnel file, once Susan suspects him as the serial killer. Cavendish is willing to break the rules for Susan, despite his reservations and official oath of secrecy, once he becomes convinced that her theory may be correct, and there may be lives at stake.
Steven Robertson as Malcolm Crowley
Malcolm Crowley is a disturbed veteran who worked with Cavendish on psychological warfare techniques during the war. He becomes deeply troubled after an incident involving a bombing and carries a deep obsession for a former colleague of his.
Hattie Morahan as Alice Merren (series 2)
Alice, a former Bletchley Park colleague, is awaiting trial for killing John Richards, her old flame and a Bletchley scientist . Jean, believing Alice is covering for someone, begins to reunite the circle to help establish her innocence.
Faye Marsay as Lizzie Lancaster (series 2)
Episode list[edit]
Series 1[edit]
#
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
UK Viewing Figures (millions)
Sourced by BARB; includes ITV1 HD and ITV1 +1
1
"Cracking a Killer's Code, Part 1" Andy De Emmony Guy Burt 6 September 2012 (2012-09-06) 5.81
Seven years after WWII, four women who worked as codebreakers at Bletchley Park have taken up mundane civilian lives. Susan, now a housewife, has collated data about a series of murders. She tells the police she knows where another body is, but they are unable to locate it and dismiss her. Susan turns to her friends Millie, Lucy, and Jean, former codebreaking colleagues at Bletchely Park. They work out where the next victim will be taken, find the body, then decide only they can find the killer.
2
"Cracking a Killer's Code, Part 2" Andy De Emmony Guy Burt 13 September 2012 (2012-09-13) 5.73
The women collate information about the schedules of trains the victims had been on and use the results to identify suspects. Susan gives the police names of three potential perpetrators. Jean and Lucy discover seven similar murders, elsewhere, that the police in those jurisdictions consider solved, but the women believe innocent men have been framed and convicted. The police arrest a man whose name was given to them by Susan, even after she tells them she believes he was framed. The women devise a plan to trap the actual killer using Lucy as bait, but it backfires when she goes with the wrong man. Another suspect emerges from the Special Operations Executive, headed by Cavendish. Susan comes face to face with the killer at a closed mental hospital.
3
"Cracking a Killer's Code, Part 3" Andy De Emmony Guy Burt 20 September 2012 (2012-09-20) 5.37
Susan returns with the police, but the killer has gone. She finds a coded message in her home with Cavendish's address, and going there finds him dead. A postcard on Cavendish's desk provides a clue; Susan, following the thread, walks alone into a trap set for her by the killer.
Series 2[edit]
This series is made up of two 2-part stories totalling four episodes.
#
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
UK Viewing Figures (millions)
Sourced by BARB; includes ITV1 HD and ITV1 +1
1
"Blood on Their Hands, Part 1" Jamie Payne Guy Burt 6 January 2014 (2014-01-06) 5.46
Former Bletchley Park colleague Alice Merren (Hattie Morahan) is awaiting trial for the murder of a distinguished scientist (Paul McGann). Despite the overwhelming evidence of Alice's guilt, Jean is determined to prove Alice is innocent and reassembles the women to prove it. Their investigation reveals the misguided reason Alice is willing to hang for a crime she did not commit.
2
"Blood on Their Hands, Part 2" Jamie Payne Guy Burt 13 January 2014 (2014-01-13) 4.98
The circle's investigation discovers three men with chemical burns in a truck crash on Salisbury plain, near the chemical warfare establishment at Porton Down. They suspect a high level cover-up involving the death of the scientist and the framing of Alice Merren, whereupon they themselves come under surveillance.
3
"Uncustomed Goods, Part 1" Sarah Harding Guy Burt 20 January 2014 (2014-01-20) 4.63
Due to her notoriety, Alice cannot get a job, so Millie offers help. Millie is involved in the post-war black market. When she disappears, the women must search for her, because the police will not take them seriously. Millie is being held hostage by Soho Maltese gangsters until her shady business partner Jasper (Rob Jarvis) pays money he owes them. While in captivity, Millie discovers the gangsters are importing Eastern European girls to be sold into prostitution.
4
"Uncustomed Goods, Part 2" Sarah Harding Guy Burt 27 January 2014 (2014-01-27) 4.66
Jasper is murdered, and corruption in the vice squad leads to inaction by the police. The women plot to catch the gang red-handed by buying contraband goods, a ruse that enables Lucy to memorise the gang's encrypted ledger. The women return to Bletchley Park, now a college where Alice's daughter is studying, to take a Typex machine from the derelict huts, but they instead find an old Enigma machine. However, they still have to find a way to inform Customs and Excise about the contraband, which includes the trafficked girls.
Allusions to real events[edit]
The premise of the series is based on the women who worked at Bletchley Park during World War II, who for the most part did not continue in intelligence work, and under the rules of the Official Secrets Act 1939 in the UK never shared the nature of their contributions to crucial aspects of the Allies' victory.[7][8][9][10]
In the second series, one character refers to sarin gas as having been developed by the Germans during World War II, along with other such chemical weapons, then taken up by the former Allies. The UK did have an incident of a young man killed from experiments with the gas in 1953; in 2004, his inquest was reopened, and the cause of death was altered from death by misadventure to death by "application of a nerve agent in a non-therapeutic experiment".[11]
Reception[edit]
Upon its U.S. premiere—which occurred in prime time following U.S. episodes of Call the Midwife and Mr Selfridge—Variety called The Bletchley Circle "smart, addictive and situated in a fascinating historical moment".[2] In a review of the first series, The New York Times said the series finds "a clever, entertaining way to pay tribute to women who in their time were often overlooked and underestimated, and nevertheless found ways to never be ordinary".[12]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "ITV press release". ITV. Retrieved 7 January 2013. [permanent dead link]
^ Jump up to: a b "TV Review: The Bletchley Circle". Variety. 17 April 2013. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
Jump up ^ "PBS press release". PBS. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
Jump up ^ The Bletchley Circle. ABC TV. September 2014.
Jump up ^ Taylor, Francis. "Digital spy". Retrieved 17 April 2014.
Jump up ^ https://renewcanceltv.com/bletchley-circle-spinoff-series-coming-britbox-2018/
Jump up ^ Emily Langer (17 November 2013). "Mavis Batey, Bletchley Park code breaker in World War II, dies at 92". The Washington Post. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "Bletchley Park History". Retrieved 20 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "WWII's Female Code-breakers in Bletchley Park". War History On Line. 19 November 2013. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
Jump up ^ Ruth Styles (13 January 2014). "The REAL Bletchley Circle: Fascinating work of female codebreakers of World War II revealed". Mail Online. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "Nerve gas death was 'unlawful'". BBC News Online. 15 November 2004.
Jump up ^ Stanley, Alessandra (19 April 2013). "Secret War Heroes, Hiding New Work From Husbands". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
Further reading[edit]
"Did the writers get it right?". bletchleyparkresearch.co.uk. Discussion of the show's historical accuracy
External links[edit]
The Bletchley Circle on IMDb
The Bletchley Circle at PBS
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Bletchley_Circle&oldid=832822314"
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